("•J ^■-■'^^f 1^^^,. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, Chap..r.^._.., Copyright No... ShelL.:^J 5 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. v^ - ?T'-; ■■■•■■■ ." ■:' ■ i%#-U'i*> ■'-■'■ ■ ■ .*"•■' -, - •Fi^ii ^^ v.. •■-' vi, .*; ik^'J^.-y »i_lil_iiLL_*j.- ' "4', %. R' ■*«'J» >■, M'.. m WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR, Grotenfelt's Modern Dairy Practice. American Edition. By F. W. WoLL. Second Edition. New York, 1895. 285 pp. $2.00. A Book on Silage. Chicago, 111., 1895. 190 pp. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00. Dairy Calendar, 1895-96. New York, 1894-95. 327-319 pp. $1.00. Agricultural Calendar, 1895-96. New York, 1894-95. 304 pp. $1.00. The last two publications form the foundation of the present volume. A HANDBOOK FOR FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN. BYr Ff W. WOLL, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Chemistry^ University of Wisconsin, WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF WELL-KNOWN SPECIALISTS. SliS^ttO £nu0trations. FIRST EDITION, FIRST THOUSAND. NEW YORK : JOHN WILEY & SONS. London : CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 1897. [.'^ \^^^ ^ ^ Copyright, 1897, BY F. W. WOLL. ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK. PREFACE. The effort of the author has been to make this small volume a" compendium of useful information on farm and dairy topics. Brief discussions on subjects of importance and interest to farmers and dairymen have been intro- duced, and useful facts, tables, formulas, receipts, agricul- tural statistics, etc., are given to such an extent as the plan of the work permitted. Valuable data scattered throughout our agricultural literature, in the reports and bulletins of our experiment station, and the scientific divisions of the United States Department of Agriculture, as well as in other public documents and in farm papers and standard works, have been gathered in this Handbook and arranged in such a manner as to make them easily accessible and convenient for reference purposes. The present volume is a third edition of the Dairy and Agricultural Calendars previously published by the author. Much new material, both original and compiled, has been included, and special articles, tables, statistics, etc., have been verified, and brought up to date, making the book, as it is hoped, of considerable value, and securing for it as favorable reception and as enthusiastic friends as its pre- decessors found. The author takes this opportunity of thanking the follow- ing able writers and specialists who have so materially iii IV PREFACE. increased the usefulness of the book by comprehensive, concise contributions on subjects in their particular lines of study: Professors W. H. Caldwell, J. A. Craig, L. H. Dewey, F. H. Farrington, B. E. Fernow, E, S. Goff, G. H. Hicks, A. W. Richter, H. L. Russell, Thos. Shaw, Wm. P. Wheeler; and Messrs. John Boyd, W. G. Clark, M.D.C., John W. Decker, N. S. Fish, J. D. Frederiksen, H. B. Gurler, S. Hoxie, J. Noer, M.D., J. H. Pickrell, H. B. Richards, L. P. Sisson, J. McLain Smith, and C. M. Winslow. While all possible care in the preparation of the manu- script and in the proof-reading of the book has been taken, it cannot be expected that errors have been entirely avoided, and readers discovering any such will confer a favor by communicating them to the author. F. W. WOLL. Agricultural Experiment Station, Madison, Wis., February, 1897. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. AGRICULTURE. I. FEEDING STUFFS. PAGE Composition of Feeding Stuffs 1 Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 3 Average American Digestion Coefficients of Feeding Stuffs 6 Classification of Cattle Foods 9 Classification of Concentrated Feed Stuffs 9 Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 10 Rations for Dairy Cows 11,13 Calculation of Components of Feed Rations 11 Weight of Concentrated Feeding St uffs 15 Food Requirements of Farm Animals 15 Comparative Value of Cattle Foods 15 Prices of Cereals per Bushel and per Ton 17 Valuation of Feeding Stuffs 17 II. FARM ANIMALS. Characteristics of Breeds of Live Stock. Prof. John A. Craig, of Wisconsin Experiment Station 18 Feeding and General Care of Poultry. Prof. Wm. P. Wheeler, of N. T. (Geneva) Experiment Station 25 Synopsis of Breeds of Poultry — 30 Heredity. Prof. Thos. Shaw, of Minnesota Experiment Station. .. 30 m. VETERINARY SCIENCE. Common Diseases of Farm Animals. W. G. Clark, M.D.C., Beaver Dam, Wis 35 Veterinary Remedies and Doses. W. G. Clark, M.D.C, Beaver Dam, Wis 45 Suppression of Hog Cholera and Swine Plague 49 Remedies for the Horn-fly 51 List of Disinfectants 52 V VI CONTENTS. PAGE Rules for the Disinfection of Stables 52 Regulations for the Government of Dairies and Dairy Farms in the District of Columbia 53 IV. FIELD CROPS. Quantity of Seed Required per Acre 56 Seed Mixtures for Hay and Permanent Pastures 57 The Weight and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops, in Pounds per Acre 59 Soiling Crops Adopted to Northern New England States 60 Time of Planting and Feeding Soiling Crops 61 Capacity of Cylindrical Silos 61 Area of Feeding Surface in Silos Required for Different Herds 62 Number of Plants or Hills for an Acre of Ground 63 V. HORTICULTURE. Usual Distances for Planting Vegetables 64 Quantity of Seed of Vegetables Required to Sow an Acre o 65 Distances Apart for Fruit-trees 66 Average Yields per Acre of Various Crops 67 Relation of Specific Gravity, Dry Matter, and Starch Content of Potatoes 68 Specific Gravity, Sugar Content, and Boiling-point of Maple Sugar. . 69 Weight of Sugar Obtained from 100 lbs. of Maple Syrup 70 Temperatures to which Perishable Goods may be Subjected without Injury 71 VI. SEEDS. Seed-testing for the Farmer. Gilbert H. Hicks, in charge of Seed Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture 72 Table of Germination Standards 77 Number, Weight, Cost of Grass Seeds, and Amount to Sow per Acre 77 Notes on the Adaptability and Uses of Grasses and Clovers 79 VII. WEEDS. Table of Noxious Weeds. L. H. Dewey, Assistant Botanist U. S. Department of Agriculture 82 VIII. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. Treatments for Injurious Insects and Fungous Diseases of Plants. Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin Experiment Station 87 Spraying Calendar 89 Figiiting the Chinch-bug by I\Ieans of Kerosene Emulsion 92 A Cheap Orchard-spraying Outfit 93 CONTENTS. Vll IX. FORESTRY. Forestry for Farmers. B. E. Fernow, Chief Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture 95 Number of Trees on an Acre 99 Distance Table for Tree-planting 102 Fuel Value and Specific Gravity of some of the More Important Woods of the United States 100 States and Territories Observing Arbor Day, with Dates . . 103 Forest-flre Laws in the United States 104 X. 3IANURES AND FERTILIZERS. Valuatio^j of Manures and Fertilizers 109 Fertilizing Constituents of Feeding Stuffs and Farm Products Ill Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs 112 Amount of Soil Ingredients Withdrawn by Various Crops 114 Amount of Fertilizing Materials Contained in Different Crops Grown on One Acre 115 Farmyard Manure Required to Replace Ingredients Abstracted from the Soil by an Acre of Different Crops 116 Amount and Quality of Manure Produced by Stock 116 Composition, Amount, and Value of Manure Produced by Different Kinds of Farm Animals. 117 Quantities of Nitrogen and Ash Constituents Voided by Animals 117 Percentage Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials 118 Exhaustion of Fertilizers 120 Equivalent Quantities of Fertilizing Materials 121 Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials and Chemi- cals, 1896 122 Conversion Table for Calculating Fertilizing Ingredients. 123 XI. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. Drainage : Reasons for Tile- draining Land 124 Number of Rods and of Tiles per Acre, with Drains at Various Dis- tances Apart 125 Size of Tiles Required for Draining under Average Conditions 125 Table of Size of Tile Pipe of Main Drain 126 Rule for Obtaining Size of Main Pipes 126 Number of 12-inch Pipes Required per Acre at Different Distances between the Drains 126 Rise of the Slope for 100 Feet 127 Quantity of Earth Removed per Rod of Drains of Various Dimen- sions ... .... 127 Rainfall 128 Windmills : Table Showing the Force and Velocity of Wind 129 Number of Square Feet and Acres Irrigated by Windmills of Dif- ferent Sizes 129 Table Showing Capacity of Win-lmills 130 Vlll CONTENTS. PAGE Table Showing Economy of Windmills 131 Nominal Horse-power Required for the Discharge of Given Quan- tities of Water with Lifts of 10 and 20 ft 132 Irrigation : Definition of Technical Terms 132 Carrying Capacity of Pipes 135 Flow of Water through Straight Pipes 135 Power Required to Raise Water from Deep Wells by Pumping 136 Approximate Cost of Different Kjuds of Pipe Used for Irrigation. . 136 Average Cost per Mile of Constructing Irrigating Canals and Ditches ... 136 The California Weir Table 137 Capacity of Cisterns and Tanks 137 Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, per Foot in Depth 138 Roads : Road-making 138 Importance of Good Roads 140 Tractive Force Required for Carriages . . 140 Fraction of the Weight of a Vehicle and Load Required to Move Same on a Level Road 141 Draught of Horses 141 Labor Done by one Horse on Canals, Railroads, and Turnpikes 142 Labor Done by Team in Plowing 142 The Effect of Wide Wagon Tires 143 Average Quantity of Stone Required to Keep Roads in Repair 143 Interior Dimensions of Farm Buildings 144 Xn. HUMAN FOODS. Composition of Food Materials 145,150 Percentages of Nutrients, Water, and Refuse in Food Materials. ... 149 Pecuniary Economy of Food 152 Amounts of Nutrients Furnished for 25 Cents in Food Materials 153 Dietary Standards 155 Diagram of a Good Steer's Carcass, as Cut Up and Priced in Eastern Markets 156 Diagrams of Cuts of Veal. Mutton, and Pork 156a Live Weight and Dressed Weight of Steers of Different Breeds and Ages 1566 Proportion of Beef to the Live Weight of Cattle 1566 Comparative Results Obtained with Fattening Animals 157 Live Weight and Gains Made by Swine 157 Proportion of the Various Parts of Cattle, Sheep, and Swine 158 CONTENTS. IX PART II. DAIRYING. I. DAIRY COWS. PAGE On the Origin and Characteristics of the Different Breeds of Dairy Cattle 161 I, Jersey Cattle, By the Author 162 II. Guernsey Cattle. Prof. W, H. Caldwell, Sec'y 164 III. Holstein-Friesian Cattle. S. Hoxie, Supt 168 IV. Ayrshires. C. M. Winslow, Sec'y 171 V. Shorthorns as Dairy Cows. J. H. Pickrell, Sec'y 1T3 VI. Red Polled Cattle. J. McLain Smith, Sec'y 176 VII. Devon Cattle. L. P. Sisson, Sec'y 179 VIII. Dutch Belted Cattle. H. B. Richards, Sec'y. 181 IX. Brown-Swiss Cattle. N. S. Fish, Sec'y .. 183 Yield of Milk and Fat from Dairy Cows 185 Results of Tests of Dairy Breeds Conducted by American Experi- ment Stations 186 Results of Breed Tests Conducted at World's Columbian Exposition, 1893 187 Average Yields of Milk and Fat by Premium Cows at Recent State Fairs 188 Highest Record for Yield of Fat Made by Any Cow in a Public Test at a Fair 188 Official Milk and Butter Records of Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, and Ayrshire Cows 189 Results of English Milking Trials 189 English Standards for Annual Yield of Milk of the Various Breeds. . 190 Average Yields and Composition of Milk of Different Breeds 190 Average Percentage Composition of Milk from Different Breeds 191 Methods of Judging the Value of Dairy Cows 191 Buying and Selling Cows by Tests of their Milk 192 II. MILK. Percentage Composition of Various Kinds of Milk 193 Average Analyses of American Samples of Dairy Products 193 Average Composition of Cows' Milk, with Variations 194 Composition of Morning and Evening Milk 194 Composition of Different Parts of the Same Milking 194 Calculation of Components of Cows' Milk 195 Relation of Fat to Casein and Other Solids 195 Fertilizing Ingredients in Dairy Products 196 Composition of Colostrum 196 Composition of Ash of Cows' Milk and Colostrum 196 A Ciiapter on Milk Testing 197 Table for Converting N. Y. Bd. of Health Lactometer Degrees to Quevenne Lactometer Degrees 200 t CONTENTS. PAGE Temperature Correction Table for Specific Gravity of Milk 201 Calculation of Total Solids of Milk 203 Table for Calculating Solids from Specific Gravity and Fat 205 Milk Standards in Different States, Cities, and Countries 206 Adulteration of Milk 207 Tables for Converting Quarts of Milk into Pounds, and vice versa. . . 209 III. CREAM. Percentage Composition of Cream and Other Dairy Products 210 Yield of Cream from Milk of Different Richness 211 Hand and Power Cream Separators on the Market, 1896 212 Formulas for Finding the Fat Content of Cream 213 Handling and Care of Cream Separators. J. D. Frederiksen, Mgr. Chr. Hansen's Laboratory, Little Falls, N. Y 214 Per Cent Fat in Centrifugal Skim-milk . . 215 Loss of Butter Caused by Inefficient Skimming 220 Relation of Fat Content of Separator Skim-milk to Speed of Bowl, Quantity of Milk Separated, and Tempeiature of the Milk 221 Steam-boiler and Engine Management. Prof. A. W. Richter, of the University of Wisconsin 221 On the Preservation of Milk and Cream by Heat. Dr. H. L. Russell, of Wisconsin Experiment Station 225 Directions for the Sterilization of Milk 227 Quantity of Water or Ice Required for Cooling Milk or Cream 229 IV. BUTTER. Butter-making. H. B. Gurler, ex-President Illinois State Dairy- men's Association 230 On the Use of Pure Cultures in Butter- and Cheese-making 232 Boyd's Process of Cream-ripening. John Boyd, Chicago, III 236 The Alkaline Tablet Test of Acidity in Milk or Cream. Prof. E. H. Farrington, of Wisconsin Dairy School 239 Percentage Composition of Butter 241 Directions for the Use of Mann's Test for Ascertaining the Acidity of Cream 242 Average Chemical Composition of Sweet Cream- and Sour Cream- butter 242 Analyses of American Premium Butters 243 Percentage Composition of European Samples of Butter 243 Formula for Calculating the Yield of Butter 243 Amount of Butter Obtained from 100 lbs. of Cream of Different Richness 244 Yield of Butter from Milk of Different Richness 245 Milk Required for Making One Pound of Butter 246, 247 Distribution of Milk Ingredients in Butter-making 247 Score for Judging Butter 247 CONTENTS. XI PAGE English Scale of Points for Judging Butter 248 Score in Judging Proficiency of Butter-makers. 248 American Score for Judging Proficiency of Butter-makers 249 V. CHEESE. How American Cheese is Made. John W. Decker, of Wisconsin Ex- periment Station 250 A. Factory or Cheddar Cheese 250 B. Cheese Made on the Farm 252 The Fermentation Test 253 Causes of Tainted Milk 253 Determination of Humidity in Cheese-curing Rooms 255 Table Showing Relative Humidity of the Air 257 Score for Judging Cheese 259 English Scale of Points for Judging Cheese 259 Percentage Composition of Cheese 260 Varieties and Analyses of Cheese . 260 Distribution of Ingredients in Cheese-making 261 Formulas for Finding Yield of Cheddar Cheese 261 Yield of Different Kinds of Cheese from 100 lbs. of Milk . . 262 Average Loss of American Cheddar Cheese in Curing 263 Loss in Weight of Cheese during Curing 263 Table Showing Relative Cheese Value of Milks of Different Richness 264 Synopsis of Manufacture of Principal Varieties of Cheese 266 Quantities of Whey to be Returned to Patrons .... 267 VI. MANAGEMENT OF CREAMERIES AND CHEIiSE FACTORIES. Payment of Milk at Creameries and Cheese Factories 268 Methods of Payment for Milk at Cheese and Butter Factories 269 Price of Milk of Different Richness per Hundred Pounds 271 Directions for Making Dividends in Creameries and Cheese Factories. 273 Table Showing Average Per Cent of Fat in Milk 275 Suggestions to Patrons of Cheese Factories and Creameries 277 By-laws and Rules for Co-operative Creamery Associations 279 By-laws and Rules for Co-operative Cheese Factories 282 Rules for Patrons and Instructions to Cream or Milk Gatherers 284 PART III. GENERAL TOPICS. t CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. Constitution and By-laws of Agricultural Clubs 287 Con stitution of Village-improvement Societies 292 Constitution of Road Leagues 294 XU CONTENTS. PAOB n. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. Explanation of Flag Signals Adopted by the U. S. Weather Bureau.. 296 List of Headquarters of State Weather Services 298 Beneficial and Harmful Hawks and Owls 298 What to do in Case of Accidents. J. Noer, M.D., Stoughton, Wis.... 299 Treatment for Poisoning 302 Interest Tables 303 Wages by the Week and the Day 304 Gestation Calendar ... 305 Duration and Frequency of Heat in Farm Animals 306 Domestic and Foreign Postage 307 Postal and Express Money Order Rates 308 III. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Customary System of Weights and Measures 309 Conversion of U. S. Weights and Measures to Metric, and vice versa. 311 Kilograms Converted into Pounds, and vice versa 312 Inches Reduceil to Decimals of a Foot 312 Ounces Reduced to Decimals of a Pound 312 Comparisons of Fahrenheit, Centigrade, and Reaumur Thermometer Scales 313 Government Land Measures 316 To Measure Corn on the Cob in Cribs.. . 317 Legal Weights of Grain, Seeds, etc 318 Specific Gravity of Various Substances 319 Values of Foreign Coins 321 IV. STATISTICAL TABLES. United States, Area and Population, 1890 323 Canada. Area and Population, 1891 . . 323 Normal Mean Temperature of the Air in the United States 324 Normal Precipitation in the United States 325 Meteorological Data for Canada 326 Farming Population of the United States 327 Number of Farms in the United States, and their Value 327 Statistics Concerning Farms in the United States 328 Comparison of Leading Industries in the United States 326 Average Agricultural Wages in United States in 1893-95 329 Value of Principal Farm Products, 1859-89 329 Statistics of the Principal Crops in the United States in 1895 330 Area, Product, and Value of Principal Crops, 1895 334 The Principal Cereal Products of the United States, 1850-1890 334 Average Cost per Acre of Raising Wheat and Corn in the United States, 1893 335 Production of Various Crops in Canada, 1881.. ....,..,..., 884 CONTENTS. Xlll PAGE Average Cost per Acre of Raising Wheat and Com in the United States, 1893 335 Average Farm Price of Agricultural Products, 1886-1895 335 Number and Value of Farm Animals in the United States, 1870-95. . . 340 Estimated Number of Farm Animals on Farms and Ranges in the United States, Price per Head, and Value, January, 1896 336 Dairy Statistics for the United States (Eleventh Census) 338 Number of Farm Animals in Canada, 1891 340 Number of Pure-bred Cattle in the United States, 1895. 340 Statistics of Butter, Cheese, and Condensed-milk Factories (Eleventh Census) 341 Cheese, Butter, and Condensed-milk Factories in the United States, according to States 34*2 Dairy Products Produced on Farms, according to the Eleventh Census 343 Domestic Exports of Butter and Cheese, 18T0-95 344 Exports of Dairy Products from Canada, 1868-95 344 Poultry and Egg Product of the United States 345 Importance of Apiarian Industry in the United States 345 Production of Honey and Beeswax in rhe United States, according to Census Returns of 1869, 1879 and 1889 345 V. DIRECTORY OF AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS. Organization of the U. S. Department of Agriculture . . 346 Ministers of Agriculture in Canada 347 American Educational Institutions having Courses in Agriculture. . . 348 Statistics of Agricultural Schools and Colleges in the United States. 350 List of American Veterinary Colleges 351 Dairy Schools in the United States and Canada 352 Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States and Canada. 353 VI. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. More Important Works on Dairying 354 A List of Fifty Agricultural and Horticultural Books 355 List of American and Foreign Dairy Papers 357 The Main American Agricultural and Horticultural Papers 358 INDBX 363 tIDMPOSITIQN OP FEEDING STUFFS. Chart showing Pounds of Water and of Digestible Matter in 100 lbs. Whter [ 1 Digestible Protein Digestible Carbohydrates DigestWle Fat -1 1 1 1 r- 10 20 30 40 60 Pa'Sture grass Oreen clover Oreen com Com silage Fodder Corn Com stalks Timothy hay Bed Clover hay Oat straw Potatoes Mangel-wurzels Carrots Indian Com Wheat Barley Oats Bye Feayneal Corn & cob meal Com cob Wheat bran Wheat middlings Bice bran Linseed meal O.P. Linseed meal N.P. Cotton seed meal Cotton seed hulls Gluten meal "Matt sprouts ^rewera^ grains jm l^m 10 20 40 60 60 70 80 90 lOOT PART I. AGRICULTURE. I. FEEDING STUFFS. COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. In the ordinary chemical analysis of feeding stuffs the following constituents are determined, viz., water, ash, pro- tein, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, ether extract (fat). Water is present in all feeding stuffs, from above 90 per cent in green foods and some kinds of roots, to below 10 per cent in very dry hay and in concentrated food stuffs. Ash, or mineral matter, is the non-combustible part of plants, and goes to make the bones of the animal, or to sup- ply material for the maintenance of other parts of the ani- mal body. Pi'otein is the name of a large group of substances, all characterized by the fact that they contain the element ni- trogen; hence they are also called nitrogenous substances; and foods rich in protein are spoken of as nitrogenous foods. The protein substances supply the material necessary for the formation of lean meat, ligaments, tendons, hair, horns, hoofs, etc., and also of casein of the milk. Crude protein includes albuminoids and a??iides; among the former are found white of Qgg, lean meat, curd of milk and gluten; among the latter, asparagin and other crystallizable and water-soluble substances, generally speaking, of a somewhat inferior nutritive value. Crude Fiber or woody fiber is the framework of plants, forming the walls of their cells ; it is usually the least digestible portion of feeding stuffs, and the nutritive value of a plant is decreased as its crude fiber content increases. Nitrogen-free Extract includes starch, sugar, gums, or- ganic acids, etc., and forms a most important and usually a very large part of cattle foods. Together with cellulose, nitrogen-free extract forms the group of bodies called carbo- 1 2 AGRICULTURE. hydrates. A general name for carbohydrates is heat-produc- ing substances y as against flesh-foryjiing substances, i.e., nitrogenous compounds, the names indicating the main effices of the substances in animal nutrition. Ether Extract, or crude fat {oil) includes a group of com- pounds dissolved out by ether in the analysis of foods; fat forms the main part of the extract; most feeding stuffs contain only a small quantity of fat, but this component is ;ievertheless of considerable importance in the feeding of animals. Organic Matter signifies the combustible portion of chemi- cally dry feeding stuffs, i.e., all the components given in the preceding except water and ash. Digestible Components. — The food stuffs used in the feed- ing of farm animals are only partly of direct value to the animals, the portion which their digestive fluids are unable to dissolve being voided in the excrements. The digesti- bility of fodders has been determined by direct experiments with different kinds of farm animals, in this country or abroad. The digestioii coefficients (see pp. 6-8) mean the percentages of any one component which have been found to be digested by the animals experimented on. Nutritive Ratio signifies the ratio between the digestible nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous components in a feeding stuff, or a combination of such. As fat has been found to yield about 2. 2 times more heat, when burned, than do starch, sugar, and other carbohydrates, the per cent of digestible fat in a food is multiplied by 2.2 when the nutritive ratio is to be calculated; the product is added to the per cent of digestible carbohydrates (nitrogen-free extract -|- crude fiber), and this sum is divided by the per cent of digestible protein. (The factor 2+ or 2\ is sometimes used for obtain- ing "the starch equivalent" of fat.) Example: Clover hay contains on the average 6.5 percent digestible protein, 34.9 per cent digestible carbohydrates, and 1.6 per cent digestible fat (see following table): 1.6X2.2 = 3.52; 34.9 + 3.52 = 38.42; 38.42^6.5 = 5.9. Nutritive ratio, i : 5.9. FEEDING STUFES. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. Feeding Stuffs. Green Fodders and Silage. Pasture gjass Green lodder corn (maize) Alfalfa (lucern) Green clover Alsike clover, in bloom Rye fodder Oat fodder Sorghum fodder Red top, in bloom .. Meadow fescue, in bloom Timothy Blue-grass Prickly comfrey Corn silage Corn silage, Wis. anal. Clover silage Sorghum silage Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders. Fodder corn (maize), field cured Same, Wis. analyses Corn stalks (stover), field cured. . . Hay from red clover. . Hay from mammoth clover Hay f'm alfalfa (lucern) Hay from alsike clover Oat hay Timothy hay Hay from mixed mea dow grasses Hay from Hun. grass. Marsh hay Oat straw.. Barley strawt Wheat straw Rye straw , Buckwheat straw Pea vinet Percentage Composition.* 80.0 79-3 71.8 70.8 74.8 76.6 62 79-4 64.8 69.9 61.6 65.1 88.4 79.1 73-6 72 76 42 29.0 40.1 15-3 21.2 8.4 9-7 8.9 13.2 16.0 7-7 7-9 9 14 9.6 7 9.9 13.6 1.2 2.7 2.1 2.0 1.8 2-5 I.I 2-3 2.8 3-4 6.2 CU u 3-5 1.8 2.4 3- 4- 2.4 1-7 2.7 4.2 4-5 6.5 4.0 5- 7- 8. 7-4 II. 6 II. 2 6.1 9.4 10.8 II. 8 9- I. 6. 7- 8.4 6.4 9-7 12.2 12.3 13-5 11. 6.8 19-3 II. 6 19. 1 14-3 20.2 17.6 II. I 12.9 II. 6 15-3 14.3 34-7 36.5 3.8 19.7 12.3,24.8 6.1 10.7 24.5 7.4 14.3 25.0 " 3 12.8 25.6 7.6 29.3 5.9 29.0 6.2 4.4 4.6 6.0 5-2 5-1 5-7 4.2 3-2 S-S 6.6 429.9 5 27.7 8 30.1 037.0 5 36-0 438.1 038.9 2 43.0 035-5 31-9 38.1 33-6 42.7 40.7 45-1 4S-0 41.0 49 -o 46.3 42.4 390 43-4 46.6 35-1 33-7 X u a ti (U (« rt x: £^S W 18.0 .828.3 1.2 36.3 1-3 32 •3 9-4 •819-5 .924.2 1-2 25.4 .3 22.8 1-655 1.7,66 i.i'sfi 3-3j78 3-972 2.2 84 2.9 82 2.984 2.582 2.1 79 2.1 86 2.7 86 2.385 1.5 80 1.386 1 .2 89 1.384 1.6 79 Per cent Digestible Matter. ^ to 2.6 1-3 3-6 2.9 2.7 2.1 2.7 .8 2-3 1-7 2.2 2.9 1.4 .8 1-3 2.0 .6 2.6 3-7 2.0 6.5 5' 7' 6, A' ?,■ 3-6 4-5 3-5 1.6 • 9 2-3 4-3 10.6 II. 8 II. 4 14. 13- 14. 22.7 12.7 20.5 17.8 23 19 4.6 II. 6 14.0 135 14.9 33-3 40.4 33-4 34-9 32 37-8 36.8 46.4 43-9 M I.I 1.2 .6 1.6 1.9 1-3 1.4 1-5 1.2 ♦ Largely from Jenkins and Winton's Compilation of Analyses of American Feeding Stuffs, t Konig. AGRICULTURE. AVERAGE C03IP0SITI0N OF A3IERICAN FEEDING STUFFS.— Co fih'nued. Feeding Stuffs. Roots and Tubers. Potatoes Sweet potatoes . Red beets Sugar beets. ... Mangel-wurzels. Rutabagas Turnips Carrots Grains and Flour Mill Prodticts, Corn (maize). Corn and cob meal Corn cob Corn bran (hulls) Oats Oat shorts* Oat feed Oat dust Barley Barley screenings — . , Wheat Wheat bran— roller pro cess Wheat bran— old pro- cess Wheat shorts Wheat middlings Wheat screenings.. . Low-grade flour ("red dog") Rye Rye bran Rye shorts Buckwheat Buckwheat bran Buckwheat shorts Buckwheat middlings Rice Rice bran Rice hulls Rice polish Pea meal Percentage Composition. 78.9 6 71 I 9;88.5 19S6.5 9190.9 4 88.6 90-5 .6 208 7 18 5 30 6 4 310 7 9 12 33 10.9 15 10.7 9 II. o 10. o 7-7 6.5 10.9 12.2 10.5 12.0 II . II. 6 II. 6 II. 6 9-3 12.6 10.5 II. I 12.7 12.4 9-7 8.2 10. o 10.5 PL, 1-5 1-5 1.4 1-3 30 5-2 3-7 6,9 2.4 3-6 5-6 4.9 4.6 3-4 2.9 1.9 3-6 5-9 2.0 3-0 5-1 51 •4 10. o 13.2 6.7 2.6 10.5 8.5 2.4 9- II. 16. 16. 13-5 12.4 12.3 II. 9 16. 1 13.0 14.9 15-7 12.5 15.8 10.6 14.7 18.0 10. 12.4 27.1 28.2 7-4 12. 1 3-6 II. 7 V. 1.2 6.2 1.3 7-6 2. 1 6.6 30.1 12.7 9.5 7-5 8.4 7-4 4-7 4-9 6 64.8 54-9 62.2 59-7 54-5 59-4 50.2 69.8 61.8 71.9 53-7 58.2 56.8 60.2 65.1 67.7 72.5 63.8 59-9 64-5 38.8 40.8 42-3 79.2 49.9 38.6 58.0 51-1 W c t; bos 5-4 3-5 •5 5-8 5-0 e.e 7-1 4.8 4.2 3-8 4-5 4.0 3-0 2.7 1-7 2.8 2.8 2.2 3-3 7.6 7.5 •4 8.8 •7 7-3 20. T 27.9 10.5 12.6 8.7 [0.4 87.6 83-4 87.9 8g.6 .6 86.6 7 2 87.7 82.4 83 83.6 5 •5 85 Per cent Digestible Matter. 87.8 86 84 85.8 85 86.5 83.8 82.2 87.2 So. 3 78.6 83-3 86.9 6.3 6.5 1.6 7-4 9 12.6 12.5 8.9 9-5 9-3 9 12.6 10. 1 11.6 12.2 9.8 135 8.3 9-7 II. 9 7-7 7-4 21 . 1 22.0 4 5-3 1.6 9- 18.0 6. 22.2 7.6 9-3 4.8 7 5-5 7 64.8 56.3 43-9 59-8 44-7 45-7 46.9 .38.4 66.1 57-3 64.9 44.1 47-5 45-4 47.2 51 61.3 65-5 48.0 45-1 49.2 30-4 33-5 33-4 72.2 45-1 44-5 56.4 56.0 * Konig. FEEDIXG STUFFS. AVERAGE C03IP0SITI0N OF AMERICAN FEEDIXG STUFFS.— Coniznued. Feeding Stuffs. Sorghum seed Cow pea Soja bean Miscellaneous Feeds. Malt sprouts Brewers' grains, wet .. Brewers' grains, dried. Hominy chops (meal).. Gluten feed.. . . Cream gluten meal Chicago gluten meal. . . Corn oil cake Germ meal (corn germ) Grano-gluten Starch feed, wet Cotton-seed meal Cotton-seed hulls Linseed meal, old pro- cess Linseed meal, new pro- cess Palm-nut meal* Apples* Apple pomace Meat-scraps* Dried blood* Skimmed milk* Buttermilk* Whey* Percentage Composition. .5 14. 8 10. 5 9- 15 75- 5 7- '4 10. 7 8. 5 8. 3 9- 3 9- 4 10. ^ 5- 12 65. 37 8. lO 9- 21 9- 14 10. 6oo 10. 36 84. 7 76. 144 10. 3 8. 96 90. 8590. 46 93- 2.1 3-2 4-7 5-9 i.o 3-6 2-5 •9 1-3 •9 2.4 :?.6 2.9 5-7 9 20.8 34-0 24. 5- 22. 9.9 21.6 32.8 35-8 24.8 10. o 31.0 6.1 42.4 4.2 32.9 33-2 j6.8 •4 •4 71.2 84.4 3-3 4.0 •91 2.6 4 4 II. o 3-8 12.3 3-7 6.8 1-7 1 . 6.7 5- II. 4 3- 5.6 47 4 8.9 9 24 ;w is *- 69.8 55-7 28.8 47- •5 47-9 64.4 49.6 42.0 46.8 43.6 64 34-8 22.0 23.8 33-2 35-4 38.5 35- •5 16.2 •3 4-7 4.0 4 bil Per cent Digestible Matter. U 4> c ti o , U 3.6,85.1 7.0 1.4 82.0 18.3 16.9 84.5 29.6 ■7»4-5 198 .6:23.3; 3.9 .3 88.7 16.2 .5,86.6 8.9 .7,90.8 18.6 1 90 6] 89. 5 88. 8186. 2'9I. I 34- 2.9 84.6 2.2 87.2 7-9 85.1 3-0 84.1 9-5 85-3 •3 M-7 T.3 22.8 3-7 85.2 2.S 86.8 .8 8.9 I.I 9.2 •3 5-9 29. 32- 22. 9- 26.7 5-5 36.9 1.0 I 28. 27.2 16.0 68.4 ;58.i I 3-9 .8 I Si rt U 52 54.2 17.9 w w .c 3-1 I.I 15.9 36.2 9-5 35-5 61.0 48.3 39.6 12.8 44.1 42.6 61.2 38.8 21.7 18 26 32.8 32.9 52.6 12.8 II. 9 •3 12.4 2-3 12.3 1.8 7-1 ^3 * Kooig. 6 AGRICULTURE. AVERAGE AMERICAN DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS As Determined by American Experiments. (Jordan.) A. — Experiments with Ruminants, GREEN FODDER (fed when green). Corn (maize) fodder — Whole plant, average of all trials. . . Dent, immature, Pennsylvania in milk, Pennsylvania mature, Pennsylvania Sorghum, North Carolina and Texas.. Rye, Pennsylvania Timothy iPJdeuni pratense), Utah. Hungarian grass {Setaria italicd)^ Me, Pasture grass, Pennsylvania Red clover ( Trifolium pratense) Corn (maize) silage, whole plant — Average of all kinds Dent, immature, Maine, New York and Pennsylvania Dent, in milk, Pennsylvania Flint mature, Maine and New York Soja-bean silage DRIED FODDERS (fed air-dry or partially so). Corn (maize) fodder, whole plant — Averag^e of all kinds , . Dent, immature, Maine and Penn. . . in milk, New York and Penn.. mature, Pennsylvania Flint, mature, Maine Sweet, mature, Maine Corn (maize) butts, Maryland husks, Maryland fodder, tops above ear, Maryland pulled, Maryland, North Carolina and Texas stover, Pennsylvania . . , Sorghum fodder, leaves, N. Carolina. Oat straw, Maine 37 50 U w bfiW te 6q 72 67 64 68 64 66 76 ,S2 77 7Q 76 73 70 74 68 74 73 69 79 79 75 32 70 S3 63 6q 63 64 66 64 52 70 64 47 5» 53 38 FEEDING STUFFS. 7 AVERAGE DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS.— Cc.„//««^a?. 10 rt tfi 6 I I I I I 2 I 2 I I I I I 3 2 I I 2 I I I I I I I I I (0 u a 6 I 2 I I I 2 2 ID 3 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 I 2 I I t I I I I I I tn H u C c75 4 3 2 2 I 3 3 22 5 5 2 3 I 3 3 2 \ 2 2 I 2 I I 2 2 u Q 6i 54 62 65 54 56 60 58 61 54 64 61 72 56 58 62 61 53 66 59 62 56 60 61 58 94 78 J3 CO < 45 29 68 47 56 29 37 44 32 35 41 52 52 53 "58 49 .... 48 20 13 52 32 16 M vd X 5, _c 04 65 63 63 60 45 59 61 49 57 45 58 73 51 73 66 69 52 73 65 71 56 63 14 58 91 75 V £ a U 62 54 66 68 58 60 61 S3 59 48 68 63 76 55 46 53 46 47 61 42 61 41 52 46 45 100 43 u c . U 4-1 £2 63 56 59 67 54 55 62 63 64 61 65 65 74 59 68 7^ 70 61 69 71 69 67 69 65 57 100 91 u A. — ExPRTS. WITH Ruminants — Cont. DRIED FODDERS— Continued. Hay fronTgrasses named: Barley, Maine 40 Blue joint {Calamagrostis canaden- sis), Maine 45 Cat-tail millet {Pennisetum sf>ica- tuiti) , North Carolina. ... - - 46 64 Hungarian grass (Setaria Maine italtca), alepense). Johnson grass {Sorghufn h North Carolina 39 54 50 57 56 51 50 57 67 52 5^ 50 46 t 70 64 62 50 Orchard grass {Dactylis glomerata), Maine and New York Redtop (Agrostis vulgaris), Maine.. Timothy (Fhleum pratense), average of all kinds, Maine and Utah ditto, in full bloom, Maine,. . . ditto, late cut, Maine Wild-oat grass {Datithonia spicata), Maine Witch-grass {Triticum repi Pasture grass, Pennsylvani Mi.xed grasses, New York a Hay from legumes named: Alfalfa, Colorado, and New Alsike clover ( Trifoliuttt /zj Maine 'ns), Me . . a nd Penn. • York.. . vbridufn). Crimson clover {Tri/olium turn). North Carolina ... incarna- Red clover ( Tri/oliuvi pratettse), Maine and Wisconsin White c\o\tr (Trifolium repe}is),Mt. Cowpea vines, North Carolina Soja-bean vines, North Carolina MISCELLANEOUS FODDERS. Buttercup hay (Ranuncitlus ao-is). Me. Peanut-vine hay, North Carolina Sorghum bagasse. North Carolina White weed, white daisy {Chrysanthe- mum leucattthemum), Maine ROOTS. Sugar-beets Maine Mangel-wurzels, Maine. 8 AGRICULTURE. AVERAGE DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS.— c^«^rK«^^. A. — ExPRTS. WITH Ruminants — Cont. ROOTS— Continued. Rutabagas, Maine Turnips (strap-leaf), Maine. Potatoes, Maine GKAiNS (fed whole or ground). Corn and cob meal, North Carolina. . . Corn meal. North Carolina and N. Y. Cotton seed, raw, North Carolina roasted, North Carolina. Pea meal, Maine BY-PRODUCTS. Brewers' grains, dried, Massachusetts. Corn cobs, Massachusetts Cotton-seed hulls, N. Car. and Texas.. meal, N. Car. and Wis — Gluten feed (Buffalo), Massachusetts.. meal, Maine Linseed meal, new process, Mass old process, Mass Malt sprouts, Wisconsin Wheat bran, Maine and Massachusetts; middlings, Maine and Mass — B.— Experiments with Swine. GRAINS AND BY-PRODUCTS. Barley, Minnesota Corn (maize) (whole kernel), Maine and Minnesota meal, Maine Corn and cob meal, Maine Peas, Minnesota Wheat shorts, Minnesota Wheat bran, Minnesota i ^ X u 43 44 24 ti b«y u 74 8i 79 86 76 78 73 36 75 33 t^ 84 97 13 91 50 77 97 91 67 62 82 82 SO 72 FEEDING STUFFS. 9 CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE FOODS. (Lindsey.) Coarse Feeds. Concentrated Feeds. I 2 3 4 5 Low in protein. Medium in Low in pro- Low in pro- High in pro- High in carbo- protein. tein. tein. tein. hydrates. Medium in High in car- High in car- Medium in 50 to 65 per cent carbohy- bohydrates. bohydrates. car bohy- digestible. drates. 85 to 95 per 80 to 90 per drates. 55 to 65 per cent digest- cent digest- 80 to 90 per cent digest- ible. ible. cent digest- ible. ible. Hays, straws, Clovers, Carrots, pota- Wheat, rye. Bean and pea corn fodder, vetches, pea toes, sugar barley, oats, meals, glu- corn stover, and bean beets, man- Indian corn. ten feeds and silage. fodders and golds, tur- and meals, brans. nips. linseed meals and cotton -seed meal. CLASSIFICATION OF CONCENTRATED FEED STUFFS. Very rich in protein (above 40 per cent). Dried blood. Meat scraps. Cotton-seed meal. Rich in protein (25-40 per cent). Gluten meal. Atlas meal. Linseed meal. Buckwheat mid- dlings. Buckwheat shorts Soja bean. Granogluten. Fairly rich in Poor in protein protein (12-25 P^J" (below 12 per cent). cent). Malt sprouts. Wheat. Dried brewers' Barley. grains. Oats. Gluten feed. Rye. Cow pea. Corn, Pea meal. Rice polish. Wheat shorts. Rice. Rye shorts. Hominy chops. Oats shorts. Germ meal. Wheat middlings. Wheat bran. Low-grade flour. 10 AGRICULTURE. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS. (Wolff.) (Per day and per looo lbs. live weight.) OS _ f Nutritive (Digestible) Substances. 1» > tn 6 6 3 1- XI -a Steers at rest in stall lbs. 17-5 24.0 26.0 24.0 20.0 21 .0 23.0 20.0 22.5 27.0 26.0 25.0 26.0 25.0 36.0 31.0 23-5 22.0 23-4 24.0 24.0 24.0 28.0 25.0 23.0 22.5 22.0 42.0 340 3^-5 27.0 21.0 lbs. 0.7 1.6 2.4 2.5 1-5 2-3 1 .2 1-5 2.5 3-0 2.7 3-0 3-5 5-0 4.0 2.7 4.0 3-2 2.5 2.0 1.6 3-2 2.7 2.1 1-7 1.4 7-5 5-0 4-3 3-4 -5 lbs. 8.0 "•3 132 12.5 9-5 10.4 12.5 10.3 II. 4 I5-0 14.8 14.8 15.2 14.4 lbs. 0.15 0.30 0.50 0.40 0.40 0.60 0.80 20 0.25 0.50 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.60 lbs. 8.85 13.20 16.10 15-40 11.40 12.70 15.60 11.70 1315 18.00 18.50 18.10 18.70 18.50 32.50 28.00 20.20 19.8 17.7 16.6 15-4 13-9 19.6 16.6 14.0 13.0 12. 1 37-5 30.0 28.0 23-8 18.7 1:12 Steers moderately worked.. ■ . 1:7-5 1:6.0 Steers heavily worked 3- 4- Milch cows . 1:5 4 Horses lightly worked 1:7.0 1:7.0 Horses heavily worked 1:6.0 5- Wool sheep, coarser breeds. . '* " finer breeds. .. . 1:9.0 1:8.0 6 7 Fattening steers, ist period. " " 2d " . " 3d " . Fattening sheep, ist period " " 2d " Fattening swine, ist period " " 2d " . " 3d " . Growing cattle: Aver, live Age^ Months. per hei 2-3 165 3-6 330 6-12 550 12-18 770 18-24 940 . Growing sheep: e-6 62 6-8 73 8-11 84 11-15 90 15-20 95 . Growing fat pigs: 2-3 55 3-S I 10 S-6 137 6-8 187 8-12 275 1:6.5 1:5-5 i;6.o 1:55 1:4-5 ... . . 8 27-5 24.0 1:5-5 1:6.0 1:6.5 1:4.7 1:5.0 1:6.0 1:7.0 1:8.0 1:55 1:55 1:6.0 1:7.0 1:8.0 9 lO weight xd. lbs ... tt .< tt ti lbs... (k <( (. lbs.... 44 ' ' 44 44 13-8 13-5 13-5 13.0 12.0 15-6 13-3 II. 4 10.9 10. /| 2.0 I.O 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.6 05 0.4 0.3 ZI 30.0 25.0 237 20.4 16.2 1:4.0 1:5-0 1:5.5 1:6.0 1:6.5 FEEDING STUFFS. RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. 11 Woods & Phelps Well Wolff 's German Stand'. Organic Matter. Digest ble. Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat. Total. lbs. 25.0 24-5 24.0 lbs. 2.5 2.2 2.5 lbs. 12.5 13-3 ".5 lbs. .65 .7 •4 lbs. 15.65 16.2 »5-4 Nut. Ratio. 1:56 1:6.9 1:5.4 CALCULATION OF COMPONENTS OF FEED RATIONS. Let us suppose that we have at our disposal the following common feeding stuffs : Fodder corn, clover hay, and wheat bran, and that we want to know how much is required to keep a milch cow of looo lbs. live weight in good condition and to secure a maximum yield of milk. We will feed 14 lbs. of fodder corn, 6 lbs. of clover hay, and 10 lbs. of wheat bran. According to the table these quantities contain the following number of pounds of digestible matter : 14 lbs. of field-cured fodder corn 6 lbs. clover hay.. 10 lbs. wheat bran Total Organic Matter. lbs. 9-35 4.71 8.24 22.30 Digestible. Protein. lbs. .52 •39 1.26 2.17 Carbo- hydrates. lbs. 5.66 2.09 4.41 12.16 Ether Extract. lbs. •«7 .10 .29 .56 This ration falls somewhat short of the feeding standard in total organic matter and digestible substances. To bring it nearer to the standard, we add a couple of pounds of some con- centrated feed. In selecting the foods and deciding the quan- tities to be given in each case, the market prices of the feeds must be considered. We will suppose that a lot of corn-meal is available in this case, and will add two pounds of this feed to the above ration. 12 AGRICULTURE. Organic Matter. Digestible. Nutri- Crude Protein Carbo- hydrates. Ether Extract tive Ratio. Ration as above 2 lbs. of corn meal lbs. 22.30 1-75 lbs. 2.17 .14 lbs. 12.16 1.25 lbs. .56 .08 Total 24.05 24-5 24.0 2.31 2.2 2.5 13-41 13-3 12.5 .64 •7 •4 116.4 Proposed American feeding ration for milch cows ■Wolff's feeding standard for milch cows 1:6.9 i:s-4 The ration now corresponds very well with the proposed American feeding ration; there is a small deficit of organic matter and of digestible fat ; but there is no necessity of trying to follow any standard ration blindly, as they are only intended to be approximate gauges which the farmer may use in estimat- ing the quantities of nutrients required by farm animals in order to do their best, cost and product both being considered. In constructing rations according to the above feeding standards, several points must be considered besides the chemi- cal composition and the digestibility of the feeding stuffs ; the standards cannot be followed directly without regard to bulk and other properties of the fodder ; the ration must not be too bulky, and still must contain a sufficient quantity of rough- age to keep up the rumination of the animals* in case of cows and sheep, and to secure a healthy condition of the animals generally. The local market prices of cattle foods are of the greatest importance in determining which foods to buy ; the conditions in the different sections of our great continent differ so greatly in this respect that no generalizations can be made. Generally speaking, nitrogenous concentrated feeds are the cheapest feeds in the South and the East, and flour-mill, brewery, and starch-factory refuse feeds the cheapest in the Northwest. FEEDING STUFFS. 13 PRACTICAL. RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. Fed by 16 American Dairymen Producing 325 lbs. of Butter or more per Cow per Year.* 1. Colorado. — 30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. clover hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. corn meal. 2. Connecticut. — 35 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 3 lbs. wheat bran, 3 lbs. corn and cob meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. Chicago gluten meal. 3. Illinois. — 7I lbs. clover hay, 7^ lbs. timothy hay, 12 lbs. corn and cob-meal, 8 lbs. bran, i\ lbs. linseed meal, i^ lbs. cotton-seed meal. 4. New Jersey. — 24 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. wheat bran, 4 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. oil meal. 5. New York. — 20 lbs. hay, 2 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. cotton- seed meal, 2 lbs. hominy meal. 6. New York. — 12 lbs. timothy hay, i lb. wheat bran, i lb. middlings, 2 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 40 lbs. skim-milk. 7. Nezu York. — 42 lbs. corn silage, 2\ lbs. clover hay, 2\ lbs. timothy hay, 8 lbs. corn and cob meal, 14 lbs. dried brewers' grains. 8. North Carolina. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. fodder corn, 3 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. wheat bran, i lb. cotton-seed meal. 9. Pennsylvania. — 24 lbs. corn fodder, 5.1 lb. wheat bran, 5.1 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. oil meal. 10. Pennsylvania. — 10 lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. hay, 2>h lbs. wheat bran, i| lbs. cotton-seed meal, i^ lbs. oil meal, 2^ lbs. corn meal. 11. Texas. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 13^ lbs. sorghum hay, 1.3 lbs. corn meal, 2.6 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2.2 lbs. cotton-seed, 1.3 lbs. wheat bran. 12. Vertnont. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 4.2 lbs. corn meal, 4.2 lbs. wheat bran, .8 lb. linseed meal. 13. West Virginia. — 48 lbs. corn silage, 2^ lbs. corn and cob meal, i\, lbs. ground wheat, 2\ lbs, oats, 2\ lbs. barley meal. * See WoU, "One Hundred American Rations for Dairy Cows," Bul- letin No. 38, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. 14 AGRICULTUEE. 14. Wisconsin. — 26 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 5 lbs, timothy hay, 8 lbs. wheat middlings, i^ lbs. oil meal. 15. Wisconsin. — 50 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. sheaf oats, 5 lbs. corn fodder, i lb. clover hay, i lb. millet, 2.7 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 1.3 lbs. oil meal, 6 lbs. wheat bran. 16. Canada. — 40 lbs. corn silage, 7^ lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. straw, li lbs. oats, i\ lbs. barley, i^ lbs. pea meal, 3 lbs. wheat bran, i lb. cotton-seed meal. The preceding rations contain approximately the following amounts of nutrients, calculated for 1000 lbs. live weight : Organic Digestible. tritive No. INU Matter. Carbo- hydrates. R atio. Protein. Fat. Total. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1 bs. I 31.09 2.70 15-78 .80 19.28 I 6.5 2 25.70 2.69 13.96 •97 17.62 I 6.0 3 22.09 2.37 12.06 .75 15.18 I 5.8 4 19.41 2.06 11.71 .87 14.64 I 6-5 5 26.19 2.36 13-78 •79 16.93 1 6.6 6 25-73 3-50 14.05 1.12 18.67 I 4-7 7 31-30 3-37 16.31 I-3I 20.99 I 5>7 8 20.38 1.79 11.98 .80 14-57 I 7-7 9 26.52 2.53 15-74 .90 19.17 I 7.0 10 20.05 2.31 11.00 .72 14-03 I 5-4 II 26.58 2.21 12.31 1.30 15.82 I 6.9 12 24.23 1.86 14.03 -75 16.64 I 8.4 n 22.37 1.54 14-15 .72 16.41 I 10.2 >4 31.00 3-01 16.02 .87 19-90 I 6.0 IS 23-79 2-73 12.46 •99 16.18 1 5-4 16 22.96 3.08 12.17 •71 14.96 I 6.6 FEEDING STUFFS. 15 WEIGHT OF CONCENTRATED FEEDING STUFFS. (Alvokd.) Wheat, whole Cracked corn Gluten meal Cotton-seed meal . Corn meal Corn and cob meal Wheat middlings. . Oats, whole Ground oats Wheat bran Half Bushel Weighs One Quart Weighs Pounds. Pounds, Ounces = Pounds. 30 r 14 = 1.88 28 I 12 ^ 7S 26 I 8 = 50 25i I 9 = 56 23* I 7 = 43 22 I 6 = 3a 18 I 2 = 13 16 I = 00 12 12 = 75 10 ID =: f'3 FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS. It is generally assumed in comparing the food require- ments of the different classes of farm animals that one cow at pasture will eat as much, or seven-tenths as much, daily as a full-grown horse, or as much as two yearling colts, heifers, or young bulls, or as three to five calves, or four colts taken from the mare, or ten to twelve sheep, or as twelve to twenty three-months-old lambs, or as four to five swine. It may be figured that the quantity of pasture grass eaten by a cow per day, which of course will vary with the season and the condition of the pasture, will equal 25-30 lbs. of good meadow hay or 40 lbs. hay of inferior quality. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CATTLE FOODS. Comparing concentrated foods with coarse feeds, one pound of the former may be considered a food unit) the quantity of grass eaten by one cow at pasture during one day is assumed equivalent to 12 to 13 food units during the early part of the summer, and to 4 food units in the late fall, 10 units being considered an average figure. The following quantities of different feeding stuffs are considered approximately equivalent, as determined by European, largely Danish, feeding experience (Schroll): 16 AGRICULTURE. I lb. concentrated feed (cereals, mill-refuse feeds, oil meals, etc.) = 2^ to 3 lbs. of good meadow hay = 4 lbs. of poorer quality hay = 10 lbs. rutabagas = 12^ lbs. turnips = 4 lbs. potatoes = 10 lbs. green fodder = 6 lbs. buttermilk = 6 lbs. skim-milk = 12 lbs. whey = i lb. new milk. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CATTLE FOODS. (H^ECKER.) The following table is based upon the percentages of di- gestible protein in different feed stuffs, comparison of cost being made with wheat bran as a basis for grain, and timothy hay for coarse fodders. The figures given show only approx- imately the comparative value of the different food stuffs, as the digestible protein content, and not the total digestible matter of each food was considered in calculating the values. Since, however, protein is the most important component of foods bought, carbohydrates being, as a rule, produced in abundant quantities in the crops raised on the farm, the data obtained by this method of calculation may serve as a guide in estimating the comparative money value of cattle foods offered for sale. Feed Stuffs. Barley Indian corn Corn and cob meal Millet seed Oats , Peas Rye Wheat shorts , Wheat Cotton-seed meal. . Linseed meal Value per Ton or Bushel when Wheat Bran is worth $9.00 $10.00 $12, $0.16 0.18 0.16 0.20 O.IO 0.40 0.22 7.20 0.24 23.14 19.86 $0.18 0.21 0.18 0.22 0.12 0.47 0.24 8.00 0.25 25.60 .00 !tS0.22 0.24 0.22 0.26 0.14 0.56 0.28 9.60 0.30 30.72 26.50 $16.00 $20.00 $0.30 0.32 0.30 0.34 0.18 0.74 0.38 12.80 0.40 40.96 35-32 80.36 0.42 0.36 0.44 0.24 0.94 0.48 16.00 0.50 51.20 44.16 Feed Stuffs. Clover hay, red Corn stover Fodder corn Prairie hay (upland) Prairie hay (mixed). Sedge grass Value per Ton when Timothy is worth 84-50 $6.00 88.00 810.00 $10.06 813.41 $17.88 $22.33 2.65 3-53 4.70 6.88 3-44 4-59 6. 12 7-65 4-63 6.17 8.23 10.29 4 50 6.00 8.00 10.00 4-50 6.00 8.00 10.00 * FEEDING STUFFS, 1' PRICES OF CEREALS PP]R BUSHELi AND PER TON. Name. 4-1 "S Factor. O-X! c-f- Weig per Bu Price per (2000 lbs. $ $ Wheat . 6o 33-3 .40 •45 •50 .60 i3^33 15.00 16.67 20.00 • •75 1.00 25.00 33^33 Corn . . . 56 35-7 .30 •35 .40 •45 .50 10.71 12.50 14.28 16.06 17.85 Name. Oats. Rye ... Barley. Weight per liushel. u Price per Bushel. lbs. $ 32 62.5 .18 20 •25 •30 •35 .50 56 35^7 .40 48 41.7 •50 .40 •50 .60 $ 11.25 12.50 15 ^63 18.75 21.90 3i^25 14 28 17-85 16.68 20.83 25.02 VALUATION OF FEEDING STUFFS. The commercial value of protein, fat, and carbohydrates in concentrated feeding stuffs has been calculated from the average composition and market price of common feeding stuffs as follows: ^-Cost of one pound of^ Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. In Germany. .. (1890) 3: 2: ' Connecticut (1888) 1.6 cts. 4.2 cts. " (1890) 1.4 2.9 * Wisconsin. . (1891) 1.5 3.6 ' Indiana. . . . (1891) i.o 2.75 ' Minnesota.. (1893)3.1 3.1 I (K6nig, Wolff.) .96 cts. (Jenkins.) r^4 .5 (Woll.) .63 (Huston.) .24 (Hays.) 18 AGRICULTURE. II. FARM ANIMALS. CHARACTERISTICS OF BREEDS OF LiIVE STOCK. By Prof. J. A. Craig, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. I. Light Horses. The Thoroughbred. — Leading characteristics: running speed (Salvator, 1:35^, holds the world's mile record), quality, stam- ina, and ambition. Common colors : brown, bay, chestnut. Distinctive features : refined appearance, lengthy neck, deep chest, long body, straight croup, long thighs and pasterns, dense bone, firm muscle, active temperament, rangy type standing 16 hands. Most common defects : light bodies, lengthy pasterns, long legs, irritable temperament. Bred principally for racing, which has given them endurance and spirit. They are suited for mating with mares weighing 11 to 12 cwt., with the object of producing strong drivers or stylish carriage and saddle horses. The American Trotter. — Chief characteristics : speed at the trotting gait. World's record for one mile against time is that of Alix, 2:o3f. The type of the leading campaigners is that towards which the trotter is tending; it is that of a horse re- quired to have the endurance, ambition, and conformation to maintain trotting speed. Most general features: intelligent heads, light necks, low deep chests, oblique shoulders, long forearm, short cannons, round body rising slightly over loin, long croup and thighs, low hocks. Most common defects : undersize, deficiency in style, finish, and substance. Sphere : 9oach or carriage horses, roadsters, and trotters. FARM AITIMALS. 19 Cleveland Bay. — Uniform in color, being bay with black points. They stand at least i6 hands and are horses of larger size and more power than those of most other breeds of light horses. Rough joints, coarse bone, and deficiency in actior are their most common defects. Their size, power, and evenness of disposition adapt them for general work on light farms, but owing to the defects mentioned they are not as popular for breeding road and carriage horses as those of other breeds. French Coach. — Smooth, symmetrical, and generally of fine quality ; very graceful in movement, with high knee-action and good back-action. Heads intelligent looking ; necks graceful, bodies snugly ribbed, and quarters muscular. As a rule, they are striking in appearance, being upstanding and high-headed. Common colors : bay, brown, and black. Best suited for breeding coach-horses with moderately fast and graceful action. Defects : coarseness and lack of prepotency in the stallions due to their mixed breeding. Hackney. — The typical hackney is a horse of extreme smoothness, with gracefully curved outlines. The head is light, neck muscular and curved, but free from heaviness ; shoulders smooth and laid well back ; body circular, compact, short ; hips smooth ; quarters plump with muscle ; legs short, with tendons clearly defined. Their action is noted for its grace- fulness and stylishness, being very high in the forelegs, and the hock movement is regular. Common colors : bay and brown. They are usually about 15.3 hands. Best suited for production of high-stepping cab and coach horses for city driving. II. Heavy Horses. Clydesdale. — Usual colors: bay, brown, black, or chestnut with white markings. The head is intelligent in features, but some- times out of proportion with the other parts. Shoulder excep- tionally good ; being sloping, it gives them a free, easy, and long stride in the walk or trot ; arm well-muscled, and legs clean and flat, with the fine and long feather springing from the edge ; pasterns sloping, easing the feet from concussion,* 20 AGRICULTURE. feet large and durable. The croup is muscular and the quarters especially heavily-muscled. Their combination of weight, quality, and action is exceptional in draught-horses. Shire. — The best type is low, broad, and stout. They are heavily built, muscular, with heavy bone and slow movement. The shoulder is usually too upright, making the action too short and stilted. The body is of large girth, deep and strongly coupled, with broad, short back and heavily-muscled quarters. Deficiencies : lack of quality, sluggish temperament, and limited action. In general they are heavier than the Clydesdale, though there is little difference between representa- tive animals. The best type is suitable for breeding the heaviest class of draught-horses adapted to slow work demand- ing strength and heavy weight. Percheron. — Types : the original gray in color, and the modern of black color. Most peculiar characteristics of the former were their action, style, endurance, and strength. They had intelligent heads, prominent chests, round bodies, large bone, inclined to roundness. The modern type is shorter- legged, more compact and stouter, but lacking the size of the original. The Percheron's excellencies are seen in their active temperament, intelligent heads, crested neck, deep body, and wide croup. Their deficiencies appear in defective legs, being light or round, straight pasterns, feet narrow at the hoof, heads and quarters lacking nmscle. Best type adapted for breeding energetic, quick-gaited, strong horses suited for draught work of light nature. Suffolk.— Color uniform, being some shade of chestnut. They are low-set, short-legged, deep-bodied, muscular horses, with clean bone and durable feet ; docile, easy keepers, and steady when working. General deficiency: a lack of weight due to their smaller size in comparison with other draught-horses. Suited for general farm labor ; they are not the highest-priced horses on the market owing to the demand for heavier weights. FARM ANIMALS. 21 III. Beef Cattle.* Short-horns. — The three family types are: Bates, Booth, and Cruikshank. Bates, noted for style, fine heads, clean necks, straight level backs, light bone, and combination of milk and beefing qualities. Booths are especially excellent in girth, wide backs, lengthy quarters, deep flesh, and beefing qualities, though lacking in finish and style. Crtnkshanks, noted for scale ; low, broad, deep forms, heavy flesh, and mossy coats. The short- horn breed is specially noted for beef form, early maturity, and thrift under a variety of conditions. Their weakness in con- stitution and sterility is traceable to in-and-in breeding and artificial treatment. Their chief utility is to give beef form, quality, and rapid fattening tendencies to grades for stall feed- ing. Some families possess unequalled combination of beefing and milking qualities. Aberdeen Angtis. — Characteristic color, black. Head, hornless ; neck free from loose skin, exceptionally good shoulder-vein ; shoulder oblique, fitting close to body ; ribs deep, very circular ; hips moderately far apart, smoothly curved ; rump long, level, smooth ; thighs muscular, twist low and full, quarters long and rounded. Type : cylindrical, dis- tinguished for smoothness, symmetry and quality ; bone light, hide mellow, and coated with fine black hair. They are pre- potent and prolific. Chief utility, production of beef of high quality. Hereford. — Most popular color, dark claret or cherry, with white face, belly, switch, and small strip of white on neck and over shoulder. Type: low-set and broad; heavy in fore- quarters, with low heads ; full, deep chest ; hanging dewlap, level lack, wide thick loin, full quarters and thin thighs. Worst deficiencies, looseness in build and rough, coarse bone. They are strong-constitutioned, active rangers, prepotent and long-lived. Being active, hardy, and good feeders they make good grazing cattle, and on that account have been popular on ranches. Galloway. — Color black, no white admissible, except on * For description of breeds of dairy cattle, see Part II, Dairying. 22 AGRICULTURE. udder or below underline. Type: thick, close to ground, and symmetrical ; hair long, wavy, and thick ; head large, horn- less, with no scurs ; neck strong, giving a burly appearance to forequarters ; shoulders snug, legs short and heavy, barrel round, tight-ribbed ; quarter long and smooth ; flesh even over all parts; hardiness and strength of constitution, strong feat- ures. Require more time to mature and yield larger percentage of offal than most other breeds. They are liked as ranch cattle, as they are hardy, hornless, and yield excellent beef and robes. IV. Fine-wooled Sheep. Merino. — The two types include those wrinkled and those smooth in body. They are chiefly noted for the heavy weights of fine wool that they shear. The fleece is dense, even, ex- tending over all regions. The wool is bright, soft, fine, lustrous, and pure. They are hardy and strong in constitution, of a quiet disposition, and do well in large flocks. V. Mutton Sheep. Southdown. — Symmetrical, compact, close to the ground, and of fine quality ; head medium size, hornless ; forehead and face covered with wool, ears small, face brown or gray tint, neck short, breast broad, back and loin wide and straight, body deep, hips wide, twist full, fleece dense, and medium in length and fineness. The mutton is of high quality, and lambs mature early. They represent an exceptional combination of wool and mutton of fine quality. Shropshire. — Face and legs dark brown in color. They are symmetrical and stylish. Rams are required to weigh 225 lbs. in full flesh, and ewes 175 lbs. Head short, cov^ered with wool, hornless; neck well attached, full; body circular, round ribbed; quarters lengthy, inclined to narrowness and slackness. The fleece dense, fibre strong, about three and one half inches in length. The ewes are prolific and kind nurses. They combine quality and quantity of wool and mutton in a high degree, and are adapted to conditions of general farming and rolling land. Hampshire. — Color of face dark brown or black; head large, nose prominent, neck regular, taper from head to shoulder; FARM ANIMALS. 23 strong-boned ana lengthy. Especially noted for early develop- ment of lambs. They are vigorous and prepotent. The wool .is short, dense, strong, and slightly coarse. Suffolk. — Faces and legs deep black color. They are large sheep when mature ; lengthy and straight in form. Noted chiefly for prolificness and good milking and nursing qualities. A large percentage of lambs are reared in flocks of this breed; wool medium in quality and length. Oxford. — Face either brown or gray, and lengthy. When mature they are the heaviest of the Down breeds, being larger in size and heavier in bone. Their fleece is also heavier and the fibre longer, coarser, and more open than most others. Squarer in form than the Shropshires, and not so closely covered with wool. Adapted to strong land; respond readily to high feeding. Leicester. — Face bare and pure white, body square, straight, forequarters exceptionally full, hindquarters rounded slightly. Offal is light, bone fine, but fat too plentiful. The Border type is stronger boned, heavier, and more vigorous than the English. The Leicester has been extensively used for crossing on grades. Wool lustrous, five or six inches long, soft, but too frequently open and absent on the belly. Cotswold. — Face white or slightly mixed with gray. Form large, square, upstanding, and stylish. A tuft of wool grows from forehead; fleece open, long, and heavily yielding. Body long, level, and wide. The gray-faced strain is considered hardier than the white-faced. The popularity of the breed lies in the large yield of wool and of mutton, though the quality of both is deficient. Lincoln. — The largest of the long-wooled breeds. The wool is long and coarse, and especially lustrous. Square in form and, when mature, very heavy. The mutton lacks quality. Cheviot. — Face bare, white, hornless; wool fine, and the fleece dense and even. Mutton agreeably flavored and fine- grained. They are hardy, active, prolific, and the lambs come active. They clip about four pounds of fine wool. Adapted to rough and high pasturage. Dorset. — Face white ; rams and ewes horned. Type : long, round-bodied, and compactly built. Wool medium in length, fineness, and weight; average clip 6 pounds. Chief character- 24 AGRICULTURE. istics: prolificness, hardiness, and breeding early, so as to drop lambs in winter. Highland. — Rams and ewes horned, face and legs black and white. Low and blocky in type ; fleece long, coarse. Their mutton has a superior flavor. Mountain breed hardy, active, and very strong of constitution. VI. Swine. BerksMre. — Color black, white on face, feet, tip of tail. Face short, dished; ears sharp-pointed, erect; jaws full, back broad, straight, full over shoulder ; loin thick, level ; hams excep- tionally full, legs short, strong, and straight. Sows prolific, good nurses. Active and vigorous in temperament. Poland-China. — Color dark, spotted, or black; head small, slightly dished; ears drooping, girth full, ribs well sprung, deep; hindquarters lengthy, though inclined to be drooping. They fatten readily, reach heavy weights, and are quiet-dispositioned. Yorkshire. — White in color; separated into large, middle, and small varieties. The first-mentioned, are strong-boned, long- bodied, and deep-sided, and have mixed meat; middle or im- proved type, lighter in weight and bone, with smaller quantity of offal ; small variety, quick in maturing and compact in form. Chester- White. — White in color, strong-boned, vigorous, and attain to very heavy weights, though slow in maturing. Sows of good disposition and breeding qualities. Duroc-Jerseys. — Deep, cherry red in color, large size, good breeders, and liked in Southern countries because of ability to withstand heat. Victoria. — White in color with occasional black spots on skin; head small, face slightly dished ; skin free from scurf ; flesh of good quality and evenly laid over body. Yearling boars should weigh not less than 300 lbs. Tamworth. — Red or dark brown color ; snout very long, body narrow, exceptionally deep and long in sides. Their form and the mixture of fat and lean in their flesh make them a special bacon hog. Essex. — Color black; type : small, compact, early mavUring, and yielding a large percentage of edible meat. FARM ANIMALS. 25 FEEDING AND GENERAL. CARE OF POULTRY. By Prof. VVm. P. Wheeler, of N. Y. (Geneva) Experiment Station. Of the kinds of land birds and of water fowls under do- mestication the common "barnyard" fowls, of one general type, but of countless individual variations, and their thor- oughbred varieties, are those usually thought of when the subject of poultry is mentioned, and these are the fowls of most general practical interest. It is remarkable that the common fowl, although so widely bred, and for so long, in Europe and America has no distinctive English name. Ducks» turkeys, and geese constitute greater or smaller portions of the market poultry according to the particular locality and season, but the common fowl, besides produc- ing most of the table poultry, is almost alone called upon for the egg supply. The relative prices of eggs and market poultry, the proximity of markets, as well as the prices of foods, deter- mine the relative profit in keeping larger or smaller breeds, even with eggs as the special object. The meat value of every fowl is of consideration sooner or later, and while the smaller hens will produce eggs cheaper, the greater net profit from hatching to market per hen may be with the larger breed. Most of the thoroughbred varieties have their character- istics fairly established, so that it is better business policy to employ them rather than the uncertain mongrels, which, besides their unknown capabilities, are not less likely to suffer from long and careless inbreeding. The fancier who is fitted by judgment and experience to inbreed his stock closely will know how far he can go with safety; but one who finds it necessary to inquire about the advisability of inbreeding had better not attempt any. Among the breeds that lay white-shelled eggs. Ham- burgs, when of vigorous ancestry, probably are the most prolific. They certainly are exceptional layers, although the size of the egg is small. The Hamburg varieties pos- sess in unusual degree the thoroughbred characteristics. Occasional complaints have been made in recent years con- cerning their stamina. 26 AGRICULTURE. For egg production the Leghorns are typical fowls, and where white-shelled eggs are wanted the Leghorn varieties are more widely kept than any others. The Minorcas, other members of the Mediterranean class, excel the Leghorns in size of eggs, but do not equal them in number. Some strains and varieties of Pit Games are not far from the Leghorn in prolificacy. Of the French breeds the Houdan is most widely bred in this country, and for such an excellent table fowl, is an exceptional layer of large white eggs. The Polish, often wonderful layers, have sometimes suffered in vigor because of their beauty, which admirers hesitate to risk marring by introduction of distant blood. Of the Asiatics, which lay brown-shelled eggs, the Lang- shan is high in favor with practical poultrymen. The Brahma, the largest of the thoroughbreds, also ranks high and lays large eggs. Those strains, however, bred for early laying are usually much inferior in size to the stand- ard t)irds. The Cochin varieties are more particularly the pride of the fancier than of the farmer. Of the American breeds the Plymouth Rock is un- doubtedly the most popular. Its type of plumage pos- sesses an unusual strength, even in blood much diluted, and faint reflections of the blue barring are seen in very distant relatives of the thoroughbred. The perfect mark- ings of the showroom bird are, however, quickly lost. The American breeds lay brown-shelled eggs. Different flocks vary as much as the breeds or varieties in productiveness. Many other breeds and varieties recognized by the American Poultry Association are of considerable economic value, but are less commonly kept. In feeding most farm animals the usual purpose is only to secure meat, wool, milk, or work, and not always is con- sideration necessarily given to the breeding condition and the breeding season. When poultry is kept for other than fancy purposes, the life of the individual fowl is so short that there is not only an annual necessity of growing young birds with several more or less complete sets of FARM ANIMALS. 27 plumage, but egg production virtually implies a continual breeding condition, for the ultimate constituents of the egg are, with the exception of the amount obtained from the air, all that are combined in the living chick. The body of a Leghorn pullet, about nine months old, in active laying, contains about 55.4 per cent of water, 21.2 per cent of different nitrogenous constituents, 18.0 per cent of fat, 3.0 per cent of ash or mineral matter, and 2.0 per cent of other substances, including also a little water lost in manipulation. Leghorn hens almost two years old and laying, showed an average composition of 55.7 per cent water, 21.6 per cent nitrogenous matter, 17.0 per cent of fat, 3.8 per cent ash constituents, and 1.7 per cent other substances. The body of a mature capon is composed of about 41.6 per cent of water, 19.4 per cent nitrogenous matter, 33.9 per cent fat, 3.7 per cent ash, and 1.4 per cent other substances. Notwithstanding the fact that the problem of poultry feeding is much more complex than that of feeding most other farm stock, fewer carefully collected data are avail- able in formulating feeding standards for poultry than for cattle. The following rations for laying hens are, how- ever, near the average of those that have given best results. They are stated at the rate per 1000 lbs. live weight, to compare with the standards which have been used in feeding other animals. One thousand pounds live weight of laying hens, of about three pounds average weight, require from 65 to 70 pounds of total food, less bulky than that for the cow, or about 52 pounds water-free food, per day, containing about 9 pounds digestible protein, 20 pounds digestible nitrogen- free extract and fiber, and 4 pounds of fat. From this ra- tion the hens would produce generally from 16 to 31 pounds of eggs containing from 5.2 lbs. to 9.8 lbs. dry matter, one pound of eggs being produced from about 3.4 lbs. water- free food, one pound of dry matter of eggs for each 8.8 lbs. water-free food. For one thousand pounds live weight of hens of about six pounds average weight, there should be fed from 40 to 28 AGRICULTURE. 50 lbs. of food per day, containing about 34 pounds of water-free food. There should be in this about 6 pounds of digestible protein, 14 pounds of digestible nitrogen-free extract and fiber, and 2 pounds of digestible fat. Per hen the amount of food required per day varies according to the size and somewhat with the season. A smaller hen will eat more in proportion to live weight than a larger one. The difference in amount of food consumed by larger and smaller hens is less when laying than at other times, when enough for maintenance only need be eaten. A Cochin or Brahma hen when laying requires about 4^ ounces of food per day, of which 3J ounces is water-free food. A hen of Leghorn size when laying requires about 3^ ounces of total food, or 2| ounces of water-free food, per day. A much larger amount of food in proportion to the live weight is required by the chicks than by the older fowls. The amount of water-free food required for every one hundred pounds live weight fed is 10.6 lbs. at about one pound average weight; at two pounds 7.5 lbs.; at three pounds 6.4 lbs; at four pounds 5.5 lbs.; at five pounds 5.3 lbs.; at six pounds 4.9 lbs.; at seven pounds 4.7 lbs.; at eight pounds 4 lbs.; at nine pounds 3.3 lbs.; at ten pounds average live weight 3.2 lbs. The amounts of fresh food equivalent to these weights would be correspondingly greater. These are the amounts taken by growing fowls which normally attain to the higher weights given, and which are still immature and growing rapidly when at five and six pounds average weight. For young chicks the nutritive ratio of the ration fed can be somewhat narrower than those given for laying hens, and for fattening the ration can have a very much wider ratio, although only for short periods. For one hundred hens about 16 quarts of clean water per day is required, especially in dry hot weather. In each dozen eggs there is about a pint of water. A Variety of Food is Essential. Young hens, especially of the better laying breeds, when in full laying, can be freely fed all they will readily eat, bu: FARM ANIMALS. 29 older hens and the young ones when not laying should be fed only enough to keep them eager for food. Salt should be fed mixed with the food, but not large coarse crystals. One ounce of salt per day for one hun- dred hens is a good proportion. Animal food and green or succulent vegetable food, as well as grain, should always be fed to hens that are con- fined. Some form of grit should be liberally supplied. A largely grain ration will not contain the lime required by laying hens, and oyster-shells or some other form of carbonate of lime will supply this deficiency. A grass run is better than any substitute in summer, and enough hens to kill the grass should never be kept in a run. Common fowls, especially laying hens, must be kept in moderately small flocks. Where large numbers are kept, they should be divided in small lots in separate pens and yards. Ten to twenty in a pen give better results than larger numbers. The laying hens should be kept sepa- rated from those not laying. Hens will not always moult early enough to resume lay- ing before midwinter. Chicks should be hatched in March and April if eggs are to be obtained from the pullets in November. Asiatics, to begin laying in the fall, should be hatched in February and March. The best results in egg production cannot be secured where the average space of open run available per hen is much less than loo square feet. The average floor-space per hen indoors should be about 20 square feet. Exercise is of the utmost importance, especially for lay- ing and breeding stock, and a good way to assure this in winter-time is to scatter the grain in straw or any clean and dry substitute. Dampness is fatal, and dry warm houses free from draughts are essential in winter. The floors should be of dry earth or fine gravel, or wooden floors covered with straw or dry sand. The houses should be warm enough to prevent freezing of water, but should not be warmed by heating apparatus more than will insure against freezing. 30 AGRICULTURE. SYNOPSIS OF BREEDS OF POULTRY. (M. Lemoine.) Breeds. Andalusian Brahma (lig^ht) Cochin (buff) Creve Coeur Dorking (silver gray) (dark) Game Hamburgs (silver spangled) . . " (golden pencilled) Houdan La Fleche Langshan Leghorn (brow^n) Minorca (black) Plymouth Rock. . .. Scotch Gray Wyandottes B •a 3 150 120 "5 122 130 130 100. 24 oz. 29I4 281^ 24 33 27I4 239 225 125 140 "5 190 180 120 140 140 M 26 29J^ 27 22 281^ 27H 29 25 X lbs. 5- 6 8-10 8-10 8-9 7-10 6- 9 5- 6 4- 5 3J^-4 6- 7 6-7 7-10 5- 6 5^-7 6- 7^ 6 5^-7 lb. oz. 3 I 4 II 4 4 5 5 3 9 9H o rt fa's lb. oz. 2 IS 15^ 3^ 7 sM 14M 5 isJi 2 4H 4% Ul4 14 12 7% 7% 7^ 9% loM "S §'^ oz. 9^ 17^ 7^ 4^ 4M 4M 6% 6% 7^ 4% HEREDITY. By Prof. Thos. Shaw, of Minnesota Experiment Station. Heredity in breeding relates to transmission. It is doubtless governed by fixed laws, but many of these are as yet imperfectly understood. It may be defined as the outcome of the operation of that law whereby properties and qualities of like kind with those of the parents are transmitted to the offspring. This transmission is cer- tainly comprehensive in its character, since it relates to structure, function and qualities, and indeed to every feature of the organization. But in instances not a few there are apparent exceptions to this law of transmission. These, however, are apparent rather than real. They appear to us as exceptions because of the limitations of our knowledge of this great question. These supposed exceptions are doubtless the result of the predominant in- fluence of other laws acting in opposition to the hereditary tendency, and it is characterized as normal, abnormal, and acquired, according to its nature. FARM ANTMALS. 31 The heredity of normal characters means the transmis- sion of those characters which are natural to the type. These may be original traits bestowed upon the species, as for instance, timidity in sheep; or they may have been acquired and rendered permanent by long-continued trans- mission, as in the changed form of all the improved breeds of domestic animals. The heredity of abnormal characters means the transmission of irregular characters, or those which have deviated from the natural and acquired char- acteristics of the type. These abnormal characters may appear as malformations of structure, derangement of function, or they may assume one or the other of various forms of disease. Illustrations of the first are found in certain families with an irregular number of fingers and toes; of the second in the inheritance of deafness, dumb- ness and impaired vision; and of the third, in the reap- pearance in the offspring of certain diseases possessed by the parents, as, for instance, any of the forms of scrofula. The laws which govern heredity are those also which determine the results in practical breeding. In practice the rules which govern it are almost entirely empirical in their origin, since they have been almost exclusively de- rived from the accepted methods of the most successful breeders. Those who have given thought to the question will concede that breeding live-stock is at once a science and an art. They will see in it a science in so far as it discovers and systematically arranges those truths and principles which relate to the improvement of live-stock, and it will appear to them an aj-t in so far as they perceive that those principles can be successfully utilized in prac- tice. It is apparent therefore that the relation between the science and the art of breeding is both close and intimate. Without some knowlege of the former the latter is not likely to be successfully practised, and the measure of success which attends the efforts of the breeder will be largely proportionate to the measure of the knowledge which he may possess of the principles of heredity. Reference has been made to certain laws which govern transmission. Of these three may be considered as funda- 33 AGRICULTURE. mental, viz.: first, the law that "like begets like"; sec- ond, the law or principle of variation; and third, the law or principle known as atavism. Since these laws or prin- ciples appear to us to lack uniformity and regularity of action, the art of breeding is in consequence much more complicated and uncertain than it would otherwise be. This want of uniformity and of regularity of action, how- ever, is apparent rather than real. But so long as we are ignorant of the cause or causes of these apparent irregu- larities in transmission, we are unable to prevent them. And yet there is so much of uniformity in the action of these laws that the intelligent breeder cannot be said to play at a game of chance. If well posted in the art, his efforts will in the main be entirely successful. * The law that " /f>^^ begets like"" implies that the char- acteristics of the parents will appear in their offspring. This law would seem to pervade all animated nature ; generally speaking it is uniform in its action, but there are some exceptions. Were it not so, examples to illus- trate such a law of heredity and proofs to support it would not have been needed. That the existence of this law was recognized, and that many of its principles were well un- derstood from an early period, finds ample illustration in the breeding operations conducted by the patriarch Jacob, in the monstrous forms that were bred for the amusement of the Romans when the decline of the empire was pend- ing, and in the care with which the Arabs kept their pedi- grees from a remote antiquity. So uniform is this principle of heredity in its action that it may be designated the compass which guides the breeder into the harbor of success. But before he can anchor there he must give attention to certain principles, a close adher- ence to which is absolutely essential to higher attainment in results. He must, for instance, breed to a standard of excellence; he must set a proper value on improved blood; and he must understand the art of selection and the princi- ples of good management generally. Without a standard of excellence in his mind, that is, without an ideal type, the breeder does not himself know what he is seeking. FARM ANIMALS. 33 Without dominant or stable characters, in at least one par- ent, no stability in transmission can be looked for, and without purity of breeding for generations dominant char- acters cannot be secured. Hence the great importance of purity of blood in effecting improvement in domestic ani- mals. Since some inferior animals will occasionally ap- pear, even where the breeding is the most skilful, the necessity will always exist for the exercise of a most rigor- ous selection on the part of every breeder who is to stand on the upland of success. When aided by judicious selec- tion, the^law that like produces like enables us to effect improvement until a certain standard of excellence is reached, to maintain improvement when it has been secured, and to mould new types and form new breeds. By the law or principle of variation is meant the ten- dency sometimes found in animals to produce characters in the progeny which differ from those of the parental type. These changes relate to both form and function; in time they may become modifications of the systems of animals. They may be classed as gradual, or general and ordinary; and as sudden, or spontaneous and extraordinary. General variation is that tendency to change from the original type whicVi characterizes in a greater or a less de- gree all the individuals of a breed. Illustrations of the principle of general variation may be found, first, in the tendency of grain to deteriorate which has fallen upon an unkindly soil ; and second, in the quick deterioration of the heavy breeds of sheep when confined to unproductive and rugged pastures. Chief among the numerous causes leading to general variation are changed conditions of life in animals, as climate, food, habit, and environment. Some- times these influences act independently and sometimes in conjunction. The principle of spontaneous variation may be defined as that tendency sometimes found in animals to produce progeny more or less unlike either of the parents or the ancestry of these. Illustrations of the operation of this principle may be found in the occasional production of progeny very unlike the parents or the ancestry in color, form, and other characteristics, and in the existence of horn- less breeds of cattle. 34 AGRICULTURE. By atavism is meant that innate tendency in animals to revert to the original type. It differs from the principle that like produces like in the reproduction of resemblances to an ancestry more or less remote rather than to the par- ents, and differs from spontaneous variation in produc- ing resemblances to an ancestry more remote than the im- mediate parents, whereas the latter produces characters unlike those of the ancestry, whether near or remote. Il- lustrations of atavic transmission are found in the occa- sional apearance of scars or horns in the polled breeds of cattle bred pure for many successive generations, and in the occasional appearance of tan-colored spots on the ears and face of the American merino. It is evident, therefore, that an intimate knowledge of the principles which govern breeding is highly important to those engaged in the production of live-stock. Hence they should study these with the utmost care and should em- body them in their practice to the greatest possible extent. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 35 III. VETERINARY SCIENCE. COM3ION DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALiS. By W. G. Clark, M.D.C, Beaver Dam, Wis. I. HORSES. The common method of administering medicine to the horse is in the form of a drench. In drenching a horse the bottle should be clean, strong, and smooth. The head should be elevated just enough to prevent the horse from throwing the liquid froitl the mouth. If the animal refuses to swallow, tickle the roof of the mouth with the finger or the neck of the bottle. Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat, nor draw the tongue out. These in no way aid the horse to swallow and often do harm. If coughing occurs or by any mishap the bottle is crushed in the mouth, lower the head at once. Do not attempt to pour medicine through the nose; it is liable to strangle the animal. Irritating substances, as turpentine, should be given in bland fluids such as oil or milk. Warm-water injections are of great value in treating many bowel troubles. A very good injection pipe may be made with about 30 inches of inch rubber hose and an ordinary tin funnel. Oil the hose and insert it in the rectum from 12 to 18 inches, and elevate the funnel above the back and pour in the water. The force of gravitation will carry it into the bowels. Soap and water, or salt and water, may be injected in this manner m quantitities of a gallon or more every hour. Spasmodic Colic. Causes. — Error in diet is the most prolific cause, as improper food in improper quantities at irregular intervals ; large draughts of cold water when warm ; eating when exhausted ; intestinal parasites; or foreign bodies in the bowels. Symptoms. — The horse manifests uneasiness, moves forward and back in the stall, looks toward the flank, switches the tail, paws, lies down and rolls; after a little the spasm will subside and the animal become quiet. Soon the spasm returns with 36 AGRICULTURE. increased severity. As the disease progresses, the animal will become more violent and the intervals between the spasms shorter. Treatment. — Always urgent, as it often runs a rapid course, terminating fatally in a few hours. Give as a drench laudanum i oz., baking-soda one table- spoonful, sweet spts. nitre i oz., water one half-pint. This may be repeated in half an hour if nol relieved. Always give injections of soap and warm water. Blanket the ani- mal and rub the abdomen briskly. If inclined to hang on, apply a paste of mustard to the abdomen and give raw lin- seed oil I pt., chloral hydrate 4 dr., dissolved in warm water. Flatulent Colic. The causes and symptoms are similar to those of spas- modic colic. The pain is not so severe at the outset and gradually in- creases in severity as the bowels become distended by gas. No intervals of ease as in spasmodic colic. The abdomen becomes rapidly distended and the animal dies from sufio- cation or rupture of the bowels unless soon relieved. Treatment. — Usually necessary to puncture with a tro- car and canula, which requires a knowledge of the anat- omy of the parts. Internally give hyposulfite of soda 2 oz., fl. ex. ginger 4 dr., spts. turpentine 4 dr., water i pint. Repeat in half an hour if necessary. Give injection of soap and warm water at short intervals. Pneumonia — Lung Fever. The most common cause is exposure to a cold draught when tired and sweaty. Symptoms. — It is usually ushered in with a chill, fol- lowed by fever. The ears and legs are cold, pulse-rate in- creased, labored breathing, elbows turned out, increased working of the ribs, the animal persistently stands, appe- tite usually lost. Treatment. — Place in a comfortable well-ventilated box- stall. Blanket warmly, rub the legs and apply bandages. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 3*? During the chill give large doses of stimulants, as whisky, alcohol, ginger, etc., at short intervals. If the breathing is not relieved in a few hours, apply mus- tard over the ribs, just back of the shoulder-blades. Give nourishing, easily digested food. Keep the animal perfectly quiet. Give i-oz. doses of nitrate of potash In the drinking-water three times daily. After the chill is relieved keep a pail of fresh water before the animal at all times. Azoturia — Black-water. This disease is quite common among farm horses, and .is due solely to overfeeding on nitrogenous foods and lack of exercise, followed by the accumulation in the sys- tem of waste matters. Symptoms. — The animal is taken from the barn after a few days' rest on full rations, apparently as well as usual. After driving from half a mile to six or eight miles the horse vvill begin to lag and sweat profusely. Shortly will begin to go lame, usually in one hind limb. If urged on, will soon lose the use of the limbs and fall to the ground, unable to rise. The urine if passed will be dark and coffee-colored. This is a diagnos- tic symptom. The muscles over the hips become hard and swollen, and the animal will struggle convulsively and attempt to rise. Treatment. — Unhitch the animal as soon as the first symp- toms are noticed and take the horse to the nearest barn. Fold a woolen blanket and wring out of hot water and place over the hips, covering with a dry blanket. Repeat as soon as it becomes cool, and continue this until the more acute symptoms are re- lieved. Internally give laudanum i oz., raw linseed oil one pint, and repeat the laudanum in an hour if the pain is not relieved. If possible, the urine should be drawn with a catheter, as it is rarely passed when the animal is down. Give injections of soapy warm water at frequent intervals. Distemper — Strangles. This is a contagious disease due to a specific virus that very few horses escape. It usually runs a benign course and termi- nates favorably. 38 AGRICULTURE. Treatment. — It is not of much use to attempt to check the course of the disease; in all cases proper shelter and nursing are most important. Give laxative sloppy food and apply warm poultices to the throat, to hasten suppuration. In no case give purging or de- pressing medicines. In fact, the whole treatment consists in producing and favoring the discharge of the abscess. As soon as fluctuation can be detected the abscess should be opened. When the disease assumes the malignant form or is complicated, apply to a competent veterinarian. Sprains. Treatment. — Rest in a quiet well-bedded stall. If the injury is below the knee or hock and the weather is warm, bathe the part three times daily for an hour at a time with cold water and rub dry. If above the knee or hock, or the weather is cold, use hot water. After bathing apply a mild stimulant, as spirits of camphor, arnica, etc. If the lameness persists after the active inflammation is re- duced use the following liniment: aqua ammonia and spirits turpentine, 4 oz. ; of each linseed oil 8 oz. ; mix and apply twice daily with friction. Punctured Wounds of the Foot. In all cases the horn around the seat of the injury should be thinned down and a free opening made for the escape of the products of suppuration. Cauterize the wound with 95 per cent carbolic acid and apply a poultice. Change twice. daily and dress the wound with the following lotion: Zinc sulph. I oz., sugar lead 1 oz. , carbolic acid 4 dr. , water i pint. Thrush. The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition of the stable in which the horse is kept. Muddy yards and roads, also hard work on rough, stony roads may excite this disease. Symptoms. — Increased secretion in the cleft of the frog and an offensive odor. After a time considerable discharge takes place and there is rapid destruction of the tissue of the frog. Treatment. — Remove the cause. Cut away all diseased tissue and cleanse the foot thoroughly. Take white vitriol i oz., and water 6 ozs. Saturate pledgets of tow or cotton with the solu- tion and crowd into the cleft and each side of the frog. Dress once daily until the discharge ceases. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 39 Cuts ft'om Barb-wire, etc. When bleeding to any extent follows a wound, this must first be checked. A moderately tight bandage with oakum, tow, or cobwebs will usually stop the bleeding in a short time. If the blood is bright red and flows in jets, apply a compress between the wound and the heart. If it is dark and the flow regular, apply pressure between the wound and the extremity. Cleanse the wound thoroughly with warm water and a soft sponge. Then dress with a 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid and apply a bandage so as to bring the edges together. If proud flesh appears, treat it with burnt alum. II. COWS. Milk Fever. Symptoms. — Dulness, uneasy movements of the hind limbs, head and horns hot; the animal soon becomes weak and unable to rise, head laid back on the flank or dashed to the ground, bowels constipated, sensation usually lost. Treatment. — Give a purgative dose of salts. Apply mustard paste along the spine. Blanket and keep warm. Give injections of soap and warm water. Internally give ^ pt. of whisky, fi. ex. belladonna | oz., tr. nux vomica 2 dr. every three hours. Prevention. — Spare diet a week before and after calving. If constipated after delivery give a dose of salts. Garget. Causes. — Irregularities of diet, overfeeding on stimulat- ing food, exposure to cold, external injuries, as blows, etc. Symptoms. — Seldom attacks the whole udder. Swelling, heat, pain, and redness of the inflamed portion. The milk is curdled, whey-like, and mixed with blood. In severe cases there is much constitutional disturbance. Treatment. — Endeavor to discover the cause and remove it. The food should be devoid of milk-producing constitu- ents. Draw the milk frequently, using a milking-tube if necessary. If the weather is warm bathe the udder for an hour or more with hot water. Take fluid extract belladonna i oz., glycerin 2 ozs.; 40 AGRICULTURE. mix and apply three times daily with mild friction. Give two teaspoonfuls fluid extract belladonna three times daily. If constipated, give epsom salts i. lb., ginger i oz., water i qt. Abortion. The cow may abort from any cause profoundly disturbing the nervous system, inflammation of the internal organs, diarrhoea, acute indigestion, blows on the abdomen, expos- ure to cold storms, drinking ice-water, feeding on ergotized grains and grasses, and infection from abortion discharges of other animals. Symptoms. — If it occurs within the first two months it is not apt to be noticed. During the latter part of gestation abortion resembles normal delivery, except that more effort and straining are present. Treatment. — The most important object in an impending abortion is to recognize it as soon as possible and apply preventive measures. Place in a quiet dark stall and check straining by sedatives. Laudanum i oz. ; repeat in two hours if necessary; or fl. ex. black haw. in same doses. After an abortion burn the foetus and afterbirth and all fitter that is soiled, or bury deeply and cover with quick- lime. Flood the womb with a 2% solution of carbolic acid and wash the external organs once daily with a $% solution. Separate from the herd for 30 days. In epizootic abortion material benefit has in many cases been derived from phosphate of lime. Small doses (^dram) mav be given daily in the food. Hoven or Bloat. Causes. — Overeating, choking, frosted roots, and fermen- tation of the food. Treatment. — In urgent cases tap on the left side at a point equidistant from the point of the hip, the last rib and the processes of the lumbar vertebrae, pointing the trocar or knife downward, inward, and forward. If slight give VETEKIKARY SCIENCE. 41 spts. turpentine i oz., raw linseed oil i pt., and place a gag in the mouth. When relieved give a purgative and keep on a light diet for a few days. Diarrhcea in Calves. Always dme to indigestion and caused usuafly by over- feeding or improper food. Prevention. — Feed at least three times daily. The milk should be sweet and fed at a temperature of 90° to 100° F. The pails used in feeding should be kept sweet and clean. Treatment. — Cut down the ration, scald the milk or add lime-water in the proportion of i to 5. If the discharges are bright yellow give castor oil i to 2 tablespoonfuls. If there is great weakness give small doses of stimulants (ginger, brandy, whisky). Choking. Common among cattle when fed on roots, etc. To pre- vent tie the head so that it cannot be thrown up, or withhold dangerous foods. Symptoms. — Head extended, bloating, labored breathing, continuous coughing. If in the throat there is great distress and the animal may die quickly. If lower the symptoms are not as acute. Treatment. — If in the throat remove with the hand. If below reach and the object can be located from the outside, give small drenches of linseed oil and manipulate from the outside. Take time. Do not apply too much force. Usu- ally best to work the object toward the throat. If unable to remove the object it must be pushed down; this may be done with a piece of i-in. rubber-hose, 6 ft. in length, well oiled, and inserted in the gullet, and gently force the object down. Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is an infectious disease characterized by the formation in the various organs of the body of tubercles or 42 AGRICULTURE. nodules, and is due to a specific micro-organism, the bacillus tuberculosis. Tuberculosis in animals is identical wit«h tuberculosis (consumption) in the human family, the ravages of which are far greater than those of any other disease. The death rate from consumption, which is but one of its many forms, is about one in seven. All domestic animals are more or less subject to the dis- ease. Dairy cattle, however, in consequence of their mode of life and the heavy drain on their system from excessive breeding and milking, are more predisposed to the disease than any other of the domestic animals. Cause. — The essential cause is the specific germ, the tubercle bacillus, without which the disease could not exist. Since the disease is found in the lungs in a large proportion of cases, it is evident that tuberculosis is usually contracted by inhaling the germs with the air. It may also be caused by the ingestion of infected meat and milk and by direct inoculation. The development of the disease is favored by anything that tends to impair the general health of the animal, as overcrowding in poorly ventilated stables, hereditary pre- disposition, in-and-in breeding, lack of exercise, errors in diet, etc. Symptoms. — The symptoms are very obscure, and in some cases where the disease is well advanced there is seemingly little alteration in the health of the animal. The most prominent symptoms are a short, husky cough, enlargement of the lymph glands around the throat, dulness, capricious appetite, staring coat, and emaciation. Persistent oestrum or heat, with barrenness, especially when there is a harsh, staring coat and general unthrifty condition, is suspicious. The Tuberculin Test. — Tuberculin is a glycerin ex- tract of the soluble products produced by the growth of the tubercle bacillus, concentrated, filtered, and sterilized. When properly prepared it contains no living germs and cannot produce tuberculosis. It was introduced to the medical profession by Dr. Koch as a cure for tuberculosis. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 43 Although it has not found practical application as a curative agent, it furnishes us the best diagnostic agent for bovine tuberculosis yet known. A summary of statistics indicates that about 88 per cent of tuberculous animals show the reaction fever on inocula- tion, while 90 per cent that were declared free from disease on account of the absence of fever did not show on autopsy any signs of the disease. Prevention. — The stables should be light and well ven- tilated. Cattle should be kept from interchange of stalls or stancjiions. Breed only from healthy animals. No con- sumptive person should be allowed to care for stock. Isolate all suspected animals. Such animals should be examined by a competent veterinarian, and if found to be tuberculous the whole herd should be tested. Tuberculous animals should be killed and the carcasses burned or buried deeply and covered with quicklime. Disinfection should be thorough. Remove and burn all litter. Burn sulphur in the closed stable. Wash or spray all woodwork with a solution of corrosive sublimate, one part, to one thousand parts of water. Corrosive sublimate is a deadly poison and should be used with care. Whitewash with freshly slaked lime. III. SHEEP. Scab. Due to parasitic mites which infest the skin. Symptoms. — Intense itching, small reddish pimples ap- pear, rupture, and discharge a watery fluid; scabs form, the wool falls out in patches. Large sores sometimes result from the incessant rubbing. The parasite may be seen with a low-power lens. Treatment. — Take one pound of tobacco to each five gallons of water and boil until the strength is exhausted from the leaves. Strain and add one pound of sulphur to each five gallons. Allow each sheep to remain in the bath for five minutes, working the solution into all parts of the skin and breaking up the scabs. Place on a slooping rack and press the liquid out of the fleece, allowing it to run back into the trough. The same dip may be used for ticks. 44 AGRICULTURE. Foot-Rot. Separate the sound animals from the diseased ones and from contaminated pastures and buildings. Carefully yemove all diseased horn and foreign bodies and walk the sheep through a trough containing one pound of blue vitriol to three gallons of water. Place the infected flock on a dry upland pasture, if possible. Grub in the Head. This is the larvae of a small gadfly {vestrus ovts) which deposits its eggs within the nostrils. It stays there during the winter and spring, often proving harmless, but some- times causing much irritation, a white muco-purulent dis- charge, with dullness and stupor. Prevention. — Smear the nose with tar, or feed salt from two-inch augur-holes bored in a log, the surface of which is smeared with tar. Treatment. — Place in a warm building and introduce into the nostrils snuff, a solution of tobacco, or turpentine and olive-oil equal parts, to kill the larvae or cause their expulsion by sneezing; or place in a close room and subject to the fumes of burning sulphur for 15 min., as strong as can be endured, once daily for 3 or 4 days. IV. SWINE. Hog Cholera. A specific contagious fever of swine. Symptoms. — The period of incubation varies from three to fifteen days. Shivering, nose hot and dry, later refuses food, lies under the litter, eyes sunken, gait unsteady. Heat and soreness of the skin, with tenderness, red patches and black spots; labored breathing; hard, dry cough; sore- ness of the belly; costiveness, followed by a foetid diar- rhoea. Prevention. — If it breaks out in a herd, kill and bury the diseased. Thoroughly disinfect everything they have come in contact with, using one-half ounce of corrosive sublimate in four gallons of water. Burn all straw and litter. Give the healthy ones clean, dry quarters. If possible, divide up the herd, placing a few in each pen. Allow free access to I VETERINARY SCIENCE. 45 wood or animal charcoal and give in the drinking-water ten drops of carbolic acid for each one hundred and fifty pounds of live weight. Take the temperature daily, inserting a clinical thermometer in the rectum, and remove every animal showing a temperature of 103' or over. Kill and bury as soon as the symptoms of the disease are well manifested. Medicinal treatment of the disease is of but little avail. A good dietetical treatment, including a strict observance of sanitary principles, is of much more importance than the use of medicines. The pens should be kept scrupulously clean. The food given should be clean, of the best quality, and easily digested. The troughs used in feeding should be thor- oughly cleaned at least once daily. Keep away from in- fected herds, as the germs may be carried on the shoes or clothing. It is said that the virus will blow half a mile on the wind. It may also be spread by birds and dogs. Intestinal Worms. This is one of the most common troubles of swine. Symptoms. — A cough is usually the first symptom noticed ; animals have a voracious appetite, yet lose flesh and exhibit general signs of ill health. If the faeces are examined the worms or their eggs can usually be found. Treatment. — Give one teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine for each one hundred and fifty pounds of live weight once daily in milk or oil. Place common salt where they can have free access to it. Give nutritious, easily digested food. VETERINARY REMEDIES AND DOSES. By W. G. Clark, M. D. C, Beaver Dam, Wis. Graduation of Doses. Horse. Ox. Dose. 3 years. 2 6 months. 1-6 " 2 years. I " 9 months. 1-3 I p.Trt. 2/3 •• \% " 1/16— 1/32 part. 46 AGRICULTURE. When not specified, the doses given apply to a full-grown horse of medium size. Dose for the ox, from i^ to 2 parts; sheep, J to 1^ part. Animals of a nervous temperament are usually more susceptible to the action of drugs. No agent should be given until sufficiently diluted to prevent irritation of the mouth, and irritants that will not mix with water (turpentine, etc.) should be given in linseed oil, milk, or eggs, after being thoroughly mixed. Raw Linseed Oil. — Dose : Horse, one half-pint to one quart. Laxative in small doses, purgative in large. Not so active as castor oil. A valuable laxative in young and delicate animals. For calves and Iambs it is more gentle and safer than salts. In adults it is the best laxative to use where there is an irritable condition of the bowels, and in all febrile diseases where a laxative is needed. In im- paction of the bowels a pint may be given two or three times daily until relieved, supplemented by warm-water injections every two hours. Valuable in cases of choking on account of its lubricating qualities. Castor Oil. — Causes more griping and nausea than lin- seed oil and is more certain in its action. Used chiefly as a laxative for calves, foals, sheep, swine, and dogs. Useful in diarrhoea of calves and other young animals when the discharges are bright yellow and irritating. Dose for a calf, from i to 4 tablespoonfuls. Epsom Salts. — For cattle this is the purgative in most frequent and general use. Adult cattle take from i lb. to i^ lbs. In small doses in febrile diseases it lowers the tem- perature, improves the appetite, and helps to maintain a healthy and regular action of the bowels. Epsom salts is one of the best antidotes for lead poisoning. When used as a purgative, give from i to 2 oz. ginger with the salts. Oil of Turpentine (Spts. Turpentine). — Dose : Horse, ^ to I oz. Very irritating to the mucous membrane, and when used internally should be given in oil or some bland fluid. Stimulant and anti-spasmodic. One of the most useful remedies in flatulent colic in the horse, and hoven or bloat in the ox. Also used to kill and expel intestinal worms. When used for this purpose, it is given after fasting in VETERINARY SCIENCE. 47 large doses, i^ to 2 01. for the horse, followed in 12 hours by a purgative. Applied externally it is an irritant and is used in many liniments. The following liniment may be used where a mild counter-irritant is desired : Oil of turpentine and aqua ammonia, of each 4 oz., linseed oil 8 oz. Mix. This lini- ment is used chiefly for rheumatic swellings, sprains, and bruises after the active pain is subdued by fomentations, and for sore throats, as seen in distemper. Alcohol. — Dose : Horse, h oz. well diluted, whisky or brandy 2 to 4 oz. Alcohol is a narcotic poison. It first stimulates, then deranges, and ultimately depresses the functions of the brain and spinal cord. It kills, as a rule, by paralysis of respiration. Medicinally it is a very valuable, diffusible stimulant, anti-spasmodic heart tonic and anti- septic. Moderate doses increase the gastric secretions and aid digestion, but large doses destroy pepsin, arrest secre- tion, and interfere with absorption. There is probably no drug more extensively used than alcohol. It is useful in indigestion, spasmodic colic, cases of poisoning by aconite or tobacco. It is valuable in influenza and debilitating dis- eases. In blood-poisoning whisky combined with quinine is one of the most effective agents we have in controlling the temperature and keeping up the strength of the animal. The following is very useful in some cases of indigestion: Whisky i pt., quinine (sulfate) i oz., water i pt. Mix. Give 3 ounces at intervals of 3 to 4 or 6 hours, according to the nature of the case. Saltpeter (Nitrate of Potash). — Dose : Horse, i tea- spoonful to half an ounce. Large doses are irritant and cathartic and are liable to cause inflammation of the bow- els. Medicinal doses are discretive, alterative, antiseptic, febrifugal, and refrigerant. In febrile, inflammatory, and rheumatic complaints it allays fever, lowers excessive tem- perature, and removes by the kidneys both solid and fluid matters. Dissolved in water and applied externally it ab- stracts heat and is a useful refrigerant. Combined with sulfate of iron it makes an excellent tonic for horses recovering from debilitating diseases. 48 AGRICULTURE. Saltpeter 2 oz., dried sulf. iron 3 oz. Mix. Give 2 teaspoonfuls with the feed 2 or 3 times daily. Alum. — Alum is an astringent. Chiefly used externally. Use a saturated solution in hot water. Applied to the shoulders of horses in the spring it toughens the skin and prevents collar-galls. Useful in healing harness-galls. One of the best lotions to apply to barb-wire cuts and other wounds of a similar nature to prevent growth of proud flesh. Sometimes dusted over the surface in the form of burnt alum ; not so effective as the saturated solution. Ginger. — Dose : Horse, ^ to i oz. Ginger stimulates the various mucous membranes with which it comes in contact. Administered internally it increases the gas- tric secretions, facilitates digestion, and checks formation of gas. It is a useful adjunct to many medicines and is given with tonics and stimulants. Combined with purga- tives it diminishes their liability to nauseate and gripe, and also hastens their effect. It is used in all domesticated ani- mals to fulfil those purposes, and is especially adapted to cattle and sheep. Carbolic Acid. — One of the best and cheapest disinfec- tants known. For dressing fresh wounds it may be used in from 2 per cent to 5 per cent watery solution. In oil i part to 15. Inhalation of the vapor with steam is of great service in malignant sore throat and abscesses following strangles. Carbolic acid is a narcotic irritant poison, and considerable care must be exercised in its use, as it is liable to become absorbed and produce poisonous effects if ap plied over a large surface in a strong solution. It has been highly recommended in the treatment of hog cholera. It may be given to hogs in doses of from i to 5 drops well diluted. Pine Tar. — Not much employed internally. It is a good dressing in thrush and canker of the horse's foot. It is also of special service in foot-rot in sheep. It acts as a stimulant and deodorizer to foul-smelling wounds and prevents the attacks of flies. Lime Water. — Lime water is prepared by slaking a small quantity of freshly burned lime with a large quantity of VETERINARY SCIENCE. 49 water, allowing the undissolved matter to settle and pour- ing off the clear solution. This should be kept in tightly corked bottles. Lime water is an alkali and is used in in- digestion, bloat, and diarrhoea, especially among calves.. Given with the milk in the proportion of 1:5. Scalds and burns may be treated with carron oil, which is composed of lime water and linseed oil, equal parts. Fresh lime in powder and solution is used in cleansing and disinfecting stables. For this purpose a little carbolic acid may be added to the solution. SuLFU«.-~In large doses it is an active irritant poison. In medicinal doses it is a laxative, alterative, and stimulates secretion. Care should be taken to prevent the animal from taking cold when given sulfur. It opens the pores of the skin and stimulates perspiration. Chiefly used in treat- ing rheumatism and chronic skin diseases. Dose : Horse, i OZ. to 2 OZ. SUPPRESSION OP HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE. (Craig.) Causes. — Hog cholera and swine plague are caused by different bacteria, but they are equally dependent for the success of their attacks on the unhealthiness of the hogs, due in most instances to unwholesome food and filthy sur- roundings. The causes are so similar and the symptoms are so much alike and often complicated that it will be best to consider the diseases together in what follows. The germs that cause them are easily spread over large terri- tories by being carried by cars, wagons, or the shoes of per- sons that have been among infected hogs. Most frequently the origin of the outbreak maybe traced to the importation of hogs from diseased districts or to spread from such centers by running streams. Symptoms. — The first symptoms usually shown in attacks of these diseases are those that indicate fever — a rise in temperature, thirst, loss of appetite, and redness of the skin on the lower part of the neck and inner side of the thigh. Usually a hog so diseased begins to cough when started 50 AGRICULTURE. from its bed. A constipated condition of the bowels changes to diarrhoea as the disease progresses, and this results in a rapid loss of flesh. Dissection generally shows the lungs to be inflamed, the spleen enlarged, or the lining of the large intestine covered with numerous ulcers. Prevention. — To protect hogs from attacks of these dis- eases it is necessary to observe the following recommen- dations: The hogs should not be watered at running streams, as the germs are readily carried by these. Per- sons coming from infected districts should not be allowed to go near your hogs, and you should not go among your neighbors' hogs if they are sick. When other hogs are brought to your farm, assume that they are infected and keep them away from yours at least for six weeks. Observe as much cleanliness as possible in regard to food and sur- roundings. Feed a mixture of foods in a sloppy or soft con- dition, and withhold heavy grain feeding. Disinfect the quarters of the hogs by sprinkling liberally with a five per cent solution (by volume) of carbolic acid, and use a two per cent solution of the same for washing the hogs. Treatment. — The hogs showing any of the symptoms described should at once be separated from the others, and put in cheaply constructed quarters, so that the latter may be burned when no longer required. The well hogs should be removed to disinfected quarters. Give all the hogs the following mixture, recommended by Dr. Salmon, Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry: Wood charcoal i lb. Sulfur I " Salt 2 lbs. Baking-soda 2 ** Glauber's salts I lb. Sodium hyposulfite 2 lbs. Antimony sulfid i lb. This should be given in soft food in the proportion of a teaspoonful daily to a two hundred pound hog. Remove all refuse from the pens in which the infected hogs were kept, and dig out the old soil, put in fresh earth, disinfect VETERIKARY SCIENCE. 51 with carbolic acid solution, and allow the pens to remain vacant for at least six months. The same feeder should not attend the well and the sick hogs unless his shoes are changed after each visit to the sick hogs. The bodies of the dead hogs should be thrown into a rubbish heap and burned; but if this cannot be easily carried out, a long, deep trench should be dug, and when the carcases are thrown into it they should be covered with a layer of quicklime and at least six inches of earth. When the disease has spent itself or has been effaced, the entire mass in the trench should be covered with six inches of quicklime and at least six feet of earth. The place selected for the burial of the hogs should not drain towards a stream, and it would be better to fence it. The dead hogs should never be drawn over the ground, and the wagon used should be washed with a disinfectant. REMEDIES FOR THE HORN FL.Y. (Weed.) The most satisfactory way of preventing the attacks of the horn fly is to apply to the cattle some substance that serves as a repellent; the best results are obtained by the use of a cheap oil, such as fish oil or crude cotton-seed oil, to which a small amount of carbolic acid or pine tar has been added. Either of the following formulas are recommended for this purpose: 1. Crude cotton-seed oil, or fish oil, 3 parts. Pine tar, I part. 2. Crude cotton-seed oil, or fish oil, 100 parts. Crude carbolic acid, 3 parts. In either case these substances are to be mixed, and ap- plied rather lightly to the cattle by means of a wide paint brush, a sponge, or even a woolen cloth; the combination immediately drives off the flies, and remains on in condi- tion to keep them off for about five days. A combination of "kerosene emulsion and tobacco decoction may also be used with good effect. 52 AGRICULTURE. LIST OF DISINFECTANTS. (Sternberg.) The most useful agents for the destruction of spore- containing infectious material are: 1. Fire. — Complete destruction by burning. 2. Steam under Pressure.^ 105° C. (221° F.,) for ten minutes. 3. Boiling in Water for half an hour. 4. Chlorid of Lime (should contain at least 25 per cent of available chlorin). — A 4 per cent solution. 5. Mercuric Chlorid. — A solution of 1-500. For the destruction of infectious material which owes its infecting power to the presence of micro-organisms not containing spores, any of the following agents are recom- mended: 1. Fire. — Complete destruction by burning. 2. Boiling in water for ten minutes. 3. Dry Heat, no" C. (230" F.), for two hours. 4. Chlorid of Lime. — A 2 per cent solution. 5. Solution of Chlorinated Soda (should contain at least 3 per cent of available chlorin). — A 10 per cent solution. 6. Mercuric Chlorid. — A solution of 1-2000. 7. Carbolic Acid. — A 5 per cent solution. 8. Sulfate of Copper. — A 5 per cent solution. 9. Chlorid of Zinc. — A 10 per cent solution. 10. Sulfur Dioxid (this will require the combustion of between 3 and 4 lbs. of sulfur for every 1000 cubic feet of air-space). — Exposure for twelve hours to an atmos- phere containing at least 4 volumes per cent of this gas, iti presence of m.oisture. RULES FOR DISINFECTION OF STABLES. In Case of Appearance of Contagious Diseases. (Trumbower,) \ 1. Have all loose litter, hay, and rubbish removed and* \ burned. 2. Have all manure removed to land where cattle have no access. ' 3. Have all feed-troughs, hay-racks and all woodwork - VETERINARY SCIENCE. 63 thoroughly cleaned by washing with hot water in which two ounces of carbolic acid to each gallon of water are dissolved. 4. Thoroughly whitewash the whole of the interior of the building with a whitewash containing one pound of chloride of lime to each four gallons of water. Enough freshly burned quicklime should be added to make the wash show where applied. Especially should this be applied to the sides and front of the stalls, feed-troughs and hay-racks (inside and outside). 5. All rotten woodwork to be removed and burned, and replac^ with new. 6. All buckets, forks, shovels, brooms, and other objects used about the stable to be washed and covered with the same solution. 7. All drains to be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with a solution of chloride of lime, one pound to four gal- lons of water. 8. In cases of glanders, all harness, poles, and shafts of wagons, neck-yokes and pole-straps should be thoroughly washed with hot water and soap, and afterwards oiled with carbolized oil (one part of carbolic acid to ten of oil). Before applying the oil, harness should be hung up in the open air for one week. REGULiATIONS FOR THE GOVERN]MENT OP Dairies and Dairy Farms in the District of Colum- bia. Section i. — No building shall be used for stabling cows for dairy purposes which is not well lighted, ventilated, drained, and constructed. Sec. 2. — No building shall be used for stabling cows for dairy purposes which is not provided with a suitable floor, laid with proper grades and channels to immediately carry off all drainage; and if a public sewer abuts the premises upon which such building is situated, they shall be con- nected therewith whenever, in the opinion of the health officer, such sewer connection is necessary. Sec. 3. — No building shall be used for stabling cows for dairy purposes which is not provided with good and suffi- 54 AGRICULTURE. cient feeding-troughs or boxes, and with a covered water- tight receptacle, outside of the building, for the reception of dung and other refuse. Sec. 4. — No water closet, privy, cesspool, urinal, in- habited room, or workshop shall be located within any building or shed used for stabling cows for dairy purposes, or for the storage of milk or cream, nor shall any fowl, hog, horse, sheep, or goat be kept in any room used for such purposes. Sec. 5. — The space in buildings or sheds used for stabling cows shall not be less than five hundred cubic feet for each cow, and the stalls therefor shall not be less than four feet in width. Sec. 6. — It shall be the duty of each person using any premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to keep sucn premises thoroughly clean and in good repair and well painted or whitewashed at all times. Sec. 7. — It shall be the duty of each person using any premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to cause the building in which cows are kept to be thoroughly cleaned, and remove all dung from the premises so as to prevent its accumulation in great quantities. Sec. 8. — It shall be the duty of any person having charge or control of any premises upon which cows are kept to notify the health officer, in writing, of the existence of any contagious or infectious disease among such cows, within twenty-four hours of the discovery thereof, and to thor- oughly isolate any cow or cows affected or which may rea- sonably be believed to be infected, and to exercise such other precautions as may be directed, in writing, by the health officer. Sec. 9. — Any person using any premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes shall provide and use a sufficient number of receptacles made of non-absorbent materials, for the reception, storage, and delivery of milk, and shall cause them at all times to be cleansed and purified, and shall cause all milk to be removed without delay from the rooms in which the cows are kept. Sec. 10. — Every person keeping cows for the production VETERINARY SCIENCE. 55 of milk for sale shall cause every such cow to be cleaned every day and to be properly fed and watered. Sec. II. — Every person using any premises for keeping cows shall cause the yard used in connection therewith to be provided with a proper receptacle for drinking water for such cows; none but fresh, clean water to be used in such receptacle. Sec. 12. — Any enclosure in which cows are kept shall be graded and drained so as to keep the surface reasonably dry and to prevent the accumulation of water therein, ex- cept as may be permitted for the purpose of supplying drinking water; no garbage, urine, fecal matter, or similar substances shall be placed or allowed to remain in such en- closure, and no open drain shall be allowed to run through it. Sec. 13. — These regulations shall apply to all premises upon which cow's milk is produced for sale. Sec. 14. — That any person violating any of these regula- tions shall, on conviction in the police court of said district, be punished by a fine of not less than five nor more than ten dollars for each and every offense, to be collected as other fines and penalties are collected. 56 AGRICULTUKE. IV. FIELD CROPS. QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED TO THE ACRE. (Waring.) Designation. Cu|«']?' Wheat ij to 2 bu. Barley li to 2^ bu. Oats 2 to 4 bu. Rye I to 2 bu. Buckwheat | to i^ bu. Millet I to i| bu. Corn i to I bu. Beans i to 2 bu. Peas 2i to 3| bu. Hemp I to i^ bu. Flax i to 2 bu. Rice 2 to 2^ bu. When planted in rows or drills Broom-corn i to i^ bu. Beans i^ to 2 bu. Peas li to 2 bu. Designation. Q^l"^^ Broom-corn. ... i to i-J bu. Potatoes 5 to 10 bu. Timothy I2 to 24 qts. Mustard 8 to 20 qts. Herd grass 12 to 16 qts. Flat turnip 2 to 3 lbs. Red clover 10 to 16 lbs. White clover. ... 3 to 4 lbs. Blue grass 10 to 15 lbs. Orchard grass. .. 20 to 30 lbs. Carrots 4 to 5 lbs. Parsnips 6 to 8 lbs. Onions 4 to 5 lbs. Carrots 2 to 2^ lbs. Parsnips 4 to 5 lbs. Beets 4 to 6 lbs. FIELD CROPS. 57 SEED MIXTURES FOR HAY AND PERMANENT PASTURES In Pounds per acre. Names of Grasses. I . Flint. II. Law- son. III. For Good Medium Soils. De Laun^ IV. For Wet Soils. De Laun^ V. For Chalky Soils. De Laun^ VI. For Perma- nent Lawns. Flint. Meadow foxtail 2 6 I 2 2 4 ID 4 3 3 Orchard grass Sweet-scented vernal Meadow fescue Tall fescue 2 2 2 6 3 I I 3 8 X 2 2 3 Hard fescue Sheep's fescue 4 4 3 3 Redtop June grass 2 2 2 3 4 Kentucky blue grass. Italian rye grass Perennial rye grass.., Timothy ... Rough meadow grass Wood meadow grass. Red clover 4 4 6 3 2 6 8 3 2 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 2 I I I 14 5 2 Perennial red clover. White (Dutch) clover Alsike 3 5 2 5 I I I 2 2 Yellow oat grass I I Cock's-f oot 7 2 I 10 2 2 I Crested dog's-tail .;. Fiorin Yarrow 2 3 Cat's-tail Cow grass I I 40 45 41 40 38 43 For the Northwest the following mixture will, according to Shaw, be found suitable: Timothy 4 lbs., blue grass 3 lbs., redtop 2 lbs., orchard grass 2 lbs., meadow fescue i lb., tall oat grass i lb., meadow foxtail i lb., alsike clovers lbs., white clover 2 lbs., lucern (alfalfa) 2 lbs., yellow clover i lb., total 22 lbs. And for the States east of Michigan and for the provinces of Canada eastward of Lake Huron: Lucern (alfalfa) 5 lbs., orchard-grass 4 lbs., meadow fescue and alsike clover 3 lbs. each, tall oat grass, timothy, meadow foxtail, and white clover 2 lbs. each, yellow clover I lb.; total 24 lbs. 58 AGRICULTURE. Henry recommends the following mixture of grass and clovei seed (pounds per acre) : Timothy.... 7 pounds. Orchard 4 " Italian rye 2 " Perennial rye 2 " Tall oat 2 " Redtop 2 " Kentucky blue 2 " Alfalfa 4 ' White clover I ** Alsike clover i ** Red clover 2 " Total 29 ** Flint gives the following mixtures, among others, as repre- senting the common ones adopted in New England and among farmers throughout the country; 1. ^ bu. (6 lbs.) redtop; i peck (11 lbs.) timothy ; 5 lbs. red clover. 2. I bu. (12 lbs.) redtop ; i peck (11 lbs.) timothy ; 8 lbs. rtd clover. 3. 4 qts. (li lbs.) redtop ; i peck (11 lbs.) timothy ; 2 qts. red clover; i pint white clover. 4. 12 qts. (i6i lbs.) timothy; 4 lbs. clover. 5. I bu. redtop; i bu. timothy; lo lbs. clover. 6. r peck redtop; i peck timothy; 10 lbs. clover, etc. 1 FIELD CROPS. 59 THE WEIGHT AND AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF ORDINARY CROPS IN POUNDS PER ACRE. (Warington.) Weight of Crop. 3 -• H c V be u 2 u 3 m iS •0 t/3 a '»3 .2 '33 V c ti lbs. 3-6 3-5 7-1 4.0 2.9 6.9 3-6 51 8.7 3-4 l-i cu lbs. 14.2 6.9 21.1 16.0 4-7 20.7 13-0 6.4 19.4 10. 8.0 18.0 c 'u o_ U lbs. 0.1 2.4 2.5 0.5 3-6 4.1 0.5 6.1 6.6 0.2 At Har- vest. Dry. u cJ5 Wheat : grain, 30 bu.. straw lbs. 1,800 3,158 lbs. 1,530 2,653 lbs. 30 142 172 lbs. 33 15 48 35 13 48 lbs. 2.7 51 7.8 2.9 3-2 6.1 ,lbs. 9-3 195 28.8 9.8 25-9 35-7 9.1 37-0 lbs. 0.6 2.0 2.6 I.I 3-9 5-0 0.8 4.6 5-4 0.2 lbs. I.O 8.2 9.2 1.2 8.0 9.2 1.8 9.8 II. 6 0.5 lbs. 0.6 96-3 Total crop.. 4,958 4,183 96.9 Barley : grain, 40 bu.. straw 2,080 2,447 1,747 2,080 46 III ^57 II. 8 56.8 Total crop . . 4.527 3,827 68.6 Oats : grain, 45 bu.. straw 1,890 2,835 1,625 2,353 51 140 38 17 3-2 4.8 19.9 65.4 Total crop . . 4.725 3,978 191 22 99 55 28 15 8.0 1.8 46.1 6.5 29.8 85.3 Maize : grain, 30 bu.. stalks, etc 1.680 2,208 1,500 1,877 0.5 Total crop.. 3,888 3.377 121 43 36.3 Meadow hay, ii^ tons 3,360 2,822 203 49 102 77 29 5-7 9.4 4.4 4-9 50.9 83-4 24-3 42.8 9.2 5-1 0.6 1-7 32.1 90.1 2.9 26.3 14.4 28.2 4.2 5-7 12.3 24.9 22.8 6.3 14.6 9.8 I.I 4-3 56.9 Red clover hay, 2 tons ... 4,480 3,763 258 58 99 7.0 Beans : grain, 30 bu.. straw 1,920 2,240 1,613 1,848 0.4 6.9 Total crop. . 4,160 3,461 157 106 9-3 67.1 2-3 29.2 25-5 48.5 74.0 19.7 22.7 9.9 5-7 3.8 9-5 6.8 2.4 29.1 22.4 10.7 331 16.9 4.8 5-4 10.9 II. 2 22.1 6.8 8.3 7-3 Turnips : root, 17 tons. leaf 38,080 11,424 3,126 1,531 218 146 364 63 49 192 15-2 5-7 20.9 108.6 40.2 148.8 17.0 7-5 24.0 2.6 5-1 Total crop.. 49,504 4,657 7-7 Swedes: root, 14 tons., leaf 31,360 4,704 3,349 706 163 75 70 28 14.6 3-2 63.3 16.4 22.8 9.2 3» 3 6 Total crop.. 36,064 4.055 238 98 17.8* 79-7 32.0 424 9.2 21.7 iS-i 6.7 * Calculated from a single analysis only. 60 AGRICULTURE. THE WEIGHT AND AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF ORDINARY CROPS.— Continued. Weig Cr At Har- vest. ^ht of op. Dry. u 3 G bo S u 3 C/3 U3 Oh -a Q lbs. 15 9 27.0 42.9 .5 in April 20 30 \ ■' ' 30 May 10 " 25 " 30 July 15 Ausr, % acre ^ acre V^acre ji^ acre 1 acre Time of Cutting May 20- June I- June 15- -May 30 -June 15 -June 25 June 15 — June 30 June 25- July 10- June 25- July 10- July 25- Aug. 10- Aug. 25- Aug. 25- Sept. 10- Sept. 20- Oct. I- -July 10 -July 20 -July ID -July 20 -Aug. 10 -Aug. 20 I -Sept. 15 -Sept. 10 -Sept. 20 -Sept. 30 Oct. 20 ! FIELD CROPS. 61 TIME OF PLANTING AND FEEDING SOILING CROPS. (Phelps.) Kind of Fodder. Amount of Seed per Acre. Approxi- mate Time of Seeding. Approximate Time of Feeding. 1. Rye fodder 2. Wheat fodder 2i to 3 bu. 2i to 3 bu. 20 lbs. 2 bu. each 2 " 2 " " 1} bushels I bushel 1 bushel 2 bu. each Sept. I Sept. 5-10 July 20-30 April 10 " 20 t" 3° June I May 25 June 5-10 Aug. 5-10 May 10-20 May 20, June 5 June 5-15 June 15-25 June 25, July 10 July 10-20 " 20, Aug. I Aug. i-io " 10-20 " 20, Sept. 5 Sept. 5-20 " 20-30 Oct. 1-30 3. Clover 4. Grass (from grass-lands) 5. Oats anci peas 6. " " " H t( l( 8. Hungarian 9. Clover rowen (from 3) 10. Soja beans 11. Cow-peas 12. Rowen grass (from grass- lands) 13. Barley and peas The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and regions under approximately similar conditions. CYLINDRICAL SILOS. Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical Silos for Well Matured Corn Silage, in Tons. (King.) 5« 0.^ Inside Diameter in Feet. 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 150.6 161. 172.2 183.6 194.9 206.4 218.8 230.8 243.2 255.8 268.7 281.8 294.6 25 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 .^0 31 32. .. 58.84 62.90 67-35 71-73 76.12 80.62 85-45 90.17 94-99 99.92 105.0 109.8 115. 1 66.95 71-56 76.52 81.61 86.61 89.64 97-23 102 6 108. 1 "3-7 119.4 124.9 135-9 75-58 80.79 86.38 92.14 97-78 103.6 109.8 115-8 122.0 128.3 134-8 141. 1 147.8 84.74 90-57 96.84 103-3 109.6 116. 1 123.0 129.8 136.8 143-9 151. 1 158.2 165.7 94.41 100.9 107.9 115. 1 122. 1 129.3 137-1 144-7 152.4 160.3 168.4 176.2 184.6 104.6 III. 8 119. 6 127-5 135-3 143-3 151-9 160.3 168.9 177.6 186.6 195.2 204.6 "5-3 123.3 131. 8 140.6 149.2 158.0 167.5 176.7 186.2 195.8 205.7 215-3 225-5 126.6 135-3 144.7 154-3 163.7 173-4 183.8 194.0 204.3 214.9 225.8 2.36.3 247-5 138.3 147-9 158. 1 168.7 179.0 189.5 200.9 212.0 223.3 234-9 246.8 258.2 270.5 163.4 174-7 186.8 199-3 211 .5 223.9 237-4 250-5 263.9 277.6 291.6 305-1 319.6 63 AGRICULTUKE. Area of Feeding Surface and Inside Diameter of Cyl- indrical Silo Required to Supply Herds of Different Sizes. (King.) Feeding Surface. 30 COWS. 150 square feet 40 " 200 50 " 250 60 ' * 300 70 •' 350 80 '* 400 90 " 450 100 ** 500 Inside Diameter. 14 feet. 16 18 19-75 21.25 22.75 24 25.25 NU3IBER OF PLANTS FOR AN ACRE OF GROUND. Distance apart. Inches. Number of Plants. 3 X 3 696,960 4X4 392,040 6 X 6 174,240 9X9 77,440 Feet. I X I 43,560 li X li 19*360 2 X 1 21,780 2 X 2 10,890 2i X 2i 6,960 3 X 1 14,520 3 X 2 7,260 3X3 4,840 3i X 3i 3,555 4X1 10,890 4X2. 4 X 3. 4X4- 4i X 4i- X I. X 2. X 3. X 4 X 5. 5,445 3,630 2,722 2,151 8,711 4,356 2,904 2,178 1,742 Distance apart. Feet. Number of Plants. 6X6 I2IO 6i X 6i 1031 7X7 881 8 X 8 680 9 X 9 537 10 X 10 435 11 X II. 12 X 12. 13 X 13. 360 302 257 14 X 14 222 15 X 15 193 16 X 16 170 i6i X i6i 160 17 X 17 150 18 X 18 r34 19 X 19 ♦.. 120 20 X 20 108 25 X 25 69 30 X 30 48 33 X 33 40 40 X 40 27 50 X 50 17 60 X 60 12 66 X 66 , 10 Si X 5i 1.417 FIELD CROPS. 63 NUMBER OF HILLS OR PLANTS ON AN ACRE OF land, for any distance apart, ft*oin 10 in. to 6 ft., the lateral and longitudinal distances being un- equal. (Waring.) ■ V en y 5J lO in. 12 in. 15 in. 18 in. 20 in. 2 ft. '^ 3 ft. ^.^ 4 ft. 4^ ft. 5 ft. f 6 ft. in. lO 62726 12 52272 43560 !■; 41817 34848 27878 i8 34«4« 29040 23232 19360 20 ft. 2 313&3 26136 20908 17424 15681 26136 21780 17424 14520 13068 10890 2Vi 20908 17424 13939 11616 10454 8712 6969 ■«. 17424 14520 ii6i6 9680 8712 7260 5808 4840 3^ 14935 12446 9953 8297 7467 6223 4976 4148 3565 4 13068 10890 8712 7260 6534 5445 f 4356 3630 3111 2722 4^ 11616 9680 7744 6453 5808 4840 3872 3226 2767 2420 2151 .s. 10454 87T2 6969 5808 5227 4356 3484 2904 2489 2178 1936 1742 5H 9504 7920 6336 5280 4752 3960 3168 2640 2263 1980 1760 1584 1440 6 8712 7260 5808 4840 4356 3630 2904 2420 2074 1865 1(513 1452 1320 12 10 64 AGRICULTUKE. . t V. HORTICULTURE. USUAL DISTANCES FOR PliANTING VEGETABLES. (Bailey.) Asparagus. . . . Rows 3 to 4 ft. apart, i to 2 ft. apart in row. Beans, bush. . 2 to 3 ft. apart, i ft. apart in rows. " pole. . . 3 to 4 ft. each way. Beet, early ... In drills 12 to 18 in. apart. " late " " 2 to 3 ft. Cabbage, early 16 X 28 in. to 18 X 30 in. late.. 2 X 3 ft. to 2i X 3i ft. Carrot In drills i to 2 ft. apart. Cauliflower. . . 2 X 2 ft. to 2 X 3 ft. Celery Rows 3 to 4 ft. apart, 6 to 9 in. in row. Corn, sweet . . " 3 to 3^ ft. apart, 9 in. to 2 ft. in row. Cucumber 4 to 5 ft. each way. Egg-plant 3 X 3 ft. Lettuce i X li or 2 ft. Melon, Musk. . 5 to 6 ft. each way. " Water.. 7 to 8 ft. each way. Onion In drills from 14 to 20 in. apart. Parsnip " " 18 in. to 3 ft. apart. Peas " " early kinds, usually in double row^ 6 to 9 in. apart': late, in single rows, 2 to 3 ft. apart. Pepper 15 to 18 in. X 2 to 2| ft. Potato 10 to 18 in. X 2^ to 3 ft. Pumpkin 8 to 10 ft. each way. Radish In drills, 10 to 18 in. apart. Rhubarb 2 to 4 ft. X 4 ft. Salsify In drills, i^ to 2 ft. apart. Spinach " ", 12 to 18 in. apart. Squash 3 to 4 ft. X 4 ft. Sweet-potato. . 2 ft. X 3 to 4 ft. Tomato 4 ft. X 4 to 5 ft. Turnip In drills, i^ to 2| ft. apart. HORTICULTURE. 65 QUANTITY OF SEED OF VEGETABLES REQUIRED TO SOW AN acre! (Bailey.) Asparagus 4 or 5 lbs., or i oz. for 50 ft. of drill. Beans, dwarf, in drills i| bushels. " pole " 10 to 12 quarts. Beet, " 5 to 6 lbs. Buckwheat, " i bushel. Cabbage, in beds to transplant. ^ lb. Carrot, in drills 3 to 4 lbs. Cauliflower i oz. of seed for 1000 plants. Celery 1 oz. of seed for 2000 plants. Corn, in hills 8 to 10 quarts. Cucumber, in hills 2 lbs. Cress, water, in drills 2 to 3 lbs. ' ' upland, in drills 2 to 3 lbs. Egg-plant I oz. of seed for 1000 plants. Kale or sprouts 3 to 4 lbs. Lettuce i oz. of seed for 1000 plants. Melon, musk, in hills 2 to 3 lbs. " water, in hills 4 to 5 lbs. Mustard, broadcast ^ bushel. Onion, in drills 5 to 6 lbs. " seed for sets, in drills. .. 30 lbs. " sets, in drills 6 to 12 bushels. Parsnip, in drills 4 to 6 lbs. Peas " I to 2 bushels. Potato (cut tubers) 7 bushels. Pumpkin, in hills , 4 to 5 lbs. Radish, in drills 8 to 10 lbs. Sage " 8 to 10 lbs. Salsify " 8 to 10 lbs. Spinach " 10 to 12 lbs. Squash, bush, in hills, 4 to 6 lbs. " running, in hills 3 to 4 lbs. Tomato, to transplant ^ \h. Turnip, in drills i to 2 lbs. ' ' broadcast 3 to 4 lbs. Grass (mixed lawn). 2 to 4 bushels. 66 AGRICULTURE. DISTANCES APART FOR FRUIT TREES, Time Required to Bear Fruit, and Longevity. (Bailey.) Usual Distances. Time Required to Bear. Average Profitable Longevity under high Culture. Apples — " dwarf... 30 to 40 ft. each way. TO ft. each way 4x7 to 6x8 ft 4x5 feet 3 yrs. Good crop in about 10 years 25-40 yrs. Blackberry I yr. Good crop in 2-3 years 8-12 yrs. Currant I yr. Good crop in 2-3 years 1 yr. Good crop in 2-3 years 2-3 yrs. Good crop 2-3 years later 2 yrs. Good crop in 4 years 3 or 4 yrs. Fair crop in 6-12 years t to 3 yrs 3 yrs. Good crop in 5 to 6 years I yr. Good crop in 2 or 3 years I yr. Heaviest crop usually in 2 years. .. Gooseberry Orange and I lemon j . . Peach 4x5 feet 20 years. 25 to 30 ft. each way. 16 to 20 ft. each way. 20 to 30 ft. each way. 20 to 25 ft. each way. T 6 to 20 ft. each way. 3x6 feet I X 3 or 4 feet 20 years. 50 or more. Pears 8-12 yr& Persimmon Plum 50-75 yrs. 25-40 yrs. Raspberry . . . Strawberry . . . 20-25 yrs. 8-12 yrs. 3 years. HORTICULTURE. 67 AVERAGE YIELDS PER ACRE OF VARIOUS CROPS. (Bailey.) Apples A tree 20 to 30 years old may be expected to yield from 25 to 40 bus. every alter- nate year. Artichoke 200 to 300 bus. Beans, green or snap 75 to 120 bus. Bean, Lima. ... 75 to 100 bus. of dry beans. Beet 400 to 700 bus. Carrots 400 to 700 bus. Corn 50 to 75 bus., shelled. Cranberry 100 to 300 bus. ; goo bus. have been reported. Cucumber About 150,000 fruits per acre. Currant , . . 100 bus. Egg-plant I or 2 large fruits to the plant for the large sorts like New York purple, and from 3 to 8 fruits for the smaller varieties. Gooseberry 100 bus. Grape 3 to 5 tons. Good raisin vineyards in California, 15 years old, will produce from 10 to 12 tons. Horse-radish. ... 3 to 5 tons. Kohlrabi 500 to 1000 bus. Onion, from seed 300 to 800 bus.; 600 bus. is a large average yield. Parsnip 500 to 800 bus. Pea, green, in pod 100 to 150 bus. Peach In full bearing a peach-tree should produce from 5 to 10 bus. Pear A tree 20 to 25 years old should give from 25 to 45 bus. Pepper 30,000 to 50,000 fruits. Plum 5 to S bus. may be considered an average crop for an average tree. Potato 100 to 300 bus. Quince 200 to 400 bus. Raspberry and blackberry. ... 50 to 100 bus. Salsify 200 to 300 bus. Spinach 200 barrels. Strawberry 75 to 250 or even 300 bus Tomato 8 to 16 tons. Turnip 600 to 1000 bus. 68 AGRICULTURE. RELATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY, Dry Matter, and Starcli Content of Potatoes. (Wolff.) Spec. Grav. Dry Sub- stance. Starch Con- tent. Spec. Grav. Dry Sub- stance. ^rn'n^ Spec. Dry Sub- stance. Starch Con- tent. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 1 .080 19.7 13-9 1. 107 25-5 19.7 I. 134 31-3 25-5 .081 19.9 14. 1 .108 25-7 19.9 135 31-5 25-7 .082 20.1 M-3 .109 25-9 20.1 136 31-7 25-9 .083 20.3 14-5 I . no 26.1 20. 3 137 31-9 26. 1 .084 20.5 14.7 . Ill 26.3 20.5 138 32.1 26.3 .085 20.7 14.9 .112 26.5 20.7 139 32.3 26.5 .086 20.9 151 ."3 26.7 20.9 I 140 32-5 26.7 .087 21 2 15-4 .114 26.9 21. 1 141 32.8 27.0 .088 21.4 15-6 •"5 27.2 21.4 142 33-0 27.2 .089 21.6 15.8 .116 27.4 21.6 U3 33-2 27.4 1 .090 21.8 16.0 .117 27.0 21.8 144 33-4 27.6 .091 22.0 16.2 .118 27.8 22.0 145 33-6 27.8 .092 22.2 16.4 .119 28.0 22.2 146 33-8 28.0 •093 22.4 16 6 1. 120 28.3 22.5 147 34-t 28 3 .094 22.7 16.9 .121 28.5 22.7 148 34-3 28.5 •095 22.9 17. 1 .122 28.7 22.9 .149 34-5 28.7 .096 23.1 17-3 .123 28.9 23.1 I 150 34-7 28.9 .097 233 17-5 .124 29.1 23-3 •151 34-9 29.1 .098 23-5 17.7 ■125 29-3 23-5 .152 351 29-3 .099 23.7 17.9 . 126 29-5 23-7 •153 35-4 29.6 l.IOO 24.0 18.2 .127 29.8 24.0 .154 35-6 29.8 .101 24.2 18.4 .128 30.0 24.2 •155 35-8 30.0 .102 24,4 18.6 . 129 30.2 24.4 .156 36.0 30.2 .103 24.6 18 8 1. 130 30- 4 24.6 •157 36.2 30-4 .104 24.8 19.0 •13^ 30.6 24.8 .158 36-4 30.6 .105 25 .0 19.2 .132 30.8 25.0 •159 36.6 30.8 .106 25.2 19.4 •133 31.0 25.2 I .160 36.9 31-1 HORTICULTURE. 69 SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SUGAR CONTENT, AND BOILING-POINT OF MAPLE SUGAR. (Cooke and Hills.) 1 1 > c5 .5 V nate nt of ugar. u bo 2.1 3 . .r'OJ ^. 40 .= sue/) rt C flj cd egrees Baum drome a— 2 u i- at) 3 empei of B point, .0 13 0. Q Q < H Oi 25 . 1 . 205 44.9 41 215.0° F. lo.olbs. 68 26 I 215 46.8 43 215.1 10. 1 72 27 1.226 48.7 45 215.3 10.2 75 28 1.236 50-5 47 215.6 10.3 78 29 1.246 52-4 49 215-9 10.4 82 30 1-257 54-3 51 216.2 lO-S 85 31 1.268 56.2 53 216.6 10.6 88 32 1.279 58.1 54 217.0 10.7 90 33 1.290 60 56 217.4 10.7 93 34 1.302 62.0 58 218. 1 10.8 97 35 1-313 63-9 60 218.6 10.9 100 36 1-325 65.8 62 219-5 II. 103 37 1-337 67.8 64 220.3 II. I 107 38 1-350 69.8 66 221 .2 II .2 no S9 1 .362 71.8 68 222.0 "•3 "3 40 1-374 73-7 70 223.2 II. 4 117 41 1-387 75-7 72 224.5 II. 6 120 42 1.400 77-7 74 326.0 II. 7 123 43 1-415 79.8 75 227.8 II. 8 125 44 1.428 81.8 77 229.7 II. 9 128 45 1.442 83-9 79 231.8 12.0 132 46 1-457 86.0 81 234.0 12. 1 135 47 1. 471 88.1 83 236-3 12.3 138 48 1.486 90.2 85 238.7 12.4 142 ** The per cents of sugar given are calculated for a fairly- good syrup. The relative values in the last column are based on these per cents, but will be nearly the same for all except the poorest of syrups. The relative value is made use of as follows: A weight of 11 pounds per gallon, and 35° Baume is taken as the standard; dividing the weight of the syrup by 11 gives the number of standard gallons; multiplying the price that is to be paid for 11- pound syrup b)^ the relative value figure, and dividing by 100, gives the price to be paid per standard gallon. "Example : If 75 cents a gallon is to be paid for ii-pound 70 AGRICULTURE. syrup, how much should be paid for 671 pounds of syrup testing 31° by the Baume hydrometer? 671 -T- II = 61 standard gallons. 75 X 88 -7- 100 = 66 cents per gallon. 61 X 66 = $41.26, price to be paid." WEIGHT OF SUGAR OBTAINED FROM 100 LBS. 01^ 3IAPl.i: SYR LP Weighing 11 lbs. to the Gallon, when Sugared Off at Different Temperatures. (Cooke and Hills.) ^ ^j «^ ^.£ ,s "u ^u « "5; ^. .fiPc h 'v u 3-5 "uc '^^ y u 2I ^"1 ^a l^ ?: to ti 3 to 3 4^ 9 V 3 ^ 3 u' 3 w 9 p'i^'c .V) ac/:^- .W3 £ H < £ q H < JE ° Fahr. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. ° Fahr. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 232 82.7 82.0 83.3 238 79-5 78.5 80.7 233 81.9 80.5 82.8 239 79.2 78 4 80.3 234 81.2 80.0 81,9 240 78.7 78.2 79 7 235 80.8 79-5 81.6 241 78-5 77-9 79-3 236 80.5 79-5 81,1 242 78.1 77-4 78.9 237 80.0 79 -o 80.9 HORTICULTURE. 71 Tl.x\IPF:RATUIiES TO WHICH PKRISHABL.E (iOODS MAY BP] SUBJECTED WITHOUT IN- JUliV. (U. S. Dei'aktment of Agricultuke.) Name of Article. Apples, in bbls " loose Apricots, baskets.. Asparagus Bananas Beans, snap Beets Cabbafje, early or late Cantaloupes . Cauliflower Celery Cheese Cranberries Cucumbers . . Ef^j,'s, bbPd or crated Fish Flowers . . . . Grapes Kale Leek Lemons Lettuce Mandarins Milk Olives, in bulk '' " glass Onions, boxes Onions Oranges Parsley Parsnips. Peaches, fresh.b'skets Peas Pineapples Plums Potatoes, Irish " sweet Radishes Rice Shrubs, roses, or trees Spinach Strawberries Tangerines Thyme. Tomatoes, fresh Turnips, late. Watermelons Lowest Outside Temperature. Pi '-T3 (4) (5) (6) XJ-O* e i- r! 9^ Name. tnber of ains per 1 Pure See ount to S er Acre i ., Standa Quality. ount toS sr Acre i of PureG ating Se Wi J2x: .5*3 •0 1- ight of 0,000,000 rains, lbs ^0^ < ~ < £ S 8-32 s"-o 1 Redtop (Agrostis alba') . . . 603,000 9-7 7.00 $1.45 16.58 2 Reed canary grass (Pha- laris arundinacea) 660,000 21.0 12.00 44-48 7-35 T5-'5 .3 Smooth - stalked meadow grass (Poa pratensis) 2,400,000 17-5 8.40 2.10 4.17 4 Rougli -stalked meadow grass (Poa trivialis) 3,000,000 19-5 8.75 II-I7 4.88 3-33 78 AGRICULTURE. I NUMBER, WEIGHT, COST OF GRASS SEEDS, AND AMOUNT TO SOW PER ACBM—Contumed. Name. Sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina) Various-leaved fescue (Fes- tuca heterophylla) Creeping- fescue (Festuca rubra) Awnless brome grass (Bro- mus inermis) Perennial rye grass (Lolium perenne) .. Italian rye grass (Lolium italicum) Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) Meadow oat grass (Arrhe- natherum avenaceum). . . Yellow oat grass (Trisetum flavescens) .^ Velvet grass (Holcus lana- tus) Timothy (Phleum pratense) Meadow fo.xtail (Alopecu rus pratensis) Vernal grass (Anthoxan thum odoratum) Crested dog's tail (Cynosu. rus cristatus) Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum) Sainfoin (Onobrychis sa- tiva) Red clover (Trifolium pra- tense) White clover (Trifolium repens) Common kidney vetch (An- thyllus vulneraria) Alfalfa, or lucern (Medi- cago sativa) Trefoil (Medicago lupulina) Bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) Officinal goat's rue (Galega officinalis) (I) <«-l Wi CI o > *j u ^ . « S- rX c ^ tr.Oi c o.^ < '- 680,000 400,000 600,000 137,000 336,800 285,000 579»5oo 318,200 159,000 2,045,000 1,304,000 1,170,500 907,000 924,000 1,127,000 707,000 22,500 279,000 740,000 154,000 209,500 328,000 375,000 62,000 2».0 33-5 42.5 44.0 55-0 48.5 35-0 52.0 70.0 29.0 22.0 16.0 23.0 30.0 25.0 12.3 78.0* 18.0 TO. 5 17-5 25.0 18.0 II. o 22.0 ^ D D bX) - V- I- C 3 ^ =■■:= (4) 12.60 19-50 13.00 35-6o 38.50 32.40 10-15 34-30 4.64 8.80 14.00 10-15 18-30 12-24 12-16 12-26 10 5-5 6.5 6.21 6 7-8o j 13.50 [20-32 9.00 94-100 60.84* 40 15.84 64 7-50 63 15.00 60-64 22.00 14-75 61-63 64-66 4.67 60 6.90 (5) in 4) c3^ (6) ^ O tn ^ o'c ^20 14-85 25.00 16.67 72.99 29.70 35- 10 17-25 31.42 62.89 4.89 7.66 8.54 11.02 10.82 8.87 14.14 444.44 35-84 13-51 67-15 48.56 30.48 26.66 161.29 * Unshelled. i SEEDS. 79 NOTES ON ADAPTABILITY AND USES OF PRE- CEDING GRASSES AND CLOVERS. No. I. Requires moist climate or damp soil. Best propa- gated by transplanting small turf cuttings in autumn. Valuable for late pasturage or lawns in the New England and Middle States. Use 5-10 per cent in mixtures. No. 2. Adapted to stiff, wet lands and flooded fields. Requires moisture. Valuable hay when cut young, and well suited for binding loose banks near running water or for forming a firm sod on marshy ground. No. 3.' Grows best on strongly calcareous soils. Well adapted for pasture, and makes a good bottom grass for meadows. An excellent lawn grass. No. 4. Should be sown only on moist, fertile, and shel- tered soils in mixtures. No. 5. Light, dry soils, especially those which are poor, shallow, and silicious. Valuable bottom grass and for sheep pastures. Sown only in mixtures. No. 6. Best on moist, low lands containing humus and sandy loams. Withstands drought; useful in pasture; un- important for hay. Alone it makes no continuous turf. No. 7. Valuable pasture or bottom grass. Withstands drought; endures both cold and shade. On poor land, es- pecially moist sands and railway banks, serves to bind the soil. Product small. No. 8. Valuable for light soils, especially in regions sub- ject to extremes of heat or long periods of drought. Used alone or in mixtures for permanent meadows and pastures. No. 9. Excellent and lasting pasture grass for heavy soils in moist, cool climates. On light, dry soils disappears after the second year. Rarely sown alone. No. 10. Excellent for rich and rather moist lands. Re- garded in Europe as one of the best for hay. Lasts only two or three years. No. II. Grows well on any soil, excepting that which is very wet; withstands shade. Affords a large amount of aftermath. Valuable alike for hay and pasturage. No. 12. Thrives in either dry or wet soils. Valuable hay pt pasture grass. 80 AGRICULTURE. No. 13. Thrives on moist, loamy sands or light clays which are not too moist, and marls. Spring most favorable seed-time. Valuable in the South for hay and winter pasture. No. 14. Valuable for temporary or permanent pastures. Thrives on marly or calcareous soil, in all light land rich in humus. No. 15. Sometimes sown on light, thin soils unsuited for more valuable sorts. Rarely used excepting in mix- tures. No. 16. Best known and most extensively cultivated for hay. Sown alone or mixed with redtop or clover. Suc- ceeds best on moist loams or clays. On dry ground the yield is light. No. 17. Endures cold. Likes strong soil, stiff loam, or clay. One of the best grasses for land under irrigation. Very early. Two to four pounds in mixtures for permanent pastures. No. 18. Grows on almost any kind of soil; sown only in mixtures, i to 2 pounds, with permanent pasture or meadow grasses. No. 19. Especially adapted for loams, light clays, marls, and moist, loamy sands. Moist climates are most suitable. Withstands drought and thrives well in shade. Nutritive value high. Used in mixtures to form bottom grass either in pasture or hay. No. 20. Grows on strongest clay or peaty soil; peculiarly adapted to damp ground. Bears heavy frosts without injury. Sown in August or February. No. 21. Requires good and open subsoil, free from water. Sown alone, from end of March to beginning of May. No. 22. Succeeds best in rich, loamy soil, on good clays, and on soils of an alluvial nature. A standard fodder plant. No. 23. Thrives on mellow land containing lime, and on all soils rich in humus. Resists drought. Generally used in mixtures for pastures or lawns. No. 2^. Cultivated for grazing; on warm soils, if manured SEEDS. 81 and of proper depth. Hardy; resists drought. Sheep, goats, and horned cattle eat it greedily. No. 25. Grows well on any calcareous soil having a per- meable subsoil. Especially adapted to the warm and dry regions of the West and Southwest. Requires irrigation. No. 26. Any soil containing sufficient moisture and lime is suitable. Most successful on clay marls. Cultivated only where the better kinds of clover cannot be grown. No. 27. Thrives on dry or moist, sandy or clayey soils. Well suited to dry lands at high elevations, though poor. No. a8. Excellent fodder plant for warm, sheltered situ- ations. Thrives only in deep soil, and when subsoil is not wet. 82 AGRICULTURE. CD Q W * Ci o M X C/3 rt 2 >^ DT3 biD2 2 > ci (J "5 ^ a o c J3 C/l ^j nl c O S e c ^ o .y PQ Mh ^ tech Stat< ring ow p c H PQ < )n a Unit smo over < II) E u-a'o H ■s Q ^.5 c 6^- "r^ c o - ci. CQ Hj H; U C C G *j 5 rt o ''i « O > rt-- (fl j^ ■- U5 «•" o: n u Q-c *J (U O .. p.- e a.«ti y 5i2 (U en ^ 03 1) 3 b£<; M U o bi) o o <" U "2 = <« C»-H O n! 2t3 O Oxi il O a£.£v^^ ■S g.Q ° o bo 2 « c . > .2 tyo'-:= > J! w 1> S; ♦"• u "= oJ c be he b£:d biO-S bfl O C C . C rt G .2 '&.V.-t 73 00 -o C (/3 1-. (fl G >■ Ji > "z: o c (u ^j3 ^ >• 3 c ■ £ 3 *^ W- ^ -^ .5-- O v • > O o 0, O o a. u) 01 c ao O "O tg-o2 V- o be V. .^ • .-^ .,hV .,t: .^ m'O (« O tn J~ (« 4J 02 CO c .5 J > O O O ^ >> fcjo >, 3 = 3 >— 1 <• >-. o o bjo 3 g C u 2 ^ a _o "o ►f3 S S s 3 3 ct! re O n u V rt U) o a c a oi rt s 3 U5 3 a 03 c/5 ^ b/5 nS C >> .G ^S 2 ^.2 a en en ej en X - u ^ 1) b£,ru •a St; 4> u be •tt ^ >. a o ■J-j z en 5 -1- i> rt bl G bf rt M oa m 3-0 3-3 CQ pq m J3 > u Q be o Xi 4> •a bei2 c ^2 3 be3 PQ CC WEEDS. 83 ., o •n-a S oj.r: te-.::: > a > t« tfl tn ; "^ C > 3 £ rt rt •a c 5 q >^^ 3 o 3 " -a «J >> W (U > O -i nS _ -ux: bat* a cr; o • — ,— u •a 3 u *" w c o 1! S ft o o V ■ c U PH (/) bjj.s; :: 5 ^^. ~ ^ ^ — -Z ^ rt 1) Z! C .- 4) in J5 VC :u - W U *-i i-i *-* O •a o b^ «« ^— i_( ™ ^ *-" ., 05 in'"' 5 o •t3 -o • C c • : cTi •- rt -'.^ .— o — >.bi! O o J3 . ^►2 a 3„ u . • in ■ a " u a! c tJ CTJ -So en a Q 'U c &= >^3 • _~Xi *-. bcu**i ■s.s O Cj- o >^-r > si t^^a PL, PU pi. bt 4J O C K.- be y — 3 D bi -5<^-S V.- c d 1^ o <"^ o-c-a £ "^ a . -i u g «5^ S o u w c/} •< Pi 3 .." d £ 3.2 3 O <-> "2 = O s. 3 ^ •SS2' V O. V- . o V "5 e W ,5 CO d 3 > b£ O (/>'-' 7! T-J -o'S S^ >'o o. C.5 >- o •;: c o ^ £ 5 0.-=; iS u O " C/) .5 o '^ bx) c •O 3 u o o z o 2 bfl 3 b£ 3 < b£ 3 bxi 3 < U3 o > > So 2S S u O ui nl O "O lx (u.i; o ^ tn tn U < a. U a rt a >- 3 a; 3 x; w U 3 a ♦J t/3 Cl c75 w >^ JS »- . *J V A bt a rt S c c a 6£ ,a B §•5 CQ u IS o bn — 1- n s-* >— >-£ o rt br ' u Oj (U (5 Q ^•^ ^ o n t:' ti. C £ (LI <-> C a; <-■ o rr 'JJ 3 O m en , >> 4) > o o 3 > 6 rt 3 u •^ 'g u J3 a n a a 3 •0 c 3 : 4^ _.' ^ ::: Z 3 a! rt OJ re X v- O P^ WEEDS. 85 be c > > 3 cfi O 11 -^•- IU_a O ^ r- JJ G I r- ^ G a_» — ' .n ^ o ■- 3 o 3 = 5 -' ? fT< > 3 u: U ^ -kJ U 3X1 3 U U U D- Ilia - ^- o o > 'u to a •a d OJ.- o| (X o Q c — br c< — 1; _ — u • w ^ Q. t; ■ > o :t •' (« > u > t; D. >> u •;: c o >- — ^ rt U lU — 3 — O > 03 "SS 1) u lU t/3 ^ 9. CU • - IK > u •r; c o u _^ 3 — u > 03 03 rt aj ::^ ma > rt .o : »- d 1-— • 4; E u— . . > c« > c^ • w K : 0) a a h ■a u rt 3 4; ^ *J O T ••-' (« X 3 tfl -- 3 ■►-' V 2 03 a •a S n-; o " S a. ^ W U3 3 — J2 o O a . c C/3 (/j °2 a c _ „• « lU W W jj 4) "■' '" OJ c/: CO in. 5 t" y t- C U en 03 be 3 bzi 3 < be 3 S 2 fci it o .0 ^ o < S < bi3 >, < 1 b£i 03 >-i o . O >> u .22 rt 4; O « (U o > v-X! ^ 1- 03 > o l> U 5 . - > 2; S W ♦J C u u T3 -3 O ^ S 6 u 4) a 03 "en s en 3 b£ en u en tn c5 a 3 en a 3 en 3 3 en 3 03 03 u 0) 2 u 03 o3 c OS rt u a d. en 36 y C 3 '■■ u ^ >^0I B C '5. en 3 C 03 en 03 C en rt 3 en 03 3 03 4) 1) < J Ph < J Oh C/3 02 Ou oi XI LU Li: a ja en _4; In 3 G y a 4; y 3 3 a c a ^- 4; V >i J n u n> OS a rn ^ i br; 3 aT ^ >> T) c JS tn 1- 3 ej u 03 a 5 c Oh Ch y (u _, o y w X bfl &| 8 2 yy ^'§_ .^'i^ P Oi y y r ~q2 ?t|.5 a g --C-C, c3 *j c< 0:; i y "a c ^^ en 12 J .^ — tr. 3 ^ en b biJc !2-2 .„ eij tn (^ r-. '^ <^ .-^ *j i£ 3 ?> '^ ^ ' y y o i; I y tn S o : 5 t ^ = ; ■* :: r< k> ~ en 5 "C! •" u y ^ ■55^ ag (7) C/3 .— . u ■— — •■ 3 y ^ 2 u ii oj y o ^ — > en u o J^ C y •- r- < •— C 03 J5 S3 5 o . y-^^oy ^ u -^ O *■ -^ > t — iC = IJ O g.? g tn ^ y (/5 t/5 (/) ( 86 AGRICULTURE. c > n! rt ^ _>' > bjo 4J >« s (U ;li tn flj c 2 a! a; x: c en .^ "! C u'z c r- c a-- •$■ •r; u • a. O O 13 3 o c bri 01 > 35 u 73 c >-. 3 XI . 3 tn V- ^1 a : en"-5 C C - <" ^ ej ^_, re d Q d ^ OJ 3 3 o > 5 to d o-^ ^ CJ S5 3 (J o 3 tn O S oj '^ O '^ c rt c -z, U 3 (/) O C/3 in < U CL U c O •a o a . c C rt «^ en rt - >S3 d •a en rt '^ J^ 1^ e/; u 1- O O u 3 ai-c 3 art g a o ^ o o W I-^- S '* u Methods of Propagation and Distribu- V y) o c o c a »- o — en •a u 3 _U5 a! a 5 OS w tn en iS e/i •T3 o a ej > o ; O ^ ^ C/3 in ^ C/3 o ^ o o o 2 O o o O o o o _>. >. b>. ^ be bi ^ fail bi) _>, 3 1 — . :h, I '5 3 < 3 <_ "3 1—. 3 < 3 < "3 1— > p Q c ; u rt "rt X d x: c . ^ a! U U c/i CJ o O o if> O o o O o o V ^ *-''a c c c" ■M ^ CJ • c c c c •— ^ X • ^ u" •a s S S i ^ S s S ^ • "rt ". .j^ «_ , o en "o en o 3 i^ a c ■ ."S ^ ;"; '5 c rt rt o s" "5. m 'rt rt O C o 'c u as _4j a 2 s o "5 « t 3 C > 4) "rt u "> S 3 u ■5 c 'in 3 0) 1-1 .5 is ej (U -a 3 'en 3 O X a 3 c i 2 4J 3 U eu Q O < < s Cti (^ _ac_ S en s "^ a o a 3 = : it. CO be J 5 rt ;-. ao u u ■? en en c >^ > w > tuo O bjD xj'c tn.<£ rt rt T-i 3 •d rt O ^1 c c u bii o T3 13 >. 2 S3 ;::: > 1) o Bo a o U rt o c bn V. tup & ^V. 'O.S'O gT3 2 re t: c « rt ° rt "aj 4j en EKEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 87 VIII. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. TREATMENTS FOR INJURIOUS INSECTS AND FUNGOUS DISEASES OF PLANTS. By Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin Experiment Station. The value of the following treatments for preventing injury to crops from insects and fungous diseases has been proved by abundant experience. It is essential that the treatments be given promptly and thoroughly. In the case of fungous dis- eases, it is generally essential that the applications be made before the disease appears, since they are preventive, rather than curative. The treatments considered most important are printed in italics. As a rule, those not so printed need be given only in seasons or localities in which the attack is serious.* Formulas. No. I. Bordeaux Mixttire. — Place 6 pounds of copper sulfate in a cloth sack and suspend this over night in a wood vessel containing 4 gallons of water, immersing the sack. In another wood vessel slake 4 pounds of fresh lime in as many gallons of water. When the lime is cool, pour it and the copper sulfate solution into a barrel and add enough water to make 40 gallons. Apply at once with a force-pump, with spraying nozzle, stir- ring frequently during the application. No. 2. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. — Dissolve i ounce of copper carbonate in 3 pints of strong ammonia and add this solution to 25 gallons of water. Apply as in No. i. No stir- ring is required. No. 3. Copper Sulfate Solution. — Dissolve, as directed in No. I, I pound of copper sulphate in 15 gallons of water. Apply as in No 2. No. 4. Stir 4 ounces of Paris green in 40 gallons of water, and add \ pound of fresh lime, slaked in 2 quarts of hot water. Apply as in No. i. No. 5. Bordeaux Mixture (^o. i), with Paris green added at the rate of i ounce to 10 gallons. Apply as in No. i. * The following scheme for treating crops is after a plan published by Mr. E. G. Lodeman, of Cornell University, in Trans. N. Y. State Agri- cultural Society for i8q3, pp. 176-179. 88 AGRICULTURE. No. 6. London purple, 4 ounces, very thoroughly mixed with 25 pounds of land plaster. Apply with a sprinkiing-box. No. 7. Mix I ounce of fresh powdered white hellebore in 3 gallons of water. Apply at once with force-pump or sprinkling pot. No. 8. Kerosene Emulsion. — Dissolve \ pound hard, or i quart of soft soap in 2 quarts of boiling water; add i pint of kerosene and pour at once into a tin can; cork, and shake rapidly for 15 seconds. Before using, dilute with its own bulk of warm soft-water. Apply as in No. 2. No. 9. Mix I pound of fresh Pyrethrum powder with an equal bulk of air-slaked lime in a bottle or tin can; cork tightly and leave 24 hours before use. Apply in still air, with sprinkling- box or powder-bellows. No. 10. Air-slaked lifue applied with the sprinkling-box. No. II. Cut small cards from thin tarred paper, slit one side to the centre, and make a short cross-cut near the end of the slit, as in drawing. ^ No. 12. Corrosive Subliviate Solution. — Dissolve i\ ounces of corrosive sublimate in 2 gallons of hot water, and pour this solution into 13 gallons of cold water. Use wood, earthen, or glass vessels. No. 13. Potassium Sulfid Sohition. — Dissolve \ ounce of potassium sulfid (liver of sulfur, sulfuret of potassium) in I quart of warm (not hot) water, and add this solution to 3 quarts of cold water. Apply as in No. 2. EN"EMIES OF FAKM CROPS. 89 > 2° M Vw 4J 1 I CO ' •" rt -a >>— < t;^ o w . — ■ c C "^ ^*-i «-» g.r; u o o o _^ V. *j O «5 1) >« C/2 E o O. U -Tj «5 t) -a rt-- •a So, "3 e-o 9-^ 3 e to 4J >.3 l« OS S « o a CO rt u J3 *j u to o s ?^ = X! « I J3 -^ ^ O rtg -S o '"•So"'" 3 > «i = O . 3-H3_^!«5ag c H "»j "<> -^ «^ Si s ^ ^ s h a Ei »" 8 . «•« "* ^' ^^ •2S "♦^ , C ir ■St= ■^ S ^^ -•^ gs^'ii.S <" 1> 1^ . S J5 c l" &~ rtXi art ta to rt "^ a k- <" 5 i_ >>rt o rt 41 «2i •a u^ O '^ M I o V lU CO a rt aj in ^ I I rt ci rt fevi rt (o 4; -id "* 1) O o o .2 rt to W u rt 4J o 4; c !ia rt . ^ tjfl . **-• .^ '-^ rt -a J3 _ rt rt p_, 4-1 u D o C 1- O rt U '^ rt o • — •*-• "'t'fife o^ *^ *^ Q. uT (A u ^ > (o V. . rt rt o M ^^r^OrtCH a a < c CQ Sri ° U u 90 AGRICULTURE. rt '" o V c rOo5 O w.q c 0) n.=! QJ 4> 8 , 2 2 ^- OJ rt ex's (u - J3 e (U O ^ <- o 4> ■" .?* L h£ . « " 8 2^o.S5^ c art v^ 0.(0 (U rt(> „ ~ (u-S < ^ s O tri o •Ort o >- a; V, , S 5 o S " ^ S V H o lu 5a ? i; « la's ,^ ^ >> •»S . Q ^ ^ o 4; « u C 3 W •r u > >■ , o to OJ rt Q. H.aS , ??rt on » •* -*-.BS <3 g — .— tH O 1> ^ C/5 ^ a=: .1^ to O. rt H-t a ai_ cC o. r o u -■" o-o s^ -^ D o u ii ^ :^ ."^■^ : ^ R S iS S- , _• CO rr. <$^.-2.^s;| S«^ - ^ c r::\-i': ^■^s ^..^^ ^,« '13 ■^■^^bi-rt.Sf « c ^ ^ ~ (/) •« 10 JJ be U pa O a O XI C • (O C C rt 3 O 3 u 13 0*3 ENEMIES OF FAKM CROPS. 91 ■^ s ^ I '^ s^ "^ > S ^ s .' =q « "o V "i C lA i) O "^ X! Vi — u X ^ C ^1? O ii u. N 1) O ii a Mm „ o N 3 ** - .»»^ 3-- O rt Si- tae o <" o = ?i (U ° rt « Woo. H O > ♦J Ul > o 1) t) >> Oi '1 u c A ^ <1 ^ ^ >^ <^ rt -^ . 2 X! %i " , cn .> CO a •Di^X! ^ bJD en 5" C 3 S ^ "■ ? "^ 8 ^ ">< a 'u i en u u i/i V. •u 0-- -a o ■°- ^ is K, "^ ►-<. o o xl£o.^S*S j^ rt ^ en qj O oj en 3 "a C ^ O c "» • O-tuD cx S^ o 3 "i a 3 O *^ o 3 a ^ u u V> V- S 4) {U_Q aj«: > «fflQ rt Si (A 92 AGRICULTURE. FIGHTING THE CHINCH-BUG BY MEANS OP KEROSENE EMULSION. (Goff.) Experiments have established the fact that with thorough work according to the directions given below the kerosene emulsion will prevent the invasion of cornfields by chinch- bugs, even though the bugs appear in great numbers. Hozv to Make and Apply the Kerosene Ennilsion. — Slice half pound of common bar soap, put it in a kettle with one gal- lon of soft water, and boil until dissolved ; put two gallons of kerosene in a churn or stone jar, and to it add the boiling- hot soap solution ; churn from twenty to thirty minutes, when the whole will appear creamy. If properly made, no oil will separate out when a few drops of the emulsion are placed on a piece of glass. To each gallon of the emulsion add eight gallons of water and stir. Apply with a sprink- ling-pot. Every farmer should learn to make this emulsion, as it is a most useful insecticide. It is especially valuable for kill- ing lice on cattle and hogs. Paris green will not kill chinch- bugs. The bugs will be very likely to enter cornfields border- ing grainfields, after the grain is cut. Before they have had time to do this plough a deep furrow along the side of the field they will enter, and throw into it stalks of green corn. When the bugs have accumulated on the corn, sprinkle with the emulsion. Put in fresh stalks and sprinkle whenever the bugs accumulate. If they break over the barrier, as they probably will, run a few furrows a few rows back in the field, and repeat. When they have at- tacked stalks of standing corn, destroy by sprinkling. If the remedy is tried, it should be used persistently. To kill one lot of bugs and then stop will do little or no good. When the bugs threaten to destroy as much as five or ten acres, it will pay for one or two men to devote their whole time to the warfare. Only a part of each day, however, will be needed. Some corn will be lost at best but the most of the field should be saved. ^ EKEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 93 A CHEAP ORCHARD-SPRAYING OUTFIT. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Spraying to control various insect pests, particularly those of the orchard and garden, has reached so satisfactory and inexpensive a basis that it is recognized by every progres- sive farmer as a nec- essary feature of the year's operations, and in the case of the apple, pear, and plum crops the omission of such treatment means seri- ous loss. The conse- quent demand for spraying apparatus has been met by all the leading pump manufac- turers of this country, and ready-fitted appa- ratus, consisting of pump, spray tank or barrel, and nozzle with hose, are on the market in numerous styles and at prices ranging from $20 upward. The cost of a spraying outfit for orchard work may, however, be considerably reduced by purchasing merely the pump and fixtures, and mounting them at home on a strong barrel. An apparatus of this sort, representing a style that has proven very satisfactory in practical ex- perience, is illustrated in the accompanying figure. It is merely a strong pump with an air-chamber to give a steady stream, provided with two discharge hose-pipes. One of these enters the barrel and keeps the water agitated and the poison thoroughly intermixed, and the other and longer one is the spraying hose and terminates in the nozzle. The spraying-hose should be about 20 feet long, and may be fastened to a light pole, preferably of bamboo, to assist in Orchard-spraying Apparatus. 94 • AGRICULTURE. directing the spray. The nozzle should be capable of breaking the water up into a fine mist spray, so as to wet the plant completely with the least possible expenditure of liquid. The two more satisfactory nozzles are those of the Nivcr and the Vermorel type. A suitable pump with nozzle and hose may be obtained of any pump manufacturer or hardware dealer at a cost of from $13 to $15. If one with brass fittings be secured it will also serve for the application of fungicides. The outfit outlined above may be mounted on a cart or wagon, the additional elevation secured in this way facilitating the spraying of trees, or for more extended operations, the pump may be mounted on a large water tank. FORESTRY. 95 IX. FORESTRY. FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. By B, E. Fernow, Chief Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. There has been much talk about forestry, but there has been little application of the teachings of that science. This is easily explained as far as the lumbermen are con- cerned, who are in the business of making money by cutting the virgin woods, similar to the mining of ore, but it is less intelligible with the farmer, who is presumed to be in the business of making money by.the production and harvesting of crops, which he grows on the soil of his farm. That his wood-lot could and should by him be also treated as a crop seems rarely to have entered his mind. Whether he starts out, as in the prairie portions of the State, by planting a grove, or whether he cuts his wood from the virgin growth which he left after clearing enough for field and meadow, in either case he should fully realize that he is dealing with a valuable crop, which requires and will pay for the attention and application of knowledge in its management, such as a husbandman will give to it. The Wisconsin farmer, just as his neighbor in Minnesota, living in a State largely covered with timber of great value, has special reason to practise the principles of forestry in order to get the most out of this part of the property both for the present and the future. And those who are located in the prairie portions have no less need of maintaining a forest growth on some part of their farm as a matter of proper management of their resources. The first thing, as with every other crop, that will have to be decided is on what portions of the farm this wood-crop is best propagated. In deciding about the location of the wood-lot the farmer must keep in mind : I. That wood will grow on almost any soil, which is unfit for agricultural use ; that, although it grows best on the 96 AGRICULTURE. best sites, it is to be mainly considered and used as a " stop- gap" to make useful those parts which would otherwise be waste. 2. That a forest growth, besides furnishing useful material, is a condition of soil-cover which affects other conditions, namely, of climate and water-flow, and hence its location should be such as to secure the most favorable influence on these. 3. That the wood-crop does not live on the soil, but on the air, enriching the soil in nutritive elements by its decaying foliage rather than exhausting it, and hence that no ma- nuring and no rotation of crops is necessary as in field crops; in other words, the location of the wood-crop can be made permanent. A wood growth should therefore be maintained on the farm : a. Wherever the ground is too wet or too dry, too thin or too rocky or too steep, for comfortable ploughing and for farm crops to do well, or for pasturage to last long, or, in general, where the ground is unfit for field and meadow. b. On the highest portions of the farm, the tops of hills and also in belts along the hillsides, so as to interrupt con- tinuous slopes, which might give rise to such a rush of surface-waters as to gully the ground and make it unfit for field crops or pasture ; the gentler slopes which are liable to washing should at least be kept in grass or terraced for crops to prevent the rush of surface-waters. c. Along watercourses, where narrower or wider belts of timber should be maintained to prevent undermining of banks and washing of soil into the streams if ploughed too close to the border ; the shade of a forest growth would also check rapid evaporation of smaller watercourses. d. Wherever the protection by a wind-break against cold or hot winds is desirable, for which purpose the timber belt is of more far-reaching effect than the wind-break of a single row of trees ; the reduced evaporation from the fields due to this protection has been known to increase the yield of field crops by as much as 25 per cent. f. On all unsightly places, which impair the general i'OKESTKY. 97 aspect of the farm — and there are few farms without these — a few trees, a small grove, will add to the thrifty appear- ance of the farm, make useful the otherwise waste spots, and serve as shelter to grazing cattle, etc. Altogether, the farmer should realize that husbandry of soil and water is the secret of future success, and that successful water management is best attained by the main- tenance of properly located and well-managed forest areas. There is much extravagant talk about the influence of forests on climate and on rainfall especially. We have but little definite knowledge on these subjects, but it takes no expert, only a little observation, to appreciate the effects of a wind-breaking timber belt on one's own feeling, and it takes but little reasoning to appreciate that the field crop in the shelter of the timber belt participates in this feeling. The dry winds are the great bane of field crops in the West, because they dissipate the moisture ; a timber belt breaks their force and reduces thereby their evaporating power. Just so it takes no great philosopher to see that when rain falls on naked ground it compacts that ground and by and by prevents itself from penetrating; the water is forced to drain up superficially and rapidly, instead of sinking into the ground and remaining there for the use of field crops. And that the washing and gullying of the soil is also a result of this rushing off of surface-waters, due to the clearing away of its plant-cover, requires no wise man to point out ; every farmer experiences it more or less every year. That any one farmer's neglect or the devastation of any small part of the forest growth should have an influence on the rainfall or climate of the whole country nobody should claim; but the conditions surrounding each particular farm, its local climate, soil, and water conditions, are changed, and finally the aggregate changes make themselves felt over the whole state. Now as to the management of the wood-lot a few hints may be acceptable. The farmer may not necessarily employ the finer methods of managing the wood-crop, but by the mere application of common sense and a little knowledge of tree-life he may do better than he does at present, 98 AGRICULTURE. He should at least observe the following rules : 1. Fire should be carefully kept out of the wood-lot, for it has in no way a beneficial effect. It kills not only the undergrowth, which is desirable because it helps to shade the soil, and injures, if it does not kill, the young tree growth, which is to take the place of the older growth, but the worst effect is that it consumes the vegetable mould which has accumulated by the fall and decay of leaves, twigs, and other vegetation, and which forms the manure, the fertility, of the soil. Fire is to be used only when through bad management or otherwise a dense undesirable undergrowth has come in, which it is too expensive to re- move in other ways when the time for natural reproduction has come or planting is to be done. It must then be used with caution in early spring or late fall, before the brush is too dry, when the fire will smoulder rather than burn fiercely and can be kept within bounds. 2. Cattle must be kept out where young forest growth is to be fostered. Sheep and goats especially are of no benefit to wood-crops, but horses and cattle may be allowed to browse through the wood-lot where the young growth has passed out of their reach. Pigs are a benefit by working over the ground and thereby burying seeds, especially acorns ; but after the seed is so brought under ground where a young crop is expected to be reared next year they must be kept out. Altogether, the cattle and farm animals should be kept where you want them, and not where you do not want them. Sometimes, however, the roaming of cattle may be beneficial by keeping down too dense im- penetrable underbrush in young sapling growth. It is better to so cut and manage the old timber that a desirable new growth will spring up than to cut clean and replant. Planting should be done only where there is no desirable natural tree growth. Hence where there is a well- established wood-lot, the whole management of the crop consists in proper cutting. How this is best done cannot be described readily within the short space of this article, but every farmer who is interested in learning the principles of using the axe to FORESTRY. 99 advantage in reproducing a wood crop or how to establish a wood-lot can obtain from the U. S. Department of Agri- culture, free of charge, a pamphlet entitled "Forestry for Farmers," in which in plain language is discussed in detail how trees and forests grow, how to start a wood-crop, and how to manage the wood-lot. It does not exhaust the subject, but merely teaches the first steps, and the thinking farmer will find his way of step- ping farther. NUMBER OF TREES ON AN ACRE. (Egleston.) The number of trees needed to plant an acre of ground, at various distances apart, is as follows: 2 ft. apart each way 10,890 by 2 ft 7,260 apart each way 4,840 2,722 3 3 4 5 6 8 10 1.742 1,210 680 435 12 ft. apart each way. . • 302 15 " . 200 18 " • 135 20 " . no 22 " . 90 25 " • 70 30 " . 50 Rows six feet apart, and trees one foot apart in the row, 7260 trees per acre. Rows eight feet apart, and one foot apart in the row^ 5445 trees per acre. Rows ten feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, 4356 trees per acre. One mile of wind-breaks or shelter-belt requires 528c trees, or cuttings for a single row one foot apart in the row. 100 AGRICULTURE. H c "^ & < . . Xtl u o » U f-i hJ 1 M H E^ N< ^ •sqi oypads N 00 vo ■+ ri M t^oo 1^ n -tvo N N IT) t^ CM 03 rD TJ-OO ON 1- M VO N "■) t^ m t^ t>. in "O 00 •* rn rr) 1^ r- o^oo VO Ov N 00 00 ■*vo 00 CO vO •>*■ IT) Tj- rj- •* ^ rf ■* •<1- T m •a- ■.vo t~. 00000000000 000000 Aq japao o V-'tJ Di 00 t^ w •*CO N N — t^ 10 t-» t^ONOv{N O '-' inO O^oo 10 00 GOv'^O^Ov'TrO'-'i-iMO m ro N 10 »n ' rr 10 ■* •* m -^ m o -< "-I CN t^ w M O O O ON O^ ro fo ro CO CO cT cT o Iti 1) "3 < « 3 X 3^ o w o -^ C/3c-"-/J< CL, E J c ■- cfl.= :2c«.5f2 ct! £=Sc^ U 11 cS -- I- vSi^ CtJ c 6-- ^ -J ^ ■ ^ Q^- a 3 ■ c -■ _ 9- 5"- H CIS (/] CJ CU rt3.= rtrt.= i:3- u o^a- u u CL, Ph o?d a3. *- o rt S >J o _ rv 5 C3 c/i - C >,3 = S J; c •I "^ c? - — " w) C. c^J 3 cj:u li 2 o .S c . be :w o o '^ il ^ ° =^ |^£l.^§-Soi 3-3 c:r: -3 3' 3 U 1) ;^^-75r;«3yizLuDiJ-- 3 — -^ «:■ — ' c.— ' — ' ^^"tf.— 3 3 6ji u •- ^ uO ri u O r: •a ii^; tuc'3 .3 U 3 lU 5^ 3 ^ 3 O 3_r3 tn iJ 1) OS Tf invD r^co Ov o M f) CO ■* FORESTRY. 101 M N » rooo ^ o -^oo -*• LO tv rr- w O^ •>1- u-HO 00 ro 0) •■O in o o 00 on oo no ro o t^ N r~ (S t^vo ■- I/) M CO O N 00 M o^ in N a^ m u-> •^ o oo 0) tv i-t M in m ^ r^ t^ •«• ir, m Th ro U-) ■* O r<^ ■«• OOO rr-iKO ■* Tf N o o O f> N "j-oo 00 00 1^ m lA m m in „ rn C4 ■^ ■<*■ ■* ■^ t^ r^ „ m LTj O fO 'O „ t^ r^ u-> •^ -* ^ n f^ vo 1^ in r^ in r^ m ro m r- O u-i •*oo r^ r^ Ovo M r^ •-• O ■* "1 (--•O f) ■^00 O' ri r*^ in -4- in o-oo » n o er) rj M O N t-» oo r^ n ■^ vn xri 't- n n r^ n t~ r^ tV 1^ t>. r^\0 ^ l-^VC »iJ m lO lO u-> ■* U) Tj- ■* 'l- -^ I/) ■* ■* ■* 'J- ■^^ij-fnTj-mmro O P O O o o o O o O o o O o O O o in (N T in M t^ N o O ^ in S" ro Tt-O 00 o in in r^vo r-. in vn t^ m M n O t^oo o ^\0 f) ■rt 00 •* '-' m (N ►- -* c< N On ON moo iA> en fTNO NO t^ m in •^ r^.co r~. f 1^ P, r1 M cr'\o m \ri\o t^vO - t^ in Oi N « f> ON r> O^ CT. in ^ .-• i-i t^o r- () T f O 0> O 00 w o> in •* 00 OOO 00 o\ r- r- c-«\o i-" O vo •- y m o N ^ - 00 t^ w ON ■* r^. M w On (N t^ ON r!- m rn Tt ^ -<1- -J- ■r •^ 'j- m ■^ Tj- ■a- -* ro i- •* •«1- en • ■<^ c> ^ t^ inoo rn rovo (N 00 t-~ M ^ r- t^ t^ N in mvo ■* c* M fn Tf m IN NO m in r») N in 00 N in M in ■* N o M lO O in N 1- M _ 00 in ■>»• M NO 00 -J- M „■ VO (M 0-.KC C> I/) in o a\oo o ■* r^ in in U-i in 00 00 (N o VO o ON 00 NO 00 00 t^ r^vo ^ vo u~, in U', m -«■ ■» N N H O^ 0\ On On 00 00 t-» t^ t^ r^NO NO ■* •* •* ^ Q O ^ O S ^ d •d <0 d ^ PN -^rorow N P) c< O mioO^ t-~N 1^0 t^oo Pi 03 \0 'O t>»oo vri lOc^M O •-' lOM r^u-icj O O t^vo u^ -^ ro CM © i^co N Tft-iNOoo t-^r^ui ooo o^ ■* oo 00 00 o LOO m« r>,t^o lOMCo irirOii o 0> t^O u^ ■ IT) Tj- ■* ro ro O O N t^ O- N P) rn r~ O u-l N R o ro O o ^ t^ C) ■* o « ro 00 vo IT m D «o I-i ro O 00 \0 HI m ■* * m ro ro 01 N n N N p) 4 N w t-4 •* p) M w O w lOVO ■* ■* •<1- O P» t^VO CO M t~. PI •"1-PloO MOO -^COlOO-^O t-«-*>- O t^vO ■* P) •^ P) ■* M 00 t^vo io-<»-'>^-*fOrorOM w w c« PJ rf p) rT m" O lAO PI O 00 pN« iOLn-*->i-fommcoP) pi pi •"l-r^ioor^pj'O -^loi-i oo O 00 « t^^ t^O HI loo M Tj-ioM w r£) vo mvo -^ p". PI O f^ vo ropivo mtH loro "^vo O mn t^^M ONt^PO VO ro P) vo n M o\oo t^vo vo mio-^^'^fOfifo 8 tvO O ro"io OO t^r-iOiH roo " '^O Ovo O O r. t^vo vo lO 1/5 LO O vo ro w P) Mtx'4-mp>.p) lot^M rrif) Mvo P) Ovro-*M t^ mvO Tj- rO'O PJOvOOOrOMMCl looo rooo ■'l-vo rovo •* rovo PI OvvO ■* r^. PI m O OCO 00 t^ two fnvO '^ rO pT P4 l-T M m' M m' m' m' OOt-»OOf<1P^0PiO00 tvoo Ov ro O vo m o OOvooOfOiOOPiOMVOrONroiot~.MO OOvooOrox)»opiooovoio-<*-mpiM-.o o ovo io->ffnprcrpfpri-rM'"i-rM'i-rM"M'~M hT to o '* c »» o >« © i« o "5 o «? © »« © »s o o 4. l- a u V U^ c^ (Tl u o 1 4^ (U n, a a rt c •c 3 rt ^^ Si ri C G w X3 ti CC u J! XI >, != 4) '^ J3 S V*M en be i" , 3 br ^ tc en u x; o H XI CTJ , en V •a X! ClJ 1) >. •a O > bfl •a c (U u. k. 9) Ovw ca W u tn a cfl -a T3 u u > "o c4 Ui >v (U ii X3X 15 c •Vi •o ■* c >. «x> o a lU ;2 "13 >> O" a c p a FORESTRY. 103 STATES AXD TERRITORIES OBSERVING ARBOR DAY, WITH DATES. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) Year of States. First Ob- servance. Time of Observance. Alabama 1887 1890-91 1886 22d of February. First Friday after ist of February. Arizona Arkansas California Colorado 1885 Third Friday in April. Connecticut ...... 1887 In spring, at appointment of governor. Florida 1886 1887 January 8. Georgia First Friday in December. Idaho 1886 Last Monday in April. Illinois 1888 Date fixed by governor and superintend- ent of public instruction. Indiana 1884 1 Date fixed by superintendent of public instruction. Iowa 1887 j Do. Kansas 1875 1886 1888-89 Option of governor, usually in April. Do. Kentucky Louisiana Option of parish boards. Maine 1887 Option of governor. Maryland 1889 1886 Option of governor, in April. Last Saturday in April. Massachusetts. ... Michigan 1885 Option of governor. Minnesota 1876 Do. Mississippi 1802 Option of board of education. Missouri 1886 First Friday after first Tuesday in April, Third Tuesday of April, Montana 1887 Nebraska 1872 1887 1886 22d of April. Nevada Option of governor. Do. New Hampshire... New Jersey 1884 Option of governor, in April. New Mexico 1890 Second Friday in March. New York 1889 ! First Friday after May i. North Carolina 1893 1 North Dakota 1884 6th of May. by proclamation of governor. Ohio 1882 In April, by proclamation of governor. Oklahoma Oregon 1889 1887 1 Second Friday in April. Option of governor. Pennsylvania Rhode Island. . . 1887 1 Do South Carolina Uncertain.! Variable. South Dakota 1884 1 Option of governor. Tennessee 1875 i November, at designation of county sup- erintendents. Texas 22d of February. Option of governor. Vermont 1885 Virginia 1892 1883 West Virginia Fall and spring, at designation of super- intendent of schools. Wisconsin 1889 Option of governor. Wyoming 1888 Do. Washington 1892 Do. 104 AGRICULTURE. FOREST FIRE JLAWS IN THE UNITED STATES. (Fernow.) (See p. io6 for penalties imposed.) State. Edition of Code. Title. Chapter. Section. Alabama C. C. 1886 4226-8 1580-4 384 1414 15, 17-18 1458, 1460-2 Arkansas* California^. ... S. & H.'s D. 1894 P. C. 1886 Mills, G. S. 1891 G. S. 1888. .. . Vol. XVIII. .. 10 1 48 Colorado 36 99 93 Connecticut^. . . Delaware* j 19 Florida Laws 1879 .... 3141 1456-9 6921 18 Georgia^ 1882 10 38 5 3 Idaho R. S. 1887 R. S. i8qs 9 Illinois Indiana R. S. 1894 . . . McLean's, 1888 C. L. 1889. .... 24 Iowa 5185-92 7276-8 5-6 817 5 Kansas Kentucky G. S. 1888 1884 29 Louisiana , Maine Laws 1891 ... . 100 163 328 95 29 47 Maryland. 8 Massachusetts''. ■i Sup. 1888 Michigan^ Minnesota* .... Howell's A. S. 1882 G. S. 1878 t 9402-4 6 Mississippi 1892 1091 3613 Missouri R. S. 1889 1 S. 1847: Burning ofif permitted when consent of neighbors is secured after i day's notice. ^ Pol. Code, S. 3344-5 : Persons firing woods, etc., liable in treble dam- ages. Constable, etc., may order any inhabitants liable to poll-tax to assist in extinguishing fire. 3 Must give notice, before burning off, to all residents within one mile, and can only be done between February 15 and March 31, unless otherwise ordered by county commissioner. * Prohibits building fire in woods without owner's permission, and with- out first clearing away combustibles, and extinguishing fire. ^ Must give I day's notice, before burning off, to adjoining property owners, and then only betwen Feb. 20 and April i. ^ No law included in Revised Statutes. "^ Ch. 296, S. 1-6, G. S. 1883 : Duty of fire wardens to post warnings, extinguish fires, and investigate causes of fires. 8 Supervisors and highway commissioners to order assistance in putting out fires; fine $5-$5o for refusal to assist. ' See act of April 18, 1895. FORESTRY. 105 FOREST-FIKE LtAWS— Continued. State. Montana'" Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire . New Jersey!' New York North Carolina'''. North Dakota. . . Ohio's Oregon'* Pennsylvania. . .. Rhode Island.. . . South Carolina'5. South Dakota. . Tennessee'* Texas Utah'7 Vermont Virginia West Virginia . . . Wisconsin Wyoming'^ Arizona New Mexico .... Oklahoma'* Edition of Code. 1883. P. C. 1895. 1895... .,.. G. S. 1885. P. S. 1891. R. S. 1877. R. S Vol. I 1895 . . R. S. 1894. Sess. 1893. 1894. •••• G. S. 1886. 1893.. .... Dak. Ter., M.«&V. C. P. C. 1889. C. L. 1888. 1887, R. S. 1889. R. S. 1887. R. S. 1887. 1893. Title. Fire. 14 Crim. Stat. 17 10 32 Chapter. c. c. 9-62 277 P. C. 40 279 101 213 181 \ "5. I I 37 entire. ( Section. 1071-2 6713 4794 3-7 I and sup- plements. 52-4 7314-15 6334 Page 45 Act of June II, 1879-81 6 i5'-7 2398 2277-8 669-70 4576 4934 3701-2 81-84 4406 920-2 608-9 23«3-M 2269-70 '0 Penalty for failing to extinguish camp-fire or malicious firing of woods, fine not exceeding $5000, or imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, or both. " Ch. 188, G. P. Laws 1888, provides detectives for violators of fire law. Ch. 119, Laws 1892, and Ch. 194, Laws 1894, provide for fire mar- shals and define their duties. '2 Fine $10 for leaving unextinguished camp-fire. Two days' notice in writing before firing one's own woods. '3 S. 4750-1: Penalty for refusing to assist in extinguishing fires, fine $10. '4 Requires governor to issue proclamation annually July i, warning people against forest fires. 's If turpentine farm, fine $500, or penitentiary i year. '8 Owner may fire his own woods after two days' notice to neighbors. '■^ Ch. 27, Laws 1892: Duty of county sheriffs to extinguish fires. '8 Permits firing grass and sage-bush March, April, and October, if kept within control. 19 Camp-fires, and regulations for burning off prairies, etc., Ch. 37 (enacted 1890) provides penalties for setting fires and failure to extinguish. 106 AGRICULTURE. FOREST-FIRE JuAT^S— Continued. PENALTY PRESCRIBED BY STATE LAWS. Alabama. — Fine $io-$2oo ; if turpentine forest, |ioo-$iooo, or hard labor for not more than 12 months. Arkansas. — Fine $25-$3oo, or jail 10-60 days. Liable for double damages. California .—Y'lTiQ not more than $1000, or jail not more than i year, or both. Color ado. ~¥\nt $50-^300, or jail 15 days to 3 months, or both If on State lands, $5o-$5oo, or jail 20 days to 6 months. C^««^<:^/c:?//.— Fine $2o-$2oo, or jail 2-6 months, or both. Fine $i-$5o, or jail not more than 30 days. Delaware. — Fine $25. Florida. — ¥\ne not more than $100, or jail not more than 60 days. Georgia. — Fine not more than $1000, or i year in chain-gang, or both. Idaho. — Misdemeanor. Illijiois.— Fine $5-$ioo. Indiana.— Fine $5-$ioo, towh'ich may be added imprisonment not more than 30 days. Iowa. — Fine not exceeding $500, or jail not exceeding i year. Kansas. — Fine $5o-$5oo, or jail 10 days to 6 months, or both. Kentucky. — Fine $100, or in discretion of jury. Louisiana.— Fine f5-$5oo. Maine. — Fine not exceeding $100, or jail not exceeding 30 days, or both. Massachusetts .—Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 6 months. Michigan.— Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 1 year, or both. Minnesota. — State prison 6 months to 2 years. Mississippi. — Fine $2o-$5oo, or jail not more than 3 months, or both. Missouri — Fine not more than $500, or jail not more than 12 months. Montana.— FinQ not more than $1000, or jail not more than i year. Nebraska. — Fine Ss-Sioo, and jail 1-6 months. Nevada. — Fine $2oo-$iooo, or jail 10 days to 6 months, or both. New Hampshire. — Fine $io-$2ooo7t)r imprisonment not more than 3 years. New /ersey.— Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than i year, or both. Nfw York.— Fine not exceeding $1000, or imprisonment not exceeding I year. North Carolina —Fine $50. North Dakota.— ^i\[\i\. a misdemeanor ; negligent, fine Sio-Sioo. Ohio.— Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 20 days, or both. Oregon. — Fine $io-$ioco, and in certain cases penitentiary not exceed, ing I year. Pennsylvania.— Fine not more than $300, or jail not more than i year or both. FORESTRY. lO'J' Rhode Island. — Imprisonment not exceeding 2 years. South Carolina, — Fine $5-$ioo, or jail not more than 30 days. South Dakota. — Fine not more than $200, or jail not more than i year, or both, Tennessee. — Forfeit $100 to prosecutor and fine $5-$5o (S. 2277, Code Sup. 1893). Texas. — Fine $50-300. Utah. — Misdemeanor. Vertnont.—Y'\x\Q. not more than $500, or penitentiary not more than c years. Virginia. — Fine $5-$ioo, and jail 1-6 months. West Virginia.— Fine Sio-$iooo, or jail not more than 12 months. IViscons in, —Fine not more than S500, or jail not more than i year. Wyoming. — Fine not more than S500, or jail 30 days to 6 months. w4rr'2<7«rt,— Misdemeanor. If on State or U. S. lands, fine not more than $1000, or jail not more than i year, or both. New Mexico. — Fine S6o-$5oo. Oklahoma.— Fine. $10-8500, or jail not more than i year, or both. 108 AGRICULTURE. X. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. It is a matter of common experience among farmers that the soil is impoverished by continuous cropping, and the yields obtained therefore gradually decreased. The decrease in yields can only be prevented by applications of farmyard manure or commercial fertilizers; ploughing and thorough cultivation of the soil bring the land in a better mechanical condition and increase the amount of available plant food present in the soil, but these operations are not sufficient to maintain the fertility of the land so that it will yield equally well from year to year under otherwise favorable conditions. Every crop harvested contains certain quan- tities of fertilizing ingredients, and taking away these amounts in general leaves the soil in a poorer condition for the production of crops than it was before. The fertilizing ingredients of which the soil is thus liable to be robbed are potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and sometimes lime. They are not present as such in the soil, or in the fertilizers applied to the soil, but in chemical com- binations with a large variety of compounds. The soil will contain nearly all the different elements which chemists have so far succeeded in isolating, but it is mainly the three elements, potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen, which are apt to be decreased in the soil below the amounts required for the nutrition of crops, or at least of maxi- mum crops. In rational fertilization the effort therefore always is to return to the soil such quantities of fertilizing ingredients, in the shape of farmyard manure or com- mercial fertilizers, as will restore the loss sustained by the withdrawal of the crops harvested. Other mineral ingre- dients contained in the crops need not generally be re- turned to the soil, since they are nearly everywhere pres- ent in abundance. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 109 It is the grand work done for the farmer by agricultural chemistry during the past half century which has ex- plained the causes of the decreased fertility of land due to continuous cropping, and has given the remedies for maintaining the fertility. The latter are as follows: First, by selling only such products from the farm as will deprive the soil of the smallest quantities of fertilizing in- gredients, i.e., manufactured products, like milk, cream, butter, meat, eggs, rather than grain crops, hay, etc. The tables given on pp. iii-ii4show the amounts of fertilizing ingredients removed in farm products of various kinds and deserve a close study by all farmers. Secofidly, by carefully saving the manure produced by stock — both liquid and solid (the former by the use of ab- sorbents, peat, land plaster, kainit, superphosphate, shav- ings, etc., or by building special cisterns for storing it; the latter by placing it under shelter, guarding against leakage) — and returning it to the land ; as the products sold off the land also contain certain quantities of fertilizing constituents, the loss must be repaired by purchase of concentrated food stuffs, at least three fourths of whose valuable ash ingredi- ents will go into the manure and thus be saved for crops. Thirdly, by following a rational system of rotation of crops, and by frequent culture of leguminous crops, — clovers, peas, beans, etc., — since these are able to so fix the free nitrogen of the air as to render it of value to ani- mals and plants. VALUATION OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. The valuation of fertilizing ingredients shown below (see p. 122) is the one agreed upon by a number of Eastern experiment and fertilizer control stations after a careful study of the retail prices of crude products of fertilizers during the six months prior to March i, 1896. It expresses the commercial value of the fertilizers, and not their agri- cultural value, which will vary according to the require- ments of the land and the character of the crops grown. Fertilizers are sold in States having fertilizer control, on the basis of a guarantee of a minimum content of potash, 110 AGRICULTURE. phosphoric acid, and nitrogen, singly or combined, and it is the office of the fertilizer control stations to watch that goods offered for sale in their respective states are up to the guarantee. Farmers living in states where fertilizer laws are enacted (Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Dela- ware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louis- iana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missis- sippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Caro- lina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wis- consin) should not buy fertilizers except on guarantee, and should examine the fertilizer bulletins published by their respective stations to ascertain that the goods put on the market are not below the guarantee, and that the valuation price is not below the selling price of the article. Where a reasonable suspicion of fraud exists, apply to the direc- tor of the experiment station for information concerning the goods offered for sale or the firm placing them on the market. MAJEURES AND FERTILIZERS. Ill FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS. (Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Material. Green Fodders, Pasture grass Green fodder corn Sorghum fodder Rye fodder. , Oat fodder Timothy grass Red clover White clover Alsike clover Scarlet clover Alfalfa (lucern) Cowpea Soja bean Prickly comfrey Corn silage Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders. Fodder corn (with ears) . . . . Corn stover (without ears) Hungarian grass Common millet Hay of mi.xed grasses Red- top • . , Timothy Red clover Mammoth red clover White clover Scarlet clover Alsike clover Alfalfa Barley straw , " chaff Wheat straw " chaff Rye straw Oat " Buckwheat hulls Roots, Bulbs, Tubers, etc. Potatoes Sweet potatoes Red beets Yellow fodder beets Sugar beets Mangel-wurzels Turnips Rutabagas Carrots per ct. 63.1 78.6 82.2 62.1 83-4 66.9 80.0 81.0 8r.8 82. 5 7.=5-3 78.8 73-2 84.4 78.0 7.85 9.12 7.69 9-75 11.99 18.30 9.94 6.55 11.44 13.08 12.56 8.05 7.61 9.09 11.90 79.24 71.26 87-73 90.60 86.95 87 29 89.49 89 13 89.79 per ct. 3.27 4.84 I-3I 2.15 1.47 2.25 1.47 2.45 4.91 3-74 6.18 6.34 4-59 4-93 6-93 8.72 7.70 7.07 5-30 3.81 7.18 325 4.76 .89 1. 00 1-13 •95 1.04 1.22 1. 01 1.06 1.22 per ct. ,91 41 23 33 49 48 53 56 44 43 72 27 29 42 28 1.76 1.04 1.20 1.28 1. 41 1-15 1.26 2.07 2.23 2.75 2.05 2-34 2. 19 1-31 1. 01 •59 •79 .46 .62 •49 •32 .24 .24 .19 .22 .19 .18 -19 •15 •^n-l" 1< per ct. •23 •15 .09 •15 •13 .26 •13 .20 .11 •13 •13 .10 •15 07 .08 .09 .09 . 10 .09 .09 per ct. 75 33 23 73 38 76 46 24 20 49 56 31 53 75 37 .89 1 .40 1.30 1.69 1-55 1 .02 .90 2.20 1.22 1. 81 1-3' 2.23 1.68 2.09 •99 -51 .42 •79 1.24 •52 .46 •37 ■44 .46 .48 •38 •39 •49 •51 112 AGRICULTURE. MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS. Chart showing Pounds of Fertilizing Constituents of Feeding Stuffs in one Ton, and the Manurial Value of Feeding Stuff s^ according to the Valuation given. "Nitrogen ^Phosphoric Acid Potash Price per pound 12 cts. 4>^ cts. il^ cts. Black Bar represents Manurial Yalueper Ton, '20 '40 '60 '80 '100 '120 '140 '160 ' ISO '200 lb». OreencomfodclcJ^^,^ $1.42 ,1.10 t^2^ _;;^ m 1 f>9 Si .87 ,1.98 Oat/odder Oreen clover Com silage Com stalks (^stover) Timothy hay Red clover hay "Wheat straw Potatoes Tumifis Indian corn ^maize) fVheat Barley Oata Rye Biee Pea meal Buckwheat Com ^ cob meal ^^^^^^^^^ Com cob £3a_1.79 Wheat bran ffffii^a^^^^. Wheat middlitigs\ Biee bran .4.02 «4.31 .7.29 X ,5.36 .6.65 •^""^ ,4.77 L :^^, .6.24 ,5.45 l^M. 2.83 aja=«jji^'3 ».02 t zr- ,4.04 _4.32 ,10.40 ^r^i. Linseed meal ,^ . , , , . O.P. ^u, JAnseeU meal ,r,^^ y.p. Wi^ Cotton seed meal Cotton seed hulls Gluten mcc.l ^^ Malt sprouts Brewers' grains 2.18 .15.78 80 100 IgO 140 160 180 200 lb(. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 113 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS.— (G«//««^«'.) Materia], Grains and Other Seeds. Corn. Sorghum seed Barley. . Oats Wheat, spring " . winter Rye Millet, common Japanese millet Rice Buckwheat Soja beans Other Concentrated Feeds. Corn meal Corn and cob meal Ground oats " barley Wheat flour Pea meal Corn cobs Hominy feed Gluten meal Starch feed (glucose refuse) Malt sprouts. Brewers' grains, dry ' " wet Rye bran " middlings Wheat bran " middlings Rice bran " polish Buckwheat middlings Cotton-seed meal hulls Linseed meal (old process). . " " (new process) . Apples, fruit Apple pomace.. Dairy Products^ etc. Whole milk Skim-milk Cream Buttermilk Whey Butter Cheese. Live cattle Sheep Swine per ct. 10.88 14.00 14.30 18.17 14-35 14-75 14.90 12.68 13-68 12.60 14.10 18.33 per ct. 1-53 2.48 2.98 1-57 .82 4.99 12-95 1. 41 8.96 11.17 3-37 13-43 2.06 9-83 1 .22 8.85 2.68 12.09 .82 8.93 2.21 8-59 -73 8.10 18.38 12.48 9.14 3-92 75 01 12.50 4.60 12.54 3-52 11.74 6.25 9.18 2.30 10.20 12.94 10.30 9.00 14.70 1.40 7.81 6.95 10.17 2.40 8.88 6.08 7-77 5-.S7 85.30 •39 80.50 •27 87.00 -75 90.25 .80 74-05 •50 90.50 .70 92.97 .60 79.10 •15 33 25 2.10 50 2 4 40 44.8 2.90 42 1.80 per ct. 1.82 1.48 1. 51 2.06 2.36 2.36 1.76 2.04 1-73 1.08 1-44 5-30 1.58 1. 41 1.86 1-55 2.21 3 -08 -50 1.63 5-03 2.62 3-55 3.62 .89 2.32 1.84 2.67 2.63 • 71 1-97 1.38 6.79 .69 5-43 5-78 •13 .23 -53 -56 .40 3-93 2.48 ^■95 1 .76 ■ '^ -a w O •— C J2 O per ct. ,70 •63 -57 •77 .66 -57 .82 .06 .98 -33 .29 1-43 1.03 -31 2.28 1.26 2.89 •95 .29 2.67 .68 2.88 -25 1.66 1-83 .19 .20 -15 •17 .14 04 .60 .76 ■ ^3 •73 per ct. .40 .42 .48 .62 -39 .61 -54 -36 -38 .09 .21 1. 99 .40 •47 •59 -34 •54 •99 .60 -49 •05 -15 1.63 .09 •05 1.40 .81 1. 61 •63 .24 -71 -34 .87 1.02 1-37 I '39 .19 •13 •13 .16 .18 .04 . 12 .16 .14 114 AGKICULTURE. AMOUNT OF SOIL. INGREDIENTS WITHDRAWN BY VARIOUS CROPS, IN LBS. PER ACRE. (HiLGARD.) Crops. Grapes, i.ooo lbs Crop of 10,000 lbs Seeds, 646 lbs Flesh, 9,154 lbs Wood, 2,010 lbs Prunes, 1,000 lbs Crop of 30,000 lbs Pits, 1,635 lbs Flesh, 28,365 lbs Apricots, 1,000 lbs Crop of 30,000 lbs Pits, 1,740 lbs Flesh, 28,260 lbs Oranges, 1,000 lbs Crop of 20,000 lbs Seeds, 240 lbs Flesh and rind, 10,760 lbs Roots, percentage.. Stems, " Leaves " Olives, 1,000 lbs Crop of 2,200 lbs Pits, 429 lbs Flesh, 1,771 lbs Leaves, 4,400 lbs Wood, 11,000 lbs Wheat, 1,000 lbs. (whole plant)... Crop of 4.800 lbs. (hay) Grain, 20 bushels Straw, 3,600 lbs Alfalfa, 1,000 lbs Crop of 12,000 lbs Sugar beets (fresh), 1,000 lbs Crop of 72,000 lbs Roots, 40,000 lbs Tops, 32,000 lbs Ramie, 1,000 lbs Crop of 14.25 tons. Leaves, 4.25 tons Stalk (without bark), 7.25 tons. Bark (cuticle and fibre), 2.75 tons Cotton, 1,000 lbs Crop of 3,200 lbs Leaves, 400 lbs Stems, 1,200 lbs Seeds, 800 lbs Burs, 400 lbs Lint, 400 lbs . ... 53-42 3-03 1 20 . 90 8.60 112. 30 5.16 154.80 12.25 142.55 4-32 86.40 6.90 79 50 100. 12 100.00 99.91 94-63 208.18 193-25 '4-56 190.16 123.18 51.26 246.04 24.00 222.04 65.00 780.00 18.73 1349-72 287.00 1062.72 75-19 2143-57 1641.35 410.48 91.74 54.26 173.60 48.69 38.44 29 -37 52.01 509 5.00 50.00 1.48 47-44 15.69 2.66 79.70 2.06 77.64 2.83 19 1 .36 83.62 2. II 42.28 2.74 39-54 15-43 11.69 16.51 8.55 18 81 6.77 12.04 58.05 24.46 9-15 43-92 7-85 36.07 13-49 161.88 5-38 387.44,224 152.00 16. 235.44 208. 8.84I 23. 251.98:657. 68.13J566. 155.99 71- [.00 ).oo :.6o -13 \.gj •52 1.40 .18 ;-45 -83 .65 .99 72 32 40 89 13 38 32 66 22. 274. 3- 27.86 11.00 35-26 7-99 9.17 8.99 7.42 1.69 19.14 13 • 76 44.04 15-03 10.58 3-07 14.16 1.20 Q.'(j o Si: 0.52; OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO oooooooooooooooooooooooo OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO . 05 (O "8 o 0! oi o; 05 6 05 X)^ XI . 03 t/3 -^ i2 : x> XJ j:;X3 . oj .JO ^^ ^- ^— ■ c c ' " " to O) — • O O c . C coo ■ Z. ^ O „ o ■ o O O O tn • O • .n ^ 0, o. ■ o • *J PI p) m « . M l/^vo N ro • M M -^^ N'- m fT) coo . C O O O o o : o O O O O g ; o o coo to O •:i'"8 8 M O o "8 O M ' moo '- •:^R rooo N • 1^ ui O \o • in f^ ': o. o • W VO M H M M ro »-< • M N ro -^ Ht (T en c/) t^ Xi -^ Xl (/) ^ c/3 c/3 ;/5 f^ o o o o o p< -*- Tj- m fo o o o o o In "3X1 xi £ o o o o 05 o; oi 1) 0) «J o;j=j=^ (/> ^o u 2 a J u-rt<3--00p;r < m CC CC U U U O O X S O O 0. eu P- P^ £d (/3 h H H h ^ 116 AGRICULTURE. 31INIMUM AMOUNT OF FARMYARD MANURE required to replace the Ingredients abstracted from the Soil by an Acre of Different Crops. (McConnell.) Wheat 5 tons. Barley 5 Oats 5 Meadow hay 8 Red clover I2 Beans lo Turnips 15 tons. Swedes 10 Mangolds 20 Potatoes 10 Cabbage 25 Carrots 10 A3IOUNT AND QUALITY OF MANURE PRODUCED BY STOCK. The various classes of farm animals will produce about the following quantities of solid and liquid manure during a year, viz.: Solid Manure. Liquid Manure. Horse 12,000 lbs. 3,000 lbs. Cow 20,000 " 8,000 " Sheep 760 " 380 " Pig 1,800 " 1,200 •' Since a considerable portion of the manure is lost while the animal is working or is out-doors, the quantities secured in the manure-pile will not come up to these figures. The quantities of urine voided by farm animals during twenty-four hours are on the average as follows, accord- ing to Wilckens : cows, 15-20 lbs.; horses, 20-27 lbs.; sheep, 2 lbs.; swine, 7-9 lbs. The capacity for liquid manure-tanks or cisterns intended to hold the fluid excre- ments of a herd of a certain size may readily be calculated on a basis of these figures (see tables on p. 137). 6000 lbs. (about 720 gallons) of urine per 1000 lbs. live weight of cattle, is a liberal estimate. The quality of the manure produced will depend on the character of the feeding and the kind of stock kept. Rich feeding produces a rich manure, since, as shown in the table given below, only a relatively small portion of the valuable fertilizing ingredients of the food is retained in MANURES AN^D FERTILIZERS. 117 the bodies of the animals, or is taken away in the products sold. Rich feeding, therefore, has a beneficial influence in two directions, larger yields of products being obtained, and a better quality of manure being produced. COMPOSITION, AMOUNT, AND VALUE OF MANURE Produced by Different Kinds of Farm Animals. (Results of experiments conducted at Cornell University Experiment Station.) m Analysis and Value per Ton of Manure. Amount and Value per 1000 lbs. Live Weight per Day. A • { 1 . J3 (U * 1 f> \ "a * 4J *. 4J Per ct. 0! (1, Per ct. Valu per Ton. ^Q Valu per Day. Valu per Year Per ct. Per ct. Cents. Sheep. .. 59-52 -77 9^39 -59 . $3.30 34-1 7.2 $26 09 Calves.. 77-73 •50 •17 •53 2.18 67.8 6.7 24^45 Pigs.... 74-13 .84 ■39 •32 329 83 6 16.7 60.88 Cows ... 75-25 •43 .29 •44 2.02 74. T 8.0 29.27 Horses . 48.69 •49 .26 .48 2.21 48.8 7.6 27.74 QUANTITIES OF NITROGEN AND ASH CONSTITU- ents Voided by Animals or Obtained in Animal Products. (Lawes and Gilbert.) Percentage of Nitrogen. Percentage of Ash Constituents. Obtain- ed as Animal Prod- uct. Voided as Solid Excre- ment. Voided as Liquid Excre- ment. In Total Excre- ment. Obtained as Live Weight or Milk. Voided as Excre- ment or Perspira- tion. Horse at rest . . . Horse at work... Fattening oxen . Fattening siieep. Fattening pigs. Milking cows None. None. 3-9 4-3 14.7 24-5 43-0 29.4 22.6 16.7 22 .0 iS.i 57-0 70.6 73-5 79.0 63 -3 57-4 100. 100. 96.1 95-7 85-3 75-5 None. None. 2-3 3-8 4.0 10.3 100. 100.9 97-7 96.2 96.0 89.7 * Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, pnospnoric acid at 6 cents, and potash at 4i cents per pound. 118 •AGRICULTURE. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZING MATERIALS. (Real.) Name. Algae {Lyfigbia tnajuscula) . Ammonite Apatite Ashes, anthracite coal " bituminous *' " lime-kiln , ... " wood, leached " " unleached Bat guano .... Bone-ash Bone-black " " dissolved Bone meal , . " " dissolved " " free from fat . . . . '* " from glue factory Carnallite. Caribbean guano Castor pomace Cotton-hur ashes Cotton-seed meal, decort . . " " " undecort.. Cuba guano Dried blood Dried fish. Eel -grass (2d>.y^^r<» marina).. Gas lime Horn and hoof waste Kainit Kelp {laminaria) Kieserite Krugite Lobster shells Marls, Kentucky " Maryland and Virginia " New Jersey green sand " North Carolina Meat scrap . Mona Island guano Muck. . Mud, salt Muriate of potash. Navassa phosphate Nitrate of soda Oleomargarine refuse 16.26 5-88 15-45 30.22 12.50 40.09 7.00 4.60 7-50 4-25 11-33 8.20 4-05 2.60 6.20 1.70 7-31 9-50 7.80 7-75 24.27 12.50 12.75 81.19 22.28 10. 17 3.20 87-75 22.70 5-50 6.79 4-30 1.67 10.52 7-25 •35 13-25 4.82 7.27 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 12.09 13-32 50.00 60.00 2.00 7.60 1 .40 8 54 4.50 10.44 .76 T.IO .40 15 70 12.12 -79 13.60 1. 10 22.75 1.77 1-50 •32 13-54 .24 8.42 •1-3 •2-5 3-5-7 2-1.5 -15 •35 51.48 Phosphoric Acid. 2-37 15.40 .40 X 1.24 1.30 7.60 1353 1-25 •55 6.50 2.60 7-55 17.60 20. 10 29.90 26.77 1-75 8.85 2. 3- 13-35 1. 91 8.25 .07 i^83 .06 3-52 .2 .0-2 .1-4 0-.4 2.07 21.88 . 10 34-27 .06 48.50 28.08 34.00 44.89 39-95 9.60 -51 43.66 I-I5 .40 2.82 12.4s 22.24 3-34 0-40 1-9 5-45 37-49 .90 37-45 MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 119 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF C03IMEKCIAL FERTILIZING MATEniAlAS— Con tmued. Name. Oyster-shell lime*. Peat Peruvian guano Phosphates, Florida Plaster, puret Seaweed " ashes " mixed Sewage sludge, precipitated Soot, S. Carolina rock, dissolved., " " " ground Spent tan-bark ashes. .. ... Sumac waste Sulfate of ammonia Sulfate of potash and mag- Sulfate of potash, high grade Sylvanite Tankage Thomas slag , Tobacco stalks " stems Wool washings Wool waste Coviposition of Farm Manures. Barnyard manure, average.. Cattle excrement, sol id, fresh Cattle urine, fresh Hen manure, fresh Horse excrement, solid Horse urine, fresh. Human excrement, solid Human urine Pigeon manure, dry Poudrette, night soil Sheep excrement, solid, fresh Sheep urine, fresh Stable manure, mixed Swine excrement, solid, fresh Swine urine, fresh 15.00 61 , 50 14.81 2.2Z, 01.90 1-47 81.50 88.49 5-54 1.50 3.61 63.06 1 .00 4-75 2-54 7-25 10.00 1.45 6.18 15-S 68.87 60.00 77.20 95-90 10.00 50.00 73-27 .85 7-35 .29 •73 -05 1. 19 20.50 6.70 3-71 2.35 6.50 .49 .29 •58 1 . 10 .44 1-55 1 .00 .60 3.20 .80 •55 1-95 •50 .60 ■43 •05 2.65 .40 .92 1.50 •05 1.83 2.04 3-25 25-50 33-40 16.65 5.02 8.20 392 tl.20 •43 .10 •49 •56 •35 1.50 •25 .20 1 .00 •30 •15 2.26 .60 •13 Phosphoric Acid. 3.20 Oi 4.10 •30 .CO 5- 3.06 .08 15-30 24 50 15.20 28.03 1. 61 11.80 23-49 .65 •70 •35 55- 00 28.50 20.93 6.06 •23 1-58 41.87 33-46 1.14 2.57 48.66 2.22 4.20 .11 80 * 18.5 per cent carbonate. + Nova Scotia plaster contains 94 per cent pure gypsum and 4 per cent carbonate of lime; Onondae^a and Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum and 18-28 per cent carbonate of lime. % Sometimes as high as 5 per cent. 120 ' AGRICULTURE. EXHAUSTION OF FERTILIZERS. (Scotch Authority.) ON CULTIVATED CLAY LOAM. Kind of Fertilizer. Lime Bone meal Phosphatic guanos Dissolved bones and plain superphos- phates High-grade ammoniated fertilizers, guano, etc Cotton-seed meal Stable manure ■a a Per Cent remaining in the Soil Unexhausted at End of Each of First Six Years. 2 3 4 45 5 65 55 35 30 20 10 30 20 10 10 5 •■ •• 20 30 20 10 .. 30 20 10 •• 25 ON CULTIVATED LIGHT OR MEDIUM SOILS. Lime Bone meal Phosphatic guanos . . Dissolved bones and plain superphos- phate High-grade ammoniates, guanos Cotton-seed meal Stable manure . . 75 60 40 30 20 15 4 60 30 10 .. 4 50 20 10 3 20 10 5 3 30 20 4 40 30 20 10 4 60 30 10 .. ON CULTIVATED PASTURE LAND. Lime. ... Bone meal Phosphatic guanos Dissolved bone, etc High-grade ammoniated guanos Cotton-seed meal Stable manure 15 80 70 60 50 45 7 bo 50 40 30 20 6 50 40 30 20 10 4 30 20 10 4 30 20 10 5 40 30 20 10 7 60 50 40 30 20 40 Sulfate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, sulfate, nitrate, and muriate of potash are generally held to be entirely exhausted by the crops grown the season of their applica- tion. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 121 EQUIVAIiENT QUANTITIES OF FERTIIjIZING MATEKIAIjS. (Wheeler and Hartwell.) For loo lbs. nitrate of soda loo lbs. sulfate of ammonia loo lbs. dried blood loo lbs. cotton- seed meal loolbs. diss, phos- phate rock loo lbs. diss, bone black loo lbs. double superphosphate r I ICO lbs. tank- ■ age loo lbs. dry ground fish May be Substituted any One of these Materials. loo lbs. fine- J ground bone ) 76 lbs. sulfate of 141 lbs. dried 235 lbs. cotton- ammonia blood seed meal. 132 lbs. nitrate of 186 lbs. dried 311 lbs. cotton- soda blood seed meal 71 lbs. nitrate of 54 lbs. sulfate of 167 lbs. cotton- soda ammonia seed meal 43 lbs. nitrate of 32 lbs. sulfate of 60 lbs. dried soda ammonia blood 76 lbs. diss, bone 33 lbs. double su- black perphosphate 131 lbs. diss, phos- 43 lbs. double su- phate rock perphosphate 308 lbs diss, phos- 235 li)s. double phate rock superphosphate 39 lbs. nitrate of soda and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 29 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 38 lbs. phosphate lock. 55 lbs. dried blood and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 91 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 80 lbs. dry ground fish and 14 lbs. phosphate rock. 33 lbs. nitrate of soda and 4.5 lbs. fine-ground bone. 48 lbs. nitrate of soda and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 37 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 68 lbs. dried blood and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 113 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 80 lbs. tankage and 17 lbs. nitrate of soda. 36 lbs. fine ground bone and 44 lbs. nitrate of soda. 13 lbs. nitrate of soda and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 10 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 18 lbs. dried blood and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 30 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 33 lbs. tankage and 72 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 27 lbs, dry ground fish and 76 lbs. diss, phosphate rock 122 AGRICULTURE. TRADE VALUES OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN RAW MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS, 1896. Cents per lb. Nitrogen — in ammonia salts i5 in nitrates I3i Organic nitrogen — in dry and fine-ground fish, meat, blood, and in high- grade mixed fertilizers 14 in cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, and castor pomace 12 in fine-ground bone and tankage I3i in fine-ground medium bone and tankage 12 in medium bone and tankage 9 in coarse bone and tankage 3 in hair, horn-shavings, and coarse fish scraps 3 Phosphoric acid — soluble in water 5i soluble in ammonium citrate 5 in dry fine-ground fish and in fine bone and tankage. 5 in fine medium bone and tankage 4 in medium bone and tankage 2$ in coarse bone and tankage 2 in fine-ground fish, cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, castor pomace, and wood ashes 4^ insoluble (in ammonium citrate solution), in mixed fertilizers • 2 Potash as high-grade sulfate, and in mixtures free from muriate 5 as muriate 4i The manurial constituents contained in feeding stuffs are valued as follows : Organic nitrogen I2 Phosphoric acid 4^ Potash 4i MANUEES AND FERTILIZERS. 123 CONVERSION TABLE FOR CALCULATING FER- TILIZING INGREDIENTS. Amount of Nitrogen Ammonia ^|1 Q m M ■ 00 m 1- 00 w !■ >i^ e rt O O o JN c* o- t^ ■^00 « mvo M W S z u - • t^ >- m -^ o • 00 t>«00 00 ■* 3 c ^00 r^ --i- ti CO ii • «o t^ o t^ c> t^ ^ u •a c M M M r* ^ Vt-1 O o HI \o " 00 in ui in Ti- m ts Tt PI t^CO W >- T)- P) t-. -.J- M M vo ■* " On >^ 4) O "5 rt PS > M M « HI N m It H 00 M ■>»• IN m •>i- M b. 4^ ro in ■* M o O in in o\ m in moo vo vd t^ in o (s M ^'^ rt M HI h- CO •» t^ ^ <- vo roN Cj'-^ino "«- PJ ►- >0 w-.-O tn^ invo v,-i O lO Cn m^ " t^ a> Q o Vh < CO C^ t-~ M >- N mvD CA ^ « ro mvo M vo t^ •<^ ro C 00 mco "rt O in vd HI ov HI NO VO Ov rO s ~ O ro in ^ f- ■^^ N w ro -q-^ O^ fi M ►H « S QC 1 . •5 2 "w mioo "10 »oo in r^>o vo U-) lo -I- ■«■ ,-o r^ O CtM V O- ----- - >2< ?:.2 o-« .._,------- M ^- ^ OOmO'nO'nO n g t^vo lo m •<*■■* m en ^O^OvO^O^O^O^O^ > a "o J3 rt _: ^ C<*H — d u Hk Q 00 N •*0 00 O >0 M « M « M N N »-H^^H-H>>^;-"ri^ AGRICULTURAL ENGIXEERIKG. 131 Q 55 O Q ;?: M ri Expense per Horse- power, in cents per hour. CO O>00 OVO in N •a u a ^ > u Q u V H V a. 2i < o u in c V a X 5 o N f^ ro l-( IH M N For Interest on First Cost (first cost including cost of wind- mill, pump, and tower) at 5^ per annum. ioo>o >nio«no r> ro t^vo 0> ■* ro iH t~oo 00 •* t~ M^ c^ cT m in tC pT H Designation of Mill. 00 N -*-^ 00 vn ►- ►- M M !-• CI CI -!=3H^>>^g 132 AGRICULTURE. NOMINAL HORSE-POWER REQUIRED FOR THE DISCHARGE OF GIVEN QUANTITIES OF WATER WITH LIFTS OF 10 AND 20 FEET. (Scott.) Diameter of Pipe, Inches. Gallons Discharged per Minute. Nominal H.P. required for a lo-foot Lift. Nominal H.P. required for a 20-foot Lift. 3 lOO I 2 4 200 1V2 3 1 350 500 2 2^ 4 5 7 8 759 1000 3 4 6 8 ID 1500 6 10 12 14 2300 2S00 8 10 14 16 15 i8 3300 6000 12 20 20 35 IRRIGATION. (Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) A wafer right is the right or privilege of using water lor irrigating purposes, either in a definite quantity or upon a prescribed area of land, such right or privilege being cus- tomarily acquired either by priority of use or by purchase. In many parts of the arid region a water right is an exceed- ingly valuable property. The average value of the water rights of the entire arid region, as determined by the cen- sus of 1890, was $26 per acre, and there are fruit-growing districts in California where water rights have been sold at as high as $1500 per miner's inch, or from $100 to $500 per acre, according to the amount used on any given area of land. The duty of water is the extent of the service it will per- form when used for irrigating purposes, that is, the num- ber of acres a given quantity of water will adequately irri- gate under ordinary circumstances. This is usually from 100 to 200 acres for each second-foot. Where water is abundant the duty has been known to be as low as 50 acres, and where very scarce as high as 500 acres, to the second-foot. AGRICULTURAL EKGIKBERING. 133 A mhier's inch is theoretically such a quantity of water as will flow through an aperture i inch square in a board 2 inches thick under a head of water of 6 inches in one sec- ond of time, and it is equal to 0.194 gallon, or 0.0259337 cubic foot, per second, or to 11.64 gal., or i.556o24cubic ft., per minute. The amount of water flowing through a given aperture in a given time varies, however, with the head of water over the opening, and also with the form of the opening. In Colorado the miner's inch legalized by statute equals 11. 7 gal. per min. The California miner's inch, how- ever, equals only 9 gal. per min., 100 Colorado inches being, accordingly, equal to 130 California inches. One hundred Colorado inches will cover an acre to a depth of 5.2 ft. in 24 hours ; 100 California inches will cover the same area only to a depth of 4 ft. in the same time. Fifty California inches are, therefore, approximately equal to i second- foot, and 50 Colorado inches equal to about three tenths more. An acre-foot of water is the amount required to cover an acre of ground to a depth of i foot. This is 43,560 cubic feet, or 325,851.45 gal. Its weight is 1213 tons 2113 pounds, at 2240 pounds to the ton. The amount of water required to cover an acre of ground to a depth of i inch is 3630 cubic feet, or 27,154.29 gal. Its weight is loi tons 362I pounds, at 2240 pounds to the ton. A second-foot is the most satisfactory because the most definite unit of measurement for flowing water. It is used by the U. S. Government in the gauging of rivers and streams, and is rapidly superseding the miner's inch in the measurement of water for irrigation. It is the quantity rep- resented by a stream i foot wide and i foot deep flowing at the average rate of i foot per second. In other words, it is I cub. ft. per second, 60 cub. ft. per min., 3600 cub. ft. per hour, etc. A stream flowing continuously at the average rate of i second-foot would carry in one day of 24 hours 86,400 cub. ft., or 646,316.9 gal., sufficient to cover ijh^ acres to a depth of I ft. Flowing continuously for one year of 365 days, such a stream would carry 31,536,000 cub. 134 AGRlCULTUtlE. ft., or 235,905,678.7 gal., sufficient to cover 723^' acres to a depth of I ft. The sub-humid region is the strip of country running north and south between the arid region, where irrigation is absolutely necessary to the successful prosecution of agriculture, and those portions of the United States in which the rainfall is usually sufficient for agricultural pur- poses. It includes portions of North Dakota, South Da- kota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas, and may be described as a region where irrigation is not always necessary, but where agricultural operations cannot, with any assurance of success, be undertaken without it. The average value of the irrigated land in farms in the United States was ascertained by the census of 1890 to be $83.28 per acre, and that of the non-irrigated land in farms $20.95 per acre. The average annual value of the agricultural products of the irrigated land was ascertained to be $14.89 per acre irri- gated, and that of those of the non-irrigated land $6.80 for each acre improved. The average first cost of the irrigated land, including purchase money, water rights, etc., was ascertained to have been $8.15 per acre, and the average annual cost of the water supply $1.07 per acre. The total value of the irrigated farms of the United States, as reported by the farmers themselves, was, in round figures, $296,850,000, an increase of $219,360,000, or 283 per cent, upon their cost, including land, water right, fences, and preparation for cultivation. The total value of the productive irrigating systems was found to be $94,412,000, an increase of $64,801,000, or 219 per cent, upon their cost. AGEiCtJLTiJRAL ENGINEERING. 135 CARRYING CAPACITY OF PIPES, GALLONS PER MINUTE. (Wilcox.) — . ^^ . = «• — . ^ . „^. ^^ -«• rt^ OJVh Ojvw d v„ «•*-( "H^ ci"^ rt**^ Size of feo fc fco fco I..0 ^°n ^8 ^S Pipe. X! « Xi M u, 2 ^ g ^ C oj a « c 5 C y C 1) a. c •a 4J a a V a V U 6 8 10 12 16 18 20 22 24 $0.32 .42 •53 .63 .69 .82 .91 I. GO 1.05 $0.41 •51 .60 .68 •75 •93 1. 00 1. 14 1.30 1.46 $0.52 .62 • 85 .98 1. 17 1.25 1.43 1.63 1.85 2.00 |o.72i I.04J 1.42 1.84 2.30 2.83 3-37 3-97 4.62 5-33 $o.i6i .22 •33 •4ii •55 .68f .82^ .g6i 1. 21 ^•37* $0.74 ■94 1.08 1.22 1.32 1.40 $O.I2 .20 .26 •32 •38 •45 :ll .68 .80 AVERAGE COST PER MILE OF CONSTRUCTING IRRIGATING CANALS AND DITCHES. (Eleventh U. S. Census.) States and Territories. General average Arizona ... California. Colorado Idaho Montana Nevada New Mexico Oregon Utah Washington , Wyoming Sub-humid region.. . Under 5 Feet ia Width. 380 205 32s 200 3T0 260 493 285 303 5 to 10 Feet in Width. ^1,628 ^1,674 5.957 1,131 810 800 1,150 581 1,060 1,025 1,236 837 447 10 Feet and Over in Width. I5.603 15,274 15,5" 5,258 1,320 2,300 ' 6,666 1,300 3,072 2,571 3.884 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 137 THE CALIFORNIA WEIR TABLE. (Wilcox.) Depth. Miner's Inches. Depth. 1 / Miner's Inches. Depth. Miner's Inches. Depth. Miner's Inches. \4 .OI M 2.56 7% 7.04 12% 15-27 I .04 4, 2.69 7H 7.22 '3,, 15-72 .07 4^ 2.81 7% 7.40 13^ 16.18 .12 t 2 93 8 7-58 13^ 16.64 % • 17 3^07 SH 7.76 13M 17.10 % .22 4^ 319 m 7-93 14 17-57 % .27 4% 3^33 8% 8.12 14^ 18.04 I •33 :i 3^47 8^ 8.30 14}^ 18.52 ^14 •39 3.6r 8% 8.48 14M 19.00 i^ . .46 5, 3-75 8% 8.67 15 19.48 •54 5^ 3-89 SV8 8.86 15^ 19.98 i\^ .62 5^ 4^03 9 9-05 xsV^ 20.47 1% .69 5% 4.18 9% 923 I5M 20.97 iM •77 sV^ 4^32 9H 9.42 16 21.47 1% .86 5% 4-47 9.62 1 61^ 22.47 2 •95 5% 4.62 Im 9.81 17 23.50 ajp^ 1.04 4-77 9% 10.00 17^ 24^54 2% 1-13 6 4.92 9% 10. 19 18 25.58 1.22 ^^ S.08 9% 10.39 i 18^ 26.65 2^^ 1.32 6»4 5^24 10 10.59 19 27.74 2% 1.42 6% 5-39 10^ 10 99 19^ 28.83 i 1-52 6^ 5-54 1 10^ II .30 20 29.95 i^63 6% 5-71 1 io% 11.80 20^ 31-07 3 1-74 6% 5-87 1 II 12.22 21 32.21 1.86 6% 6.04 "^ 12.65 2lJ^ 33^36 3^ 1.97 7, 6.20 11}^ 13.06 22 34-52 2.08 7^ 6-37 11% 13 •SO 22j^ 35-70 3/^ 2.19 7M 6-53 12 13-94 23 36 90 3% 2.31 6.70 12^ 14.38 23^ 38.10 3M 2.43 7^ 6.87 I2l^ 14.82 24 39-32 CAPACITY OF CISTERNS AND TANKS, ill Gallons, for Each Twelve Inches in Depth. (A. R. Wolff.) Diameter in Gallons. Diameter in Gallons. Diameter in Gallons. Feet. Feet. Feet. I.O 5-87 6-5 248.23 II. 710 . 90 2.0 23-50 7.0 287.88 II. 777.05 2.5 36.72 7-5 330.48 12.0 846.03 3.0 52.88 8.0 376.00 13.0 992.91 3-5 71-97 8-5 424.48 14.0 "51-54 4.0 94.00 9.0 475-89 15-0 1321.92 4-5 118.87 9-5 530.24 20.0 2350.08 5^o 146.88 10.0 587-52 25.0 3672.00 5.5 177.72 10.5 647.74 30.0 5287.68 6.0 211. 51 138 AGEICULTURE. Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, Per Foot in Depth. (Hall.) Square Cistern, Barrels. 5 feet by s feet holds 5.92 8.54 11.63 15-19 19-39 23-74 Circular Cistern. Barrels. S feet in diameter holds. ... 4.66 6 " " ... 8.54 7 " " ... 11.63 00 ... 15-19 " »« ... 19.39 10 '• " -•• 23.74 ROAD-MAItlNG. (Campbell.) Drainage. — Perfect drainage, first of the foundation of the roadbed, secondly of the road surface, are the points in road-making on which too much stress cannot be laid. The first is accomplished by underdrainage, tile drains being laid at a depth of three or more feet below the sur- face on each side of the roadbed at the foot of the grade and parallel to it. Care should be taken to fit and settle the tile in the trench so that, when refilling with earth, they will not be displaced. As a rule i\- to 4-in, tile will be sufficient. The joints should be close, and the grade a true line. Loose joints and an uneven grade allow silt to pass into the tile and remain there, destroying the drain. Surface drainage is accomplished by open drains on each side of the grade, having sufficient capacity to drain, both the roadbed and the land adjoining. With open drains and with tile drains make and maintain a free outlet to the nearest watercourse. A drain without an outlet is useless. Crowning the Road. — The graded portion of the road should be wide enough to accommodate the travel upon it, and not greater, the slope being uniform, not heaped in the centre. The crown should be well above the overflow of storm water, and should have a grade sufficient to shed water readily to the open ditches on either side. Do not round it up so as to make the grade steep and dangerous, under the mistaken impression that better drainage will thereby be secured. Nor should it be so low as to allow water to stand upon it in depressions. Under ordinary circumstances one inch or one inch and a half to the foot is AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 139 a proper grade; that is, a roadbed twenty-six feet wide should be from thirteen to twenty inches higher at the center than at the side. Quality of Gravel. — The gravel should preferably be sharp, clean, and of uniform size. Pit grav^el usually con- tains too much earthy matter, and where the latter is in excess, the gravel, as a road-making material, is useless. Lake gravel is apt to be rounded, water-worn, and lacking in the necessary earthy matter to make a solid and compact surface, but is generally a better road material than pit gravel, A coating of pit gravel with a surfacing of creek gravel is a good combination. All large stones should be removed, as they will work to the surface, and will then roll loosely or form rough protuberances. Placing the Gravel. — The gravel should be spread evenly over the surface of the sub-grade to a depth of six or eight inches, and to the required width, then rolled with a heavy roller. Rolling should be performed in showery weather, as it is impossible to consolidate dry earth or gravel. The heavier the roller the better will be the results, but if a heavy roller cannot be obtained, a light roller is much bet- ter than none. The roller should be passed over the sur- face until the gravel or earth is so compact as not to be displaced and rutted by the wheels of a wagon passing over it with an ordinary load. The surface must be main- tained smooth and hard, to shed water and resist wear. Every municipality should have a roller, but whether one can be obtained or not the gravel should not be left in a heap just as it falls from the wagon. Spread it evenly. Repairs. — Gravel roads already constructed will need re- pair. By the use of road machinery, scrape the surface and cut off the corners, which will have formed at the foot of the grade by the washing down of dusty material from the crown of the road. Loosen the surface, particularly that part of the traveled portion and where the road is rutted, with picks, or, if possible, with road machinery ; then apply a coating of gravel, and roll thoroughly. It is of more im- portance, however, to see that the drains are not obstructed in their course and that their outlets are free and open. 140 AGRICULTURE. IMPORTANCE OF GOOD ROADS. It is estimated that it costs a farmer more to haul a bushel of wheat than it does a railroad to haul a ton ; that our poor roads cost the farmer at least $15.00 a year for every horse, and that good earth roads would save more than half the cost of hauling, and good permanent roads more than three quarters of it. (GiLMORB.) Force Required to Draw a Load on Different Kinds of Roads. Earth road Gravel " Macadam road . . . Telford " ... Plank " ... Stone trackway.. Force Required to Draw a Gross Load of 2240 Pounds. Pounds 200 65 46 I2i Steepest Grade (rise per 100 ft.) on which Vehicle will not Roll Back. Feet 8.9 4 9 Draught on a Level Com- pared with that on Dif- ferent Grades. Rise in feet per 100 feet. 3 6 9 12 1-3 "•7 2.0 2-3 1-5 1.9 2.4 2.9 2.0 3-1 4-1 5-1 2-5 3-9 5-4 6.8 2.6 4-3 5-9 7-5 0.4 II. 7 17. 1 22.3 15 2.7 3-3 6.1 8.2 9.1 27.5 TRACTIVE FORCE REQUIRED FOR CARRIAGES of one ton, on a level road. (McConnell.) Force of Trac- Description of Road. tion per Ton. On rails 8 lbs. Well-made pavement 33 Macadamized road 44 to 67 Turnpike, hard and dry 68 " dirty 88 Hard compact loam iig Gravel 150 Sandy and gravelly 210 Ordinary by-road ,. 237 Turnpike, newly-gravelled 320 Loose sandy road 457 A horse produces his greatest mechanical effect in drawing a load 2| miles per hour with a tractive force of 150 lbs. I. 2. 3- 4- 5. 6. 7- 9 10 II AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 141 FRACTION OF THE WEIGHT OF A VEHICLE AND LiOAD REQUIRED TO MOVE SAME ON A LEVEL. ROAD. (Morin.) Character of the Road. Firm sgil, covered with gravel 4 to 6 inches deep Firm embankment, covered with gravel i^to ijinch. deep, Earth embankment, in very good condition Bridge flooring of thick oak plank Broken-stone Road : In very good condition, very dry, compact and even A little moist or a little dusty.. Firm, but with ruts and mud. Very bad, ruts 4 to i,\ inches deep, thick mud Good pavement, dry " " covered with mud Character of the Vehicle. •a tn ro IT 1 59 4_, to" C o o c x: u o T? Walk. Trot B7 1 0.2^ Q, Ttl I 5S 1 ?5 W alk. Trot DRAUGHT OF HORSES. At 8 hours per day, 2^ miles per hour, and tractive force of 1 50 lbs. : On level hard road 3 tons On inferior or hilly road i " Onrails 16 " Onacanal 60 to 90 " Lifting over a pulley no '* Carrying on his back 300 ^bs. 142 AGRICULTURE. LABOR ONE HORSE IS ABLE TO PERFORM at different rates of speed on canals, railroads, and turnpikes. (Drawing force, 83^^ lbs.) (Waring.) Useful Effect for i Day, drawn i mile. Duration of Day's Work, Speed per Hour, miles. hours. On a Canal, On a Railroad, On a Turnpike, tons. tons. tons. ^H "^ 520 T15 14 3,, 8 243 92 12 sH 6 154 82 10 4 414 102 72 9 : 5 2 9/10 52 57 7-3 / 6 2 30 48 6 ' 7 i^ 19 41 5 8 ij^ 12.8 36 45 9 9/10 9 32 4 10 H 6.5 28.8 3.6 PERFORMANCE OF ONE TEAM AND PLOUGH IN A DAY, IN ACRES AND TENTHS. (Waring.) ^.S . <« ° - s •".S ,. tn ,. tn _. H? U tfl 4) "5 .^• M 4J 5 ^-c Acres. ^2S Acres. Acres. Acres. &=- ^a" ^3 ^1 5 I.O 12 2.4 2 4.8 5^ 13.2 6 1.2 14 2.8 2^ 6.0 6 14.4 7 1.4 16 3-2 3 7.2 6>^ 15-6 8 1.6 18 3-6 sJ^ 8.4 7,, 16.8 9 1.8 20 4.0 4,, 9.6 7^ 18.0 10 2.0 22 4-4 4^ 10.8 8 19.2 II 2.2 5 12.0 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 143 THE EFFECT OF WIDE WAGON-TIRES. The effect of wide and narrow tires for wagons is well illustrated by the following results of carefully conducted experiments by the Studebaker Wagon Co., West Bend, Ind. In the trials given in the second column i|-inch tires had been substituted for 4-inch tires. (Agr. of Pa., 1894.) Weight of wagon and load Draft to start load on block pavement Draft to move load at a dead pull on block pave- ment Draft to start load on good hard, sandy road Draft to move load at a dead pull on good hard, sandy road Draft to start load on good level gravel road Draft to move load at a dead pull on good level gravel road Draft to start load on muddy road Draft to move load at a dead pull on muddy road.. Width of Tires. 4 inches. xj inches. lbs. lbs. 4345 4235 350 300 100 75 700 725 275 600 300 650 175 800 175 900 550 500 AVERAGE QUANTITY OF STONE REQUIRED PER YEAR TO KEEP 10 FEET OF ROAD, WIDTH = 20 FEET, IN REPAIR. (Herschel.) Cub. ft. 1. Good material and heavy travel 15-20 = 2. Good material and medium amount of travel 10-15 = 3. Good material and light travel 5-10 = 4. Medium material and heavy travel. .. . 20-25 = 5. Medium material and medium amount of travel 15-20 = 6. Medium material and light travel 10-15 = 7. Third-rate material and heavy travel. . 25-30 = 8. Third-rate material and medium amount of travel 20-25 = 9. Third-rate material and light travel. . . 15-20 = Cub. yds. •55- .74 37- .55 18- .37 74- -92 55- -74 37- -55 92-1. ID 74- -92 55- .74 144 AGRICULTUKE. INTERIOR DIMENSIONS OF FARM BUILDINGS. (McCoNNELL.) Height. Barn ... " (straw) Cattle feeding-boxes, double " " " single Cattle-sheds, for each animal Cart-sheds, etc., each arch Cow-stable, for each cow, double "■ " " " " single Dairy — Fold -yards, for each animal Granary Hospital Manure-house Pigsties, for each 3 animals Poultry- house Root-house Stable, for each horse Workshop . General dimensions of other apartments Length. Breadth. ft. ft. 40 20 60 20 10 20 10 10 5 15 8 20 4 30 4 20 20 20 5 30 30 20 18 18 18 18 6 10 18 18 ao 20 6.5 18 18 18 18 ft. 20 20 8 10 10 10 10 6 6^ ft. allowed to the length of the stable for each horse in it and 7 or 8 ft. for every pair of cows in cow-stable. Horses must each have 1200 cu. ft. of space, and cattle 800 cu, ft., where stalled in stables. Cattle-boxes to be sunk 2 ft. below surface and raised by a dwarf wall i ft. above. Cattle-folds and sheds should have a length of 5 ft. for every animal they are intended to contain; when covered, 150 sq. ft. allowed to every head. The pigsties have small open areas attached to each. HUMAN FOODS. 146 XII. HUMAN FOODS. COMPOSITION OF HUMAN FOOD MATERIALS.* (Atwater.) Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, pota- toes, wheat, etc., consist of — Refuse. — As the bones of meat and fish, shells of shellfish, skin of potatoes, bran of wheat, etc. Edible Portion. — As the flesh of meat and fish, the white and yolk of eggs, wheat flour, etc. The edible portion con- sists of water and nutritive ingredients or nutrients. The principal kinds of nutritive ingredients are protein, fats, carbohydrates, and mineral tnatters. The water, refuse, and salt of salted meat and fish are called non-nutrients. In comparing the values of different food materials for nourishment they are left out of account. Classes of Nutrients. — The following are familiar examples of compounds of each of the four principal classes of nutri- ents [Albuminoids, e.g., albumen (white of eggs); casein (curd) of milk ; myosin, the basis of muscle (lean meat) ; Proteids. \ gluten of wheat, etc. Gelatinoids, e.g., collagen of tendons; ossein of bones; which yield gelatin Protein. \ i or glue, etc. Meats and fish contain very small quantities of so-called "extractives." They include kreatin and allied compounds, and are the chief ingre- dients of beef-tea and meat-extract. They contain nitrogen, and hence are commonly classed with protein. Fats, e.g., fat of meat ; fat (butter) of milk ; olive-oil ; oil of corn, wheat, etc. Carbohydrates, e.g., sugar, starch, cellulose (woody fiber), etc. * Extracts from " Foods, Nutritive Value and Cost " (Farmers' Bulletin No. 23), and " Food and Diet " (U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture Year book, 1894), 146 AGRICULTUEE. Mineral ^natters, e.g., phosphate of lime, sodium chlorid (common salt), etc. The Fuel Value of Food. — Heat and muscular power are forms of force or energy. The energy is developed as the food is consumed in the body. It is measured in the laboratory by means of an apparatus called the calorimeter. The unit commonly used is the calorie, the amount of heat which would raise the temperature of a pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit. Taking ordinary food materials as they come, the follow- ing general estimate has been made for the average amount of heat and energy in i pound of each of the classes of nutrients: Calories. In I pound of protein i,86o In I pound of fats 4,220 In I pound of carbohydrates 1,860 In other words, when we compare the nutrients in re- spect to their fuel values, their capacities for yielding heat and mechanical power, a pound of protein of lean meat or albumen of egg is just about equivalent to a pound of sugar or starch, and a little over two pounds of either would be required to equal a pound of the fat of meat or butter or the body fat. Ways in ivJiich Food is Used in the Body. — Food supplies the wants of the body in several ways. It either — Is used to form the tissues and fluids of the body; Is used to repair the wastes of tissues; Is stored in the body for future consumption; Is consumed as fuel, its potential energy being trans- formed into heat or muscular energy, or other forms of energy required by the body; or. In being consumed protects tissues or other food from consumption. Uses of the Different Classes of Nutrients. — Protein forms tissue (muscle, tendon, etc., and fat) and serves as fuel. Fats form fatty tissue (not muscle, etc.) and serve as fuel. Carbohydrates are transformed into fat and serve as fuel. HUMAN FOODS. 147 All nutrients yield energy in form of heat and muscular strength. In being themselves burned to yield energy the nutrients protect each other from being consumed. The protein and fats of body tissue are used like those of food. An impor- tant use of the carbohydrates and fats is to protect protein (muscle, etc.) from consumption. Definition of Food and Food Eco7iof>iy. — The views thus presented lead to the following definitions; (i) Food is that which, taken into the body, builds tissues or yields energy; (2) the most healthful food is that which is best fitted to the wants of the user; (3) the cheapest food is that which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment at the least cost; (4) the best food is that which is both most healthful and cheapest. We have, then, to consider the kinds and amounts of nutrients in different food materials, their digestibility, and the kinds and amounts needed for nourishment by people doing different kinds of work. In general, the animal foods have the most of protein and fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in the carbo- hydrates, starch, and sugar. The lean meats and fish abound in protein. Cheese has so large a quantity of protein because it contains the casein of the milk. Among the vegetable foods, beans and peas have a high proportion of protein. The proportion in oatmeal is also large. In wheat it is moderate, and in corn meal it is rather small. The materials with the highest fuel value are those with the most fat, because the fuel value of the fat is, weight for weight, two and one-fourth times as great as that of either sugar, starch, or protein. Hence fat pork and butter lead the other materials in fuel value. The fat meats in general stand high in this respect. So also do the grains, flour, and meal, as they have large quantities of carbo- hydrates. Potatoes are quite l^w in the list in respect to fuel value as well as protein, principally because they are three-fourths water. For the same reason, milk, which is seven-eighths water, ranks low in respect to both protein and fuel value. 148 AGRICULTURE. Dietaries and Dietary Standards. — As the outcome of a great deal of observation and experiment, nearly all in Europe, standards have been proposed for the amounts of nutrients and energy in the daily food required by different classes of people. Those of Prof. Voit, of Munich, Germany, are most commonly accepted by specialists in Europe. Voit's standard for a laboring man at moderately hard muscular work calls for about 0.25 pound of protein and quantities of carbohydrates and fats sufficient, with the protein, to yield 3050 calories of energy. Taking into account the more active life in the United States, and the fact that well nourished people of the working classes here eat more and do more work than in Europe, and in the belief that ample nourishment is necessary for doing the most and the best work, I have ventured to suggest a standard with 0.28 pound of protein and 3500 calories of energy for the man at moderate muscular work. (For list of dietary standards, see p. 155.) Calculation of Daily Dietaries. — Due regard for health, strength, and purse requires that food shall supply enough protein to build tissue and enough fats and carbohydrates for fuel, and that it shall not be needlessly expensive. On the basis of the standards for dietaries given on page 155, various combinations of food materials for daily dietaries may be made by calculations from the table, showing percentages of nutrients, etc., in food materials (p. 149). Thus if a dietary for a man at moderately hard muscular work is to be made up of round beefsteak, butter, potatoes, and bread, it may be calculated as follows: Protein. Calories. R.ound steak I pound contains Pounds. .18 .01 .019 .088 855 Butter I pound contains 3,615 I pound contains 325 1,280 Wheat bread I pound contains 13 ounces contain Round steak. .14 .02 .12 695 Butter Potatoes . 3 ounces contain 680 6 ounces contain 320 "Wheat bread 22 ounces contain 1,760 Total Standard for man at mod- erate muscular work. . . . .28 .28 3.455 3,500 HUMAN FOODS. 149 PERCENTAGES OF NUTRIENTS, WATER, AND REFUSE IN SPECIMENS OF FOOD MATERIALS. (Atwater.) Food Materials. Animal Foods, as Purchased. Beef; Neck Shoulder Chuck rib Rib Sirloin Round steak Side without kidney fat Rump, corned Flank, corned Veal: Shoulder Mutton : Shoulder 4 Leg Loin Side, without kidney fat. Pork: Shoulder roast, fresh Ham, salted, smoked Chicken Turkey Eggs, in shell Fish, etc.: Flounder, whole Bluefish, dressed Codfish, dressed Shad, whole Mackerel, whole Halibut, dressed Salmon, whole Salt codfish Smoked herring Salt mackerel Canned salmon Lobsters Oysters Animal Foods, Edible Portion. Beef: Neck Shoulder Chuck rib .... Rib Sirloin Round Side, without kidney fat. . . Rump, corned Flank, " Veal: Shoulder Mutton: Shoulder .. 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N 00 O M M f) IT) 8 M in O tv O MM iri 8 M 0\ Ov O* w M H m IPAV N o o o^ M M O O O M O CO O t-- O N 0\ ■* N M r00 O O CTv rO On ►H ro ro O o o o o o rrOO N t^ O 00 r<1 r<1 O -<^ ro O 00 0> M \o rr CO "- M O O O O O •P3J IPAV cs, 00 ro r^ O ro Tj- r<- m in in ■* On D iTt t^ crj rr, On in 'i-NO in N On M M O O O O 'UV31 vo ^ -^^ o f) ro O m O CO -^ t>~ H o o O O O •JI^D i^d M rn lO M o oo lO •* o t-> M inoo NO ■>^NO -^ ■* M M o O O O O •5«J 00 t^ OnnO O mvo Tf m O m ^ On H H O O O O O 0> m ■+ o ■4- m ■* O "1 »n ro f) O r^oo m On M « o O O O O •pa J M 00 CO ro t^ in "i- -^00 N O O O O »_ («^ o X u < o H O . CO C3 I- tf) ►.^ 2< a £ S 5^x1 pH K-3 S ci< {/) c75 c/) PART II. DAIRYING, I. DAIRY COWS. ON THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE. I. Jersey Cattle. The origin of the Jersey cattle, like many of our other improved breeds of live-stock, is not known with cer- tainty. The theory is that they descend from cattle brought from the Scandinavian countries to Normandy, France, during the tenth century or before, whence they were introduced into the Island of Jersey, off the French coast. The breed has been kept pure on this little island for a longer period than any other English breeds, as a result of the enactment in 1789 of a law forbidding im- portations of foreign cattle into the island. According to Flint, Jerseys were first imported into this country about 1838, but heavy importations did not begin until after 1850. The following is a description of typical Jersey cows: Head fine and tapering; cheek small; throat clean; the muzzle fine and encircled with a slight stripe; the nostril high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, not very thick at the base, tapering, and tipped with black; ears small and thin, deep orange color inside; eyes full and placid; neck straight and fine; chest broad and deep; bar- rel hooped, broad and deep, well ribbed up; back straight from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip to the setting on of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with the back, and hanging down to the hocks; skin thin, light color, and mellow, covered with fine soft hair; forelegs short, straight and fine below the knee, arm swelling and full above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind legs 162 DAIRYING. short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine, squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; udder full in size, in line with the belly, extending well up behind; teats of medium size, squarely placed and wide apart, milk veins very prominent; color is generally cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less white. The Jerseys are generally considered a butter-producing breed, and justly so. The milk produced is as a rule richer in fat and solids than that of any other breed, but the quantity yielded, on the other hand, is apt to be lower. Milk from good Jersey cows often contains over six per cent of fat, the average being about five per cent. Produc- tion of rich milk has been the primary aim of Jersey breeders; in 1881 the secretary of the American Jersey Cattle Club wrote: " The sole office of the Jersey cow is to produce the largest possible amount of rich, highly colored cream from a given amount of food. Everything else in connection with the breeding of the race is, or should be, incidental." The highest yields of butter-fat or butter, in case of Jersey cows as well as other dairy breeds, are not, how- ever, apt to come from cows producing exceptionally rich milk, but rather from such producing an exceptionally large quantity of good milk; generally speaking, an ex- traordinarily high fat-content is accompanied by a small milk yield. Typical Jerseys generally have a high-strung, nervous temperament, and in order to do their best must receive good care; they cannot be abused as to feed or treatment without injury; for this reason they will only prove a suc- cess in the hands of intelligent feeders who care for and take an interest in their stock. The dairy type predomi- nates, viz.: a wedge-shaped, deep-chested body, with good digestive organs, large full udders, well-developed milk-veins, and a soft, mellow skin. The cows are gentle and docile, while the bulls have the reputation of being hard to handle, and often ugly and dangerous after a couple of years' service. The maximum yields of milk and butter produced by Jersey cows are given on page 189, the table giving the DAIRY COWs. 163 official records. In the breed-tests conducted by the ex- periment stations in Maine, New Jersey, and New York (Geneva), the Jerseys have ranked among the first, but have seldom been the foremost. As the average of all tests of dairy breeds up to date, we notice that the Jerseys rank after the Shorthorns and the Guernseys in total yield of fat during a full period of lactation, and after Guernseys in the cost of producing one pound of fat; they rank first as to richness of milk produced. In the English milking trials conducted by the British Dairy Farmers' Association, the Shorthorn cows have generally led the Jerseys in the total quantities of fat produced per day, and other breeds have also, on the average, given better results than these. The Jerseys came out victorious in the breed-tests con- ducted at the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893; they produced more milk, butter-fat, butter, and cheese, and gave a higher net gain than either of the two other breeds competing (Guernsey and Shorthorn); the Guernseys, on the other hand, led as regards the cost of the food con- sumed. In the breed-test No. i (" the fifteen-day cheese test") Ida Marigold, 32615, produced the largest quantity of cheese, viz.: 70.92 lbs., and Merry Maiden, 69449, the largest quantity of butter-fat, viz.: 30.73 lbs. In breed- test No. 2 ("the ninety-day test") Brown Bessie, 74997, produced 17S.12 lbs. of butter-fat. Merry Maiden and Ida Marigold following, with 164.S1 lbs. and 164.28 lbs., re- spectively. The American Jersey Cattle Club was organized in July 1868; the Herd Registo- of the club, the first volume of which was published in 1871, has been issued in forty-five volumes up to date, including in all 42,000 bulls and 109,000 cows. Butter Tests of Registered Jersey Cows gives all tests of registered Jerseys where the yield of butter for seven consecutive days was 14 lbs. or more; the latest volume published is Vol. II., New Series. The present secretary of the American Jersey Cattle Club is J. J. Hemingway, No. 8 W. Seventeenth St... New York City. 164 DAIRYING. II. Guernsey Cattle. By Prof. W. H. Caldwell, Peierboro, N. H,, Sec'y Am. Guernsey Cattle Club. The Guernsey breed takes its name from the Island of Guernsey, one of the Channel, or sometimes termed Alder- ney, Islands. The origin of the Channel Island cattle, while somewhat involved in controversy, is generally be- lieved to have come from stock originally from the French provinces of Normandy and Brittany, and that the founda- tion for the Guernseys was laid by crossing the Normandy bull on the Brittany cow. It is very interesting to turn to the Island of Guernsey, cut off as it is from the main land by the little strip of sea, and protected on all sides by a rough, rocky coast, and note the characteristics which we find there that have played so important a part in moulding the character of the Guernsey of to-day. There the shrewd, careful, sturdy people have labored many years to produce a cow that should excel in butter production. Their labors have been rewarded in the Guernsey, which is noted the world over for producing butter of the highest natural color and with the least outlay for cost of feed. Fate might have been different with these people but for their insular situation, pride of self-government, habits and customs, which led them to zealously fight invasions, and even as early as 17S9 to take measures against the fraud- ulent importation of stock. In 1826 came more stringent laws, that prohibited importation to the island except for slaughter. It thus isolated the islanders and their cows from the cattle kingdom. The striking appearance of the Guernsey is at once seen in its rich yellow skin, which has always been noted as the characteristic of a good butter-cow. In appearance they are rangy, deep, business-looking animals, with a particularly quiet, gentle, tractable temperament, free from nervous- ness. The prevailing color is a delicate shade of fawn with white markings, and cream-colored nose; and their most remarkable characteristic of richness is apparent in the DAIRY COWS. 165 golden color around the eye, on the udder and teats, at base of horn, and at end of the bone of tail. Until recently Guernseys in America were kept chiefly for family use. They were introduced into private dairies around Philadelphia as early as 1840, and since that time no other breeds have been permitted to replace them. The gentlemen who first introduced Guernseys had no motive to advertise them. They esteemed their golden-colored products so highly that they were kept for the supplying of families with the best milk and butter that could be pro- duced. About 1865 a few Guernseys were introduced by the importers, which laid the foundation of some of our herds of to-day. A few years later the Massachusetts So- ciety for the Promotion of Agriculture, realizing the great promise of the breed, imported some and distributed them at a public sale to dairymen in the State. A few years later a number of Connecticut farmers joined together and sent a man to the island to bring over a lot. It soon became obvious to these gentlemen that some organization was necessary to preserve the purity of these cattle and to encourage their recognition. Accordingly on February 7. 1877, the American Guernsey Cattle Club was organized in New York City. At that time there were about one hun- dred and fifty pure-bred Guernseys in the country, whose pedigrees could be traced without question to importation from the island. At present there are about 14,000 animals in the Register. In the last few years — in fact since the World's Fair Dairy tests in 1893, and the work at the New York and New Jersey Experiment Stations — great interest has been taken in the Guernseys. More entries and trans- fers have been recorded, and more members have joined the Club than at any similar period in its history. The public are just realizing the straightforward work that has been quietly done for the last quarter of a century, and find in a study of it that there are many valuable records to the credit of the breed. These are all the more valuable as the Guernsey has not been forced for high records, but have honestly won their way. The best records reported of Guernseys are those of Lily 166 DAIRYIKG. of Alexandre, No. 1059, and Imp. Bretonne, No. 3660. Lily of Alexandre gave 12,855! pounds of milk in one year ; and two months before calving tested 7.2 per cent of butter-fat. Bretonne gave in the year ending October 20, 1894, 11,219 pounds of milk. Her milk was tested carefully once a month by taking a composite sample of eight consecutive milkings. The lowest test was 5.2 per cent and highest 6.1 per cent butter-fat. Her milk yielded 602^^^ pounds of butter-fat, or equivalent to 753^^0 pounds of butter con- taining 80 oer cent butter-fat. She is a large, well-built • ow, and weighed at the close of her year's work 1150 pounds. In addition the cow Fantine 2d, No. 3730, owned by Mr. Chas. Solveson of Nashotah, Wis., gave in one year, besides dropping a fine calf and being dry four weeks, 9748 pounds of milk, the lowest test being 5 and the highest 5.6 per cent butter-fat, which -would yield a year's record of 516.6 pounds butter fat or 602 pounds of butter. Mr. Ezra Michener of Carversville, Pa., owns the cow King's Myra, No. 5339, who has just completed the year's test under the direction of the Guernsey Breeders* Association and received their first prize. She is four years old, and gave in the year 86ir pounds of milk, which yielded 539 pounds of butter. Nearly a hundred cows have been re- ported that have made a record of 14 pounds or over of butter a week, and several that have made exceedingly fine single-day tests, as one cow. Pretty Dairymaid 2d of Guernsey, No. 6366, who in an official test gave in three consecutive days 61 pounds 2 ounces, 62 pounds 12 ounces, and 52 pounds and 9 ounces of milk, a total of 176 pounds 7 ounces. The irability to produce butter-fat and butter at a low cost demands the careful attention of the dairymen. At the New York Experiment Station several of the dairy breeds are being carefully tested. The annual report of the director, which was recently issued, gives the result of the first two periods of lactation. In both instances the Guern- seys produced butter-fat at the least cost, as the following shows : 2d Period. 15 6 cts. 18 5 '* 19 " 24 8 " 22 8 " 26 4 " DAIRY COWS. 167 COST OF BUTTER-FAT PER POUND. ist Period. Guernsey 18.4 cts. Jersey 20.0 " Devon 23.0 " Ayrshire 24.3 " Am. Holderness 26.3 " Holstein-Friesian 26.3 " This agrees with the work done at the New Jersey Ex- periment Station and with the average results of the butter tests at the World's Fair. COST PER POUND OF BUTTER PRODUCED. New Jersey. World's Fair. Guernsey 15.3 cts. 13. i cts. Jersey 17.9 ** 13-3 " Ayrshire 20.6 " .... Shorthorn 20.8 " 15.8 *' Holstein 22.4 '* This shows the Guernseys to be the most economical producers of butter ; and such golden-yellow butter, too ! The American dairyman, in his endeavor to improve his own herd and collectively to improve the herds of his sec- tion, naturally takes a great deal of interest in the grade dairy cow. In the progressive dairy sections the influence which pure-bred bulls exert is readily acknowledged. They intensify the good qualities of the breed to which they belong, and make such a section a desirable place for the seeking of good family and profitable dairy cows. The value of the Guernsey bull in effecting this improvement has been well understood for many years, and especially is it realized to-day in the desire to secure in the dairy cattle of America greater physical strength and more profitable butter production without reducing size or sacrificing rich- ness of milk production. Mr. Lewis F. Allen, in his writings several years ago, spoke especially of his experience with the Guernsey for grading. He said his experience was good, large-sized animals, free and persistent milkers, and 168 DAIHYIICG. the making of the first quality butter for private family or hotel use. He believed that on a whole the Guernseys were more satisfactory for the dairy than any which in his forty years' experience he had ever had. His cows had good square udders, well set front and behind, teats of good size and easy to grasp. The Herd Register is published by the American Guern- sey Cattle Club, whose headquarters are at Peterboro, N. H. The breeders of Guernseys have always been harmoni- ous in letting their favorites win their way by their own straightforward efforts in the dairy. By addressing the Secretary of the Club at Peterboro, N. H., further informa* tion will cheerfully be furnished. III. Holstein-Friesian Cattle. By S. HoxiE, Yorkville, N. Y., Supt. Advanced Registry Holstein- Friesian Association of America. This is our American representative of the Lowland race, native to the low, rich lands of Belgium, Holland, and Northern Germany. Its origin ij ascribed to the Friesians — a tribe of people mentioned by Roman historians before the opening of the Christian era as peaceable cattle- breeders dwelling on the shores of the North Sea. The present dairy farmers of the provinces of North Holland and Friesland are the lineal descendants of those cattle- breeders, and they are to-day handling the same race upon the same lands. These farmers are the leading dairymen of Europe. As evidence of this. Chambers' Encyclopedia* gives the export of butter from the province of Friesland to England in 1S74 as 266,041 cwt. The number of cows owned in that province in 1S79 was 144,802. Assuming the same number in 1874, this export averages 205! lbs. per cow; assuming the same number of acres of grass lands, this export averages ii7|^ lbs. per acre. No data of home consumption or of exports to other countries are given. These combined must have been large, and, were they added, would much increase these averages. Lest ♦ Edinburgh and London edition, article " Friesland." DAIRY COWS. 169 some reader may assume that a part of this enormous ex- port must have been oleomargarine or artificial butter, it is well to add here that no such products were known in Friesland at that date. According to U. S. Consular reports on Cattle and Dairy Farming, the amount of butter imported from Holland into Great Britain in 1877 was 41,679,085 lbs. in 1884, of cheese, 65,994,544 lbs. The import of butter for 1877 rather than for 1884 is quoted, because the former date was "be- fore oleomargarine had become an industry in that coun- try,"* There is no question that nearly all these imports were from the two provinces, North Holland and Fries- land. The country we call Holland is composed of eleven provinces with a total area of 12,597 sq. miles. The total area of North Holland and Friesland is 2303 sq. miles. To get the significance of the above statistics, let them be compr.red with the total imports, to the same common mar- ket, from the United States and Canada. These in 1884 were, of butter 17,440,416 lbs., and of cheese, 109,333,280 lbs. So far as this breed of cattle is concerned, it is safe to let the reader draw his own conclusions. As to the characteristics of this breed the most important is indicated by the above statistics. To the casual observer the color may appear the more striking. This is variegated in distinct markings. The American herd-books receive only black-and-white to entry. The European herd-books receive red-and-white, gray-and-white, and mouse-colored- and-white; but the great bulk of their entries are black-and white. The structure of this breed is also an important characteristic. This is best shown by measurements. The average measurements of ail the full-age cows (those five years old and upwards) received to the fourth volume of the Holstein-Friesian Advanced Register were as follows: Height at shoulders, 51.8 -j- inches; at hips, 53; length of body, 64.9 -f ; of rump, 21.4 — ; width of hips, 21.9 — , at thurl, 19.6 -|-; girth at smallest circumference of chest. 75.6 -j-. These are fairly representative of the breed, and describe what is technically called the milk-and-beef form. * U. S. Consular Reports [1886J— Cattle and Dairy Farming, p. 15. 170 DAIRYING. There are animals of the breed of other forms, but they must be regarded as exceptional in this respect. The average weight of these cows was 1262 -f- lbs. This is also fairly representative of the breed. Rapidity of growth and earliness of maturity are alike characteristics of the breed. This may also be shown by measurements. Taking the entries in one of the European herd-books, we find, from actual measurements reported, that heifers reach their full height at between two and a half and three years old, that each year for the following two years they increase one and three fourths inches in length of body, two inches in girth of chest, and three-fourths of an inch in width of hips. After five years old no increase is shown except what may be properly ascribed to additions of flesh. Another characteristic is constitutional vigor. No dairy breed probably excels it in this. It enables the breed to resist disease, to endure climatic changes, and its cows to endure forcing to enormous productions. In the reign of Peter the Great, importations of this breed were made into Northern Russia, into the district of Kolmogory, within three and a half degrees of the Arctic Circle. Other impor- tations to the same district have since been made. All appear to have acclimated without difficulty. Crossed on the nondescript native cattle of that district they have pro- duced a numerous progeny called the Kolmogory breed, " remarkable for its yield of milk."* Every breed has limited adaptations. A breed valuable in one section may not be valuable in another that differs in soil, lay of territory, and wants of its inhabitants. The adaptations of this breed make it specially valuable on rich soils, level lands, and in densely populated districts, where every product — milk, butter, cheese, beef, and veal — can be utilized. In view of these facts, the merits of a breed may properly be measured by its distribution — by its aggres- siveness. Judged by this standard, we find that this breed is the exclusive breed of North Holland and Friesland, " more esteemed than any other in Belgium;"! " furnishing * U. S. Consular Reports [1886]— Caitle and Dairy Farming, p. 519. + The same, p. 367. DAIRY COWS. 171 the best and most prolific milch cows in Germany;"* crossed on native cattle, the " favorite in St. Petersburg,"! and used in almost every country of Europe outside of Switzerland and Great Britain. At the present time it is finding place in South Africa, New Zealand, and in some of the states of South America. Its introduction and spread in our own country, within the present generation, is one of the marvels of our day. IV. Ayrshires. By C. M. WiNSLOw, Brandon, Vt., Secretary Association of Ayrshire Breeders. The original home of the Ayrshire cow is in Scotland, in the county of Ayr. This county has always been noted for its dairy industry, and the thrift of its inhabitants. The soil is strong, giving good pasturing and abundant crops, the climate is rough, and people and cattle hardy. The Ayrshires began to attract the attention of dairy- men in other parts of the world some fifty years ago, and there was an importation made into Canada and the New England states, where they are bred in considerable num- bers and highly prized. They have been sent South, and are said to endure the heat better than any other breed. They also are said to stand the cold of Canada better than any other dairy breed. The Ayrshire cow is of medium size, weighing about one thousand pounds, of blocky build, low on legs, and usually spotted in color, being red and white as a rule, though sometimes nearly red. They are hardy and healthy, en- during changes of heat and cold with little discomfort, and quickly adapt themselves to surrounding conditions. They perhaps show to the best advantage where the food sup- ply is limited, and they are compelled to hunt for a full supply. It is claimed for the cows of this breed that they will give the largest return of dairy product for food consumed of any of the dairy breeds. There has never been much said or done by the owners of Ayrshires to bring their merits to the attention of the public. They are a popular * U. S. Consular Reports [1886]— Cattle and Dairy Farming, pp. 39^, 404, t The same, p. 515. 172 DAIRYING. cow for the milkman, because they are economical pro- ducers and because they give milk of good quality that satisfies the trade. High-grade Ayrshire cows always command the highest fancy price in Brighton, to go into the stables of milk pro- ducers. It 13 said by the milk inspectors of Boston that they have no trouble with the milk from Ayrshire herds, it being up to the 13 per cent total solids required by Massa- chusetts law. The average yield of Ayrshire cows is a little over 6000 lbs. of milk in a year, on ordinary dairy food and care, but there are a large number of individual cows with authenti- cated records all the way from 7000 lbs. to over 12,000 lbs. of milk in a year. There has never been any attempt made to develop the butter quality of the Ayrshire cow, and but little is known of her ability in this direction; but occasional evidence shows her to be naturally adapted to taking a high stand as a butter maker, if she was desired for that branch of dairying. The following instances of her butter quality will illustrate: Duchess of Smithfield, owned by Mr. Watson, gave an official record of 19 lbs. 6 oz. of butter in seven days. Rena Myrtle, a cow sold by the writer to the experiment station at Burlington, Vt., gave them this last year 546 lbs. of butter in 365 days, being the largest butter record they ever made by any cow of any breed. Her milk record for the time was 12,172 lbs. I might mention other instances, but they are private records. The Ayrshire, being a dairy cow, has never been claimed for beef or even for a general purpose cow, but her easy keeping qualities and hardy disposition cause her to lay on flesh rapidly when dry, and she will probabl}^ return to her owner in beef the full cost of raising her. Farmers who fatten calves for veal tell me the calves are small when born, but grow so rapidly that when of age to sell, are large and heavy for their age and are good handlers, [Mr. Winslow's herd of Ayrshires averaged during 1895 6765 lbs. of milk; average per cent of fat, 3.85; average DAIRY COWS. 173 yield of butter fat, 260.5 ^bs., or of butter, 303.9 lbs. (see p. 244). In maintaining his herd he adheres to the following requirements: " Size: About 1000 pounds at maturity, this size having been found to give the best results in this locality, and being of sufficient size to please buyers, either for breeding or to sell in Brighton as milk cows. " Color: Dark red with white patches — about one-fourth white being preferred. This gives a wonderfully attractive and lively look to a herd of cows, grouped or moying. Th€n, too, I have thought cows of this color were tougher and gave yellower milk and butter. " Style: Small head and horns, slim neck, straight back, sharp shoulders, wide on the loin; large, shapely hind quarters; long, slim tail; udder extending well forward and back, well up under belly; teats long, of equal length, well spread; large milk veins. " Disposition: Quiet and pleasant." — W.] V. Shorthorns as Dairy Cows. By J. H PicKRELL, Springfield, 111., Secretary American Shorthorn Breed- ers' Association. Away back in the early history of this country, there were occasionally cows imported from England. Buffalo and wild game were abundant for meat, but milk, butter, and cheese did not come that way. As creatures of circumstances, cows were in demand. Soon after the Revolutionary War, cattle that were pure- bred Shorthorns were imported into Virginia, and after- wards, in 1797, found their way into Kentucky. The cows were said to be great milkers, and are reported to have given as much as 32 quarts of milk per day, and were called by the natives " the milk breed." Later importa- tions with more particular reference to their beef qualities were made, but, in spite of all that had been fed into them with that end in view, many of the cows developed into remarkably heavy milkers, and were very noted for their large yield of a good quality of milk. The late L. F. Allen, in his history of "American Cat- tle," published in 1868, says: "We have numerous well- 174 DAIRYIN^G. authenticated instances of their (Shorthorns) giving six, seven, eight, and even nine gallons a day, on grass alone, in the height of their season, and yielding fourteen to eighteen pounds of butter per week, and of holding out in their milk in proportionate quantity, as well as other breeds of cows, through the year. Cows so much larger in size than other kinds should be expected to give more than smaller ones that consume less food, and without as- serting that they do give more, in proportion to their size, it is claimed that when educated and used for the dairy chiefly, they give quite as much as others. That the in- herent quality of abundant milking exists in the Short- horns, no intelligent breeders of them need doubt. Our own observation in more than thirty years' experience with hundreds of them, first and last, under our own eyes, is to ourself evidence of the fact, both in thoroughbreds and grades." The Columbian dairy tests, though made under un- favorable circumstances, proved the milking qualities of Shorthorns. I say unfavorable, because the matter was not taken hold of soon enough by the American Short- horn Breeders' Association, under whose auspices the ex- hibit was made, to select the best cows in every instance so as to have them bred to produce and have them at their highest flow of milk at the proper time. As a conse- quence, cows had to be picked up that had produced at hap-hazard, and were riot in every instance the best that might have been used, if selections had been made in sea- son to have them bred so as to have them produce just prior to the tests. But with all these disadvantages, the two strictly acknowledged dairy breeds — bred for that purpose almost exclusively — which were selected with the greatest care, so much so that it is doubtful whether they could be duplicated, had but little the advantage of the Shorthorns in the general ** round-up," as a few comparisons will prove. In test No. i (cheese), with 25 cows of each breed, the score stood as follows: Jerseys 906. i points Shorthorns 905.5 " Guernseys ••••• « 871.9 '< DAIRY COWS. 175 In the score for perfection of lOO points flavor was counted 55 points. Shorthorns headed the list by taking 504.3 points. Jerseys 497-8 " Guernseys 489.4 " The cost of production was : Shorthorns $99.36 Jerseys 98.14 Guernseys 76.25 The champion cheese cow of the Jerseys netted $6.97 " " " " " Shorthorns netted.. 6.27 " " " Guernseys " .. 5.27 In the second test, 90 days, for butter, loss and gain in live weight, where maintenance was counted against the cows, the net gain was for Jerseys (25 cows) $1,323.81 Guernseys (25 cows) 997-63 Shorthorns (24 cows) 9ir-i3 To produce this result it cost the Jerseys (25) $587-87 Shorthorns (24) 506. 50 Guernseys (25) 487.25 The champion Shorthorn cow (Nora) produced 3679.8 lbs. of milk. Jersey (Brown Bessie) " 3634 " " " Guernsey (Materna) " 3548.8 " " When reduced to gain in the products over cost of pro- duction, the account stood as follows : Jersey cow $73.22 Guernsey cow 57-82 Shorthorn cow 52.63 Again, in tests 2, 3, and 4 (Guernseys were not • in test No. 4) the three best Shorthorns (one in each test, including the two-year-old heifer) gave 5861 lbs. While the Jerseys of the same description gave. • 5330 " Showing in favor of Shorthorns 531 " 176 DAIRYING. In test No. 3 (butter), "go as you please," The champion Jersey cow at a cost of ^8.57 pro- duced net $24.69 The champion Shorthorn cow at a cost of $8.18 produced net 19-57 The champion Guernsey cow at a cost of $5.57 pro- duced net $19-37 In test No. 4 (heifers) 7 Jerseys cost for food $34.43 and netted 56.27 6 Shorthorns cost $23.52 and netted 47-42 making an average of 13 cents per head in favor of the Jer- seys. While butter was rated by points, beef was not, and the Jerseys got as much allowance per pound for gain in live weight as the Shorthorns. As hinted above, dairy cows are not always wanted for butter alone, or cheese alone, but very frequently to sup- ply city customers with good milk for their tables. The tests at the Columbian Dairy School proved that for a large supply of milk of the best flavor, Shorthorns not only were good dairy cows in every sense of the term, but that they led the other two breeds. Therefore, if milk of good quality and lots of it is wanted, Shorthorn cows can supply it, to say nothing of their " general-use " qualities that will just suit the farmer who wants milk, butter, cheese, and beef. VI. Red Polled Cattle. By J. McLain Smith, Dayton, Ohio, Secretary Red Polled Cattle Club of America. Hornless or polled cattle have existed in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, England, from time immemorial. Originally there were two distinct types: the Suffolks, usually of a pale red or dun color, and hence known as Suffolk duns — large and rather rough cattle, but celebrated for their milking qualities; and the Norfolks, commonly deep red in color, smaller, finer, more compact in build, not so large milkers, but great favorites with the butcher. . DAIRY COWS. IVV Youatt, speaking of the old Suffolk strain as it existed in his day (some half century ago), says: " In the height of the season some of these cows will give as much as eight gallons of milk (80 lbs.) in a day, and six gallons (60 lbs.) is not an unusual quantity." The modern Red Polled cow is a result of the combina- tion of these old strains, and it is the aim of the most pro- gressive breeders to produce a cow of medium size, blood- red in color, of fine bone, smooth and compact of form, hardy, docile, fatting easily, and giving a good flow of fairly rich milk all the year round. The breed, in other words, is being developed as a general farm cow, suited to the wants of the general farmer. While the cows can- not, I think, compete in flow of milk with the best Hol- steins, or in yield of butter with the best Jerseys, and the steers have not, as yet, taken a place in the front rank at the fat-stock shows, it is believed that the breed combines the several desirable traits as well at least as any other, and with them the equally essential qualities of hardiness, do- cility, and a hornless head. As an illustration of the points named, and a proof of their possible combination, the cow No. 2213, Gleaner, V, 9, is credited in 1894, according to the accepted record of the owner, with a yield of 14,189 lbs. of milk, an average of 38 86 lbs. a day for the entire year. The cow was then twelve years old, and was milking with her tenth calf (or tenth calving, as one or more of them produced twins). Among these is a pair of twins (Freemartins), shown as fat stock, at Norwich and London, England. The steer (ist and cup at Norfolk and ist at Smithfield") weighed at I year 5 J months old, 1238 lbs., and when shown again, at 2 years 6 months old, had a live weight of 1735 lbs., a gain in a few days over a year of 497 lbs., and a gain from birth of about 2.12 lbs. a day. The heifer, twin to above (ist and reserve for cup at Norfolk and ist and reserve for cup at Smithfield), had a live weight when shown (2 years 6 months old) of 1452 lbs., a gain from birth pf nearly 1.8 lbs. a day. 178 DAIRYING. An illustration nearer home is reported by Dr. J. R. Slingerland, Trustee of the Shaker Society at Union Vil- lage, O. In January. 1S95, he bought 35 head of Shorthorn steers, coming 2 years old, for feeding. At the same time they had 18 head, the same age, of their own breeding, the produce of a Red Polled bull on Shorthorn cows. At the time named the full-blood Shorthorns averaged 940 lbs. in weight, and the cross-breds 790 lbs. All were pastured the summer of 1895, fed out in the late fall, and sold to the same buyer on the same day in January, 1896. The full-blood steers consumed an average of 85 bushels of corn, besides hay and corn-fodder, in fatting, and weighed when sold an average of 1540 lbs. each — a gain of 600 lbs. in the year. They sold for $4 a hundred. The polled cross- breds consumed an average of 50 bushels of corn, with corn-fodder only for roughage, and weighed when sold an average of 1492 lbs. — a gain in the year of 702 lbs. They sold for $4.25 a hundred. The Red Polled bull, Osman 1251, used in producing the cross-bred steers in this trial, is the son of a full sister to Eleanor, and is the sire of many fine dairy cows. In appearance the Red Polls greatly resemble Devons, save the horns, and except that they are somewhat larger, and the cows, as a rule, are better milkers. They have the same rich color, fine bone, round, smooth, compact form, free from prominent points, and the same muscular habit and active disposition ; and their meat is of the same fine- grained, juicy character. Milking Qualities. — The modern Red Polled cow does not milk so largely as the old Suffolk, but her milk is of better quality. Sixty pounds a day, which Youatt says in his time was not unusual, is now, I think, somewhat rare. Four and a half to five gallons a day, or say 40 to 45 lbs., is a good yield from a mature cow in the flush of the season. But she will easily give, with proper care, 6000 to 8000 lbs. in a year, and some will considerably exceed this. In the report of English herds, published in the Red Polled Herd Book, the average yields of mature cows in the best herds is from 5000 to over 7000 lbs. a year. In Lord Rothchild's DAIRY COWS. 179 herd, 22 cows, seven milking with first or second calf, gave in 1895 an average of 7744^ lbs. of milk each. In my own little herd the mature cows will average over 6000 lbs. of milk a year and 4 per cent of fat. Beef Qualities. — In this line, so far, we are entirely de- pendent for facts on the English records. No full-blood steers of the breed have as yet been shown in this country. A few samples will suffice. At the Smithfield Club Show in 1SS9, two Red Polled steers, two years old, showed the largest daily gain of anything on exhibition that old — 2.18 lbs. and 2.29 lbs., respectively. At the Smithfield Club Show of 1890 a Red Polled steer dressed the highest per cent of his live weight of any animal slaughtered — 73.72 per cent. This, according to the London Live Stock Journal, has only once been exceeded in England — by a cross-bred steer, which dressed 74 per cent of his live weight. At the fat-stock shows in England in 1894 the following live weights were recorded : A steer i year io| months, 1374 lbs., and a year later 1702 lbs. ; a steer i year loj months, 1323 lbs.; a steer i year io| months, 1208 lbs., and a year later 1656 lbs. ; a steer i year 9 months, 1250 lbs., a year later 1728 lbs., and at 3 years 9 months 2112 lbs. Mature Red Polled cows, in breeding condition, should weigh 1200 to 1400 lbs., and bulls 1800 to 2000 lbs. A few will greatly exceed these weights, but many, as now bred, are smaller. These, however, are about the weights at- tained in the best herds. VII. Devon Cattle. By L. P. SissoN, Wheeling, W. Va., Secretary American Devon Cattle Club. The Devon breed of cattle is one of the oldest of the English cattle. Their native home is on the highlands of Devonshire, in southwestern England. Our records show that in the year 1800 Messrs. Winthrop & Davenport im- ported Devons into Plymouth, Mass. ; in 1805 General Eaton imported some into Otsego county, New York; in 1817 Mr. George Patterson came into possession of some Devons, brought over by T. W. Coke, who presented them to a 180 DAIRYING. brother of George Patterson; these afterward were the foundation of the above-mentioned herd (George Patter- son of Sykesville, Md.), These and other animals im- ported by Mr. Patterson, our records show, were all brought from Devonshire, and from the best that could be found there. Others were imported into New York State; among im- porters whom we might mention are John CowHn of Trux- ton, N. J.; L. F. Allen, Miles Vernon, A. Becket, W. P. & C. S. Wainwright, Col. L. G. Morris, D. W. Catlin, W. R. Sanford, J. Howard McHenry of Pikesville, Md.; C. P. Halcomb of Delaware, and others. Later importations are by James Murray of Virginia, R. W. Cameron of New York, Frank Brown of Baltimore, Md., and still later John Hudson, Moweaqua, 111., Dr. J. Cheston Morris, Philadel- phia, Pa., and A. S. Worden, Ulysses, Pa. As to the beef qualities of the Devons one only has to turn to the records of the markets of the country to see that they are among the leading beefers, bringing the top prices at all times. As to milk and butter production from Devons, it will be found from records that they produce from 12 to 25 lbs. of butter per week. Mr. A. E. Baker, of Wisconsin, says his cows average him 365 lbs. of butter per cow for the year, which is about as much as any breed will do on farmers' feed and care. Dr. J, Cheston Morris says, in regard to Devons for milk: " A herd of Devons may be relied upon to give an annual yield of 2000 quarts of milk from each cow; the length of the period averages be- tween 10 and II months, though single cows will continue in profit from 13 to 14 months. An average yield of seven quarts daily from each cow may therefore be expected, and an examination of milk records of Devon herds will show that they are remarkably uniform in their yields. As comparatively little attention has been paid to their milking qualities, a large improvement may be looked for by proper selection and breeding. As my animals weigh only 700 lbs. each, it follows that each cow has given be- tween five and six times her own weight in milk during the course of the year, besides maintaining her own DAIRY COWS. 181 weight, and producing healthy offspring. This I consider a physiological fact well worthy of notice, and very creditable to the ' little red cow,' Of course the same nutritive power applied in other directions would give beef-producing results, such as we all know of." Devon cattle are active and very hardy, qualities that make them especially valuable in dry or mountainous re- gions. The bulls are quite intelligent and active, and are not as liable to be cross as some other breeds; they weigh from 1800 to 2000 lbs. at three to four years old. The cows have strong vital organs, and large digestive and assimi- lathig powers. Their udders are not large for the amount of milk they give, with good elastic teats, seldom sore. The milk is of good quality, either as food for infants and invalids, for the manufacture of butter or cheese, or for market delivery; it does not churn in the cans, nor look blue in the bottle. Devons will pay their way at the dairy as well as in the feeder's stable; they will keep in good condition, and look plump and sleek on pasture that other breeds can hardly live on; they are easy keepers, good producers of the finest kind of milk, and also make the very best quality of beef. VIII. Dutch Belted Cattle. By H. B, Richards, Easton, Penna., Secretary Dutch Belted Cattle Asso- ciation of America. Dutch belted cattle are natives of Holland, and originated in that country during the seventeenth century, when the cattle interests of Holland were in the most thrifty condi- tion; in fact, it was the chief industry of the country. At that time breeding had been developed to a science, and cattle of remarkable contrast of color were bred whose foundation color was black, with a broad white band around the centre of the body, a white head, a black ring around each eye, and a full white tail. Wonderful and remarkable as it may appear, a feat was accomplished during that period that would defy our modern breeders and can be safely classified as a lost art. Dutch belted cattle became a classified breed and were 182 DAIRYING. bred to a remarkably high standard. For several centuries they were owned and controlled by the nobility keeping them pure and limiting their number to their ownership. They were first imported into this country about the mid- dle of the present century, the importers procuring the finest herds in Holland; the herds in the United States to-day are purely of American breeding. The American Association have adopted as their standard of color a pure black, with a continuous white belt around their body, beginning behind the shoulders and extending nearly to the hips; this sharp contrast of colors makes a beautiful and imposing contrast and a most beautiful sight; when seen in number grazing on the green, they are admired by all, even if not interested in cattle or farm- ing. This belt is almost invariably reproduced, and is so perfectly fixed that it will crop out in their grades for many generations, even against cold strains of blood; the potency of this feature is very striking, as the belt is often reproduced after the foundation color is lost; and grades of any foundation color can be produced to an unlimited extent. Their form is a strong characterized dairy type, medium size, and possessing all the qualifications of an ideal dairy animal. They are strictly a dairy breed, and are large and persistent milkers; strong constitutions, peaceable and quiet dispositions of a very compact form. Cows range from eight to twelve hundred, and bulls reach eighteen to twenty hundred. The late P. T. Barnum, the showman of national fame, said: "They struck my fancy in Holland about 1850; I imported a few, and then found their unique and novel appearance not their only quality, for they proved to be wonderful milkers, far superior to any other cattle to which my attention has been drawn." Nearly all the herds now in the United States are owned in New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts, with a few scattering South and West. A herd of eighteen were exhibited at the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, where they attracted great attention and were admired by chousands who had never heard of such novel ana beautiful DAIRY COWS. 183 cattle before. This herd was sold and exported to a wealthy resident of the City of Mexico, where they are now kept and are doing well in that congenial climate. There is an association of breeders of these cattle known as the Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America, who have adopted a high standard of excellence, requiring breeders to breed typical animals of correct markings, thereby gaining uniformity and correctness of type. The association issues a herd-book, j of which vol. 4, of recent issue, is the last number. IX. Brown-Swiss Cattle. By N, S. Fish, Groton, Conn., Secretary Brown-Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association. Brown-Swiss cattle were first imported into this coun- try by Mr. Henry M. Clarke of Belmont, Mas^., in 1869. He imported seven cows and one bull; since then there have been several importations. Most of the animals have come from the famed Canton of Schwyz, and the adjacent Cantons of Zug, Uri, and Unterwalden. The Rigi mountains, covered to their tops with fine, rich herbage, lie here, and some of the finest breeds of cattle in the whole country are here produced, the cattle grazing in the valley in winter and on the mountains in summer. The United States consul at Zurich in 1882 made a report to our government of the cattle and dairy interest of Switzerland. He writes: "For a hundred years Switzer- land has been famous for the production of its dairies. At the cattle show of Paris, 1878, every Swiss cow exhibited bore away a prize in competition with exhibits from Hol- land, England, Denmark, and other famous cattle countries. The Brown-Swiss cattle are fed on grass or hay only the year through. A fair average for cows in Canton Zurich is ten quarts of milk per day the milking-year through; in Schwyz and Zug the average is but little less." The consul of St. Gall says: "When a farmer in Ger- many, Italy, or France wishes to improve his breed, he 184 I>ATRYING. makes a selection from Swiss herds as the healthiest and hardiest known to the herd-book. . . . Tne Brown- Swiss is considered the dairy breed par excellence of Swit- zerland; it not only gives more milk, but this is richer than any other European breed of cattle." Marked Characteristics. — Size large; form firm; color shades from dark to light chestnut brown. The tuft of hair between the horns, on the inside of ear, and a narrow line along the back generally light. Horns rather short, waxey, with black tips. Nose black, with mealy-colored band surrounding nose. Switch, hoofs, and tongue black, atr'aight hind legs, wide thighs, and heavy quarters. The cows often weigh 1600 lbs., bulls 2000 lbs. Calves large, gome: weighing no lbs. when dropped. They mature fast, nave healthy constitutions, yielding generous returns for whatever caie, time, labor, or money is expended on them. A cow sttown at the Fat Stock Show in November, i8qi, gave in three days 245 lbs. of milk, showing 9.32 lbs. of 6utter-fat by the Betbcock test, yielding during one day of the test 3i lbs. of tat, the largest amount of butter-fat ever shown at an official test 0/ any cow of any breed up to that time. The cow Muotta <:alved about November i, 1893, and in February, 1894, gave 67 Ids. of milk in one day. The milk of Brown-Swiss cows has a sweet flavor which is very noticeable, and makes it very desirable for family use. With good farm care the cows give unoer favorable circumstances from 20 to 25 quarts of milk per day. They make the finest of beef and veal; when intenaed to be used for working oxen, they are easily broken and are fast walkers. The cows are persistent milkers, with good teats; where used to produce grade animals they give the best of sat- isfaction, with the Swiss characteristics predominating. There are now about 1800 recorded animals in this country, located in almost every State, and some in Mexico. DAIRY COWS. 185 YIELD OF MILK AND FAT FRO»I DAIRY COWS. A good dairy cow should give at least 5000 pounds ot milk during a whole period of lactation. As the quality 01 milk given by different cows varies greatly, however, as will be apparent from the tables given in the following, the yield of fat produced during a lactation period is a better standard to go by than that of the milk; three-fourths of a pound of tat per day for an average of 300 days may be con- sidered a good yield (total 225 pounds). Many dairy farmers aim to have all mature cows in their herds produce a pound of fat, on the average, for every day in the year. To do this, a cow whose milk tests about 4 per cent, must give 25 pounds of milk a day (3 gallons) as an average for the whole year; a cow producing 3 per cent milk must give ^Si pounds of milk daily, and one producing 5 per cent milk must yield 20 pounds of milk daily, on the average, etc. The flow of milk is usually at its highest shortly after calving, and then gradually decreases, the rate of decrease being determined by the inbred milking qualities of the cow and the system of feeding practised. The average de- crease in milk yield for good dairy cows on good feed is from one half to three fourths of a pound per head per ten days. Where cows are not fed liberally and receive but lit- tle concentrated feed, the decrease will be more marked, and often exceed one pound of milk per head per ten days. The decrease is more marked during the latter stages of the period of lactation than in the earlier ones, and is also more marked in cows with poorly developed milking qual- ities than in good dairy cows. A cow is considered at her best when from five to seven years old; the constitutional strength of the animal, the system of feeding practised, and the general treatment given the cow will determine her period of usefulness. The quality of the milk produced by individual cows generally remains fairly uniform through the greater por- tion of the lactation period, and is not permanently influ- enced in any marked manner by feed or any external conditions. During the last couple of months, when the 186 DAIRYINa. yield of milk is decreasing more rapidly than before, the quality is generally improved to some extent, the variation being, as a rule, within i per cent. Variations of several per cents of fat may sometimes occur from day to day, or milking to milking, in the milk from single cows; variations amounting to i per cent are common. Herd milk varies much less, the percentages of fat on subsequent days being as a rule within two tenths of one per cent, and only excep- tionally near one per cent. RESULTS OF TESTS OF DAIRY BREEDS Conducted by American Agricultural Experiment Stations. Breed. New York (Geneva): Jersey Guernsey Holstein Ayrshire Short Horn Devon American Hol- derness Ma ink: Jersey Holstein Ayrshire New Jersey: Jersey Guernsey Holstein Ayrshire Short Horn. .. ^^ ^ o Average Yields per Lactation Period. Milk. lbs. 5045 5385 7918 6824 6055 3984 5721 5460 8369 6612 3 I 7695 4 7446 3 8455 4 I 7461 3 I 10457 Fat. lbs. 282.1 285 5 266. T 244.8 269.0 183.3 213. I 297. 285 Average Co.st of Food Produc- Produc- Eaten ing tcx) ing 1 lb. per Day. jibs. Milk.i Kat. 5.60 5 30 3-36 3.60 4.44 4.60 3-73 5-5° 3-47 233-0 3-67 376.3 379 -o 300.2 275-3 396.3 4-»9 5.09 3 55 3-69 3-79 cents 12.4 12.5 13-9 13-5 12.7 10.3 12.2 16.2 19.5 17. 1 16.1 14.9 19-3 15.0 15-4 cents 90 86 65 74 78 94 76 83.1 94-9 87.1 78.1 79-3 76.0 79.2 cents 16. 1 16.1 19. 1 20.2 17.2 20.5 20.1 20.4 24-3 26.8 17.9 153 22.4 20.6 20.6 Averages /or all Breeds a?id Lactation Periods. Jersey Guernsey Holstein Ayrshire — Short Horn Devon American Hoi derness , Total ., 9 18 5579 301. 1 5-40 8 10 6210 322 9 5.20 9 10 8215 282.0 3 43 10 20 6909 248.5 3.60 4 5 8696 345-4 3-97 3 5 3984 183.3 4.60 2 4 5721 213.1 3-73 45 1 72 13-9 13-5 17.2 14-5 14-3 10.3 II. 2 94-7 82.8 74-7 78.5 78.7 94 -o 76.0 17.4 15-8 21.5 21-5 19.4 20.5 DATRY COWS. 187 The animals included in the foregoing breed tests rank on the average as follows: 1. As to yield of fat: Shorthorn, Guernsey, Jersey, Hol- stein, Ayrshire, American Holderness, Devon. 2. As to cost of producing i lb. of fat: Guernsey, Jersey, Shorthorn, American, Holderness, Devon, Holstein and Ayrshire. 3. As to yield of milk: Shorthorn, Holstein, Ayrshire, Guernsey, American Holderness, Jersey, Devon. 4. As to cost of producing lOO lbs. of milk: Holstein, American Holderness, Ayrshire, Shorthorn, Guernsey, Devon, Jersey. 5. As to cost of food: Devon, American Holderness, Guernsey, Jersey, Shorthorn, Ayrshire, Holstein. 6. As to richness of milk: Jersey, Guernsey, Devon, Short- horn, American Holderness, Ayrshire, Holstein. RESULTS OF BREED TESTS CONDUCTED AT WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. A. Breed Tesi No. I (Cheese Test), May 10 to 25. Milk Fat Price of Pro- Pro- Cheese, Cheese Cost duced, duced, 'bs. per lb., * of Net lbs. lbs. cents. Feed. Gain. 25Jerseys 13,296.4 60191 1451.8 13.36 $98.14 $119.82 25 Guernseys 10,938.6 488.42 1130.6 11.95 76.25 88.30 25Short-horns 12,186.9 436.60 1077.6 13.00 99-36 81.36 B. Breed Test No. 2 (Ninety-day Butter Test), June i to Aug. 29. Butter Price of credited Butter. 25 Jerseys.. 73)488.8 3516.08 4274.01 $1747.37 $587.50 $1323.81 25 Guernseys 61,781.7 2784.56 3360.43 1355-44 484-14 997-64 24 Short-horns 66,263.2 2409.97 2890.87 1171.77 501.79 910.12 Averages per day per cow. Fat, Cost of per cent. Food. Jerseys 32.7 1.56 4.78 26.1 cts. Guernseys 27.5 1.24 4.51 21.5 " Short-horns 30.7 1.12 3.64 23.2 " C. Breed.Test No. 3 (Thirty-day Butter Test), Aug. 29 to Sept. 28. Butter Price of credited Butter. 15 Jerseys 13,921.9 685.81 837.21 $385.59 $111.24 $274-13 15 Guernseys 13,518.4 597.96 724.17 329.77 92.77 237.00 15 Short-horns 15,618.3 555.43 662.67 303.69 104.55 198.89 D. Breed Test No. 4 (Heifer Test), Sept 30 to Oct. 20, 7 Jerseys 3356.6 155.38 194.23 $77-69 $34-44 $56.28 6 Short-horns 2581.0 97.89 122.36 48.95 23.53 47-42 .88 DAIRYING. AVERAGE YIELDS OF MILK AND FAT BY PRE- MIUM COWS AT RECENT STATE FAIRS. State. Name of Cow. New York. Maine. Mass. Ohio. Indiana. Illinois. Wisconsin. Iowa. Nebraska. California. Canada. Toronto. Guelph. Gananoque Intze Von Hol- lingen Weston Lily Very Much Lady of Lyons 6th Nahe 2d Cows over 3 yrs. old. Beulah Shawlan. .. Cows tinder ^ yrs. old. Kitty King Johanna 5th Daisy — Eurodna .... Geertje Lefing Lady Woods Typha Eunice Clay Calamity Jane Carmen Sylva. . . . Bleed. Holstein Jersey Guernsey Jersey Holstein Jersey Holstein Jersey Holstein Jersey Holstein Milk. Fat. lbs. I 58.55 48.68 43-50 44-75 72.86 47.00 lbs. 1. 691 2.190 2. 150 2.060 2. no 1.553 37-43 1-585 29.60' 83-95 40.15 40.12 50-31 38.58 49-73 , I 65.00 69.18 69.00, 1.485 2.500 2.420 1-597 1. 510 2.626 1-544 1-590 2.090 1. 914 Fat. p.c. 2.89 4-50 4-94 4.62 2.90 3-30 4-33 Test made at Fair grounds. Home. Fair grounds. 5-02 2.98jHorae. 5-95! " 4. 07! Fair grounds. :; . 00 6.74 2-45 3 ,6 2.80 HIGHEST RECORD FOR YIELD OF FAT During Twenty-four Hours Made by any Co^v in a Public Test at a Fair. Brienz, Brown-Swiss, 11 years old, weighing 1395 lbs. Average daily yield of milk 81.7 lbs. " " fat 3. II " " per cent of fat in day's milk. . .. 3.81 " (American Dairy Show, Chicago, 1891; 3-day test.) DAIRY COWS. 189 OFFICIAL MILK AND BUTTER RECORDS. A. Milk Records. I. Hoist ein-Friesi an : Pietertje 2d. 3273 H. H. B Rosa Boiiheur 5th, 11227 H. F H. B. .. Shadeland Boon 2d, 8892 H.H. B II. Guernsey: Lily of Alexander, No. 1059 III. Ayrshire : Rena Myrtle, 9530 B. Butter Records. I. Holstein-Frjesiiin : Pauline Paul, 852 A. R., 2199 H. H. B... (i lb, butter from 16. t8 lbs. milk.) Natsey, 646 A. R., 2265 H. H. B (i lb. butter from 15.87 lbs. milk.) Elgin Belle, 840 A. R., 4640 H. H. B ... (i lb. butter from 17.46 and 17.78 lbs. milk.) Jersey : Signal's Lily Flagg, No. 31035 Princess 2d, No. 8046 Guernsey : Bretonne, No. 3660 Gully 5th, No. 1590 Lucille, No. 115 Ayrsh ire : Rena Myrtle, 9530 Duchess of Smithfield. 4256 n. Ill IV 365 Days. lbs. 30,311 12,855}^ 12,172 i,i53b5 1-04754 75: 546 7 Days. lbs. 726^ 24 Hours. lbs. 122}^^ 34tb 46iSt 24 IB 4% iQtb sA * From 11,339 lbs. of milk. t From 299}^ lbs. of milk. RESULTS OF ENGLISH 3IILKING TRIALS. (Averages of breed-tests conducted at the annual dairy shows of the Brit- ish Dairy Farmers' Assoc, 1879-95, inclusive.) o< 174 207 70 ID 21 19 39 .S56 Breed. Shorthorns.. Jerseys Guernseys . Holsteins (Dutch) .Ayrshires Devons Red Polls , Welsh . .. Aberdeen Angus Kerries and De.x- ter Kerries Crosses ..... Aver- age Yield of Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Milk Yield Per Yield Per Fat, Per per Day. per Day. Cent. per Day. Cent. Cent. lbs. lbs. lbs. 44.58 5.64 12.66 1.63 3-65 9.01 27.99 4.06 14 51 ^ 37 4.90 9.61 28.78 4.04 14.04 I 37 4-77 9-27 45-19 5-53 12.25 1-54 3-41 8.84 37-73 5-34 13-52 1.68 4-25 9-27 30.12 4.32 14-34 1.48 4.90 9-44 38.84 4.91 12.64 1-49 3-84 8.80 46.00 5.86 12.74 1. 91 4.16 8.58 60.30 8.29 13-74 3.01 4-99 8-75 26.59 3-56 13-37 I. II 4.18 9.19 41-59 5-72 13-77 1.66 4.0 9-77 Live Weight. lbs. 1406 (55)* 846 (92) 1037 (21) 1383 ( 3) 1077 (10) 1 123 (16) 749 ( 9) 1250 (13) * Average for 55 animals. 190 DAIRYIN^G. ENGLISH STANDARDS FOR ANNUAL. YIELD OF MILK OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS. The standards proposed for the respective breeds by the British Dairy Farmers' Association for entry in the " Dairy Cattle Register" are as under: Weight of Milk in the Milking Period (not exceeding n Pedigree and Non-Pedigree. months). lbs. Short-horn 8500 Jersey 6000 Guernsey 6000 Ayrshire 7500 Red Polled.. 7000 Kerry and Dexter Kerry.. 4500 Dutch (Holstein) 8500 Pure Butter Fat per Day (average of two tests as determined by analysis), lbs. 1.25 1.25 1.25 1. 00 1. 00 0.75 I. GO The standard for crosses of either of the above will be the mean of the standards for the pure breeds. No animal is admitted whose milk contains less than 12 per cent of solids at any test. (McConnell.) AVERAGE YIELDS AND COMPOSITION OF MILK OF DIFFERENT BREEDS. (Hucho.) Breed. Short-horn... Brown Swiss Holstein Guernsey .. Ayshire Jersey Angler Kerry Live Wt., Lbs. 1300 1300 1 100 1050 1000 900 900 550 Annual Yield. Milk, lbs. 6800 7300 7700 6600 6600 6600 6600 5000 Fat, lbs. 260 275 230 330 245 300 240 190 Average Per Cent. Solids. 12.9 13.0 II 8 14.7 12.5 14.7 12.0 12.5 Fat. 3-S 3-8 30 5-0 3 7 5-0 3-4 3-8 Solids not Fat. Per 1000 lbs. Live Wt. Milk, lbs. 5200 5600 7000 6300 6600 6700 7300 9000 Fat, lbs. 200 2IO 210 310 24s 330 270 350 DAIRY COWS. 191 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK FROM DIFFERENT BREEDS. (Konig.) Name of Breed. Steyer (Austrian) Simmenthal (Swiss) . . . . Tillerthal (Tyrolean).., Vorarlberg (Austrian). Algau (Bavarian) . . . Bohemian Holstein . ., Oldenburg (German), . Angler (Danish) Short-horn Devon , Ayrshire Jersey.. Guernsey French Scandinavian := 3 2^ 12 ^ 6< i^ < 86.90 4.17 3 24 4 96 73 6 87 26 3-79 2 64 5.81 70 22 a7-43 3 70 3 07 5.10 70 iQ 87 3» 3-54 2 91 5-40 77 4 87 88 3.20 3 22 5-13 57 2 86 00 5 06 3 67 4 63 64 24 88 04 3-25 3 99 4.16 56 18 «7 95 3.3« 3 10 4.81 76 10 88 IS 3.12 67 87 20 3-47 3 21 5-43 69 20 86 .57 4-44 .... 64 43 86 93 3-58 3 42 5 43 64 31 «5 90 4-32 3 34 5-70 74 26 as 39 5" 3 98 4.38 I I4(?) 12 a? 20 3-90 3 07 5.06 77 4 88 00 3-5^ 2 76 4-97 76 13. 10 12.74 12.57 12.62 12. 12 14.00 11.96 12.05 11.85 12.80 13 43 1307 14. 10 14.61 12.80 12.00 CO METHODS OF JUDGING THE VALUE OF DAIRY COWS. The British Dairy Farmers^ Association, which has con- ducted tests of dairy cows at their annual fair for the last fifteen years, has scored the dairy cows competing for pre- miums according to the following scale during late years : I point for each pound of milk; 20 points for each pound of fat; 4 points for each pound of solids not fat. I point for each ten days in milk after the first twenty days (limit 200 days). 10 points are deducted from the total score for each per cent, of fat below three per cent in the milk. The cows entered in the test are separated into four classes, according to the breed, each class being divided into two divisions, cows and heifers. The classes are Shorthorns, Jerseys, Guernseys, and cross-breeds. Other associations abroad or in this country have not generally followed any definite plan from year to year in awarding premiums to dairy cows at fairs, the awards having 192 DAIRYING. been given to cows producing most milk, or : ichest milk, or most butter-fat, or most solids, during the test, which may have lasted one to three days. At the Vermont State Fair, iSSg, the following points were given : For each 20 days since calving, i point ; for each 10 days of gestation, I point ; for each 2 oz. of total solids in 24 hours' milk, i point ; for each oz. of butter-fat in 24 hours' milk, 2 points; for each 2 oz. of salted butter from 24 hours' milk, i point. In the milking trials conducted by the Royal Agricultural Society of England, the size of the cows has been con- sidered, the cows being, as a rule, separated into two classes, viz., over and under i k o lbs. live weight. From the best information at hand at the present, the system ( f awards adopted by the British Dairy Farmers" Association, and given above, must be considered the most perfect and the most just to all concerned. Its main short- comings lie, as it would seem, in its not considering the food eaten by each animal during the test, and in the fact that the test is made at the fair, and not at home under every-day conditions and in surroundings familiar to the animals. The former objection would be removed by tak- ing into account the dry matter in the food eaten, as shown by chemical analysis. BUYING AND SELLING COWS BY TESTS OF THEIR 3IILK. (E.MERY.) The money value of a cow may be estimated by multi- plying the number of gallons of milk which the cow gives by 12, adding to or subtracting from this product one dollar for every one fourth per cent of fat in the milk above or below 3.5 per cent. ,, , pounds of milk per day , , Value = — X 12 -|-4 (per cent fat — 3.5). of (See Bull. No. 113, N. C. Exp. Station.) MILK. 193 II. MILK. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF MILK. (KoNiG.) Human Mare Buffalo Ass Cow Ewe Goat Reindeer* Sow Bitch Elephant Hippopotamus. . Camel Llama No. of Casein Milk . Sugar. ^ Analy- ses. Water. Fat. and Al- bumen. .sh. 107 87.41 3.78 2.29 6.21 31 50 90.78 I. 21 1.99 5 67 35 8 82.25 7.51 5.05 4 44 75 7 89.64 1.64 2.22 5 99 51 793 87.17 3-09 3.55 4 88 71 32 80.82 6.86 6.52 4 91 89 38 85.71 4.78 4.29 4 46 76 2 67.20 17.10 "•39 2 82 I 49 8 84.04 4-55 7.23 3 13 ^ OS 28 7.S.44 9 57 II. 17 3 09 73 3 79.30 9.10 2.51 8 59 50 I 90.43 4.51 4 40 II 3 86.57 3-07 4.00 5 59 77 3 86.55 3.15 3.90 5 60 80 Specific Grav- ity. 1.0270 1.0347 1.0330 1.0345 I. 03 I 6 I. 0341 1.0328 1.0477 1.038 1-035 1-0313 1.042 1.034 * Werenskiold AVERAGE ANALYSES OF A3IERICAN SAMPLES OF DAIRY PRODUCTS. (Gokssmakn.) Whole Milk. Skim- milk. Butter- milk. Cream from Cooley Creamer. Butter. No. of samples 1889 348 31 197 25 Water 86.53 4.14 3.20 5.43* .70 100.00 90.52 .32 3-53 4-83 .80 91.67 .27 2.79 4-47* .80 73-90 17.66 .62 10.89 83.95^ .42"' Fat Casein and albumen.. Milk-sugar Ash 4-74 1. 0.00 100.00 100.00 Total solids 13-47 9-33 9.48 9.16 8.33 8.06 26.10 8.44 89.11 5.16 Solids not fat * By difference. 194 DAIRYING. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COAVS' MILK, WITH VARIATIONS. (KoNiG.) Average of 793 Analyses (largely Euro- pean). 87.17 percent. 3.69 " " 3;°^ [3.55 per ct. 4.88 per cent. .71 " *' Minimum. Maximum. Water Fat Casein Albumen Milk-sugar 80.32 per cent. t.67 " " ^[2^ j-207Perct. 2.11 per cent. •35 " " 90.69 per cent. 6.47 " " 6-9 ^6.40 per ct. 6 . 12 per cent. 1. 21 " " Ash Total solids Solids not fat 100.00 12.83 percent. 9.14 " " 1. 0316" " 9.3« 19.68 Specific gravity 1.0264 1.0970 COMPOSITION OF MORNING AND EVENING MILK, AND OF MORNING, NOON, AND EVENING MILK. (KoNIG ) Morning- milk. Evening " Morning milk. Noon " Evening " No. of An- alyses. Water. Fat. ^57 157 28 28 2 Per ct. 86.70 86.47 88.08 87.44 87.49 Per ct 3-32 3-56 3.06 3-87 3.62 Casein and Albumen Per ct. 3-63 3-65 3-24 3.26 3-19 Milk- Ash. sugar. Per ct. P'rct. 5-64 71 5.60 .72 4.88 •74 4.68 ■75 4.99 •71 Total Solids. Per ct: 13-30 13 53 11.92 12 56 12.51 COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE SAME MILKINGS. (Konig.) First portion . Second " Third " No. of An- Water. Fat. alyses. Per ct. Per ct. 7 89.84 1.78 7 88.12 3-34 6 86.29 452 Casein and Albumen, Per ct. •94 •59 Milk- Ash. sugar, Per ct. P'rct. 4.81 . .69 4.92 .68 5.88 .72 Total Solids. Per ct. 10.16 11.88 13-71 MILK. 195 CAIjCULATION of COI^rPONENTS OF COWS' MILK. According to Vieth the components of milk solids will stand in the ratio to one another of about lo : 13 : 2 for casein and albumen : milk sugar : ash. If the solids not fat in a sample of milk are 9 per cent, the per cent of casein and albumen in the same will be approximately ^^5 X 10 = 3.60 per cent ; sugar, ^5X13 = 4-68 per'cent; and ash, /^ X 2 = .72 per cent. TABLE SHOAVING RELATION OF FAT TO CASEIN AND OTHER SOLIDS. (Cooke.) Total Solids. Fat. Casein and Milk-sug^ Albumen. and Ash. 11.00 3 11.50 3 12.00 , . . . 3 12.50 3 13-00 3 13-50 4 14.00 4 14.50 4 15.00... 5 15.50 5 16.00 6 07 29 50 75 99 34 68 93 38 69 00 2.92 3.00 3-07 3.19 3.30 3-44 3-57 3.79 4.00 4-15 4.30 5.01 5.21 5.43 5.56 5-71 5.72 5-75 5.68 5.62 5.66 5.70 This table, which is summarized from the analyses of about 2400 American samples of milk, shows that while the percentage of fat varies from 3.07 to 6 per cent, or nearly three per cent, that of casein varies only from 2.92 to 4.30 per cent, less than one and one half per cent. It also shows that a higher percentage of fat is always accom- panied by a higher percentage of casein. Milk sugar and ash increase but little as the milk grows richer. 196 DAIRYING. FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN DAIRY PROD- UCTS. Average of American Analyses. (Cooke and Hills. i Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash. Value per Ton. Whole milk Skim-milk Cream Buttermilk Whey •53^ •56 .40 .48 • 15 . 12 3-93 .19^ .20 •15 •17 •14 .04 .60 •175^ .185 .130 .158 .181 .036 .120 $ 2.17 2.31 .66 1.98 .84 .4.Q Butter Cheese 14.19 COMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM. (Konig.) • No. of Anal- yses. II I I 42 Water. 77-9 64. 1 70.1 74.6 Casein. Albu- men. Butter- fat. Milk- sugar. 4.6 3-9 2.7 Ash. Ewe 4.9 5-2 7.6 4.0 3-4 3-2 8.0 13-6 8.3 24-5 9-5 3-6 •9 30 •9 1.6 Goat Sow Cow COMPOSITION OF ASH OF COAVS' MILK AND COLOSTRUM. Cows' Milk. Total ash 7 per cent 100 parts of ash will contain : Potash 24 Soda 6 Lime 23 " 35 Phosphoric acid 28 " 41 Chlorin 13 " 13 Colostrum. 1.6 per cent MILK. 197 A CHAPTER ON 3IILiK TESTING. The Babcock milk test is the quick and simple method of determining the fat content of milk which has been most generally adopted in this country. The test was in- vented by Dr. S. M. Babcock, of Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, and was first published in July, i8go. The following is an outline of the method: A known quantity of milk (17.6 cubic centimeters, or about f of an ounce) is pipetted off into a graduated test- bottle; 17.5 CO. of commercial sulfuric acid, of a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83, is then measured out by means of a graduated cylinder or an automatic pipette, and added to the milk. The two fluids are mixed, and when the curd is dissolved, the test-bottles are placed in a centrifugal ma- chine and whirled for 5 minutes at a rate of 800-1200 revo- lutions per minute, the small hand-machines on the market requiring the higher number of revolutions. Boiling hot water is then filled into the bottles, by which means the liquid fat is brought into the narrow graduated neck of the bottles ; after an additional whirling of the bottles for a minute, the length of the column of fat is read off in per cent. The whole process of testing a sample of milk according to this method will take less than a quarter of an hour when a little skill in manipulation has been reached. The various dealers in dairy implements have placed Babcock machines on the market in sizes fiom 4- to 60- bottle machines, and supply the necessary outfit, as test- bottles, pipettes, graduates, and sulfuric acid. There are at present three different types of machines — hand-machines (friction or cog-wheel machines; the latter ones are to be preferred, but are also somewhat more expensive), steam turbine, and belt-power machines. In Sharpies' Russian Babcock Tester (a steam turbine test) the bottles used can be filled while the machine is in motion; the results are, how- ever, apt to come somewhat too low; the test bottles used 198 DAIRYIKG. are arranged for half the usual quantity of milk. The " No - Tin " test manufactured by the same firm is one of the best hand-machines on the market. Steam turbine machines are to be recommended for factory use; they should always be provided with a speed indicator so as to avoid too slow or too rapid whirling; accidents have happened in several cases where the bottles were unable to stand the pressure caused by too rapid whirling. Points to be watched in making tests by the Babcock method : The strength of the acid used is very important; its specific gravity should not go below 1.82 or above 1.84 ; if the acid is somewhat too strong less may be taken, and a little more if it is rather weak. It is, however, not possible to make a satisfactory test with acid of a specific gravity below 1.82. Keep the acid bottle corked when not in use, as the acid will otherwise take up moisture from the air. In testing separator skim-milk use a somewhat larger quantity of acid than usual, and whirl 5 to 6 minutes; this will insure a perfect separation of all the fat present in such milks. The two-necked so-called Ohlsson bottles are recomrnended for testing separator skim-milk. The centrifugal machines should run at a rate of about 800 to 1000 revolutions per minute; if its diameter is small, whirl 1000 or 1200. Soft or rain-water is used in filling up the bottle after boiling, or hard water may be used if some drops of sulfuric acid have been added to it before the boiling. In adding the acid the bottle should be held at an angle, so as to cause the acid to follow the inside of the wall. Mix the milk and acid at once, or within a short time, and pro- ceed with the test without delay. Read off results before the fat begins to crystallize. If many tests are made at a time, and the room is cold, place the bottles in a pail with hot water and keep them warm until results are recorded. MILK. 199 Application of Babcock's Test. — The method may be used to advantage in determining the fat content of full milk, skim-milk, buttermilk, whey, cream, condensed milk, and cheese. It cannot be recommended for the estimation of fat in butter, since the error of analysis in this case is too large. In testing separator skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey by this method, no reading should be taken lower than one- tenth of one per cent. If only a small drop or two of liquid fat appears in the neck of the bottles after finished whirling, the result is therefore to be put down as .i per cent, instead oir estimates of .05, and still lower, which are sometimes made. (See Bull. No. 52, Wis. Experiment Station.) Lactometer. — The Quevenne lactometer, with the ther- mometer tube extending into the narrow stem of the instru- ment, is recommended for dairy work. In the N. Y. Board of Health lactometer, often used, the scale is divided into 120 divisions, the mark 100 corresponding to a specific gravity of 1.029, a-^^d that of 120 to a specific gravity of 1.0348. These lactometer degrees can be converted into Quevenne lactometer degrees by multiplying by .29. The following table gives the readings of the two scales be- tween 60 and 120 on the Board of Health lactometer: 200 DAIRYING. TABLE SHOAVING THE QUEVENNE LACTOMETER DEGREES CORRESPONDING TO THE SCALE OF LACTOMETERS GRADUATED FROM O TO 120. N. Y. Bd. of Health Scale. Quevenne Scale. N. Y. Bd. of Health Scale. 81 Quevenne Scale. N. Y. Bd. of Health Scale. Quevenne Scale. 60 17.4 23-5 lOI 29-3 61 17.7 82 23.8 102 29.6 62 63 64 65 18 18.3 18.6 18.8 83 84 85 86 24.1 24.4 24.6 24.9 103 104 105 106 29.9 30.2 30.5 30-7 66 67 68 19. 1 19.4 19.7 87 88 89 25.2 25-5 25.8 107 108 109 31 31-3 31.6 69 20 90 26. 1 no 31-9 70 29.3 91 26.4 III 32.2 71 20.6 92 26.7 112 32.5 72 20.9 93 27 "3 32.8 73 21 .2 94 27-3 114 33-1 74 75 21-5 21.7 95 96 27.6 27.8 "--5 116 33-4 33.6 76 77 78 22 22.3 22.6 97 98 99 28.1 28.4 28.7 117 118 119 33-9 34-2 34-5 79 80 22.9 23.2 100 29 120 34.8 In taking the specific gravity of milk by means of a lac- tometer, the temperature of the milk should not vary more than 10° either way from 60" F. The following tables show the proper corrections for temperature to be made, if the milk was either warmer or colder than 60' F., the tem- perature to which the specific gravities of all liquids are usually referred. In practical work sufficiently accurate corrections for tem- perature may generally be made by adding .1 to the lacto- meter reading for each degree above 60" F. , and by subtract- ing .1 for each degree below 60''; e.g., if the reading at 64° is 29.5, it will be about 29.5 -|- .4 = 29.9 at 60^; if 34.0 at 52°, it will be about 34.0 — .8 = 33.2 at 6o^ By reference to the following table we find it is more correctly 33.0. MILK. 201 M H M > Ph o P3 < o M H o p^ H XI c u (L) w be (U Q S-H O u 3 13 u a a H o VO o o m CO O - N ro ■* N N N W N \r-\o t^co On Pi Pi M Ji PI M Pi CO ■* CO CO CO CO CO C^ O O" O On On On On On ON O^ On On On 0» ON ro o> w N m « N N IN N Ti- mvo t^co pi P) Pi Pi PI o~ M Pi CO Pi CO ff^ CO CO 00 IT, On on O'OO 00 00 00 CO to CO 03 00 r~ t^ r^ ro On i- O rO HI C>1 N W N ■j- invc c^oo Pi Pi Pi Pi PI 0\ >- Pi CO Pi CO ro CO CO t^ t^ tv t^ND VO VO vO VO VO VO m m m m m ■<*■ ro On M P) N (S O N Tj- mvo t^oo p< Pi Pi Pi Pi (3- 1-1 M ro Pi CO CO ro ro in in in in in in m ■* •>!-•* ■* CO CO ro ro N P) ro Oi i-c N ro w N N (N N ■* invo t^oo Pi Pi P< Pi Pi ON M PI ro PI ro CO CO CO ■* -^ ^ -^ •* ^ m CO m en Pi pi pi M M O Ti- ro On " p) m "I 0) M N N ■ M P) m M N N N M •<*• invo t^oo Pi pi PI P) PI On >-i ►- N Pi ro CO ro ro O lO (N O N P) P) M M M O On O'OO tv VO ro ro On M PI ro M P) N P) PI ■>!■ invo t^oo Pi Pi PI Pi « On On O H Pi PI Pi ro ro ro ON P) PI M N PJ M M M O^oo t^vo m m ro ro O^ M Pi m 1- M PI Pi PJ ■>*• mvo tvoo Pi Pi PJ Pi Pi CO o^ ►- Pi PI PI CO ro ro 00 O On ON 00 t^vo m -"j- ro ro On O M Pi rc 1-1 Pi Pi Pi Pi •* mvo NO t^ Pi Pi PI Pi Pi 00 On ►" Pi Pi Pi ro ro ro t^ ■^ M ON O 1-1 N CO w Pi Pi Ci « ON OnOO 00 ■<*• Tj- mNO r^ pi Pi Pi pi P< fvvo m Tj- ro 00 On H Pi Pi Pi CO CO CO P) ro ro O ON On On 0>00 00 pxVD m Tj- CO M ro ro ON I- Ci M M Pi Pi N Pi CO ■* mvo t>. 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Vt-I -Q ^ o ■" o tn O c ■- VO 5 ^ a « ^^ i* (/) O ^. 4J a; > Ov o m m m mvo « ■* m t^ Ov VO vo VO vo 'O O N -^t-m tN tx t^ t^ t>. t^ o> 00 in 1^00 (N -^ ■^ ■* lO lO lO VO t^ 0\ M N m m mvo vo ■^vo CO Ov M VO VO VO VO C* m Tfvo 00 t^ t^ t^ t^oo 00 IT) 00 N "*-vO Ti- in IT) "■< lo 00 Ov HI m m m mvo VO VO VO 00 O N i1- VO VO tv t^ t^ moo Ov M m r^ t^ t^oo 00 00 > O « -*vO 00 in m IT) m in HI m in t^ VO VO vO VO VO Ov HI m •<^vo VO t^ r^ f~ t>. CO Pi "^VO tvOO 00 00 00 Ov • IT) f) -^vo 00 m m in ino N -^VO 00 O VO VO VO VO t^ N m m t~~ Ov t^ t^ t^ t^ p^ M m m t-^ Ov 00 00 00 » CO ov C/J O •*VO 00 (N »n in in\o vo •*vo 00 N VO VO vo t^ r^ i*-vO 00 N t^ t~> C-iOC CO m tx Ov ►- m CO 00 00 Ov OV m Ov 00 t^ Ov M m m in invo VO VO t^ o^ HI m m vO vO t^ t~. t>. 00 Pi ij-vo t^OO 00 00 00 OO o Pi ro t^ 00 Ov Ov Ov Ov Ov OV M Ov « <^vo 00 mvo VO VO VO P) ■* t^ Ov tv f. t^ t^ t^ M m moo 00 00 00 00 Ov Pi •'t-vo 00 HI Ov 0> Ov o< HI m HI -* ■^ N -^vo Ov ►- VO VO VO VO C^ m moo O N C^ t~s t^OO CO m t^ Ov p) -^ 00 00 00 Ov ov VO 00 HI m m Ov ov C 00 o HI ^ ^ in i^ O N ■<1- VO VO t^ t^ t^ t~ Ov ►i T*-VO C^ t^OO 00 00 ov HI -^VO 00 00 ov Ov Ov Ov w m moo HI m M 00 >- fOvO OO VO t^ t-s t^ t^ HI mvo 00 o 00 00 00 00 Oi mvo 00 HI m Ov Ov ov o VO OO HI mvo " HI HI M M HI HI Ht^ Ov HI M 00 N ■* t^ Ov N t^ t^ t-* t^oo moo O mvo 00 00 OvOv Ov 00 M mvo 00 Ov O o M HI HI H M -^ t^ Ov PJ HI HI M M N Pi HI VO 00 >-< -^ t>. t^ C^OO 00 00 m moo HI ov Ov ov Ov M n-vo o^ Pi m iH w 00 M mvo Ov M P) N M Pi Pi m M fovo 0^ N 00 00 00 00 On moo M -^ t^ Ov o> O O H M M rnvO Ov Pi M M M H. Pi mco M - M 11- 1^ O CO O HI iH t^ rovO Ov HI Pi Pi Pi PI M Pi HI H. HI mvo Ov Pi m m m m •* 1^ HI HI HI M M 00 ii- M HI 'TOO ■-■ ■* o^ as a\ 00 HI 11-00 HI O HI HI « N moo - moo Pi PI m r"-. m HI moo HI m -i- ii- ii- m m 00 m Ht 00 00 " moo N ON w VO Ov mvo HI M o (N m HI N HI M HI m m 1;^ ij- -4- w m Ov mvo in in mvo vo M M H HI M H« VO m OS rn t-. M HI w w moo N vo N N m m 1*- iTOO Pi m Ov ■^ -^ m in m m t-^ HI m Ov vo VO t^ t^ t^ m 00 ■+ N M HI w f) m m Ov moo N m m ■* -^ m VO m Ov m mvo vo vO c^ 00 M VO "i- t^OO 00 Ov Ov 00 Ov 0) m ov -^00 m o N m m 11- M IH H M HI Tj- m mvo vo (H ^ M M HI m -^ ;> t- f^oo 00 00 i-l M W M M 11-00 m p^ PI Ov OV HI HI M M PI Pi t1~ HI Pi C^ P) t-^ N 03 m iS- I*- m m mco moo m VO \o t^ t-~oo 00 moo m.oo CO Ov ov M M M Pi P« m Ov ii- Ov 1^ - M Pi Pi m pi Pi Pi P< Pi o> m Pi Q M 00 w 00 ii- Ov m m mvo VO r^ M M M M HI M t^ N 00 m 00 00 ov Ov o HI HI HI H C4 Ov m HI VO PI HI N ci m M N Pi PI Pi til m ov il- m ■* ii- mvo w p< Pi pi Pi vo vo Pi VO N 00 m HI 00 t^ r^oo o- On H« M fH HI HI 1*- t-^ ro Ov O - M N M N N « W n M m ii- 11- mvo pi Pi Pi Pi p) til 1*- O ti. m vo C-.00 00 o> PI W Pi M PI o- Ov Pi t- rl- HI 0\V0 OV O H. - N HI N (N a C) -* M 00 VO m m T^ if mvo f) N P) 01 M O VO 11- N O- t-^ t^co ov ov PI M Pi Pi Pi vo i^- w OvvO O HI M CI m m m m ro m m 1*- m " i 1U3D Ul J3d H N fn ■* CO CO CO O CO mvo t^co Ov CO CO CO fO CO O H p) m 1*- ■«j- Ti- ii- 11- ii- mvo tvoo Ov ii- 1*- •4- ij- 1«- o w 212 DAIRYING. lilST OF HAND AND POWER CREAM SEPA- RATORS ON THE 31ARKET, 1896. Name. Capacity per Hour. , Hand or Dairy Separators. De Laval '''Baby'''' Cream Separators. " Hummingr Bird ■" Baby No. i ("hollow" bowl) " No. I (■' disc" bowl)... " No. 2 " No. 3 Dairy Turbine U. S. Cream Separators No. 3. Improved U. S. Sep. No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. " (Midget) Butter Acctnnulator. No. 2 B as separator as accumulator.. . 4. Keystone Cream Separator. 5. Russian Steam Separators. Little Giant Russian No. i. " " " No. 2, Sharpies Belt Separators. Safety Hand No. I " " No. 2 6. Victoria Separators (three styles) The Empress Separator — 7. Empire Separators. The Mikado The Empire "5" 8. The Eclipse Cream Separator No. 0-5 (6 styles) 9. The Kneeland Omega Hand Separator. No. I Jr.— No. 4 Jr. (5 styles) 10. American Cream Separator No. 2 No. 3 B. Power Separators. I. Alpha Separators. Alpha No. I. Belt Power " No. 2. " " *' No. I. SteamTurbine " No. 2. " Alpha Acme Belt Power.. " " Steam Turbine Standard Belt Power . . . " Turbine lbs. 175 I. so 250 350 675 700 650-700 350-400 250-300 200-220 600 400 400-500 300 600 300 600 100-300 750 225 80-550 200-600 350 600 100 150 2500 500 4000 750 2500 4000 52s 800 1300 350 1300 375 1200 250 1200 275 Retail Price. 1 65 90 1 125 i 200 I 225 J 200 ") 125 I 100 f 75 J I" 200 •< 125 1 200 I 125 I 200 ) 80-125 225 125 I 30-150 75-150 Manufacturer or Agency. The De Laval Sep- arator Co., N. Y. City. Vermont Farm Ma chine Co.. Bel- lows Falls, Vt. Swedish Cream and Butter Separator Co., N. Y. Ciiy Keystone Se para (or Co , Ltd., Phila- delphia, Pa. P. M. Sharpies, • West Chester, Pa. Dairymen's Supply Co., Philadelphia, Pa. D. H. Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y. The C. L. Chap- man Separator W'ks,Little Falls, N. Y. Kneeland Crystal Creamery Co., Lansing, Mich. Am. Separator Co., Bainbridge, N. Y. The De Laval Sep- arator Co., N. Y. City. MILK. 213 HAND AND POAVER CREAM SEPARATORS— (C^w). Name. Power Skpakatoks— {Cont'd). 2. Russian Steavi Separators. The Standard Russian The Imperial " St a nda rd Belt Sepa ra tors. The Standard Belt The Imperial " ... ... 3. U, S. Creatn Separators. ^ The Improved No. i U. S. Separator.. The Improved No. 3 U. S. Separator No. 3 U. S. Cream Separa- tor (low frame) 4. Re id Improved Danish Sep- a7-ator 5. Columbia Cream Separators (three styles) 6. Empire Power Separators. Empire 10 Empire 25 7. Butter Accumulator. No. 1 A as separator as accumulator. ... No. 2 A, B, & C as separator as accumu- lator No, 4 A, for cream only . . . No. 4B, " " " .... 8. Keystone Cream Separators. No. I No. 2 No. 3. 9. Victoria Power Separator, Empress Povyrer 10. The Eclipse Separator. No. 6-9 (four styles) Capacity per Hour. lbs. I 200- I 500 2000—2500 1200— 1500 2000-2500 • 2000-2500 • 650-700 • 600-700 ■ 2000-3000 300 600 1000 I 100 2500 2000 I 1200 f 600 \ 400 ) Butter 35-40 20-25 900 1500 2000 1000 3500 800-3000 Retail Price. »3So ] 500 I 350 I 500 J 400 1 I 200 \ 200 500 ] 100-150 275 450 1 400 200 1^ 400 I 200 J 225 ) 275 X 325 ) Manufacturer or Ag^ency. P. M. Sharpies, West Chester, Pa. Vermont Farm Ma- chine Co., Bel- lows Falls, Vt. A. H. Reid, Phila- delphia, Pa. Columbia Cream Separator Co., Avon, N. Y. D.H.Burrell&Co., Little Falls, N.Y. Swedish Cream and Butter Separator Co., N. Y. City. Keystone Separator Co., Ltd., Phila- delphia, Pa. ( Dairymen's Supply 3'-'' \ j Co'., Philadelphia, 5°^ I j Pa. ( The L. S. Chapman 225-6oo-( I Separator Works, ( Little Falls, N.Y. FORMULAS FOR FINDING THE FAT CONTENT OF CREAM. Fleischniann" s formula : Per cent fat in cream = f.^ = ^-^ ~ f^) j^f^^ 214 DAIRYING. where -A' = per cen , of cream obtained, f = per cent fat in milk,/i = per cent fat in skim-milk; or ■' AR where F = per cent of fat in butter, B — yield of butter from ICG lbs. of milk, A = percentage churning. Under ordinary conditions of creaming these formulas may be simplified to /a = 6.67/ — 1.42, /a = 5.77^. Formula for finding the per cent cream to be separated when a certain fat content in the cream is it'a«/^a' (Fleischmann): _ ioo(/-/,) """ /. -/. ' f,fi, and /a = per cent of fat in full milk, skim-milk, and cream, respectively. HANDLING AND CARE OF CREAM SEP.\RATORS. By J. D. Frederiksen, Little Falls, N. Y., Manager Chr. Hansen's Laboratory. In selecting a separator, local conditions, space at dis- posal, nearness to its manufacturer who can put it up, be held responsible, and quickly attend to repairs, etc., may be of importance, and the following points should be considered: Thorough Separation. — All manufacturers claim that their machines do perfect work, but they do not always come up to the claims. Under normal conditions the meas- ure for thoroughness of separation is the contents of butter-fat in the skim-milk as ascertained by the Babcock test. The best modern separators skim practically absolutely clean, and there is now no excuse for anything but perfect skimming. With normal milk at the proper temperature run into the machine at the rate of the capacity claimed for it, no sepa- rator should leave more than o.i^t of butter-fat in the skim- milk, which is the smallest percentage that can be ascer- tained by the Babcock test with accuracy. The table below gives the grand averages for the per- centages of fat found in the trials of a number of the leading separators, conducted at the experiment stations of Delaware, Cornell (N. Y.), Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. CREAM. 215 PER CENT FAT IX CEXTRIFUGAL SKI31-MIIiK. Style of Separator. Butter Accumulator Columbia Cream Separator Reid's Impr. Danish Separator Danish-Weston "' De Laval Alpha No. I " • " Alpha Acme " " Alpha Turbine " " Alpha Baby No. 2 Separator. .. Alpha Baby No. 3 '' . . " Horizontal Separator Jumbo Separator. Sharpies Russian Separator . . . . '■ Imperial " U. S. Bucter Extractor Sep. No. i. Do. (as separator) U. S. Butter E.xtr. Sep. No. 2 Do. No. 3 U. S. Separator No. i Do. No. 3 Do. No. 5 Victoria, 30 gal. Separator Do. 70 gal. '' Averages of Trials at American Experiment Stat ons. Number of Trials. Per cent Fat in Skim-milk. II • 14 19 .12 3 .14 3 .10 2 .10 21 .09 51 .og 112 .08 7 .125 9 19 4 .21 34 •24 30 •34 5 •24 2 .14 8 •34 10 .21 9 •17 21 .10 27 •13 25 .22 With the constant improvement in machines it is not difficult to. find separators which will do perfect work. Simplicity, durability and safety of construction are con- siderations of vital importance. The separator must be simple in construction so as to be easy to handle, to clean, and to oil. It must be durable, so that it will need but few repairs, and, first of all, it must be absolutely safe. Too many deplorable fatal accidents are already due to burst- ing separator bowls, and too much stress cannot be laid on the demand that the machine must by strongly built, of first- class material and workmanship, so that accidents are made impossible with reasonably careful handling. As the pressure on the circumference of the bowl increases with the square of the speed, it is evident that the modern high-speed separators are exposed to a tremendous strain — in fact the tensile strain in some of them is as high as 20,000 to 30,000 lbs. to the square inch. Fortunately, the im- provements in bearings and other features of construction 21G DAIRYING. which have enabled manufacturers to increase the speed, have caused them at the same time to reduce the diameter of the bowl, which makes the modern machine much safer than the first crude and heavy separators. Power. — Considering its capacity, a well-built separator requires comparatively little power, whether coal or muscle. But as either is money, it is a matter of impor- tance that none be wasted. Many so-called hand separa- tors are altogether too heavy to run by hand, hence in selecting one see that it is easy to keep it running for several hours. The tests made at the experiment stations by dynamometer, as well as by measuring the steam con- sumed, show that there is a great deal of steam wasted in a creamery above that actually required to drive the separa- tor; that " the turbines use steam extravagantly, but that the small engine of the creamery uses it still more extrava- gantly." Due allowance must therefore be made for this waste in comparing results obtained by various methods of testing. The following table gives some of the results published by the stations: Horse-power per 1000 lbs Milk. Style of Separator. Dela- ware. New York. Ver- mont. Wisconsin. Butter Accumulator 2.69 3-17 "'^.%l' 2-45 Columbia Cream Separator Reid's Improved Danish 152 De Laval Standard " Alpha No. I " Alpha Acme 0.79 0.81 0.98 0.46 Baby No. 2 " " No. 3 0-37 0.26 ■r.87' 1-37 Jumbo United States No. i No. 3 0.76 0.63 0.72 " No. 5 Victoria, 700 lbs 2.78 " -xo erals 0.74 0.85 20 gals De Laval Alpha Turbine Sharpies Imperial . . 1.47 to 1.79 1.42 1.75 to 2. 1 1 " Russian These tests are made with single machines and do not guarantee that all separators of the same makes consume CREAM. 217 the same power or steam. The accumulating results of such trials being compiled, however, become a guide in estimating the value of the various machines in the market. As between belt and turbine (or direct steam) power, the former is preferable in large creameries. In small plants one is about as economical as the other, and the choice maj^ depend upon whether an engine is needed for churning, butter-worker, pump, and other purposes, or you can do without it. Capacity. — In selecting a separator it is best to have pleifty of capacity. In a large creamery it is better to have two separators of moderate size than one very large machine. Only in very large creameries may separators of largest capacity be preferable. The capacity should be such as to finish the day's work in 4 to 6 hours at the time when there is most milk. In the private dairy, using a hand separator, the work should require only one hour, rather less. The following would be our idea of the proper capacity: Largest Supply of Milk per Day, lbs. Number of Machines. Capacity of Each Machine, lbs. per hour. Power. 15,000 or more j 2 or I 1 more ) 2 2 2 2,000 to 2,500 1,500 " 2,000 1,200 " 1,500 1,000 1,200 600 to 1,000 600 300 to 500 300 150 \ Engine (1 Eng-. or Turb. 2,500 " 5,000 Sheep, or dog. or turbine. Hand, or dog. or sheep. Hand Less than 100 Condition of Cre-am. — As discharged from the separator, the cream should be smooth and even, free from froth and of perfect " churnability." As to cost, the best machine is ahvays the cheapest in the long run. Repairs, waste of fat in the skim-milk, of oil, and of coal, by an inferior machine, will more than make up any saving in first cost. 218 DAIRYING. • Running the Separator. The Operator should understand his Business. — He should have thorough training in creameries as a helper and, if possible, in a dairy school, before undertaking to manage a creamery separator on his own responsibility. A new machine should be put up and started by the manufacturer or his agent, and prove in perfect shape and efficiency be- fore he leaves. Every manufacturer gives detailed in- structions as to the care of the separator, and such an instruction book should always be at hand. The operator of hand as well as of power machines should make him- self familiar with every detail of the construction. Condition and Temperature of the Milk. — Fresh and warm from the cozu, the milk is in the best condition to be skimmed. If it cannot be had in that condition, it should be aerated and cooled on the farm, so that it arrives at the creamery or the dairy at not over 60°. Then reheat it to 80° or 85°, not under 75° and not over 90°. This heating is prefer- ably done in some continuous heater, as it is dangerous to heat it in bulk, because milk standing some time at 85" is apt to spoil. While the separator will skim at a lower temperature, either the skimming is not clean or less milk must be run through the machine in the same time. Of course, the milk must be sweet. Starting. — Oil all bearings thoroughly, using only the very best oil. Ascertain that everything is in trim order, then start according to instructions, which vary for different kinds of machines. Always start carefully, and where the belt from the intermediate is shifted from loose to fixed pulley, do it slowly and gradually, helping with the hand oa the belt to start the bowl. When the bowl appears to be running at full speed without shaking, ascertain if it really does so by means of the speed indicator, which should always be found on any power machine. Never allow the machine to run faster than permitted hy the manufacturer. If you do, it is at your risk and at the risk of the lives of your assistants. Use the speed indicator often. 1 I CREAM. " 219 See that the feed of new milk is correct and that the pro- portion of cream to milk is as wanted. Hold a quart meas- ure under the skim-milk spout and a measuring glass un- der the cream outlet, and, when the quart measure is full, see how much cream you have in the measuring glass, tak- ing the time by your watch. If you have 6 ozs. of cream to I quart of skim-milk in 9 seconds, you have taken 6 parts of cream from 38 of new milk, or a little less than one sixth, or about 16^, and you are running at the rate of 950 lbs. per hour. How large a proportion of cream to take from the milk depends upon the richness of the milk and the consistency of cream desired. If you have 4^ milk and you wish cream of 28$^ fat, you will take i part of cream from 7 of new milk, or 14^ . Keep the oil-cups filled d^n^ look frequently at all working parts of the machinery. Well started and regulated, it will run uninterrupted until all the milk is skimmed. When the last milk has entered the bowl, pour in suffi- cient skim-milk to crowd out all the cream left. If the skim-milk is removed from the building while the separa- tor is running, take samples frequently^ or, if it is all left after the work is done, take a few average samples to test 2uith the Babcock machine, so as to control the day^ s work. Stop the juachine cantiojisly, removing the motive power and letting the bowl come to a stand-still of itself without applying any brake. Remove the skim-milk left in the bowl by a siphon or otherwise, take off the covers, etc., and lift out the bowl. Cleaning. — First rinse the bowl and other parts which have been in contact with milk in cold or tepid water, and then scrub them in boiling water, frequently using some solution of sal-soda. Scrub and brush every corner. Rinse in clean boiling water and steam out the tin covers, etc. Wipe with a cloth and set the things to dry. Pump out every pipe that cannot be reached by hand and brush. If possible, avoid the use of rubber hose to conduct the milk from the vat or heater to the separator, but use open tin conductors or short tin pipes, which can be easily kept clean. Rubber hose cannot be washed in boiling water 220 DAIRYING. or soda, and is a source of contamination. Clean the separator stand carefully with a cloth and wipe the spindles, etc. Occasionally clean out the oil-chambers with kerosene oil, and always see to it that no gum is formed and that the oil-grooves and tubes are open. If the separator shakes, or in any way works imper- fectly, find the cause without delay and remedy it. If you fail to find the fault, or you cannot remedy it yourself, notify the manufacturer or his agent, and have him attend to it at once. Treatment of the Cream. — As the cream leaves the separa- tor, it should at once be cooled to 50° or lower. This in- sures " body " in the butter, and should not be neglected, at least not unless the cream is thoroughly chilled after it is ripened, before churning. liOSS OF BUTTER CAUSED BY INEFFICIENT SKIMMING. If three-tenths of one per cent of fat is left in the skim- milk, instead of two-tenths, in a separator creamery receiv- ing 1000 lbs. of milk a day, there will be a loss of about 340 lbs. of butter for the whole year, on the supposition that 1000 lbs. of milk yield 800 lbs. of skim-milk, and i lb. of butter contains .86 lbs. of fat. If the separation is still poorer, greater losses will be sustained, as will be seen in the table given below. (Friis.) Excess of Fat Left in Skim-milk. Lbs. of Milk per Day. .05 per cent. .10 per cent. .20 per cent. .30 per cent. Loss of Butter During Whole Year. 1,000 170 340 680 1,020 2,000 340 680 1360 2.040 3,000 510 loao 2040 3.060 4,000 680 1360 2720 4.089 5,000 850 1700 3400 s.ioo 6,000 1020 2040 4080 0.120 7,000 1190 2380 4760 7.140 8,000 1360 2729 5440 8,160 Q 000 1530 3060 6120 Q.tSo 10,000 T700 3400 C800 10,200 MILK. 221 RELATION OF FAT CONTENT OF SEPARATOR SKIM-MILK AND SPEED OF BOWL, QUANTITY OF MILK SEPARATED, AND TEMPERATURE OF THE MILK. Fleischmann gives the following formula for ascertaining the fat content of separator skim-milk, y' being he per cent fat in the skim-milk, M the quantity of milk skimmed per hour, u the speed of the bowl, and t the temperature of the milk: /=rr^X 1.035 r is a constant which must be determined for each machine; Hittcher found its value, in the case of three different ma- chines, as follows: 480,152; 547,800; 363,430. The results obtained by the use of the formula seem to agree fairly well with chemical analysis of the skim-milk where care is taken in determining the various factors entering into the calculation. STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE MANAGEMENT. By Frof. A. W. Richter, of the University of Wisconsin. Boiler. Fegd Apparatus. — Every boiler should be provided with a check-valve, placed between the feed apparatus and boiler, and in such a manner as to have the weight of the valve assist in closing it. Between this check-valve and boiler there should be an additional globe or gate-valve which may be closed, thus permitting repairing or cleaning of the check-valve while the boiler is in operation. Water Supply. — Feed-water should enter a boiler in such a manner that the plates do not receive the direct impact of cold water. The usual practice is to have the feed enter through the blow-off pipe, thus preventing this pipe from clogging. The feed supply should be regulated so as to keep the water level as stationary as possible, The greatest care must be taken that the water level does not fall below the top of the flues. Neg- lect in this direction will cause the metal to become overheated and consequently weakened, causing leakage of joints and in- 222 DAIRYINGo creased wear and tear, but more often resulting in an explosion of a more or less serious nature. Water-glass and Water-gauges. — Every boiler should have three water-gauges in addition to a water-glass ; these are usually attached to a hollow cast-iron cylinder or tube con- nected with the water and steam spaces. The water-glass should be blown out daily, and, if clogged, can be safely cleaned with a bent wire. In no case should the water glass alone be depended upon to indicate the water level. Steam-gatige. — Each boiler should be provided with a steam- gauge, which gauge should be directly connected with it. Safety-valve. — Every boiler should be provided with a safety- valve having direct communication with the steam space, and moreover should there be an intervening valve. Some of the most disastrous explosions can be traced to faulty arrangement in this respect. The valve thoughtlessly left closed after clean- ing or repairs prevents the safety-valve from relieving the pressure when it rises above the safe working pressure of the boiler. Safety-valves are of two kinds : spring and lever safety- valves. Of the two valves the lever-valve has the most dis- advantages, one of the most important being the ease with which it may be made useless by adding an additional weight to that already provided, in order to keep the valve on its seat, and therefore greatly increasing the pressure at which it will blow off. A safety-valve should be raised each day by hand so as to allow steam to escape; this prevents clogging and rusting. The dealer will usually set the spring-valve so that it will blow off at the desired pressure. It can be adjusted, however, by loosening or tightening a screw provided for that purpose. The lever-valve may be set v.'ith the aid of the following formula: _ ^^^ -Vb- w: W ' / — distance from weight to fulcrum; ^ = " "' valve centre to fulcrum; c = distance from the centre of gravity of the lever of the ful- crum; i CREAM. 223 P = boiler pressure; A ■=■ area of valve ; F"= weight of valve; w = " " lever, W = weight hung upon the lever. Firing. — Firing should be gradual, and the grate kept com- pletely covered with coal or ashes. The fire should not be more than four or five inches deep unless the pieces of coal are large, in which case the depth may be increased. The fire-doors and fiue-doors should not be opened in order to keep down the steam pressure. This practice not only wastes fuel but is injurious to the boiler, and will not be necessary if the boiler is properly attended to. Priming or Foaming. — Foaming is a rapid disturbance of the water, in consequence of which it rises in the boiler in the form of sprav or foam; it is usually caused by dirty water, presence of oil, etc., the boiler not having been cleaned for some time or not thoroughly cleaned. Foaming may, however, be due to other causes, such as too small a steam space, sudden demand of a great quantity of steam, etc. In case a boiler foams all steam connections should be shut off and the fire dampened by means of a fresh supply of live coal or ashes. These precau- tions will usually suffice to allow the water to settle, and to enable one to ascertain the true water level. If the glass shows a small amount of water, start the pump or injector, and fill the boiler to a point between the second and third gauge. The boiler may then be blown off to the first gauge by means of the surface blow-off, if one be present, and if not present the regular blow-off valve may be used. This operation being repeated, the impurities are gradually diminished, but care must be taken that the water level does not fall below the top of the flues. The boiler can now be used as before, but in all cases it should be thoroughly cleaned as soon as possible. Removal of Scale. — Potatoes, about eight or ten in number, are sometimes placed in the boiler after cleaning. Soda or kerosene may also be injected with the feed- water in quantity to be determinec? by observation. Boiler compounds should be used with caution, and when used should be obtained from a reliable dealer. Too great a quantity of any of the above will be harmful. 224 DAIRYING. Cleaning. — The interval during which a boiler requires no cleaning depends upon the quantity and the quality of water evaporated. Under usual conditions, in order to obtain the best results, a boiler should be cleaned every six or eight weeks. If a boiler is to be cleaned it should be allowed to stand until it is partially cooled off. When blown out cold the metal in the interior will usually be found covered with a thick coating of soft deposit, which can easily be scraped off or washed off with a hose and stream of water. If a boiler be blown off while the metal is at a high tempera- ture, the deposited matter is usually baked and forms a solid and hard coating, increasing rapidly if not carefully removed by the process of chipping. Boiler Power. — The manner in which the horse-power of a boiler is usually calculated is far from satisfactory, depending rather upon its size than its power of evaporation. In 1884 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers adopted the following definite standard: " A horse-power shall be equivalent to an evaporation of thirty pounds of water into dry steam per hour from feed- water at 100° Fahrenheit, and under a pressure of 70 lbs. per square inch above the atmosphere." Steam-engine. — The engine should be provided with a gov- ernor to regulate its speed, a lubricator to oil valve and piston, and a sufficient number of oil cups, so that all bearings may be properly oiled. Starting the Engine. — Before starting, all bearings should be supplied with oil, and all waste pipes connected with cylinder and steam-chest opened. The engine should then be started slowly, so as to allow the water to escape. A quantity of steam will always condense as it comes in contact v/ith the cold cylinder- walls, in addition to the water already present in the steam-pipe. This water does not pass off as readily as steam, neither can it be compressed to any great extent. Therefore, if more water be present in the cylinder than will fill the clear- ance space, and this water not be allowed to escape, the piston moving towards the end of its stroke will strike the water, and consequently be compelled to stop. The greater the speed of the piston as it advances, the greater the force with which it strikes the water, resulting in many cases in a broken cylinder- ^ead, CBEAM. 225 It is well to have a waste-pipe connected to the steam-pipe at a point just above the engine- valve, in order that the water which has collected in the steam pipe may be biown out before opening the steam-valve. After the engine has been in operation for a minute or two the waste-valves should be closed. Horse-power. — The horse-power of an engine may be calcu- lated by means of the following formula: H. P. = ^^; 33000 H. P. = horse power; P = mean effective pressure in the cylinder; L = twice the length of the stroke, in feet; a =: area of piston in square inches; n = number of revolutions per minute. ON THE PRESEUVATION OF MILK AND CUEA31 BY HEAT. By Dr. H, L. Russell, of Wisconsin Experiment Station, Author of " Dairy Bacteriology". On account of the innumerable bacteria that gain access to milk during the process of milking, and subsequent to that time, and the rapid increase of the same in this nutri- tious fluid, this material universally undergoes fermentative changes, the rapidity of which is largely dependent upon the surrounding temperature. To increase the keeping quality of milk, it is necessary to annihilate these bacteria or keep them under influences unfavorable to their growth. Heat has been found to be the most efficacious agent in preserving milk in its natural condition. It is applied in two ways, viz., i. Pasteurization, where the milk or cream is heated for a short time (20-30 min.) at a temperature near the coagulating point of the proteid constituents of the milk (i50°-i6o° F.). 2. Sterilization, where the temperature ap- proximates or exceeds the boiling-point and is applied for a longer time. The object in both cases is to kill the bacteria present in the milk. I 226 DAIRYING. Sterilization accomplishes this most successfully, but it changes the proteid compounds so that the milk has an un- desirable " cooked " flavor and odor. This defect is not found in pasteurized milk, and if prop- erly handled, milk treated by this process will remain sweet from 4 to S days. ■Al For use in the near future the pasteurized product is, on ^| the whole, the most satisfactory ; the sterilized material being best adapted for export purposes. The essential condition in pasteurization is that the pas- teurizing temperature shall exceed the thermal death point (the temperature at which growing bacteria are destroyed) of disease-producing as well as fermentative bacteria. This temperature for most forms is about 140° F., but certain dis- ease organisms like the tubeicle germ of tuberculosis is not killed below 149^ F. for 30 minutes, or 155° F. for 15 minutes. As this germ is often found in milk from tuberculous cows, prudence dictates the use of this temperature as a standard for the pasteurization of milk and cream. The proteids in the milk are slightly affected at this temperature, but if the milk is thoroughly chilled, the "cooked" flavor disappears. The application of this temperature kills only the growing bacteria, and does not affect the latent spores. If after being heated the milk is allowed to cool slowly, and is left at a comparatively warm temperature (exceeding 55^ F.), these spores germinate and soon change the character of the milk, so that the value of the heating process is lost. To be efficient, it is necessary to rapidly zoo\ the pasteurized prod- uct below the germinating point of the spores, for if they are once allowed to sprout, they will develop slowly at a very low temperature. In pasteurizing milk or cream, the apparatus should be constructed so that a definite quantity of the fluid can be held at any desired temperature for any length of time, and during the process protected from infection from the air. The apparatus must also be made so as to be easily cleaned and thoroughly sterilized by steam throughout. The milk must be protected from air infection during its withdrawal from the pasteurizing vat into storage vessels (cans and MILK. 227 bottles), and should be thoroughly chilled in a refrigerator for several hours (better over night) before being delivered to the consumer. This chilling process should succeed the heating operation as quickly as possible, as the sudden transition in temperature from 155° F. to 55° F. or less has a paralyzing effect on the development of those organisms (spores) that are not killed by the heat. A large number of machines have been put on the market, but they have for the most part been designed primarily from the dairyman's standpoint, and while they fulfill their requirements as to capacity, cheapness, etc., yet they cannot be relied upon to treat the milk in a way so as to free it with .certainty from all possible disease-producing bacteria. Pasteurization in this country is applied with great suc- cess to milk and cream where these products are used in the liquid form. It is used to some extent in this country, but much more widely in continental Europe, in the prepara- tion of cream for the manufacture of butter by the use of a pure culture-starter. It can also be used advantageously in the hot months for increasing the length of time that by-products of the factory like skim-milk and whey may be preserved. Pasteurization, as well as sterilization, reduces the body, consistency, of milk and cream, and these products therefore seem thinner after having been subjected to the process of heating than before. To obviate this, Dr. Babcock and the writer in 1896 recommended the addition of a small quantity of a solution of sucrate of lime (" viscogen ") to the milk or cream, which will restore the consistency of the products, and in case of cream, greatly increase its whip- ping quality. (See Bull. No. 54 or thirteenth report of Wisconsin Experiment Station.) DIRECTIONS FOR THE STERILIZATION OF MILK (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) The Sterilization of milk for children, now quite exten- sively practised in order to destroy the injurious germs which it may contain, can be satisfactorily accomplished 228 DAIRYING. with very simple apparatus. The vessel containing the milk, which may be the bottle from which it is to be used or any other suitable vessel, is placed inside of a larger vessel of metal, which contains the water. If a bottle, it is plugged with absorbent cotton, if this is at hand, or in its absence, other clean cotton will answer. A small fruit-jar loosely covered may be used instead of a bottle. The re- quirements are simply that the interior vessel shall be raised about half an inch above the bottom of the other, and that the water shall reach nearly or quite as high as the milk. The apparatus is then heated on a range or stove until the water reaches a temperature of 155 degrees Fahrenheit, when it is removed from the heat and kept tightly covered for half an hour. The milk-bottles are then taken out and kept in a cool place. The milk may be used any time within twenty-four hours. A temperature of 150 degrees main- tained for half an hour is sufficient to destroy any germs likely to be present in the milk, and it is found in practice that raising the temperature to 155 degrees and then allow- ing it to stand in the heated water for half an hour insures the proper temperature for the required time. The tempera- ture should not be raised above 155 degrees, otherwise the taste and quality of the milk will be impaired. The simplest plan is to take a tin pail and invert a per- forated tin pie-plate in the bottom, or have made for it a removable false bottom perforated with holes and having legs half an inch high to allow circulation of the water. The milk-bottle is set on this false bottom, and sufficient water is put into the pail to reach the level of the surface of the milk in the bottle. A hole may be punched in the cover of the pail, a cork inserted, and a chemical thermom eter put through the cork, so that the bulb dips into the water. The temperature can thus be watched without re- moving the cover. If preferred an ordinary dairy ther- mometer may be used and the temperature tested from time to time bv removing the lid. This is very easily arranged, and is just as satisfactory as the patented apparatus sold for the same purpose. MILK. 229 QUANTITY OF WATER OR ICE REQUIRED FOR COOLING MILK OR CREAM. (Martiny.) The quantity of water or ice required to cool milk or cream may be calculated from the following formulas, where M ^= quantity of milk or cream to be cooled, in lbs. t = its temperature. W = quantity of water required for cooling, in lbs. j_ «. .. j^,g .. i. «. <( .. /' = temperature of water or ice at beginning. 7^= end temperature of cooled milk or cream, r = end temperature of cooling water. S = specific heat of milk (.84*) or of cream (.78*). 79.25 = latent heat of water. (a) Water required for cooling milk or cream — 1. Cooled in tin cans holding milk or cream to be cooled: „r {Mt - MT)S T-f 2. By application of coolers and running water: Tx. {^f - MT)S r — t' (<5) Ice required for cooling milk or cream — {Mt - MT)S 1 = T-]-t' X 79-25 In these formulas the influence of the surrounding air is not considered. * Not determined, but considered approximately correct. 230 DAIRYING. IV. BUTTER. BUTTE R-M AIDING. By H. B. GuRLER, De Kalb, 111., ex-President 111. State Dairymen's Assn., Author of " American Dairying." Butter is made from milk. The cow manufactures the milk from the food she eats, hence the necessity of sound food. Unsound food make« off-flavored milk and poor butter. Some cows can manufacture food into milk at a profit, others cannot; hence the necessity of knowing the individuality of each cow, or her ability to work at a profit to her owner. At this stage of the dairy work there is no excuse for a dairyman not knowing what each and every cow is doing for him, thus being able to "weed out" the unprofitable ones. Be careful and cleanly in milking. Remove the milk to a pure atmosphere as soon as drawn from the cows, If the cream is raised by gravity process be careful of the sur- roundings, as milk will absorb bad odors from decayed vegetables, the hog-pen, the cow-yard, the kerosene-can, a filthy stable, from cooking in the kitchen, and various other sources. When milk is put through the separator as soon as it is drawn from the cow this source of danger is removed. Cream from the separator should be cooled immediately to a temperature of 60°; 55° is better. A cooler that will a?rate at the same time it is cooling is very desirable. This is a vital point which many butter-makers stumble over. When through separating and cooling, temper the cream to the temperature necessary to have it ripen at the time you wish to churn. If it is to be churned the following day this temperature should be 65°-7o^ If the second day, 55°-6o°; and if it is to stand four to seven days, cool to 40°, if possi- BUTTER. 231 ble, as soon as practicable, and hold at that temperature until the day before you wish to churn, when it should be warmed to a temperature that will give the rigtit acidity by the time you wish to churn. This temperature will depend on the kind of cream, whether separator cream or cream from some gravity process. Cream from shallow setting may be sufficiently ripened when taken from the milk. I recommend the use of Prof. Farrington's acid tablets for testing the acidity of cream (see p. 239). They are a great help to a beginner. Churn at as low a tempera'ture as you can. This will de- pend on the per cent of fat in the cream. Rich cream can be churned at a much lower temperature than cream poor in fat. Cream from deep, cold setting may be churned at 58"^ to 62°; and thick, rich cream from shallow setting at a much lower temperature. An ironclad rule cannot be made that will fit all cases. The separator will give cream containing various per cent of fat, from 15 to 40 per cent. Separator cream containing 15 per cent fat will need to be churned at about the same temperature as deep, cold setting cream. Separator cream containing 40 per cent can be churned at a temperature of so'', can be gathered at 50°, so the buttermilk will draw at that temperature. A low tem- perature gives the most exhaustive churning. At this tem- perature the buttermilk should contain no more fat than the average separator skim-milk. Cream containing a large per cent of fat does not develop acid as fast as cream with more milk in it. Cool cream for churning about two hours before, so as to let the butter-fat have time to solidify or harden. This gives a more waxy texture to the butter. Stop the churn when the butter granules are the size of wheat. If the granules are too small there is danger of a loss from its passing through the strainer. Wash no more than is necessary to remove the buttermilk. The colder it is churned the less washing is needed. When butter gathers at 54° one washing is sufficient ; if at 62° to 64°, two or three washings will be needed. Washing removes some of the delicate flavor or aroma. Remove the water from the churn as soon as possible — as soon as it has done its 232 DAIRYING. work. Never allow it to lie and soak unless there is no other way of hardening the butter to a temperature where you can handle it. Salt to suit your trade. Work once or twice, as you pre- fer; twice working is preferable, as it makes the nicer-ap- pearing butter. Work just enough to remove the mottled or streaked appearance. When worked twice this can be told at the time by the appearance of the butter. When worked but once it cannot be told until the butter has stood long enough for the salt to dissolve. If worked but once examine the butter the following day, until you make your- self a rule of thumb to work by. I have found this neces- sary. I am compelled to look after this point in my creamery work when the butter is worked but once. Use the kind of butter-package that suits your trade, but always let it be neat. Never send a mussy-looking package to market. You cannot afford to do it. ON THE USE OF PUKE CULTURES IN BUTTER- AND CHEESE-MAKING. The ripening of cream is brought about through the action of minute plants, so-called bacteria. These are practically omnipresent where man lives, and get into the milk during the milking and the handling of the milk and cream in the dairy. They multiply enormously in the cream during the ripening process, owing to the very favorable conditions of life which they find there. Some forms of bacteria are de- sirable and even essential in the manufacture of sour-cream butter; these feed largely on the milk-sugar of the cream, and decompose this component into lactic acid, which is the characteristic acid of sour cream (as well as of sour milk). Along with this formation of lactic acid in the cream other complicated, and yet but little understood, decomposition processes take place, the results of which are felt in the fine aromatic flavor of the butter produced. Other forms of bacteria cause obnoxious fermentations in the cream, and produce a butter of "off" flavor, in aggravated cases diseased butter, making the product unfit to eat, or at least BUTTER. 233 unsalable as a first-class article. The process of sour- cream butter-making is therefore, at the bottom, a question of keeping the fermentations during the ripening of the cream in the right track, of controlling the same so as to exclude all but lactic-acid-producing bacteria. The old original way of reaching this end was to allow the cream to sour spontaneously, trusting to luck to obtain the desired fermentation of the cream by leaving it standing in a warm room for a couple of days. Later on, a buttermilk starter from a preceding churning or a skim-milk starter was added for the purpose of ripening the cream ; by this means the lactic-acid bacteria contained in the starter were intro- duced in such large numbers that they generally were able to crowd out other kinds of bacteria that might be found in the cream, and which, if left alone, would produce undesirable fermentations in the cream and bad flavor in the butter. The next step in advance was the introduction of pure cultures of lactic-acid bacteria; these consist of one or a few forms of bacteria, and when introduced in milk or cream will be apt to overpower all other forms of bacteria therein, and thus produce the pure mild flavor of sour- cream butter desired. The honor of having first introduced pure cultures in butter-making belongs to Dr. V. Storch, the chemist of the Danish state experiment station in Copenhagen; the bulletin describing Dr. Storch's investigations of this subject, "On the Ripening of Cream," was published in 1890. Other bacteriologists in Europe and in this country have worked along this same line, and as a result we find that pure cultures are at the present time used almost universally in the manufacture of sour-cream butter in the creameries and dairies of northern Europe, and also in this country their use has become general and is spread- ing. The expected result of adding a pure culture-starter, viz., that of excluding all undesirable fermentations in the ripening of the cream, will not, however, follow with any certainty unless the seeding Avith the pure culture is preceded by pasteurization or sterilization of the cream, that is, at least a partial destruction of the bacteria already found therein. In Europe, notably in Denmark and the 234 DAIRYING. other Scandinavian countries, pasteurization of the milk (or of the cream) is practised regularly in all the best creameries, in the former country at present in perhaps 80 per cent of the creameries in operation. In this country the firms manufacturing and selling pure cultures have unfortunately not insisted on this point, and where pure culture-starters are used with us it is nearly always with- out previous pasteurization. One reason why pasteuriza- tion has not been adopted in the manufacture of butter in this country is that the market demands a higher flavored, ' stronger" butter than is wanted by the European market, and the pure cultures on the market, when used with pasteurized cream, do not produce such a butter. The expense of pasteurization of the cream and the absence of proper apparatus, or non-introduction of such as have proved successful in European practice, furthermore tend to explain why our butter-makers do not generally pasteur- ize the cream in using pure culture-starters. The two pure cultures now on the market in this country are Chr. Hansen's Lactic Ferment and Conn's culture (B. 41, Conn Culture Co., Waterloo, la., and Conn Butter Improvement Co., Philadelphia, Pa.). The former is of Danish origin, and is one of the standard pure cultures used in the Scandinavian countries; the latter was described by its originator in the author's Dairy Calendar for 1896. Both these cultures are placed on the market in dry form, the one as a powder, the other as pellets. Directions for using the cultures accompany each package sold. In general, the method to be followed is to seed the culture in a quantity of sterilized skim-milk or cream; this is kept for one to two days at a temperature below 90° (B. 41 70°, Lactic Ferment 86°); the starter is then mixed with the cream to be ripened, generally adding about 2 per cent. The cream will be ready for churning the next day. A piortion of the starter prepared is used for the seeding of a new lot of sterilized skim-milk, which will make the starter for the following day, and the same process is continued until deterioration of the starter sets in, as shown by lack of flavor in the ripened cream and in the butter; a fresh batch is then prepared from a new package of ferment. If proper BUTTER. 235 care in sterilizing the skim-milk and in handling the starter is taken, the pure culture may be propagated in this manner for months. With lack of cleanliness and care it must be renewed every other week or oftener. While the use of pure cultures has not as yet become general in American creameries, the agitation caused by their introduction and the discussions in dairy papers and dairy meetings which they have brought about have doubt- less been of great benefit to our dairy industry in empha- sizing in the minds of butter-makers the necessity of thorough cleanliness in the creamery and the importance of the proper conduct of the ripening process for the manufacture of high-grade butter. They have enabled us to make butter of uniform fine flavor and of greater keep- ing quality than was previously possible. Where abnormal fermentations appear, and the butter produced is diseased or "off flavor," the evil may be remedied by the use of pure cultures. In case of the estab- lishment of an export trade of American butter of high quality, the pure cultures used in connection with previous pasteurization of the milk or cream will prove of great benefit, insuring uniform goods and perfect keeping quality in the product. The use of pure culture-starters in the manufacture of Cheddar cheese is of recent date, and but limited experience has so far been gained in this line. According to the testimony of some of our leading cheese-makers, and of recent experiments conducted at Wisconsin experiment station, their use for this purpose is very beneficial, cheese of improved, clean flavor and high keeping qualities being produced. Pure cultures may therefore be safely recom- mended for this purpose. The general method of applica- tion is similar to that followed in the manufacture of pure culture butter. The starter is propagated in sterilized milk and kept at 90° F. for one day, when it will be slightly lobbered, having an acidity of about .8 per cent. Mr. Decker of the Wis. Dairy School gives the following hints on the use of the starter by the cheese-maker: " The starter is introduced into the milk by rubbing it 236 DAIRYING. through a fine hair sieve so as to break up curd particles. If too large quantities of starter is used, there is a tendency to produce a sour cheese. The best results are obtained when a 2 per cent starter, of the acidity given, is added. ** In propagating the starter from day to day care must be taken to keep it free from contamination. It should always be prepared in a covered vessel that has previously been sterilized, and the milk used should first be pasteurized (or sterilized) and chilled before adding the 'seed.' Some of the original starter should be taken for ' seed,' not the whole milk after the starter has been added. " The starter cannot be used for cheese-making if the milk is overripe, which is the case when the rennet test is 65 seconds or under (see p. 251). In sweet milk, testing by the rennet test 120 seconds, the addition of a 2 per cent starter will increase the acidity, so that the rennet test will act in 70 seconds. " With sweet milk the use of a pure lactic starter will result in the saving of 3-5 hours in time. With tainted milk in which the acid develops imperfectly the addition of the starter aids in producing the acidity required for the manufacture of Cheddar cheese." BOYD'S PROCESS OF CREAM RIPENING. By John Boyd, Chicago, 111. It is an accepted fact that the fine aromatic flavor and also the keeping properties of butter depend largely upon the treatment of the cream from the time it is separated from the milk until it is ready for the churn, that is, in the best possible condition to yield the maximum quantity and the best quality as to flavor, texture, solidity, etc., free from casein and other undesirable substances. This perfect condition of cream is understood by the term " ripened cream," and when this condition can be pro- duced by the butter-maker with uniformity, regardless of the seasons of the year or extremes of climate, the process may be reckoned as nearly perfect as possible, and not until then. It is most desirable that the process be as sim- BUTTER. 237 pie as possible, in fact within the reach of every creamery and dairyman in the country, and all the means required to attain these results can and should be a part of every dairy and creamery, large or small. Boyd's process or system of ripening cream or milk is the result of years of practical work in a private dairy of about 40 Jersey cows. After it had been thoroughly tested and used, during all the seasons of the year, it was pat- ented in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, and given to the public in the year i88g, a very consider- able time in advance of any of the artificial m.ethods of ripening, now being advocated under the representations of " pure cultures of bacteria." When first introduced it was met by a sea of opposition from the experts, who would see nothing good in it, but gradually it has been making its way in a quiet manner into popularity until at present it is being successfully practised in every state in the Union, and is gaining favor every day with the most practical butter-makers. The apparatus necessary to practise the process supplies all the conditions required to produce a uniform result every day in the year, the temperature of the lactive ferment and also of the cream being entirely under the control of the operator during the entire process; The directions for using the process, which go with every purchase of the apparatus, are as follows: To make the Best Ferment. — Take milk from fresh-milk- ing cows (that from pregnant cows will not answer); sub- merge the milk warm from the cows in Cooley cans in ice water. Skim at twelve or twenty-four hours, as most con- venient, and use this skimmed milk for making the fer- ment; or select milk as above, run it through a separator, and save the skimmed milk for making the ferment. The skimmed milk so selected is then brought to a tem- perature of go°, in a water bath, being constantly stirred during the operation of heating. As soon as the tempera- ture of the milk reaches go°, place it in the fermenting-can and close the cover tightly, having first rinsed out the can with warm water. Allow the can to remain closed for 238 DAIRYING. twenty or twenty-four hours, when the ferment will be found thick and in the proper condition for mixing with the cream or milk to be ripened. How to 71 se the Ferment. — First bring the cream or milk in the vat to a temperature of 66° to 70° Fahrenheit, when the ferment is to be thoroughly mixed with the cream or milk in the proportion of 2 per cent of the ferment to the amount of cream or milk to be ripened. Remove one or two inches of the top of the ferment, which is not desirable to use, and strain the rest through a fine strainer or hair sieve into the milk or cream. The finer the ferment is broken up the more effective its operation will be. After the cream or milk and ferment are well stirred and mixed at the above temperature, the vat must be closed and al- lowed to remain undisturbed until the cream is ripened, requiring from twenty to twenty-four hours for the opera- tion; the cream when ripe will be found thick, mildly acid, and in the proper chemical condition, requiring only to be cooled to the proper temperature for churning. Churning. — The best temperature for churning depends so much upon circumstances that the range is very wide, from 55" to 68' Fahrenheit. The richer the cream in but- ter-fat the colder the temperature should be, and the more milk the cream contains the higher the churning tempera- ture should be. After the cream or milk and ferment are mixed, no more stirring is admissible, as any agitation of the cream afterwards retards the ripening process. Butter by Shallow-pan Creaming. — Raise the cream in a temperature of about 60° F. ; avoid as much as possible skimming milk in with the cream; ripen at about 65'' F. ; churn at 60° to 62°. Free the granules of butter from the buttermilk by washing in water, temperature about 55°. Salt, I oz. to I lb. of butter. Butter by Deep Cold Setting and Cooley System. — Raise the cream in ice-water; milk may be skimmed in with the cream or not as desired; with the Cooley cream a very considerable portion of milk added to the cream will pro- duce no bad effects. Ripen at a temperature of 68° by adding lactive ferment; churn at temperature of 58° to 65°; BUTTER. 239 wash the granules in water, temperature 50° to 55", and salt as above. Butter fro7n Separator Cream. — Cool the cream from sep- arator to 66' to 68°, add lactive ferment, and churn at 55° to 58°, according to the percentage of butter-fat in the cream. The cream should be cooled after ripening so that the temperature of the cream will register not over 55°, This cooling requires time and patience, but will be rewarded with solid granules. Wash in water at 50° to 52°. Salt, I oz. to I lb. of butter. Good butter should not contain more than 165^ of water (and may contain as little as 8^) when properly worked. It is sufficiently worked when it presents a delicate elastic- ity to the touch, and when broken should show a perfect uniformity of grain and color. THE ALKALINE TABLET TEST OF ACIDITY IN MILK OR CREAM. By Prof. E. H. Farrington, of Wisconsin Dairy School. Since this test was first described by the author, a number of changes have been made in the way of using it. Reliable results are now obtained with less and simpler apparatus than when the test was originally published. "At the present time it is used for two purposes. First. — For testing the acidity of milk. To detect those lots which are apparently sweet, but too nearly sour for pasteurizing, for retailing, or for making the best butter or cheese. Second. — For testing the acidity of each lot of cream dur- ing its ripening, to trace the progress of its souring, and to show whether the fermentations should be hastened or checked in order to have the cream in a certain acid condi- tion at a given time and ready for churning. In addition to the tablets, the only apparatus necessary for testing the acidity of either milk or cream is a common white teacup, a 4, 6 or 8 oz. bottle, and a No. 10 brass car- tridge-shell or similar measure. The testing solution is 240 DAIRYIJ^G. prepared by dissolving one tablet in one ounce of water. This is the standard. Four ounces of the tablet solution are made by filling a four-ounce bottle with water and adding to it four tablets. The No. lo shell is filled with the milk or cream to be tested. This measured quantity is poured into the white cup. The same measure is then filled with the tablet solution and this is poured into the cup. The two liquids are thoroughly mixed and the color of the mix- ture is noted. If there is no change of color, another measure of tablet solution is added. This is continued until the sample which is being tested becomes of a pink color. As soon as the pink color is obtained no more tablet solution is added. The per cent of acid in the sample tested is found from the number of measures of tablet solution it is necessary to add to one measure of the sample in order to produce the pink color. Each measure of tablet solution represents one tenth of one per cent acid. A more exact testing of acidity can be made by using a 20-CC. pipette for measuring the milk or cream to be tested and a 50-cc. graduated cylinder for the tablet solution. Five tablets are dissolved in 50 cc. of water in the cylinder, and this solution is gradually poured into the 20 cc. of milk or cream in the white cup. When sufficient tablet solution has been added to produce the pink color in the sample tested, the operator observes on the scale of the graduated cylinder the number of cc. tablet solution used and from this calculates the per cent of acid in the sample tested. Each cc. of this tablet solution is equal to 0.0034 gr. lactic acid, and when 20 cc. of a sample is tested, each cc. of the tablet solution is equal to .017 per cent acid in the sample. Milk does not smell or taste sour until it contains from three to four tenths of one per cent acid. It has been found, however, that milk containing over two tenths per cent acid cannot be safely pasteurized, because such milk sours very soon. These tablets supply a quick means of selecting the sweetest of different lots of sweet milk, by showing which contain less than two tenths of one per cent acid. BUTTER. 241 Cream is oit^u ripened so far that the qua'.ity of the but- ter is injured. The usual method of the butter-maker for testing the sourness of the cream is by the sense of smell and taste. A tablet test shows exactly what per cent ct acid each lot of cream contains, so that the butter-maker is better able to manufacture a uniform grade of butter by ripening his cream to the same point before it is churned. Sweet cream contains about 0.15$^ acid. Cream has reached the proper point for churning when it contains about six- tenths per cent acid. As the souring of cream is largely influenced by the temperature at which it is held, the but- ter-maker is able to know from an acid test of the cream whether it should be warmed or cooled in order to ha'-e i'. ready for churning at a given time and just sour enough for making butter of good flavor. DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF MANNS' TEST FOR ASCERTAINING THE ACIDIVY OF CREAM. 1. Stir the cream thoroughly; insert small end of pipette in cream and draw until nearly full; then put the finger over upper end of pipette and allow cream to escape slowly (by admitting air) until mark on neck of pipette is reached. Transfer to a tumbler, rinse the pipette three times with lukewarm water, adding the rinsing water to the cream in the tumbler. Now add to contents of the tumbler three drops of the solution marked " Indicator" (phenolphtalein). 2. Fill the, burette up 10 the o mark with the solution marked " Neutralizer" (alkali solution). 3. While constantly stirring the cream with the glass rod, allow the liquid to flow from the burette into the tumbler until the entire contents of the tumbler shows a pink tinge. Stop adding the solution from the burette the moment the color is permanent. 4. Read the level of the liquid remaining in the burette. The reading shows the amount of acid present. The experience of those using the test indicates that where the acidity of the cream is right, to secure the best results in yield and flavor of butter, from 38 to 42 cc. of the neutralizer will be required for the test. It is a simple 242 DAIRYliq'G. matter for each butter maker to learn by experiment the exact degree of acidity and churning temperature suited to the best results, and with these as standards reduce the process of butter-making to a certainty. By testing his cream in the afternoon the butter-maker will be able to set it to ripen at such a temperature that it will show the proper acidity for churning next morning. In testing the milk for cheese-making the same directions are to be followed, excepting that a much less acid condition is required; probably 15-20 cc. will give the best results. The whole numbers are cubic centimeters; the intermediate divisions are fractions of a cubic centimeter. Precautions in Using the Test. — The solution marked "Neu- tralizer" is prepared of a certain strength. It is essentia that this strength remain constant. Never let this solutior; stand without a stopper. Keep in glass or stoneware. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. (Konig 1 No. of analyses included. Water Fat Casein Milk sugar Lactic acid Ash Aver- Mini- Maxi- Sweet Cream Butter. age. mum. mum. 302 10 13-59 84-39 •74 -50 I .62) 4-15 69.96 .19 -45 35-^2 86.15 4.78 1. 16 12.93 84.53 .61 .68 .66 .02 15.08 1-25 100.00 Sour Cream Butter. 13.08 84.26 .66 1. 19 AVERAGE CHEMICAL. COMPOSITION OF SWEE'I CREAM- AND SOUR CREAM-BUTTER. (Fleischmann.) Made from Sweet Cream, not Salted. Made from Sour Cream, Salted. Not washed. Washed. Not washed. Washed. Water Fat Per ct. 15 00 83 -47 .60 .80 •13 Per ct. 75. 00 83-73 ■55 .60 . 12 Per ct. 12.00 84 75 .50 -55 2.20 Per ct. 12.50 84.62 .48 .40 2.00 Casein and albumen Other organic .substances Ash, or ash and salt BUTTER. 24: ANALYSES OF PREMIUM BUTTERS, FAT-STOCK SHOW, CHICAGO, 1889.— IN PER CENT. (Morkow.) Description of Samples. Sweepstakes — Creamery, gathered cream " " whole milk " Dairy " From a grade cow First prize — From a Jersey cow " *' From a Shorthorn cow " " From an Ayrshire cow " " From a Devon cow " " From a Holstein cow Average * 1 ^ "> a ■g"5 « J3 c X5 CO '■3 V C 0) c .5 (/2 Q C/5 Hi ►- 28 12 40 5 78 15 24 11.99 13-35 13.84 12.05 13-73 15-33 12.22 85-47 83.40 84.35 84 -34 84.82 83.00 85.68 1. 19 1-39 1.23 1.60 1.36 1.47 1.26 1-35 1.86 •58 2.01 .09 .20 .84 be c 50 11.64 86.93 .60 .83 FORMULA FOR CALCULATING THE YIELD OF BUTTER. In ordinary dairy or creamery practice, where moden. methods of creaming and churning are applied, the yield of butter will exceed that of fat in the milk by 15 to 16 per cent, or r pound of fat in the milk will produce about 1.15 pounds butter, i.e., yield of butter from 100 lbs. of milk = 1. 15/, /being the per cent of fat in the milk. FleischmanrC s formula: Yield of butter = 1.16/— .25 * The standard of ihe scale of points in a total of 100 was: Flavor, 45; grain, 30; color, 15; salting, 10, + Chiefly salt 244 DAIRYING. Conversion Factor for Calculating Yield of Butter from the Amount of Butter-fat, — The following resolution was passed by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations at the annual convention of the asso- ciation, July, 1895: " Resolved, That this association recommends to the several stations that the results of tests of dairy cows or herds be expressed in terms of butter-fat, and that when desirable to express these records in terms of approximate equivalent in butter such equivalent be computed by multi- plying the amount of butter-fat by ig." (Report of Curtiss, Armsby, and Cooke.) The factor i\ is based upon the results of the Columbian dairy test, in which it was found that on the average 117. 3 lbs. of butter were made from each 100 lbs, of butter-fat in the whole milk. AMOUNT OF BUTTER OBTAINED FROM 100 LBS. OF CREAM OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS. (Martiny ) Per Ct. Fat Yield of Per Ct. Fat Yield of Per Ct. Fat Yield of in Cream. Butter. in Cream. Butter. in Cream. Butter. lbs. lbs. lbs. 15 34-5 22 50.6 29 66.7 16 36.8 23 52.9 30 69.0 17 39- 1 24 55.2 31 7*-3 18 41.4 25 57-5 32 73-6 19 43-7 26 59S 33 75.9 20 46.0 27 62. 1 34 78.2 21 48.3 28 64.4 35 80.5 BUTTER. 245 YIELD OF BUTTER FROM MILK OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS. (KlRCHNER.) xoo lbs. of milk will yield the number of pounds of butter given in the tab'e. (Percentage creaming, i6 per ct.; fat in butter, 83 per ci.) Per cent, of Fat in Milk. Per cent, of Fat in Skim-milk. .20 -30 .40 -50 2-5 2.697 2.600 2.503 2.406 3.6 2.812 2.716 2.618 2.522 2.7 2.928 2.832 2-734 2.638 2.8 3 044 2.948 2.850 2-754 2.9 3.160 3-063 2.966 2.869 3.0 3.276 3-178 3.081 2.984 3.1 3 392 3-293 3-297 3.100 S-3 3-508 3-409 3-313 3.216 3.3 3.624 3-525 3-429 3-3.32 3-4 3-739 . 3-641 3-544 3-447 3-5 3-854 3-757 3-659 3-562 3.6 3-969 3-873 3-774 3-677 3-7 4.084 3-989 S-890 3 793 3.8 4.200 4.105 4.006 3-909 3-9 4.316 4.220 4.122 4-025 4.0 4-432 4-335 4.238 4.141 4.1 4-547 4-450 4-352 4-257 4.2 4-663 4-565 4.468 4-373 4-3 4-779 4.681 4-584 4.489 4-4 4-895 4-797 4.700 4.604 *l 5. on 4-913 4.816 4-719 4.6 5-127 5.028 4.932 4-834 ♦Z 5-243 5-144 5-048 4-949 4.8 5-359 5.260 5.164 5-065 4.9 5-474 5-376 5.280 5.i8i S-o 5 589 5-492 5-395 5-297 246 DAIRYIXG. POUNDS OF MILK REQUIRED TO MAKE ONE POUND OF BUTTER. Per Cent Fat in Milk. 2.8... 3.0... 3.2... 3.4... 3.6... 3.8... 4.0. . . 4.2... 4.4... 4.6... 4.8... Lbs. of Milk per I lb. of Butter. 3I-I 29.0 27.2 25.5 24.2 22.9 21.7 20. 7 19.8 18.9 18.1 Per Cent Fat in Milk. 5.0... 5.2... 5.4... 5.6. . 5.8... 6.0... 6.2... 6.4... 6.6... 6.8... 7.0... Lbs. of Milk per I lb. of Butter. 17.4 . 16.7 16.I 15-5 I5-0 14.5 14.0 13-6 13-2 , 12.8 12.4 7.-bs. of Milk per I lb. of Butter. 10 II. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 24. 25 Per Cent Fat in Milk. . 8.70 , 7.90 . 7-25 . 6.69 . 6.21 . 5-8o • 5.44 . 5.12 . 4.83 . 4.58 . 4.35 . 4.14 ' 3-95 • 3.78 . 3-62 . 3.47 Lbs. of Milk per I lb. of Butter. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33- 34- 35 36. 37. 38. 39- 40. Per Cent Fat in Milk ■ 3-34 . 3-22 . 3-II . 3.00 . 2.90 , 2.81 . 2.72 . 2.64 . 2.56 . 2.48 r 2.42 . 2.35 . 2.29 . 2.23 2.17 The two preceding tables are based on ordinary creamery experience, i pound of fat in the milk producing 1.15 pounds of butter. BtJTTER. 247 NUMBER OF POUNDS OF MILK REQUIRED FOR MAKING ONE POUND OF BUTTER. (Kirchner.) Lbs. Butter per Lbs. Milk per i Lbs. Butter per Lbs. Milk per i loo lbs. of Milk. lb. of Butter. 100 lbs. of Milk. lb. of Butter, 2.4 41.67 3-8 26.32 2.5 40.00 3-9 25.64 2.6 38.46 4.0 25.00 2.7 37-04 4.1 24-39 2.8 35 71 4.2 23.81 • 2.9 34-48 4-3 23.26 3-0 33-33 4.4 22.73 3.1 32.26 4.5 22.22 3.2 3125 4.6 21.74 3-3 30-30 4-7 21.28 3^4 29.41 4.8 20.83 3-5 28.57 4-9 20.41 3-6 27.68 5-0 20.00 3-7 27.03 5-5 18.18 DISTRIBUTION OF 3IILiK INGREDIENTS IN BUTTER 3IAKING. (Cooke.) d Proportion -a C3 a 3 nJ of the Total "cS-g 'S -^ 3 Milk Fat OC/3 ecks. They will stop so suddenly as to seem to start ba^k in the cpposiie direciiun The .'i,*,irshiiii rennet test is a very convenient device for ascertaining the exact moment of coagulation. CHEESE. 251 The curd is then cut, using the horizontal knife first and cutting lengthwise of the vat. The cutting is finished from this point with the perpendicular knife, the curd being thus cut into cubes one half inch in diameter. Without waiting for the curd to settle, we begin stirring very carefully with a wire basket, and rub the curd off from the sides of the vat with the hand. As soon as this is done we turn on the heat carefully and raise the temperature slowly to 98° F. ; when the curd is firm enough a wooden rake ie used to stir it. The temperature is raised at the rate of one degree in four or five minutes. As soon as the temperature of 98° F. is reached we begin trying the curd on the hot-iron for acid. We must have the curd firm enough when the whey is drawn, so that a double handful pressed together will fall apart readily. This is the test for a proper cooking. When fine threads one eighth of an inch in length show on the hot iron the whey is ready to draw. This should be two and a half hours from the time the milk was set. The whey is drawn off by means of a whey gate and a whey strainer, and the curd dipped into a curd-sink or on racks placed in the vat. There should be racks in the curd-sink over which a linen strainer-cloth is thrown. The curd is dipped onto this cloth and the whey drains through. The curd should be stirred, to facilitate the escape of the whey, and is then left to mat together. In fifteen or twenty minutes it can be cut into blocks eight or ten inches square, and turned over. After turning several times these blocks can be piled two or three deep. The acid will continue to develop in the curd ; when it will string about an inch it will have as- sumed a stringy or meaty texture, so that it will tear like the meat on a chicken's breast. It is then run through the curd-mill and cut up into small pieces. These pieces are stirred up every little while to air. In the course of another hour and a half there will be two inches of acid on the curd ; it will smell like toasted cheese when pressed against the hot-iron, and when a handful is squeezed, half fat and half whey will run out between the fingers. It is then ready to salt. It is cooled to 80'' F. be- 352 DAIRYING. fore salting. If a fast-curing cheese is wanted we use two pounds per hundred pounds of curd; two and a half pounds are used for a medium cheese, and three pounds for a slow- curing cheese. The curd should be spread out at an even thickness and the salt applied evenly. It should then be thoroughly stirred several times. As soon as the harsh feeling has left the curd it is ready to go to press. The screw should be turned slowly, but fast enough so that a stream of brine is kept flowing. The full pressure should not be applied for ten minutes. In an hour the bandages can be turned down, and full pressure is then applied. The continuous-pressure gang-press made by D. H. Burrell and Co., is the most satisfactory, as the cheese will not loosen during the night. The next day the cheese are placed on the shelves and the rinds greased. They should be turned and rubbed every day. The tem- perature of the curing-room should be 60° to 65° F., and moisture should be supplied in dry weather. The cheese are boxed and shipped in about a month. B. Cheese Made on the Farm, For a farm dairy it will be much easier to make up sweet-curd cheese than sour-curd cheese, described in the preceding. For this purpose it is necessary to have a curd- knife, a cheese-vat, and a cheese-press; the method of pro- cedure is as follows : The milk, which must be clean and sweet, is heated to 90° F., and if any artificial color is required it is added at this time. Set the milk with enough rennet extract to co- agulate in 20 to 30 minutes. About four ounces of Hansen's rennet extract per 1000 lbs. of milk will prove a sufficient amount. As soon as the curd will break over the finger cut it fairly fine ; then raise the temperature one degree in 3 minutes until 108° F. is reached, at the same time stirring carefully to keep the curd particles apart. Hold at 108° F. till the curd is firm, that is, till the pieces do not feel mushy. Then draw the whey and stir till the whey is well drained out. Salt at the rate of 2h lbs. of salt to 100 lbs. of curd, and when the salt is well workeil in put it to press. The cheese should be cured in a room (preferably a cellar) CHEESE. 253 where the temperature can be kept at 60° F., otherwise it will spoil. The cheese should be cured for two to three months before it is sold. CAUSES OF TAINTED MILK. The causes of tainted milk have been classified as fol- lows, by the Swiss scientist, Dr. Gerber: 1. Poor, decayed fodders, or irrational methods of feeding. 2. Poor, dirty water, used for drinking-water or for the washing of utensils. 3. Foul air in cow-stable, or the cows lying in their own dung. 4. Lack of cleanliness in milking; manure particles on udder. 5. Keeping the milk long in too warm, poorly ventilated and dirty places. 6. Neglecting to cool the milk rapidly, directly after milking. 7. Lack of cleanliness in the care of the milk, from which cause the greater number of milk taints arise. 8. Poor transportation facilities. 9. Sick cows, udder diseases, etc. 10. Cows being in heat. 11. Mixing fresh and old milk in the same can, 2. Rusty tin pails ar d tin cans (Bo,<>^gild), THE FER3IE\TATION TEST. At cheese factories there is often, especially during hot summer weather, a need of some test to discover the cause of abnormal fermentations which show themselves in tainted, pinholey, gassy, or floating curds. The trouble will generally be found to lie in the milk furnished by one or a few patrons who do not properly care for their milk, or who allow diseased or tainted milk of any kind to be mixed with the milk sent to the factory. The problem then is to detect the origin of the "off" milk, so as to refuse taking jt and thus prevent it spoiling the whole day's make of cheese. The experienced careful cheese-maker will be apt to find out such milk from its odor or general appearance when pouring it into the weighing-can, but it may some- 254 DAIRYING. times escape attention. The Gerber fermentation test (modified by Monrad) furnishes a convenient method for discovering tainted milk. The test consists of a tin tank which can be heated by means of a small lamp, and into which a rack fits holding a certain number of cylindrical glass tubes ; these are all numbered and provided with a mark and a tin cover. In making the test the tubes are filled to the mark with milk, the number of each tube being recorded in a notebook opposite the name of the particular patron whose milk was i>lacefi therein. The tubes in the rack are put in the tank, which is two thirds full of water ; the temperature of the water is kept at 104-106° Y . for six hours, when the rack is taken out, the tubes gently shaken, and the appearance of the milk, its odor, taste, etc. , carefully noted in each case. The tubes are then again heated in the tank at the same temperature as before for another six hours, when observations are once more taken of the ap- pearance of the milk in each tube. The tainted milk may then easily be discovered on account of the abnormal coagu- lation of the sample. Gerber concluded from over 1500 tests made by this method : 1. That good and properly handled milk should not co- agulate in less than 12 hours, nor show anything abnormal when coagulated. 2. If it does, it shows the milk to be abnormal, either on account of its chemical composition or because it is impreg- nated with too much ferment (rather, abnormal ferments, causing an undesirable fermentation), 3. Milk from sick cows, cows that are strongly in heat, or cows with diseased udders will always coagulate in less than 12 hours. 4. Only about 20 per cent of the tests coagulated within 12 hours. Monrad proposes the following rules for the adoption of this test by cheese factories : 1. ■' A proper journal is kept of all the tests. 2. ' The patrons whose milk is tainted have tf) pay the cost of making the test. CHEESE. 255 3. " The patrons whose milk is tainted will be kept track of, and in case there is any loss caused thereby they will have to stand it. 4. " Patrons having tainted milk shall be notified at once, and another test made three days later. If then the milk is still bad, a test of each cow's milk is made on the farm and otherwise the reason sought to be discovered, and until then the milk will be refused." Another test published in the twelfth report of Wiscon- sin Experiment .Station will prove very satisfactory for the purpose of detecting gas-producing bacteria in milk. The method, which calls for no special apparatus aside from a number of pint fruit-jars, is operated as follows : " i^int milk-bottles are sterilized in order to kill out any adherent germ-life, and then filled two-thirds full with milk from each patron. To each of these is added a definite amount of rennet extract (ten drops), and the bottles then immersed in warm water (98°-ioo'' F.). After the milk has set, the curd is cut and cooked in the usual manner. The whey is then poured off and the curds are allowed to mat, their condition being noted from time to time. In this way the normal conditions practised in cheese-making are ad- hered to quite closely, so that practically the various stages of making Cheddar cheese up to the point of putting to press is carried out, and the development of gas in the curds can be noted with exactness. Observations are usu- ally recorded after the lapse of about 4-6 hours and then again on the following day." DETERMINATION OF HUMIDITY IN CHEESE- CURING ROOMS. The proper degree of humidity in the cheese-curing room will vary with dififerent kinds of cheese and at difiler- ent stages of the curing process. Green cheese should be placed in a somewhat drier curing-room than older ; the latter kinds, according to Fleischmann. require a relative humidity of 90°-95", against Ss^'-go'' for green cheese. 356 DAIRYING. Kirchner states that the humidity of curing-iooms should not, in general, go below 80' or above 95°. Temperatures from 50°-70° F. are preferable in the curing-room. The following temperatures and percentages of humidity are recommended by Martiny: Per Cent Deg. Fahr. Humidity. (a) For hard cheeses (Swiss, etc.). Green 59-^3 Qo-QS Half cured 54-59 85-go Cured 50-54 80-95 (b) For soft cheeses (Limburger, etc.) 50-59 80-95 In the interior of our continent it is somewhat difficult to obtain as much moisture in the air of curing-rooms as is represented by the preceding figures ; the relative humid- ity of ordinary curing-rooms in this region, therefore, but rarely goes over 60°. A higher degree of humidity may be obtained by hanging wet sheets of canvas in the curing- room (Decker), or by similar devices, as described in the thirteenth ann. report of Wis. Experiment Station. Self-recording thermometers are to be recommended for use in curing-rooms. For observation of relative humidity a wet and dry bulb thermometer, a Mittchoff's hygrometer, or a Lambrecht's polymeter may be used to advantage. Any of these instruments may be obtained through dealers in chemical glassware or dairy 'supplies; the prices range from $8 to $30. CHEESE. 257 TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS. (King.) Directions.^ — Notice that the table is in three column sections. Find air temperature in first column, then find wet-bulb temperature in second column, same division. In third column opposite this is relative humidity. Example. — Air temperature is 50°, in first column; wet-bulb is 44°, in second column, same division. Opposite 44° is 61, which is the percent of saturation, or the relative humidity of the air. Crt«^/£»«.— Fan the bulb briskly for a minute or two before taking reading. ^1 -•a Pis >,J2 %a. °1 Wet Bulb. ^■i f^E 40 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 37 44 52 59 68 76 84 92 45 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 31 37 44 50 57 64 71 78 85 92 49 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 48 54 60 67 73 80 86 93 53 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 58 63 69 75 81 87 94 54 55 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 32 37 42 48 53 64 7(1 76 82 88 32 33 34 36 37 38 39 40 31 38 46 60 68 76 84 92 50 39 40 4^ 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 32 37 43 49 55 61 67 74 80 87 93 41 46 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 26 32 38 45 51 58 65 72 79 85 93 33 34 35 36 % 39 40 41 33 40 47 54 6r 69 77 84 92 94 51 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 33 39 45 50 56 62 68 74 81 87 93 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 5^ 52 53 54 33 38 43 49 54 59 65 70 76 8* 88 94 42 47 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 28 34 40 46 52 59 66 72 79 86 93 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 28 34 41 48 55 62 70 77 85 92 52 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 5^ 35 40 46 SI 57 69 75 81 87 94 43 56 57 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 34 39 44 SO 55 60 48 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 29 35 41 47 60 66 73 79 86 93 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 29 36 43 49 56 63 70 78 85 92 65 71 77 82 88 94 44 53 41 42 43 44 45 31 36 41 47 52 49 38 ?9 40 36 42 45 46 47 36 40 45 258 DAIRYING. HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS.— 6b«. >^ ■S-^ -• a" >.xi v-^ ^ B >^Xt t>-^ ^•a >>J3 QJ-^ ^ a ^ V 3 ^1 ^1 4; 3 ^i ^i ^3 V 3 48 50 58 84 55 49 61 60 49 55 61 59 89 56 53 62 64 50 61 60 94 57 57 63 68 51 66 58 61 64 72 57 52 71 50 41 59 66 70 65 77 53 77 51 45 66 60 71 66 81 54 83 52 SO 61 75 67 86 55 88 53 54 62 80 68 90 56 94 62 54 59 64 69 63 64 65 85 90 95 69 95 46 37 55 56 58 59 60 45 48 52 47 48 42 46 57 58 74 79 54 4t 49 51 59 84 55 45 61 56 50 56 60 89 S6 49 62 60 58 51 61 61 95 57 53 63 64 67 72 58 59 58 62 71 64 65 68 52 53 SI 42 72 54 78 52 46 67 60 66 66 77 55 83 53 51 61 71 67 81 56 89 54 55 62 76 68 86 57 94 55 60 63 80 69 91 63 56 57 64 69 64 65 85 90 70 95 47 38 48 43 58 74 66 95 59 60 45 49 49 47 59 79 50 52 60 84 55 42 61 53 51 57 61 89 56 46 62 57 59 52 62 62 95 57 SO 63 61 53 67 f8 54 64 65 54 72 52 43 59 58 72 65 69 55 78 53 47 60 63 66 73 56 83 54 51 68 61 67 67 77 57 89 55 56 62 71 68 82 58 94 56 60 63 76 69 86 64 57 58 65 70 64 65 66 81 70 71 91 95 48 39 85 90 49 44 59 74 50 48 60 79 67 95 60 46 51 53 61 85 61 50 52 58 62 90 56 43 62 53 60 53 63 68 73 63 95 57 58 59 47 51 55 63 64 65 57 61 54 55 53 44 65 S6 78 54 48 60 59 73 66 69 57 84 55 52 61 63 67 73 58 89 56 56 69 62 67 68 78 59 94 57 61 63 72 69 82 65 58 59 65 70 64 65 76 81 70 71 86 49 40 91 SO 44 60 61 75 80 66 67 86 72 95 51 49 90 52 54 62 85 68 95 61 47 61 53 58 63 90 62 50 54 63 64 95 57 44 74 63 54 68 73 58 59 48 52 64 6% 58 62 55 56 66 53 40 70 57 78 54 45 60 55 66 66 CHERSE. 259 HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS. - -Con. 3^ '-'CQ ^X u — • Q =^ ^02 67 70 63 48 72 78 69 60 68 74 64 52 73 »3 70 64 69 78 65 55 77 74 87 71 68 74 70 82 66 59 75 91 72 71 71 86 67 t>3 76 95 79 73 75 72 91 68 66 74 79 73 95 76 69 70 65 66 67 49 75 76 77 «3 87 91 68 47 71 78 56 63 64 51 55 72 73 82 68 60 87 69 63 66 47 65 5« 74 91 -78 70 67 67 51 66 62 75 95 71 71 68 54 67 66 72 75 69 57 75 68 70 04 49 73 79 70 61 69 74 65 52 74 «3 71 64 70 78 66 56 75 87 80 72 68 71 82 77 67 59 76 91 73 72 72 73 «7 91 68 63 67 69 66 50 74 75 75 79 74 95 70 71 79 67 53 76 Sci 71 74 68 57 77 78 »7 92 SCORE FOR JUDGING CHEESE. World's Fair 1893. New York, 1894. Wisconsin Dairymen's Assoc. 1894. For Export. For Home Trade. Flavor 45 20 15 10 10 45 30 15 10 50 25 15 10 45 30 15 Texture (and body) Color Salting Make up (finish) 10 100 100 100 100 ENGLISH SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING CHEESE. (McCoNNELL.) Perfection, 100. 35 Flavor: nutty, buttery. 25 Quality: mellow, rich, melting on tongue. 15 Texture: solid, compact. 15 Color: natural-like, even. 10 Make: remainder, due to good making, as cleanliness, salting, perfect rind, etc. 100 200 DAIRYIXG. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE. (Konig.) Cream cheese.. Full cream cheese Half-skim cheese. Skim cheese Sour-milk cheese., Whey cheese .... en 1 . 4; 1 X-o S i>i rt c (U t.^^ ^J^ ^ i< rt ^ 40.71 ;5 C 3 18.84 u OJ rt .1-1 U V. 1.02 27 36-33 143 38.00 30.25 2S-35 1-43 21 39 -79 23.92 29.67 1.79 41 46.00 11.65 34.06 3-42 15 52.36 16.03 36.64 .90 7 23.66 16.91 8.90 45-75 3.10 4-97 4-73 4.87 4.07 4.78 VARIETIES AND ANALYSES OF CHEESE. (MCCONNHLL.) British, pressed — Cheddar, 3 months " 6 " " average Cheshire, new " old Derby Dunlop Gloucester (single) "' (double) British, soft — Cream Stilton French, soft — Brie Camembert Gervais (cream) Neufchatel French, pressed — Gruyere Roquefort Dutch — Edam (round) Gouda(fiat) German — Backstein Swiss — Backstein Bellelay(soft) Emmenthaler Italian — Gorgonzola Parmesan Various — American factory Foreign skim, average German sour milk Whey cheese (cow) (goat) Centrifugal skim-milk cheese Water. Per ct. 36-17 31-17 34-38 36.96 32.59 31.68 38.46 32.50 35.96 30-65 30.35 50.3s 50.16 52 -94 44-47 34-87 31.20 36.28 21.90 73- 10 35-80 37-59 35-14 44.04 31-34 25-93 46.08 63.63 24.21 25.29 50-5 Casein. Per ct. 24-93 26.31 26.38 24.08 32-51 24.50 25.87 28.51 21.74 4-94 28.85 17.18 21.85 11.80 14.60 25.87 27-63 24.06 46.95 19.80 24.44 28.88 30.86 28.06 41.99 38.12 33.37 25.27 9.06 9.10 4^.1 Fat. Sugar. Per ct. 31-83 33-68 32-71 29-34 26.06 35 -20 31-86 28.23 26.83 62.99 35-39 25.12 21 .13 20.75 33-70 28.91 33-16 30.26 24.81 2.80 37 40 30.05 31.00 29.84 19.22 ' 31-55 10.54 4-85 20.80 20.98 T.2 Per ct. 3.21 4.91 5.17 4-53 4-38 2.58 6.12 41 .01 29.21 Ash. Per ct. 3.86 3-93 3-58 •45 31 ,24 ,81 ,66 07 382 5.41 3.89 2-93 2.99 3-84 6.01 4.90 6.32 2.36 3.48 4.00 3.87 6.25 4-38 3 81 3 67 4.92 3.88 5-2 CHEESE. 261 DISTRIBUTION OF INGREDIENTS IN CHEESE- MAKING. (Cooke.) Total Solids. Fat. Casein and Albumen. Milk- sugar. Ash. Cheese Cheese-press drips. . . Whey Per cent 54-2 •9 44-9 Per cent 90.6 •4 9.0 Per cent 77-4 .6 22.0 Per cent 50 i-S 93-5 Per cent 36 I 63 lOO.O 100.0 100. 100. 100 DISTRIBUTION OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN CHEESE-MAKING. (Cooke.) Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash. 1000 lbs. of whole milk 900 lbs. of whey lbs. 5-30 1-35 3-95 lbs. 1.90 1.23 .65 lbs. 1-75 1.6^ 100 lbs. of cheese .12 FORMULAS FOR FINDING YIELD OF CHEDDAR CHEESE. The approximate yield of green cheddar cheese from 100 lbs. of milk may be found by multiplying the per cent of fat in the milk by 2.7; if /designate the per cent of fat in the milk, the formula will therefore be: Yield of cheese = 2.1 f. The factor 2.7 will only hold good as the average of a large number of cases. In extensive investigations during three consecutive years Van Slyke found that the number of pounds of green cheese manufactured for one pound of fat in the milk varied from 2.51 to 3.06, the average figures being 2.73. 2.71, and 2.72, for 1892-94, respectively. For cured cheese the factor will be somewhat lower, viz., about 2.6 on the average. If the percentage of solids not fat and of fat in the sam- ple of milk are known, the following formula, published by Dr. Babcock in the twelfth report of the Wisconsin Ex- 262 DAIRYING. periment Station, will give close results (s = solids not fat; /=fat): Yield of green cheese = i.58(i-«" + -Qi/)- This formula is based on a water content of 37 per cent in the cheese; it may be readily changed to suit any par- ticular per cent. The average percentages of water in green cheese in Van Slyke's investigations referred to above were 36.41, 37.05, and 36.70 per cent for the years 1S92-94, respectively. If the percentages of casein and fat in the milk are both known, the yield of cheese may be calculated from the fol- lowing formula, which will give fairly correct results: Yield of cheese = 1.1/ + 2.5 casein. (Babcock.) YIELD OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CHEESE FROM 100 LBS. OF MILK. (Fleischmann.) Soft full-cream cheese intended for immediate consumption Very soft full-cream cheeses (Brie, Camembert, Neuf chatel, etc.) Somewhat firmer, full-cream soft cheeses (Lim- burger, Remondon cheese, etc.) Soft half-skim cheese (Limburg), if lbs. butter and Soft skim cheeses {d la Brie, Camembert, Livarot. Backstein, etc.), 3-3.4 lbs. butter and Roquefort cheese (made from sheeps' milk) Full-milk, from American and English cheeses, and .75 lbs. whey-butter. Full-milk from Dutch and Swiss cheeses and .75 lbs. whey-butter. Half-skim firm cheeses, 1.6 lbs. butter and Skim-milk cheese, 3-35 lbs. butter and Sour-milk cheese, 3-3.5 lbs. butter and Scandinavian " Gammelost " and 3-3.5 lbs. butter. Whey cheese ("Mysost") and butter and skim-milk cheese. Green Cheese. lbs. 25-33 18-22 13-16 12-13 7.5-12 18 9-11 8-1 1 7-10 5-7 7«5-9 3-5-S-5 6-7 Cured Cheese. lbs. 12-15 9-1 1 9-11 6.5-9 12-14. 5 8-9 7-10 5-8 a-3 Whey in manufacture of full-cream cheese, 73-88 lbs., average 81 lbs. " " •♦ " half-skim " 72-80 " " 76 " " " " " skim cheese 66-76 " " 71 " Under similar conditions 5-7 lbs. less of whey are obtained in the manu- facture of soft cheese than in that of firm cheese. The loss sustained in the manufacture of cheese amounts on the average to 3 lbs. per 100 lbs of milk, not considering the losses incurred in the curing of the cheese. CHEESE. 263 AVERAGE LOSS OF AMERICAN CHEDDAR CHEESE IN CURING. (Babcock.) O 3 . o ^0 Period Covered. Average Age. No. of Cheese. Total Weight Green. Total Weight Cured. Loss. Days. Days. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Per Cent. I I-IO 6 Q9 2,812 2,741.5 70.5 2.51 2 II-20 16 242 7,356.9 7,077.0 279.9 3.60 3 ' 21-30 25 298 8,530.5 8,160,4 370.1 4.34 4 31-60 41 417 12,353-3 11,684.4 668.9 S.41 5 Over 60 141 172 6,244.4 5,736.0 508.4 8. II Total number of cheese in preceding trials ^235. Average weight of green cheese ..30. 2 lbs. " temperature of curing-room 61° F. (range 55-70°). " humidity of air in curing-room 50 per cent. LOSS IN WEIGHT OP DIFFERENT KINDS OF CHEESE DURING CURING. (Martiny) Per Cent. Swiss (Emmenthal) — made from whole milk will lose in 5 months 8-14 15-20 12-15 " " half-skimmed milk will lose in 8 " " skim-milk will lose in 6 Tilsit- made from whole milk will lose in 4 Dutch (Gouda) — made from whole milk will lose in 3 " skim " " " " 4 American Cheddar — made from whole milk will lose in 2 4 Limburger or Remoudon — made from whole milk will lose in 2^ Brick cheese — made from skim-milk will lose in 2| Camembert, Brie, Neufchatel, etc. — made from whole milk will lose in 2 Sour-milk cheese — made from whole milk will lose in 3^ 12-25 20-28 15-25 5 6-7 16-28 15-30 20-35 50-60 264 DAIRYIKG. a r « CO '-' O-.Tf T»-0 »OQ0 00 O o\^ O ■X' -o c^«> ■*oo m OS •*05 •*Ci ■*« 'l-OJ •*-OS Tl-O -1-0 lOO mo mo mo m '"^ ^ rl r^ oso woo ro'^ moi t^»n oo Ci ifS ■*-H \0 «3 00 CO MOO «» CO "^ ". '^ ms* •*-^ mm vo i~ 00 OS ovo ^"^ M 70 N O •*•!» m 00 ^05 ■*os -^os Tfos ■ •-H mt- ►HOO MM NO OQO M CO rOQO \0 0? 00 00 mco o -^ t^co 00 i- COS NO •♦to N W tsOS roco 0\ ■♦ CO X- •*Q0 ■♦OS ■ mos mos loos lo oo •♦oo ■♦00 ■♦Xi •♦00 ■♦X •♦» •♦« ■♦OS mos mos mos m fe C "3 © ^ CO CO CHEESE. 265 •"sl ^ ^' ■^ -*"'*•'*• '»«' O us «0 «o" lO lO to ts to us o ,-• iJ-,,-1 lOi-i u-)i-i ^ .-« VO C? vO C» ^ T» VO OJ \0 ff* VO 0» »0 CJ t^CO t^M r-~00 t^^ t^CO t^CO t^'^ t^ ri m — lOi-H mT- vot-i\c — voo*vo3*vow\ow>oiN'C(?j t^o-j t^eo t^M t^eo t^co r-ec t-»co t^ O m»-i ^T-> iD'- vot-ivo — \O»-ivoWvO(NV00l\OWvO©« t>.w l^W tN.co r-P3 t^oo t^oc t^cc t^ I O mo lOi-H lOi-H >0'>-i\OT-(vO'-">o»-ivo'r3 t^ o "lO i/^>— lO'-H »j-,T-i o»-'VO'-'"0'r-ivo«-ivo!?j\0(Nvo«vooi t--w tv(N t^ec t^eo t^eo t«-c<5 tv O mO lOO m— vn»-i vO'i-h\0'-<'Ot-(\c<-iV0'-''O0J'O?}v00J tvw r-.5? t^cj t^W t^cC' t^co t~» r O mO mo mi-1 ^0.-iVO^-<^0'-•>0^-l\0^-■>0'-'VOW^ff» t^W tvTJ t^W t^-W t^CC t^CO t^ O 00 o O '-' N «o -^w t^i> on©» h 00 f.Tji mo5 r^io oos w «o m— lot- oo ©* o c- n eo -^Oi \o eo mrr t^?o oo t- oos o O >- o* rcco rt-m m:o >o oc t>-05 o^i-i so ►< -^ « »n ■><-i- mos vo O t~ o mo mo mo mo vo»-ivOT-ivoi-ivOT-cvO'rt\o.-ivD.-ivo(rj r~o? t^CJ t^w t»--i t^T? t^'?> t^T? i-^T? t^W t~- eO'*»O«l>-0OOS©»H(MCO'*iO®t*ODCi© ^^^^^^«4iiOtOtO>OtOtOOuJtOtCV 266 DAIRYIKG. •a o 3^ t,- "5 l-TJ ■"". C u ,> ^ utj o ^ > aj _ U O •o c e ^ C rt rt « a> u •a a "O to a 3 Eg2-S='«« = Q O oj X en 6' ^ 02 p (U W5.5 « 'S'^ . 3 '^ 2 o . tfl o " aa^5s " a a ^ a a o 2 S -a -a .S c "O "a bo :^ u— ' c 9 U (A 0) crc c O O rt Q. '^^Jo"^^ s*! o 00 .o 1 ooovo -M 2::?^:3t tc JO .Q6ooooooNw"n lo info>o0 00 vO'- voo •psilddv sjnssdjj JS U 3 O- padopAaQ PPV 4) a» V u 1-33 1.30 1.28 1.25 1.22 3-00 .60 •59 •58 •57 .56 •55 •54 •53 •52 •51 •50 3.10 .62 .61 .60 •59 •58 •57 •56 •55 •54 •53 •52 3.20 .64 •63 .62 .61 .60 •59 •58 •57 •55 •54 •53 3^3o .66 •65 .64 •63 .62 .60 •59 •58 ■57 •56 •55 340 .68 .67 .66 •65 •63 .62 .61 .60 •59 •58 •57 3^50 .70 .69 .68 .66 •65 .64 .63 .62 .61 •59 58 3.60 .72 •71 .70 .68 .67 .66 65 .64 .62 .61 .60 3-70 •74 •73 •71 .70 .69 .68 .67 •65 .64 •63 .62 3.80 .76 •75 •73 .72 •71 .70 .68 .67 .66 •65 .63 3.90 .78 •77 •75 •74 •73 •71 .70 .69 .67 .66 •65 4.00 .80 •79 •77 .76 •75 •73 .72 •71 .69 .68 .67 4.10 .82 .81 •79 .78 .76 •75 •74 .72 •71 .70 .68 4.20 .84 •83 .81 .80 •78 ■77 •75 •74 •73 •71 .70 4-30 .86 .84 •83 .82 .80 •79 •77 .76 •74 •73 .72 4.40 .88 .86 •85 •83 .82 .80 •79 .78 .76 •75 •73 4^50 .90 .88 .87 •85 .84 .82 .81 •79 •79 .76 •75 4.60 .92 .90 .89 •87 .86 .84 •83 .81 .80 .78 ■77 4.70 •94 .92 .91 .89 .88 .86 .84 •83 .81 .80 .78 4.80 .96 •94 •93 •91 .90 .88 .86 •85 .83 .81 .80 4.90 .98 .96 •94 •93 .91 .90 .88 .86 •85 •83 .82 S^oo 1. 00 .98 .96 •95 •93 .91 .90 88 .86 .85 .83 5-IO 1.02 1. 00 .98 •96 •95 •93 .92 .90 .88 .86 •85 5.20 1.04 1.02 1. 00 .98 •97 •95 •93 .92 .90 .88 .87 S-30 1.06 1.04 I 02 1. 00 •99 •97 •95 •93 .92 .90 .88 540 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 1. 00 •99 ■97 •95 •93 .92 .90 5^5o 1. 10 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 1. 00 •99 •97 •95 •93 .92 5.60 1. 12 1. 10 1.08 1.06 1.04 1. 03 1 .00 . .98 •97 •95 •93 5^70 1. 14 1. 12 1. 10 1.08 1 .06 1.04 1.02 1. 00 .98 •97 95 5 •So 1. 16 1. 14 1. 12 1.09 1.07 1.05 1.04 1.02 1. 00 .98 •97 5-9° 1. 18 1. 16 I •IS I. II 1.09 1.07 1.05 1.04 1.02 1. 00 .98 6.00 1.20 1.18 ^•iS ^•i3 I. II 1.09 1.07 I. OS 1.03 1.02 I, (XX CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 273 DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING DIVIDENDS IN CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES According to the Per Cent of Fat in 3Iilk Delivered. (S. M. Babcock, in " Hoard's Dairyman.") Find the amount of fat contained in the milk of each patron for any period desired, by multiplying the pounds of milk expressed in hundreds by the per cent of fat found by the test. Add together the amount of fat from all the patrons, thus obtaining the total pounds of fat delivered at the factory. Deduct the expenses of manufacture, etc., from the money received from sales, and divide the re- mainder by the total fat. This gives the price to be paid for each pound of fat. Multiply the pounds of fat de- livered by each patron by the price; the product will be the amount which he is to receive. If it is desired to know the number of pounds of butter made from each patron's milk, divide the total yield of but- ter by the total fat delivered; the quotient will be the amount of butter made from one pound of fat. The fat delivered by each patron multiplied by this figure will give the pounds of butter to be credited to each patron. The accompanying table gives the butter yield from loo lbs. of milk, when the pounds of butter from one pound of fat range from i.io to 1.20, and for milks containing from 3 to 6 per cent of fat. To use the table find in the upper horizontal line the number corresponding most nearly to the number of pounds of butter from one pound of fat. The vertical column in which this falls gives the pounds of butter from 100 pounds of milk containing the per cents of fat given in the outside columns. Example : A creamery receives during one month 250,000 lbs. of milk, which contained 9531 lbs. of fat; the yield of butter for the same period was 10,983 lbs., which sold for 29 cents per pound, bringing $3185.07. The expense for making, etc., was four cents per pound, amounting to $439.32, leaving $2745.75 to be divided among the patrons. Dividing this sum by 9531, the total number of pounds of fat gives 28.8 cents per pound for the fat. This multiplied by the number of pounds of fat in each patron's milk give?, the amount which he should be paid. 274 DAIRYING. The number of pounds of butter, 10,983, divided by 9531, the number of pounds of fat, gives 1.152 pounds of butter from each pound of fat. The column headed 1.15 in the table is nearest to this ratio, and will therefore give the butter obtained from 100 lbs. of milk containing different per cents of fat. If a patron delivered 9420 lbs. of milk containing 3.2 per cent of fat during the period considered, his milk would have contained 301.44 lbs. of fat, which at 28.8 cents per pound would have amounted to $86.81. It would have made 301.44 X 1.152 = 347.26 lbs. of butter. In the column headed 1.15 in the table, opposite 3.2 per cent of fat, we find 3.68, which is the number of pounds of fat from 100 lbs. of this patron's milk. The error from the use of the table in this way will never amount to more than i ounce per 100 lbs. of milk. Yield of Butter froju One Hundred Lbs. of Milk, in Lbs. c Lbs. 0'' I3utter per Pound of Fat. 4-> c 1. 10 3«3o I. II 1. 12 I-I3 1. 14 1-15 1. 16 1. 17 1. 18 1. 19 1.20 3.60 £1, 3-0 3-33 3.36 3-39 3-42 3-45 3-48 3-51 3-54 3-57 3-0 3«i 3-41 3-441 3-472 3-503 3-534 3-565 3-596 3.627 3-658 3-689 3-72 3-1 3'2 3-52 3-552 3-584 3.616 3-648 3.680 3.712 3-744 3-776 3.808 3-84 3-2 3-3 3.63 3-663 3.696 3-729 3-762 3-795 3.828 3.861 3-894 3-927 3-96 3-3 3-4 3-74 3-774 3.808 3.842 3.876 3.910 3-944 3-978 4.012 4.046 4.08 3-4 3-5 3.85 3-885 3-920 3-955 3-990 4.025 4.060 4-095 4-130 4.165 4.20 3-5 3.6 3-96 3-996 4.032 4.068 4 104 4.140 4.176 4.212 4.248 4.284 4-32 3-6 3-7 4.07 4.107 4.144 4.181 4.218 4-255 4.292 4-329 4.366 4.403 4-44 3-7 38 4.18 4.218 4.256 4.294 4-332 4-370 4.408 4.446 4-484 4-522 4.56 38 3-9 4.29 4-329 4-368 4.407 4-446 4-485 4-524 4 563 4.602 4.641 4.68 3-9 4.0 4.40 4.440 4 480 4-520 4 560 4.600 4.640 4.680 4-720 4.760 4.80 4.0 4.1 4-51 4-551 4-592 4-633 4.674 4-715 4-756 4-797 4.838 4.87Q 4-9* 4.1 4.2 4.62 4.662 4.704 4.746 4.788 4.830 4.872 4.914 4-956 4 998 5-04 4.2 4-3 4-73 4 773 4.816 4-859 4.902 4-945 4.988 5-031 5-074 5-117 5.16 4 3 4.4 4.84 4.884 4.928 4.972 5.016 5.060 5.104 5.148 5.192 5-236 5.28 4-4 4-5 4-95 4-995 5.040 5-085 5-130 5-^75 5.220 5-265 5-310 5-355 5-40 ^i 4 6 5.06 5.106 5-152 5.198 5-244 5.290 5-336 5-382 5.428 5-474 5-52 4.6 4-7 5-17 5-2t7 5-264 5-311 5-358 5-405 5-452 5-499 5-546 5-593 5-64 4 7 4.8 5.28 5-328 5-376 5-424 5-472 5-520 5-568 5-616 5-664 5-712 5-76 4 8 4.9 5-39 5-439 5-488 5-537 5-586 5-635 5.684 5-733 5-782 5-831 5.88 4.9 5-0 5-50 5-550 5.600 5 650 5.700 5-750 5.800 5 850 5-900 5 950 6.00 5-0 5-1 5.61 5.661 5-712 5-763 5-814 5.865 5.916 5-967 6.018 6.069 6.12 5-1 5-2 5 72 5-772 6.824 5-876 5.928 5-980 6.C32 6.084 6 136 6.188 6.24 5-2 5-3 5-83 5.883 5-9.36 5.986 6.042 6.095 6.148 6. 201 6.254 6.307 6.36 5-3 5-4 5-94 5-994 6.048 6. 102 6.156 6.210 6.264 6 318 6.372 6.426 6.48 5-4 5-5 6.05 6.105 6.160 6.215 6-270 6.325 6.380 6-435 6.490 6.545 6.60 5-5 5-6 6.16 6.216 6.272 6.328 6.384 6.440 6.496 6-552 6.608 6.664 6.72 5-6 5-7 6.27 6.327 6.384 6.441 6 498 7-555 6 612 6.669 6.726 6.783 6 84 5-7 5-8 6.38 6.438 6.496 6.554 6.612 6.670 6.72S 6.786 6.844 6.902 6.96 5-8 5-9 6.49 6.549 6.608 6.667 6.726 6.785 6.844 6.903 6.962 7 .021 7.08 5-9 6.0 6.60 6.660 6.720 6.780 6.840I 6.900I 6.96c 7.020 7.080 7.140 7.20 6.0 CHEESE. 276 TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE PEK CENT OF FAT IN 3HLiK. (Partly after Martiny.) Sum 0; 4-> c V U 1) ca Sum of a u Sum of c u u ca U) ui (A CL,&H lA ui ec 0:^ 05 U5 in u ■* 22. so 18.00 55 60 04 08 65 12 70 16 22.75 80 85 18.20 24 28 90 95 32 36 23.00 18.40 05 10 44 48 15 20 52 56 23 -5 30 35 18.60 64 68 40 45 72 76 23.50 55 60 18.80 84 88 65 70 92 96 23-75 80 85 19.00 04 08 90 95 12 16 24.00 19.20 05 10 24 28 15 20 3& 24-25 19.40 30 35 44 48 40 45 52 56 ^ c 1) U • c/s 0-^ 4) >■ 13.50 4.60 53 51 56 52 59 53 62 54 13 65 4.55 68 56 71 57 74 58 77 59 13.80 4.60 83 61 86 62 89 63 92 1 64 13.95 4.65 98 66 t4.oi 67 04 68 07 69 14.10 4 70 '3; 71 16 72 19 73 22 74 14.25 4.75 28 76 31 77 34 78 37 79 1 14.40 4.80 43 8i 46 82 49 83 52: 84 14-55 4-85 58 86 61 87 64 88 67, 89 Sum of i/i (A (A (A 05 as 4; U III. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. CUSTOMARY SYSTEM OF TI^EIGHTS AND 3IEASURES. I. Weights. A. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. I ton = 2000 pounds (lbs.) ;* I lb. = i6 ounces (oz.) = 256 drams = 768 scruples = 7680 grains ; I oz. = 16 drams = 48 scruples = 480 grains ; I dram = 3 scruples = 30 grains ; 1 scruple = 10 grains. B. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, FOR DRUGS. I lb. = 12 oz, = 96 drams = 288 scruples = 5760 grains; I oz. = 8 drams = 24 scruples = 480 grains; I dram = 3 scruples = 60 grains ; I scruple = 20 grains. C. TROY WEIGHT, FOR JEWELS AND PRECIOUS METALS. z lb. = 12 oz. = 24 carats = 240 pennyweight (dwt.) = 5760 grains ; I oz. = 2 carats = 20 dwts. = 480 grains ; I carat = 10 dwts. = 240 grains ; I dwt. = s>4 grains. II. Measures. A. LINEAR. X mile = 8 furlongs (frigs.) = 80 chains = ^^.o rods = 5280 feet ;+ X furlong = 10 chains = 40 rods = 660 feet ; I chain = 4 rods = 66 feet ; I rod = i6i feet; I chain = 100 links ; I link = 7.92 inches; X yard = 3 feet = 36 inches ; I foot = 12 inches. B. SURFACE. I square mile =2 640 acres ; I acre = 10 square chains = 160 sq. rods = 4840 sq. ydi = 43,560 square feet. * I long ton = 20 imperial hundredweights (cwt ) = 2240 pounds. t I sea mile (Admiralty knot) = 6080 feet, or 1.1515 statute mile. 310 GENTERAL TOPICS. C. CAPACITY. I. DRY MEASURE. I bushel = the volume of 77.627 lbs. of distilled water at 4*0.; I bushel =. 4 pecks = 8 gallons = 32 quarts = 2150.4 cubic inches; 1 peck = 2 gallons = 8 quarts = 537-6 " " I gallon = 4 quarts = 268.8 " " I quart = 67.2 " '* 2. LIQUID MEASURE. 1 gallon = the volume of 8.3388832 lbs. = 58,373 troy grains of distilled water at 4° C; I gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 32 gills = 231 cubic inches ; I quart = 2 pints = 8 gills = 57.75 " " I pint = 4 gills = 28.88 " " Metric System of Weights and Measures. I. LINEAR MEASURES. 1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters (dm)= 100 centimeters (cm) = 1000 millimeter (mml = .1 decameters (Dm) = .01 Hectometer (Hm) = .001 Kilometci (Km) = .0001 Myriameter (Mm). I Mm = 10 Km = 100 Hm = 1000 Dm = 10,000 m; I Km = 10 Hm = 100 Dm = 1,000 m; I Hm = 10 Dm = 100 m; I Dm = zo m ; I m s 10 dm = 100 cm = 1000 mm ; X dm = 10 cm = 100 mm; I cm = 10 mm. 2. SURFACE MEASURES. I Are (a) = 100 square meters (sq. m.) = .oi hectare (ha) ; I Are = I sq. Dm. = 100 square m ; I sq. Km = 100 Ha = 10,000 A = 1,000,000 sq. m ; I Ha = 100 A = 10,000 sq. m ; I A = 100 sq. m. 3. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. t liter (1) = I cubic decimeter (cdm) = 1,000 cubic centimeters (c. c.) = o.ooi cubic meter (cbm) = 10 deciliters (dl) = 100 centiliters (cl) = ,ox hectoliter (hi). I HI = 10 Dl = 100 1 = 1,000 dl = 10,000 cl ; I Dl = 10 1 = 100 dl = 1,000 cl; I I = 10 dl =s 100 cL 4. WEIGHTS. 1 kilogram (kg) = 100 decagrams (Dg) = 1000 grams (g); I gram = 10 decigrams (ajj; = too centigrams (cg)= i,ooo milliiT'rams (mg); t ton = 1000 Kg = TOO, 000 Dg = 1,000,000 g ; 100 Kg = 10,000 Dg = 100.000 g ; I Kg = 100 Dg = 1,000 g. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES* 311 Conversion of U. S. Weights and Measures to Metric, and vice versa. LINEAR. Inches to Millimeters. = 25.4001 Feet to Meters. .3048 Yards to Meters. .9144 Miles to Kilometers. 1.6094 Meter to Inches. = 39-3700 Meter to Feet. 3.2808 Meter to Yards. 1.0936 Kilometer to Miles. .6214 SQUARE. Sq. Inches to Sq. Centmr. ^ 6.452 Sq. Feet to Sq. Decimeters. 9.290 Square Yards to Square Meters. .836 Acres to Hectares. .4047 Sq. Centime, to sq. in. = .1550 Sq. Meters to Sq. Feet. 10.764 Square Meters to Square Yards. 1. 196 Hectares to Acres. 2.471 CUBIC. Cubic In. to Cu. Centmr. = 16.387 Cubic Feet to Cubic Meters. .0283 Cubic Yards to Cubic Meters. .765 Bushels to Hectoliters. •3524 Cu. Centmrs to Cubic In. = .0610 Cu. Decimeters to Cubic Inches. 61.023 Cubic Meters to Cubic Feet. 35.314 Cubic Meters to Cubic Yards. 1.308 CAPACITY. Fluid Drams to Cu. Centi- meters. = 3-70 Fluid Ounces to Cubic Centimeter. 29-57 Quarts to Liters. .9464 Gallons to Liters. 3.7854 Cu. Centi- meters to Fluid Drams. Centiliters to Fluid Ounces. 1 Liters Decaliters to Hectoliters to Quarts. Gallons. to Bushels. = .27 .338 1.0567 2.6417 2.8377 WEIGHT. Grains to Milligrams. = 64.7989 Avoirdupois Ounces to Grams. 28.3495 Avoirdupois Pounds to Kilo- Grams. .4536 Troy Ounces to Grams. 31.1035 Milligrams to Grains. = .01543 Kilograms to Grains. 15432.36 Hectograms to Ounces Av. 3-5274 Kilograms to Pounds Av. 2.2046 Oirintals to Pounds Av. = 220.46 Milliers or Tonnes to Pounds Av. 2204.6 Kilograms to Ounces Troy. 32.1507 312 GENERAL TOPICS. KILOGRAMS CONVERTED INTO POUNDS AVOIRDUPOIS. Kilos. o I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o.o .ocx> .022 .044 .066 .088 .110 .132 •154 .176 .194 .1 .220 •243 .265 .287 •309 •331 -353 •375 -397 .419 .2 .441 •463 .485 •507 •529 •551 •573 •595 .617 -639 •3 .661 .683 •70s .728 -750 .772 •794 .816 .838 .860 •4 .882 .904 .926 .948 .970 -992 1. 014 1.036 1.058 1.080 •5 1. 102 1. 124 1.146 1. 168 1. 190 1. 213 1-235 i-'-257 T.279 1-301 .6 1-323 1-345 1.367 1-389 1. 411 I 433 1-455 1-477 1.499 1-521 •7 1-543 1-565 1-587 1.609 1. 631 1-653 1.676 1.698 1.720 1.742 .8 1.764 1.786 1.808 1.830 1.852 1.874 1.896 1.918 t.940 1.962 •9 1.984 2.006 2.028 2.050 2.072 2.094 2. 116 2.138 2. 161 2 183 POUNDS CONVERTED INTO KILOGRAMS Pounds. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.0 .000 005 .009 .014 .018 .023 027 .032 .036 .041 1 -045 .050 054 059 .064 .068 07^ 077 .082 .086 2 .091 -095 .100 104 .109 •"3 118 122 .127 132 3 -i3t> .141 -145 150 •154 -159 163 168 .172 .177 4 .181 .186 .191 195 .200 .204 209 213 .218 .222 5 .227 •231 -236 240 -245 .249 254 259 .263 .268 t .272 .277 .281 286 .290 -295 299 304 .308 •313 7 .318 .322 -327 331 -336 •340 345 349 •354 • 3S8 8 -363 -367 -371 376 • 381 .386 390 395 •399 .404 -9 .408 -413 .417 .422 .426 -431 435 .440 -445 ■449. INCHES REDUCED TO DECI3IALS OF A FOOT. (Trautvvine.) Ins. Foot. Ins. Foot. Ins. F 'oot. Ins. 6 Foot. .5000 Ins. Foot. sV .0026 -0833 2 1667 10 ■8333 IB .0052 i^ .0938 2^ 2083 6^ •5417 10}^, .8750 /^ .0104 ^^4 .1042 3 2500 7 .5833 11 .9167 k .0208 1% .1146 3H 2917 7^ .6250 "5^ •9583 f^ • 0313 1^3 • 1250 4 3333 8 .6667 12 1. 0000 ^ .0417 1^ -1354 4J^ 3750 8I/3 .7083 % .0521 i^ .1458 5 4167 9 .7500 % .0625 i'^ -1563 5^ 4583 9^ .7917 ^ .0729 OUNCES REDUCED TO DECIMALS OF A POUND. I oz. = .06 lb 2 " = •13 " 3 " = •^9 " 4 = • 25 .■> ' = •31 6 " = .38 " I \[ = •43 ' 8 " = .50 " 9 oz. = ■;6 1b. 10 " = 63 " II " — 6q " 12 " = ■I' u 13 " = .81 •' 14 " = 88 " IS " = 94 " 16 " = I " WEIGHTS AKD MEASURES. 313 COMPARISONS OF FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE (CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THERMOMETER SCALES. Fahren- heit. Centi- grade. Reaumur. Fahren- heit. Centi- ! grade. Reaumur. -|-2I2 +100 -1-80 +158 +70 +56 211 99.44 79-56 157 69.44 55.56 2IO 98.89 79. n 156 68.89 55." »P9 98.33 78.67 155 68.33 54.67 208 97.78 78.22 154 67-78 54.22 207 97.22 77.78 153 67.22 53 78 206 96.67 77-33 152 66.67 53-33 205 96.11 76.89 151 66.11 52.89 204 95-55 76.44 150 65.55 52.44 203 95 76 149 65 52 202 94.44 75-56 148 64.44 51-56 201 93 89 75-11 147 63-89 51." 200 93 33 74.67 146 63 33 50-67 199 92.78 74.22 145 62.78 50.22 198 92.22 73-78 144 62.22 49.78 197 91.67 73-33 143 61.67 49-33 196 91. II 72.89 142 61. II 48.89 195 90-55 72.44 141 60.55 48-44 194 90 72 140 60 48 193 89.44 71-56 139 59-44 47-56 192 88.89 71. II 138 58.89 47.11 igi 88.33 70.67 137 58.33 46.67 I go 87.78 70.22 136 5778 46.22 189 87.22 69.78 135 57.32 45.78 188 86.67 69 -33 134 56-67 45-33 187 86.11 68.89 133 56.11 44.89 186 85.55 68.44 132 55.55 44.44 185 85 68 131 55 44 184 84.44 67.56 130 54-44 43-56 183 83.89 67.11 129 53.89 43-" 182 83.33 66.67 128 53-33 42.67 181 82.78 66.22 127 52-78 42.22 1 80 82.22 65-78 126 52.22 41.78 179 81.67 65.33 125 51 67 41.33 178 81. II 64.89 124 51-11 40.89 177 80.55 64.44 123 50.55 40.44 176 80 64 122 50 40 175 79-44 63-56 121 49-44 39 56 174 78.89 63.11 120 48.89 39.11 173 78.33 62.67 119 48-33 38-67 172 77.78 62.22 118 47-78 38.22 171 77.22 61.78 117 47.22 37.78 170 76.67 61-33 116 46.67 37.33 169 76.11 60.89 "5 46.11 36.89 168 75-55 60.44 114 45-55 36-44 167 75 60 "3 45 36 ^ 166 74-44 59-56 112 44-44 35 56 165 73 89 59-11 III 43 89 35.11 164 72.33 58.67 110 43-33 34.67 163 72.78 58.22 109 42.78 34.22 162 71.23 57-78 108 42.22 33.78 161 71.67 57-33 107 41.67 33-33 x6o 71.11 56.89 106 4111 32.89 159 70-55 56.44 los 40.55 32.44 314 GENERAL TOPICS- COMPARISONS OF FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE (CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THERMOMETER SCAIjES.— Continued. 1 Fahren- heit. Centi- grade. Reaumur. Fah'-en- heit. Centi- grade. Reaumur. +104 +40 +32 +50 4-10 +8 103 39-44 31 -.56 49 9.44 7.56 102 38.89 31. II 48 8.89 7. II lOI 38-33 30.67 47 8.33 6.67 100 37.78 30.22 46 7.78 6.22 99 37.22 29.78 45 7.22 5-78 98 36.67 29-33 44 6.67 5-33 97 36.11 28.89 43 6. II 4.89 96 35-55 28.44 42 5.55 4-44 95 35 28 41 5 4 94 34-44 27.56 40 4-44 3.56 93 33-89 27.11 39 3.89 3-" 92 33-33 26.67 38 3-33 2.67 91 32.78 26.22 37 2.78 2.22 90 32.22 25.78 36 2.22 1.78 89 3167 25-33 35 1.67 1-33 88 3I-" 24.89 34 I. II 0.89 87 30-55 24.44 33 0.55 0.44 86 30 24 32 85 29.44 23.56 31 -0.55 -0.44 84 28.89 23.11 30 I. II 0.89 83 28.33 22.67 29 1.67 1-33 82 27.78 22.22 28 2.22 1.78 81 27 22 21.78 27 2.78 2.22 80 26.67 21-33 26 3-33 2.67 7§ 26.11 20.89 as 3-89 3-" •78 25-55 20.44 24 4.44 3-56 77 25 20 23 5 4 76 24.44 19.56 22 5.55 4.44 75 23.89 19. II 21 6. II 4.89 74 23.33 18.67 20 6.67 S-33 73 22.78 18.22 19 7.22 5.78 72 22.22 17.78 18 7.78 6.22 71 21.67 17-33 17 8.33 6.67 70 21. II 16.89 16 8.89 7. II 69 20-55 16.44 15 9.44 7.56 68 20 16 14 10 8 67 19.44 15-56 13 10.55 8.44 66 18.89 15. II 12 II. II 8.89 65 18.33 14.67 II 11.67 9-33 64 17.78 14.22 10 12.22 9.78 63 17.22 13.78 g 12.78 10 22 62 16.67 13.33 8 13-33 10.67 61 60 16.11 12.89 7 13.89 II. II 15 -55 12.44 6 14.44 11.56 59 15 12 5 15.00 12 58 14.44 11.56 4 15.55 12.44 57 13.89 II. 11 3 16. II 12.89 56 13-33 10.67 2 16.67 13-33 55 12.78 10.22 I 17.22 13-78 54 12 22 9.78 17.78 14.22 53 11.67 9-33 — I 18.33 14.67 52 II. 11 8.89 2 18.89 15 II 51 10.55 8.44 3 19.44 15 •56 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 315 COMPARISONS OF FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE (CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THER3I03IETER SCALES. — Continued. Fahren- heit. Centi- grade. Reaumur. Fahren- heit. Centi- grade. Reaumur. —4 —20 -16 -23 -30-55 -24.44 5 20.55 16.44 24 31. II 24.89 6 21. II 16.89 25 31 67 25-33 7 21.67 1733 26 32.22 25-78 8 22.22 17.78 27 32.78 26.22 9 22.78 18. 22 28 33-33 26.67 zo 23-33 18.67 29 33-89 27.11 II 23-89 19. II 30 34-n 27.56 12 24.44 19.56 31 35 28 J3 25 20 32 35-55 28.44 14 25-55 20.44 33 36.11 28.89 15 26.11 20.89 34 36.67 29 -33 16 26.67 21.33 35 37-22 29.78 17 27.22 21.78 36 37-78 30.22 18 27.78 22.22 37 38-3: 30.67 19 28.33 22.67 38 38.89 31. II 20 28.89 23.11 39 39-44 31-56 21 29.44 23.56 40 40 32.00 22 30 24 Formula for Converting Degrees Centigrade to Fahrenheit, and vice versa : «°C. = (^^ + 32)*F.; ,. F. = (!(!!lz-3i>\ c. \ 9 / For Degrees Re'aunnir, substitute 4 for the figure 5 in the preceding formulas. 316 GENERAL TOPICS. GOVEIINMENT LAND MEASURES. In the system of government survey, lines running north and south are drawn parallel to a fixed line (principal me- ridian) at a distance of six miles apart ; these are called range lines. At right angles with these, other parallel lines {town lilies) are drawn, which then run east and west. The two sets of lines form squares containing 36 square miles each, called townships. A certain number of townships form a county. Each square mile of a township is called a section, containing 640 acres, and these are numbered regu- larly I to 36, commencing at the northeast corner, as shown in the accompanying diagram. Section 16 in each township is set apart for school purposes. Sections are divided by lines running north and south, and east and west, into quarter sections, designated as the northeast quarter, northwest quarter, southwest quarter, and south-east quarter of the section. These quarters con- tain 160 acres of land each, and are again divided into quarters, each containing forty acres, which is the smallest sub-division recognized in government survey. Lands are usually sold in tracts of forty acres, or a multiple thereof, except in case of land bordering on lakes, which are frac- tional sections and may contain more or less than forty acres. These are called government lots. TOWNSHIP. SECTION. 6 7 5 8 4 9 3 2 I 10 II 12 18 17 16 15 14 13 19 20 21 22 23 24 30 29 28 27 26 25 36 31 32 33 34 35 N. W. Quarter. NWM of NEM NEix4 of NE14 SW14 of NE^ SE1.4 of NEM S. W. Quarter. S. E. Quarter. The description of a 40-acre lot would then, for example, read as follows : The northeast quarter of the northeast quarter of section i in township 24 north, range 7 west. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 317 TO MEASURE CORN ON THE COB IN CRIBS. (Waring.) When the Crib is Equilateral. Rule. — Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in inches, and that again by the height in inches, and divide the product by 2748 (the number of cubic inches in a heaped bushel), and the quotient will be the number of bushels of ears. Take two thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled corn. Example. — Required the number of bushels of shelled corn contained in a crib of ears, 15 ft. long by 5 ft. wide and 10 ft high. Solution: 180 in. (length) X 60 in. (width) X 120 in. (height) = 1,296,000 -f- 2748 = 471.6 heaped bushels, two thirds of which is 314.6 bushels, shelled. When the Crib is Flared at the Sides. Multiply half the sum of the top and bottom widths in inches by the perpendicular height in inches, and that again by the length in inches, and divide the product by 2748; the quotient will be the number of heaped bushels of ears. Take two thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled corn. 318 GENERx\L TOPICS. LEGAL. AVEIGHTS OF GRAIN, SEEDS, ETC, The table shows the number of pounds per bushel re- quired by law or custom, in the sale of articles specified, in the several States of the Union. States. Maine New Hampshire Vermont. Massachusetts Rhode Island. Connecticut . ... New York New Jersey Pen nsyl vania Delaware.. Maryland District of Columbia. Virginia West Virg-inia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansas Nebraska South Dakota North Dakota . ...... Montana Colorado Idaho Washington California Oregon Oklahoma 47 47 47 50 80 80 70 Ui U 50 50 52 32 ...:32 52! 32 52' 32 50, 32 50 j 32 32 30 30 57 26 32 32 32 30 32 57 1 32 57! 32 57 32 ••32 • • • 32 571 32 57 1 32 56 1 32 57 1 32 55 32 54 32 48 32 57 32 57 32 57 32 57 32 57 32 57 32 52 32 52 32 57 32 57 32 32 36 32 32 36 52 70 85 60 60 50 60 oq 45 60 45 64 45 60 45 64... 6o|... 60 60 60 60 6oj 45 60 45 60 42 60! 42 60 60 60 40 42 WECGHTS AND MEASURES. 310 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. (Trautwine.) Aluminum Anthracite, 1.3-1,84, usually " broken, of any size, loose (A ton, loose, averages from 40 to 43 cubic feet.) Ash, American white, dry " " " perfectly dry Asphaltum, 1-1.8 Boxwood, dry Brass (copper and zinc) cast, 7.8-8.4 Bronze (copper 8 parts, tin i part, gun metal), 8.4- 8.6 Cement, English Portland Charcoal, of pines and oaks Cherry, perfectly dry Chestnut, perfectly dry Coal, bituminous 1.2-1.5 broken, of any size, loose (A ton occupies from 43 to 48 cubic feet.) Copper, cast, 8.6-8,8 Cork ,... Coke, loose, of good coal {A ton occupies 80 to 97 cubic feet.) Elm, perfectly dry Fat Glass, 2.5-3.45 Gold, cast, pure Gravel, about the same as sand, which see. Hemlock, perfectly dry Hickory, perfectly dry Ice, .gi7-.922 India rubber Iron, cast, 6.9-7,4 ° Lard Lead, 11. 38-11. 47 Lime, quick " " ground loose, per struck bu. 62-72 lbs.. Limestone and marbles Mahogaiiy, Spanish, dry Maple, dry Mercury, at 6o<» F Oak, white, perfecly dry, .66-.88 19 13 6 5 61 752 4 96 672 66 35 56 93 258 •77 Average Weight of I cu. foot, in Pounds. 162. 93-5 52-56 38. 47- 83-3 60. 504- 529- 81-103 15 3& 42. 41. 84. 47-52 .■5f2. 15- ' 23-32 35- 58. ^304. 4 85 25- 53- 92 93 15 446. 95 38 5 59-3 709.6 95- 6 164.4 85 79 58 53- 49- 846. 48. 320 GENERAL TOPICS. n SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. Conit'm/et^. Oak, red, black, etc. '* live, .88-1.02. . . Oils, olive, whale... Peat Petroleum . Pinii, white, perfectly dry, .35-.45. " vellow^. Northern, .48 to .62. " " Southern, .64-.80. .. Platinum, 21-22. . Quartz common, pure, 2.64-2.67. Rosin Salt, coarse, per struck bu., Syracuse, N. Y., 56 lbs. Sand of pure quartz, dry and loose, per struck bu. 112-133 't)s Sand ot pure quartz, wet Silver Snow, fresh fallen " moistened and compacted by rain Soils, common loam, perfectly dry, loose Soils, common loam, perfectly dry, moderately rammed Soils, common loam, slightly moist, loose " " " as a soft, flowing mud Spruce, perfectly dry Sulphur. Steel, 7.7-7.9 Sycamore, perfectly dry Tar Tin, cast Walnut, perfectly dry Water, pure rain or distilled, at 32° F. (barometer 30 in-) Water, pure rain or i tilled, at 62° F. (barometer 30 in.) Water, pure rain or distilled water at 212° F. (barometer 30 in.) Water, sea, 1.026-1.030 Wax, bees' Zinc, 6.8-7.2. Average Specific Gravity. 10.5 •4 2.0 785 •59 i.o 7-35 .61 I.02g •97 7.0 Average Weight of I cu. foot, in Pounds. 32-45 59-3 57-3 20-30 54-8 25- 34-3 45 • 1342. i6s 68.6 45- 90-106 118-129 655. 5-12 15-20 72-80 go-ioo 70-76 104-112 25. 125. 490. 37- 62.4 459- 38. 62.417 62.3SS 59-7 64.08 60.5 437-5 Note.— Green timbers usually weigh from one fifth to nearly one hali more than dry and ordinary building timbers when tolerably seasoned; about one sijcth more than perfectly dry. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 321 o XI .2 o as CS a 'c" a o 09 c ho •a ^ 2 en t/i , Lo C W " J. . O IS rt -*'S c h » 2 o ~. 1 ^ £ ■^S* IT) ti "S c c o u > c o-c'Sr cod > (N C -N. O rj -- 5^ 0! o s; °-a u c ^'"^ ^ C go - ^ °°. ° o ^ M in " .S d 0-53 , tn "< M « > ^- o - . O " 1) M lO IT) «J 1 ^ I I I I S 2 , 1) ^ O -n O o u P* R> ^s. ■^ T "o rt a u n u") " en -t; 'H ^- t^ ii ^ '^ 2 c o o 5i^ '^ o C o «i c S'c o c-n c "^ 5J G U II U ^ o X i" "5 aj »> r c — w IJ D .£ 1! 3 o II I, V := — o o II 11 G a iis.si x; — ';:; ^ ^^ o oi o ° G Q -" o - — - 1) o (u [fl f in O ^ t- 'S aj o ■:: -js .¥ 11 E II ^^"'^G-.S ~ 4-« G E ri. " 1) > rt '^ tn ? 1-1 4; 0!i^ ojPQ to r^ *-• 4; Oli, -a ni — x'qoS "57^75 ort~ o 00 o o O (A . 3 ■ Yen (= loo sens) \ Dollar (peso) (= loo centa- vos) Sol (= loo centesimos) >• Ruble (= loo kopecks) \ Mahbub (= 20 piasters) about $-49i3 •49,3 •79,3 .81,1 •49«3 •49.3 •23,4 •99i7 .53,0 •53v5 •49,3 •77,2 39.5 •44,5 STATISTICAL TABLES. 323 IV. ST/VTISTICAL TABLES. AREA AND POPULATION OF THK UNITED STATES, 1890. (Eleventh Census.) States. Area in Sq. Miles. Popula- tion. States. Area in Sq. Miles. Popula- tion. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Disl. of Colum. Florida 52,250 113,020 53,850 158,360 103,925 4,990 2,050 70 58,680 59,475 84,800 56,650 36,350 31,400 -j 56,025 82,080 40,400 48.720 33,040 12,210 8,315 58,9»5 83,365 46,810 69,415 146,080 1,513,017 59,620 1,128, t7g 1,208,130 412,198 746,258 168,493 230,392 391,422 1,837,353 84,385 3,826,351 2,192,404 182.984 58,385* 1,911,896 1,427,096 1,858,635 1,118.587 661,086 1,042,390 2,238,943 2,093,889 1,301,826 1,289,600 2,679,184 132,159 Nebraska Nevada N'wHampshire New -Jersey.. New Mexico. . New York N. Carolina... . N. Dakota Ohio 77,510 110,700 9,305 7,815 122,580 49,170 52,250 70,795 41,060 39,030 96,030 45,215 1,250 30,570 77,650 42,050 265,780 84,970 9,565 42,450 69,180 24,780 56,040 97,890 1,058,910 45,761 376.350 1,444,933 153,593 5,997,853 1,617,947 182,719 3,67^,316 61,834 313,767 5,258,014 345,506 1,151,149 328,808 1,767,518 2,235,523 207,905 332,422 1,655,980 349,390 762,794 1,686,880 60,705 Georgia Idaho Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania.. Rhode Island.. S. Carolina S. Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Illinois Indiana Indian Ter Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts. Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Vermont Virginia Washington. . . W. Virginia. . . Wisconsin Wyoming Total 3,602,990 62,682,250 * Indians on reservations in various states and territories. AREA AND POPULATION OF CANADA, 1891. Provinces and Districts. Area in Sq. Miles. Popula- tion. Provinces and Districts. Area in Sq. Miles. Popula- tion. Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia NewBrunsvvick Manitoba 21,950 227,^00 20,550 28,100 64,066 2,1 14.321 1,488,535 450,396 321,263 152,506 Brit. Columbia. Pr. Ed. Island. The Territories Total....... 382,300 2,000 2.371,481 98,173 109,078 98,967 3,415,647 4,833,239 324 GEKEKAL TOPICS. ^ Jn 3 S £ CQ H d Oh 8 I i^ -f O On^ w IT) « O w N VO VO « O O H 60 o t^ o. o -*^ a; 00 CI roX) o oo ui ■* moo m w -"j-oo ooo> ^■♦inTfN O r~ fO t^ ro O >i -* •<^ o o\ o ro ■* M 00 00 o> <0 O O t^ ■♦OO rooo O^^O lO w 00 f) onvo o\m NO\iomro-0 -o Tj- CO ro ■ D t^vo VO O "1 vO N O •<»■ t^ N VO t^ fJ « \0 CO f^ ■♦ tx OiOi uj *J i; 1> rt 4L CO U ' 3 l; i ^, "2 3 O ^ W a c fH o o _ U (U-C D O j3 g a o a.22 O U O jfl D_rt (7) §■(/) Oh _rt CLh cJ75 c ca. c 4) 0) 1) D W 0) UTD 3 S'O i; ou: o o'l;^ ° . 5o-2 Jj efl ^ K o t« *jU ° o " • r 1 "! y • Cu ^■o 3 •■^ o STATISTICAL TABLES. 325 H m •IB50JL a < lu iri M CO -^-VO 00 IT) rooo M lo ■+ M OS IT) -^ mvo lOOO ?< t-^ M OVO ON O^OO w IT) H Q fT) ro CO M -^ ro ro D N « « M N m N m OS f> t^ ro M O N M so O w ■i- ro ro N -"l- •* O IT) OS -^00 (~. 0> ro M 00 00 ro ■*• M N 11 ro ro ro w -^ -^ ro c-i N iH N ro T^ ro Th (N IT) ro ro ro ro C4 ■*• ro ^o"^ •n-5-^ 5 t^ c = <: fe"^ - > -a 3 — 1« (« 3 « 2i en is ti C rS 5 •^ ^ i" _o ^^ « b« a ..2§ c w'Sc 1) Ui :c«i 2> ►> ^ u _ •- ^ C > ^ ^ Q^ '71 • - ? — 1- g- tn n ' D i> 3 y t-U ,. rs *-• a *-» c/) _c J^ a. _rt &, cc/3 c ca- C >- ., 1- i- >- 5J l" aj 1; • r ) "! y • 0, D-I2 -^ O 6 so 00 w N rt so 0) OS 1-1 t^ M M 00 ro M M U-) r-- so 00 M ■<)• OS so t^ ■ so OS •<^ • so •^ '^ 00 t>. o- t^ ■<1- ro ■* N ^ ro ■<1- IN 0 (N 326 GENEliAL TOPICS. METEOROLOGICAL. DATA FOR CANADA. Province or City. Ontario Quebec t New Brunswick Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island Manitoba British Columbia Toronto Montreal St. John, N. B Halifax, N, S Normal Mean Temperature of the Air. Monthly Temperature. Lowest. 19.3° F. 13-5 16. 1 14.7 0.6 22.8 22.9 16.8 18.4 22.9 Highest. 69.8° F. 70.2 62.8 63.3 64 -3 65 9 72.2 67.4 72.2 59-7 63-5 Mean for the Year. 43-8° F. 42.6 39-9 41.7 40.5 •^2.6 44, 44, 40, 43 Normal rainfall in inches per year : Toronto 29.42, Windsor 23.78, Peterborough 20.55, Montreal 27.26, Quebec 19.26, St. John 33.27, Halifax 43.08, Glace Bay 55.49, Sydney 49.42, Winnipeg 16.83, Spence's Bridge 3.88. COMPARISON OF LEADING INDUSTRIES IN THE UNITED STATES. (U. S. Census of 1890, in Round Numbers.) Agriculture ;. . Forest products, total.. Forest industries, enu- merated Forest products, not enu- merated (estimated) . . . Manufactures using wood Mineral products, total Coal Gold and silver Iron and steel Manufactures of iron and steel Leather Leather manufactures Woolen " Cotton " r: o ■5-c u Millions. 15,982 562 543 343 486 414 86 102 118 297 354 (U >. a a CO be Sen- Thousands. Millions. Millions. 8,286 348 102 245 513 294 442 300 109 57 176 40 96 327 60 48 186 32 25 88 79 136 153 219 77 203 222 70 155 Millions. 2,460 1,044 446 598 907 610 160 99 479 STATISTICAL TABLES. 327 FARMING POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1870, 1880, and 1890. Ninth Tenth Eleventh Census. Census. Census. Total population 38,558,371 50,152,866 62,622,250 Total engaged in agriculture 5,992,471 7,670,493 9,013,201* Total in professional and personal services 2,684,793 4,074,238 5,304.829 Tota4 in manufactures and mining. 2,707,421 3,837,112 5,091,669+ Total in trade and transportation... 1,191,238 1,810,256 3,325,962 Engaged in all classes of occupa- tions 12,375,923 17,392,099 22,735.661 Engaged in agriculture, per cent. 48.4 44.1 39.6 NUMBER OF FARMS IN UNITED STATES AND THEIR VALUE. (Eleventh Census.) States. No. of Farms. Alabama 157,772 Arizona 1,426 Arkansas 124,760 California 52,894 Colorado, . . . 16,389 Connecticut . 26,350 Delaware 9,381 Dist. of Col.. 382 Florida 34,228 Georgia 171,071 Idaho 6,603 Illinois 240,681 Indiana 198,167 Iowa. . 201,903 Kansas 166,617 Kentucky 179,264 Louisiana 69,294 Maine 62,013 Maryland . 40.798 Massachus'ts 34,374 Michigan 172,344 Minnesota. . . 116,851 Mississippi.. . 144,318 Missouri .. . 238,043 Montana 5,603 Nebraska 113,608 Value. (1x1,051,390 7,222,230 "8,574,422 697,116,630 85,035,180 95,000,595 39,586,080 6,471,120 72,745,1 152,006,230 17,431,580 1,262,870,587 754,789,110 857.581,022 559,726,046 346,339,360 85,381,270 98,567,730 175,058,550 127,538,284 556,190,670 340,059,470 127.423,157 625,858,361 25,512,340 402,358,913 States, No. of Farms. Nevada N.Hampshire New Jersey. New Mexico New York... N. Carolina. N. Dakota.. Ohio Oklahoma . . Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island S. Carolina S. Dakota.. Tennessee.. Texas Utah Vermont. ... Virginia.. .. Washington VV. Virginia. Wisconsin.., Wyoming... Total. Value. 1,000 29 151 30,828 4,458 226,223 178,359 27,611 251,430 8,826 25,530 211,557 5,500 115,008 50,158 174,412 228,126 10,517 32,573 127,600 18,056 72,773 146,409 3,125 4,564,641 *i2,339,4io 66,162,600 159,262,840 8,140,800 968.127,286 183,977,010 75,310,305 1,046,738,247 8,581,170 115,819,200 922,240,233 21,873,479 99,104,600 107,466,335 242,700,540 399,971,289 28,402,780 80,427,490 254,490,600 83,461,660 151,880,300 477,524,507 14,460,880 $13,279,252,649 * Agriculture, fisheries, and mining. + Manufacturing and mechanical industries. 328 GENERAL TOPICS. oomo ooiA ^o^»o^ t^ N On . «2 C r-.roM r^a\ ono t^^ m «i c> •^ 00N-* CnO\ 0\'-'CX)»OC r^ ro "* cT lA " 5* ^Q N ■>!- -^ OO ■<»• f) VD r^OO ^ u-i N M 3\ . t^ 0\ N OO 000 OOJVO Ot^O 0> South Central Division t^ N 00^ •- t^ t^ O -"T MvO N O ONOO vo^oooroo >-' lo O Tj- CN^ f) r^ f^,^ t^ro-"^ -"i-w-^ vOmm u-)\0 ■" M -^^O HO r^ ■* moo t^oo vo oo oo NOM rnPI wvorOM rovo OO -^00 52 o 00 0> M t~.00 -^t^OD ^-^0 N -^ M 00 0> . m-r.^. OONOON t^-. . o-*"-!'-;'-f ovnt^N voa>o\ O' w ■* fO cT t* "^ ■* ro O^ "^ M ro CJ M ON m ■>«■ m\0 m 1^ t^ rri^O ro VO N N 0\>0 M t^vo >- OO ro t^ N t-» North Atlantic Division m 1/1 f< O "^^ ro U-) D t^ m M oo' r^oo LO'^oiwoovo' ■^■*io-*fO tCpTcf vo t>. ro (.^ ON ro ^ Q^^ to N i-t M lo cT N ^ 6^00 '-' o^ mOniO On-* MMU-i.* lOvO CO ON ■* -4-Mm ooio OM00O^O^■>^-c^u^l/^ NO NO t^ vo •* in lo -^No m in i^vo m 1) D ■♦00 NO t^ f^ OO in flOO I-. 00 Tj. M ON ■<^ VO " M .^00 ,fS On m N O 00 rONO in ■* in N^NO T (N^ M T . . f^ ■"„ 0. "., '^°° 'c 2 ■^ rn rC t^ cT o' "^^ '^ J;; m' m" cT rn t^cT) M in '"oo NO '-' <^ NO m On •* "^ in cT M • • ■ • J2 • ' : :'o : . . ."o JS2 ■ -ji ^ .T!^ ■ b JJ* ■*- • n j3 -c »< (J- "• -a ca u 3 ■ WT2 ■- • C ^ -a « 4J rt :«•••• icres per ce: stock, produ inves ;ts per res. . quipm acre; " over, er •a s a r of farms, 1890. . rea of farms, acres ed land in farms, ; alue of farms and ted value of farm arnings on capital ue of farm produc I 14 44 44 e size of farms, ac ue per farm with e r of farms under 5 50, under 10 100, '' 501 500, " lOOi 1000 acres, and cultivated by own rented for money '• " share .Q_ g- — B "= > ^ ^-^ a 3oa C[«i->->>3 nJ ^b ,_ Hb. 0<' «^ h z< 1; Q ^ :z; o '^ ►iS SCO -^^q Z .Si t? >:^.S ?■. = ^ - r »- c -a < c c ^ U r iS ^^?o Di -S x" , Mas entra La., "rt ^■"^ - > "^ .2 H r-^S -f- PC 1^ ' ^ «•< Me. nn., rt « : H _. •S - r n» ^"-^ ^-^ . \< T •ii C/5 . « ■^ _ r R- T) Aila N. C ash., 4J > %^^-S2 '. ' a >■ tt td rt ,'5, 4) fi H > ^ 2; * ^0 c4 Qi4:D STATISTICAL TABLES. 329 AVERAGE AGRICULTURAL WAGES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1893-1895, INCLUSIVE. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Years. Per Month for Sea- son or Year. Per Day in Harvest. Per Day other than Harvest. With Board. Without Board. With Board. Without Board. With Board. Without Board. 1893 1894 1895 $13.29 12.16 12.02 $19.10 17-74 17.69 $1.03 •93 .92 S1.24 I-I3 1. 14 $.69 .63 .62 $.89 .81 .81 VALUE OF PRINCIPAL FARM PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Products. 1859. 1879. 1889. Total Value. Per Cent. Total Value. Per Cent. Total Value. Per Cent. Meats Corn Hay Dairy products. Wheat Cotton Poultry Other products* $300,000,000 360,680,878 152,671,168 240,400,580 124,635,545 211,516,625 75,000,000 206,639,527 17.9 21.6 9.1 14.4 7-5 12.6 4-5 12.4 $800,000,000 694,818.304 409,505,783 391,131,618 436,968,463 271,636,121 180,000,000 440,438,353 22.1 19.2 "•3 10.8 12 7-5 5 12. 1 $900,000,000 597,018,829 526,632,062 411,976,522 342,491,707 307,008,114 200,000,000 472,492,249 23.9 159 14.0 II. 9.1 8.2 5-3 12.6 Grand total. . 1,671,544,323 100 3,624,498,642 100 3,758,5^9,483 100 * Other products include barley, buckwheat, fiax fiber, flaxseed, hemp, hops, Irish potatoes, leaf tobacco, maple sirup, maple sugar, oats, rice, rye, sorghum-molasses, sweet potatoes, and wool. 330 GENERAL TOPICS. ■t N 00 -^^O t^ Tfvo M ►« fOOO IN N « PI xrico vO 00 N OVO CX3 r< io« w Oi-vO m-'l-N t^N w ■^ t^OO -^ (-f inoo 0\ N ro^mt>.0 mo 0-. M cooo t^ M -<^ w ^ O O " csvocovooo mN O'O O 'O m oo "^ C> ■* ?) i)-kO I- I-'^.VO NNint^OMOtv t^o o in »-( IT) M t^-O CO iri'^rO'-'vOvO ■>*-N roO m in m n U-) M in u-i m^o N 00 t^o m ■«*• N ■0 ts. w (T) m tN T^ in in t^o vo t^^o ^o ■^m'^t^N mr^ rooo oo N M ■oo n oo ro t>. roNwi-i o-*omc- • • o o-^mt^mmt^ • (N \0 M vo m J3 3 ri-,00 in . 1- ^ o^ moo moo t^ w •* 00 -^oo . . -^ m\o o O -^ m . t^ m m oo «o iH • . cnrnTj-ooo mt^m moo '«■ 03 t^ W H fvVO ■* M « M m ■* N . • •«^ On tn M 03 mvo o HI 000 O U) vo ooo • • t^ro"O0^ w o m • t^vo ■>»■ o u m -4- m • • mi-i m^oo iniHvo • t^ M vo c< in o "«■ (N vo . moo N N 00 ooo Tf (>■*•♦ m T . m o> m o-oo « . Tj- m vo m . ■* IH P) -^XO NO N IH CO M M u •^ " •* moo -^ >- I- moo c» ►-' m t^oo o 'J- moo O m>o N m r> 00 ov m - 00 -J-oo vo 00 vo m I/) XI m ►- o vo p) N M Tj- -a-VC •«■ OV IH PI vo o\ m t-^ -^oo rr m N M M t^OO PI VD VO t^ I*- m ov CO m o t^ t^oo r>.vo t^ t^ m m " 00 Pi t-^ w m N mvo m M IH moo on m Ov m 3 IH N M M 00 o^ m -^vo pivo ptvo Tj-ovrnpi Er-o m M -^ M m m Tt- ■<»■ M m PI O m (H N -^ moo f^OO vo 00 \0 IH vo mvo r>. ov Tf M vo 00 PI «o - m p» t^ M m •" 00 00 p~. m t^mmt^r^t*vmo> m O V N 00 N N vo r^oo oo 00 OooOf'^OvPlO^^ m, m u < 1-vo t^ P) O^vo vo o^oo mvo moo -a- PI o> t^ t^ h> PI H « ■<*■ ■* ■<»■ O t^ O >H m ■* m ooo r^ -^oo ■^ m PI N p) vo tN.inpi mt^t^N PI m M M p) m, PI M N IH •>i- p» -= ♦^ "O : • Q. • l' 5 T :a . ^i3 S^ •"■ w -^ C/5 — l_ .2 >,'5 i) T3 ■2 -^.2 rt .5X3 W STATISTICAL TABLES. 331 OOOOOmNuiOO^ ■*00 ON\0 •0 O" O TTlomcO 00 m N ^O m o^ o> o « ►- O O O t^ ■<»■ ON i-T ro tC w" 00 Ci 00 NO ■<^oo t-~u-)r~-r^.oo c* Os"~;0 mi-oooo T}-wir)0r-• u\ yt >-> ioonO''-' 000 0"On"NOno t^in 00 O iriONMN MOO moo 00 NO ■«^00 O fOOO O 00 ■*NO t^ O- P) O 00 no MOONt^OO'-'i-'O t^NO NO OOO ►- N ONlO'^mN N OniOCI OniO r~. tv. w iroo ■*t^o)'-t~~ONmoot^p'>-P)wNO iono oo On t^ f>NO '''. ir,ooco c> o' ro NO 0> On Oi-ooooN-^i-iec-cooio r~nu-iO d N QNO i^NO ■* On t^ N O O tvN -"J-ONroM lOinm'^t^N ■^0 O roo o^ t^NO " no iono no no ►■ i-i r^ M t^ N OnOO 00 -^NO NO lOM M t^N QNO NOO >OT»-ir)rOTl-N r>~i O NO N ro On (^00 -^ N N£) in P) -^ in vono itjno NONCNOPfi-'^tt- loNO M cT'^t-irjN io>-'o>-NO r)oo'tCrt-t-^c?c>orcf> i/^oo ■4- M ^ rC mOi^pjinOf^'OiriO'^t^roroD'^ "Mi-cO nono Onoo P) NO -TOO ■* -^ pt (^ moo r^mONP)-*-ON ii « -^loop) P) f~ U-) TfND NOPir-.C'^O^NNONMt^C ro pT On fo o' lONo" '^Nc pJ^ pT o lA, P-, oo' N 00 o" fO pT M mvo rroo O ri ro On m O t^ moo pi m fiNO On ro MOO M NO ON r^NO ■'I- '-' O On lO O t^NC ^NO NO t^ M M PJ PI PI 11 On rooo PI M mNO O PI ■* P-. M n m.oo M O r^OO NO -i- ro >- mP) ONCOTj-roONi-i o> t-t li^ ro m fONO o 00 ON t^oo O M mNO f) M pT MNo" m" M"o0 00 rC m' 56 be fli J*^ O.* J^ •— ---—■—.—. > .— .-- -J ^ o C '^ rN -!_) - ij "J ^ ^ » ^ v^ :^ o 332 GENERAL TOPICS. ffi C O m a>oo 00 M- I ■*0 '-' (Nvo inoi^wos-* irivo f> r-sO mo-^o t^ocjoovo •*rONro ooo oo O O O O O t^^o rOLOO t^-^roO -^O O" m t^o ni O-^-^i^cTcToo'rn tCo M^ m' hT Tp o o' ro t^vtTvo rororoO wvo -^O ONvO ro^ O^OOOOUD f) t^t^ I- H M ro O ■* l^vo MrnroO'^-^rO •'f rooo W ^ Oroio-^MrnM^-^ro cTro'-' Mt-T m iDoo -"l-Thpi lONOo M o lO■«^0 r--mONN "-oo o O oroioN mt^-^-iJ-mO N ovo <-^ ro "TO O m o\ N rommmo w O ovo M io->*--<)-N>ooo N r<-!mo t^vc 00 OO •* VO t^ t^ f^ "1 u T m t^ n o X! oo 'JD O M 00 m -1 -4- s -^ H vo PQ t^ lOOO O w O rovo rooo ^ m^ 00 ro cT lOOO ph" - - . .2 o 2 rt u 5>< 9 00 -o c ~ <^ ^ ^ - C
  • 0 u%00 ■*» U1 rr\\o 00 fO U-) o •♦00 fs t^ ro t^ t^ m M inoo CO «o w r^N Mvovo N rON^oooooo lOO t^ ""lOO 00 ro to p- VO C^ f^\0 - ■CN-:f'-Ot-0 OVO O^ o ^ •-* 00 irimo->l-o iriM t^-^M MOO M ■♦oo o lovo N lO u-jvc iri O VO O t^ lO c<1»0 t^CTf^r^OVO t^-oo lOiOM N 0« Tj- Tl- -q-vo M t^ o W HiMNlfCI-^MM M w N •^\0 tnoO OO rr,\o WMOMt^NOt^t^ MOO M M T^^o lO '♦vo oo'OON^rnOioOrorooON m (N 00 vn o t^^ o^l/^o^^^0 t^c^ n mo ■♦m 00 "^00 o N o ro I O t-^ ro m tv ■0 ^ ■* N ro M M 00 M •<*- if t--vo t^ "O ^ (^ ■♦OO VCOOOOONOO t-. ■♦ U-) o p) rOOO « O t^ O ■♦ rf;0O t^-!j-f-.lO-^p» «>0 w WO « mvo MO'+'O'-OOONNMmi-.-"!- ♦OO 00 ro M 00 o ♦ ro t^co t^vo moo <-< •oO'l-r^noo m>- OO--* r<~.oo P< ♦OO ♦ OO '-' ■♦♦(^O ♦VO VO O fO OCO t"^ O lO M VO M -♦N OmOOF^CS or^ r^OO OO-tJW^- GN^ ♦- HI 00 P) N cti ro mvo fooroi-iot^t».*m ro w pT M hT M N HI M P) CI HI o PI r^ O ♦OO t^vO M O p) O ■♦ >A O 0>0 NOO^OPJPJHiOOOrOMO t^ O ♦ ♦ O C0\O P) ♦ m\0 OhiVOVO '♦u-)m^-(N OPIOO Ot^t^ - PI ■♦ O t-^ N ir> t^oo for^w rOM ^■♦tvt-.t^^M ■♦00 h in m o in N \o VO HI ro'O t~ m Cl PI M M w OO HI ■♦ in o m ■♦00 pi moo oo vo >o t-^OO ■♦>0 O 00 OO MD 00 ^ ■♦ t^OO Pi OVO rn>- o-^pioo roroovo P< m 00 ■♦mpi pioo t^-^ ♦OO ro m o P) 00 PI m o m"0 r<-.oo m mo^m^- 00 c< M rnoo •♦^o p) ro moo m pj 00 PI o moo p) VO VO O pj o pi 00 m vD p> moo VO omo ooo ■♦t^p^ (N^ o S^ p^d^->fro t^ocTcTm p< VO HI t^oo m M ■♦ ro o m rr •♦ MP) O N mvo O VO O P) f» o mvo VO CO o p^oo PI pioOhi mwvoo^^Hl .3 (/) — ■ ^ C cS c rt rt rt C >' g C ° 4J O > S -G g J3 (fi uf,; — > .„ a3 > ^ — u >^u . a > a < < Cents 25-3 26.2 50.9 ^3-7 19.9 29.6 44 14.4 33-7 26.4 45-2 20.1 26.6 93-8 ^ 7-2 775-4 S8,35 1.07 27-35 .40 35 >u . a < 6.64 6.99 5 87 6.33 8.88 9.09 26.73 ^6. 10 "8 89 10.94 THE PRINCIPAL CEREAL PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES. As Shown by the Census Returns, ft'oni 1850 to 1890. Cen- sus of Indian Corn. Wheat. Oats. Barley. Rye. Buck- wheat. 1850 i860 1870 1880 1890 Bushels. 592,071,104 838,792,742 760,944,549 1,754,861,525 2,112,327,547 Bushels. 100,485,944 173,104,924 287,745,626 459.479,505 468,373,968 Bushels. 146,584,179 172,643,185 282,107,157 407,858,999 809,250,666 Bushels. 5,167.015 15,825.898 29,761,305 44,113)495 78,332)976 Bushels. 14,188,813 21,101.380 16,918.795 19,831,595 28,421,398 Bushels. 8,956,912 17,571,818 9,821,721 11,817,327 12,110,349 I PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS CROPS IN CANADA, 1891. (Census of 1891.) Turnips and other roots 49,555,902 bu. Grass and clover 340,650 '* Fruits, grapes, etc 68,864,181 lbs. Tobacco 4,277,936 " Hops 1,126,230 " Flaxseed 137,015 bu. Wheat ... 42,144,779 bu Barley 17,148,198 Oats. 82,515,413 Rye 1,328,322 Peas and beans 15,514.836 Buckwheat 4,886,122 Corn (maize) 10,675,886 Potatoes 52,653,704 Area of improved land in Canada, 1891 28,537,242 acres. " " " " under crop 19,904,826 " " " gardens and orchards 464,462 " " "pastures 15,284,788 " * Crop of 1894. STATISTICAL TABLES. 335 AVERAGE COST PEU ACRE OF RAISING WHEAT AND CORN IN THE UNITED STATES, 1893.* (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Wheat. Corn. Rent of land I2.81 $3.03 Manure 2.16 1.86 Preparing ground 1.87 1.62 Seed 96 .... Sowing or planting 37 .42 Cultivating 1.80 Harvesting or gathering 1.19 1.22 Thrashing 1.20 Housing 37 .50 Marketing 76 1.26 Total $11.69 $11.71 AVERAGE FARM PRICE OF VARIOUS AGRICUL- TURAL PRODUCTS ON DEC. 1 IN EACH YEAR FROM 1886 TO 1895. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Crop. 1886 s 1887. s 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. s .895. $ % 3p 55 s s .$ Corn per bushel. . . . -^66 444 0.341 0.283 0. c;o6 0.406 0.393 0.365 0.457 0.253 Wheat " 0.687 0.681 0.926 698 8-,8 0.839 0.624 0.538 0.491 0.509 Rye " ... . 0-531 0.544 0.591 0.457 o.r'20 0.774 0.548 0.513 0.501 0.440 Oats " o.2q8 304 0.278 0.230 424 o-3'5 0-317 0.294 0.324 D.T99 Barley " OS 30 0.522 0.596 427 0.648 0.540 0.472 0.4II 0.442 0-337 Buckwheat per bush. O.S44 0.561 0.636 0.518 577 0.579 0.534 o.5«3 0.556 0.452 Irish potatoes " 0.450 0.685 0.404 0.403 0.777 0.371 0.673 590 O..S.36 0.266 Hay per ton. ...... 7.36 9-34 7.88 7.71 «.3q 8.49 8.68 8.54 »..35 Cotton per lb. 0.081 0.085 0.085 0.083 0.086 0.073 0.084 0.070 0.046 0.076 Leaf tobacco per lb. . 0.069 0.103 0.071 0.077 0.084 0.081 0.068 0.069 * Consolidated from returns from nearly 30,000 leading farmers scattered throughout the United States. 336 be 0 lorom-J-fON N ro <:o- y. <5- ■^ lO t^ •* tv -^ N I vo i^ rove cj c^ CO c^ oovooo O -^miAroroNOO mt^u-, -r u~,oO o vo >- o cr jv -.^ ov u' rooo 0\ romNNTi-cioc-iN lo ro N Lo I -1- t^ t^ M o^ ro 1-1 0) fO oo two Tj-ioro-T'!**r^'^0^0 lO-^OO rovo M forow lOcoio-Tt- t^ Tf ■- N r^:VO N f--vo -t t^ invO XI t- 01 Ov O t^ Ov t^ t^vo o ro -1-vO t^ t^ ro tJ-oo « ro ro t~» Qvo -1-uot^N p) ror^-— Tj-vo o ro t^ ro ■^00 N t^c MMOM w'^NCT' H-ooiiroi-irow u 4; roco o mo r- in r^ • t^oo O vo >- 'i-vo in -r in On t^ • vooo mww Noo 0\ roi-oo ! -^ t^vo >n roco 6 in>0 00 tC rri ro w ro M onvo pi in M t-i MM C^M -^GvO int^c^ rooo invo o m Ov CJ t^ mmw ^o int^-ri-vo t^co ro o o^ o in i>. f'; Ov ■* O l^vo t-^intv,-vi -S-a--1-OvM o N Ov in ^ ^ t^ t^vo If vo -s-in^roininmin^ro N ON o- N a- ro in r^vo ^ tr)^::, m -r m n vo t^ Ooo osO « M -*'-<-- r-o^Oi-oovo rot^ tl mmov- OO Tj-ir, ovO^O in>- m rot^ XI vo inM ino roM-CJ t^o -i-vir, -r -^ Ov inoo w E 1-1 m Ov^ M ■* ino3 O N ro Ti- ^a-vo ro P) oo ^ (U ;x! en a dD- O ^ u c - ■ — i' 5 3 rt >>'= :" « i. ,/. ^ OJ T3 ^ o 'r — " " o o 4^— w^- '•'' 'Cn . a U.5 cTj g-s .2 CTJ 's«; JD CO STATISTICAL TABLES. 337 inor^Tj-N Oh (f> ^ Tj-r-swvo t^M N ^" N r^ou~. u-iTfinrxr<-it^ lO 00 >n m rr-. o lO -"too (^i-«Nh\OCJ>00N'-'O\(N i^vD r<-. OINHM>-Ot^ M row ro->j-rf, -^m-* irjvo yj lo fO »o lo lo lo^o t^ m in t^vo o >o ■* ro ■* ■* O c^o onm "^o -^n t^t^r^M t^\o '^a^t^'^Of^m'- Oco mm^- m C3^ Dn (N -^ *rrcr. r< 'y\ t^co m i-< co N ^ -a-oo m-ooONM o. - mooo m in c^ M p-t t^ uvvO ^o t^c^»no^m":^"^^*o onooo -^ t^o vo »n to -^vo -^oo t^ VO oou-)roO"~,oo\oo-*NP»o-0 -■ t~.o^c^ t^o N CO rnvo - t-^co 'O M lo O ^0 m^ r^co \o t-i ir, m c) c<^cs iom t^mmo'O TT 00 O m 0^ covij ■<*■ tsVO ro C3^ mOO m^ONMi-i NOm 03 ^ ro«i- mw ►-N Tl-roi-iH O •* ON lo O\oo "*■ t^ M M -« ■* -"l-oo M t> looo lo "-1 O vnoo M lA -^vo lo in ro W (N -^ t^OO 0\ 0\ cr> ri- as o-\ -^ as'^D M OS o\ inoo t^ M in t~ N t^ rooo VO O €©• ro ■- ^Q»W ^ -''■•£> rf, o- a\ O •" t^OO t^OO Pi rr, OS so i- t^N^O OVO - rn c>oo vo co -j- ■- o (5 ci pj •^vo 00 rnw loinopi o-t^ rnvo t^ m 0\ P) m^ Om mTtO'*- m rovo P) M o " •* moo t^ ■*■ t^so t^-^mt^p) M mmo mrrr^t^omo t^vo o 00 ON Pi lO VO m pji-i mi-.MM«i-Nw 00 ro P« 00 NO t-l M M ro in in On pi ro On cn PI -3-00 m looo m lO u") ro o 00 in -t-oo vo 0\\ososo CO oo' o ro -f NO NO NO ts ON in ro m' -o rONiT c? d> in i' oo oo in M onQoo o^ONrot^ON roco NOVO ONininmoi on roNO in O^oo oo oo in m PI mvo ro C^ ■^vo no cono t-~ O ro pi >-i t^ on t-^NO ro pi ro ro t-^oo m ■* O OnOO in ro ■- w O roNO ■* in ro ro -^so no p« t-^ ro>0 NO O « -^oo t^in-")--' t^o -i -^oi o ■* ro T^ ro PI 00 moo pi-^MH.i-imo>-ipiNOoopi NO oo oopiooo int^- t^O M t-l M t-t Pi ^ Pi t-^ m 1- ON On t>.NO On t^NO t^OO'-Pi'l-mpimin (Ni-.mP1m^.i-iih-hih«m>.mmm>.m«ih in O ON t^ M 00 00 ro Tj-oo m m ro mvo Pi w NO M t^ -^ Pi •<»-co PI -.r^ m m H M M moo H Pi Pi Ti- m •* t^ Pi N Pi Pi M m -^ Pi PI PI W Pi M " t^-*mromm-<»-o rnoo ro O piPiN«WPiNPIMP)C1Pll.ipii-i Pi Pi Onno t^O Onpi t^rO'^rr-. pi inQ o-O) c^-^mno Pi mropi ^-no -^ i- p»nooo 00 ropi ONPiOOONCi o -*0 ►"NO o o-o-i-- t-~oo ro t>.oo M t^ On rooo ro tj-oo 00 o-oo NO ONO inm'^Tf-ONmm roco ►- oo mo ro on roNO pi "- O ro t-»NO oo so ro in d m ro c5^oo t^co pi (3 Pi' ro Pi •* pTvo pTod o>oo m t-^oo oo tC ro moo vo 00 G"N ro t^ O mNO rO'-oOOPm'*i-it^MHmi-ipii-iiHropi >-< t^ Pi ro M ro t^ ^NO O 00 NO PI t>.NO m PI M M M ro O NO On moo O 00 ON t>. T^ M- On ro ■* Pi PI vo Pi ro rONO m PI m ON o 00 PI Pi r^ ON ro m ro Pi M H H t^ Pi On M 00 mvo Pi r-^vo Pi mvo m m ON o> T^^o o Pi p< NO ■* ro Pi roNO M t^ t^NO ^NO NO ON PI m ro T^NO « m •* fx ro r^ HI On r^ m Pi m m ro ■* - On M r^ mNO t-, ro m I-, ■^ f o O^ t-- t^ -^ moo t^ HH 1/-J r^ M O Pi M oo NO -*NO ro O o~ r^ Pi r<-i m N ON ^00 Pi ro O ON ■*oo ■* .•N ro () ■* N 30 in NO •<*• O m H VD Pi ■* o ^ -^ On ON NO m t^ Onno ON ■1-co t-^ PI C^NO On '*• M Pi ON o> o •*• m Pi r^ M On ro O t^ tTOO ■* M t>. roNO 1^ MOO ro M »-« H H VO ONVO 00 On NO -"J-OO r*) M m On r'l roco ■^ m c^ M Pi Pi pT in pi VO m PI 00 00 -^oo vo on-^OnO-poo moo ■<^p^oooo ro moo ■- ro >- no t^ t^ ■* t- t^ ON ON t~-oo t--i-i PI M -"ft^o t^rOM Onpi Onno vo mvo t-* o m m m o ro mo PiONPi ->l-t^-!h'4-ONPirO00 m-*-i^'0 ■*- t^i-vo O PiOO -^-Onh t^vo NO 00 ropirororororo-^ropi-rropjpipiPipirr. p^-^l,-NwM(•lp^plPil- €©■ '*1- t-^co ci Pi m Pi ro t^Nc- iTi o^ roNG -^mONinpi D c-^^ mm moo p^ t^ 5- -=f t-~ M T^ moo m- Tt-^-mTtir, -oc m OxQ OOn •'J-no ^ O-O m i- m ro m CO r-~NO i!i- ro m roo t co no o -a- t^-c oo -- vo vo vo oo ^oo m f^ m oo ro ^ o r-^rom-^M tvi-i tJ-^j-onpioo pioo t^pi t^O pj m •^ cono m ro -^ pi o^ pi oo ■* rooo fo -^vo <-i r^ m ON t^ -*-co 00 ^ m rooo t^co 00 vo oo mt^mroovMOO ro Pi M M Pi ro M -*• t-» Tt-NO M T^ ■* >-i onoo nopimm M H H ^ Tt M m n tr .-1H0 O ON ■^vO 00 lo ro cf N O >ri N rOocT o m>0 O MVOOO mo OO i/^ rooo O m\o M M \o lo t^ O N "1 0>^ IT) O ^ O ro >0 O- "^ •* t^ in \r, o \n "Too" M O lO ro 00 t^vo t^ c. fOOO -*■ irjoo vo O ro m fO o\ rt a U ■>*• ON t^ OOO ^ O roxjvo t^ O iOromt^M t^lOfOt^CS O *-• 00 lO ro t^oO O^ Qv^O "^ inoo N vn 00 00 N r^ r^. ■^ o ■^ t^OO « t^ m Ul a> fo t^ in •* 1/1 lOiO in M o <0 H in N M u Hi t: r S o CC ll- 3 PQ cu a o t/i :n T) a V u , o rt ^ ^^ in O m rr)>0 in moo h oo w Ov^ t^ tj- t^ rn ui t-^vo \o m ro H 'J-^ inO" M ■"tO^O'O'O N t-»iniN 3-0^0000 N moo O c^ -^ O 00 IN O ■^^ t^ 0\'-0 m m m M m r^ -^ ■*\0 ino\mmo\womcooo oO'-'t~'*ooa\-^ in t^ mjoo t^oo oo ^ N 0\ t^ -^ m m •* o t^ (M N O iriOO CM a<"*-mcM t>-*-0'OvD int^mt^-*- m c? d m -^^ in d d\ tC m" \o mi- t^M " -• o O CT>0 in"*--^inmmmN — vo mo o>vo t^ mvo ■* o o ovvo vOTi->-i-<*-(soo(NOOvinpiint^ ocTc^iomcr invd^ d t^ ■<*" fn t^ininejin novonO m N m N m 00 m a>vo m N "O •.m-^dvtv(Ccvr t^OO N O 00 " 0> (-^00 o o Mi-i S Di u '.^. ^. CU Q S C> ^ iz; (/) O fc .5 ; C'5 OJ CO .eS b£ c r? o C y m STATISTICAL TABLES. 339 00 VO h> O P) 00 O N t^ O O ^ ■- r*^ "-1 in ro O CO ^O ►- IT] XT) ^ O- O ^ -^ '- O 00 ■<»■ m O t^ VO t^ ro M 00 0> ^8 8 8 ; O O O M Tt- O -1- IN ■O r~ lo M VO' On o' " M ■^ rl O' M M C< O ' 00 o> wvo ro lo I ox in M M « in >o ■Ci mvo ro ooo (N 00 o ^o'oo oo' 1-^ rn ro O -^ C?^' ■vo O VO t^ • ■ <^ ! in 00 VO • 8 : ^ : CO . • 00 in .* m . ■^ O inmtvi o O ■*m •^vo i^mO'-.HMOOP) mvo VO r^CO d 1^00 r^OD -^00 00 OO t^^NOONVOinO- C?00 cTvcTvo' vOOvOMN-Hi-rO" •"1-00 OO OCO NVD NOOOO >-■ moo t^OO 00 t^ t^oOMt^'-co'-'Ommo^O'-'fnt^O'^o f-t^T^-O'^t-^t^ "ro Mi-Tro ■♦VO O c» i-i^i- (noroNvo o int^M nvo Ooo n n o\ >n'C t^vo 1-vo inoo oo-^mmo Ovo t^» t^vo in o oo • d\ 00 cT in dv in m' w VO rove G' -^ >- CO t^mO MOO ooooovtMin-^O-'OininM^ M^te- l-t Qi t-t t-t M 00 00 VO ov o mvo VO M 00 ov m ovo m m -^oo t>. ■* in rooo m vo m O '-' t^oo "S- •*oo w I- 00 in N m mvo ■♦oo ■>*■ O f^oo t^ r^ m m O O-*0NN0f^'nm0i-iN'*f~»-''-'V0O inoo O N N t^^ " w rooo p-Too O lo hT ■ < » < a ^ < ^ 3 < 3 o O Q bx) <5 ^ Vh < m a U Q H < C/5 H P c/} J«l o Q o U ct! H M >- ;?; ■^ P • UJ kJ Ph p:j p H H 12; M ^ U r/1 ^ Ph H < ^ H J/5 X '^ >'. ^ •^ a: ^ ^ •si ;^. o M H *JJ u ^ Q H 3 3 OCQ m -a 5 c ct! C . . 2 us 1—1 . J£ 3 11 ..r UkV • . • . ■ u.n u O o fc- rt « l) ^ r: -.^o> . . . .C/3 g w cj O 'i;-^ ^ 2^^ t: ^ & I 3 03 V O iZl.iU.l' •V (/J JJ OJ n! g O rt ni 5 o c ^ : • tuo 5 O V- O bo o :u : ^ ; ^ E ■-« Qj U Oj o "o G tuo bi) U > '5 Vj ■ (U U ^ b£aj O ix5^ t/) , T3 u ^ «>^.g b/);ii rt i-i "' 3 ii; c« JJ < ^ — .r > rt w -£ ^- •— ^ " ■" t 1) bjccu o 5 3^ < D ■< U CO c/) CO ni u. u Hj.- "C S (U *- ^ C C - ■ U < ■u o n •-S 4) ™ "^ 0) o S^^t rt O O 5 = U ' o 3^ ^ S 2 ^ OJ w w U l_ >- 3 3 3 •=- -;* 3 [/; u ^ x: CJ 3 3 l> "^ "5 "5 "3 "9 'c "3 'ti,^ jS -J o -J r;^ u b/DTTT; 'u'^'^-^. 'C< £co h£5 b£ M ^ S:« ^ o o o :i 1- H >■ -P- oco 2 bfi b£ bi;-T v„ b£ .t; p. '^ o o o u c,=^ b£3 c c coco bjo ■t-) 3 ° ■ 5 3'2 4) 3 u i; ii3bC3 :S^3c 1> CO ^ ^ X ■^ E u "^ -^ "n! 0! re.ii rt rt ■ ^-3 o-s .-i I- u ni o O rt jrt Q .2 • « rt £P°"5rt >> rt -a: c to ■-' m a: 3 5 S CU O k> k/ I— (rXiiXi .2 '5 O TJ 3 a C^ X rt y bi) SSSS DIRECTORY. 349 c o . . SJ j: kffi cc ^ ^ — c-o c • lU • ta *J r-* P "s 2 c u be : be en a! O 3 „, .5 tyj^ J3 rt C SSoo O O-- lU UD3 JPi en u c nl m u ■ P (U (Ti X3 b£ ti o BE .-« r. /ii ^"^ J-— I. — ' »-« -# c fl> 5 i; a -•c H.S2 "J <« 5 c CO ^ oj'C rt — -^ ^£ Uc-- EJ:^ 2 £ c-3 2 l^^rt rt-^ c J: rt J5 3 > > ^ txc^-C >^c o•t:;- '5 -g -o rt ^ C 4J OJ 1- -' 3 1)M 2 C i": ^ ^, >>>>>-)_.__ijjg03 o 3 c e o^u.-.^- 3 ^ 3 rt 3 '=*'^n^ J3 4-. cr. tn nj 1) C-- o 350 GENERAL TOPICS. STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) Tuition fees. State. Alabama (Auburn). . . Arizona Arkansas. California Colorado Conn. (New Haven). . Connecticut (Storrs)... Delaware (Newark) . . Delaware (Dover) . . . Florida (Lake City). .. Florida (Tallahassee). Georgia (Athens) Idaho Illinois. Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky (Lexington) Kentucky (Frankfort) Louisiana (Baton Rouge) Louisiana (New Or- leans ...... Maine Maryland . . Massachusetts Michigan Minn. (Minneapolis). . Mississippi (Agricul- tural College) Mississippi (Westside). Missouri (Columbia). . . Montana . . Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico.. .. .. . . New York North Carolina (Ra- leigh) North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island , XI rt S 3 >. a 3 3 '^ 1892 6 1887 20 i8qo 13 1868 23 1859 ii 1867 20 1855 29 1869 139 ! 1880 23 1878 i.S 1870 18 1893 8 1869 '81 1888 15 1S66 14 1865 28 1890 17 1865 151 1889 18 1890 13 1873 77 1892 8 1888 20 i 1859 47 1 180- DIRECTORY. 351 STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL! SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATKS.—iConiznue^.) State. (C 1- D G a (Clem- "(br- South Carolina son College . . South Carolina angeburg) South Dakota Tennessee Texas (College Station) Utah Vermont Virginia (Blacksburg). . Virginia (Hampton) Washington West Virginia (Mor- gantown. , . ...... West Virginia (Farm). . Wisconsin Wyoming Total 1872 1884 1869 1871 1889 1885 1872 1890 1892 450 162 20:; 368 350 379 325 159 176 250 70 » 1,598 ^33 164321.195 3.847 fc£5 tcU 3 Z. 146 20 31 187 37 86 70 54 15 X90 W.5 SU O ^ 3 0-= 5 =^ 3CJ 62 229 3.003 Tuition fees. . $1.00. Live Stock Report. Chicago, 111, Weekly, Live Stock Review. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $2.00. Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer. New Orleans, La. Weekly, I3.00. Maryland Farmer. Baltimore, Md. Monthly, 50 cents. Meehan's Monthly. Germantown, Pa. Monthly, $2.00 Michigan Farmer. Detroit, Mich. Weekly, $1.00.. ArrHICLLTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 3C1 Midland Poultry Journal. Kansas City, Mo. Monthly, 50 cents. Mirror and Farmer. Manchester, N. H. Weekly, $1.00. Montana Stockman and Farmer. Helena, Mont. Weekly, $2.00. National Stockman and Farmer. Pittsburgh, Pa. Weekly, $1 50. Nebraska Farmer. Lincoln, Neb. Weekly, $1.25. Nebraska Homestead. Omaha, Neb. Weekly, f 2,00. New England Farmer. Boston, Mass, Weekly, $2.00. New England Homestead. Springfield, Mass. Weekly, $1.00. Northwestern Agriculturist. Minneapolis, Minn. Semi- monthly. 50 cents. Northwestern Farmer. St. Paul, Minn. Semi-monthly, 50 cents. Ohio Farmer. Cleveland, Ohio. Weekly, $1.00. Ohio Poultry Journal. Dayton, Ohio Monthly, $1.00. Orange Country Farmer. Port Jervis, N. Y. Weekly, $1.00. Orange Judd Farmer. Chicago, 111. Weekly, S^i.oo. Pacific Rural Press. San Francisco, Cal. Weekly, $3.00. Poultry Monthly. Albany, N. Y. Monthly, $1.25. Poultry World. Hartford, Conn. Monthly, I1.25. Practical Farmer. Philadelphia, Pa. Weekly, ^i.oo. Prairie Farmer. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. Rural Canadian. Toronto, Canada. Monthly, $r.oo. Rural Californian. Los Angeles, Cal. Monthly, $1.50. Rural Life. Waterloo, la. Weekly, $1.00. Rural New Yorker. New York City. Weekly, ^i.oo. Skordemannen (Swedish). Minneapolis, Minn. Semi- monthly, 75 cents. Southern Cultivator. Atlanta, Ga. Monthly, $1.00. Southern Live Stock Journal. Starkville, Miss. Weekly, $1.00. Southern Planter. Richmond, Va. Monthly, $1.00. Swine-Breeders' Journal. Indianapolis, Ind. Semi-monthly, f i.oo. Texas Farm and Ranch. Dallas, Tex. Weekly, $1.00. 362 GENERAL TOPICS. Texas Stockman. San Antonio, Tex. Weekly, $2.00. Turf, Field, and Farm. New York City. Weekly, $5.00. Wallace's Farmer. Des Moines, la. Weekly, $1.00. Western Agriculturist and Live Stock Journal. Quincy, 111. Semi-monthly, $1.00. Western Resources. Lincoln, Neb, Weekly, $2.00. Western Rural. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. Western Swine Herd, Geneseo, 111. Monthly, 50 cents. Williamette Farmer. Salem, Ore, Weekly, $2.00. Wisconsin Agriculturist. Racine, Wis, Semi-monthly, 50 cents. Wisconsin Farmer. Madison, Wis. Weekly, $1,00. Wool Markets and Sheep. Chicago, 111, Weekly, $1,00. INDEX. Aberdeen Angus cattle, 21 Accidents, what to do in case of, 299 J* cidity of milk or cream, determination of, by alkaline tablet test, 239 Mann's test, 241 Adulteration of milk, 207 Agricultural and dairy literature, 354 horticultural books, list of, 355 papers, main American, 359 Agricultural associations, constitutions of, 287 clubs, constitutions and by-laws of, 287 educational institutions in the United States and Canada, 348 engineering, 124 products, average farm price of, 1886-1895, 335 schools and colleges in the United States, statistics of, 350 Alkaline tablet test of acidity in milk or cream, 239 American trotter, the, 18 Apiarian industry in the United States, importance of, 345 Arbor Day, dates of, in different states and territories, 103 Ash of cows' milk and colostrum, composition of, 196 Ayrshire cattle, 171 Babcock milk test, the, 197 application of, 199 Beef cattle, 21 Berkshire pigs, 24 Bordeaux mixture, 87 Boyd, John, Boyd's process of cream ripening, 236 Brown-Swiss cattle, 183 Butter, 230 American premium, analyses of, 243 by deep, cold setting and Cooley system, 238 shallow-pan creaming, 238 cheese and condensed-milk factories in the United States, 341, 342 composition of, 242 conversion factor for calculating yield of, 244 domestic expoits of, 1870-1895, 344 363 364 INDEX. Butter, English scale of points for judging, 248 European, composition of, 243 from separator cream, 239 formula for calculating yield of, 243 makers, American score for judging proficiency of, 249 score in judging proficiency of, 248 making, 230 distribution of milk ingredients in, 247 use of pure cultures in, 232 milk requiied for making i lb. of, 246, 247 records, official, 189 score for judginfj, 247 sour cream, composition of, 242 sweet cream, composition of, 242 yield from cream of different richness, 244 milk of different richness, 245, 274 By laws and rules for co-operative cheese factories, 282 creamery associations, 279 Caldwell, Prof. W. H., Guernsey cattle, 164 California weir table, 137 Canada, area and population, 323 dairy schools, 352 experiment stations, 352 exports of dairy products, 1868-1895, 344 meteorological data, 326 Ministers of Agriculture, 347 number of farm animals, 1891, 340 production of various crops, 1891, 334 Carcass, a steer''s, 156 of farm animals, constituents of, 159 Cattle, proportion of beef to live weight, 157 the various parts of, 158 Cattle foods, classification, 9 comparative value, 15, 16 Cereals, prices per bushel and per ton, 17 Cheddar cheese, formulas for finding yield of, 261 losses in curing, 263 manufacture of, 250 Cheese, butter, and condensed-milk factories in the United States in 1890, 341, 342 Cheese, composition of, 260 curing-rooms, determination of humidity in, 255 domestic exports of, 1870-1S95, 344 Enjilish scale for judging, 259 factories, cooper;,tive, by-laws and rules for, 282 management, 268 whey to be allowed pritrons of, 267 loss in weight durinj? curini:, 263 manufacture of. 250, 252 IJSDEX. 365 Cheese making, distribution of ingredients, 261 fertilizing ingredients, 261 use of pure cultures, 232, 235 score for judging, 259 synopsis of manufacture of principal varieties, 266 varieties and analyses, 260 yield from 100 lbs. of milk, 262, 264 Chester White pigs, 24 Cheviot sheep, 23 Chinch-bugs, fighting the, by means of kerosene emulsion, 92 Cisterns, capacity of, 137, 138 Clark, W. G., M.D.C., Common diseases of farm animals, 35 Veterinary remedies and doses, 45 Cleveland Bay horses, 19 Clovers, notes on adaptability and uses, 79 Clydesdale horses, 19 Coins, foreign, value of, 321 Colostrum, composition of, 196 Components of cows' milk, calculation of, 195 Composition and weight of ordinary crops per acre, 59 of ash of cows' milk and colostrum, 196 butter, 242, 243 colostrum, 196 commercial fertilizing materials, 118 cows' milk, variations in, 194 cream, 210 dairy products, 210 different parts of same milkings, 194 feeding stuifs, i live animals, 160 milkof different breeds, 190, 191 morning and evening milk, 194 morning, noon, and evening milk, 194 sweet- and sour-cream butter, 242 various kinds of milk, 193 Concentrated feeding stuffs, weight of, 15 Condensed-milk, butter, and cheese factories in the United States in 1890, 34^5 342 Constitution and by-laws of agricultural clubs, 287 road leagues, 294 village-improvement societies, 292 Contagious diseases, rules for treatment in case of, 52 Conversion factor for calculating yield of butter, 244 of U. S. weights and measures to metric, and vice versa, 311 table for calculating fertilizing ingredients, 123 pounds of milk into quarts, 209 quarts of milk into pounds, 209 Cooling milk or cream, water or ice required, 229 Corn, cost per acre of raising, 335 366 INDEX. Corn on the cob, measurement of, in cribs, 317 Cost of irrigating canals and ditches, 136 raising wheat and corn, per acre, 335 Cotswold sheep, 23 Cows, buying and selling by tests of the milk, 192 care of, 278 diseases of, 39 premium, yields of milk and fat at state fairs, 188 Crops, farm, enemies of, 87 fertilizing materials in, 115 soiling, 60, 61 various, yields per acre. 67 weight and average composition of, per acre, 59 Craig, Prof. John A., Characteristics of breeds of live stock, 18 Cream, application of viscogen in, 227 composition of, 210 formula for finding fat content of, 213 gatherers, instructions to, 284 ice required for cooling, 229 preservation of, by heat, 225 ripening, Boyd's process of, 236 separators, capacity of, 217 economy of, 216 handling and care of, 214 list of, 212 use of alkaline tablet test with, 239 yield from milk of different richness, 211 Creameries and cheese factories, directions for making dividends in, 273 suggestions to patrons of, 277 Creamery associations, co operative, by-laws and rules for, 279 management of, 268 'Curing of cheese, losses in, 263 rooms, humidity in, 255 Cuts of meats, diagrams of, 156, 156a Dairy breeds, results of tests of, 186, 187 yield of milk of, English standards for, 190 cows, 161 methods of judging the value of, 191 rations for, it, 13 yield of milk and fat from, 185 farms, regulations for the government of dairies and, 53 papers, American, 357 main foreign, 358 products, American analyses of, 193 composition of, 210 exports of, from Canada, 1868-1895, 344 the United States, 1870-1895, 344 fertilizing ingredients in, ig6 produced on farms. 1890, 343 INDEX. 367 Dairy schools in the United States and Canada, 352 statistics for the United States, i8go, 338 Dairies and dairy farms, regulations for the government of, 53 Dairying, i6r more important works on, 354 Decker, John W., How American cheese is made, 250 Devon cattle, 179 Dewey, L. H., Table of noxious weeds, 82 Dietaries, 148 daily calculation of, 148 Dietary standards, 148, 155 Digestion coefficients, 2, 6 Dimensions, interior, of farm buildings, 144 Directory of official agricultural institutions, 346 Diseases of farm animals, 35 Disinfectants, list of, 52 Disinfection of stables, rules for, 52 Distance table for planting vegetables, 64 tree-planting, 66, 102 Dividends, directions for making, in creameries and cheese factories, 273 Dorset sheep, 23 Drains, earth removed for, of various dimensions, 127 Duroc-Jersey swine, 24 Dutch belted cattle, 181 Duty of water, 132 Economy, pecuniary, of food, 152 Engine management, 221 Engineering, agricultural, 124 English milking trials, results of, 189 Essex pigs, 24 Exhaustion of fertilizers, 120 Farm animals, common diseases of, 35 constituents of carcass, 159 duration and frequency of heat in, 306 estimated number on farms and ranches, 1896, 336 food requirements of, 15 in Canada in 1891, 340 in the United States in 1870-1895, 340 live, composition of, 160 standard rations for, 10 buildings, interior dimensions of, 144 crops, enemies of, 87 products, fertilizing constituents of, 111 yard manure, amounts required to replace ingredients abstracted by various crops, 116 Farms in the United States, statistics concerning, 327, 328 Farming population of the United States, 327 Farrington, Prof. E. H., The alkaline tablet test for acidity in milk or gream, 239 368 INDEX. Fat, relation of, to casein and other solids of milk, 195 Fattening animals, comparative results obtained with, 157 Feeding and general care of poultry, 25 standards for farm animals, 10 stuffs, chart showing manurial value of, 112 composition of, i, 3 concentrated, classification, 9 weight of, 15 fertilizing constituents, iii valuation of, 17 Feed rations, calculation of components of, 11 F'ermentation tests, 253, 255 Fernow, Prof. B. E., Forestry for farmers, 95 Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs and farm products, iii ingredients, composition of, 118 conversion table for calculation of, 123 equivalent quantities of, 121 in dairy products, 196 different crops, 115 raw materials and chemicals, trade value of, 122 voided by animals, 117 withdrawn by various crops, 114, 115 Fertilizers, exhaustion of, 120 Field crops, 56 Fish, N. S., Brown-Swiss cattle, 183 Flag signals adopted by the U. S. Weather Bureau, explanation of, 296 Food economy, 147 fuel value, 146 Foods, human, 145 Food materials, human, composition of, 149, 150 nutrients furnished for 25 cents in, 153 pecuniary economy of, 152 Forestry, 95 fire laws in the United States, 104 for farmers, 95 Formulas for calculation of total solids in milk, 203 yield of butter, 243 converting degrees Centigrade or Reaumur to Fahrenheit and vice versa, 315 finding adulteration of milk, 207 fat content of cream, 213 separator skim-milk, 221 quantity of water or ice required for cooling milk or cream, 229 yield of Cheddar cheese, 261 Frederiksen, J. D., Handling and care of cream separators, 214 French coach horses, 19 Fruit trees, distances apart, 66 longevity, 66 INDEX. 369 Fruit trees, time required to bear fruit, 66 Fuel value of food materials, 146 woods, 100 Fungous diseases of plants, treatments for, 87 Galloway cattle, 21 Gerber fermentation test, the, 254 Germination standards of seeds, 77 Gestation calendar, 305 Goff, Prof. E. S., Treatments for injurious insects and fungous diseases of plants, 87 Government land measures, 316 Grass seeds, amounts to sow per acre, 77 number, weight, and cost of, 77 Grasses, notes on adaptability and uses of, 79 Guernsey cattle, 164 Gurler, H. B., Butter-making, 230 Hackney horses, 19 Hand separators, list of, 212 Hawks and owls, beneficial and harmful, 298 Hay, seed mixtures for, 57 Heredity, 30 Hereford cattle, 21 Hicks, Gilbert H., Seed-testing for the farmer, 7a Highland cattle, 24 Hills, number of, on an acre of land, 63 Hog cholera, suppression of, 49 Holstein-Friesian cattle, 168 Honey and beeswax in the United States, production of, 345 Horn-fly, remedies for, 51 Horse, labor done bv, 142 Horse-power, 225 Horse-power required for separating xooo lbs. milk, 216 Horses, diseases of, 35 draft of, 141 Horticulture, 64 Hoxie, S., Holstein-Friesian cattle, 168 Human foods. 145 composition, 145 Humidity in cheese-curing rooms, 255 relative, in curing-rooms, table showing, 257 Ice required for cooling milk or cream, 229 Inches reduced to decimals of a foot, 312 Injurious insects, treatments for, 87 Interest tables, 303 Irrigated land, value of, 134 Irrigating canals and ditches, cost per mile, 136 Irrigation, 132 efficiency of windmills for, 129 pipes, cost of, 136 370 INDEX. Jersey cattle, i6i Kerosene emulsion, 89, 92 Kilograms converted into pounds Avoird., 3x9 Lactometer, 199 Land measures, government, 316 Legal weights of grain, seeds, etc., 3x8 Leicester sheep, 23 Lincoln sheep, 23 Live animals, composition of, 160 mineral matters in 100 parts, 160 Live stock, characteristic breeds of, 18 London purple, 88 Loss of butter from inefficient skimming, 220 cheese in curing, 263 Main pipe, rule for obtaining size of, 126 Mann's test, direction for use of, 241 Manures, amount and quality produced by stock, 116 and fertilizers, 108 valuation of, 109 composition, amount, and value of, from different farm animals, 117 Manurial value of feeding stuffs, chart showing, 112 Maple syrup, specific gravity, sugar content, and boiling-point, 69 sugar obtained from, 70 Marshall rennet test, 250 Meat, diagrams of cuts, 156 Merino sheep, 22 Mineral matters in 100 parts of live animals, 160 Milch cows, diseases of, 39 Milk, adulteration, 207 average composition, with variations, 194 calculations of components, 195 total solids, 203 composition of various kinds, 193 care of, 277 gatherers, instructions to, 284 ingredients, distribution of, in butter-making, 947 cheese-making, 26X morning and evening, composition of, 194 noon, and evening, composition of, 194 payment of, at creameries and cheese factories,-268 preservation of, by heat, 225, 227 price of, per 100 lbs., 271 records, official, 189 relation of fat to casein and other solids of, 195 relative cheese value of, 264 required for making i lb. of butter, 246, 247 skimming and watering of, 207, 208 standards, 206 table for converting pounds of, into quarts, 209 INDEX. 371 Milk, table for converting quarts of, into pounds, 209 finding average per cent of fat in, 275 testing, a chapter on, 197 use of alkaline tablet test with, 239 watering of, 207 Milking trials, English, results of, 189 Milkings, composition of different parts of same, 194 Miner's inch, 133 Money, foreign, value of, 321 order, fees, 308 Monrad rennet test, the, 250 Mutton, diagrams of cuts, 156^ New York Board of Health lactometer, comparison with Quevenne lac- tometer, 200 Nitrogen voided by animals, 117 Noer, J., M.D., What to do in case of accidents, 399 Noxious weeds, table of, 82 Number of plants for an acre of ground, 62, 63 trees on an acre, 99 Nutrients, 145 furnished for 25 cents in food materials, 153 Nutritive ratio, 2 Official milk and butter records, 189 Orchard-spraying outfit, 93 Ounces reduced to decimals of a foot, 31a Oxford sheep, 23 Pasteurization of milk and cream, 225 Pastures, permanent, seed mixtures for, 57 Patrons, rules for, 284 Payment of milk at creameries and cheese factories, a68 Percheron horses, 20 Perishable goods, temperatures injuring, 71 Pickrell, J. H., Shorthorns as dairy cows, 173 Pipes, carrying capacity of, 135 cost of, for irrigation, 136 Plant diseases, treatments for, 87 number of, for an acre of ground, 62, 63 Plowing, performance of team in, 142 Poisoning, antidotes in cases of, 301 Poland China pigs, 24 Pork, diagram of cuts of, is6a Postage, domestic, 307 foreign, 307 Potatoes, relation of specific gravity, dry matter, and starch conten Of, 68 Poultry and egg product in the United States, 1880 and 1890, 345 Poultry, breeds of, 30 feeding and care of, 25 Pounds converted into kilograms, 312 Power required for discharge of water, 132 372 INDEX. Power required to raise water from deep wells, 136 separators, list of, 212 Precipitation, normal, in Canada, 326 the United States, 325 Preservation of milk and cream by heat, 225 Pure cultures, use of, in butter and cheese making, 232 Purity standards of seeds, 75 Quevenne lactometer, 199 Rainfall, 128 Rations for dairy cows, practical, 13 standard, 10, 11 Record, highest, for yield of fat, 188 Records, milk and butter, official, 189 Red polled cattle, 176 Rennet test, 250 Richards, H. B., Dutch belted cattle, 181 Richter, Prof. A. W., Steam boiler and engine management, 221 Road leagues, constitution of, 294 making, 138 Roads, drainage, 138 different kinds of, force required to draw a load on, 140 good, importance of, 140 gravel for, 139 repairs, 139 stone required for maintenance of, 143 weight required to move vehicles on, 141 Russell, Prof. H. L., Preservation of milk and cream by heat, 225 Seed mixtures for grass and clover, 58 hay and permanent pastures, 57 per acre, 56 testing for the farmer, 72 vegetable, quantity required per acre, 65 Seeds, 72 germination standards, 77 grass, number, weight, cost, and amount to sow per acre, 77 purity standards, 75 Separator skim-milk, conditions determining fat content of, 221 formula for obtaining fat content of, 221 per cent fat in, 215 Shaw, Prof. Thos., Heredity, 31 Sheep, diseases of, 43 proportions of the various parts of, 158 Shire horses, 20 Shorthorn cattle, 21, 173 Shropshire sheep, 22 Silos, cylindrical, area of feeding surface required to supply different sized herds, 62 capacity of, 6t Sisson, L. P., Devon cattle, 179 INDEX. 373 Skimming of milk, detection of, 207 Slope, rise per 100 feet, 127 Smith, J. McLain, Red-polled cattle, 176 Soiling crops adapted to Northern New England states, 60 time of planting and feeding, 61 Solids of milk, calculation of 203 tables for obtaining, from specific gravity and per cent of fat, 205 Southdown sheep, 22 Specific gravity of various substances, 68, 69, 319 ^ woods, 100 Spraying calendar, 89 outfit for orchards, 93 Standard rations for farm animals, 10, 11 Starch equivalent, 2 Statistical tables, 323 Steam boiler and engine management, 221 Steers, live and dressed weights of, 1563 Sterilization of milk and cream, 225, 227 Sub-humid region, 134 Suffolk horses, 20 sheep, 23 Swine, diseases of, 44 live weight and gains made, 157 plague, suppression of, 49 proportions of the various parts of, 158 Tainted milk, causes of, 253 Tamworth pigs, 24 Tanks, capacity of, 137 Temperature-correction tables for specific gravity of milk, 201 Temperature of the air, normal mean, in Canada, 326 the United States, 324 Temperatures injuring perishable goods, 71 Testing milk and other dairy products by Babcock's method, 197 Tests of dairy breeds at American experiment stations, 186 World's Columbian Exposition, 187 Thermometer scales, comparisons of, 313 Thoroughbred horse, the, 18 Tile-draining land, reasons for, 124 pipe of main drain, size required, 126 Tiles, number required per acre, table showing, 125 size required, 125, 126 Tires, wide, effect of, 143 Tractive force required for carriages, 140 Trade values of fertilizing ingredients, 122 Tree-planting, distance table, 102 Trees, number on an acre, 99 United States, agricultural experiment stations in, 353 wages, 1893-1895, 329 apiarian industry, importance of, 345 374 INDEX. United States, area and population, 323 cereal products, principal, 1850-1890, 334 comparison of leading industries, 326 cost per acre of raising wheat and corn, 1893, 335 crops, principal, 334 dairy schools, 352 statistics for 1890, 338 Department of Agriculture, organization, 346 farming population, 327 number and value of farm animals, 1870-1895, 340 of farms in, and their value, 327 pure-bred cattle, 1895, 340 poultry and egg product, 1880 and 1890, 345 precipitation, normal, 325 product and value of principal crops, 1895, 334 production of honey and beeswax, 345 statistics of butter, cheese, and condensed-milk factories, 341, 342 farms, 328 principal crops, 1895, 330 temperature of the air, normal mean, 324 value of principal farm products, 329 wages, agricultural, 1893-1895, 329 Veal, diagram of cuts, 156^ Vegetable seed required per acre, 65 Vegetables, usual distances for planting, 64 Veterinary colleges, American, list of, 351 remedies and doses, 45 Victoria pigs, 24 Village-improvement societies, constitution of, 292 Viscogen, 227 Wages, agricultural, in the United States, 1893-1895, 329 by the week and the day, table of, 304 Wagon tires, wide, effect of, 143 Water, acre-foot of, 133 carrying capacity of pipes, 135 duty of, 132 flow through straight pipes, 135 power required for discharge of, 132 to raise, from deep wells, 136 required for cooling milk or cream, quantity, 229 right, 132 second-foot, 133 Watering of milk, 207 Weather Bureau, the, explanation of flag signals adopted by, 296 services, state, list of headquarters of, 298 Weeds, 82 noxious, table of, 82 Weights and measures, 309 customary system of, 309 INDEX. 375 Weights and measures, conversion of, to metric, and vice versa^->,\\ metric system of, 310 Weights, legal, of grain, seeds, etc., 318 Weir table, the California, 137 Wheat, cost per acre, of raising, 335 Wheeler, Prof. Wm. P., Feeding and general care of poultry, 25 Whey to be allowed patrons, 267 Wind, force and velocity of, 129 Windmills, capacity, 130 economy, 131 square feet and acres irrigated by, 129 Winslow, C. M., Ayrshires, 171 Woods, fuel value and specific gravity, 100 World's Columbian Exposition, results of breed tests at, 187 Yield of butter, formula for calculating, 243 Cheddar cheese, formula for calculating, 261 cheese from 100 lbs. of milk, 262, 264 fat, highest record, 188 milk and fat by premium cows at state fairs, 188 from dairy cows, 185 of dairy breeds, English standards for different breeds 186, 187, 189, 190 Yields, average, per acre of various crops, 67 Yorkshire pigs, 24 :Jty