Class $>T *, Book GopigMls 10 - C.OPXRIGHT DEPOSIT. SHEEP DISEASES BLACK-FACED HIGHLAND SHEEP IN THEIR NATIVE HOME Courtesy Agricultural Digest. VETERINARY MEDICINE SERIES No. 12 Edited by D. M. CAMPBELL SHEEP DISEASES BY E. T. BAKER, D.V. M. ILLUSTRATED Chicago AMERICAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 1916 3^ Copyright, 1916 BY D. M. Campbell ^ OCT -5 1916 ©CIA437982 PEEFACE. As economical producers of those prime neces- sities of civilized man, good food and good cloth- ing, sheep are destined to increase in numbers, and sheep raising to speedily attain and maintain a more important place in the animal industry of this country. Moreover, it being also a fact that of all domesticated animals sheep possess the least natural resistance to disease and particularly to parasitism, one may readily appreciate the importance of skilled veterinary service for the welfare of the sheep industry, now after more than a century's existence in this country, only at the threshold of its development. It is unnecessary to emphasize the need for works dealing authoritatively with disease as it occurs in sheep and its treatment. That need is acutely realized by most veterinary practitioners. It is hoped that this treatise will to a degree meet the requirements of the searcher for practi- cal information on this subject. The major portion of the contents of this vol- ume has been gathered from the field of experi- ence and is presented solely from the viewpoint of the practitioner. To conserve the health and prevent disease among our flocks is a gigantic task, and one worthy of the highest attainments. To this task, in his limited field, have been de- voted the best efforts of the writer, throughout the greater part of his veterinary experience. Moscow, Idaho. September, 1916. E. T. Baker. CONTENTS PAGE List of Illustrations 13 SECTION I. History of the Breeds 15 Breeds — = 1. The Fine ^Yools — Merino, Rambouillet. 2. The Medium ^Yools — Shropshire, Southdown, Oxford, Hampshire, Cheviot, Dorset, Suffolk. 3. The Long ^Yools — Leicester, Cotswold, Lincoln. 4. Lesser Known Breeds — Romney or Kent, Corriedale, Karakul, Black- faced Highland, Tunis, Persian. 5. Cross-bred Sheep. SECTION II. Anatomy 53 Skeleton ; Muscular System ; Digestive System ; Respira- tory System ; Urinary Organs ; Male Genital Organs ; Female Genital Organs; Circulatory System; Nervous System ; Organs of Special Sense. SECTION III. Hygiene 03 General Care; Handling; Feeding; Shepherd's Calendar; Care of the Ewe ; Care of the Lamb ; Care of the Buck. SECTION IV. Medicines and Their Administration 75 General Consideration; Administering Medicines; Dosage; Table of Drugs ; Emergency Medicine Case ; Disinfect- ants ; Post Mortem Examinations. SECTION V. Acute Infectious Diseases 84 1. Anthrax. 2. Malignant Edema. 3. Blackleg. 4. Bi-adsot. 5. Hemorrhagic Septicemia. 6. Rinder- pest. 7. Sheep Pox. 8. Foot-and-Mouth Disease. 9. Tetanus. 10. Rabies. 11. Tuberculosis. 12. Case- ous Lymph-adenitis. 13. Actinomycosis. 14. Glanders. 15. Contagious Abortion. 10. Piroplasmosis. 17. Foot Rot. 18. Septicemia. 10 CONTENTS SECTION VI. page Diseases of the Blood 99 1. Anemia. 2. Red Water. 3. Pining. SECTION VII. Diseases of Metabolism 102 1. Obesity. 2. Rachitis. 3. "Wool Eating. 4. Dia- betes. SECTION VIII. Diseases of the Urinary Organs 104 1. Hematuria. 2. Uremia. 3. Nephritis. 4. Rare and Unimportant Diseases. SECTION IN. Diseases of the Circulatory Organs 106 1. Pericarditis. 2. Dropsy of the Pericardium. 3. Hypertrophy of the Heart. 4. Valvular Diseases. SECTION N. Diseases of the Respiratory Organs 108 1. Epistaxis. 2. Nasal Catarrh. 3. Non-Parasitic Bronchitis. 4. Japp Disease. 5. P n e u m o n i a . G. Pleurisy. SECTION NI. Diseases of the Digestive System Ill 1. Stomatitis. 2. Choke. 3. Bloat. 4. Impaction of the Rumen. 5. Grass Staggers. 6. Constipation. 7. Colic. 8. Diarrhea. 9. Enteritis. 10. Piles. SECTION NIL Diseases of the Liver 120 1. Icterus. 2. Hepatitis. 3. Lupinosis. SECTION Nil I. Diseases of the Peritoneum 121 1. Ascites. 2. Peritonitis. SECTION XIV. Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord 124 1. Encephalitis. 2. Apoplexy. 3. Paralysis. 4. Gid. SECTION XV. Diseases of the Organs of Locomotion 12G 1. Rheumatism. CONTENTS 11 SECTION XVI. page Xon-Parasitic Diseases of the Skin 127 1. Itch. 2. Alopecia. 3. Eczema. 4. Rash. 5. Acne. 6. Ring-worm. SECTIOX XVII. Diseases of Obscure Origin 130 1. "Nibbling" Disease. 2. Louping-ill. 3. Big- Head. 4. Pustular Eruption. SECTIOX XVIII. Diseases of the Lamb 132 I. Congenital Defects. 2. Reviving "Lifeless" Lambs. 3. Retention of the Meconium. 4. Navel-ill. 5. Xon- contagious Diarrhea. 6. White Scours. 7. Colic. 8. Constipation. 9. Pustular Eruption. 10. Tetanus. II. Stomatitis. SECTIOX XIX. Diseases of the Ewe 138 1. Disorders of Gestation. 2. Abortion. 3. Dystocia. 4. Decomposition of Fetus. 5. Displacement of the Uterus. 6. Eclampsia. 7. Metritis. 8. Mammitis. 0. Abnormalities of the Milk. 10. Sterility. SECTION XX. Diseases of Rams and Wethers 14C 1. Gravel. 2. Hernia. 3. Bloody Urine. 4. Impo- tence. SECTIOX XXI. Surgical Diseases 148 1. Diseased Teeth. 2. Concussion of the Brain. 3. Ab- scesses. 4. Injuries. 5. Suturing. 6. Rumenotomy. 7. Puncture of the Bladder. 8. Fractures and Disloca- tions. 0. Amputation of the Claws. 10. Panaritium. SECTIOX XXII. Parasitic Diseases 153 A. External Parasites — 1. Sheep Scab. 2. Head Scab. 3. Foot Scab. 4. Sheep Ticks. 5. Lice. 0. Mag- gots. 7. Fleas. 8. Flies. B. Internal Parasites — 1. Gid. 2. Grub in the Head. 3. Lung Worms. 4. Stomach Worms. 5. Liver Rot. 6. Tapeworms. 7. Esophagostomum Colum- bianum. 8. Sarcosporidiosis. fl. Rare Parasites. 12 CONTENTS SECTION XXIII. page Poisons 177 A. Mineral Poisons — 1. Lead, Acute. 2. Lead, Chronic. 3. Arsenical, Acute. 4. Arsenical, Chronic. 5. Phosphorus. 6. Copper. 7. Zinc. 8. Mercury. 9. Alkali. 10. Carbolic Acid. 11. Mineral Acid. 12. Saltpeter. 13. Common Salt. 14. Epsom Salts. 15. Sheep Dip. 16. Lime. 17. Petroleum. 18. Rare Mineral Poisonings. B. Vegetable Poisons — Emergency Treatment — 1. Death Camas. 2. Loco. 3. Larkspur. 4. Lupine. 5. Aconite. 6. Water Hemlock. 7. Choke Cherry. 8. Laurel. 9. Veratrum. 10. Ergot. 11. Deadly Nightshade. 12. Woody Aster. 13. Sneeze Weed. 14. Rubber Weed. 15. Strychnin. 10. Cotton Seed Meal. 17. Tobacco. 18. Digitalis. 19. Tur- pentine. 20. Rape Seed. 21. Croton Oil. 22. Hemlock. 23. Flax. 24. Horse Radish. 25. Toad- stools. 26. Potato Tops. 27. Poison Oak. 28. Kafir Corn and Sorghums. 29. Bearded Grasses. 30. Ensilage. 31. Porcupine C4rass. 32. Uncom- mon Plant Poisonings. C. Animal Poisons. SECTION XXIV. Predatory Animals 210 1. Coyote. 2. Wild Cats and Lynx. 3. Wolf and Cougar. 4. Bear. 5. Prairie Dog. SECTION XXV. Quarantine and Transportation Regulations 219 Federal Regulations; State Regulations. List of Publications Consulted 228 Index 229 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Black- faced Highland Frontispiece Musimon of Europe 16 Merino, Type A — Champion Ewe 17 Merino, Type B — Champion Ram 17 African Sheep 19 Merino, Type C— Champion Ram 20 Rambouillet — Champion Ram 21 Rambouillet — Champion Ewe 21 Argali 23 Shropshire — Champion Ram 25 Shropshire — Champion Ewe 25 Range Rambouillets 27 Typical Western Sheep Owner's Home Twenty Years Ago 28 Homes Like this are the Rule Among the Sheep Men Now. ... 28 Typical Southdown Ram 29 Typical Southdown Ewe 29 The Bell Wether 31 Cheviot 32 Oxford — Champion Ram 33 Oxford — Champion Ewe 33 Cheviot — Ram and Ewe 35 Dorset 36 A Typical Range Sheep 36 Typical Hampshire Ram 37 Typical Hampshire Ewe 37 On the Western Range 39 A Few of a Band of 3,000 39 The Shepherd's Assistant 40 Western Sheep Dog 40 Dorset — Champion Ram 41 Dorset — Champion Ewe 41 Karakul — A Fur-bearing Sheep 44 Leicester — Ram 45 Leicester— Ewe 45 Typical Tunis Ram 47 Cotswold — Champion Ram 49 Cotswold — Champion Ewe 49 13 14 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Lincoln — Champion Ram 50 Lincoln — Champion Ewe 50 A Western Shearing Camp 03 Typical Shearing Pens in the Range Country 04, 05 Lambs at Shearing Time Cut Away from Ewes 09 How a Lamb is Docked with Hot Pinchers 71 Bacillus Anthracis S4 Bacillus of Blackleg 80 "Stunts" with the Lariat 100 Counting Six Thousand 107 Sheep-scab Mite — Male 155 Sheep-scab Mite — Female 15G First Stage of Scab on Shoulder 158 Characteristic Scab Lesions, Early Stages L39 Scabby Buck, Hindquarters Affected 100 Sheep Tick 102 Sheep Louse 1 G3 Sheep Foot Louse 164 Estrus Ovis 167 Distoma Hepaticum 170 Sacs of Miescher from Muscles 173 A Pine Tree Growing in Solid Rock 186 Coyote Killers 210 Coyote 212 The Old Wolf Shot and Helpless 213 Wolf Pups in Front of Den 214 Wild Cat 215 Lynx Cat Caught in Trap 216 A Sheep-Killing Bear 217 COLOR PLATES Death Camas 176a Purple Loco 184a Larkspur 192a Lupine 200a Aconite 208a Water Hemlock 216a SECTION I. HISTORY OF THE BREEDS. The word sheep is of unknown etymology, and the origin of the animal itself is veiled in obscurity as great. It is supposed that domesticated sheep originated from the wild forms of sheep, the "Mouflon," the "Musimon," and the "Argali." The sheep is also one of the oldest of all do- mesticated animals; the different breeds are the results of environment, combined with man's ingenuity. For detailed histories the reader is referred to the various excellent texts on sheep management 1 ; space permits us to give only the briefest mention of the development of the sheep industry in this country. No domesticated sheep were found in North America by the early explorers, and the wild Rocky Mountain sheep has never been tamed nor crossed with domesticated breeds. For centuries, Spain controlled the fine-wool sheep of the world, and no exportations were allowed to other countries, until in 1765, when three hundred Spanish sheep were introduced into Saxony by royal favor, and became the foun- dation stock of the Saxony Merinos. In 1783, the French government imported Spanish sheep and JThose consulted were : Craig's "Sheep Farming." Wing's "Sheep Farming in America. Kleinheinz's "Sheep Management." 15 16 SHEEP DISEASES. established them on a farm near Paris, called Rambouillet, progenitors of the breed of that name. Musimon of Europe. Courtesy American Sheep Breeder. During the first quarter of the nineteenth cen- tury Merinos were introduced into the United States. In 1801, the wool industry, that has made that state the leader of fine-wool sheep, was started in Ohio. The same year a number of Eam- bouillets were sent to New York by Robert Living- stone, our minister to France. In 1802, General Meki.no, Iyp'e A — Champion Ewe. PLATE I. Mekino, Type B — Champion Ram. HISTORY OF THE BREEDS. 19 Humphries, our minister to Spain, sent to his native state, Connecticut, nearly one hundred head of pure-bred Merinos. In 1809, William Jarvis, our minister to Portugal, sent four thousand pure- bred Merinos to Vermont. The next two years, it is estimated, nearly twenty thousand sheep were brought to this country and the industry thus started on foundation stock of the best blood. Due to the low altitude and moist climate of England, the Merino breeds have never done well African Sheep. Courtesy American Sheep Breeder. in that island, and, as a result, the attention of breeders, particularly of Robert Bakewell, was early given to improving the mutton qualities of their sheep. All of our breeds of medium and long-wool sheep, chiefly of the mutton types, have originated from strains long bred in England for their mutton producing qualities. In all countries of the world the sheep industry 20 SHEEP DISEASES. lias flourished and has produced untold wealth for the owners. While it is a far cry from the times of Abel and Abraham, and the shepherds with their little flocks on the Chaldean hills in Biblical story, to the present day of gigantic sheep ranches of Australia, Argentine and the United States, the habits of this docile animal have remained prac- tically the same as they were at the dawn of civil- ization. Merino, Type C — Champion Ram. In round numbers, there are about six hundred million sheep in the world, divided as follows: 60,000,000 head in North America, the United States, Mexico and Canada leading in order named. R a: mmouiixet— Champion Ram. Rambouillet — Champion Ewe. ,ATE II. HTSTORY OF THE BREEDS. 23 120,000,000 in South America, the great majority being found in Argentine, Uruguay and Chile. 130,000,000 in Europe, the leading sheep raising countries being European Russia, Great Britain, European Turkey, France, Spain and Austria- Hungary. 115,000,000 in Asia, Asiatic Turkey, Asiatic Russia and India leading. 60,000,000 in Africa, South Africa and Algeria producing nearly two-thirds of the total. 115,000,000 in Asia, ■HlffP ^g^ 115,000,000 in Ocean- AB6ALI - ica, Australia and New Courtesy American Sheep Breeder. Zealand leading. The three foremost sheep producing countries in order named are Australia, Argentine and the United States. In these days of inventions and improvements, no substitute for wool has ever yet been devised. The sheep remains the only machine that can transform the forage from deserts and forests into fleecy wool and delicious mutton, and it will thrive where other animals starve to death. Its chief disadvantage is its very feeble resistance to para- sites and diseases, the prevention of which is the greatest task of the shepherd. 24 SHEEP DISEASES. The classification of the breeds according to the fineness of the wool-fibre seems to be the common custom, the three classes being: 1. The fine-wool. 2. The medium-wool. 3. The long-wool. A convenient table is as follows: Fine Light-faced Merino Merino Medium Cotswold Shropshire Dorset Southdown- Leicester Oxford Lincoln Hampshire Cheviot Cheviot Dark-faced Dorset Shropshire Suffolk Southdown Long Hampshire Leicester Oxford Lincoln Suffolk Cotswold In this country, the Merino blood, crossed with medium and long-wool rams, has been extensively used. I. THE FINE-WOOLS. Merino. This well-known breed seems to have been known in Spain since the earliest records. It is supposed they were brought to Spain from Italy, where they had been taken by a band of Grecians to the city of Tarentum. From the eighth to the thirteenth centuries under the regime of the Sara- cens and Moors, the wool industry flourished in Spain. As previously stated, no exportations were made from Spain until 1765, when the Elector of Saxony secured three hundred Merinos and bred Shropshire — Champion Ram Shropshirk — Champion Ewe. PLATE III. HISTORY OF THE BREEDS. them so carefully that they constitute a famous branch of the Merino, called the Saxony Merinos. In 1783, France imported a large number of Spanish Merinos and placed them at Rambouillet, near Paris, and there created the breed known as Rambouillets. Von Homeyer, of Pomerania, Ger- many, improved this type so much, that a special breed known as the Von Homeyer Rambouillets is in existence. This type was brought to Ohio in 1851, and has since flourished. Many other types of the Merino have been devel- oped in this ■JIM' I j-JF JK6. • / L country, among them being the Standard De- laines, Na- tional De- laines, I m - proved D e - laines, Dick- ins o n De- laines, a n d Black - top Spanish Me- rinos. At the present time it is customary to divide the Merino into three classes: Class A: The extreme wool production type. The entire body is covered with folds and wrin- kles, and there is an abundance of yolk in the fleece. Ra.xge Rambouillets. 28 SHEEP DISEASES. Class B: The body is not so wrinkled, which makes the shearing easier. It is the commercial type for wool production. This does not include the Rambouillet. Typical Western Sheep Owner's Home Twenty Years Ago. Homes like this aril the rule among the Sheep Men now. Class C: This type has a longer fibre and the skin is nearly free from folds. These are better Typical Southdown Ram. Typical Southdown Ewe. HISTORY OF THE BREEDS. 31 mutton producers than the two above-mentioned, types. It includes the Delaine Merino. The Rambouillet. The Rambouillet is smooth-bodied, except for a few wrinkles on the neck. The rams have large, spiral-shaped horns, while the ewes are hornless. This breed is larger and more growthy than the Merino, but its wool is not so fine. The Bell Wether. II. THE MEDIUM-WOOLS. Shropshire. This breed was first recognized in the early fif- ties of the last century, and was brought to per- fection in the central counties of England. It is one of the most popular of all western range sheep, the "Shrops" being a general-purpose breed. Quick to mature, hardy, good mothers, prolific breeders, easy feeders and good rustlers, they have attained their position by their sterling qualities. 32 SHEEP DISEASES. They are medium in size, and cross well with other breeds. They are dark-faced. The first Shropshires were brought to this coun- try in 1833. They were taken to Ohio. Southdown. This is also a dark-faced, medium-wool breed. Cheviot. Courtesy Dotshome Farms. It is perhaps the oldest of the British types, its history dating back for many centuries. They are noted for their low, compact bodies, with small bone, and excellent wool. As a mutton sheep they are unexcelled. Oxi OKI) — Champion Ram. Oxford — Champion Ewe. V. HISTORY OF THE BREEDS. 35 Some claim specimens of this breed were brought with the Pilgrims, and that as early as 1688 they were found in Virginia. In 1803 a small flock was imported into New York, and in 1824 to 1825 many more were imported. Oxford. The Oxford originated from crossing Cotswold rams on Southdown and Hampshire ewes. This was begun in about 1830, and in 1861 they were recognized as a distinct breed. Cheviot — Ram and Ewe. They are very large and mature quickly. They yield the heaviest fleece of any of the Down breeds, fifteen pounds being a common average. Tt is an excellent small-band sheep, consuming large quan- tities of food and making good gains. As a forag- 3C SHEEP DISEASES. ing sheep it is inferior to the Shropshire. It is dark-faced. Dorskt — Valley View Farm, Wasco, 111. Hampshire. This breed was evolved from sheep raised in Hampshire and Wiltshire, England, crossed with A Typical Range Sheep. Typical Hampshire Ka.u. . . Typical Hampshire Ewe. PL.ATK VI. HISTORY OF THE BREEDS. 39 Southdown rams. Some claim Cotswolds also were used in the cross. The breed is over one hundred years old, and is a very popular one K ^^^^s^^ iiii> ^f^r^ Ox the Western Range. where food is abundant. It makes larger gains than any other Down breed during the first part of its life. The wool is not heavy. The ewe is very pro- lific, and the lambs of such quick growth that they *V *£.** A Few of a Band of 3,000. make an excellent "hot-house" variety for early markets. Cheviot. The Cheviot acquires its name from the Cheviot Hills on the boundary between England and Scot- 40 SHEEP DISEASES. land. This breed is as old as the earliest records. They are great foragers, resembling the Shrop- Tiik Shepherd's Assistant. The well trained sheep dog, with almost human intelligence, is indispensable. shire in this respect. On account of the strife and ''Border Wars" resulting from the frequent disagreements between English and Scottish Western Sheep Dog. Dorset — Champion Ram. Dorset— Champion Ewe. E VII. HISTORY OF THE BREEDS. 4:; chiefs, the breed was not improved for centuries. With long bodies, they were adapted for moun- tain ranging, and were known as the "long sheep. ' ' Crossing has given them better conforma- tion. They are excellent wool and mutton pro- ducers, good foragers, and are gaining in popu- larity. Their beauty and alert activity have con- tributed not a little in this. Dorset. This breed is white-faced; it is peculiar in that both ram and ewe have horns. The Dorsets seem to have sprung from a breed common in the southern and central parts of England since the earliest times. The county of Dorset was espe- cially famed for this kind of sheep, hence the name. About 1862 they were recognized as a distinct breed. Their great prolificacy renders the Dorset valu- able for intensive farming; two lambings a year, and frequently twins, is the record. If only one crop of lambs is raised, the Dorset ewe will come in season very early, and produce lambs for the 1 1 hot-house ' ' trade. Suffolk. The progenitors of this breed were known as the Norfolks, and thrived in southeastern Eng- land. They were hardy and good rangers. Along in the early part of the last century they were improved by crossing with the Southdowns; in 1859 they were recognized as a distinct breed. 44 SHEEP DISEASES. This animal is somewhat smaller than a Hamp- shire but larger than a Shropshire. The lambs are usually black. They are not well known in this country. III. THE LONG-WOOLS. Leicester. About 1755 Robert Bakewell, the famous agri- cultural genius of England, began to mate well Karakul — A Fur-bearing Sheep. formed sheep found in Leicester county. Soon he had made a notable improvement, and a new breed came into being, known as the Leicester (pronounced les-ter). The body is excellent in shape and smooth- ness, but the lightness of wool on the belly and Leicester— Ram. plate via. Leicester — Ewe. HISTORY OF THE BREEDS, 47 length of legs gives it a somewhat "leggy" ap- pearance. The original animal, as Bakewell bred it, was not hardy, since he sacrificed constitu- tion and stamina for shapely type. Their excellence consists in fattening quickly where food is abundant. For this reason the Lei- cester ram is often used for crossing on other breeds where early fat lambs are desired. Typical Tunis Ham. The Border Leicester was originated by Cully, who secured Leicester rams from Bakewell and crossed them on an old long wool breed, called the Teeswaters. The head of the Border Leicester is free from wool, while the Leicester has a tuft. 48 SHEEP DISEASES. Cotswold. The Cotswold is said to have originated from two words: " Cotes," referring to the barn in which the sheep are kept, and ' ' wold, ' ' to an open, rolling upland range. The early history of this breed is veiled in obscurity, although it is claimed they were found in England when Caesar visited the island. Some authorities claim the present breed is the result of crossing the original Cotswold with Bakewell's improved Leicesters. This cross re- duced the size, increased the mutton quality, and lessened the resistance to disease. The Cotswold is a. large, massive appearing sheep, with long wool, fine in fibre. A valuable feature of this breed is its prepotency. In cross- ing with other breeds it unfailingly transmits its tendency to increase the size and the weight of the fleece.' It is a valuable breed for intensive farming. Lincoln. This is another ancient breed, improved to their present high standard by crossing with the Lei- cesters. The original breed w T as found in Lincoln- shire, England, hence the present name. In 1862 they were recognized as a distinct breed, and have been extensively imported to the United States and Canada. This is the largest breed of sheep, being mas- sive, strong boned, and yielding heavy fleeces. They are extremely popular in crossing on Merino ewes; the progeny have a fine, large, lustrous fleece. Cotswolu — Champion Ram. Cotswold — Champion Ewe. PLATE IX. Lincoln — Champion Ram. Lincoln — Champion Ewe. PLATE x. HISTORY OF THE BREEDS. 51 In the West, they are valuable small ranch sheep, giving great returns in wool, mutton and lambs. LESSER KNOWN BREEDS. Romney or Kent. This breed originated in southeastern England, and some splendid specimens are found in this country. Their chief use on the range is to cross on the Merino. They are white-faced. Corriedale. These sheep were recognized as a distinct breed in New Zealand about 1911. They originated from crossing Lincoln rams on Merino ewes. They are highly thought of as wool and mutton pro- ducers, especially for the frozen meat trade. They are becoming more extensively raised in the United States, several fine bands being found in the West. Karakul. Karakul sheep in small numbers have been im- ported into the United States. This is a fur- bearing animal, a native of Bokhara, a Eussian dependency, and, due to the laws of this little country, forbidding any exportations of sheep, are little known outside of their native heath. They have been crossed with various other breeds, such as Merinos, the progeny being called "Karakul Finewools," and with Persians, the cross being known as "Karakul Persians." The latter cross produces very fine skins. 52 SHEEP DISEASES. The Black-Faced Highland. This breed is an inhabitant of the Cheviot Hills, and is also known as the Black-faced Heath. It is of the long-wool type. (See frontispiece.) Tunis. The foundation stock for this breed was im- ported from Africa over a century ago, but the Civil War almost destroyed it. The distinguish- ing mark is an exceedingly long, fat tail, and the hornless head covered with tawny, brown hair. Persian. Persian sheep were introduced to this country some years ago. When crossed with Merinos they have done well in the arid regions of the west. CROSS-BRED SHEEP. Cross-bred sheep are commonly raised by range men who desire a hardy animal, combining the qualities of several breeds. The commonest crosses are the long-wools, such as the Lincoln and Cots- wold, on the Merino. Other well known crosses are the Shropshire and Hampshire on the Merino. Due to different range conditions, a cross success- ful in some part of the country may prove value- less in another. Arguments about the ''best 1 treed" or the "best cross" are but a waste of time; the desideratum being ultimate profit. SECTION II. ANATOMY. The anatomy of the sheep greatly resembles that of the ox in general. A brief summary is as follows: 2 THE SKELETON. Vertebrae. The vertebrae are forty-nine to fifty-one in num- ber: seven cervical; thirteen thoracic; six lumbar; five sacral (fused into one bone), and eighteen to twenty coccygeal. Ribs and Sternum. There are normally thirteen pairs of ribs; eight pairs of sternal, and five pairs asternal. The sternum consists of seven sternebrae; the cariniform cartilage being absent. The thorax is relatively short and wide. Cranium and Face. The occipital is very strong and thick. The sphenoid is very short. The ethmoid rather extensive. The interparietals small. The parietals form part of the temporal fossae. The frontals form nearly one-half the length of the skull. -'Sisson's "The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals" was consulted. 54 SHEEP DISEASES. The temporals, divided into the squamous and petrous parts, which fuse at birth, form protective coverings for the auditory canal. The maxilla is short and broad. The premaxilla is thin and flattened. The palatine bone is relatively large. The pterygoid bone is comparatively large. The nasal bones are short, the size depending on the breed. The lacrimal bone is large. The malar bone is relatively large. The turbinals are very fragile. The vomer is wide, its size depending on the breed. The mandible or inferior maxilla does not com- pletely fuse during life. The hyoid is very short. The skull, as a whole, is very powerful and well protects the head. The sheep's chief weapon of defense is butting, and its head has been de- veloped to withstand extraordinary concussion. Thoracic or Front Limb. The bones of the front limb are small but power- ful, and consist of the following: The scapula is nearly triangular in shape. The humerus is short, and has a very small deltoid tuberosity. The radius is short and relatively broad. The ulna extends nearly the whole length of the radius. The carpus consists of six bones, four in the upper row and two in the lower. ANATOMY. 55 The metacarpus consists of the large metacarpal and a small metacarpal. The digits are four in number, only two are fully developed. They have three phalanges and three sesamoids each. Pelvic Limb. The ilia are almost parallel. The ischium is relatively large. The acetabu- lum is very small, and the pelvic inlet is rather elliptical and oblique. The femur is comparatively small and cyl- indrical. The tibia is short and curved. The fibula consists of the two extremities con- nected by a structure resembling a cord. The patella is rather long and narrow. The tarsus consists of five bones, several being fused together. The large metatarsus is longer than the corre- sponding metacarpus; the small metatarsus being a quadrilateral disc. The phalanges and sesamoids are almost iden- tical with those of the front limb. Joints and Ligaments. The temporo-mandibular articulations permit of the extensive lateral movements of rumination. The ligamentum nuchae is well developed. The articulations of the thorax are immovable. The shoulder joint has an acute articular angle. In the elbow joint no movement occurs between the radius and ulna. 56 SHEEP DISEASES. The carpal joints are very free. The metacarpophalangeal joints are two for each digit. The sacro-iliac joint is very strong. The hip joint is well protected by a marginal cartilage which reinforces the shallow acetabulum. In the stifle joint the synovial sacs communicate so freely as to form a common joint cavity. The tibio-fibular joint is a complete arthrosis. The hock joint has very little mobility. Adapted as the sheep is for mountain climb- ing, its joints are very strong, and dislocations are rare. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. The panniculus is well developed. The masseter is not large but is well developed. The hyoid muscles are very strong. The diaphragm is appreciably more oblique than in the ox, and relatively wide. The muscles of the shoulder girdle, shoulder, arm, forearm, abdomen, pelvis and pelvic limb are similar to those of other animals. There are four extensors of the leg and foot. Sprains of muscles, even on the roughest of ground, with much jumping, rarely occur in sheep. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. The lips are thin, and the upper one marked by a distinct cleft. The hard palate is smooth, and the mucous mem- brane more or less pigmented. The cheeks are lined with large papillae. ANATOMY. 57 The tongue lias a smooth tip. The milk teeth number twenty. There are thirty-two permanent teeth: eight incisors in the lower jaw; none in the upper; six molars in each arcade, or twelve in the lower and twelve in the irpper jaw. The cement is usually black. The following table gives the eruption periods of the various teeth : Teeth Temporary Permanent Central incisors At birth 1 year Second " 1st or 2d week 2 Third 2d or 3d 3 " Corner 3d or 4th " 4 First molar 4th week 1 V 2 to 2 years Second " " " Third '* " " Fourth " 3 to 5 months Fifth " 9 to 12 Sixth 1 to 2 years When the lamb is about a year old, the central pair of milk teeth drop out, succeeded by a pair of permanent teeth. About two years of age, the second pair of milk teeth (on each side of the centrals) drop out, and permanent teeth take their place. A year later, the third pair of milk teeth are "shed" and the permanent teeth have appeared in their place. At about four years of age, all the milk teeth have vanished and the sheep has a ' ' full mouth. ' ' Forced feeding and fattening cause the teeth to shed earlier; some show sheep having lost sev- eral of their permanent teeth before the age of five years. However, as a rule, the seven-year-old has lost one or two, and has a "broken mouth"; but one cannot tell the age of sheep with cer- tainty, by the teeth. 58 SHEEP DISEASES. The salivary glands are well formed and the parotid ducts open opposite the third molar. The tonsil is bean-shaped and about one-half inch long. The pharynx has a median fold which is a con- tinuation of the nasal septum. The esophagus has a lumen of about one inch when moderately distended. The four compartments of the stomach — the rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum — have a total capacity of about four gallons. The omasum is very small, having a capacity of only a pint. The abomasum is larger, holding nearly two quarts. The small intestines are about eighty feet long, and the lumen is about one inch in diameter. The cecum is about a foot long, and of a capac- ity of nearly a quart. The colon is about fifteen feet long, its lumen ranging from one inch to two inches. The liver weighs about one and one-half pounds, and lies mainly on the right of the median line. The bile duct joins the pancreatic duct and opens into the duodenum about a foot posterior to the stomach. The spleen is triangular in shape, weighing about three ounces. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. The nostrils are small and not very dilatable. The nasal cavity is very short and narrow be- hind. The larynx is small and compact. ANATOMY. 59 The trachea is small, and anyone who has at- tempted to inject gasoline into it will concur in the statement that it is very mobile. The thoracic cavity is small, and the pleura thick. The lnngs are very unequal in size, the right one being the larger. The left one has three lobes, and the right has four or five. The thyroid is very extensive, being largely utilized in the manufacture of a biological product. The thymus is very pale and delicate. THE URINARY ORGANS. The kidneys weigh about four ounces, and are bean-shafted. The right kidney lies under the first three lumbar vertebrae, while the left one is usually further forward. In the adult sheep, when the rumen becomes distended with food, the left kidney is pushed back several inches. The ureter of the left kidney has a peculiar course, due to the movable position of the kidney. It curves upward and inward, and crossing the median plane, runs backward on the left side. The right ureter runs back in a relatively straight line. The bladder is long and narrow, and extends rather far forward on the abdominal floor. The adrenals are bean-shaped. The right one lies along the inner border of the kidney and is about an inch long and wide. The left one is somewhat longer and slightly bent in shape. It lies across the left renal vein, and is not in con- tact with the kidney. 60 SHEEP DISEASES. THE MALE GENITAL ORGANS. The scrotum is long, pendulous and has a dis- tinct neck. The testicles are very large and oval. The epididymis is very adherent to the testicle. The spermatic cord is long, and the vaginal ring small. The vas deferens is of small calibre. The vesiculae seminales are compact. The prostate is light yellow in color. The penis is cylindrical, with a urethral process extending out from the glans. The prepuce is long and narrow. The urethra lies in a groove on the lower surface of the penis, forming a twisted process. Its diam- eter is not over one-sixteenth of an inch. This is one reason why mangels or sugar beets are a dan- gerous food for rams and wethers, on account of the calculi they form. THE FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS. The ovaries are small. The fallopian tubes are long and tortuous. The uterus lies almost entirely in the abdominal cavity, a thing that should be remembered in diag- nosing pregnancy. The vagina is short, with a thick wall. The urethra is very short, and dilatable. This prevents serious consequences from urinary calculi in ewes. The mammary glands are relatively large, and pigmented. ANATOMY. 61 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. The average sheep has about one gallon of blood; lambs scarcely a pint. This makes it an easy prey to blood sucking parasites. The pericardium is usually buried in a mass of fat. The heart is relatively large and situated prin- cipally upon the left of the median plane, being opposite the third to the fifth ribs. The arterial and venous systems are similar to those of other animals. The lymph system is very well marked in the sheep. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The diseases of the nervous system are many and varied in the sheep, but as practically all pathological lesions are caused by parasites, not much can be done, except to perform a very care- ful autopsy. The spinal cord is long and small, and the brain is relatively small. The nervous system is similar to that of other animals; perhaps not so highly developed as in the horse and dog. THE ORGANS OF THE SPECIAL SENSES. The eye is round, and the lids rather thick. The vitreous body is not very fluid. The ear inclines outward and upward, differing in the several breeds. The auditory canal is small. The skin is thin and of a pinkish hue when the animal is in good health, and covered with wool. The caliber of the wool fiber varies from one five- 62 SHEEP DISEASES. thousandth of an inch in Merinos to one four- lnmdred-fif tietli of an inch in Cotswolds. The olfactory organs are well developed; the ewe depends npon the sense of smell to identify her young. The sense of taste is highly developed; no ani- mal has a more dainty taste than has the sheep, still it will eat poisonous plants, such as death caraas, when it is young and succulent, and the animal is very hungry for green food. SECTION III. HYGIENE. All of those methods by which sheep are shielded to a greater or less extent from disease; kept in a state of health, and which contribute to their thrift, may correctly be classed as hygiene. No animal has less resistance to disease when once infected than has the sheep. No animal re- pays hygienic care and surroundings with greater profit than this one. A Western Shearing Camp. About 1200 are Sheared a Day in This Small Camp. For detailed information as to the management of sheep, the reader is referred to various books devoted to this subject. The following discussion is designed merely to outline the management and care that is conducive to health. 63 64 SHEEP DISEASES. GENERAL CARE. The care of fifty sheep on a small eastern farm is a vastly different undertaking from watching over a band of many thousand on the western range. While the habits of the animal are the same, whether it be in a bunch of a dozen or a Typical Sjieahing Pl.\s> band of three thousand, the management must vary to meet existing conditions. For that reason, the carefully formulated rules that may suit one breeder's fancy will be utterly out of place or wholly impractical for another. In all cases, however, kindness, cleanliness, lib- eral and regular feeding, together with a natural HYGIENE. 65 aptitude for caring for sheep are essentials for success. The pulse rate of sheep varies considerably, although seventy to ninety beats a minute may be taken as an average. Respirations vary from twelve to twenty a minute when the animal is per- ia the Range Country, fectly at ease. The temperature is usually around 103 degrees Fahrenheit, taken per rectum, al- though this depends to some extent on the age, weather, and degree of fatness. No other animal so clearly exhibits the symp- toms of disease as does the sheep. The loss of appetite; the listless air; the dull eye; the drawn- 66 SHEEP DISEASES. up appearance of the abdomen, and the seeking of a lonely spot in which to lie down, clearly point out the invasion of some disorder. Other symp- toms, more or less marked, give us a clue to the actual trouble, although in many cases where there is no history to guide one, the diagnosis must be made largely by exclusion, or from a postmortem examination of some animal similarly affected. Handling. Catching a sheep for examination is often per- formed incorrectly or carelessly. Grabbing a sheep by the wool often causes a bruise that may persist for months. Nothing else makes quite so unfavorable an impression upon the experienced sheep man as lunging wildly at an animal, and going through unnecessary antics in attempting to catch it. As strangers frighten sheep, it is a better plan to have the one accustomed to taking care of the flock catch the animal desired. If this is not pos- sible, drive the sheep into a small enclosure and grasp the flank, just over the stifle. To set it on its rump, place the left arm around the sheep's neck and hold the right forearm of the animal with the left hand. With the right hand reach under and grasp the right hind leg- above the hock. Pulling it against one's breast and exerting a little traction on the hind legs, the sheep will be raised on its rump easily, and ren- dered powerless to struggle. Leading a sheep is a simple matter when done correctly, although some Merinos will be found HYGIENE. 67 to be more stubborn than a mule. Get on its left side, place the left arm around its neck, with the other hand on its tail-head, and by tickling it slightly, the animal will walk briskly along. To carry a sheep, if it be a small one or a lamb, stand at the rear and to the right, slip the right hand back of the sheep 's right front leg and place it between the front legs. Lift it up slightly in front, and grasp the left hind leg just above the hock. Lift up, catching hold of both hind legs. This renders the sheep helpless, and it can be car- ried without struggling. To load sheep, into a wagon without a chute, two men can handle a small bunch quickly in the following manner: One man stands on each side of the sheep. The right hand of one grasps the left hand of the other between the forelegs, and the other hands are clasped in a similar manner under the flanks. Chutes are used where there are large numbers, and a goat acting as leader saves much time. Shipping sheep singly in crates supplied with a gunny sack of hay and grain is accomplished with very little loss. The expressmen, as a rule, take good care to water the animal at frequent intervals. s Feeding. As this is not a text on sheep management we merely wish to emphasize the importance of punctual feeding from the standpoint of hygiene. On the western range, alfalfa, field peas and kale are largely used as winter feeds. The preg- 68 SHEEP DISEASES. nant ewes are given a small quantity of oats to- wards lambing time. Alsike, clover, rape, rye, roots, and many other foods are used, depending on the locality and cost of feed. Timothy is very constipating, leading to "blind staggers," follow- ing impaction. Those sections supplied with "bunch-grass" and where the snow is not deep are fortunate, for nothing else is needed, except sulphur and salt. In the East, and for fitting sheep for exhibition, silage, cabbage and concentrated foods of many kinds are used. Shepherd's Calendar. March: The lambing season. This depends greatly upon the locality and breed. April: When about two weeks old the lambs are docked, branded, and the males castrated. The feet of the whole band should be attended to. May: The sheep are sheared and dipped and started for their summer range. June, July and August: Feeding in the forest ranges, often in sight of snow-capped mountains. This is one reason why western sheep are so healthy and thrifty; they are far above the parasite-infested lowlands. The lambs are weaned when about four to five months old. September: Toward the latter part of this month, the band is slowly trailed back home. In the Northwest, fields of wheat and oats "stubble" are purchased to turn the sheep into. In Colorado field peas are used. October: The band is culled, and the bucks HYGIENE. 69 turned in. Towards the latter part of the month the feet are again trimmed if necessary. November, December, January and February: Feeding at the home ranch, and selling lambs when the prices are favorable. CARE OF THE EWE. The period of estrum continues from two to four days, and the ewe will come in heat again in about sixteen days if not pregnant. li iLB Lambs at Shearing Timr Cut Away Prom Ewes. The average period of gestation is about one hundred and forty-five days, or four and one-half months. Male lambs are carried a little longer. If a ewe goes over a week after her time, the chances are the lamb is dead. Before lambing, the ewes should be "tagged" by removing any filthy locks of wool. Separating the pregnant ewes for the winter season is the best system, for then the danger of abortion from crowding and bruising is lessened. Only the brightest and cleanest of food should be fed to pregnant ewes. 70 SHEEP DISEASES. Turnips and cabbage make a good green food ration, while mangels and sugar beets are not rec- ommended before lambing. In parts of the west, along tlie coast, where green food grows the year around, these problems are solved by nature. Be- fore lambing the food should be abundant and laxative, a pound of equal parts of bran and oats being a fine addition to the hay ration. When the weather is not too stormy or wet, the animals should have plenty of exercise. This will prevent many cases of difficult parturition. The old English method of hauling a load of hay a mile from the sheep corral, compelling the sheep to follow it for their food, and then driving them back in the evening, was an excellent one. In the early spring, after a hard snowy winter, when the band is turned out to pick over the rough parts of the ranch, many abortions and deaths occur among the ewes from eating brush, moss, or any green forage that may be full of tur- pentine or other toxic ingredients. . Frozen roots, spoiled silage, mouldy hay, and an exclusive diet of timothy have caused the death of many a preg- nant ewe. When the lambing season arrives, the busiest time of the year on a sheep ranch is at hand. The ewes expected to lamb early should be given a roomy pen, dry, clean and quiet. As ewes seldom lamb between midnight and early in the morning, one should watch them at all hours, except this time. When a lamb gets away from its mother and she later refuses to claim it, they should be put HYGIENE. 71 in a pen together. If the mother butts it away, she should be tied up and the lamb allowed to snck. This usually causes a family reunion. The various diseases and disorders of the ewe are considered in the section, "Diseases of the Ewe." CARE OF THE LAMB. If the lamb is born normal, and does not become infested with parasites, very little need be done to keep it in a healthy and thrifty condition. How a Lamb is Docked with Hot Pinchers. Courtesy American Sheep Breeder. When an apparently "lifeless lamb" is dropped it may be possible to resuscitate it by the follow- ing method: Clean all mucus from the mouth and nostrils, and blow gently into its nose. Lay it on its belly and slightly tap each side over the lungs. A whiff or two of aromatic spirits of ammonia is beneficial. For a chilled lamb, wrapping it up in a warm coat or blanket and giving a few drops of whiskey 72 SHEEP DISEASES. in a little warmed water is good. In the several large sheep raising states that have lately gone "dry" aromatic spirits of ammonia may be sub- stituted. The latter will also keep longer around a sheep camp. Spirit of camphor and sweet spirit of nitre both contain large amounts of alco- hol, and may be employed as stimulants. When a lamb must be raised by hand, remember ewe's milk is much richer in fat and somewhat richer in casein than cow's milk, as the following table will show: MILK ANALYSIS. Ewe Cow Water 80.82 87.27 Casein 4.97 3.02 Albumin 1.55 0.53 Fat 6.86 3.64 Sugar 4.91 4.88 Ash 0.89 0.71 100.00 100.00 The specific gravity of ewe's milk is about 1.0341. No water should be added to cow's milk to feed an orphan lamb, but rather the richest whole milk that can be obtained. If the ewes have been fed oil cake the milk is increased greatly in fats, often causing scours in the lambs. When the lambs are about two weeks old, on a bright, sunny day, the males should be castrated. Select a clean, dry place for this work, and with disinfected hands and knife, hold the lamb, and cut off the lower third of the scrotum. Pull the tes- ticle and entire cord out. In older lambs the cord may be scraped off. If everything is kept clean no further attention is required. Keep the lambs by themselves for several hours as they will lie HYGIENE. 73 down and get trampled if pnt in with the rest of the sheep. Castrating in the evening has proven very successful with some breeders, as it gives the lambs a chance to remain quiet over night. At the same time the males are castrated, all the lambs may be docked, branded, tattooed and marked. The easiest and most bloodless method of docking is to heat a pair of pincers red hot and use it to sever the tails; over a dozen lambs can be docked with one heating. When the lambs are about four or five months old, or along in August, they are weaned. By this time they have learned to pick up almost enough feed to satisfy their wants, and merely taking them entirely away from the ewes, a day or two, will render them weaned. At weaning time it is a good plan to separate the ram lambs from the others, although this is not done sometimes until they are six months of age. A healthy lamb will become plump and make a steady growth. A stunted lamb seldom "catches up." It is remarkable how fast range lambs fat- ten in the fall while trailed back on stubble or field peas. Many a carload has topped the market from just this kind of feed. CARE OF THE BUCK. If the animal has been kept in good condition and given sufficient exercise, he requires but little attention. A ration of bran and oats fed a month or so before the mating season is conducive to vigor. Sugar beets and mangels should never be 74 SHEEP DISEASES. fed bucks or wethers, for, as stated elsewhere, urinary calculi are apt to be formed, which, owing to the small caliber of the urethra — one-sixteenth of an inch — leads to death. On the western range about one buck to thirty- five ewes is the usual number. After the mating season the male should be given sufficient food to keep him in fair condition, but not fat. Exercise is the most essential thing in sheep hygiene. They are naturally roving ani- mals, and the main cause of impotent bucks is traceable to lack of exercise which leads to vicious habits and excessive fat. SECTION IV. MEDICINES AND THEIR ADMINISTRATION. GENERAL CONSIDERATION. Comparatively few medicines 3 are used inter- nally in the treatment of sheep diseases. Due to the tortuous digestive system, drugs are very slowly absorbed and usually the animal is dead before action is obtained. As most ailments that require medicinal treat- ment are emergency cases, such as poisons, para- sites and injuries, large and heroic doses must be given, and repeated often. It is well to remember the common remedies found in every household or sheep camp, such as salt, pepper, ginger, soda, turpentine and the like, for often one does not have access to a complete medicine chest. To be able to use what is at hand intelligently is better than to know the pharmacopeia by heart and overlook the simple remedies. Long treatises have been written on drugs, but the more experience one has in the treatment of sheep, the fewer drugs he will use. To not overdo the treatment requires as much judgment as to render adequate aid. As many sheep are herded during the summer •Quitman's "Synopsis of Veterinary Medicine" was the text consulted. 75 76 SHEEP DISEASES. season far up in the mountains away from the haunts of civilization, and where veterinary at- tendance is not available except in extraordinary cases, veterinarians can serve their clients best under these conditions by outfitting a small medi- cine case of simple remedies and giving the herder explicit directions how to use them and also the conditions that may arise that will justify him in sending fifty, seventy-five or maybe even two hun- dred or three hundred miles for the veterinarian's services. Part of the instruction given below can be adapted by the veterinarian to the use of the shep- herd and given to him with such remedies as he deems necessary to be taken along in the camp when the herd is driven away for the summer. Administering Medicines. The restraint of sheep has been dealt with in the section on Hygiene. Setting the sheep on its rump to drench it is inadvisable. Standing it in a corner is the best method to pursue, for then the danger of pouring a portion of the drench into the lungs will be ob- viated. A two-ounce dose syringe is the handiest article with which to give medicine. Dilute the drugs well with water, raw oil, milk, sirup, or gruel, and introduce the nozzle between the lips in the inter- dental space. Do not hold the tongue, but keep the mouth closed, and the animal will swallow slowly. Proper restraint is half the battle. To drench with a bottle requires patience and MEDICINES AND THEIR ADMINISTRATION. 77 skill ; unnumbered sheep have been given mechan- ical pneumonia by this method. Small sheep or lambs may be straddled, while large ones should be backed into a corner where they cannot run away. The left hand should be placed on the lower jaw, with the thumb in the interdental space. Place the neck of the bottle on the tongue or near it, and pour in, very slowly, about half the con- tents of the bottle. Best a minute or two between ' ' drinks. ' ' When a bottle is not available, a spoon may be used. Pouch out the lower lip and pour the med- icine into the cavity so formed. Mixing the medicines in thick sirup and smear- ing on the tongue or teeth in the form of an elect- uary is a convenient method. Hypodermic medication may be performed in any part of the skin where the latter is denuded of wool. . Enemas are valuable in many cases. Adding a tablespoonful of glycerin to a pint of warm, soapy water adds to the efficiency of the injection. Dips should be kept warm, and the animals treated only on bright sunny days. For foot trou- bles, the solution may be placed in a trough or shallow vat, several inches deep, and the band driven through it. Dosage. The relative dose of medicine given to a sheep is about one-fourth to one-sixth as much as given to a horse, and about four times the dose indi- cated for a human. The dose, however, varies 78 SHEEP DISEASES. t greatly with the circumstances, drugs being often indicated in very large quantities; e. g., antidotes for poisoning, well diluted with water or oil. It is well to remember that a teaspoon holds one dram, or one-fourth of a tablespoonful. A tablespoon is nearly equivalent to one-half, ounce. A common tumbler contains about eight ounces, or one-half pint. A common tea-cup will hold about eight ounces ; although most cups carried in sheep camps hold nearly a pint, as they are more for service than for style. Depending on the age of the lamb, from one- third to one-half the size of the dose given sheep can be administered. A Table of Frequently Used Drugs. No complete table of drugs used in sheep prac- tice can be given, because there are no two local- ities with exactly the same disorders. The veter- inarian will soon become familiar with the ail- ments in his immediate vicinity and use the drugs indicated. The following table is an outline of the drugs generally used, and the safe, but active dosage appended: Drug Dose for sheep Acaciae mucilago 1< s ; Acetanilidum 3i Aconiti, tinctura m. xx Alcohol Q- s. Alumini sulphas gr. xx Atropinae sulphas gr. 1/20 * MEDICINES AND THEIR ADMINISTRATION. 79 Drug Dose for sheep Balsamum Peruvianum q. s. Belladonnae rad. Flext m. xx Bismuthum subnitras gr. xx Boricum, acidum q. s. Camphorae, spiritus Sss Cannabis Ind. Flext 3ss Chloral 3ii Carbo ligni q. s. Creosotum, Beechwood m. ii Cupri sulphas q. s. Digitalis, Flext m. v Dioscorea, Flext 3ii Ergotae, Flext 3i Ether q. s. Eucalypti, oleum 3ss Formaldehydi, Liq 3i Gentianae, Flext 3ss Glycerinum q. s. Gasolin q. s. Hydrargarium chloridiun mite 3ss Hydrogenii dioxidi aqua q. s. Iodi, tinctura q. s. Lini, oleum Sviii Magnesii sulphas 3vi Nitrosi, spiritus etheris 3ss Nucis vom. Flext m. x Olivae, oleum q. s. Opii tinctura 3i Phytolaccae, Flext 3i Piperitae Menthae Oleum m. x Potassi permanganas gr. xx Plumbi acetas q. s. Potassii iodi gr. xx Potassi Arsenitis, Liq m. xx Petrolatum q. s. Rhamni Purshianae Flext 3i Rhei, Tinctura aromatica 3i Ricini, oleum 3iv Santoninum 3i Saponis, lin q. s. Sodium chloridi q. s. 80 SHEEP DISEASES. Drug Dose for sheep Sodium hyposulphite 3ss Sodium bicarbonas q. s. Spiritus vini gallici 3ss Sulphur subliatum q. s. Terehinthinae oleum 3ss Tinctura Ferri Chlorid q. s. Zinci sulphas q. s. Zingerberis, tinctura 3i Of the drugs mentioned above, perhaps a dozen are commonly used. Due to the delicate taste of the sheep none can be given on the feed. All must be given as a drench or an electuary. Preventive medication, such as dipping or re- moving animals from parasite — or poison — in- fested ranges, is far more successful and satis- factory than constant drugging. Emergency Medicine Case for the Range. Before trailing the sheep to the summer range it is well to provide the herders with an emergency medicine chest, and instruct them how to use each drug. Hints can be given how to treat a saddle- horse or a valuable dog as well as sheep out of the case. Less fatalities among the men them- selves would occur if the sheep owners would secure a competent physician to give the herders a little talk on " first aid." For the common emergencies among animals, the following list will be found useful: One dozen two-inch gauze bandages. Four one-quarter pound rolls absorbent cotton. One roll inch zinc oxide adhesive plaster. Ten pounds sulphur. Ten pounds Epsom salt. One gallon raw linseed oil. MEDICINES AND THEIR ADMINISTRATION. 81 One quart castor oil. One quart glycerin. One pint hydrogen peroxid. One pint tincture iodin. One pint spirit of camphor. One pint sweet spirit nitre. One pint tincture of iron. One quart olive oil. One gallon turpentine. One gallon pine tar. Two hundred, twenty-grain powders containing equal parts potassium permanganate and powdered alum. Several two-ounce dose syringes. Disinfectants. As prevention of disease and parasites is of the utmost importance in sheep industry, a knowledge of disinfectants and their germicidal powers is necessary. On the western range, very little disinfecting is necessary except in infected corrals, shearing or lambing sheds, or feeding lots. Official disinfectants as designated by the Bureau of Animal Industry mention the following: 1. A five per cent solution carbolic acid. Due to its present high price this is very little used. 2. A three per cent solution of liquor cresolis compound. This is a coal tar product. Many other well known coal tar dips such as Kreso, Sanax, Lysol, Chloro-naphtholeum and the like, which are merely trade names of the different man- ufacturers, are good and efficient. 3. A 1 to 1,000 solution mercuric chlorid. On account of its dangerous properties to animals from licking it, this is not much used for sheep. 4. Chlorid of lime, one pound to one and one- half gallons of water. 5. Formalin, one quart to five gallons of water. 82 SHEEP DISEASES. For disinfecting a shed or corral, perhaps as good as any disinfectant is lime and sulphur dip. Put a half bushel of unslaked lime in a fifty- gallon barrel, and add enough water to make a smooth paste. Add about twenty gallons of water, stirring constantly, and then add the coal tar dip, about three gallons will be sufficient, and fill the barrel up with water. Allow to stand over night, and by not agitating the solution, one can use a spray pump with little annoyance from clogging. The most common western method is to dilute the sediment from the lime and sulphur dips, and throw it around over the corral or pens. For detailed formulae of the various dips, see Section on Parasites, page 161. Blue vitriol and common lime are the solutions most used in foot rot on the range. The Value of Postmortem Examinations. Perhaps in no species of animal is an autopsy more valuable than in sheep. To ascertain with reasonable certainty the exact trouble is more than half the battle, and preventive measures can be taken to eradicate the malady, if at all practicable. Sheep that have been dead more than twenty- four hours are not good subjects for postmortem examination. The putrefactive organisms and gas have caused such changes that one cannot tell anything about the original ailment. Examine the head for grub; the trachea for lung- worms; the fourth stomach for stomach worms; the liver for liver flukes; the skin for scab mites or ticks, and every organ for pathological lesions. MEDICINES AND THEIR ADMINISTRATION. 83 Poisons usually but not always cause a violent inflammation of the intestines. Sometimes several or more autopsies are neces- sary to arrive at a correct diagnosis, and even then it is often the safer method to make a guarded one. SECTION V. ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES. Anthrax. Splenic fever; wool sorter's disease; splenic apoplexy; malignant pustule; anthracemia; my- cosis intestinalis. Cause: The Bacillus anthracis, a square-end rod-shaped germ; stains by Gram's method. Re- mains virulent for years. Symptoms: In sheep the symptoms are very acute. Loss of appetite ; rise in temperature ; edematous swellings ap- pear on flanks, and the skin may be covered with an erysipelas-like eruption. Dark, bloody, frothy m ucus exudes from the nostrils, mouth and anus. Young ani- mals are more suscep- tible to the disease than older ones, but the mor- tality — even in adults — is very great. The diagnosis is determined by the postmortem findings; the "blackberry spleen" differentiating it from blackleg. The usual channel of infection is throuah the Bacillus Axthr.uls. Fresh Sheep Blood Stained with Diluted Fuchsin Solu- tion. (From Hutyra and Marek. ) Texts consulted : Hutyra and Marek's Pathology and Therapeutics of the Diseases of Domestic Animals. Friedberger and Prohner's Veterinary Pathology. Moore's Pathology and Differential Diagnosis of the Infectious Diseases of Animals. 84 ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 85 digestive system; the germs entering the blood and lymph streams from this source. Death ensues in from several hours to two days. The imme- diate cause of death is suffocation. The history of the disease in a given attack or locality is help- ful in making a diagnosis, since where previous outbreaks have occurred, one will be constantly on the lookout. However, in any serious epizootic among sheep, a clinical diagnosis confirmed by a bacteriological examination is the only safe one. Treatment: First, accurate diagnosis; second, rigid quarantine; third, slaughter of diseased ani- mals and burning the carcasses; fourth, immuni- zation and a change of range. The very best thing one can do in case of the appearance of this disease is to notify the nearest Federal or state live stock sanitary official by wire. Veterinarians must disabuse themselves of the belief that it is a reflection upon their professional ability and skill to call upon state or Federal officials in outbreaks of disease that are suspected of being highly con- tagious and susceptible of control only by con- certed public action. It demonstrates a better ability to take this precaution a hundred times where later developments reveal it unnecessary than to fail to take it one time and thus permit the unnecessary infection of wide areas and as a consequence great loss perhaps for years to come. 2. Malignant Edema. Edema malignum; septicemia gangraenosa. Cause: The anaerobic "Bacillus edematis ma- liffni." 86 SHEEP DISEASES. This is a wound infection disease often fol- lowing castration. The germ greatly resembles the causative factor of anthrax, except that it has rounded ends. Like tetanus, it grows only in oxygen free cultures. Symptoms: In general the clinical picture is much the same as that of blackleg. Usually the sheep is found dead, and others may show vague symptoms indi- cating that something is not exactly "right." The temperature is very high at the onset of the disease and a diarrhea is usually present. Crep- itating swellings similar to those seen in blackleg can be felt on the body; the respirations are la- bored; the pulse is wiry; and the visible mucous membranes cyanotic. Due to the extreme difficulty in making a clin- ical diagnosis, a bacteriological examination should be made. Treatment: This is a rare disease among sheep, and is very seldom seen on the range. It is usually found around the barn-yard and in low, damp places. No successful treatment has so far been found. Prevention consists in moving the sheep to an- other range, preferably to a higher one. It is a quarantinable disease and should be reported to state officials immediately. Bacillus of Blackleg. ACUTE INFECTIOUS DIS E A SES. 87 3. Blackleg. Black quarter; quarter ill; symptomatic an- thrax; gangrenous emphysema. Cause: The Bacterium Chauveaui, a rather thick, straight germ, with rounded ends. It is a very difficult organism to eradicate, as the spores may live for years. Symptoms: Only the greatest of care will enable one to differentiate this disease from certain forms of poisoning in sheep. On the range the course of the malady is very rapid. When first seen, the animal has difficulty in walking; its abdomen is distended from bloat- ing; a frothy discharge is seen oozing from the mouth, and the temperature is very high. The herder immediately diagnoses the trouble as pois- oning, and many more die before expert assistance is sent for. When local symptoms are pronounced, such as crepitating swellings on the hindquarters, the diagnosis is comparatively easy to make. Treatment: Purely preventive. This is done by immunization and removal to another range. Blackleg is rather rare among sheep, but one out- break that came to the author's notice caused the death of over four hundred sheep before expert assistance was even called. Every known anti- dote for poisoning had been used to no avail. 4. Bradsot. Braxy; gastromycosis ovis. This is a disease much resembling blackleg. It is very destructive to sheep in Norway, Iceland, 88 SHEEP DISEASES. Denmark, Germany and Scotland. It is seen in the lowlands along the coast, and when sheep are brought down from the mountain pastures and driven into infected ground, the loss is very great. It is not found in this country. 5. Hemorrhagic Septicemia. Catarrhal fever of sheep; septicemia hemor- rhagica ovum. Cause: The Bacillus ovisepticus, a short, non- motile non-spore-forming germ, which will not stain by Gram's method, but stains with the anilin dyes. Symptoms: The animal is dull; listless; the respirations are labored, and there is great thirst. The temperature is high, and there are present some muscular tremors. The latter symptom makes the disease very difficult to diagnose from some forms of poisoning. The high temperature simulates blackleg, and a very careful examination must be made to arrive at a conclusive opinion. A bacteriological examination should be made to confirm the diagnosis. Fortunately, in this country hemorrhagic sep- ticemia is a rare disease in sheep, but it is common in Europe and Argentine. Treatment: Nothing practical has been found but prevention by removal to another range. Im- munization has been tried, and the results have been fairly satisfactory. 6. Rinderpest. While this is commonlv a disease of cattle and ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 89 not found in this country, it lias caused immense losses in other parts of the world. Southern Europe, Asia, the Philippines and Africa have been devastated time after time with this deadly plague. In some instances large losses of sheep and goats have occurred. This disease became such a widespread epizootic that the first veterinary colleges were established to combat this malady alone. Cause: Unknown. Symptoms: Experienced veterinarians declare it greatly resembles hemorrhagic septicemia. Treatment: As yet, no successful treatment has been devised. Quarantine and slaughter are the two methods used to combat it. Immunization with varying results have been tried. 7. Sheep Pox. Variola ovina; pox. Cause: Unknown. The purulent matter found in the cutaneous pustules seems to convey the virus. Symptoms: The prodromal symptoms are a loss of appetite; high temperature, and, later on the bare or hairy parts of the skin, small papules appear. These are covered with scabs, and in- tense itching follows. The disease is not a fatal one, but the irritation causes a great loss of weight in affected animals. It is not a common disease in this country. Treatment: As one attack confers immunity, light outbreaks are welcomed in the countries 90 SHEEP DISEASES. where the disease is enzootic. Immunization has been tried, but with very little success. Hygienic care sems to be the best line of treatment. Dif- ferentiating the disease from common scab is the first problem. 8. Foot-and-Mouth Disease. Aphthae epizooticae. Probably no disease appearing among cloven- footed animals in this country has been so thor- oughly discussed in the past several years as this one, consequently a mere summary is given here. Cause: Unknown. The clear serum-like con- tents of the vesicles and the blood carry the con- tagium. Symptoms: As this is an acute febrile disease, the first symptom noted is a high temperature usually accompanied by a slight lameness. The foot becomes swollen, feverish, and small vesicles which later become pustules are found in the in- terdigital space. Upon squeezing this, thick pus comes out in a spiral, worm-like shape, hence the colloquial term, "hoof-worm." Great care must be used to differentiate it from foot rot. Compli- cations, such as lack of appetite, abortion in preg- nant ewes, and vesicles on other parts of the body, as in the mouth and sometimes on the teats, may help one to exclude any form of rot. In the latter disease the hoof becomes gangrenous, and to one who has seen both, the difference between these two disorders is very noticeable. The his- tory of an attack is perhaps more important in arriving at a diagnosis than are the lesions. The ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 1)1 fact that all kinds of cloven hoofed animals on the premises are affected; the low percentage of the susceptible animals that succumb; the lame- ness in the hogs; the "smacking" in cattle; the immunity of horses and mules; the mortality of the sucklings, etc., must be taken into considera- tion in differentiating this disease. Avoid a pub- lic announcement of the presence of this disease until the diagnosis is positive; but take no chances of permitting the spread of the disease through a failure to notify the proper authorities in every suspected case. The instructions issued by the Bureau of Animal Industry at Washington on this matter are as follows: "In all cases of foot-and- mouth disease, even where there are only slight grounds for suspicion of a new outbreak, the mat- ter should be reported immediately by wire to the Chief of the Bureau; a detailed written report should be forwarded as soon as possible. This report should include a description of the lesions and their location, the number of susceptible ani- mals of each species on the farm, the number of animals of each species affected, the temperature record, and the history, including the evidence, if any, of contagion." Heed them. Treatment: This is a subject open to discussion. It has been proved that quarantine and slaughter, except perhaps in very high priced stock, is the only safe and sane method to combat the disease where there is a probability of its eradication. The course of the disease is from ten days to two weeks; it is but slightly fatal, except in some out- breaks where it assumes a malignant form and in 92 SHEEP DISEASES. young animals, but its effect on weight and milk or wool causes a great economic loss. It is a quarantinable disease, and as above stated one should waste no time in notifying the proper authorities of suspected cases. The failure to do this in the 1914 outbreak resulted in the expendi- ture of five million dollars by the Federal and vari- ous state governments in combatting this disease and a loss to the livestock industry from quaran- tines and interference with the marketing of live- stock, probably four times as great. Twenty-five millions for neglect of this simple precaution! 9. Tetanus. Lockjaw; trismus. Cause: The Bacillus tetani, an anaerobic or- ganism. It is a slender, spore-forming germ and has been called the "pin bacillus" and the "tennis racket bacillus." Symptoms: Being a wound-infection disease, it usually appears among lambs after castration, docking, ear marking, or in rare cases, from um- bilical infection. There have been cases where ewes have been infected after labor. In young lambs, about a day or so after infection, they become dull, lose their appetite, and as the disease progresses, assume a stiff "saw-buck" attitude. The muscles in the neck become rigid, which causes an inability to swallow, and subse- quent bloating is noticeable. Sometimes a profuse diarrhea occurs. Death occurs from suffocation. This disease is quite apt to run a subacute course ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 93 in lambs infected from castration or docking wounds. They may be unable to put the nose to the ground to drink from a pail or even to nurse for as much as two weeks and yet retain their ability to swallow milk given as a drench. During most of this time, they may be able to walk with- out much difficulty and even to run rather swiftly in a straight line, and yet when down be unable to rise without help. These cases when down lie on the side with the legs extended stiffly, hori- zontally. In turning when running, they are al- most sure to fall. If they fall in the warm sun- shine and lie there for a time, a very high tem- perature up to 108 to 110 degrees Fahrenheit speedily ensues. Recovery is rare. Once this affection appears in a flock it is apt to affect as high as twenty-five per cent of the lambs having access to the infected quarters after castration. Treatment: After the characteristic symptoms appear among sheep, very little can be done. Since the infection occurs only among flocks having access to a much used corral, the entire band should be moved to other quarters. Immuniza- tion is practical only in high priced animals. 10. Rabies. Hydrophobia ; lyssa; mad-dog; canine rage. This disease has assumed importance in the West due to outbreaks among dogs, coyotes and other predatory animals on the range. Much loss has occurred among sheep from this disease, and flic zone of infection is constantly increasing. 94 SHEEP DISEASES. Cause: Unknown. The virus is conveyed by the saliva. Negri bodies found in the brain con- firm the clinical diagnosis. Remarkable success in diagnosing this disease from a blood examina- tion has been reported recently. Symptoms: In sheep, the period of incubation is unknown; there are practically no prodromal symptoms. In ewes, stamping the feet and a de- sire to butt everything in sight is noticeable. In bucks, the sexual desire is greatly increased. This stage of disease persists for nearly a week, and the animal finally drops to the ground from ex- haustion and dies with paralysis. The diagnosis can usually be made from the history of the case, together with the character- istic symptoms of the affected animals. Poison- ing is often confused with this ailment by the herders, and in every doubtful case a microscopi- cal examination of the brain should be made, as the autopsy reveals little or nothing. Treatment: Infected animals should be de- stroyed and the carcasses burned. Extra precau- tions should be observed in watching the actions of the sheep dogs. The Pasteur treatment should immediately be administered to any person bitten by even a suspicious-acting dog. The expense of the Pasteur treatment is too great to be practical for ordinary sheep, although valuable ones may be given the Pasteur treatment. Dr. Zell has re- ported a successful inexpensive prophylactic treatment that he has used to some extent in an experimental way. ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 95 11. Tuberculosis. Pearly disease; consumption ; grapes; "white plague." While sheep are not very susceptible to this disease, government reports for last year show over half-a-million dollars' worth of mutton con- demned for this disease alone. Cause: The Bacterium tuberculosis, a very small organism found chiefly in the lymph system. Because of the very extensive literature on this subject only a brief summary is herewith given. Symptoms: A tuberculous sheep exhibits very few symptoms; a lack of thrift being the most noticeable. The visible mucous membranes are pale, while the wool is harsh and dry. The clin- ical picture greatly resembles infection by stomach worms, and only an autopsy will determine the exact trouble. In suspected cases the intra-dermal tuberculin test may be resorted to. Treatment: At present, hopeless. An entire change of quarters and breeding stock is advised. 12. Ovine Caseous Lymphadenitis. Pseudo-tuberculosis. Cause: The Bacillus pseudotuberculosis ovis, a very delicate, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped germ. It stains with anilin dyes and by Gram's method. Symptoms: There are no marked symptoms, and the disease is not discovered until after death. Many cases are reported by government inspectors 96 SHEEP DISEASES. at packing houses; the malady seems widespread over the West. The lymphatic glands become caseous, and in individuals where great enlargement has taken place, emaciation is present. Treatment: Nothing but prevention is known at the present time. 13. Actinomycosis. Lumpy jaw; big jaw; wooden tongue. Cause: Actinomyces bovis, or ray fungus. Symptoms: Inability to chew food is the first symptom noted, followed by a swelling on the jaw. The tongue may be affected, and the animal suc- cumb to starvation. It is a very rare disease in sheep, but cases are on record. Treatment: None practical on the ranges. Slaughter under government inspection is perhaps the best method. Where but a single or at most but a few individuals are affected on a small farm the administration of potassium iodid may be re- sorted to. 14. Glanders. Sheep have never been known to become in- fected through natural sources. This disease was formerly confused with hemorrhagic septicemia. 15. Contagious Abortion. Another disease seldom found in sheep. Usually the form of abortion occurring among ewes is due to toxic ingredients found in the food, or to ex- posure and bruises. ACUTE INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 97 16. Piroplasmosis. Carceag; ictero-hematuria; malarial catarrhal fever. A disease not found in this country, but existing principally in the Balkan states. Cause: Piroplasma ovis, resembling- in shape the causative factor of Texas fever in cattle. Symptoms: High temperature; loss of appetite, and bloody urine. Treatment: Wholly preventive. 17. Foot Rot. Lip-and-leg ulceration. Two forms of foot rot are recognized on the western range. One is non-contagious, and is due entirely to wet weather and standing in mud which softens the hoof and produces a condition prac- tically the same as scratches in horses. The second type of foot rot is caused by the Bacillus neerophorus, which, when affecting the mouth at the same time, is called "lip-and-leg ulceration," and in some stages might be mis- taken for foot-and-mouth disease by the inexpe- rienced. Symptoms: The contagious form exhibits very marked symptoms. The affected sheep limps; swollen areas are found around the coronary band, with a separation of the hoof, and little gangren- ous spots having a very putrid odor occur around the interdigital canal ; sometimes the infection ex- tends to the eyes and nose and, in females, to the genital organs. 98 SHEEP DISEASES. Treatment: Driving the band through a trough containing several inches of copper sulphate solu- tion — one pound to a gallon of water — usually results in improvement. The worst infected feet should be trimmed with a sharp knife before treat- ing. Pure Balsam of Peru is an excellent local application where there is much gangrene. 18. Septicemia. Blood poisoning; pyemia. This is a term used when invading organisms of the pus or coli communis type enter the cir- culatory system, and cause such specific diseases as navel-ill in the lamb (page 133) or septic me- tritis (page 142) in the ewe, which see. SECTION VI. DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 1. Anemia. Acute anemia may be caused by some form of traumatism, such as may result in a severed blood vessel; or it may be caused by epistaxis or phle- botomy. Chronic anemia is usually the result of internal parasites, such as stomach worms; external para- sites, as the scab mites, or the ingestion of large quantities of marshy, watery food. Extensive feeding of beets, turnips or other foods deficient in proteids may cause this condition. Anemia is primarily a symptom of some dis- order. Symptoms: The manifestations of this ailment are very pronounced in sheep. The skin, instead of being of a pinkish hue, is a paper-like white. Later, the animal becomes dull, loses its appetite, becomes weak, is not able to stand up, and death from suffocation ends the clinical picture. Treatment: This consists in removing the ex- citing cause, be it parasites, exposure, or lack of exercise and supplying good nourishing food. Some form of iron should be fed the affected animals ad lib. 99 100 SHEEP DISEASES. 2. Red Water. Sanguineous ascites. This ailment is due to feeding frosty turnips or other watery roots that have been frozen. Symptoms: In the morning, upon going out to feed the animals, several sheep will be found to have no appetite. The breathing will be labored, and considerable bloat is present. A swelling is often noticed under the lower jaw and the under side of the neck. Constipation is followed by a profuse diarrhea. The clinical picture greatly re- sembles poisoning. Treatment: The chances for recovery depend on how long the disorder has been present. If the animal is anemic, young and delicate, the pros- pects for successful treatment are not good. A complete change of quarters, food and water is recommended. The following may be tried: Fer. chlorid ,5i Oleum lini q. s. ad 5viii M. Sig. Give tablespoonful once daily. 3. Pining. This disease is not found in this country. It occurs in England, where many plants are found that have a tendency to constipate. The onset of this disease is very insidious; it runs a course of from a week to a month and ends fatally. Symptoms: The wool becomes harsh; the eyes dull; the mucous membranes pale, and towards DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 101 the end, the sheep lies down a great deal. Finally, it becomes too weak to get np, and dies from inani- tion. Treatment: The only treatment known to be of value is a change of range, to prevent an ex- tension of the disease. It is possible also that animals in incipient stages of the disease may be saved by this means. SECTION VII. DISEASES OF METABOLISM. 1. Obesity. This is a rather rare disease among sheep; al- ways secondary to some other trouble. Cases of non-pathological obesity will be eagerly purchased by the butcher. 2. Rachitis. Rickets. This disease is due to a deficiency of lime salts, occurring almost exclusively among lambs. Symptoms: The animal becomes delicate and does not thrive. The legs become crooked and pliable, and the "bow-legs" in front arc very noticeable. Treatment: Supply the necessary bone-build- ing mineral salts. The following is excellent for lambs: Syr. lactophosphate Sviii Cod-liver oil ?xvi M. Sig. One ounce daily with dose syringe. If the patient is a suckling, the ewe can be given lime-containing foods and the calcium phosphate mixed with molasses and given as an electuary. 3. Wool Eating. This is more of a habit among sheep than a dis- ease. Usually when a band of sheep are kept in 102 DISEASES OF METABOLISM. L03 close quarters, one or two may become warm and itchy and bite their wool. This leads to more biting and others imitate it. A few animals may die from ingesting too much wool, which form balls in their intestines, causing an obstruction. Others seem not to be affected in any way what- ever. Treatment: This consists in removing the wool- eaters from the rest of the flock, and giving each one a hypodermic injection of one-tenth grain apomorphin once daily for three or four days. 4. Diabetes. This is a very rare affection of sheep ; the cause is not known. It has been classed variously as a disease of the kidneys, liver and of the blood. Diabetes insipidus is a condition whereby large quantities of urine, with no excess of sugar, are voided. Diabetes mellitus indicates that large quantities of sugar are being passed. Treatment: Slaughter under government super- vision, with a change of diet for the apparently healthy members of the flock. SECTION VIII. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 1. Hematuria. Red corpuscles in the urine, causing the latter to assume a reddish color, is a condition often fol- lowing the ingestion of frozen or poisonous forage, severe injuries to the abdomen, and renal calculi. Treatment: Is purely symptomatic. Clean food, with hygienic care, usually prevents the trouble from extending to other members of the band. 2. Uremia. Uremia is a condition in which the solid con- stituents of the urine are retained in the blood circulation. The exciting cause may be a retention of the urine in the bladder, caused by urinary calculi,, or a paralysis of the latter, due to some form of poisoning. Symptoms: It is very difficult to differentiate from poisoning, or abdominal injuries, until one can detect the urinous respiration. After a period of intense pain, stupor and paralysis ensue and the animal dies in a comatose condition. Treatment: There is no successful treatment, and immediate slaughter should be advised. 104 DISEASES OF THE URINARY GROANS. 105 3. Nephritis. Inflammation of the kidneys; renal inflamma- tion. This is a secondary condition, following the in- vasion of parasites; infectious diseases; injuries; exposure to cold and rain, and poisonings. The symptoms are mainly associated with the primary disorder, and as urinary analyses are im- practical in routine work with sheep, very little can be done. The treatment is symptomatic and not very suc- cessful. 4. Rare and Unimportant Diseases of the Urinary Organs. Occasionally diseases of the urinary tract other than those mentioned in the foregoing are found in sheep. Usually they are not recognized until after death. Among these may be mentioned cys- tic kidneys, renal calculi, cystitis, and tape worm cysts — the Eehinococeus polymorphous. SECTION IX. DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 1. Pericarditis. Due to the fact that the sheep is such a dainty eater we find no traumatic pericarditis such as "Stunts" with the Lariat. A sheep camp is often located 50 to 200 or even 300 miles from the home ranch and the camp tender's life is a monotonous one. occurs in the bovine. Other forms arc almost un- known. 2. Dropsy of the Pericardium. When this occurs it is usually a secondary affec- tion due to poisonings, parasites in the liver, or chronic inflammation of the kidneys. 106 DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 107 3. Hypertrophy of the Heart. This is a secondary ailment, usually resulting from the effects of parasites in the blood stream. 4. Valvular Diseases. This is co-incident with, and caused by the same pathological conditions as hypertrophy of the heart. Counting Six Thousand. Sheep practice in the range country does not take the veterinarian over paved streets or even surveyed roads. These diseases of the heart in sheep are rarely, if ever, diagnosed during life. The chief object in mentioning them is to enable the practitioner to guard against invasions of similar nature in the apparently healthy members of the flock. SECTION X. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 1. Epistaxis. Hemorrhage from the nose; nasal hemorrhage; bleeding from the nose. This is merely a secondary condition, following injuries to the head and nose, parasites, and acute infections diseases. Treatment: When the blood shows no sign of coagulation tampons of absorbent cotton, satu- rated with tincture of iron, tannic acid, alum, tur- pentine or adrenalin chlorid, charcoal or even earth, may be applied. 2. Nasal Catarrh. Snuffles. This ailment ordinarily results from exposure to the cold or rain; dipping or shearing too early, or from an invasion of parasites. The symptoms are obvious. Treatment: Mainly consists in removing the exciting cause. Pine tar may be smeared over the nostrils, and the animal given clean, dry quarters. The following given for several days may abort an attack of pneumonia as a complication: 108 DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 109 R Creosoti, Beech 3ii Spts. camphorae ,?i 01. lini q. s. ad Sviii M. Sig. Give one tablespoonful three times a day. 3. Non-Parasitic Bronchitis. Frequently a sequela of nasal catarrh. Cause, symptoms and treatment practically the same as for nasal catarrh. Verminous bronchitis, caused by lung worms, is considered in the section on parasites. 4. Japp Disease. This is a disease not found in this country, but common in parts of Germany. It is characterized by an intense bronchitis. No cause nor cure has yet been discovered. 5. Pneumonia. Inflammation of the lungs; lung fever; pneu- monitis; and congestion of the lungs. Three types are recognized in sheep: a. Parasitic — due to lung worms. b. Traumatic — caused by drenching. c. Common congestion of the lungs, caused by exposure; chills; wet weather, and as sequela fol- lowing nasal catarrh or bronchitis. Symptoms: These are characteristic, but very difficult to differentiate from acute poisoning, at the onset. Cough; labored respiration; loss of ap- petite; congestion of the visible mucous mem- branes, followed by weakness, are present, and often followed by death. In large bands, as many 110 SHEEP DISEASES. as fifteen hundred sheep have succumbed within a few days, during a season of wet or cold weather. Treatment: In no disease are hygienic measures more important, and when these cannot be given, attempts at medical treatment are useless. Cam- phor and creosote, such as has been suggested for nasal catarrh, or spartein sulphate, given in five- grain doses, hypodermatically, may be given. 6. Pleurisy. ■Inflammation of the pleura; pleuritis. This affection is a common sequela of pneu- monia. Symptoms: The manifestations are quite char- acteristic. The animal grunts as it breathes, and the flanks are more used than the chest. There is a loss of appetite and suspension of rumination. On percussion, dull sounds are heard on the lower edge of the chest. Treatment: When this disease has become established, therapeutic measures are more or less useless. In valuable animals, fifteen grain doses of potassium iodid may be given three times a day. The prognosis is grave. SECTION XI. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. Disorders of the digestive system probably cause more losses than from all other sources combined. Errors in feeding, parasites, poisons, and preda- tory animals all take their toll of life in large numbers, but all fall far behind those ailments originating in the alimentation in the extent of loss occasioned the sheep industry. 1. Stomatitis. See Section on Diseases of the Lamb (page 137) ; also Foot Rot (page 97), and Foot-and-Mouth Disease (page 90). 2. Choke. Obstruction of the esophagus. This a rare condition found in sheep, but when it does occasionally occur from the lodgment of a sharp pointed piece of root in the esophagus, great excitement reigns among the sheep herders. They seem to think an animal breathes through its gul- let, and a few moments' delay will cause suffoca- tion, and death. Symptoms: The manifestations of this ailment are very pronounced. Labored breathing; sudden loss of appetite and rumination; bloating; normal temperature, and attempts to swallow, all differ- entiate the clinical picture from acute poisoning for which it may be mistaken at the onset. Ill 112 SHEEP DISEASES. Treatment: If the obstruction can be felt in the neck, massage may be tried. An equine catheter may be used as a probang, and the obstruction dislodged by its steady pressure. A quarter grain pilocarpin administered hypodermically often gives relief within an hour or so. The great danger is from the bloating. The use of the trocar should not be neglected if at all indicated, for collapse in sheep occurs when least expected. Due to the heaviness of the fleece we often do not detect intense tympany in sheep until it is too late to save the animal. In case the obstruction proves stubborn and "watchful waiting" avails nothing, immediate slaughter may be advised. 3. Bloat. Hoven; blasting; meteorism. This condition is a common one in the West; large numbers of sheep are lost annually from acute bloat. Any kind of forage may cause the trouble, especially after a rain. Wet alfalfa is particularly deadly. In the fall, after having been on the summer range, the sheep are trailed leisurely back over the rich farming sections to the "home ranch." Wheat or oats stubble is rented by the sheep man and the animals turned in. Hungry for grain, it is remarkable how much the animals can pick up in a few hours. If there is any alfalfa near and available, trouble may ensue, not only from bloat, but from founder. Quick action is required by the attending veterinarian, and the treatment DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 113 heroic. The small dose teaching of text-books must be cast to the winds, and the medicines given in quantities that would cause an inexperienced veterinarian to shudder. Symptoms: One or more animals stand with a look of helpless pain; respirations are labored, and the abdomen distended in an ' ' apple-shape. ' ' Soon the animal staggers, tries to stand up, but drops to the ground and succumbs in a convulsion, the immediate cause of death being suffocation. Treatment: Thousands of "sure cures" for bloat have been recommended. If they are avail- able, it is suggested that turpentine, oil of eucalyp- tus, aromatic spirits of ammonia, formalin, fresh milk and coal oil be used. As this is a "first-aid emergency," one must think and act quickly, and be able to use what therapeutic agents are at hand. We will suppose a hundred head of sheep have had access to a "big feed," and the animals are not only bloated but foundered. Here we have a complicated condition — a double calamity — and our measures must be directed, first, to lessen the formation of gas, and next, to alleviate the intense congestion of blood in various parts. Two buckets of medicine are hastily mixed up, each containing two gallons or two hundred and fifty-six ounces, which will treat one hundred and twenty-eight head, giving each animal a two-ounce dose syringe full. In prescription "A" we figure on giving one drachm each of turpentine, oil of eucalyptus, aro- matic spirits of ammonia in enough raw linseed oil 114 SHEEP DISEASES. to make two ounces. Consequently our prescrip- tion would read: r Spt. Amnion. Aro. 01. eucalypti. Ol. Terebinth, aa gxvi 01. lini q. s. ad Cong, ii M. f. sol. Sig. One two-ounce syringe full at once. Repeat in fifteen minutes in subacute cases. For the laminitis, the following can be given as soon as the bloat has subsided to such an extent that the animal seems to be somewhat improved. R Kali permangan. Alumen sulph. aa Bviii Aquae q. s. ad Cong, ii M. f. sol. Sig. One two-ounce dose syringe full an hour after first medicine has been given. By the use of three or four syringes and group- ing the help in pairs- — one to hold the animal, and the other to administer the medicine, a hundred head can be gone over in a few minutes. The main thing to impress on the ones who administer the medicine is to give the half-suffocated animal plenty of time to swallow the drench. In case the before mentioned drugs are not avail- able, with less success one may resort to ground ginger, milk, black pepper, or even whiskey, which is usually available in a sheep camp, although grudgingly supplied for this purpose. 4. Impaction of the Rumen. This is a chronic bloat or a distension of the rumen caused by fermenting food of a solid nature. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 115 Symptoms: Dullness; loss of appetite and ru- mination; doughy feeling in the flank, the rumen seeming to be of the consistency of a mass of dough. Treatment: Give one-quarter pound Epsom salt in a quart or so of lukewarm water, to which can be added several drains of aromatic spirits of ammonia or fluid extract ginger. The triple sul- phocarbolates are also useful in this condition where there is much gas. 5. Grass Staggers. Fardel bound; drying up; staggers. Impaction of the third stomach (the omasum or manyplies) is a very fatal condition and treat- ment has proven to be of little value. Upon autopsy, the spaces between the leaves of this stomach will be found packed full of dried ma- terial, and the mucous membranes nearly black. Treatment: Large doses of salts, together with pilocarpin, may do some good and are worth try- ing, but the prognosis should be grave. When delirium is present, perhaps slaughter is the most humane thing that one can do. 6. Constipation. Impaction; clog; tivist, wool balls. In adult sheep this often occurs from dry pas- ture and insufficiency of succulent food and water. Timothy hay will also cause this condition, even with plenty of salt and water. In lambs, wool balls is a frequent cause. 116 SHEEP DISEASES. Symptoms: Loss of appetite; "humped up" appearance; attempts to defecate; colicky pains; and hard masses of feces in the rectum. Treatment: For a sheep of ordinary size, that is not too "far gone", one may attempt treatment. Four ounces Epsom salt dissolved in a quart of water, to which is added one-half ounce of fluid extract of dioscorea to prevent griping, may be given several times daily for several days. An enema, containing half an ounce of glycerin, is always useful. Laxative food, such as whole oats and bran, equal parts, should be given when the animal regains its appetite. Do not give too much treatment, or the animal may "die getting well." In suckling lambs, give the ewe a tablespoonful of sodium hyposulphite per day. The lamb may be given one or two ounces of castor oil, together with an enema. 7. Colic. Stretch es ; b elly-ach e. In sheep this condition usually arises from eat- ing spoiled forage, frozen roots or mild poisons. Symptoms: The animal stretches out so far that it appears "sway-backed," hence the term, "stretches." It lies down and then gets up again, and appears to be in great pain. Treatment: In sheep, one-half ounce each of fluid extract dioscorea and sweet spirit of nitre given in a little water has been found to be useful. In cases of much fermentation, thirty grains of the sulphocarbolates, with a drachm of fluid ex- DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 117 trad ginger, may be given. Turpentine, oil of peppermint, or any of the carminatives or sto- machics may be given. Lambs may be given one-half the above dosage. The ewe if suckling her young may be fed laxative food, and a tablespoonful of sodium hyposulphite per day. 8. Diarrhea. The Skit or The Shite. In sheep three forms may be recognized : Sporadic or non-infectious diarrhea of the new- born lamb. Infectious diarrhea. Considered in the section in diseases of the lamb. Common dysentery of sheep. This is caused by spoiled food; exposure; lack of exercise, or the symptom of some acute poisoning or infectious disease. Treatment: Successful treatment is largely symptomatic. Immediate removal of the exciting cause is necessary. Twenty grains of subnitrate of bismuth given in a little condensed milk is good. Triple sulphocarbolates, salicylic acid, salol, castor oil, linseed oil, milk of bismuth all have their place, and many more drugs have been usefully em- ployed in this disorder. Hygienic care will do much to alleviate the trouble. 9. Enteritis. Inflammation of the bowels. Four types of enteritis in sheep are recognized: Simple, or non-toxic enteritis. This type is 118 SHEEP DISEASES. caused by chills; eating irritating food; foreign bodies or parasites in the intestinal tract. It is also a sequela of constipation or diarrhea. Croupous enteritis. This occurs from feeding too much chaffy food, such as "straw-stack and scenery" in the spring, following a hard winter. Dram doses of sodium bicarbonate several times daily, with nourishing foods, seem to do as much good as anything yet tried. Mycotic enteritis. This is the most common type among sheep. It is due to the ingestion of mouldy or fermenting foods. Thousands of sheep are lost yearly from this disease alone. The trou- ble is especially fatal among pregnant ewes, caus- ing abortion, and later, death from metritis. Often the most painstaking and careful examination is necessary to arrive at a correct diagnosis. The symptoms are sudden and severe. There is a complete loss of appetite; dullness; colicky pains; constipation, followed by a copious diarrhea, in which are long strings of slimy mucus. Paralysis completes the clinical picture, and death occurs in a stupor-like condition. The exact kind of poison or toxic ingredient in the food largely controls the symptoms, and sometimes they are very violent in character. The history of the case, and an autopsy on animals already dead, help one to arrive at a conclusive diagnosis. The treatment in the main is unsatisfactory, for the ailment has usually progressed too far for me- dicinal aid to accomplish much. Stimulants, anti- ferments, and intestinal antiseptics, together with rectal injections, complete the treatment. Only in DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 119 case of large losses or fear of some contagious dis- ease is expert assistance ever called. Toxic enteritis. See section on Poisons. 10. Piles. This condition is very rare in sheep. Complete withdrawal of food for several days, with appli- cations of belladonna ointment to the affected parts, is all that is required. SECTION XII. DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 1. Icterus. Jaundice; yellows. This disease is frequently seen in packing houses. It is very rarely noticed until after slaughter, except in advanced cases. It is com- monly caused by the liver-fluke; for a complete consideration of this subject see the section on Parasitic Diseases of Sheep. Lead poisoning has also been known to cause this disorder. Treatment: If of parasitic origin, treatment is, of course, out of the question. Laxative food, com- bined with two-ounce doses sodium phosphate, may relieve simple cases. 2. Hepatitis. Inflammation of the liver. When seen, it is usually the result of feeding on marshy land when the forage is too rich in proteid content. The only practical treatment consists in change of feed and plenty of exercise. 3. Lupinosis. See Section on Poisons. 120 SECTION XIII. DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM. 1. Ascites Dropsy; abdominal dropsy; hydrops ascites. This is a comparatively common ailment among sheep on the western range, and is not a disease in itself, but the visible symptom of some chronic affection of a vital organ of the body, such as the heart, the kidneys, the lungs, the mesenteric glands or the portal vein. It is the term applied to the collection of serous fluid found in the peritoneum not due to inflam- mation. Under the general head of ascites may be men- tioned hydremia, which is an increase of the fluid parts of the blood with a corresponding lessening of the solid constituents. This frequently is seen in parasitic invasions, or in chronic lead or zinc poisoning, and is known among sheepmen of cer- tain localities as ' ' dry rot. ' ' Symptoms: These are self-evident, but the fol- lowing facts should be kept in mind: a. Gradual enlargement, especially a bulging out posterior to the last pair of ribs. In shorn sheep this is very noticeable. b. Palpation of the lower Dart of the abdomen produces the typical dull sounds, indicating the presence of fluid, while the upper part is tense, light and gives a drum-like sound. 121 122 SHEEP DISEASES. c. Raising and lowering the animal gives forth a "swishing" sound, as the fluids roll back and forward. d. Holding the animal np by the hind legs accelerates breathing as the fluids roll forward and press on the diaphragm. Also, tipping the sheep to one side causes a distension on that side. e. Normal temperature. f. Rumination becomes lessened; the appetite is greatly diminished, and later, the animal be- comes dull, and mopes around. The visible mucous membranes become pale; the body emaciated, and the general verdict around the sheep camp is that the animal has the "rot." The important thing to remember is to differen- tiate this practically incurable, non-contagious dis- ease from: a. Pregnancy. No disturbance of the health. b. Peritonitis. In this condition there is pain, fever, with all its attendant disturbances of the general health. c. Obesity. This occurs usually in old, closely confined animals. Range sheep are seldom trou- bled with this malady. d. Paralysis of the bladder, or even rupture of that organ, due to urethral calculi of bucks and wethers. In this trouble there are found colickj^ pains, high temperature, odor of urine on the breath, followed by collapse and death. In this condition, at the first symptoms, great care must be taken to differentiate the troubles. e. Other rare but possible ailments, such as pyometra, abdominal cysts, hydrometra, abuor- DISEASES OP THE PERITONEUM. 123 mally large tumors, cystic kidneys, degenerated kidneys, or mummified fetuses in ewes. In some cases large quantities of impacted feces have been known to cause the distension of the whole abdo- men. These have been gone into in detail to prevent the embarrassment consequent upon a superficial examination and a too hasty diagnosis. Treatment: In cases of long standing, slaughter is advised. If some pure-bred animal of high value contracts this disease during the show circuit, one may alleviate the trouble by giving daily twenty drops fluid extract pilocarpin, or one-half dram each of resublimed iodin and potassium iodid dis- solved in a couple ounces of water. 2. Peritonitis. Only seen as a secondary condition following bruises, wound infections, enteritis or puerperal infection. The treatment should be symptomatic; the results are usually very unsatisfactory. SECTION XIV. DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND CORD. Sheep are subject to many disorders of the brain and cord, but most of these are of parasitic or toxic origin, and very little can be done to alleviate the actual condition. We can, however, by careful autopsies, find the existing- cause, and take pre- ventive measures to preclude further extension of the trouble. 1. Encephalitis. In flam mation of the brain. This is caused by the invasion of the "gid" parasites; fractures of the skull; exposure, and poisons. There is no known treatment that is satisfactory. 2. Apoplexy. Under this heading may be grouped sun stroke, heat stroke, epilepsy, fits and convulsions. It is usually of parasitic origin, except in very warm weather and in animals that are abnormally fat. Except for the removal of the exciting causes, no treatment is practical. 124 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND CORD. 125 3. Paralysis. Frequently a sequela of acute infectious dis- eases, poisons, intestinal parasites, or cysts in the brain. In lambs it is associated with eclampsia of the ewe, both being caused by poor food, ex- posure or the infection that causes abortion. When of non-parasitic origin, twenty-grain doses of potassium iodid given in an ounce of water several times daily will do as much good as anything. 4. Gid. See section on Parasites. SECTION XV. DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION. 1. Rheumatism. Cause: Usually damp quarters; exposure; chills, or watery food. This is a very rare trouble in sheep but some- times appears as an enzootic due to the causes enumerated above. Symptoms: Sometimes in the first stage, a very high temperature is recorded, with labored respi- ration and stiffness of the gait. This causes the trouble to be very difficult to correctly diagnose on account of the similarity of symptoms found in pneumonia, poisons, and acute infectious dis- eases. Treatment: Eemoval of the exciting causes, to- gether with hygienic care. Twenty-grain doses of potassium iodid or ten-grain doses sodium salicyl- ate several times daily may prove beneficial. 126 SECTION XVI. NON-PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN. Only after the most careful examination should a diagnosis of non-parasitic disease of the skin be made, and then it is the best policy to keep a close watch on the affected animals and to isolate them from the apparently healthy ones. 1. Non-Parasitic Itch. This condition is so rare in sheep as to merely merit the mention that it may and does occur, the exciting causes being rich food, lack of exercise or crowding. The treatment is removal of the exciting cause. 2. Alopecia. Falling out of the wool; baldness. This is frequently seen on the range, and to the inexperienced, looks like scab. Ewes that have lost their lambs and have had severe attacks of mammitis or "blue bag" are the common victims. Sometimes lack of food and exposure are the con- tributing factors. No treatment has been found successful, except to let it alone, and in case of old ewes, prepare them for market. 127 128 SHEEP DISEASES. 3. Eczema. This condition may arise from insect stings, cockle-burrs, rain storms followed by rain rot, or too strong dips. Five classes of eczema are recognized, although in practical work, everything not scab is com- monly called eczema. Chronic squamous eczema is a disease of para- sitic origin usually, such as liver fluke or lung worms. Tt may also be due to lack of proper care. Greasy heels, resulting from muddy or damp ranges or pens. Fat scab, due to dampness, often called "rain- rot." Solar eczema, due to irritations from the rays of the sun immediately after shearing. Intertrigo or erythema of the claws and inter- digital space due to friction by sand or the like getting into the parts. Treatment: Removal of the exciting causes, and the feeding of light, nourishing foods. 4. Rash. "Buckwheat rash," as it is called, occurs in warm weather in sections of the country where this grain is extensively raised. 5. Acne. Known as "summer scab." Closely associated with eczema. NON-PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 129 6. Ring-worm. This affection is very rare in sheep. The disease usually makes its appearance on the neck and back, forming a hard crust over the part in- fected. Scrubbing the hard scabs until they are soft- ened, and applying tincture of iodin to the raw surface usually results in a speedy recovery. SECTION XVII. DISEASES OF OBSCURE ORIGIN. 1. "Nibbling" Disease. This disease, also known as "trotting disease," is a very rare affection of sheep in this country, if it occurs here at all, but is common in Germany. The cause has never been fully determined. It was not known in Germany until the fine-wool breeds were introduced into that country. It is most frequent in young* rams. Symptoms: The first noticeable symptom in a ram is excessive timidity; later, they begin to tremble, and have a very staggery gait. In the latter stages of the disease the animal nibbles itself on the back and loins, and in several weeks to a month, the victim dies of exhaustion. Treatment: The most important thing is correct diagnosis. Immediate slaughter is advised, and new blood used in mating. As "gid" produces some similar symptoms, a careful examination must be made to arrive at a correct conclusion. 2. Louping-ill. Mad-staggers or trembles. Another obscure disease not found in this coun- try. Inflammation of the spinal cord from some un- known cause is thought to be the exciting cause. The trembling, twitching, grinding of teeth and 130 DISEASES OF OBSCURE ORIGIN. 131 general paralysis follow in rapid succession, lead- ing to death. The treatment is merely preventive, such as re- moval to other ranges; the introduction of new blood in the form of unrelated sires, and nourish- ing diet. 3. Big Head. A peculiar condition found in parts of the West, especially in the arid desert plains. The cause, cure or prevention is absolutely unknown at the present time. It occurs in the spring when the sheep are being driven from their winter camps to the forest ranges. The first symptom is a refusal to eat, and the animal becomes restless as if in great pain. The head begins to swell, and the ears become purplish in color. The clinical picture much resembles pur- pura hemorrhagica in the horse. Death usually takes place in from several hours to a day or two, although some animals recover. If the ears be scarified, a serous fluid, of a slightly reddish color, oozes forth; the animal seems to prefer to stand in water. The rough and ready treatment of the sheep man is to throw the affected animal into a puddle of water or a snow-drift, if the latter is available. A certain number get well, but whether this heroic treatment has anything to do with the re- covery is unknown. 4. Pustular Eruption of Lambs. See section on Diseases of the Lamb (page 137). SECTION XVIII. DISEASES OF THE LAMB. 1. Congenital Defects. Imperforate anus, unless quickly discovered, is incurable. If it be diagnosed early, many cases are amenable to surgery. Hernia or rupture is rare and difficult to treat. Usually, on the range, the lamb is so stunted that it is knocked in the head. "Skin drying" is caused by the ewe not being able to lick the new-born lamb. Later, its mother will not own it, and, if not attended to promptly, it dies from hunger and cold. Umbilical hemorrhage or bleeding from the navel sometimes becomes serious. Tincture of iron chlorid applied with a cotton tampon will usually stop the flow of blood. A stimulant should be given, such as a little brandy or aromatic spirits of ammonia. Suffocation is due to a twist of the umbilical cord during birth, and the lamb is born dead. 2. Reviving "Lifeless" Lambs. When an apparently lifeless lamb is born, it may be revived in many cases by removing all mucus from the nostrils and mouth; breathing into the nostrils, and working on the chest as in reviving a drowning person. A very successful 132 DISEASES OF THE LAMB. 133 method, as practised by some breeders, is to im- merse the lamb in a bucket of water that is about blood warm, pouring in a little hot water, to in- crease the heat. Dry thoroughly, and wrap in a blanket. Later, when it is able to swallow, ad- minister a stimulant. 3. Retention of the Meconium. When the new-born lamb does not pass feces promptly, it begins to show signs of colicky pains, fever, and soon succumbs to inflammation of the bowels. The treatment usually successful, if not delayed too long, is an enema of olive oil. A teaspoonful of castor oil may also be given on the tongue. 4. Navel-ill. Joint-ill; blood poisoning ; pyo -septicemia of sucklings; omphalophlebitis. The Bacillus bipolaris septicus, and the Bacillus coli communis, seem responsible for the presence of this disease. They gain entrance to the um- bilicus at birth or when the cord is ruptured. In some cases, it is thought the organisms have entered the circulatory system before birth. It is not such a common disease in lambs as in the foal, but outbreaks occur from time to time. Symptoms: The disease is very easily recog- nized, for the symptoms are very pronounced and characteristic. The lamb becomes "dumpish" and dull. It has no appetite, and the temperature per rectum will be found to be very high, often 134 SHEEP DISEASES. 107 degrees Fahrenheit. The stump of the cord assumes a purplish color, and Wharton 's jelly be- comes tinged with pus. Sometimes, the joints be- come enlarged. Later, a copious diarrhea sets in, followed by an intense cachexia and death. Treatment: Where a number of lambs are af- fected, the logical thing to do, of course, is to remove the whole band to another place, and, if the weather be suitable, to allow the ewes to lamb in the open. The pus may be squeezed out of the umbilicus of the affected lamb and hydrogen peroxid in- jected, to be followed by tincture of iodin, tur- pentine, chinosol, pix-cresol, lysol, or any of the coal tar preparations. Carbolic acid is not as good as other less coagulating antiseptics. Oil of eucalyptus is excellent. Internally, the lamb may be given twenty grains of the triple sulphocarbolates mixed in a raw egg, three times a day. A tablespoonful castor oil is also beneficial to correct the weakening diarrhea. Stimulants, antiferments, intestinal antiseptics and tonics, such as echinacea, all have their use. The chances of successful treatment in lambs that show the typical symptoms are not very good, and a grave prognosis should be given. In the treatment of valuable animals, bacterins may be used. 5. Non-Contagious Diarrhea. This is usually due to some disturbance of the mother's health, or to the decomposition of food in the stomach of the new-born. Chills, cold, DISEASES OF THE LAMB. 135 dampness and milk that is too rich are also com- mon predisposing factors. If not checked, it runs a rapid, fatal course, therefore prompt treatment is essential. Treatment: The exciting cause should be de- termined, if possible, and removed. Administer to the ewe a tablespoonful sodium hyposulphite twice daily. Milk out the udder thoroughly. Feed her nourishing food, such as bran and oats. The lamb may be given a tablespoonful of castor oil, to which is added a raw egg and twenty grains of triple sulphocarbolates. Salicylic acid, five grains, in condensed milk, is highly recom- mended. The following prescriptions have given good results, when preceded by an intestinal anti- septic and castor oil: Tr. ginger 3i Creosote, beechwood mv Dioscorea, Flext 3ii Fresh milk %iv M. Sig. Give in two doses, one hour apart. Tr. euphorbia oii Creosote mv Spts. camphor • oii Elix. lact. pepsin q. s. ad 3a M. Sig. Give in two doses two hours apart. 6. White Scours. Infectious diarrhea; dysenteria neonatorium. This disease is caused by the Bacillus coli com- munis, a small, thick, rod-shaped, motile, non- spore-forming organism, not staining by Gram's method, but with the aqueous anilin dyes. Other 136 SHEEP DISEASES. germs are thought to cause or assist in the infec- tion. Symptoms: Newborn lambs, a day or two old, seem to be the usual victims. The lamb becomes dull; loses its appetite, and the feces passed at the first are a bright yellow, later, a foamy, greyish- white. The wool is matted, and streaks of mucus are found on it. In a short time, the lamb be- comes very weak; the eyes grow glassy, and the victim drops to the floor and dies in a stupor. The temperature is about normal, and, as death approaches, drops to subnormal. Treatment: This is not a common disease of the range, but is usually found in low, marshy pas- tures, or sheds which contain the infection. The logical treatment is to isolate all the apparently healthy lambs, and give the sick ones intestinal antiseptics — a drop of formalin, in a little milk, or sulphocarbolates. The immediate slaughter of those hopelessly affected is advised. Immuniza- tion with bacterins may be tried where the stock is valuable. Prevention is the best method to pur- sue and the most satisfactory to all concerned. 7. Colic. "Stretches"; belly-ache. Considered under the section on Diseases of the Digestive System, page 116. 8. Constipation. Costiveness. For further treatment see page 115. DISEASES OF THE LAMB. 137 9. Pustular Eruption of Lambs. This is a rare but fatal disease of lambs. Symptoms: These resemble those of foot-and- mouth disease very closely and experience is re- quired to differentiate. It seems to be contracted from a form of gangrenous mammitis in the ewe, and is very infectious. Treatment: Mainly quarantine and segregation of the infected. The ulcers on the lips of the lambs and the udders of the ewes may be painted with silver nitrate. 10. Tetanus. This is very prevalent on the western range, fol- lowing castration, docking and ear marking. It has been considered on page 92 in the section on Acute Infectious Diseases. 11. Stomatitis. The sporadic form is known as ' ' sore mouth ' ' or thrush among sheep men. The contagious form, known as "necrotic stomatitis." Symptoms: This condition is so difficult to dis- tinguish from foot-and-mouth disease, that no one should take any chances ; if the history will justify the supposition that it may be the latter, notify the nearest representative of the Federal Bureau of Animal Industry by wire. The simple cases are treated with mild anti- septics, such as boric acid, or weak tincture of iodin. SECTION XIX. DISEASES OF THE EWE. In the western sheep raising sections it is re- markable how small the loss is among breeding- ewes. This is largely due to constant culling out the ewes that prove to be poor milkers, or that have difficult parturition; those subject to mam- mary troubles, and those that lose their lambs. It is a "survival of the fittest" with breeders aid- ing nature in the selection. Coupled with this is the active life that the ewes lead during preg- nancy. The small bands of sheep, kept under artificial conditions, are the commonest victims of this class of disorders. Lack of exercise, with rich, con- centrated foods, play an important part in predis- posing to this as to other diseases. These factors, combined with exposure and spoiled forage, are by far the greatest hindrances to success with preg- nant ewes. The man who cannot, or will not, recognize these should retire from the sheep busi- ness, or, better still, never embark in it. 1. Disorders of Gestation. Eliminating spoiled forage or bruises that cause abortion, very little trouble is met with in the pregnant ewe. 138 DISEASES OF THE EWE. 139 2. Abortion. Three types are recognized, the first one being the most common: Sporadic or accidental, due to some injury or the ingestion of mouldy food. Upon a careful ex- amination of the food for evidences of mould, ergot, pitch or other toxic ingredients, the cause will usually be found. The treatment is removal of the exciting cause. Large doses of intestinal antiseptics or viburnum prunifolium are indicated in those threatened with abortion, together with clean, laxative food and absolute quiet. Enzootic abortion, due to some infectious dis- ease, such as blackleg, scab, pneumonia or rabies. Contagious abortion. This is so rare among sheep as to merit but little attention. When this does occur, quarantine measures constitute the only successful means of prevention known. The symptoms are similar to those of contagious abortion in the bovine. 3. Dystocia. Difficult lambing; difficult parturition. Usually seen in young ewes lambing for the first time, and is due in the majority of cases to a pair of lambs entering the pelvic channel at the same time. They become tangled up in such a way that the most painstaking skill is required to "un- ravel ' ' them. First, restrain the ewe in such a manner that she will be powerless to strain. This may be accomplished by two assistants elevating the ani- 140 SHEEP DISEASES. mal by holding- the hands under the flanks. Have the animal face a corner so she cannot creep away on her front feet. With the fingers cleansed and disinfected, form them into a cone. For a lubricant as well as a deodorant, one part of oil of eucalyptus in sixteen parts of raw linseed oil is very good. If the lambs are dead, injecting a lysol solution into the vaginal cavity will mask the odor. Eepel the lambs, and lubricate the vaginal canal thor- oughly. Now rotate one lamb nntil as near a nor- mal presentation as possible can be obtained. A small piece of twine or rope can be attached to the feet, and with traction exerted slowly and carefully, the lamb may be pulled out. When the lambs are taken away, the uterus may be flushed with a good antiseptic solution, and the ewe let down. If she is very weak, a stim- ulant should be given, and a warm blanket thrown over her. Many a valuable ewe can thus be saved. Unfortunately the veterinarian's fee for services in cases like this is ordinarily more than the ani- mal is worth. This low value of the ewe is the greatest hindrance to the handling of parturient cases in sheep. Under certain circumstances it might be well for veterinarians to make some spe- cial arrangements, as to charges for this work, with the owners of bands where a large number of ewes are to lamb at about the same time. 4. Decomposition of the Fetus. In many cases a veterinarian is called upon to pass judgment as to whether or not a ewe is preg- DISEASES OF THE EWE. 141 nant, and, if so, if the fetus is alive or dead. In some instances, this is a very puzzling question. In situations where the soil is highly impreg- nated with limestone or other mineral salts, one should always guard against the mistake of look- ing for a vaginal or fetid discharge in case of a dead fetus. Mummifications are often present under such conditions, with not a single external symptom visible. When a ewe has a fetus die within her, and barely pulls through the ordeal with her life, it is a good plan to advise fattening for the market. Adhesions often prevent future normal parturi- tion. In cases of putrid fetuses in the uterus, flushing out with strong antiseptics and deodorants, and a small capsule containing twenty grains of potas- sium permanganate and several drams of boric acid may be introduced into the uterus with ad- vantage. The udder should be attended to, for a violent mammitis, commonly known as "blue bag," may take place. Milk out the udder and apply bella- donna ointment. 5. Displacement of the Uterus. The common term for this ailment is "down- fall of the lamb-bed," which includes all the ail- ments of the womb from the layman's standpoint. Three serious conditions may affect the uterus: (a) Hernia or rupture of the prepubian tendon, (b) Torsion or twist of the uterus when preg- nant. Fairly common in the ewe. 142 SHEEP DISEASES. (c) Deviation of the uterus or complete ever- sion. Very little can be done to alleviate these condi- tions. As a rule, they are too far advanced to be treated when expert assistance is called. 6. Eclampsia. Milk disease; milk sickness. Under this heading is considered parturient paresis, corresponding- to the condition of the same name in the cow — the well known "milk fever. ' ' Symptoms: After a normal parturition, and suckling the lamb, the latter dies or is taken away. Within a day or two the first symptoms a])] tear. There is loss of appetite and rumination. The ewe ceases to mourn the loss of her young, and the eyes grow glassy. Coma takes place, and the characteristic symptoms of milk fever in the cow are present. Treatment: This must be given promptly, and no medicine must be administered by the mouth. One dram of chloral hydrate well dissolved in lukewarm water may be given as a rectal injec- tion, or one-eighth to one-fourth grain morpkin given hypodermically. Atropin, in one-tenth grain doses, may be tried. Inflating the udder, if at all possible, should be tried. 7. Metritis. Inflammation of the womb or uterus. When this condition occurs, uterine injections of antiseptics, stimulants and blood tonics should DISEASES OF THE EWE. 14o be given. There is very little satisfaction in treat- ing this condition, since, due to previous neglect, the case is usually hopeless at the time the vet- erinarian first sees it. 8. Mammitis. Inflammation of the udder; blue bag; caked bag; mastitis. A rather common ailment in the spring among a band of ewes. The common treatment is to slash the udder open with a knife, and, if the poor ewe lives through this, to fatten her for the market. By humane methods and a little missionary work, much suffering among ewes may be averted by the veterinarian. Dissolve a half-pound Epsom salt in a quart of hot water, add an ounce fluid extract phytolacca to this solution; place the animal on her back, and with flannel or cotton, dipped in the solution, apply to the udder. In a few minutes the change will be remarkable. Bathing the udder with the warm solution seems to relieve the intense inflammation. If the lamb is alive, allow it to suckle, as the bunt- ing seems to massage the udder and aid in its restoration to normal. A tablespoonful of the Phytolacca may be administered twice daily for several days with benefit. If the lamb is dead and the ewe is to be dried up, belladonna ointment or camphor and lard should be applied. 9. Abnormalities of the Milk. This is not a common condition among ewes. It is not so important as with the dairy cow. Still, 144 SHEEP DISEASES. one is often asked about these questions, and the following is given for information: Agalactia or absence of milk. This is a symp- tom, and one of the first symptoms of disease in a milking ewe. A form of infectious agalactia has been observed among ewes and goats. It is of unknown origin. Watery milk. This is due to an absence of fats and casein; the milk is of a bluish color. By changing the food and administering tonics, the condition may be improved. Fatty milk. This is found among ewes that have been fed on rich, concentrated foods, such as oil cake, and in ewes suffering from lack of exercise. Diarrhea ensues among the lambs. The treatment is less food, more exercise and an abun- dant supply of water. Curdling milk. A symptom of indigestion, mammitis, poisoning, overheating, and of ad- vanced pregnancy. To alleviate this condition, a tablespoonful of sodium hyposulphite may be given once daily. Fermenting milk. Cause and treatment same as above. Putrescent milk. Caused by an invasion of bac- teria in the udder. Treatment is the same as for curdling milk, or fattening for slaughter. Slimy, stringy and soapy milk. Caused by fungi and bacilli. Rather rare. Treatment similar to that for curdling milk. Blue milk, due to the Bacillus cyanogenus. Red milk, caused by the Bacillus prodigiosus. Yellow milk, caused by the Bacillus synxanthum. DISEASES OF THE EWE. 145 Foreign matter, such as dirt; abnormal taste, arising from certain foods, as carrots; drugs, as turpentine and asafetida; germs, such as are found in gangrenous mammitis, and blood, may all exist in milk. 10. Sterility. A long scientific treatise on sterility in the ewe would prove not only impractical but tiresome. The common and best method is to fatten all ewes that prove to be non-breeders. Due to the small vaginal canal of ewes, manual examinations are difficult to make, and even when made often noth- ing abnormal can be noted in non-breeders. SECTION XX. DISEASES OF RAMS AND WETHERS. 1. Gravel. Urinary calculi cause serious disturbances in rams and wethers, due to the very small caliber of the male urethra, which is only one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. It has been noticed that the extensive feeding of sugar beets and mangels will cause gravel, and many animals have been lost from this disorder. Symptoms: The manifestations of this ailment are very pronounced, though rather hard to dif- ferentiate at the onset. There is sudden loss of appetite; colicky symptoms, with an urinous odor on the breath. Unless slaughtered, the animal soon dies. Treatment: Prevention is chiefly to be sought. Mixing a little sodium bicarbonate with the food several times a week is beneficial. Withhold sugar beets or mangels from male sheep. 2. Hernia. Rupture in sheep usually is not diagnosed until after death. It is a rather rare but fatal condition. Only in valuable animals is an operation advis- able. 146 DISEASES OF RAMS AND WETHERS. 147 3. Bloody Urine. This condition is merely a symptom of some pri- mary ailment, such as arise from injuries, gravel, poisons, roots or mouldy silage. Treatment: Symptomatic treatment is about all that can be given. It must be aimed at the causative factor. Whole flaxseed jelly in teaspoon- ful doses given in bran and oats is soothing to the urinary organs. 4. Impotence. Sterility in the ram usually means fattening for market, as it is not profitable to experiment with a sterile ram. Sometimes finding this out is rather expensive, and it is a good plan to "try" several ewes in heat early in the season before turning the ram into the flock. It is commonly due to lack of exercise. Range bucks for this reason suffer but little from this condition. Medicinal treatment, if attempted in a valuable animal, must be subordinated to exer- cise to achieve any results. Damiana or yohimbin in small, repeated doses, together with nourishing, but not too concentrated food, may be beneficial. SECTION XXI. SURGICAL DISEASES. Surgery in the sheep has been of the "rough and ready" sort, to which the patient was as likely to succumb as to the original disease or ail- ment. Another thing, the value of the animal, except in the case of pure-bred animals, has never been enough to justify expert assistance. The sheep, like the ox, is very resistant to pyo- genic infection, and if in good condition soon re- covers from surgical interference when this is done in a skillful manner. 1. Diseased Teeth. Often supernumerary teeth are found that inter- fere with rumination and cause the adjacent teeth to decay. Extraction is indicated, and can be performed with a small pair of "wolf tooth" forceps. 2. Concussion of the Brain. This is comparatively rare, taking into consid- eration the chief method of defense is butting. On the western range, many cases are seen among lambs in the mountainous district, caused by rocks rolling down the mountainside and hitting them on the head. Symptoms: More or less vague, unless one knows the history of the case. The animal seems 148 SURGICAL DISEASES. 149 in a stupor, while the respirations are small and rapid. Later, the animal becomes weak, assumes a staggery gait, and paleness of the visible mucous membranes is noticeable. Treatment: Medical interference in these cases is contraindicated, for a drench will enter the lungs. Dashing cold water on the head, and allow- ing the animal perfect quiet is about as good as any treatment known. 3. Abscesses. Abscesses are rare in sheep, but sometimes may follow shearing. Curetting and irrigating several times with a mild astringent antiseptic, such as one dram potassium permanganate and two drams powdered alum to four ounces of water, is a bene- ficial treatment. 4. Injuries. These consist mostly of bruises caused by ship- ping or crowding, or by predatory animals. Often the animal is injured far more seriously than external indications show, and with the best treatment dies from some internal disturbance. Dressing the injury with tincture of iodin and applying a dry dressing, together with a stimu- lant, is about all that can be done. 5. Suturing. Very rarely performed in sheep, although in lac- erated wounds such as animal bites, it may be satisfactorily done. With the muscles and skin brought into apposition and held there healing will take place much earlier than otherwise. 150 SHEEP DISEASES. 6. Rumenotomy. Removal of the contents of the rumen or paunch. This is rarely performed although it lias saved the lives of many bloated sheep. Textbooks give elaborate directions for perform- ing this operation, but in actual practice if one were to follow them out, the majority of sheep would be dead before the contents of the paunch were removed. If there is time, an area the size of a man's hand on the left flank should be clipped, and tincture of iodin applied. An incision, running parallel with the last rib, and several inches long is then made. The contents are removed as rapidly as possible, the walls of the paunch sutured, and the skin brought into apposition with several inter- rupted sutures. Tar is smeared over the wound, and in several days the skin sutures removed. Sheepmen not infrequently perform this oper- ation with a pen knife and a piece of string for suturing material, and even under these conditions the operation often proves successful. 7. Puncture of the Bladder. Frequently bucks and wethers are troubled by urinary calculi, which sooner or later close up the urethra and prevent the passage of urine. Surgi- cal textbooks give elaborate procedures in these cases, but after one has tried it several times on sheep he will desist. So many animals ''die get- ting well" that it does not give the operator any credit. SURGICAL DISEASES. 151 8. Fractures and Dislocations. It is remarkable how few broken limbs or even dislocated joints occur among sheep. Grazing on precipitous cliffs that defy any human being to climb, jumping across narrow ravines, or even running headlong down a steep bluff, few acci- dents occur, and these are usually among lambs. The treatment of fractures in lambs is simple. First, dust boric acid or talcum powder over the affected part. Apply an inch layer of cotton, over which lay half a dozen wire or wooden splints after adjusting the ends of the bones. Bind with gauze bandage, not too tight, allowing for future swelling. The lamb can be carried along in the camp-tender's wagon, for several days, and it is amazing how soon it recovers the use of the limb. Dislocations, sprains, bruises and twisted joints are rather difficult to treat, rest being the most important factor. Applying saturated solutions of magnesium sulphate, and later, a solution com- posed of two drams fluid extract belladonna and one dram lead acetate in half pint of water, will often prove beneficial. Sometimes iodin compound ointment is as good as anything. Blistering med- icaments are not indicated. 9. Amputation of the Claws. This is often necessary in foot rot, and consists in cutting away the diseased part with a sharp knife. Tincture of iron, creolin, balsam of Pern or any good antiseptic can be smeared over the part. The balsam of Peru gives splendid results, but is rather expensive for sheep. 152 SHEEP DISEASES. 10. Panaritium. Canker of the foot. Sometimes brought on by bruises and the con- sequent infection by the bacillus necrosis. Other times by excessive damp weather and ranging in low, marshy pastures. The treatment is largely hygienic; removal from the damp or infected quarters, and driving through a trough containing several inches of blue vitriol solution — one pound to five gallons of water, or even stronger. In very severe cases, one dram of formalin to two ounces of glycerin, or a paste composed of equal parts of flour and chlorid of zinc, may be applied with much benefit. SECTION XXII. PARASITIC DISEASES. Experienced men will corroborate the state- ment that more sheep are lost from invasions of parasites than from all other causes com- bined, with the possible exception of digestive disorders. Before the days when scab was under control, parasites were, even more than at pres- ent, the scourge of the sheep business. Sheep seem to have very little power to re- sist these pests, and when once infected, not only succumb but spread infection among others. In many instances, the vitality is so lessened by parasitic invasion, that although death does not result, little gain is made in weight or wool be- cause of the devitalizing effect of the parasitic infestation. The animal is in a fit condition to be carried away by trivial diseases, that in perfect health would be resisted with little trouble. It is of the greatest importance in this class of diseases to quickly discover the inciting cause. This is most vital; treatment of the infected in- dividual or individuals being secondary. Stock- men do not care for finely spun theories or for prolonged scientific explanation of the probable cause of an epizootic among their flocks ; they do not appreciate the beauties of science, and care little for the life-history of the pest. What they most earnestly desire and are willing to pay 153 154 SHEEP DISEASES. for, is final results. The time to explain how to prevent a recurrence of the trouble is after the epizootic has been brought under control or eradicated. In the sheep raising section on the western range only five parasites are common ; two ex- ternal, the common scab mite and the sheep tick; three internal, the stomach worm, the liver-fluke and the "gid" or "turnsick. " A. EXTERNAL PARASITES. 1. Sheep Scab. Common scab; mange; itch; scurf; St. An- thony's fire; wildfire; erysipelas; dry scab; dry rot, and ringworm. Sheep scab is caused by the Psoroptes communis ovis; order Acarina; class Arachnida. The scab mite is a nearly round, rather light colored parasite, the female measuring about one-fortieth of an inch in length, and the male nearly one-fiftieth. By placing the mites on a sheet of black carbon paper and holding this in the sunlight, they can be seen easily. After mating, the female deposits about a •dozen eggs at the base of the wool fibers. These eggs hatch in three or four days; in a week the young will have matured, and in three or four days more they will have mated and the female laid her eggs. Gerlach estimates that the en- tire life cycle of the psoroptes mite is completed within fifteen days. Using these figures as a basis for calculation, it has been estimated that PARASITIC DISEASES. 155 the progeny of a single pair of mites may at- tain to the astounding number 150,000,000 in about four months ! Symptoms: To the experienced, the symptoms of scab are very plain. When a sheep becomes Sheep-sca.b Mite {Psoroptrs ovis). Male. Dorsal view greatly enlarged. (After Salmon and Stiles. ls Trachea 59 Transportation regulations .219 Trembles 130 Trichocephalus spherocephalus 165 Trismus 92 "Trotting" diesase 130 Tuberculosis 95 Tunis 52 Turbinals 54 Turnsick 167 Turpentine poisoning 202 Twist 115 Udder, inflammation of the. 143 Ulceration, lip-and-leg .... 97 Ulna 54 Umbilical hemorrhage 132 Uremia 104 Ureter 59 Urethra 60 Urinary calculi 74, 146 Urinary organs 59 Urinary organs, diseases of the 104 Urine, bloody 147 Uterus 60 Uterus, displacement of the 141 Uterus, inflammation of the 142 Vagina 60 Valvular diseases of the heart 107 Variola ovina 89 Vas deferens 60 Vegetable poisons 185 Venous system 61 Veratrum, poisoning by. . . . 196 Veratrum viride or speciosum 1!>6 Vermifuge for sheep dogs.. 168 Verminous bronchitis 169 Vertebrae 53 Vesiculae seminales 60 Vomer 54 Water hemlock, poisoning by '. . .194 Watery milk 144 Weaning lambs 73 Wethers, diseases of 146 "White plague" 95 White scours 135 Wild bean 192 Wild cat 215 Wildfire 154 Wild onion 1!>0 Wild pea 192 Wolf 216 Wolfsbane 193 Womb, inflammation of the. 142 Wooden tongue 96 Woody aster, poisoning by. 198 Wool balls 115 Wool, caliber of 61 Wool eating 102 Wool falling out 127 Wool sorter's disease 84 Wools, the fine 24 Wools, the long 44 Wools, the medium 31 Worms, lung 169 Worms, stomach 171 Xylorhiza Parryi (Gray) ... 198 Yellow milk 144 Yellows 120 Zinc poisoning 182 Zygadenus venenosus 190