l^ c^ IL®m® MWM'B'M. londoa]^blished bjr3.'hani(is Jfelfjr. IV Pstemostiec Bbw, THE NEW TABLET OF MEMORY : OB, CHEONICLE OF REMARKABLE EVENTS WITH THE DATES OF INVENTIONS AND DISCO VEEIES ARTS AND SCIENCES ; BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF THE MOST DISTINGUISHED PERSONS OF EVERY AGE AND NATION. A 00r.IPI-.TE EPITOME OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. THOMAS BARTLETT, ESQ. EMBELLISHED WITH ILLUSTRATIVE ENGRAVINGS. LONDON : THOMAS KELLY, PATERNOSTER ROV^. 3)^ ^3 LONDON : THOMS, TRINTEB, WARWICK SGUARW. *7 '7 -D? '? My -ys" P H E F A C E. The principal object contemplated by the author in the following work is utility. To a large number of individuals a chronological arrangement of facts and events is often indispensable. This circumstance gave rise to the publication of the original " Tablet of Memory," which appeared some time before the close of the last century. In that work, the author arranged the events under certain heads, as Accidents, Occurrences, &c., under separate alphabets ; but it was found very defective, in con- sequence of the meagre information it contained, and the difficulty, when searching for a fact, of ascertaining under what alphabet it might be found. The subsequent editions have also been very inaccurate. In the following work, which includes general histoiy, biography, science, and art, as well as much miscellaneous information, the whole appears on a greatly enlarged scale, under one general alphabetical ar- rangement, in which the events are introduced in chronological order. At the same time, the author trusts that the information under each article is sufficient to render it of utility to readers of all classes. In relation to general History, the most memorable events are con- cisely noticed, from the creation of the world to the present time, in alphabetical order, under the geographical name of all the principal divisions of the world. In this department, besides a sketch of the chronology of every coimtry, both ancient and modem, is introduced the name of every colony, city, town, public body, &c., respecting which there is any event worthy of notice. On the subject of Biography, the work contains a sketch of the life of the most eminent individuals in every age and country, and if they have borne a conspicuous place in the history of any particular state or city, reference is made to it, under its alphabetical order. The facts connected with Science and Art, and the discoveries and improvements in every department, are arranged under the most obvious word, with references to all others under which they might with any A 2 iv PREFACE. degree of probability be sought for. This department includes, among other things, a concise chronological account of the origin and progress of all the principal sciences, as Astronomy, Chemistry, Electricity, Galvanism, &c. ; the introduction, and nlost recent improvements con- nected with Gas, Steam, Railways, &c., and the dates of all the principal geographical discoveries, &.c. The author suggests that the following pages will be found useful as a book pf frequent reference ; among others, to the following classes in society : — The man of science and literature, although he will not expect from it any novelty, will often be able to avail himself of the information above alluded to, where memory fails, or the means of refreshing it are not at hand. To commercial aiid professional men a ready reference to dates, kc. of acts of parliament and other public documents will either prevent the necessity of laborious research, or give such assistance as shall render that research more easy and effectual. To those who may be suddenly called to conduct or address public assemblies, either of a political, commercial, or religious character, a fimd of information will be found of various characters, and condensed in a small compass, by which the memory may be hastily qualified for the occasion. The reader is referred under this head to the articles, Bible, Bible SociETr, Corn Laws, Church, Slavery, &c. To the general reader of the literature of the day, or to persons pos- sessing a desire for knowledge, with few opportunities of obtaining it, the vvork will recommend itself, as containing (besides the general history and compendium of science before noticed) a great mass of miscellaneous information connected with the common events in life, which cannot fail to be eminently useful. In conclusion, the author's design is, that the work should render effectual assistance to that important faculty, the memory, by forming a complete, though concise, epitome of universal history — uniting the advan- tages of facts, dates, and alphabetical arrangement — and on a scale that he is not aware has ever before been presented to the public. In attempt- ing til is, it will be evident to those qualified to judge, that an immense labour of reference and research has been employed. How far the Author has succeeded in the accomplishment of the task he has assigned to himself, must be left to the candid judgment of the reader. Oxford, April 1, 1841. INTRODUCTION. In order to understand the plan of the following work, some introductory remarlca on the nature and uses of chronology may not be inappropriate. Chronology has been defined by a modern popular writer, " the story of time" — ©r " the narrative of the succession of recorded events, in their proper order, noticing the portions of time that elapse between them." Even to merely historical knowledge, chronology is important ; because, without it, our knowledge is not correct. But, when we wish to turn our historical knowledge to a practical use, by reflecting upon the causes and results of human actions, chronology becomes indispensable. Before the "story of time" can be known, we must know something of time itself j we must know how to compare two portions or periods of it, so as to be able to say either that they are of equal length, or that the one is longer than the other, and how much longer it is. In order to do this, we must fix i^on some standard of which the length is known. We must have recourse to some event which we have reason to believe does not take up a longer pexiod at one time than at another, — such as the rotation of the earth upon its axis, the revolution of the moon round the earth, or that of the earth round the sun. On these principles are formed the common divisions of time. Days and Hours. — A natural day consists of 24 hours, or of that space of time in which the earth makes one complete rotation about its axis ; and, consequently, it is the time which the sun takes to perform 15 degrees of his apparent diurnal course from east to west. The hour is divided into 60 equal parts, called minutes, the minute into 60 equal parts, called seconds, and so on, continuing the subdivisions by 60 at pleasure. The most ancieat hour consisted of not the 24th, but the 12th part of the day. The Egyptians and ancient Greeks divided their day into four equal pcrts of three hours each. The night also they divided into four equal watches. The beginning of the day has been variously reckoned by different nations. The Chaldseans, Syrians, Persians, and Indians, reckoned the day to commence at sunrise. The Jews also used this method for their civil, but began the sacred day at sunset ; this latter mode was used also by the Athenians, the Arabs, the ancient Gauls, and some other European nations. The ancient inhabitants of Italy computed the day from midnight, and in this they liave been followed by the English, French, Dutch, Germans, Spaniards, and Portuguese. Modern astronomers, after the Arabians, count the day from noon. The Week. — The earlier Greeks divided their month into three portions of ten days each : the northern Chinese had a week of 15 days, and the Mexicans one of 13. But the Chaldseans and most other Oriental nations, have, from time immemorial, used the Jewish week of seven days, which has been adopted by the Mohammedans, and introduced, with Christianity, to most of the civilized nations of the world. VI INTRODUCTION The Month is, properly, that portion of time in which the moon perforins her circuit about the earth, and this month is of the kind with whicli chronology is chiefly concerned. Lunar months are either periodical or synodical. A periodical lunar month is the time which elapses between the departure of the moon from any point in her orbit, and her return to the same point, which is 27 days, seven hours, 43 minutes, and eight seconds. The synodical lunar month is the time that elapses between one conjunction of the sun and moon, and another, which is 29 days, 12 hours, 4-1 minutes, and 3 11-60 seconds. The civil month is that artificial space of time, by means of which the solar year is divided into 12 parts ; tliese months, which were first ordained by Julius CKsar, consist of 30, or 31 days each, with the exception of February, which commonly contains 20, and in every fourth year, 29 days. See the article Bissextile. The Yeah is the largest revolution of time ; it is the period that elapses while the earth is performing one complete revolution about the sun, which is about 365J days. The ordinary years (to prevent embarrassment in computations) are reckoned to contain only 365 days, and the quarter of a day, which in these years is omitted, is brought to account every fourth year. The three quarters of days omitted, together with a quarter of a day belonging to the current year, make up one whole day, this is added to the end of February in that said fourth year, which, by this means, consists of 366 days, and is known by the name of bissextile, or leap-year. Julius Ctesar instituted this method of regulating the year, a.c. 46, whence it is called the Julian year. But the true length of the year is not 365^^ days; it falls short of this number by H minutes, 12 seconds, according to the most accurate observations ; that is, the exact length of the year is 365 days, five hours, 48 minutes, and 48 seconds. By this difference the Julian computation advances one day in 130 years before the true solar time, so that in the course of a few ages, the solar time, and that estimated according to the Julian plan, will be widely different ; and, in process of time, the seasons will have gradually changed places. This inconvenience had been long felt, but no effectual remedy was applied till 1582, when Pope Gregoiy XIII. ordered the ten days which the Julian time had then advanced before the solar, to be thrown out ; and what is called the new style to be introduced. — See the article Calendar, p. 179. Historical chronology, or that part of the science which assigns dates of time to the events of history, the use of which is to afford a ready apprehension of the distance of those events from the present or any other stated time, requires some more important divisions. When a nation came to such a degree of information and importance, as that it felt a desire to record the events of its own history, it generally began with some great event, as a fixed point or epoch, from which it counted the era, or succession of portions of time, all presumed to be equal, and each equal to that which the nation happened to take for a standard. — See the articles Epoch and Era. A Cycle is an interval of years included between two fixed periods, and which con- tinually recurs. The first cycle we read of is that of Cleostrates, a philosopher of Tenedos ; it comprised a period of eight years, and was intended to remedy the defects of the Greek calendar. The Lunar, or Metonic Cycle, is a period of 19 years, at the end of which the sun and moon return to nearly the same part of the heavens. This cycle was invented by Meton, an Athenian astronomer who flourished a.c 432, and was adopted with universal appro- bation. It was afterwards corrected by Eudoxus, and subsequently by Calippus, whose improvements the moderns have adopted. The council of Nice wishing to establish some method for adjusting the new and fuU moons to the course of the sun, with the view of determining the time of Easter, eriployed this cycle as the best adapted to answer the purpose ; and from its great utilfty they caused the numbers of it to be written on the calendar in golden letters, which has obtained for it the name of the golden numbers. INTRODUCTION. Vii The Golden Number for any year is found as follows : — The first year of the Christian era corresponds to the second of this cycle ; if then to a given year of this era one be added, and the sum be divided by 19, the quotient will denote the number of cycles •which have revolved since the commencement of the Christian era, and the remainder will be the golden number for the given year. The SoLAB Cycle consists of 28 years, at the expiration of which the sun returns to the sign and degree of the ecliptic which he had occupied at the conclusion of the pre- ceding period, and the days of the week correspond to the same days of the month as at that time. It is used to determine the Sunday or dominical letter, which we shall briefly explain. In the calendars the days of the week are distinguished by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G ; and the rule for applying these letters is invariably to put A for the first day of the year, whatever it be ; B for the second, and so in succession to the seventh; If every year were common, the process would continue regular, and a cycle of seven j^ars would suffice to restore the same letters to the same days as before. But the intercalation of a day every bissextile, or fourth year, has occasioned a variation in this respect. The bissextile year containing 366, instead of 365 days, will throw the dominical letter of the following year back two letters. This alteration is effected by changing the dominical letter at the end of Feb- ruary, where the intercalation of a day takes place. In consequence of this change every fourth year, 28 years must elapse before a complete revolution can take place in the dominical letter, and it is on this circumstance that the period of the solar cycle is founded. The dominical letter is used to find the moveable feasts in every year. The Cycle of Indiction consists of 15 years, and is derived from the Romans. The first yeai' of this cyde is made to correspond to the year a.c. 3. If therefore to any given year of the Christian era three be added, and the sum be divided by 15, the remainder will be the year of this cycle. There is, however, another mode of calculating it. This cycle was established by Constantine, a.d. 312 ; if therefore from the given year of the Christian era 31 2 be subtracted, and the remainder be divided by 15, the year of this cycle will be obtained. In either of these ways, if there be no remainder, the indiction will be 15. Having thus given a sketch of general and historical chronology, it only remains briefly to allude to the differences which have arisen respecting the chronology of ancient nations. Sir Isaac Newton in his well-known work on the subject, has shown, that the ancient chronology is involved in the greatest uncertainty ; and that the Europeans had no chronology before the existence of che Persian empire, or a.c. 536 ; that the antiqui- ties of the Greeks are full of fables till this period, and that after this time several Greek historians introduced the computation by generations. The chronology of the Latins was still more uncertain ; their old records having been burnt by the Gauls 120 years after the expulsion of their kings in a.c. 388. The chronologies of Gaul, Spain, Ger- many, Scythia, Sweden, Britain, and Ireland, are of a still later date, and equally imperfect. Sir Isaac Newton, after a general account of the obscurity and defects of the ancient chronology, proceeds by the concurring aids of scripture and reason to rectify the chronology of the Greeks, Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, and Persians. He observes, that though many of the ancients computed by successions and generations, yet the Egyptians, Greeks, and Latins, reckoned the reigns of kings equal to gene- rations of men, and three of them to 100, and sometimes to 120 years ; and this was the foundation of their technical chronology. He then proceeds from the ordinary course of nature, and a detail of historical facts, to show the difference between reigns and generations ; and that, though a generation, from father to son may, at an average, be reckoned aboQt 33 years, or three of them equal to 100 years, yet when they are taken Viii INTRODUCTION. by the eldest sons, tliree of them cannot be estimated at more than about 75 or 80 years : and the reigns of kings are still shorter ; so that 18 or 20 years may be allowed as a iust medium. Sir Isaac Newton then fixes on four remarkable periods, viz., the return of the Heraclidse into the Peloponnesus, — the taking of Troy, — the Argonautic expedi- tion, — and the return of Sesostris uito Egypt, after his wars in Thrace ; and he settles the epoch of each by the true value of a generation. To instance only his estimate of that of the Argonautic expedition : having fixed the return of the Heraclidae to about the 159th year after the death of Solomon, and the destruction of Troy to about the 7Gth year after that period, he observes, that Hercules, the Argonaut, was the father of Hyllus, the father of Clerdius, the father of Andromachus, the father of Aristodemus, who conducted the Heraclidae into Peloponnesus ; so that, reckoning by the chiefs of their family, their return was four generations later than the Argonautic expedition, which, therefore, happened about 43 years after the death of Solomon, or a.c. 937. Blair, following the ancient chronology, naokes this event to have taken place a.c. 1263, and Playfair a.c. 1225. Notwithstanding the apparent correctness of his reasoning, the system of Newton, has been seldom followed by modern chronologers. And it Las been justly remarked as surprising, that the manifest inconsistencies of the commonly received chronology with the course of nature, should not have prevented the establishment of a system which, in those turbulent unsettled times, supposes kings to have reigned from 35 to 40 years ; and which generally allows about 60 years to a generation. But the attachment to ancient usages has prevented the adoption of any other. The systems of sacred chronology have been very various. The Hebrew teat reckons about 4000 years from Adam to Christ, and to the flood 1656 years ; the Samaritan makes this interval longer, and reckons from Adam to the flood only 1307 lears ; and the version of the Septuagint removes the creation of the world to 6000 years before Christ. The interval between the creation and flood, according to Eusebius and the Septuagint, is 2242 years ; according to Josephus and the Septuagint, 2256 ; and according to Julius Africanus, Epiphanius, Petavius, and the Septuagint, it is reckoned at 2262 years. Many attempts have been made to reconcile these differences, but none are perfectly satis- factory. In the following work, in regard to ancient history, both sacred and profane, the popular and generally received chronology has been in most instances followed, as that which will be best understood by the general readers of history. In the chronology of more modem events a difficulty has frequently arisen from the discrepancy of dates in the different authorities. This is partly owing to the variety of sources from which information has been obtained, and partly to the errors which have crept into the works in passing through a number of editions. In these cases the Author has endeavoured, by a collation of authorities, where it was practicable, to arrive at the truth, and trusts that, in most instances, he has suc- ceeded. After all, however, it must be admitted, some of the events transpired under fiuch peculiar circumstances, that in endeavouring to fix the dates, it is only possible to arrive at an approximation, THE NEW TABLET OF MEMORY, CHRONICLE OF REMARKABLE EVENTS, &c. &c. AARON, the first high priest of the Jews, brother of Moses, and grandson of Levi. Born a.c, 1575, and died upon Mount Hor, 1452, aged 123. His off- spring were called Aaronites. AARON-BE^-ASER, a celebrated Jewish Rabbi, flourished in 475. AARSENS, Francis, a Dutch diplo- matist of the seventeenth century. He was the first of the three extraordinary ambassadors sent to England in 1620. and the second of those who were de- puted in 1641, to negociate the marriage of Prince William, son of the Prince of Orange. He died at an advanced age, leaving on record memoirs of all the embassies in which he had been engaged. AARSENS, Petek, a Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam, in 1519. He ex- • celled in painting a kitchen with its fur- niture. His altar-pieces were particu- larly admired. He died in 1 575. ABAS, ScHAH, the Great, thii-d son of Codabendi, and seventh sophi, or emperor of Persia: born in 1558. After a victorious reign of 43 years, during which time he consolidated the divided provinces of the Persian empire, and considerably enlarged its extent, he died in 1628. ABBEVILLE, a town of France, department of Somme, was nearly de- stroyed by an explosion of gunpowder, Nov. 1773 : 100 houses were ruined, 150 souls perished; the damage was estimated at 472,917 hvres. ABBEYS, monasteries, or religious hoiises, distinguished from others by larger privileges. The abbeys of Eng- land were pillaged by William the Con- queror, 1069 ; compelled by the same monarch to alter their tenures 1070; 100 were suppressed by order of council, 1414. The abbeys and other religious houses in England, were dissolved by Henry VIH., between 1536 and 1540. See Monasteries. ABBO, monk of St. Germain's, an his- torian, flourished 889- ABBOT, Charles, Lord Tenterden, chief justice of the King's Bench, born Oct. 7, 1762, died Nov. 4, 1832. ABBOTS OF Reading, Glastonbury, St. John's, and Colchester, hanged and quartered for denying the king's su- premacy, and refusing to surrender their Abbeys, 1539. ABBOTSBURY Abbey, Dorset- shire, founded in the reign of Canute, 1026 ; the town of, injured by fire, and 22 houses destroyed, 1784. ABBOTSHALL Farm, Great Wig- ^g" Abbreviations used in this work: A.M. the year of the -world, a .c. before Christ, a.h. the year of the Hegira or flight of Mahomet, a.u.o. from the building of Rome. When the date is inserted zeii/iotit ang abbreviation Anno Domini, ov the year of our Lord, is always to be understood. ABE 2 borough, the property of Mr. Cline, sur- geon, the whole of the farm, standing on nearly two acres of ground, destroyed by fire, April 12, 1817- ABDALLA, son of Abdalmothleb, and father of the prophet Mahomet, lived 575. ABDALLAH, Caliph of Bagdad, son of Haroun-al-Raschid, patron of learn- ing, died 833. ABDICATION of Sovereignty, first instance of, by the Roman emperor Dioclesian, 303. ABDOLLATIPH, an Arabian phy- sician and writer, born at Bagdad, 1161. He visited Damascus and Egypt about 1207; he died 1231. Only one of his numerous treatises has survived the ravages of time. It is in the Bod- leian Library, Oxford, and is entitled " Historiae ^Egypti Compendium." ABEL, murdered by Cain, about a.c. 3875. ABELARD, Peter, anemment scho- lastic philosopher of France, and the lover of Heloise, born at Palais, in Bre- tagne, 1079. He died in 1142, aged 63. Heloise survived her husband 21 years. ABERCONWAY Castle, Caernar- vonshire, built by Edward I., 1204. ABERCONWAY, suspension bridge of, constrvicted 1824. ABERCROMBIE, Sir Ralph, a British general, born 1738. After serv- ing his country more than forty years, he was mortally wounded in an action in Egypt, and died at the moment of victory, March, 1801. ABERGAVENNY, East Indiaman, lost oflf Weymouth, Feb. 1, 1805. ABERNETHY, John, a celebrated surgeon of London, born of Scotch parents, 1765. In his early career he exhibited many of those eccentricities for which he was afterwards remarkable. His bold and successful operations of tying the external iliac artery for aneu- rism, estabUshed his fame. The follow- ing anecdote is illustrative of his bene- volence : " In the year 1818, Lieutenant D , fell from his horse in a street in London, and fractured his skull and arm. Abernethy was sent for, and at- tended daily for some months, until the young man being at length convalescent, was ordered by him to go to Margate, and adopt shell-fish diet. Previously to his departure, the grateful patient en- quired the amount of his pecuniary obli- gation. Abernethy smiled, and said. ABO ' Who is that young woman?' — "She is my wife." * And pray what is your rank in the army ?' " I am a half-pay lieuten- ant." — 'Oh ! very well, wait till you are a general, then come and see me, and we'll talk about it.' He was the author of several works on Surgery, which are comprised in 6 vols. 8vo. He died April 20, 1831, aged 66. ABERRATION of the Fixed Stars, discovered by Dr. Bradley, of Sherborne, Dorset, 1727- ABERRATION of Light, the de- viation or dispersion of the rays of light, when reflected by a speculum, or refracted by a lens, which prevents them from uniting in the same point, called the geometrical focus ; thus producing a confusion of images. The defect in the object glass of a common refracting telescope, produced by this aberration, is remedied by Mr. DoUond's celebrated invention of the achromatic glasses, effected about 1758. See Achromatic Glasses. ABERYSTWYTH, S. Wales, castle of, burnt 1124, re-edified by Edward I. 1283. ABGILLUS, John, surnamed Pres- ler John, son of a king of the Friscii ; from the austerity of his life, he obtained the name of Prester, or Priest, and at- tended Charlemagne in his expedition to the Holy Land, about 800. A BIB, the first month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, afterwards called Ni- san, answers to part of March and April. ABINGDON, Berkshire, founded 517, abbey of, built in, 941. ABINGDON, Earl of, a peer, com- mitted to the King's Bench Prison, foj publishing a libel upon Mr. Sermon, an attorney, Feb. 9, 1795. ABJURATION, Oath of, first re- quired, 1701. ABO, Finland, uniwrsity of, found- ed by Queen Christina, 1640. ABOLITION of hereditary peerage, and the law of entails in France, 1834. ABOLITION of monastic establish- y ments in Portugal, May 28, 1834 j in^ Madrid, 1836. ABOLITION of slavery. See Sla- very. ABORIGINES, a people of Latium, who founded the most ancient kingdom of Italy, a.c. 1330; from their great antiquity the word has been applied ge- nerally to the first inhabitants of other countries. ABU 2 ABORIGINES Protection So- ciety, a society formed in England, in 1837, for the protection of the native population all over the globe ; but chiefly among the British colonies. At the second anniversary of this society, held at Exeter Hall, May 21, 1839, the design of the society was fully explained by the reso- lutions passed, among which was the following. " That in order to protect aboriginal tribes from degradation, they should, obtain for them a participation in equal rights, that such laws as bear injuri- ously on them should be amended, and the administration of government as to their affairs should be improved both at home and in the colonies." ABOUKIR, in Egypt, surren dared to the Enghsh forces, March 18, 1801. ABOUKIR Bay, battle of, 1st Au- gust, 1798. See Nelson. ABRAHAM, born A. c. 1996; leaves Ur of the Chaldees, and dwells in Haran, 1926 ; his call and journey into Canaan, which begins the 430 years of sojourn, 1921 ; goes into Egypt, 1920, defeats the Elamites, 1912; receives the right of circumcision, and entertains three an- gels, 1897; offers up Isaac, 1871, and dies 1821, aged 175 years. ABRAHAMITES, a sect who re- newed the error of the Paulicians ; arose under Abraham of Antioch, 790, and were suppressed by Cyriacus, patriarch of Antioch. ABSOLOM, rebelled against his fa- ther David ; was defeated and killed by Joab, A.c. 1023. ABSTINENCE, (pretended), of Ann Moor, of Tutbury, Staffordshire, living sixteen days without food, Nov. 1808 ; imposture discovered. May 4, 1813; im- prisoned as such, Feb. 18 16. ABSTINENTS, a religious sect, re- sembling Gnostics, abstaining from mar- riage and wine, begun 170, and flou- rished till the third century. ABU-BEKR, the father-in-law,and im- mediate successor of Mahomet, elected caliph in 632, and died 634, aged 63, reigning only two years and three months. ABULFEDA, the geographer, born )273. He was Prince of Hamah, a city of Syria, the sixth in lineal descent from Ayub, or Job, the father of the famous Saladin. Abulfeda is said to have discovered the true longitude of the Caspian Sea, concerning which Ptolemy was mistaken. He was the author of se- veral works on geography. He died 1332. AC A ABYSSINIA, an empire of Africa, si- tuated in the torrid zone, comprehended between 6° and 20° N. lat. and 26° and 44° E. long. The most authentic ancient history of this country, is the Chronicle of Axum . See Axu m . About 303, Christianity was intro- duced by Frumentius. In 533, the em- peror Justinian sent an embassy into this country to persuade its sovereign to em- ploy his forces, then in Arabia, against the Persian monarch. In 1468, John II., king of Portugal, sent two ambassadors to explore the sources of the Indian trade, and to discover a passage to the East In- dies, round Africa. One died on his journey, the other was promoted to posts of honour, but never allowed to return. 1589- Peter Paez, a Spaniard, was the first European who visited what the Abys- sinians deem the sources of the Nile. He died 1662. In 1624, Alphonso Men- dez was sent as patriarch into Abyssinia. In 1750, three Franciscans penetrated as far as Gondar : an account of their travels is given in the Appendix to Mr. Salt's voyage to Abyssinia. In 1769, Mr. Bruce went to Abyssinia to discover the source of the Nile. His travels were pub- lished 1790. See Bruce. In 1805, Mr. Salt took his first journey. In 1830, Samuel Gobat visited this country, and resided there three years. Dr. Ruppel, who recently undertook journeys to this country returned 1838. ACADEMY, The term derived its origin from Cadmea, or Thebes, built by Cadmus, king of Phoenicia, about a. c, 1490; others say, from Academus, the person in whose groves Plato taught at Athens : which school of Plato was called the old academy ; the new one was founded by Arcessilas, and ably main- tained by Carneades. There are comparatively but few aca- demies in this country ; and those which are chiefly celebrated are called socie- ties. The principal in England is the Royal Academy of Arts, in London ; it was instituted for the encouragement of painting, sculpture, &c, 176S. See RoY^AL Academy. The American Academy of Sciences, was established in 1780, by the coun- cil of the House of Representatives, in the province of Massachusett's Bay, for promoting the knowledge of the antiqui- ties and natural history of the country ; and for cultivating every art and science which may tend to advance the interest ACA ACH of an independent and virtuous people. The members of this academy are never more than 200, nor less than 40. See further, American Colleges. ACADEMIES on the continent, &c. The following is an alphabetical .Hst, with the date of incorporation : — Berlin, 1700; a literary society incor- porated with it, 1769. Prussians, sons of nobility, 1769. architecture, 1799. Bologne, for physics and mathematics, 1690. arts and sciences, 1714. Brescia, 1626. Brest, military, 1682. Caen, belles lettres, 1705. Copenhagen, polite arts, 1753. Cortona, Etruscan, 1726. Cremona, 1560; renewed, 1607, un- der the title of Disuniti. Dromingholra, polite arts, 1753. Erfurt, sciences, 1755. Florence, beUes lettres, 1272. DelaCrusca, 1582. Geneva, medical, 1715. Genoa, for painting, sculpture, &c. 1751. Germany, natural history, 1652. military, 1752. medical, 1617. Haerlem, sciences, 1760. Ionian, instituted at Corfu, 1809. of arts, (royal), 1708. of music, (royal), 1807- Lisbon, royal historical, 1722. Lyons, sciences, belles lettres, 1 700. royal, of physic, mathematics, and arts, united in 1758. Madrid, painting, sculpture, and ar- chitecture, 1753. Mantua, Viliganti, for sciences, 1704. Marseilles, belles lettres, history, and criticism, 1726. Milan, sciences, 1719. Naples, arts and sciences, 1540. Nismes, (royal), 1682. Padua, Recovrati, for poetry, 1610. Palermo, medical, 1645. Paris, Sorbonne, for divinity, 1 256. painting, 1391. music, 1543. eloquence and poetry, 1635. (royal), of inscriptions and belles lettres, 1663. painting and sculptiu-e, 1664. architecture, 1671. (royal), of surgery, 1731. agriculture, 1761. Paris, royal miUtary, 1751. natural philosophy, 1796. Parma, Innominati, 1550. Cremona, 1560, renewed as Disuniti, 1609. Perousa, of the Insensati,156l. of Filirgiti, or the lovers of in- dustry, 1574. improved, 1652. Petersburgh, sciences, 1724. military, 1732. school of arts, 1764. friends of Russian litera- ture, 1811. Prussian academies reformed, 1750 Rome, Umoristi, for poetry, loll. Fantiscici, 1625. Infecondi, 1653. painting, 1665. English, 1752. Spain, royal military, 1751. Stockholm, (royal), of sciences, 1739. beUes lettres, 1758. agriculture, 1781. Turkey, military, 1775. Toulon, military, 1682. Upsal, sciences, 1720. Venice, medical, 1701. Verona, at first music, 1543. Vienna, orientalists, 1810. Warsaw, languages, history, and chro- nology, 1753. ACCOLADE, a ceremony used be- fore the Conquest, given in conferring knighthood ; it was a blow on the neck with the fist, now converted into laying the sword upon tlie shoulders. See Knighthood. ACHJ5AN League, a Grecian con- federacy, so called from Achoeus, king of Thessaly. Begun a.c. 284, and continued upwards of 130 years. Its arms were directed against the ^Etolians for three years, with the assistance of Philip of Macedon. It grew powerful by the accession of neighbouring states. The confedracy freed their country from foreign slavery. It was attacked by the Romans and totally destroyed, a. c. 147. ACHAIA, formerly applied to the whole of Greece ; peopled by Achaeus, A.c. 1080. See Greece. ACHILLES, the son of Peleus and Thetis, one of the most celebrated heroes of Greece, born at Phythia, in Thessaly. At the siege of Troy he distinguished himself ; but being disgusted with Aga- memnon, he retired from the camp. Achilles is supposed to have died about A.c 1184. ACR 5 ACHMET. he name of several Tur- kish sultans. AcHMET III. the most remarkable, was the son of Mahomet IV. He came to the throne, l703, and recovered the Morea from the Venetians. In 171 6, his army was defeated by Prince Eugene, at the battle of Petervvaradin : he was dethroned 1730, and died 1736, aged 74. ACHROMATIC Glasses, a parti- cular kind of object glass for teles- copes, designed to correct aberration. In 1729, Mr. Hall, of Chesterhall, Worces- tershire, discovered the proper composi- tion of flint and crown glass; in 1733, he had a telescope made under his own ob- servation in London, which was found to answer the purpose, but no notice was taken of it at the time. After many ex- periments, Mr. Dolland succeeded in completing the discovery in 1758. The Royal Society voted him the Copley Medal. He took a patent, and died in 1761. His son improved it in 1765. . ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings of different length, and the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere were probably first ex- plained by Pythagoras, about a.c. 500. The same mentioned by Aristotle, about A.c. 300. The conjecture of Aristotle was first explained, or rather, perhaps, the theory of sound re-discovered by Galileo, a.d, 1600. The velocity of sound was first investigated by Newton, before 1700, and the theory perfected by Euler and La Grange; theory and practice were reconciled by La Place and Bast. Gali- leo's theory of the harmonic curve, was demonstrated by Dr. Brooke Taylor, 1714. The same was farther perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, and La Grange, at various periods of the 18th century. The speaking trumpet was said to have been used by Alexander the Great, a.c. 335 ; in modern times it was recon- structed from Kircher's description, by Saland, 1654; philosophically explained and brought into notice by M or eland, 1671. ACRE or ACRA, a sea-port town in Syria, formerly called Ptolemais, famous in the time of the crusades : taken from the Saracens by Richard I., of England, and Philip of France, 1191 : afterwards given to the knights of Jerusalem, who called it St. John d'Acre, and kept pos- AD A session of it 100 years. In 1750, Da- harv an Arabian scheik fortified it, and maintained his independence against the Ottoman power. "Within the last forty years Djezzar Pacha erected works and made it a fortress. In 1799, it was de- fended by Sir Sydney Smith against all the efforts of Buonaparte. After three ^ desperate assaults, the French, were l./"^ beaten off and the siege was raised May 20. ACROPOLIS, the citadel of Athens, was the original city founded by Cecrops ; when he collected the } eople of Attica, after the deluge of Ogyges, and founded the city of Athens, a.c. 1556, It was 71 miles round. Some of its ruins stiE exist. ACT OF Uniformity, by which 2,000 ministers were ejected from the pale of the Established Church of Eng- land, 1662. ACTS OF THE Apostles, written by St. Luke, 63 or 64. ACTION, son of Autonoe and Aristaeus, destroyed by his own hounds. A.c. 1342. ADAM, first of the human race, cre- ated, A.c. 4004, died A.c. 3074, aged 930 years. ADAM, Alexander, of Moray, Scotland, a distinguished classical scholar born June 6, 1741, died Dec. 18, 1809. ADAM, Robert, an eminent archi- tect, bom at Edinburgh, 1728, travelled for improvement, 1754; appointed archi- tect to the king, 1762 ; the follow- ing year, presented to the public the fruit of his travels, in a splendid work- He died March 3, 1792, aged 64. ADAMITES, a sect established by Prodicus, in 130, who taught that ori- ginal sin being washed away by bap- tism, men ought to go naked, as a proof . of innocence. This obscure and ridicu- lous sect, did not at first last long ; but it was revived, with additional absurdi- ties, in the twelfth century by one Tanda- mus, and in the fifteenth, by one Picard. ADAMS, John, late President of the United States of America, born in 1736. In 1770, he M^as returned as a representative for Boston. From the year 1770 till 1776, he was con- stantly engaged in all the measures which were adopted in defence of the colonies, against the efforts of the Eng- hsh Parhament. In 1774, when the colonies determined to hold congress at ADE C Philadelphia, he was elected, as also in the second congress. In the memorable discussions of 1776, Adams and Dick- enson took distinguished parts ; the for- mer for, the latter against, the declara- tion of independence. On the adoption of the constitution in 1789, Adams was elected first vice-president of the United States. On the death of Washington, he was elected his successor. In 1787, he published a defence of the Constitu- tion and Government and the United States, in three vols. 8vo. He died July / 4, 1826. ADAMS, Joseph, an eminent phy- sician, one of the founders of vaccina- tion, born 1756, died June 20, 1818. ADANSON, Michael, a celebrated naturalist, born at Aix, in Provence, 1727- He was a pupil of the cele- brated Reaumur : went to Senegal in 1738, where he spent six years in examining the natural productions of that country. In 1759, he was elected member of the Royal Academy at Paris, and about the same time admitted an honorary member of the Royal Society of London. He died 1806. ADDISON, Joseph, born at Mil- ston, near Ambrosbury, in Wiltshire, May 1, 1672. He made a tour in Italy, the latter end of 1699. In 1701. he wrote an epistolary poem to Montague, Lord Halifax. In 1705, published an account of travels, dedicated to Lord Somers. The Spectator chiefly con- ducted by him, commenced March Ist, 1711, closed Sept. 6, 1712. The Guardian entertained the town in the the years 1713 and 1714. In 1713, appeared his tragedy of Cato. In April, 1717, his majesty George I. appointed him one of his principal secretaries of state. He died at Holland House, near Kensington, June, 1719- ADELAIDE, a neiv town in the colony of S. Australia, founded 1835. This town has increased so rapidly, that at the present time (1840) land is said to be of as much value as in many of the principal towns in England. ADELAIDE Gallery, an institu- tion formed in London in 1834. The society connected with this gallery was incorporated in Oct. 1833, and called the Society for the Encouragement of Prac- tical Science. The society is patronised by the queen, and is under the direc- tion of a superintendent, a secretary, two lecturers, and a council of nine in- ADE fluential gentlemen. It receives for ex- hibition, models, specimens of new in- ventions, and works of general interest, relating to science or the fine arts, whether intended for sale or otherwise. It affords every facility for the illustra- tion of discoveries in chemistry, or in natural and experimental philosophy, and for the exhibition of mechanical contrivances of general utility. The rooms open at ten daily, and remain open tin six in the afternoon during the months of May, June, and July. Dur- ing the months of November, December, and January, they close at four o'clock. During the intermediate months they close at half-past four, five, and half past five according to the season. In the course of each day among others the fol- lowing subjects are illustrated or objects shown : Electrical and Magneiical Apparatus. A series of interesting experiments to illustrate the electrical action obtained by friction, by means of the well known " electrical machine." The leading facts of volcanic electricity, or of that agent excited by chemical action, are explained by means of compound batteries on dif- ferent principles of various constructions. The striking discoveries of the connection between electricity and magnetism made within the last twenty years, are illustrated by a variety of apparatus ; the principal of which are a powerful magnet of tem- pered steel, for illustrating magneto-elec- trical phenomena. An electro-magnet, illustrating electro-magnetic induction, or magnetic power induced upon soft iron by electrical currents when in ap- proximation. Magnet of steel, of seven plates. A thermo-electrical battery, con- sisting of 53 pairs of cylinders of bis- muth and antimony, the ends being so connected that the 112 elements form a continued chain, the links of which are alternately of the two metals. Oxy-hydrogen Microscope, with a lec- ture delivered daily. It has three sets of glasses, increasing progressively from a magnifj'ing power of about 400 times in linear dimensions. The objects con- sist of cuttings from the stems of plants, leaves, flowers, &c., &c., from the vege- table creation ; by means of which the characteristics of the leading divisions of that kingdom may be easily distinguished: larvae and perfect insects ahve ; those which are aquatic being shown swimming in their native element. ADR : Mr. Jacob Perkin's Steam Gun. The tremendous power of steam, generated in confined space, is shown in a novel and striking point of view by this ma- chine. Steam of an electric power of from 300 to 500lbs. on the square inch, being admitted into the chamber of a musket barrel, constructed for the pur- pose, propels balls either singly or in volleys, at the rate of from 5 to 500 per minute, against an iron target 100 feet distant, with a force far exceeding that of gunpowder. ADELPHI Buildings, Strand, Lon- don, erected, 1770. ADELPHI Lottery, act passed 1773. ADELUNG, John Christopher, a German philologist, born 1734, died 1806. ADMETUS, king of Thessaly, flou- rished, A.C. 1344. ADMIRAL, the first appointed in Eng- land, WiUiam de Leybourne, 1297. ADMIRAL, Lord High, first ap- pointed in England, 13875 held by com- mission since Nov. 1709, except a short interval by the Duke of Clarence, late William IV. ADMIRALTY, Court of, erected 1357, incorporated June 22, 1768. ADO, the historian, archbishop of "Vienna, flourished 867, died 874. ADOLPHUS, OF Nassau, made em- peror of the West, 1291j deposed and slain, 1298. ADOLPHUS, Gustavus, king of Sweden. See Gustavus. ADRIAN, IV., born in Langley, Hert- fordshire, England, afterwards pope of Rome, died 1159. ADRIAN, OR Hadrian, Publius iELius, 5th emperor of Rome, born a.d. 76, A.u.c. 829. He distinguished himself under Trajan in the second war against the Dacians. He was adopted by Trajan and declared em- peror in 117. On attaining the imperial dignity he made peace with the Per- sians, remitted the debts of the Romans andpeople, which amountedto 22,500,000 golden crowns, and burnt all the bonds relating to those debts There was scarcely a province in his empire, which Adrian did not visit. In 1 20, he went into Gaul, and from thence to Britain, in order to subdue the Caledonians, he was diverted from his purpose, but built the wall which still bears his name. It extended from Solway Frith, to the river Tyne. He visited all the provinces of Asia, and returned to Rome, 129. He MP 1 visited Egypt, 132, Syria, 133, Athens 134, returned to Rome, 135. He died, 138, aged 62, having reigned 21 years. ADRIAN'S Mole, at Rome, con- structed, 120. ADRIANOPLE, city of Turkey in Europe, province of Romania, deriving its name from the emperor Adrian. It has a very fine bazaar, or market, half- a-mile long, a vast arched building, with six gates and 365 well furnished shops, kept by Turks, Armenians, and Jews. Adrianople was taken by Amurath, the Turkish sultan, 1360; the 'court removed from it to Constantinople, 1458. In- jured by fire, 1754 and 1778. Occupied by the Russians, Aug. 10, 1830. ADULTERY, punished by cutting off nose and ears, 1031 : made capital, 1650. ADVENT SUNDAY, first observed 433 : the number determined, 1000. iEDILES, Roman magistrates, whose chief business was to superintend build- ings of all kinds, but more especially those for public use; such as temples, aqueducts, bridges, &c. The plebian sediles were only two in number, and were first created, A. u. c. 260. ; but having refused, on a certain occasion, to treat the people with shows, pleading themselves unable to support the ex- pense, the patricians made an offer to do it, provided they were admitted to the honours of the eedilate. On this occasion there were new aediles created, of the number of the patricians, a.u. c. 388. .(EGiEON, a pirate, from whom Mgea is so called, flourished a.m. 2110. iELIAN, a Greek writer, born at Prse- neste, m Italy; flourished, 221. He taught rhetoric at Rome, according to Perizonms, under the emperor Alexan- der Severus. His most celebrated works- are his Various History, and his History of Animals. yEMILIUS, Paulus, a Roman con- sul, who subdued Perseus, king of Ma- cedonia, and reduced that country to a Roman Province, whence he obtained the surname of Macedonius. He died A.C. 168. iEMILIUS, Paulus, a celebrated his- torian of the I6th century, was born at Verona. He wrote the history of the " Kings of France," in Latin, which has been greatly admired; died at Paris 1529. ^PINUS, Francis Ulrich Theo- dore, an eminent mathematician and natural philosopher, author of a pecuhar theory of electricity. Born at Rostock MS 8 m Lower Saxony, 1724. His work was published at Petersburgh in 1759. AEROLITES, or Meteoric Stones, certain stony or metalic sub- stances which descend to the earth ac- companied by the appearance and ex- plosion of a fiery meteor. A large stone of this kind fell near Egospotamos, in Thrace, 2nd year of the 78th Olympiad or about A.c 467- An extraordinary shower of stones, fell near L'Aigle in Normandy, on the 26th '^ of April, 1803. There were three or four reports like those of cannon. This noise proceeded from a small cloud, about half a league to the N.N.W. of the town of L'Aigle. The largest stone that fell weighed I75lbs. Another remarkable aerolite fell at Nobleborough, Maine, ly America, Aug. 7, 1823. It fell with a similar noise and penetrated the earth about six inches, where meeting another stone it was broken into fragments. The whole mass probably weighed between four and six pounds. AEROSTATIC Ascent, an ascent in a balloon. The first was made in France by M. Charles, a physician, and a dis- tinguished member of the French In- stitute, Dec. 1, 1783. The first made in England, Sep. 15, 1784; Scotland, Oct. 5, 1785; voyage from Dover to Calais by Blanchard and Dr. Jeffries, 1785. Ascent made by Blanchard, ac- companied by sixteen persons, 1798; by Ganerin, who was the first to descend in a parachute, from a height of 4,154 ly' feet, Sep. 21,1 802. Madame Blanchard, at night, from the Tivoli Gardens, in Paris, June,1819,when the balloon catch- ing fire from some fireworks which she carried with her, caused her to fall from a great height, and dashed her in pieces. — Voyage performed Nov. 7, 1836, by Messrs Green, Monk, Mason and Hol- land, in the largest balloon ever con- structed. They ascended from Londor. at half past one p.m. and descended at Weilburgh, near Coblentz, a distance of about 480 English miles, at half-past seven on the morning of the succeeding day. See Balloon. .(ESCHINES, an Athenian orator, born, A.c. 393, died 323. iECHYLUS, a Greek tragic poet, born, A.c. 523, died, 454. iESOP, the fabulist and EucUd of moral science, for ridiculing the igno- rance and superstition of the priesthood, was put to death about a.c. 500. A FR ^ESOPUS, the Roman actor, and contemporary of Roscius, flourished A.c. 670. AFFIRMATION of Quakers, ad- mitted in lieu of an oath, particularly, 1702; alteration made therein, Dec. 13 1721; received " in any case whatever," 1829; sufficient for members of parlia- ment, Feb. 14, 1833. AFGHANISTAN, country Central Asia, founded about 1750, after the death of Nadir schah, the Persian king. It comprises the kingdoms of Cabool and Candahar. AFRICA, one of the principal divi-» sions of the earth. Partially known to the ancients. The Phoenicians sailed round.it, a.c. 604. Hanno the Cartha- ginian, about 30 or 40 years after, sailed to the western coast with 60 ships. A.D. 426. Bonifacius, the Roman go- vernor of Africa, revolted and called in the aid of the Vandals. In 647 the north of Africa was overrun by the Saracens : 1484. The Portuguese penetrated 1500 miles beyond the equator: I486, Bar- tholomew de Diaz, discovered the Cape of Good Hope. 1788. The African Association em- ployed various individuals to enter Africa at diflferent points and pursue such routes as ha\ e been thought most likely to lead to important discoveries. See African Association. 1795. Mr. Park discovered the exist- ence of the Niger, with a course E. and W. confirming what Herodotus had stated. He also discovered great and populous cities, in the heart of Africa, and returned 1797. In 1805, Park took another voyage and was killed by the natives 1806. 1821. Major Denham, Capt. Clap- perton and Dr. Oudney, endeavoured to penetrate from Tripoli southward into the interior. Feb. 4, 1823, they reached ' Loeri the frontier of Bornou. Clapperton and Denham returned to Tripoli 1825. Clapperton undertook a second journey 1826, with the intention of further ex- ploring Africa ; he died at Sackatoo, 1827. See Clapperton. 1 830. Richard and John Lander, by order of government, undertook an ex- pedition to determine the course and^ termination of the Niger, from Yaoori to the sea. They sailed Jan. 9, 1831, and succeeded in navigating the river to its influx, into the Bight of Benin. In 1 833, Lander conducted another expedition on AFR 9 the Niger, under the patronage of a com- pany of merchants at Liverpool : its ob- ject was to establish a trade in that part of the world. He arrived at Fernando Po, May 1, and died of a wound, Jan. 13, 1834. 1835. The same enterprising mer- chants sent out an expedition under the command of Becroft, who departed for Fernando Po, Sept. 16, This year also, Davidson embarked for Gibraltar, on his way to Morocco, from which coun- y try he hoped to reach Timbuctoo, but '''^ was detained by the emperor of Morocco. In March 1836, he was permitted to travel. The 7th of the same month he arrived at Agadeer, or Santa Cruz, and reached Wadnoon, April 22. In Dec. 1836, he fell a victim to the treachery of an Arab chief. AFRICAN Association, a society formed 1788, to promote the discovery of the interior of Africa. This society formed a new era in the annals of Afri- can discovery ; it consisted of men emi- " nent for rank and wealth ; and still more distinguished by their zeal in the cause of science and humanity. Ledyard and Lucas were appointed for accomplishing the objects of this society : the former undertook the task of traversing from east to west in the latitude attributed to the Niger. He arrived at Cairo, Aug. 1788; but death disappointed his hopes. Lucas embarked for Tripoli, Oct. 1788, to proceed over the desert of Zaara, to Fezzan, to collect and transmit, by way of Tripoli, whatever intelligence he could obtain respecting the interior of the con- tinent, and to return by way of Gambia, or the coast of Guinea. The peregrina- tions of this traveller terminated at Me- surata, Feb. 1, 1789- This society was merged into the Royal Geographical Society, in 1831, by which the same important objects have been carried on, not in Africa merely, but throughout the world. See Geogra- phical Society. AFRICAN Institution. This so- ciety has often been confounded with ^ the former ; but their original objects I were different. The African Institution \ was formed in 1807, by friends of the abolition of the slave trade, for promoting the civilization of Africa. It maybe considered as a continuation of the Abo- lition Society. See Slavery. ' ' AFRICAN Company, incorporated by Charles II., 1662 ; government owed AGl ■ them £11,686,800., and their divided capital amounted to £10,780,000, both which continued till 1776. This com- pany was abolished by statute 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 28. AFRICANUS, Julius, a Christian chronicler of the third century. Died about 232. AFRICANUS, SciPio. See Scipio. AGAMEMNON, generalissimo of the Greeks, at the siege of Troy. Slain about A.c. 1104. AGAREL, Arthur, an English anti- quarian, friend of Sir R. Cotton; born 1540; died 1615. AGATHA, St., monastery of, near Richmond, Yorkshire, built 1131. AGATHARCHUS,pupUofiEschylus, inventor of theatrical perspective. Died a.c. 480. AGATHARCIDES, Ciudius, the historian and biographer, flourished A. c. 174. AGATHIAS, a Greek historian of the 6th century, under Justinian. Born at Myrina, a colony of the ancient ^Eolians, in Asia Minor ; came into notice about 565. His history, which begins with the 26th year of Justinian's reign, where Procopius ends, was printed in Greek and Latin, at Leyden, in 1594; and at Paris 1660, AGE, Augustine, commenced Feb. 14, A. c. 27. Middle age in history, is from about the fourth to the fifteenth century. AGES OP THE World. The first is reckoned from A dam to Noah; the second from Noah to Abraham ; the third from Abraham to Moses; the fourth from Moses to Solomon ; the fifth from Solo- mon to Cyrus ; the sixth from Cyrus to Christ, AGINCOURT, a village of the French Netherlands, celebrated on account of the victory obtained by Henry V. of Eng- land, over the French, Oct. 24, 1415. The army of Henry, after landing in France, was reduced to 10,000 men; the French army amounted to 100,000. No battle was ever more fatal to the French, by the number of princes or nobility slain or taken prisoners. Among the former were the constable of France, the count of Nevers, and the duke of Bra- bant, brothers to the duke of Burgundy; the count of Vaudemont, brother to the duke of Loraine ; the duke of Alencon, the dukeof Barre, and the count of Marie. The most eminent prisoners were the c AG R 10 AGR dukea of Orleans and Bourbon, the counts d'Eu, Vendome, and Richemont, and the Mareschal of Boucicaut. The killed are computed to have amounted to 10,000. AGLIONBY, John, chaplain to James L, one of the translators of the Testament. Died 1610. AGNES, St„ martyred 308, aged 13. AGNESE SIGNORA, professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in the university of Bologna, born 1718, died 1799. AGNUS DEI, or, « O Lamb of God," &c, in the Litany; first appointed to be read in 687; first consecration of, 1566. AGRA, fortress of, the key of Hindos- tan, surrendered to the English Oct. 17, 1803. AGRARIAN LAW, relating to the distribution of lands, introduced at Rome by Spurius Cassius about, a.u.c. 268,or A.c. 486. Revived by Saturnius, 100. AGRICOLA, an illustrious Roman, born June 13th a. d. 38. He was made consul in the reign of Vespasian, 77. During the year of his consul- ship, he contracted his daughter to Ta- citus, the historian, who has furnished the memoirs of his life. At the expira- tion of his office he was appointed gover- nor of Britain, whither he repaired, to compose the tumults of that distracted province. He marched to the north, where he made new conquests, and or- dered forts to be built for the Romans to winter m. He subdued the nations be- twixt the Tweed and the Friths of Edin- burgh and Clyde, and built fortresses to eliut up the nations yet unconquered. A few years after, the Britons raised an army of 30,000 men, and a battle ensued, in which the Romans gained the victory, and 10,000 of the Britons are said to have been killed. This happened in the reign of the Emperor Domitian; who, growing jealous of the glory of Agricola, recalled him in 84. He built the ram- part between England and Scotland, with the chain of forts from the Clyde to the Forth. He died in 93, aged 56. AGRICULTURE. This is indisput- ably the most ancient of all the arts. Its history is coeval with the history of man. A. c. 2247. After the dispersion of mankind, this art was cultivated chiefly in the East, and especially by the Chal- deans. It flourished in Phoenicia, for the patriarch Isaac took shelter in that country to avoid the effects of a dreadful famine which afflicted the neighbouring nations. — a. c. 1450, ITie Israelites, shortly after their settlement in Pales- tine, began to cultivate the soil. Both India and Persia are famed for the re- spect they paid to agriculture. In the former country, Bacchus was worshipped as the first who planted a vineyard ; and in the latter, husbandmen received the highest honours. — a. c. 509. Mago, a celebrated Carthaginian general, wTote 28 books on agriculture, which, in con- sequence of a decree of the Roman se- nate, were translated into Latin. — a. c. 850. Hesiod, who flourished about this time, wrote a poem on the subject, en- titled, "Works and Days." The Ro- mans esteemed agriculture as an art highly honourable, and necessary to the pubUc welfare. — a. c. 30. About this time Varro wrote a regular and learned treatise on the subject ; and Virgil, who was his contemporary, has, in his " Geor- gics," laid down the rules and precepts, as delivered by preceding writers. a. d. 40. About this date Columella wrote his twelve books on husbandry, which are highly commended for the great variety of valuable and important in structions they contain. The Romans had no sooner established themselves in Bri- tain, than agriculture began to flourish there. The Emperor Julian erected new granaries purposely for the com brought from Britain, and built a fleet of 800 ships, larger than the common barks, which he sent to Britain to bring corn from thence. — 278. About this time the Emperor Probius gave leave to the Ro- mans to plant vines and to make wine in Britain. Hemp and flax were likewise among the vegetable productions of this country at an early period; and it is sup- posed, not without reason, that they were introduced by the Belgic Gauls with their agriculture. — 700. According to a law made by Inas, King of the West Sax- ons, who flourished about this time, a farm consisting of ten hides of land was to pay a rent of " ten sacks of honey, three hundred loaves of bread, twelve casks of strong ale, thirty casks of small ale, two oxen, ten wethers, ten geese, twenty hens, ten cheeses, one cask of butter, five salmon, twenty pounds fo- rage, and one hundred eels." 1066. The arrival of the Normans, who brought with them many thousands of husbandmen from France, Flanders, and AGR Normandy, proved highly beneficial to agriculture. — During the former part of the fifteenth century, the barons, and other great men, adopted the resolution of en- closing and converting them into pasture ground. This practice became very ge- neral in England about the middle of the fifteenth century. In 1534 was pub- lished the earliest English work expressly on agriculture, entitled, "The Book of Husbandry," by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, who was likewise judge in common pleas. The husbandmen of the sixteenth century are partly indebted to Thomas Tusser, who was a pleasant poet as well as a good farmer, for their skill in culti- vating many kinds of vegetables. In 1557, Tusser's book, entitled, "Five Hun- dred Pointes of good Husbandrie," was first printed. — 16^0. Considerable ef- forts were made m France about this time to revive the study and practice of husbandry. The spirit of improvement in the rural arts prevailed also to a con- siderable degree in Flanders ; but it was chiefly limited to practical husbandry. At this period, and even earlier, several good agriculturists flourished in Eng- land. Among these may be mentioned, Gabriel Plattes, who, from the time of Elizabeth to that of Cromwell, continued to render essential services to the art, both practically and by his writings. In 1700, flourished John Evelyn, author of *' Sylva ; or a Discourse on Forest Trees." He succeeded in reviving among his coun- trymen a taste for promoting the study of agriculture. He died 1706. In 1733, was published the work of Jethro TuU, entitled, " An Essay on Horse Hoeing Husbandry." He was the inventor of the drill- plough, the use of which he ex- plains in his work. TuU is justly cele- brated as the first Englishman, perhaps the first writer, either ancient or modern, who attempted, with any tolerable degree of success, to reduce agriculture to cer- tain and uniform principles. About this time a spirit of improvement in husbandry began visibly to manifest itself in Ireland. The transactions of the Dublin Society for the encouragement of husbandry is a valuable work, and is occasionally re- sorted to by agriculturists of every coun- try in Europe for information. The modem discoveries in chemistry about the middle of the eighteenth century, have enriched agriculture with some of its most important improvements. 790. Sir John Sinclair began his plan 11 AGR for agricultural improvement, and was the means of establishing the board of Agriculture. On the loth of May, 1793, Sir John brought the subject before the House of Commons, and a charter passed the great seal for incor- porating the members of administra^ tion, the archbishops of Canterbury and York for the time being, with other no- blemen and gentlemen, into a society, under the name of. The board, or Society for the Encouragement and Internal Im- provement of Agriculture. The regular sittings commenced on the 23rd of Janu- ary. An extensive correspondence was in a short time established, and commu- nications of a highly valuable nature have been made to the board from every quarter. In 1803, Sir H. Davy's Dis- courses were published, They form the only complete work we possess on agri- cultural chemistry. Several local soci- eties have since been formed, and exhibi- tions of prize cattle made ; that on the largest scale is a new and extensive one recently established, entitled, "The Eng- lish Agricultural Society :" President, Earl Spencer. — July 17, 1839, the first meeting was held at Oxford. It was at- tended by the president, and a great number of noblemen. The show of cattle was probably the largest ever known ; and several prize essays were read, calculated to advance the interests and improve the knowledge of this art. AGRIGENTUM, a city of Sicily, founded about a. c. 500. The tyrant, Phalaris, first reduced it to slavery. At length it sunk under the power of the Carthaginians, about A. c. 400. It wasone of the most opulent cities of Sicily, con- taining 200,000 inhabitants. Among its curiosities was the famous bull of Phala- ris, which was sent to Carthage. Agri- gentum lay fifty years buried under its own ruins, when Timoleon collected the descendants of the Agrigentines, and sent them to re-establish the dwellings of their forefathers. The city arose from its ashes with such a renewal of vigour, as to ar- rogate to itself supremacy over aU the Sicilian republics. During the Punic war it was the head quarters of the Car- thaginians, and was besieged by the Ro- man consuls, who took it by storm, A.c. 262. Part of the site is now occupied by a town called Girgenti. AGRIPPA, Cornelius, a reputed magician, born at Cologne, 1486 5 died at Grenoble, 1535. AI R AGRIPPA, Herod, I, Kingof Judea, born A. c. 3 ; died a. d. 44. AGRIPPA, Herod, II, before whom St. Paul pleaded. Died a. d. 100. AGUESSEAU, Henry Francis d' chancellor of France, bom at Limoges, 1668; died 1751. AHAB, in Scripture, the son and suc- cessor of Omri, began his reign over Israel, a. m. 3086, and reigned 22 years. About A. M. 3103, Benhadad, King of Syria, besieged Samaria with a powerful army but he and his army were entirely routed, and left a prodigious booty. Ahab was slain at Ramoth Gilead, a. m. 3117. AHASUERUS or ASTYAGES, the Mede, was the son of the brave Cyax- ares, who assisted Nebuchadnezzar to overturn the Assyrian empire, and ruin the city of Nineveh. He died a. m. 3444. AHASUERUS, the husband of Es- ther. ScaUger, GiU, and others, suppose him to be Xerxes, the fourth king of Persia after Cyrus. The authors of Uni- versal History, Prideaux and others, con- sider him to be Artaxerxes Longimanus, the son of Xerxes, who greatly favoured the Jews ; but the generaUty of writers agree with Usher, Calmet, &c., that this Ahasuerus was Darius Hystaspes. He ascended the throne a. m. 3483. In the second year of his reign, the Jews, en- couraged by the prophets Haggai and Zachariah, resumed the rebuilding of their temple. About a. m. 3495 he in- vaded India, and obliged the inhabitants to pay him nearly 365 talents of silver. A little before his death the Egyptians revolted from his yoke. He died a. m. 3519, after a reign of 36 years, and was succeeded by his son, Xerxes. AHAZ, king of Judah, ascended the throne a.m. 3265; died 3278. a.c. 726. AIKIN, John, M. D., author of the Biographical Dictionary, born January, 1747 ; died December 4, 1822, AINSWORTH, Henry, a noncon- formist, and learned bibhcal writer, flou- rished 1590. Poisoned from envy, by a Jew, 1629. AINSWORTH, Robert, a learned grammarian, born at Woodgate, near Manchester, 1660. We are indebted to him for the best Latin and Enghsh Dic- tionary extant. It was pubUshed in 1736. In 1752 the fourth edition was enlarged to two volumes folio. The best of Dr. Morrell's editions is dated 1783. He died 1743, aged 83, AIR BALLOONS. See Balloons. 12 ALA AIR GUNS, invented by Ctesibius, of Alexandria, a. c, 120 ; revived by Guter, of Nuremburg, a. d, 1656 ; improved by Perkins, 1830. AIR-PUMPS, invented by Otto de Guericke, burgomaster of Magdeburg, 1654. Also attributed to Boyle, AIRE, in France, taken, with its ma- gazines, by general Sir Rowland Hill, March 2, 1814, AITON, William, botanist, author of Hortus Kewensis, bom 1731 ; died 1793. AIX La Chapelle, on Lower Rhine, founded 795; treaties of peace con- cluded May 2, 1668, Oct. 18, 1748. Congress at, Oct. Nov. 1818; taken by the French 1793, and Sep. 21, 1794. ,^ AJACCIO, in Corsica, Napoleon born at, Aug. 15, 1769. A J AX, son of Telamon, one of the Grecian chieftains at the siege of Troy, flourished about a.c, 1184. AJAX, the son of Oileus, chief of the Locrians, a leader in the Trojan war, shipwrecked on his return, by Minerva, for having violated Cassandira, at her shrine; flourished about a.c. 1184. AKENSIDE, a celebrated poet, bom at Newcastle upon Tyne, Nov. 9» 1721. After spending three years at the university of Edinburgh, he re- moved to Leyden, where he continued two years, and took, in 1 744, the degree of doctor of physic. After his return to England, the same year, he pubhshed the Pleasures of Imagination. He died of a putrid fever, June 23, 1770, in the 49th year of his age. ALAND, John, Lord Fortescue of Ireland, a Baron of the Common Pleas, and proficient in Saxon literature, born 1670, died 1747. ALARIC, a celebrated Gothic general, flourished in the 4th century. He in- vaded the finest provinces of the Roman empire, during the reign of Arcadius and Honorius. In 396 he marched into Greece, carrying terror and desola- tion wherever he went. Here he was opposed by the Roman General Stihcho, 397. He was proclaimed king of the Visigoths 398, and commenced the blockade of Rome 408. The last re- source of the Romans was in the cle- mency of Alaric, who at length in 409, consented to raise the siege on the pay- ment of an immense ransom. The fol- lowing year he made himself master of the port of Ostia, after which the gates ALB 13 ALC of the city were soon thrown open. In 410 Alaric again appeared in arms under the walls of the capital. And by a con- spiracy the Salarian gate was silently opened at midnight; thus a.u.c. 1163, Rome was deUvered to the licentious fury of the tribes of Germany and Scy- thia. The Goths evacuated Rome on the sixth day, and were proceeding to the conquest of Africa, when the design was stopped by the premature death of - Alaric; in 410. ALBA, kingdom of, of which, the de- cendants of iEneas were kings, and which afterwards became the empire of Rome, lasted 400 years from the arrival of iEneas, to the building of Rome. ALBAN St. said to have been the first martyr in Britain, was beheaded at Holmhurst, now St. Albans. 283. ALBANIA, a tract of territory, which extends 250 miles along the Mediterranean and the Gulf of Venice. It nearly coincides with the country known to the ancients, under the name of Epirus. During the time of the Greek empire, the name of Albania was first given to this district. About the year 1478, the people were reduced to a state of partial subjection to the Turkish empire, and were in succeeding reigns induced in great numbers, to enter the Turkish army. At the commencement of the present century, the notorious Ali Pasha, by degrees acquired the sole command of this extensive tract of terri- tory, and in 1787, was made Pasha of Albania. See Ali. Since the inde- pendence of Greece in 1830, this king- dom has with the exception of a small district north of the Drin, been comprised in the new kingdom of Greece. ALBANS, Abbey, built in 793. ALBERONI Julius, a cardinal bom at Placentia, 1664. He rose from a low origin to the employment of first minister of state, at the court of Spain. The discovery of his plans caused Eng- land and France to unite in declaring war against Spain in 1719, and the con- dition of peace was the removal of Alberoni, and his banishment from the kingdom. He died in 1752, aged 86. ALBERT DuBER, a German painter, born 1471, died 1628. ALBERT, Prince. See Coburg. ALBERTUS, Magnus, a learned mathematician, and general scholar, born in Suabia about 1200, flourished 1237, died 1280. ALBIGENSES, a sect of reformers who sprung up in the 12th century. Their errors were condemned by a coun- cil at Albigia in Languedoc 1 1 76. They differ from the Waldenses, both as being prior to them in point of time, and as being charged with various heresies. Pope Innocent III, made a most ample declaration against them at Toulouse in 1253, and the catholics agreed upon a ^crusade against them, from which time they decreased till the time of the refor- mation, when such of them as were left became conformable to the doctrines of Zuinglius and the disciphne of Geneva. ALBINUS, Christian Bernard, professor of Anatomy, at Utrecht, died 1752. ALBINUS, Bernhard Siegfred, a celebrated physician and anatomist, was born at Frankfort on the Oder, 1697. In 17 18 he was appointed pro- fessor of anatomy and surgery at Ley- den. This office he continued to fill with great credit for 50 years. His anatomical plates, 3 vols, folio. 1744, 1749, 1753, prove him to have been an anatomist of the first rank. He died 1770, aged 73. ALBION Mills, Blackfriars, de- stroyed by fire March 2, 1791, the dam- age estimated at £25,000. ALBION, New, discovered by Drake 1577, who was the second to attempt a voyage round the world, which he per- formed in three years. ALBUMAZAR, an Arabian physician and astrologer, flourished a.d. 841. ALBUaUERaUE, Alfonso DE, the Portuguese Mars, viceroy of India, bom at Lisbon 1452, died 1515. ALGOUS, the lyric poet, flourished A.c. 605. ALGOUS, the tragic poet, flourished A.c. 601. ALCANTARA, bridge of, across the Tagus, Portugal, buUt 98. ALCANTARA, order of knighthood, instituted 11 60. ALCIBIADES, the Athenian states- man and general, born A.c. 450. The defeat of the Athenian fleet by Lysander being attributed to him, he found it expedient to retire from Athens. While an exile in his house in Phrygia, he was asssissinated at the instigation of Lysan- der, by order of Pharnabazus a satrap of the king of Persia, a.c 404, aged 46. ALCIDAMUS, the orator, flourished A.c. 615. ALD 14 ALCORAN, See Koran. ALCUINUS, Alcuyn, or Albinus Flaccus, a learned English monk, the friend of Charlemagne, scholar of Bede, and founder of the university of Paris, born at York, 732, died at Tours, 804. ALDERMAN, among the Anglo- Saxons, was the second of the three orders or degrees of rank. Atheling was the first, alderman the second, and thane the lowest. Mr. Hume says that comes, in Latin, alderman in Saxon, and earl in Dano-Saxon were synonymous. In the most ancient times oi the Anglo- Saxon government, the aldermen, or earls, were appointed by the king, but towards the conclusion of this period, these officers seem to have been elected by the freeholders of the shire, in the shiregemont or county-court. To en- able them to support their dignity, they enjoyed certain lands, called the earl's lands. There were anciently however, several magistrates who bore the title of aldermen, as, the aldermannus totius Anglice, or chief justice of England; the aldermannus regis, an occasional ma- gistrate, answering to our justice of assize; and the aldermannus comitatus, a magistrate who held the middle rank between what was afterwards called the earl, and the sheriff: he sat at the trial of causes with the bishop ; the latter proceeding according to ec- clesiastical law, and the former declar- ing and expounding the common law of the land. ALDERMAN, in the English PoHty, was originally an associate with the mayor, or civil magistrate, of the city or town, for the better administration of the office. They sometimes took cognizance of civil and criminal matters, but that very rarely, and only in certain cases. Their number was not limited, usually varying from six to twenty-six. Out of these were elected' the mayors, or chief magis- trates of places. Under the new muni- cipal act, Dec. 1835, great alterations were made. See Municipal Corpo- rations. ALDERMEN of London. These have not been subjected to the changes introduced by the Municipal Act. They were first appointed in London, in 1 242, and consist of 26, who preside over the 26 wards of the city. When one of them dies or resigns, the wardmote chooses a successor, who is admitted, and sworn into office, by the lord mayor ALE and court of aldermen. All the alder- men are justices of the peace, by a char- ter of 15 Geo. n. The aldermen ol London, are exempted from serving in- ferior offices ; nor are they put upon assizes, or serve on juries, so long as they continue to be aldermen. 2 Cro. 585. ALDERSGATE, London, built 16 16, taken down and sold for £91, April 10, 1761. ALD GATE, London, built 1608; taken down and sold for £177 ; April 10, 1760. ALDROVANDINL Tomaso, a painter of landscape and architecture, born at Bologna, 1653, died 1736. ALDROVANDL Aldhovandus, Ulysses, a celebrated naturalist, born at Bologna, 1522, travelled to Rome 1550, when he became acquainted with Rondelezio. Having graduated in phy- sic at Bologna in 1553, he was in the following year appointed to the chairs of philosophy and logic, and to the lectureship of botany. By his interest the botanical garden of Bologna was founded 1567- He died 1605, at the hospital in Bologna, aged 83. His Hor- tus Siccus, or collection of dried speci- mens of plants, was existing, Haller says, near a century after the collection was formed : it filled sixteen large folio volumes. ALE, said to have been invented a.c. 1404. Its manufacture is of very high antiquity, Herodotus tells us that the Egyptians drank a liquor fermented from barley. It does not appear to have been extensively used, either in Italy or Greece. Ale or beer, was in com- mon use in Germany, in the time of Tacitus. "All the nations," says Pliny, " who inhabit the west of Europe, have a liquor with which they in- toxicate themselves, made of com and water." In England it is mentioned in the laws of Ina king of Wessex. It was customary in the time of the Nor- man princes, to regulate the price of ale, and a statute to that effect was passed in 1272. The use of hops seems to have been a German invention, they were not in- troduced into England^ till the beginning of the 16th century. In 1530, Henry VIII. enjoined brewers not to put hops in their ale. Till 1823, there were only two sorts of beer allowed m England, viz. strong, and small beer In 1823, ALE 15 ALE aa act was passed (4 Geo. IV. c.5l) au- thorising the brewery of an intermediate beer. By the act 1 Will. IV. passed 1831, the commissioners of excise, or other persons duly authorised, were bound to grant licences, costing £2. 2s. a year, to all persons not excepted in the act, em- powering them to sell, ale, beer, &c., to be drunk indifferently, either on or off the premises^ But the act of 1834, 4 and 5 Will. IV. c.85, made the obtaining of a licence to retail beer to be drunk on the premises, contingent on the ap- plicant being able to produce a certificate of good character, subscribed by certain persons, rated at a certain amount to the poor; it has also raised the cost of such licence to £3. 3s.; and reduced the cost of a hcence to sell beer not to be drunk on the premises to £1. Is. ALEMBERT, John Rond d', an eminent French philosopher, born at Paris, 1717. In 1741, he was ad- mitted a member of the Academy of Sci- ences ; and, two yifiars after, published his Treatise on Dynamics. In 1746, he published a discourse on the general Theory of the Winds, to which the prize medal was adjudged by the academy of Berlin. In 1749, he solved the problem of the precession of the equinoxes, de- termined its quantity, and explained the phenomenon of the mutation of the ter- restrial axis, discovered by Dr. Bradley, In I752,he published a treatise on theRe- sistance of Fluids, and began editing the French Encyclopaedia. In 1772, he was chosen secretary to the French Academy; and formed, soon after, the design of writing the lives of all the deceased Aca- demicians, from 1700 to 1772. In the space of three years he executed this design, by composing 70 eulogies. He died Oct. 29, 1783. ALESSANDRIA, or Alessandria DE LA Paglia, a city of Italy, in the kingdom of Sardinia, the capital of a dis- trict named after it, on the Tanaro river, 46 miles E.s.E. of Turin, Built about 1168, and named after Pope Alex- ander III. The French made themselves masters of the town and citadel, but were dispossessed by Prince Eugene, in 1706. By the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, Ales- sandria was assigned to the King of Sar- dinia, from whom it was taken by the French in 1745 ; but re- taken in the fol- lowing year. After the battle of Ma- rengo, 1800, it remained in the hands of the French tiU 1814, when it reyerted to the King of Sardinia with the rest of the Italian States. ALEUTIAN Isles, on the coast ot North America, discovered by Behring 1741. A more accurate survey of these islands was made under the Russian government, by Captains Billing and Sarytchef, from 1781 to 1798. ALEXANDER L, Emperor of all the Russians, eldest son of Paul I. born Dec. 22, 1777, and married, 1793, Elizabeth Alexowina, princess of Baden. His education was superintended by the Empress Catherine, and his tutor, the famous M. de la Harpe. He succeeded as emperor March 24, 1801, and was crowned at Moscow the following Sep- tember. In June, 1802, the emperor had his first interview with the king of Prussia at Memel, and, the same year, gave, in a manner, a new constitution to his empire. In 1812, Na- poleon set in motion an immense and well-appointed army, with the intention of conquering Russia ; but the burning of Moscow and the firmness of the Rus- sian emperor rendered a retreat neces- sary. In Feb .1813, Alexander repaired to the army in Poland, where he published a famous manifesto, that served for a coalition of the European powers against the French, and the downfal of Napo- leon. In the beginning of 1814, the war was carried on in France. It was prin- cipally owing to the efforts of Alexander that, after two months' constant fighting, one bold push was made to seize Paris, which the allies reached April 30, 1815. Alexander visited England,and employed the time of peace for the improvement of his people. That he was an ambi- tious man will be readily allowed, but truth must also declare that he min- gled with the character of the despot a desire for the civilization of the people he governed. He died Dec. 3, 1825. at Taganrog, on the borders of Tartary, and Persia. ALEXANDER the Great, king of Macedonia and son of Philip, born at Pella, the capital of Macedonia, in the first year of the 196th Olympiad, a.c. 356. He was early placed under the care of the philosopher Aristotle. The ruling passion in Alexander, even from his tender years, was ambition, and an ardent desire of glory, a.c. 336, after the death of Philip he was created general of the combined forces, in the room of his father, a.c. 333. Alexander invaded ALE 16 ALE Asia, and the same year gained a com- plete victory over the army of Darius. In spite of the superior forces of the enemy, he proceeded to subdue the greater part of Asia Minor, and at length encountered Darius himself, near the city of Issus, with an army twenty times the number of the Greeks. Alexander was again victorious, and the fruits of his victory were the Persian camp, to- gether with the wife and mother of Da- riusjwhom he treated with the utmost hu- manity. A.c. 332,he took Tyre by storm, after a defence of seven months. From thence he marched to Jerusalem, resolved to show it no favour ; but Jaddus, the high-priest, met him in his pontifical robes, accompanied by the other priests, and appeased his anger. Alexander next passed into Egypt, which submitted to him without the least opposition. Here, prompted by a preposterous va- nity, he formed the design of visiting the temple of Jupiter Ammon, which was situated in the midst of the sandy deserts of Lybia, and assuming the cha- racter of the son of that god. In the meantime Darius, who had escaped from the battle of Issus, had collected a much more numerous army than the former, a.c. 331, a decisive battle was fought between Alexander and Darius at Arbela, which, in its consequeHces, was the means of placing all Asia in the hands of Alexander, a.c. 328, Alexander turned his victorious arms against Scy- thia, which shared the fate of Persia. Formerly he had manifested a noble dis- interested generosity to his enemies, but his successes had now so completely overpowered the voice of reason, that his most faithful friends were daily sa- crificed to his suspicions, a.c. 327, he set out for India, and was opposed on the banks of Hydaspes, by the Indian king, Porus, who was encamped on the other side in order to dispute the passage with him. At the head of his army were 85 elephants, of a prodigious size, and be- hind them 300 chariots, supported by 30,000 foot. After many obstacles, Alexander succeeded in subduing this mighty force, and taking their king pri- soner. Alexander was at length constrained to stop short in his career of \dctory, through the complaints of the Macedon- nians, who hadgrown grey in his service. After spending nine months in sailing down the rivers, Alexander airived a* the ocean, on which he gazed with ea- gerness, believing that he had extended his conquest to the extremes of the earth on that side. From Patala he marched by land to Baliylon ; when, finding this city surpassed in extent and convenience all the cities of the east, he resolved to make it the seat of his empire, a.c. 321, he was seized witli a ^dolent fever, of which he soon after expired, in the 33rd year of his age, and 11th of his reign. ALEXANDER Balas, King of Sy- ria, slain A c. 145. ALEXANDER jANN^us.sonof John Hyrcanus, prince and high priest of the Jews, a short time before the reign of Herod the Great, a. c. 106. He died A.c 79, after having reigned 27 years. ALEXANDER Skverus, Emperor of Rome, succeeded Heliogabalus about 222. He was murdered by his troops, at the instigation of Maximinius, toge- ther with his mother, in the 29th year of his age, 235. ALEXANDER »!., pope, his stir- rups held by the kings of England and France, died 1181. ALEXANDER VI., pope, born 1431, at Valencia, in Spain ; appointed cai- dinal in 1455 ; afterwards archbishop of Valencia and vice-chancellor of Rome. Under pope Sixtus IV. he was legate in Spain. Elected in 1492, at the age of 61, to succeed Pope Innocent VIII. He then changed his original name of Ro- deric Borgia, for that of Alexander VI. He proposed to the christian princes to march at the head of an army against the Turks, and under this pretext issued a bull for a jubilee in 1 500, by which he contributed to enrich his treasury. In 1503, the poison which he and his son Caesar had prepared for others who stood in the way of their avarice and ambition, by a happy mistake terminated his own days. See Borgia. ALEXANDRIA, now caUed Scande- ria, the ancient capital of Lower Egypt, built by Alexander the Great, a. c. 333. It is situated on the Mediterranean, twelve miles west of that mouth of the Nile anciently called Canopicum. In one of the suburbs of the city called Rhacotis, a temple was erected to the god Serapis. This structure, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, surpassed in beauty and magnificence, all others in the world, except the capitol of Rome. Within the verge of this temple, was the famous Alexandrian Library, formed by Alfred enters lie service of a Cowherd lleDajios "breai tie Treaty and attack the Pjiglisli Cas^alry- . LR,ba slain andMs famous Standard lakeii. Alfred iji. Tie Danish Carop. Al Pred gajus a complelo Victory. LONDON, THOMAS KtLl.Y, 18 1 I . ALE 17 ALF Ptolemy Soter, containing no fewer than 700,000 volumes. Alexandria was be- sieged and taken by Julius Caesar, a.c. 47. It was again taken by Octavius, August 1. A.c. 30, after the battle of Actium, upon which Egypt became a Roman province. Alexandria was for a series of years, first under ths successors of Alexander, and subsequently under the Romans, the principal entrepot of the ancient world. The greater partofthetraffic between Asia and Europe that had, at an earlier period, centred at Tyre, was gradually diverted to this new emporium. It supplied India with the products of Europe and Rome, and the western world with silks, spices, precious stones, and other pro- ducts of Arabia and India ; a great trade in corn was also carried on from Alex- andria to Rome. Egypt, for a length- ened period, constituted the granary from which Rome, and aftenvards Con- stantinople, drew the principal part of their supplies ; and its possession was on that account, reckoned of the utmost importance. Towards the middle of the 7th cen- tury, this city was taken by storm, after a siege of fourteen months, by the Sara- cen general Amrou Ebn al Aas Not- withstanding the revolutions in the go- vernment of Egypt, after it fell into the hands of the Mahomedans, the excellence of its port, and its trade preserved Alex- andria from total destruction. In 875, the old walls were demolished and the city contracted to half its former di- mensions, and partly rebuilt. 1798. Alexandria was taken by Buo- naparte. In 1801, it was retaken by the English General Hutchinson, which was the prelude to the conquest of Egypt, and its evacuation by the French army ; but by an article in the treaty of peace, dictated probably by jealousy, it was re- stored to the Ottoman Porte. There was formerly an artificial navi- gation stretching from the city to the western branch of the Nile. After being shut up for some centuries it was re- opened in 1819, by MohamedAli. In 1831, there entered the port of Alexandria 1215 ships, of the burden of 198,299 tons, of these, the Austrian ■were the most numerous, next, the Eng- lish and Ionian, and then the French, Sardinian, Spanish, &c. ALEXAND^I^ Library, con- taining 400,000 MSS. destroyed by fire A.c. 47. ALEXANDRIAN Library, the Second, containing 700,000 volumes burned by Caliph Omar, 14th January, 640. The Saracens heated their warm baths, for six months, with the burning books. ALEXANDRINA-VICTORIA. See Victoria. ALFIERI, Vittorio,- Count, an Italian tragic poet, born in Piedmont, 1749. ALFRED, son of Ethelred II ; had his eyes put out by Earl Godwin, and 600 followers slain at Guildford, 1036. ALFRED THE Great, fourth son of Ethelwolf, born at Wantage in Berk- shire, in 849, succeeded to the throne 872, in the 22nd year of his age. He was crowned at Winchester, and at his coronation was first used the ceremony of crowning and anointing. He was obliged to take the field against the Danes within one month after his coro- nation. A bloody engagement took place at Wilton, in Wiltshire ; where, though the king was defeated with some loss, yet so great was the dread in which the Danes stood of Alfred's military fame, that they made a treaty with him, and retired from his dominions into those of the king of Mercia. In 875, the Danes broke the treaty, and meeting on the road to Mercia a body of English horse, advancing in an unprepared man- ner, as they relied on the late agreement, they slew the greater number of theni. In 876, the Danes divided the army, one part seized on Exeter, where they win- tered, and the other went to Northum- berland. Alfred defeated them at Ex- eter, but they , again made head against him at Chippenham, where he was worsted, and soon after at Bristol, where he recovered strength, and attacked them in camp at Abingdon, Berkshire. He fought seven batdes with them that year. 877. Another succour of the Danes arrived and Alfred was obliged to disguise himself as a peasant and en- gage himself in the service of his own cowherd, to take care of his cattle, Asser and other ancient writers relate, as a proof how completely Alfred was disguised, that one day the good woman of the house set a cake before the fire to bake, where the king was busily em- ployed in trimming his bow and arrows^ ■ ' ■■ o ALF 18 ALG oh coming back and finding it burnt, through neglect of turning it in her ab- sence, which she supposed he would haA'e done, she chid him very severely for his inattention; and told him that though he could not turn the cake he was ready enough to eat it. Alfred soon left this station, and with his wife and some of his most valued friends found a safe retreat in the isle of ^■Ethelingey (Athelney) in Somerset- shire, which was secured by vast mo- rasses around it, and accessible only by one very obscure passage. 878. When the king had been about a year in this retreat, being informed that some of his subjects, under the brave Odun, Earl of Devonshire, had routed a great army of the Danes, killed their chief Ubba, and taken their magical standard, he issued letters, giving notice where he was, and inviting his nobility to come and consult with him. Before they came to a final determination, however, Alfred disguised as an itinerant harper, strolled into the enemy's camp : where, without suspicion, he was admitted not only to the tents of the common soldiers, but even into those of the chief Danish commanders. Having examined every- thing with great accuracy, he retired again to ^Ethelingey, and summoned with all privacy his faithful subjects to meet him in arms at Brixton, in the forest of Selwood in Wiltshire. They obeyed the summons ; and, fired with the hope of liberty, fell upon the Danes, with in- credible alacrity, at a moment when the latter had not the least suspicion of a foe, and gained a complete victory. 884. A new swarm of Danes landed in Kent, and laid siege to Rochester; but the inhabitants boldly defended the place, till the king reaching them with an army, compelled the enemy to raise the siege: In 897, they went up the river Lea, and built a fortress at Ware, when king Alfred drained oflP the course of the river, and left their ships dry, which obliged the Danes to remove. Having reigned up- wards of 28 years, to the delight of his subjects, and the admiration of all Eu- rope ; he died October 28, 900. It has been observed of Alfred, that, had he not been a king, he would have been eminently distinguished as a gramma- rian, a rhetorician, a philosopher, a his- torian, a musician, and an architect. His original writings and translations were very numerous. ALGAROTTI, Francisco, an Italian nobleman, a printer, engraver, and critic, born at Venice December 12, 1712; died at Pisa, March 3, 1764. ALGEBRA Where this science was first used, and by whom, is un- known. Tlie earliest writing on it, was by Diophantus, probably about 3.50. It was brought into Spain by the Saracens, probably about 900. Brought into Italy by Leonard at Pisa, about 1202. Par- tial solutions of cubic equations, by Scipio Ferreus, of Bologna 1505. Fur- ther solution by Tartale of Brescia, (communicated by Cardan,) 1539- Solu- tion of biquadratics by Louis Ferrari, 1556. The introduction of general sym- bols for quantities, whether known or unknown, by Vieta, (the greatest step in the science) 1600. Positive and integral indices, by Harriot, and Descartes ; com- positions of the higher equations by Harriot, 1610. Application of algebra to the expression of curves and use of indeterminate quantities, Descartes 1637. Diophantine problems. Fermat, about 1640. Negative and fractional indices, by Wallis, 1657. Indefinite division and indefinite quotients, by Mercator, 1666. General indices, by Newton, 1667 or 1668. The Binomial Theorem of Ne%vton, 1688, thebasisof the doctrine of Fluxions, and the new analysis, discovered about the year 1668; first published in 1676. Sir Isaac Newton's farther discoveries and improvements relating to the pre- sent subject, are his Method of Divisors, for discovering the rational roots of equations ; the Method of Fluxions and Infinite Series ; the Quadrature, Recti- fication, &c. of Curves ; the Investiga- tion of the Roots of Equations both universal and literal, by Infinite Series ; the Reversion of Series. &c. The calculation of probabilities in the theory of games of chance, was ex- pressly treated on, first by Huygens, about the middle of the seventeenth cen- tury. Demoivre has explained and applied the doctrine in his Doctrine of Chances, &c. 17 18, and his Annuities on Lives, 1724. Thomas Simpson has written ably on the subject in his Nature and Laws of Chance, 1740, and Doctrine of Annuities and Reversions, &c., 1743. The following branches are more or less allied to fluxions, or owe their origin to that doctrine; naa^y, the Methodus Incrementorum, by jPf. Brook Taylor, ALG 19 ALG published in 1/15; the Doctrine of Ul- timators, by tlfe 'Rev. John Kirkby, 1748; the Residua] Analysis, by Mr. Landen, 1764; and lastly, the Doctrine of Uni- versal Comparison, 1789, and the Ante- cedental Calculus, 1793, both by Major Glenie. The subsequent improvements are numerous, but they are of no great im- portance. ALGIERS, a piratical state of Africa, formerly a kingdom, but now under the power of France. In 44, the Romans were driven from thence by the Vandals; these by Belisarius, the Greek emperor Justinian's general, and the Greeks in their turn by the Saracens, about the middle of the I7th century. The Arabs continued masters of thecountry,dividing it into a great number of petty kingdoms and states, under chiefs of their own choosing, till the year 105.1. At this time, Abubeker-ben-Omar reduced the whole province of Tingitania under his dominion, 1505. The Spaniards obliged Algiers to become tributary to Spain. The Alge- rines were compelled to submit, till 1516, when they sent an embassy to the bold adventurous corsair Aruch Barbarossa, requesting him to come and free them from the Spanish yoke ; for which they agreed to pay him a gratuity answerable to so great a service. The same year, Barbarossa caused himself to be pro- claimed king. 1517. After the death of Barbarossa, his brother Hayradin, sought the pro- tection of the grand Signior. This was readily granted, and himself appointed pacha, or viceroy of Algiers. It con- tinued to be governed by viceroys ap- pointed by the porte, till the beginning of the 17th century. In 1623, the Al- gerines threw off their dependence on the porte, and a revolution took place, by which Algiers finally became an independent state, under their own deys. 1683, their town was bombarded by a French squadron under admiral Du Quesne, who utterly destroyed their fortifications and shipping, and ahuost all their city. It was again bombarded in 1781, by the French. But it was not till the taking of Gibraltar in 1682, that Britain could have a sufficient check upon them to enforce the obser- vation of treaties. In 1775, and again in 1784, Algiers was bombarded by the Spaniards, by which these pirates were for a time reduced to reason. In 1815, it was blockaded by an American fleet, under Captain Decatur; in consequence of which, the dey gladly consented to pay the sum of 50,000 dollars. In November, 1815, Lord Exmouth was dispatched with a fleet of. five frigates. On his arrival before the city, the dey, alarmed and unprepared for any resistance to so powerful a force^ complied with his lordship's proposals; and confirmed the former treaties. But afterwards, committing new depredations, on the 27th August, 1816, Lord Exmouth attacked their fleet in the harbour, and destroyed nearly all their shipping, bom- barded the town, and reduced all the bat- teries to a heap of ruins. For some years this piratical state conducted itself with more moderation ; but retaining its old system of commit- ting gross outrages and repeated insults, particularly to France, a French expe- dition was sent against it in 1830. July the 22nd, the capital of Algiers sur- rendered unconditionally to the French army, who, occupying it, took posses- sion of an immense booty. The reten- tion and colonization of Algiers by the French, was, for three years found a heavy burden on the finances of France; the chairman of the committee on the budget of the minister of war, 1834, strongly recommended its abandonment. The expenditure recommended by the committee for 1835, exclusive of the sol- diers and seamen required for the de- fence of the colony, amounted to 7,000,000 francs. 1836. The French ministry having declared that government, had, notwith- standing, adopted a firm resolution tore- tain permanent occupation of Algiers and its dependencies, a force was maintained, and many battles fought. The result of which was, that, after several engage- ments with the Arabs, Abdel Kader, one of the most powerful of their chiefs, was obliged to withdraw to the moun- tains. During the spring and summer of 1837, General Bugeand was employed in negociating a treaty with Abdel Kader. It was officially announced to the public on the 18th of July. 1839. The war in Algiers broke out again ; after a long correspondence, be- tween Abdel Kader and the French go- vernor Marshal Vrdlee, the former declared war against the French, Nov. 2. The plain adjoining Algiers was in the ALH ■20 ALI possession of a corps of about 4,000 mounted Arabs. On the 21st a convoy which left the city for one of the camps, fell in with them, and the 38 men of which itg escort consisted, including three officers, were all put to the sword and decapitated. The Toulonnais o*" the 29th thus sums up the situation of affairs in Algiers. " The blood of our countrymen has everywhere flowed under the yataghan, fire has devoured the pro- perty of the friendly tribes and of the colonists, and our soldiers being inferior in numbers to the enemy, are obliged to maintain an unequal contest. Hostilities are general, they have broken out at Blida, Kolesh, Maelma, Foudouck, Arba, and all the neighbouring camps. Seve ral villages have been reduced to ashes, and amongst others, that of Noirlous, whose inhabitants have been carried off by the Arabs ; a convoy escorted by 48 men was never heard of, and a detach- ment of 148 men entirely put to the sword." ALHAMBRA, an ancient fortress and residence of the Moorish monarch s of Granada, derives its name from the colour of the materials with which it was built, A.H.794, orA.D. 1338. It appears, at first view, a huge heap of ugly buildings, all huddled together, seemingly without the least intention of forming an habitation; but it occupies an immense space, and its internal structure is perhaps the most curious in the world. In every division, are Arabic sentences of different lengths, most of them expressive of the following meanings: — "There is no conqueror but God ;" " Obedience and honour to our Lord Aboiiabdoulah." This edifice is memorable for a re- markable fact in Moorish history. It was in one of the cells of this building that in 1491 the wife of the last king of Grenada was imprisoned. The Gomels and Le- gris,tvvo families of distinction, bore false witness against her virtue, and occasion- ed the destruction of the greatest part of the Abencerrages, another powerful and numerous family of Grenada, of whom they were jealous. It is said that the Abencerrages were sent for, one by one, and beheaded as soon as they entered the hall of the lions in this fortress, where there is still a large vase of alabaster, which was quickly filled with blood, and the heads of expiring bodies. The un- happy princess was imprisoned, and the day arriving on which she was to perish by the hands of the executioner, when none of the Moors offering to defend her, she was advised to commit her cause to some Christian knights, who presented themselves at the time appointed, and conquered her false accusers, so that she was immediately set at liberty. The tak- ing of Grenada by the Spaniards soon followed this combat, ALI, the son of Abu Taleb and one of the most celebrated characters in Ma- homedan history, cousin and son-in-law to Mahomet. He was remarkable both for eloquence and valour. After the death of Caliph Othman, he was saluted caliph, by the chiefs of the tribes, in 655, A.H. 35. His accession to the throne caused a destructixe civil war. AU was assassinated in the 63rd year of his age a.d. 660. a. h. 40. ALI Bey, an eastern adventurer, born at the foot of Caucasus, seized the government of Egypt, died 1773. ALI Pacha, a self constituted go- vernor of Albania, bom at Tepelini, 1744, slain, with six of his companions, Feb. 5, 1822. ALIEN Priories, seized by the crown, 1337. ALIENS, forbidden to hold church livings ; juries for their trial, to be half foreigners, 1430 ; not to exercise a trade or handicraft by retail, 1483 1 708. An act was passed for the general neutralization of all foreign protestants ; but the prejudices against them was stiU so great that it was repealed within three years. Some unsuccessful attempts have been since made to carry a similjir mea- sure. The conditions under which aliens lat- terly resided amongst us were embodied in the act 7 Geo. IV. cap. 54, 1827- But in 1836, this was repealed by the act, 6 Will. IV. cap. 11, which enacts in its stead some new regulations, of which the fol- lowing are the principal. Every master of a ship arriving from foreign parts, shall declare in writing, to the chief officer of customs, the name or names, rank, or oc- cupation, &c. of any alien or aliens on board his ship, or who may have landed therefrom, at any place within the realm, under the penalty of 20/., for omission or false declaration ; andof 10/. fore very aUen omitted in the declaration ; this regula- tion does not, however, extend to foreign mariners navigating the vessel. On arriving in this country, the alien is to declare his name, description, &c., and ALM to produce his passport ; which declara- tion is to be registered by the officer of customs, who is to dehver a certificate to the alien. A copy of this declaration, is to be transmitted, within two days, to the secretary of state; or, if the alien land in Ireland, to the chief secretary of the lord lieutenant. The original cer- tificate given to the alien is to be trans- mitted to the secretary of state on his leaving the country. New certificates to be granted in lieu of such as may be lost, without fee, under a penalty of 20/. Forging certificates, or falsely personat- ing, was punishable by imprisonment, exceeding three months, or by fine, not not exceeding lOOl. ALLEGIANCE, Oath of, first ad- ministered 1636, altered 1689. ALLEGRI, (CoRREGGio) Antonio, a celebrated but unfortunate historical painter, born at Allegri, 1490, and died from disappointment, 1534. ALLEN, John, archbishop of Dublin, and a learned writer, murdered in the Lord Offaly's rebellion, 1534. ALLEN, Thomas, an English mathe- matician, born at Uttoxeter, Dec. 21, 1542, died 1632. ALLEYN, Edward, an English actor in the reigns of Elizabeth and James L, keeper of the royal bear garden. He founded Dulwich College. Born in Lon- don, 1566, died 1626, buried at Dul- wich. ALLIANCE, Holy. See Holy Al- liance ALLINGTON Castle, Kent, built 1282. ALLOISI, Bald ASS ARE, Gallanino, an eminent portrait painter, (the Italian .Vandyk), born at Bologna, 1578, died .1638. . ALL SAINTS, Festival of, insti- tuted 625. ALL SOULS, Festival of, insti- tuted A.D. 1604. ALL SOULS College, Oxford, founded by Henry Chichely, archbishop of Canterbury, 1437. ALLY Cawn, made a nabob by Col. Clive, June 23, 1765. ALMAGRO, Diego de, a Spanish commander, of obscure birth, who formed an association with Pizzarro and De Luque, for the purpose of dis- coveries arid conquests, upon the Peru- vian coast. In 153.5, he attempted the conquest of Chili, and set out at the head of 570 Europeans A form of govern- 21 ALM ment was settled in the name ofAlmagro, and his jurisdiction over Cuzco was universally acknowledged. After a fierce and bloody battle with Pizzaro, Almagro was made prisoner. In the 75th year of his age, 1538, he was strangled in prison, and afterwards be- headed. ALMANACS were first published by Martin Ilkus, at Buda, 1470; they were compiled by MuUer, 1473. Regiomon- tanus, was the first in Europe, who re- duced almanacs into their present form and method. His first almanac was published in 1474. The first in Eng- land was printed at Oxford 1673. The company of stationers, in London, claimed an exclusive right to publish almanacs until 1779. Almanacs were first printed at Constantinople, 1806 ; duty was taken off 1834, by 3rd and 4th Will. IV. c. 57. The best almanac in England is that published under the superintendence of the Society for the diffusion of Useful Knowledge, called " The British Alma- nac." The " Companion to the Alma- nac," published by the same society, and contimied to the present time, with the British Almanac, contains 1st. Informa- tion connected with the calendar, the ce- lestial changes, and the natural pheno- mena of the year. 2nd. General information on subjects of chronology, geography, statistics, &c. 3rd. The legislation, sta- tistics, public improvements, and inven- tions, of the year. ALMANAC, Nautical, and As- tronomical Ephemeris, is a kind of national almanac, published annually, by anticipation, under direction of the commissioners of longitude. Besides every thing essential to general use, it contains, the distances of the moon from the sun and fixed stars, for every three hours of the apparent time, adapted to the meridian at Greenwich, by comparing with which the distances observed at sea, the mariner may infer his longitude to a considerable degree of exactness. It began with the year 1767, has been con- tinued ever since, and greatly contributes to the improvement of astronomy, geo- .> graphy, and navigation. ALMARANTE-. order of knighthood in Sweden, instituted 1653. ALM EYDA, in Portug~al, taken by the Spaniards, August 25, 1762; by the French, August 27, 1810; blown up by the French May, 10, 1811 ALP 32 ALMORA, East Indies, carried by assault of the Company's forces, April 25, 1815. ALNAGER, King's, seems to have originated from the statute of Richard I., 1197; his office is to regulate the mea- sure of woollen cloth made in England. ALNWICK Castle, Northumber- land, seat of the Percies, founded 1147. ALOE, American, introduced into Europe, 1561. ALPHABET. Some learned men have imagined, that the knowledge of alphabetical writing was supernaturally imparted to our first parents. Others have supposed, with more probabiUty, that it was introduced very early after the deluge, a. c. 2349. It seems pro- bable that letters were known to the Is- raelites at Sinai, as Go* thought fit to de- liver the first elements of their religion in th?t kind of v\Titing. From the Israelites, it is supposed that the art of alphabetical writing passeil to theAssyrians, andfrom them was communicated to the Phoeni- cians and Egyptians, about a.c. 1950. It is generally agreed that Cadmus, the son of Agenor, first brought letters to Greece, A. c. 1045 ; whence in the following ages they spread over the rest of Europe. The Ionian alphabet, which consisted, of twenty-four letters, was adopted a.c 390. ALPHONSINE Tables, Astrono- mical tables, so called from the inventor, Alphonso X, king of Castile composed 1252. See Alphonso X. ALPHONSO or Alonso III, sur- named the Great, king of Asturias, Leon, and Onedo, born 849, and succeeded his father Don Ordogno, 865. In 910, his son Don Garcias, having formed the design of deposing his father and seating himself upon the throne, Alonso assem- bled the states and grandees of the country, and abdicating the crown, re- signed it to Don Garcias, who was declared king. Alonso died in 912, when about 63. It is said that he composed a chronicle of Spanish affairs from the death of king Recesuintho, to that of his father Don Ordogno. ALPHONSO or Alonso X, sur- named the Wise, king of Leon and Cas- tile, succeeded his father May 30, 1252. His reign was marked by dissensions at home, and unsuccessful expeditions abroad, in the midst of which he died, April 4, 1284, in the 81st year of his age. He was an eminent proficient in ALV science, and a patron of literature. In 1248 he assembled a number of the most celebrated astronomers from all parts of Europe, at Toledo, for the pur- pose of examining the astronomical tables of Ptolemy, and correcting their errors. In 1252, they were completed, ' and called Alphonsine Tables from the name of this prince. ALRESFORD, in Hampshire, de- stroyed by fire 1160. ALTARS, in churches, first used 135, consecrated 271, the first used in Britain 534. ALTOF, in Franconia, University of, founded 1581. ALUM, a salt of great importance in the arts, consisting of a compound of aluminum, a pure argillaceous earth, potass, and sulphuric acid. Alum is sometimes found native, but by far the greater part of that met with in com- merce is artificially prepared. The best alum is the Roman, or that which is manufactured near Civita Vecchia in the papal teritory. According to Beckmann the ancients were unacquainted wth alum, the sub- stance which they designated as such being merely vitroUc earth. Alum was first discovered by the Orientals, who established alum works in Syria in the 13th or 14th century. The oldest alum works in Europe, were erected about the middle of the 15th century. Towards the conclusion of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Chaloner esta- blished the first alum works in England, near Whitby, in Yorkshire, where the principal works of the sort, in this coun- try, are still carried on. The manufac- ture was first brought to perfection 1608. ALVA, Don Ferdinand Alvarez, of Toledo, Duke of, general of the im- perial armies in the time of Charles V., born of an illustrious family in Spain, in 1508. In 1546 he marched against the German protestants ; 1556 was sent into the pope's territories, and hanng pursued his conquests to the very gates of Rome, he yielded to peace, and submitted to ask forgiveness of the pontiff he had con- quered. He was selected by Philip II. to take the government of the Low Countries, in order to extirpate the protestants. His cruelties led to the separation of the Dutch provinces 1565. In 1 573 he resigned the government of the Low Countries; 1581 defeated Antonio, AMB ■23 AME king of Portugal, drove him from the kingdom, and soon reduced the whole under the subjection of Philip ; he died 1582, at the age of 74. AMADEUS, the name of several Counts of Savoy. AMADEUS V, succeeded to the sovereignty in 1285; in consequence of his wisdom and success, he obtained the surname of Great. When the Turks attempted to retake the Isle of Rhodes, from the knights of St. John of Jerusa- lem in 1311, he boldly defended it, A- madeus died in 1323, after a reign of ,38 years. AMADEUS IX. Count of Savoy, surnamed the Happy, a virtuous and pious prince. He succeeded to^ the throne in 1464, and died universally re- gretted in 1472. AMARANTE. See Almarante. AMAZONIA, country. South Ame- rica, discovered in 1580, by Francisco Orellani, who coming from Peru sailed down the river called Amazons. In con- sequence of the appearance and size of the women, the country and river received their name from the Amazons of anti- quity. See the next article. AMAZONS, a nation of warlike women, who formed an empire in Asia Minor. They made an irruption into Attica, about a. c. 1209. A queen of the Amazons visited Alexander the Great; she died soon after her return, about 330. AMBASSADOR. The first sent by the Czar of Russia to England, 1556; the first sent to Turkey from England, 1606; the Portuguese arrested for debt, 1653; the Russian arrested by a lace merchant, 1709; when a law was passed for their protection. Prosecution limited, 1773. The first that arrived in Europe from India, came from Tippoo Saib to France, 1778. The first from the Ottoman em- pire arrived in London, December, 1793. AMBERLEY Castle, Sussex, built 1374. AMBOYNA, one of the Molucca islands, in the East Indies, the centre pf the commerce for nutmegs and cloves. It was first discovered by the Portuguese in 1515, who built a fort upon it, which was taken by the Dutch, 1605. The English had here five factors, who lived under the protection of the Dutch castle, 1622. The infamous Amboyna mas- sacre took place, in which the Enghsh factors, and others, their countrymen, were accused of a pretended conspiracy, and were inhumanly tortured to ex- tort a confession of their guilt. Those who did not expire unf^ler the agonies of torture, were executed, though all of them .protested their innocence to their latest breath 1796. Amboyna was captured by the English, but restored to the Dutch by the peace of Amiens. In 1810, it was again taken by the English, and in 1814 again restored to its former owners by the treaty of Paris. AMBROSE, St., Bishop of Milan, one of the most eminent fathers of the church in the 4th century, bqrn in France in 334, or as some say, in 340. He attained, by the regular gradation of civil honours, the stati(m of consular of Liguria and Emilia, comprehending the territories of Milan, Liguria, Turin, Ge noa, and Bologna. By the prudent and gentle use of his jjower, he conducted the affairs of the province with growing popularity. In 374, Ambrose was chosen bishop of Milan. He was a zea- lous defender of the church against the Arians. He died in 397. His writings are voluminous, although little more than adulterated editions of Origen and other Greek writers. AMBROSIUS, AuRBLius, chosen king of the Britons, and crowned at Slonehenge, in 465 ; died in 508. AMONTONS, the reputed inventor of the telegraph, died 1705. AMERICA, first discovered by Co- lumbus, 1492; the complete discovery of South America made by Vespucius Americanus, a Florentine, in 1499. About the same time North America was disco- vered by Sebastian Cabot, m the service of England. The first English colony set- tled in Newfoundland 1498. Florida dis- covered by John Cabot, 1500, ceded to Spain by the peace of 1783, now one of the United states. 1500. Brazil discovered by the Portuguese, planted by them 1549; now erected into an independent empire. See Brazil. In 1514, Terra Firma conquered by Spain; in 1518, Mexico conquered by Spain; Peru in 1520. See Mexico and Peru. 1607. The first British settlement made in Virginia, North America, 4th James I. The second in New England, by the Plymouth Company, in 1614. In 1620, New Plymouth built by a large body of dissenters, who fled from church tyranny taEngland. In 1622, Nova Scotia settled AME 34 AME by tJie Scotch, under Sir William Alex- ander. In 1628, Salem was built, and in 1630, Boston, the present capital of New England ; Maryland, was settled by Lord Battlemore, 1633; New York, by tlie Dutch, 1664; Carolina, by Eng- lish merchants, 1670; Pennsylvania, by William Penn, 1681 ; Georgia, by General Oglethorpe, 1732. Nova Scotia confirmed to the Enghsh, by the peace of 1748. 1663. Louisiana discovered by the French ; they took possession of it in 1718, but eastward oi the Mississippi was ceded to England in 1763; it now forms one of the United states. Canada was attempted to be settled by the French in 1534; they built Quebec in 1608. It was conquered by the English, 1762, and ceded by the peace of 1763. In 1774, free trade opened between Old and New Spain, by the straits of Magellan. In 1775, paper currency es- tablished in America. Thirteen colonies united, and declared themselves independent of the English crown, July 4, 1776 ; allowed by France, Feb. 6, 1778 ; by Holland, Oct. 8, 1782 ; by the English Parliament, Nov. 30, 1783. September 1, 1775, American con- gress first met at Philadelphia. In 1781, William Henry, Duke of Clarence, (late William IV.) landed in North America. He was the first prince of the blood royal who had visited those shores. July 18, 1812, United States of America declared war against England. Made peace Dec. 24, 1814. See United States. Spanish America declared itself inde- pendent in 1810. See Colombia, Chili, Peru, &c. United Provinces assembled in congress, and declared the sovereignty of the people, July 5, 1811. See Buenos Ayres. 1830. Independence of all the newre« publics acknowledged by France ; Count Mole writing to the repubUcan agents, announcing tliat France was ready to enter into treaties of amity with them. Recent Discoveries. — Barrow's Straits discovered by Lieut. Parry, in 1819, who penetrated as far as Melville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N, and long. 113°, 47' W. The straits were entered on the 3rd of August. The lowest state of the ther- mometer was 55° below zero of Fahren- heit. The northern limits of North America, determined by Captain Frank- lin, from the mouth of the Coppermine River, to Cape I'urnagain, in his first journey. In his second expedition, he discovered the coast between the mouths of the Coppermine and M'Kenzie's rivers, and the coast from the mouth of the latter to 1495° W. long. In August, 1827, Capt. Beechy, in H. M. S. Blos- som, discovered the coast from Icy-Cape to point Barrow, leaving about 140 miles of coast unexplored between this point and point Beechy. Point Barrow is in 156° W. long. AMERICAN Colleges, with the dates of their foundation, arranged under the heads of the different states in the union. Maine. Bowdoin college, 1794 ; Maine Theological Institution, 1814; Waterville college, 1820; Maine Wesleyan Seminary, 1825. New Hampshire. Dartmouth college, 1769. Vermont. University of Vermont, 1791 ; Middleburg college, 1800. Massachusetts. Harvard University, 1638; William's college, 1793; Am- herst college, 1821. Rhode Island. Brown University, 1764. Connccticutt. Yael college, 1700; Washington college, 1824; Wes- leyan University, 1833. New York. Columbia college, 1754 ; Union college, 1794; Hamilton col- lege, 1812; Geneva college, 1825; Brockport college, 1834; Univer- sity of the city of New York, 1831. New Jersey. College of New Jersey, 1 746 ; Rutger's college, ] 770. Pennsylvania. University of Penn- sylvania, 1755; Western University, 1820; Dickenson's college, 1783; Jefferson college, 1802; Washing- ton college, 1806; Alleghany col- lege, 1815 ; Lafayette college, 1826 ; Pennsylvania college, 1832; and Franklin and Madison colleges, founded in 1787, and 1827, now closed. Marj'land. St. John's college, 1784; University of Maryland, 1807; Washington Medical college, 1833; St. Mary's college, 1799; Mount St. Mary's college, 1809. Virginia. University of Virginia, 1825 ; college of William and Mary, 1691 ; Washington college, 1812; Hampden-Sidney college, 1774. North Carolina. tJniversity of North Carolina, 1793. South Carolina. College of South Carohna, 1801 ; .Charleston col- A M E 2 lege, 1785; Medical college of South Carolina, 1832. Georgia. University of Georgia, 1802 ; Medical college of Georgia, 1806. Alabama. University of Albama, 1820; Lagrange college, 1830; college of Spring Hill. Mississippi. Jefferson college, 1802. Louisiana. College of Louisiana, 1825. Tennessee. University of Nashville, 1806; Greeneville college, 1794; East Tennessee college, 1807. Kentucky. Transylvania university, 1798; Centre college, 1818; St. Joseph's college, 1819; Augusta college, 1822; Cumberland college, 1824; George Town college, 1830. Ohio. Ohio university, 1802 ; Miami university, 1809; Western reserve college, 1826; Kenyon col- lege, 1828 ; Franklin college, 1824; Medical college of Ohio, 1818. Indiana. Indiana college, 1827; South Hanover college, 1825. Illinois. lUinois College, 1830. Missouri. St. Louis university, 1829 ; St. Mary's college, 1822. District of Columbia. Georgetown college, 1799 ; Columbian college, 1821. AMERICAN Societies, with the dates of their institution. New Hampshire. New Hampshire medical society, 1791; New Hamp- shire historical society, 1823. Massachusetts. Berkshire medical institution, 1833 ; Amencan aca- demy of arts and sciences, 1780; Massachusetts historical society, 1791 ; American antiquarian so- ciety, 1812; Massachusetts medi- cal society, 1781; American insti- tute of instruction, 1831. Rhode Island. Rhode Island histori- cal society, 1822 ; Franklin society, 1821. Connecticut. Connecticut histori- cal society ; Connecticut medical society. New York. New York historical so- ciety, 1804; New York literary and philosophical society ; Ameri- can academy of fine arts, 1 808 ; national academy of design, 1826 ; American lyceum, 1831 ; medical society of the State of New York. Pennsylvania. American philosophi- cal society, 1769; Pennsylvania academy of the fine arts, 1805 ; > AM I academy of natural sciences, 1812 ; Pennsylvania historical society, 1825. Vii"ginia. Virginia historical and philosophical society, 1832 North Carolina. North Carolina insti- tute, 1831. South Carolina. Literary and philo- sophical society of South Carolina, 1831; medical society, of South Carolina, 1794. Indiana. Indiana historical society, 1831. District of Columbia. Columbian institute, 1816. AMERICAN Colonization So- ciety, for establishing a colony of emancipated blacks on the coast of Africa, instituted 1816. AMERICAN Company, the Rus- sian, established in 1785. AMERICAN Congress, first as- sembled at Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1775, removed to Washington, 1801. AMERICAN Expedition of dis- covery to explore the rocky mountains ; heard of after an absence of eleven years, 1832. AMERICAN Philosophical So- ciETy, instituted Jan. 2, 1672. AMERICUS Vespucius, (Amerigo Vespucci,) one of the discoverers of the continent of America, born at Florence, March 9, 1451 ; first reached America in 1499 : died at Seville, 1512. AMES BURY, Wiltshire, 32 houses destroyed by fire, which did £10,000 damage, June 3, 1751. AMESBURY Nunnery, built 976. AMES, Joseph, author of Typogra- phical Antiquities, born at Yarmouth, 1683, died 1759. AMES, Fisher, an American orator and writer : born 1753, died 1804. AMHERST, Jeffrey, Lord, a bri- tish general, born 1717, died 1798. AM HURST, Nicholas, an English poet, born at Marden; the author of the " Craftsman," and which materially controlled the power of the existing administration. Notwithstanding all his popularity and talent, he died in po- verty, of a broken heart, and was buried at the expense of his printer in 1742. AMICABLE Society, incorporated 1706. AMIENS, peace of, concluded be- tween France and England, March 27, 1802. In the words of an eminent statesman — " It was a peace at which E A iM S every body rejoiced, but of which no- body could be proud." From the moment this treaty was signed, discon- tents and jealousies daily arose, which, in 1S03, caused a recommencement of the war. AMILCAR, (or Hamilcar Barcas) a Carthaginian general, father to Hanni- bal, slain in battle a.c. 228. AMIOT, a French Jesuit, missionary to China, born 1718, died in 1794. AMMIANUS Marcellintjs, a Roman historian, who flourished in the 4th century : born at Antioch. In 350 he entered the service of Constantius, emperor of the east. His history be- gins with the reign of Nerva, and con- tinues to the death of Valens : 13 of his books perished, the 18 which remain com- mence with 1 7 years of the reign of Con- stantine, and terminate at 375. Candour and impartiality are its leading features. AMNESTY, L/^MV of, passed in France, Jan. 12, 1816. AMORITES, a people that inhabited the mountains around the Dead Sea, conquered by Moses, a.m. 2553. AMOS, the prophet, flourished A.c. 850. AMPHICTYONIC Council, was a congress of twelve cities of Greece, held t^vice a year at Thermopylae, to adjust disputes, &c. Founded by Amphictyon A.c. 1522. AMPHILOCHUS, bishop of Ico- nium, died a.d. 394. AMPHION, King of Thebes, and a celebrated ancient musician, flourished A.M. 2617. AMPHION Frigate, blown up at ^Plymouth, and all the crew destroyed, Sep. 22, 1796. AMPHITHEATRE, at Fidonia, built during the reign of Tiberius, fell in when 50,000 persons were killed, 26. AMPHITHEATRE, at Rome, erected in 69, planned by Augustus, and built by Vespasian. ITiis immense building obtained the appellation of the Coliseum. Itwas of an elliptical form, whose longest diameter was about 615 English feet, and the shortest 510, and was ca- pable of containing 87,000 spectators. Since stripped of its ornaments to de- corate palaces, and the 14 chapels erected within It. AMPHITRITETRANSPORT,with 125 female convicts, and a. crew of 39 souls, lost \vithin 3 miles of Boulogne, and only three lives saved, Aug. 31, 1833. AMSTERDAM, the chief city of 26 ANA Holland, situated on the Amstel, from which it derives its name. First walled in 1490. In 1522, besieged unsuccess- fully by the Guelderlanders. In 1578, submitted, after a ten months' siege, to the Hollanders. In 1675, increased to its present extent; 1787, surrendered to the Russians; 1795, received the French ; 1806, the seat of regal govern- ment under Louis Buonaparte; 1810, incorporated with tl\e French empire ; 1813, restored to Holland, when the house of Orange was recalled. Bank founded, 1609. Stadthouse built 1638 ; Exchange in 1634 ; Opera House at, burnt, 150 per- sons perished, 1772; Admiralty House destroyed by fire, July 6th, 1791. AMURATH.or AmuratI., sultan of the Turks, and one of the greatest princes of the Ottoman empire, suc- ceeded his father Orchan, in 1360. He was stabbed by one of his servants in 1389j having reigned 29 years. He introduced the mihtary order of Jani- zaries. See Janizaries. AMYOT, James, a French writer, bishop of Auxerre, born 1514, died 1593. ANABAPTISTS, first appeared un- der Storck and Muntzer in Germany, 1525; chose Buchold, of Leyden, a tailor, their king, 1534; appeared in England, 1549. They reject infant baptism, and baptize by immersion at years of discretion. Four Dutchmen burnt for heresy, 1538; some imprison- ed for a plot against Oliver Cromwell, 1657; an insurrection of them under Venner, Jan. 6, 1661. This ancient sect agree with the Baptists of tlie present day, only in the circumstance of reject- ing infant baptism. ANACHARSIS, the Scythian philoso- pher, flourishedabout a. c.600. Intrusted with an embassy to Athens, A.c. 592, and honoured with the friendship of Solon. After several years he returned to hs na- tive country desirous of instructing the inhabitants. But he fell a victim to their folly and ignorance. Tlie energetic man- ner in which he was accustomed to ex- press himself, gave birth to the proverb- ial saying, " Scythian eloquence." ANACREON, the Greek poet, flou- rished A.c. 532. ANANIAS AND Sapphiba struck dead, a.d. 33. ANAPA. After a siege of forty hours, the Turkish garrison, 3,000 strong, sur- rendered at discretion to the Russian ad- ANA 27 AND uiirals, Greigh and Mencikoff. Eighty- five pieces of artillery fell into the hands of the conquerors, June 23, 1828. ANASTATIUS I., emperor of the east, succeeded byZeno, 491, died, 518. ANASTATIUS II., dethroned by The- odoric, 719- ANATHEMA, first exercised by the church, 387. ANATOMY. Hippocrates, who has justly been styled the father of medicine, and who flourished about four centuries before the Christian era, attended little to anatomy. Subsequent to his time, opportunities of dissection were very rare, and confined to the schools of Athens and Alexandria. Under the patronage of the Ptolemies, Erisistratus and Hero- philus particularly distinguished them- selves. Galen, who flourished in the 2nd century, first reduced the science to a regular system On the revival of letters in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, anatomy was cultivated with considerable assiduity, and by none with so much ability, zeal, and success, as the great Vesalius, who was born at Brussels, in 1514. The commencement of the seventeenth century forms a splendid era in the his- tory of anatomy, for then was discovered, by our countryman, Harvey, the circula- tion of the blood. In 16 16 Dr. Harvey first promulgated his discovery. By ex- periments equally clear and simple, he proved that the blood not only circulated through the lungs, but in every part of the body. Not long after the circulation of the blood had been discovered, the lacteals were brought to light by Aselius, an Italian physician; and, in 1651, Pec- quet traced them to the thoracic duct, and from thence to the left subclavian vein. 1653. The lymphatics were disco- vered by Rudbeck and Bartholine. Mal- pighi made considerable improvements in the use of the microscope, which very much facilitated the study of anatomy. After him, Ruysch distinguished himself by his description of the valves of the Ijonphatic vessels. In the present day anatomy is studied with great industry and zeal, and the, science is almost daily enriched by acces- sions of useful and valuable information. In Bell's " Animal Mechanics," pub- lished about 1830, the marks of design which pervade every part of the human frame are illustrated in a scientific and elegant manner. Dr. Agout, of Pans, m 1832,mvent6d an artificial human body, the muscles and other parts (1244 in all) being made of a peculiar kind of paste, and dried, can be removed one after the other ; and in that way the muscles of the trunk and the extremities can be regularly demon- strated, and the relative position of the ex- ternal and internal muscles exhibited; the transit of the arteries, veins-, and nerves, clearly shown ; and each muscle and or-, gan, down to the bone, can be removed and replaced in their natural position. In 1832, by 2 and 3 Will. IV.; an act was passed for regulating the schools of anatomy, which empowers the secre- tary of state to grant licence for practising anatomy to any college of physicians. ANATOMY OF plants, discovered 1680. ANAXAGORAS, an Ionian philoso- pher, born A.c. 500, died-428. ANAXANDRIDES, ■ the comic poet, flourished a.c. 378. ANAXARCHUS, a Thracian philo- sopher, flourished a.c 340. ANAXIMANDER, the inventor of hydrography, born at Miletus, a. c. 610, died 547. ANAXIMENES, a mathematician, of Miletus, who flourished a.c. 556. ANCHORS invented 587. ANCHORITES, first appeared 1256. ANCONA, city of Italy, States of the Church : taken by the French, July 1796 ; surrendered by the Imperialists, Novem- ber 13, 1799; referred to the pope, 1802. The French landed here February 23, 1832, and took possession of the cita- del. The pope called it an *' invasion," and protested against it several times. ANGUS, Martius, fourth king of Rome, succeeded a.c. 640, died in 615. ANDES, a chain of mountains in South America, called by the Spaniards, Cordillera de los Andes. They extend from the most northern parts of Peru to the Straits of Magellan, between 3,000 and 4,000 miles, and are the longest and most remarkable in the world. The highest mountain, Chimborazo, is as- serted by the French mathematicians, who were employed from 1735 to 1743, in measuring a degree of the equator, to be about 20,280 feet above sea level. The important political events from 1817 to 1822, by which the whole of the South American continent has been wrested from the dommion of Spain, have opened a way for communication AN G AM with this mountainous region. In 1822, M. MoUien, an intelligent Frenchman, landed at Cartagena, and reached Bo- gota by the usual loute of the Mag- dalena. Captain Cochrane, in 1823, ascended the Magdalena, one of the Andean range, to Honda, the port of Bogota. By the obsen-ations of J. B. Pentland, Esq., communicated to the Geographical Society in 1835, it appears that the vol- cano of Gualatieri, in the Andes, rises to an elevation of 22,000 feet. ANDOVER, Lord, killed while de- livering his fowling piece to his servant, January 8, 1801. ANDRE, Major, a British officer, taken as a spy by the Americans, and hanged October 2, 1780. ANDRE, Jean, a French historic painter, pupil of Carlo Maratti, born in 1662, died in 1753. ANDREA, Marochini and Orcag- NA, two famous Florentine artists, flou- rished 1385. ANDREW, St., order of knighthood, in Scotland, instituted 809 ; revived in Scotland, 1451 and 1605; in Russia, 1698. ANDKIiW, St., brother of St. Peter, martyred No\'ember 30, 69- Festival instituted, 354. ANDRE^VS, Henuy, the compiler, for more than forty years, of Moore's Almanac, published by the Stationers' Company : died, 1820, aged 76. ANDREWS, St., University of, Scot- land, founded by bishop Wardlaw,1411. ANDREWS, Launcelot, bishop of Winchester; born 1555, died 1626. ANDRONICUS I., emperor of the east, assassinated 1185. ANDRONICUS of Rhodes, a peripa- tetic philosopher, and preserver of the works of Aristotle, flourished a.c. 66. ANELLO, Thomas, or Massaniello, the fisherman of Naples, born 1623. He obtained supreme power, and was assassinated 1666. ANEURIN, an ancient British bard, died about a.c. 570 ANGELIC KNIGHTS OF ST. GKORGE. Order instituted in Greece, 456. ANGELITES, an heretical sect that first appeared in 494. ANGELO, the name of three cele- brated painters. — SeeBuoNAROTTi, Ca- RAVAGGio, and Campidoglio. Mi- chael Angelo Buonarotti, the most emi- nent,wasbornl474, and died 1563, in his 90th year. ANGLES, a people who possessed a part of Mecklenburgh, as far as Lubeck, came into England about 447 ; hence it was called Angleterre, or England. ANGLESEA, an island of North Wales, in the Irish Sea. Said to have Ijeen the grand establishment of the Druids in Britain, and the seat of the arch-druid till the time of Suetonius Paulinus, who, about a.d. 59, made a descent upon it, cut down the sacred gro\ es, and burned the druids in the fires of their own altars. The Britons, however, again got posses- sion of the island ; and it was Julius Agncola who completed its reduction to the Roman dominion in 79- In the fifth century the British princes recovered their ascendency in Anglesey; and, though occasionally subjected to the power of the Saxons, Danes, Irish, and Normans, it was regarded as the seat of the sovereignty of North Wales, till the final extinction of Welch independence by Ed- ward I., in 1295. ANGLO-SAXONS, first landed in Britain, 449. See Britain, Ancient, and England. ANGOLA, in Africa, settled by the Portuguese, 1482. ANGUELLA, or Snake Island, West Indies, discovered and colonized by England in 1650; attacked by pirates under Victor Hughes, 1796. ANHALT Island. Four thousand Danes repulsed by 150 British, March 27, 1811. ANIMAL Magnetism made its ap- pearance in France, 1788; introduced into England, 1789 ; exploded, 1791; re- vived in France, 1836, and occasionally patronized in England. Examinations of M. Berna and others who patronize this pretended science before the Royal Academy of Medicine at Paris, August 8 and 22, 1837- ANIMALS, Cruelty TO. Tlie act 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 59, 1835, consolidates and amends the several laA\'S relating to the cniel and improper treatment of ani- mals, and the mischiefs arising from the driving of cattle, and to make other pro- visions in regard thereto ; i-eciting that frequent accidents arise from improperly driving cattle, and many and great cru- elties are practised by improperly driving and conveying cattle, &c., to the great and needless increase of the suflferings ot dumb animals, and to the demoralization of the people, and whereby the lives and property of his Majesty's subjects are ANN greatly endangered and injured. It enacts that any persons wantonly and cruelly beating, or otherwise ill-treating any cattle. &c., or improperly driving the same whereby any mischief shall be done, shall upon summary conviction, be fined not less than 5s., nor more than 40s.; or, in default of payment be com- mitted. And as cnielties are greatly promoted by persons keeping houses, rooms, pits, grounds, or other places for the fighting or baiting of dogs, buUs, bears, &c., it inflicts a penalty for keep- ing such places of not exceeding 5Z., nor less than 10s. per day; and the person who shall be the manager of such house shall be deemed the keeper. It directs every person impounding animals to find food, and gives a summary remedy for the recovery thereof from the owners. Penalties on parties neglecting to feed impounded cattle, 5s. per day. And whereas great cruelty is practised by reason of diseased, old, and worn-out horses, sold or taken to knackers or slaughtermen, &c., compels any such slaughterman to take out a license, under a penalty of not exceeding 51., nor less than 10s ; and such horses must be slaughtered within three days after pur- chase, and in the meantime be provided with food, under a penalty not exceeding 40s., nor less than 5s. per day. ANICH, Peter, a Tyrolese peasant, astronomer, and geographer, born 1723, died 1766. AN JAR, fortress of. East Indies, taken by East India Company, February,! 6 16. ANJOU, France, university at, founded 1349; enlarged 1364. ANNAT, F., a French Jesuit, and learned author, born 1590, died 1670. ANNE, Queen of England, last of the Stuart family, born at Twickenham, 1665 ; married to prince George of Den- mark, 1683, by whom she had eighteen children, all of whom died young ; came to the throne, March 8, 1 702 ; crowned, April 13 following ; lost her son George, duke of Gloucester, by a fever, July 29, 1700, aged eleven; lost her husband, who died of an asthma and dropsy, Oc- tober 28, 1708, aged 55. The queen died of apoplexy, August 1, 1714. ANNE of Cleves, one of the wives of Henry VIII., after being divorced, re- turned to her own country, and diedl557. ANNE of Beaujeu, Regent of France, daughter of Louis XI., wife of the duke of Bourbon; died 1522. 29 ANS ANNET, Peteb, pillored for his deistical writings ; died 1778, aged 75. ANNIBAL— See Hannibal. ANNUITIES for life, regulated 1777. ANNUITIES, or pensions, first granted 1512, when 20Z. was given to a lady of the court for services done, and 61. 13s. for the maintenance of a gentle- woman, 1536; and 13Z. 6s. 8d. a com- petent sum to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 1554. Annuities on lives are now become a matter of commercial speculation. — See Life An- nuities. ANNUNCIATION of the Virgin Mary observed, 350. ANOINTING first used at corona- tions in England, 872 ; in Scotland, 1097. ANQUETIL Du Perron, Abra- ham Hyacinthe, a famous orientalist; born 1731, died 1805. ANSELM, archbishop of Canterbury, born 1033, at Aost, a town in Savoy. In 1092 he was invited over to England. When the kingdom was invaded by Ro- bert duke of Normandy, in 1 101, Anselm by his exhortations, example, and autho- rity, preserved Henry on the throne. He is reported to have Avrought many mira- cles, both before and after his death, which happened at Canterbury, 1109» aged 76. ANSGAR, the apostle of the North, introduced Christianity into Sweden and Denmark; born 800, died 865. ANSON, George Lord, an emi- nent English naval commander born in 1697. In 1724, he was raised to the rank of post captain, and to the command of the Scarborough man-of-war. Be- tween this time and 1733, he went with ships under his command three times to South Carolina, where he erected a town bearing his name, the country around which has been since called Anson County. In 1740, he was ap- pointed to the command of a squadron destined to annoy the enemy in the South seas. He sailed from St. Helen's September 18, in the Centurion of 60 guns, with the Gloucester and Severn of 50 guns each, the Pearl of 40, the Wager storeship, and the Tryal sloop. He arrived in the latitude of Cape Horn about the middle of the vernal equinox, 1741, and in such tempestuous weather, that his strength was diminished by the putting back of the Severn and Pearl, and the loss of the Wager storeship. ANT 30 Having at Juan Fernandez repaired his damages, and refreshed his men, he kept, for eight months, the whole coast of Mexico and Peru in alarm, made several prizes, took and plundered the town of Peyta. At length, with the Centurion only, he traversed the vast extent of the Pacific Ocean, a three months' voyage, and with difficulty reached the island of Tinian one of the Ladrones. 1742. Mr. Anson put to sea again, and on the 12th of November, after a great variety of adventures, he arrived at Ma- cao, at the entrance of the river of Can- ton. Returning home he fell in with a rich galleon, on her passage from Aca- pulco to Manilla, which he captured; the treasure onboard was said to amount to £313,000. He arrived at Spithead, June 15, 1744, having completed the circumnavigation of the globe, and brought back great riches, taken from the enemy, though unforeseen disasters had defeated some of the principal purposes of his enterprise. On his return, Mr. Anson was made rear-admiral of the blue ; and in a short time after, a commissioner of the admi- ralty, and rear-admiral of the white; and in the year 1746, vice-admiral. In 1747, he was raised to the peerage by the title of Lord Anson, baron of Sober- ton in the county of Southampton. In 1751, he was appointed first lord of the admiralty, in which post he continued with a very short intermission till his death, which happened June 6, 1762. ANSON, frigate, 44 guns, wrecked in Mount's Bay, Cornwall; when Capt. Ledyard and many of the crew perished, Jan. 7, 1808. ANSTEY, Christophkr, an hu- morous poet, author of the New Bath Guide; born 1724, died 1805. ANTARCTIC Ocean, expanse of water, surrounding the South Pole, but little known. In 1819, Captain Smith discovered land lying between long. 55% and 65 w., and beginning at lat. 62°. An expedition for discovery in this ocean, as well as the Pacific, was fitted out by the United States, in the year 1836. ANTEDILUVIANS, general name for all mankind who lived before the flood, including the whole of the human race, from Adam to Noah and his family. The following table exhibits a summary of this chronology, according to the He- brew, the Samaritan, the Septuagint, and Josephus ; — ANT Ages of the Antediluvian Patriarchs at their Sons' birth. Heb. Sam. Sept. Jos. Adam . . , 130 130 230 130 Seth . . . 105 105 205 105 Enos .... 90 90 190 90 Cainan . . . 70 70 170 70 Mehalaleel . 65 65 165 65 Jared . . . 162 62 162 62 Enoch . . . 65 65 165 65 Methuselah 187 67 187 187 Lamech . . . 182 53 188 182 Noah's age at the K„^ flood J^OO 600 600 600 To the flood 1656 1307 2262 1556 ANTHEMS, introduced into the re- formed church in the reign of Elizabeth j first used 386. ANTH.EUM, at Hove, Sussex, dome of, fell in Aug. 30, 1833. ANTHONY, St., the Great, bom in Egypt, 251, died 356, aged 105. ANTHONY, St., of Padua, born Aug 15, 1 195, died June 13, 1231. ANTHONY, St., in Hainault, order of knighthood instituted in Germany, 1282; in Ethiopia, 357. ANTI-SLAVERY SOCIETY, for the abolition of Slavery and the slave-trade throughout the world. This new soci- ety was formed at a meeting of delegates and friends to the cause, assembled from various parts of the united kingdom, held at Exeter Hall, the 17th and 18th of April, 1839. The follovnng are the fun- damental principles of the Society :-"That so long as slavery exists there is no rea- sonable prospect of the annihilation of the slave-trade, and of extinguishing the sale and barter of human beings : that the extinction of slavery and the slave- trade will be attained most effectually by the employment of those means which are of a moral, religious, and pacific cha- racter ; and that no measures be resorted to by this Society in the prosecution of these objects but such as are in entire ac- cordance with these principles." The Society is under the management of a trea- surer, a secretary, and a committee of not less than twenty-one persons, who are annually elected. See further the article Slavery. ANTIMONY, before the 14th cen- tury, had no place in medicine, but was brought into vogue by Paracelsus, about 1520. ANT 31 ANT ANTIQUARIES, Society of, at London, incorporated Oct. 26, 1751. ANTIQUARIAN Society, at Edin- burgh, instituted Dec. 18, 1780. ANTIQUARIAN Society, at New- CcLStlc 1812. ANTIGONUS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great. Defeated Ptolemy and assumed the title of king, a.c. 306. At Ipsus a decisive battle was fought, in which Antigonus fell, in the 84th year of his age, a.c. 301. ANTIGONUS, GoNATUS, grandson of the former, died about the 80th year of his age, and the 44th of his reign, 243. ANTIGUA, Island, West Indies, first settled by Sir Thomas Warner, with a few English families, in 1632. In 1666 a French armament, from Martinique and Guadaloupe, assisted by some Ca- ribs, got temporary possession of the island, and plundered the planters, but were afterwards expelled, and the island confirmed to the British by the treaty of Breda, in 1688. In 1706, Co- lonel Daniel Parke succeeded to the government of Antigua; in 1710, the colonists rose, en masse, in arms against him. He was then dragged into the street and murdered. Serious disturbances took place in the island in 1831, the cause of which is stated to have been the stoppage of the Sunday Negro market for provisions and hve-stock. An act passed the Island As- sembly,Feb. 13,1834, and was ratifiedby the Council two days after, decreeing the emancipation of every slave in the island on the 1st of August, 1834. In 1835, July 12 and 13, the islands of Antigua and St. Kitts were visited by a violent hurricane, causing the loss of many lives, and an extensive destruction of property. The Governor of Antigua permitted the importation, duty free, for six months, into the island, of provisions and build- ing materials, as some alleviation of the calamity. ANTINOMIANS, certain heretics who maintained the law as of no use or obUgation under the gospel dispensation, took their origin from John Agricola, about the year 1533. ANTIOCH, the ancient metropolis of Syria, founded a.c. 300, by Seleucus Ni- cator, was one of the most celebrated cities of antiquity. It continued to be as Pliny calls it, the queen of the east, for nearly 1600 years. Nevertheless it has under- gone many calamities. About a. c, 145 being very much disaffected to the per- son and government of Demetrius the king, he found himself obliged to solicit assistance from the Jews. The inhabi- tants ran to arms, and surrounded the king's palace to the number of 120,000, with a design to put him to death. All the Jews hastened to his relief, fell upon the rebels, killed 100,000 of them, and set fire to the city. On the destruction of the Syrian em- pire, A.D. 65, Antioch fell under the Ro- man dominion. In 242 it was taken and plundered by Sapor king of Persia ; and also again a few years afterwards. In 260 being taken by the Persian monarch a third time, he not only plundered it, but level- led aU the pubhc buildings to the ground. About the time of the division of the Ro- man empire by Constantine in 331 it was afflicted with a grievous famine, so that a bushel of wheat was sold for 400 pieces of silver. Antioch suffered from earthquakes in the years 458 and 526 ; but when Chos- roes, king of Persia invaded Syria in 540, the city disdaining the offer of an easy ca- pitulation, was taken by storm, and the inhabitants slaughtered with unrelenting fury. It was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 587, by which 30,000 persons lost their lives. In 634 it fell into the hands of the Saracens, who kept possession of it till the year 858, when it was surprised by one Burtzas, and again annexed to the Roman empire. In the tenth century the Turks seized upon it as well as the whole kingdom of Syria. From them it was agam taken by the cru- saders in 1098. In 1262 it was taken by Bibaris, sultan of Egypt, who put a final period to its glory. It is called by the Arabs Antakia, and is now no more than a ruinous town. It is worthy of remark, that Antioch was much celebrated in the early ages of the Christian church. Here Paul and Barnabas preached a considerable time, and it was here that the disciples of Christ first received the denomination of Christians. There were many other ancient cities which bore the name of Antioch; of these the niost remarkable was that usually de- nominated Antioch of Pisidia, mentioned in Acts xiii. ANTIOCHUS, the name of several kings of Syria. ANTIOCHUS, AsiATicus, seizes a part of Syria, A.c. 69. ANT 32 ANT ANTIOCHUS, Cyzicenus, took possession of Syria, A.c. 112; was de- feated, and killed himself, a.c. 94. ANTIOCHUS,Epiph ANES, defeated Ptolemy's generals, a.c. 171; took Jerusalem, and comraited great cruelties there, 170. ANTIOCHUS THE Great, took Sidon, A.c. 198; was defeated and slain, 187. ANTIOCHUS, Pius, defeated by PhiUp, A. c. 91. ANTIOCHUS, SiDETES, king of Syria, defeated and s.'ain, a.c. 130. See Syria. ANTIPATER, a Macedonian states- man; born A.c. 398, died 318. ANTISTHENES, a Grecian philoso- pher, born A. c. 424. ANTOINETTE, Marie, the unfor- tunate queen of Louis XVI., born at Vi- enna, 1725; beheaded 1793; her bones disinterred at La Madelaine, and laid in St. Denis with the monarchs of France, Jan. 18, 1815. ANTONINES, a religious sect that first appeared in 329- ANTONINUS, Pius, the Roman em- peror, born at Lanuvium in Italy, in 86. Nominated by Adrian February 26, 138; and on July 10, succeeded to the empire, amidst the universal acclamations of the senate and people. The reign of Anto- ninus was singularly peaceful, and realized a saying of Scipio, " That he preferred saving the life of one citizen, to destroy- ing a thousand enemies." He died in 161, in the 74th year of his age, and in the 23rd of his reign. ANTONINUS, MarcusAurelius, the Roman emperor, was born at Rome, 121. In the year 139, he was adopted into the family of the emperor Pius, on which he behaved in such a manner as endeared him to that prince and the whole people. Upon the death of Pius, which happened in the year 161, he was obliged by the Senate to take upon him the government with Lucius Verus. They discharged that office in a very amicable manner; but the hap- piness which the empire began to enjoy under these two emperors, was interrupted in the year 162, by a dread- ful inundation of the Tiber, which de- stroyed a vast number of cattle, and occasioned a famine at Rome. The Ro- mans having gained a victory over the Parthians, who were obliged to abandon Mesopotamia, the two emperors tri- umphed over them at Rome, in 166, and were honoured with the title of fathers of their country. In the year 179, two years after his return to Rome, M. Antoninus marched against the Mar- comanni and other barbarous nations, and the year following gained a con- siderable victory over them. He died March 17, 180, in the 59th year of his age, and 19 th of his reign. ANTONINUS'S Wall, the third rampart, or defence, that had been built or repaired by the Romans, against the incursions of the North Britons. The first barrier erected by the Romans, was the chain of forts made by Agricola, from the Frith of Forth to that of Clyde, in the year 81, to protect his conquests from the inroads of the Caledonians. The second was the vallum, or dyke, flung up by Adrian in the year 121. The great number of inscriptions which have been found in or near the ruins of this third wall, or rampart, to the honour of Antoninus Pius, leave no room to doubt its having been built by his direc- tion and command. ANTONY, Marc, was born A. c. 86. Ceesar having made himself master of Rome, gave Antony the government of Italy. At the battle of Pharsaha, a. c. 48, Csesar confided so much in him, that he gave him the command of the left wing of his army, whilst he himself led the right. His ill treatment of Octavianus, and quarrel \vith him, produced another civil war, which ended in an accommo- dation between him, Ocia\aanus, and Lepidus, fatal to the peace of Rome. The famous battle of Actium, fought A.c. 31, against the advice of Antony's best officers, and chiefly through the persuasion of Cleopatra, who was proud of her naval force, put an end to his hope of attaining the government. Dis- tracted with disappointment and vexa- tion, he returned to Egypt, and lived for some time in gloomy solitude; but Cleopatra by her arts drew him to her palace, and he resumed his former vo- luptuous life. He expired in her arms A.c. 30. in the 56th year of his age. ANTONY St., the Great, See Anthony. ANTWERP, first noticed, 517; walled, 1201 and 1514; citadel erected by the duke of Alva, 1568; sacked, 1585 ; taken by the French, 1792, evacuated 1794, but returned the same year besieged by the EngUsh, 1814; again besieged by the APO 33 Aau French, taken, and restored to tlie Bel- gians, 1832. See Belgium. Its com- merce suffered much in 1831 and 1832, from the hostihties between the Belgians and the Dutch. APELLES, the most celebrated painter of antiquity, was born in the isle of Cos, and fioui'ished in the fourth cen- tury before Christ. He was painter of the Venus Anadyomene, and of Alexander in the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus. He was the contemporary and favourite of Alexander the Great, who forbade all others to paint him, and gave him one of his own mistresses, with whom the artist had fallen in love. APICIUS, the Roman gourmand, who having expended near a million of mo- ney on his appetite in the course of a few years, poisoned himself when he found he had only £20,000 remaining, lest he should die of want. APOCALYPSE, the name of the last of the sacred books of the New Testament; according to Irenseus, writ- ten about the year 96, in the island of Patmos, whither St. John had been banished by the emperor Domitian. Many churches in Greece, as St. Jerome informs us, did not receive this book as canonical ; but Justin, Irenaeus, Origen, Cyprian, Clemens of Alexandria, Tertul- lian, and all the fathers of the fourth, fifth, and the following centuries, quote the Revelation as a book then acknow- ledged to be canonical. APOCRYPHA, such books as are not admitted into the canon of Scrip- ture. They are fourteen in number, viz. 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith, the rest of Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, Ec- clesiasticus, Baruch, with the Epistle of Jeremiah, the Song of the Three Child- ren, Susannah, Bel and the Dragon, the Prayer of Manasses, 1 Maccabees, and 2 Maccabees. None of these were e\'er received by the Jews ; nor does Origen in the third century, or Epiphanius in the fourth, in the least acknowledge their authenticity. The Apocrypha was first supposed ca- nonical in the ninth and tenth centuries; but its divine authority was never pub- licly assumed but by the preposterous decree of the Council of Trent. Its his- tory ends A.c. 135. APOLLO, frigate, and forty West- indiamen, lost off the Portuguese coast, April 2, 1804. APOLLO, Temple of» at Delphos, built A. c. 434 APOLLODORUS, the Athenian pain, ter, flourished A.c APOLLODORL S, an eminent archi- tect who flourished a.d. 104. APOLLODORUS, a grammarian of Athens, flourished a.c. 148. APOLLONIUS, the mathematician, flourished a.c. 242. APOLLONIUS, Rhodius, historian of the Argonautic expedition^ flourished a.c. 246. APOLLONIUS, Tyaneus, a Pytha- gorean philosopher, who flourished in the beginning of the first century. APOTHECARIES, first mentioned in history, 1345; exempted from serving civil offices, 1702; their practice better regulated, 1815. APOTHECARIES' Company, Lon- don, incorporated 16 17, that of Dublin, 1791. APPARITORS, first instituted 1234. APPEALS TO THE Pope, from Eng- land, fii-st made, 1138; forbidden, 1532. APPIAN, the historian, flourished in the reigns of Trajan and Adrian. APPIAN Way, from Rome to Capua, constructed A.c. 313, by Appius Clau- dius, when he was censor ; afterwards it extended to Brundusium. APPIANI, Andrea, a Milanese pain- ter of history and portraits. Napoleon sat to him, and appointed him his pain- ter. Born 1754, died 1818. APPIUS Claudius, a cruel arro- gant patrician, one of the Decemviri, died A.c. 448. APRICOT Trees, first planted in England, 1540; Epirus is their native country. APULEIUS, author of the Golden Ass, flourished in the first century of the christian era. AQUATINTA,a method of engrav- ing, by which tinted or washed drawings in Indian ink are imitated ; invented, and practised m France, by M. Le Prince, about the year 1767. AQUINAS, Thomas, styled the An- gelical Doctor, was born in the Castle of Aquino, in the Terra di Lavora, in Italy, in 1224, or 1225. He settled at Na- ples, where he spent the remainder of his life in study, in reading of lectures, and in acts of piety. Being simimoned to a general council held at Lyons, to present a book which he had written, by order of Pope Urban IV., for refuting the errors of the Greek churchj he died A RC 34 ARC in the monastery of Fossa i.>^ova, on his way there, 1274. He was canonized in 1323. His works were printed in 1490, in 17 vols, folio. AQUITAINE, erected into a princi- pality, 1362 ; re-annexed to the French crown, 1730. ARABIA, conquered by Mahomet, 622. Whahabee sect sprung up about 1801. See Mahomet. ARABLE Lands restrained, and pastures enforced, 1534. ARAM, Eugene, a learned man, born in Yorkshire, 1704, executed for a murder committed fourteen years be- fore, 1759. ARATUS, of Sicyon, made praetor of the Achaean League, a.c. 251 ; re- duces Corinth, and takes Megara, a. c. 243. ARBELA, a city of Assyria, famous for the last and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codo- mannus. This battle was fought a.c. 331, and the event of it determined the fate of the Persian empire. ARBITRATION, an act for settle- ment of differences by. May 16, 1698. ARBUTHNOT. John, M. D., the friend of Swift, and a voluminous writer, died 1735 ARCESILAUS, founder of the Mid- dle Academy, born in iEohs, a.c. 316, died of intemperance, a.c. 241. ARCHANGEL, in European Russia, passage to, discovered 1553 ; injured by fire, 1763; 200 dweUings burned down, October 16, 1771; cathedral and other edifices burned, June 29, 1793; total of houses destroyed, 3,000. ARCHBISHOPS were not known in the east till about 320. Athanasius was the first that used the title. ARCHDEACON. The first appointed in England, was by Lanfranc, Arch- bishop of Canterbury, about 1076, though some say the title was so early as the fourth century. ARCHELAUS, a Greek phUosopher, flourished a. c. 440. ARCHELAUS, son of Herod the Great, a cruel prince. He flourished in the reign of August\is. ARCHELAUS, king of MaceJon died about a. c, 398. ARCHERY, in use among the Greeks. Introduced into England by the Saxons, in the time of Vortigern ; dropt imme- diately after the conquest, but revived by the crusaders, 1199, they having felt the eflfects of it from the Saracens, who, probably, derived it from the Parthians. The English archers were celebrated above all others, as appears from the battles of Cressy, Poictiers, &c. The victory of Homildon against the Scots, 1402, was achieved by the archers en- tirely. ARCHES OF STONE, St. Paul's church, London, built on. A mode of building unknown in England until 1187- ARCHINDSCHAN,Turkey, destroy- ed by an earthquake, when 12,000 per- sons were buried in the ruins, 1784. ARCHENHOLZ, J. W. von, a vo- luminous German writer, born 1743, died 1812. ARCHILOCHUS, of Paros, a \vriter of Iambic verses, who flourished a. c. 700. ARCHIMEDES, one of the most eminent mathematicians aud philoso- phers amongst the ancients ; inventor of the sphere; born A. c. 287; slain, 212. ARCHIPELAGO del Espirito Santo, discovered by Guiroo, a Portu- guese, sent from Peru in 1606. These islands are the Cyclades of Bougain- ville, and the New Hebrides of Cook. ARCHITECTURE. This art was first carried to any considerable extent in ancient times by the Tyrians, about a.c. 700 (see Isaiah xxiii. 8). From them the Greeks derived it, and it was in its great- est glory under Pericles, about A. c. 429. The Romans bon-owed the art from the Greeks, and the English from the Romans. The Saxons built some rude edifices here in the ninth cen- tury, and the Normans, after the con- quest, improved on their style, and raised some magnificent ecclesiastical edifices in England. The Norman style differed from the Saxon in the greater dimensions of their buildings, in ha\ing more lofty and plain vaulting, circular pillars of greater diameter, and more richly orna- mented carvings &c. The period of this style extends from the conquest in 1066, to the death of Stephen, in II 54. The Gothic taste, which succeeded the Saxon, did not make its appearance in England till about 1189. SaUsbury ca- thedral is of this style, and was finished in 1258. The Gothic architecture re- mained in vogue till near the end of the reign of Henry VIII., when the Grecian style took its place. British architecture was a union of the two till about the reign of James I., ARE 35 ARI when a greater degree of regularity was introduced, especially about the time of Inigo Jones, at the beginning of the se- venteenth century. ARCHONS, perpetual, established at Athens, a. c. 10/0 ; decennial, 754; changed to annual, 684. ARCHYTAS, ofTarentum, a mathe- matician and mechanist, constructed an automaton, invented the vice and pulley ; flourished a.c. 408 ; perished by ship- wreck. ARCOT, in the East Indies, taken by the Enghsh, 1759. ARCTIC Expedition. The firstsailed under Ross and Parry, 1817, returned November 5, 1818. The second sailed under Parry, in the Hecla, May 10, 1819- Lieutenant Beechy accompanied him in the Griper. They returned in Novem- ber, 1820. The third, under Lyon and Parry, sailed April 25, 1821, and Parry returned with the Hecla and Fury, Oc- tober 29, 1823, and Lyon November 11, 1824. The fourth sailed October 25, 1825. The fifth, under Ross, sailed May 23, 1829; returned October 19, 1833. Land Arctic Expedition, imder Captain Franklin, 1826; under Captain Back, 1833. Captain Back sailed to explore the Wager River, June 28, 1836; re- turned, Sep., 1837. See America. ARDOGHAN, fortress of, in Asia, surrendered to the Russian forces undei major-general Berggmann, September 3, 1828. ARDEES, in France. An inteniew took place here between Francis I., of France, and Henry VIIL, of England, attended with great magnificence, 1520. ARENDT, Martin Frederick, a scientific European traveller, born at AJ- tona, 1769, died at Venice, 1824. AREOPAGUS, council of, established at Athens, a. c. 1507. ARETINO, GuiDo,who invented the present musical notation by applying the first words of the following verses : — " UT queant laxis REsonare fibris, MIra gestorum, FAmuli tuorum, SOLve poUutis LAbiis reatum." By wluch he converted the old tetra- chords into hexachords. He also invented lines and spaces in musical notation. He flourished about 1022. ARETINO, Peter, an Italian poet, born 1492, died, 1557. ARETINO, Leonard, an Italian his- torian, born, 1370 died at Florence, 1443. ARETUSI, C^sare, a famous Italian portrait painter. He flourished in the seventeenth century. ARGAND'S Lamps introduced ge- nerally in London, 1785. ARGO, the first long ship built by the Greeks to carry the Argonauts, a.c. 1263. ARGONAUTIC Expedition, one of the greatest epochs or periods of history, said to be a.c. 1263, or 79 years before the taking of Troy. Some wri- ters say A.c. 1225. According to the fable, the Argonauts undertook their famed expedition in order to find the golden fleece. The golden fleece means the treasure of the king of Colchis, pil- laged by the Argonauts — the Syriac word, gaza, meaning fleece ; but it is more ge- nerally admitted that Argo was the name of the first ship that was built (except the ark), and that it was therefore made a sign in the heavens ; that the fable of the fleece originated in the fleeces sunk in the river Xanthus to collect the allu- vial gold washed into that river from the adjacent mines. ARGONAUTS of St. Nicholas, an- order of knighthood instituted at Naples, 1382. ARGOS, kingdom of, began a. c. 1586. ARGOS, battle of, between the allies and Turks, a.d. 1683. ARGYLE, Marquis of, beheaded May 27, 1661. ARGYLE, Earl of, executed at Edinburgh, 1685. ARGYLE, late duke of, died Septem- ber 22, 1839, aged 72. ARIANS, followers of Arius,, a pres- byter of the church of Alexandria, about 315, who maintained that the Son of God was totally and essentially distinct from the Father. The Arians were first con- demned and anathematized by a council at Alexandria in 320, under Alexander, bishop of that city, who accused Arius of impiety, and caused him to be expelled from the communion of the church ; and afterwards by 380 fathers in the general council of Nice, assembled by Constan- tine in 325. Not^vithstanding, Arianism was not extinguished ; on the contrary, it became the reigning religion, especially in the east, where it obtained much more than in the west. In 328 Arius was re- called from banishment by the emperor Constantine. In 335, Athanasius, his ARI 30 ARI zealous opponent, was deposed, and ba- nished into Gaul, and Arius and his fol- lowers were reinstated in their privileges. The Arian controversy was introduced or revivedbyWhiston, in England, in the beginning of the 18th century. ARION, a musician of Methymna, flourished a.c. 664 or 625. ARIOSTO, the celebrated Italian poet, and author of Orlando Furioso, born at the castle of Reggio, Lombardy, in 1474; began his poem about 1504, published 40 cantos in 1516, and the whole 46 cantos in 1532. He died at Ferara, July 6, 1534. ARISTIDES, the Theban painter and .scholar, and brother of Nicomachus, flourished a.c. 341. ARISTIDES, surnamed The Just, an illustrious Athenian, was one of the most celebrated characters of his age for purity and integrity. He was present at the battle of Marathon, fought a.c. 490, and was next in command among the Athenians to Miltiades. The year following he was elected archon ; but by the art of Themistocles, the high autho- rity he had attained by his merits, was, at length, convei'ted into an accusation against him, and he was accordingly banished by the ostracism. He died about A.c. 407, at an advanced age, universally regretted by the affectionate admiration of his countr}'. ARISTARCHUS, the Samian as- tronomer, flourished a.c. 967. ARISTARCHUS, a famous gram- marian, born at Samothrace, flourished A.c. 150. ARISTIPPUS, founder of the Cy- renaic sect, flourished a.c 380. ARISTOBULUS, a peripatetic phi- losopher, flourished a.c. 120. ARISTODEMUS, a musician and philosopher, flourished a.c. 614. ARISTOMENES, the Messenian hero, flourished a.c. 689- ARISTOPHANES, a Grecian comic poet, flourished a.c. 420. ARISTOTLE, the most famous of all the Grecian philosophers, tutor of Alex- ander the Great, founder of the Peri- patetic sect, born at Stagira a.c. 384. Philip, king of Macedon, having heard of his great reputation, sent for him to be tutor to his son Alexander, then about fourteen years of age. Philip erected statues in honour of Aristotle ; and for his sake rebuilt Stagira, which had been almost ruined by the wars. He is said to have poisoned him.self a.c. 322. ARITHMETIC. When this science was invented is unknown. About a.c. 600 it is said to have been brought from Eg)'pt to Greece by Thales. About a. c 300, the oldest treatise on arithmetic, extant, by Euclid (7th, 8th, and 9th books of his elements) appeared. In A.c 220, Greek arithmetical notation was indefinitely extended by the octades of Archimedes. A.D. 130. About this time was in- vented the sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy, which was simplified and brought very near to the principle of modern arithmetical notation, by Apol- lonius about 220. The common arithmetical notation by nine digits, and zero, was known at least as early as the 6th century in Hindostan. In 900 it was introduced by Mohamed ben Musa from Hindostan into Arabia. Generally used by Arabian writers in arithmetic and astronomy in the 10th and 1 1th centuries. About 1050 it was probably introduced by them into Spain. The first known European work in which the Arabic figures in common use appear, is a translation of Ptole- my (in Spain) 1 136. They were brought by Leonard of Pisa, from Bugia in Bar- bary to Pisa 1202; probably ch-culated by the Alphonsine tables 1252. This arithmetic was generally cultivated by the Tuscans, in the 13th and 14th centuries. Treatises on this notation (de Algo- rismo) were pubhshed in many calendai's in the 14th century: it was generally known and used in this country from time beginning of the 1 5th century. Tlie calendar in Corpus Christi Library, Cam- bridge, for 1380, contains an account of the Arabicfigures. Calendar for 1386 (in English), contains them through- out. This almanac is very splendid, and is full of the astrological, astronomical, and medical knowledge and prejudices of the period. The oldest existing date is 1355. The first monumental date in Arabic nume- rals, is on a brass plate in the church at Ware, (on Ellen Wood), dated 1454. Date in Caxton's " Mirror of the World," (Arabic characters,) 1480. Date of the almanac of St. Mary's Abbey, Cupar, Angus, 1482. The first printed book on algebra ARI 37 ARM and arithmetic, was by Lucas de Bargo, 1484. The science introduced into the university registers in England not be- fore 1500. The first work printed in England on arithmetic, (de Arte Suppu- tandi) by Tonstall, Bishop of Durham, was in 1522. Decimal fractions were considered for the first time in La Disme of Stevinus, published 1590; this work was translated into English 1608 ; their theory and notation perfected by Lord Napier in his Rabdologia 16 17. Continued frac- tions introduced by Lord Brounker, P.R.S., 1670. About 1750 Arithmetic of Sines was completed by Euler. The theory had been hinted at by Christian Mayer in 1727. Since the latest of these periods, no improvement worthy of notice has been effected in relation to this science. ARIUS, founder of the Arian sect : first promulgated his doctrines in 315, died 336. See Arians. ARKWRIGHT, Sir R., inventor of spinning jennies, died Aug. 3, 1792. ARMADA, Spanish, the Invin- cible, a term applied to the armament fitted out by the king of Spain in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. It consisted of ninety-two galleons, four galliasses, thirty frigates, thirty transports of horse, and four galhes ; on board of which were 8,350 mariners, 2,080 galley-slaves, and 19,290 land forces; the whole com- manded by the duke of Medina Cell. To oppose this formidable Armada, the queen of England assembled a numerous fleet, the command of which she gave to Lord Howard of Efiingham, admiral of England, assisted by Drake, Hawkins, and Forbisher. The Spanish Armada sailed from the river Tagus in Portugal on the 29th of May, 1588, but, being dispersed by a storm, rendezvoused again at the Groine in Gahcia, from whence they set sail again on the 12th of July, and entered the English chan- nel on the 19th ; on the 21st a battle be- gan, and a kind of running fight con- tinued to the 27th. The English ad- miral finding he could make but little impression on the galleons, sent eight or ten fire ships among them, which put the Spaniards in the utmost confusion. They cut their cables immediately, and put to sea ; and endeavouring to return to the rendezvous between Calais and Gravelin, the English fell upon them, and took several of their ships, where- upon they all bore away for Scotland and Ireland. Here the rest of the fleet were dispersed by a storm. The Spaniards lost fifteen great ships, and 4791 men in the several engagements with the Eng- lish fleet; seventeen ships, and 5,394 men were drowned, killed, or taken in the retreat, in the month of September. The loss of the English, was so incon- siderable, that none of our historians mention the loss of one ship. - ARMED Neutrality of the Nor- thern Powers against England, by the Empress of Russia, commenced 1780; revived 1800 ; dissolved by a British fleet. ARMENIA, a country of Asia, pro- bably derived its name from Aram, the son of Shem who, according to tradition, settled there, and peopled it with his de- scendants. Berosus makes one Sytha the first founder of this monarchy, whose successor Bardanes, he says, was driven out by Ninus, king of Assyria. On the dissolution of the Median empire, by Cyrus, about a. c. 560, the kingdom was reduced to the form of a province, governed by Persian prefects or lieutenants. On the destruction of the Persian empire by Alexander the Great, about a.c. 333, it fell into the hands of the Macedonians, to whom it continued subject till the beginning of the reign of Antiochus the Great. Ti- granes, however, the king's son, who had been delivered as a hostage to the Par- thians, was restored to his kingdom, after his father's death, about a. c. 95; and entered into an alliance with Mithri- dates Eupator, against the Romans. Armenia was subdued by the Romans under Pompey, about a. c. 65. From this time to the time of Trajan, it was go- verned by its own kings. By Trajan, however, Armenia Major was reduced to the form of a Roman province, a. d. 114; but it soon recovered its liberty, and was again governed by its own kings, in the reigns of Constantine the Great, and his successors, to whom the kings of Ar- menia were feudatories. In the reign of Justine II., the Sara- cens subdued and held it till the irrup- tion of the Turks, 755, who possessed themselves of this kingdom, and gave it the name of Turcomania. In 1472, Us- san Cassanes, king of Armenia, suc- ceding to the crown of Persia, made Ar- menia a province of that empire, in which state it continued till 1522, when it was ARM 38 ARM Bubdued by Selim II., and made a pro- vince of the Turkish empire. ARMINIANS, a religious sect which arose in Holland. They followed the doctrines of Arminius, a celebrated mini- ster of Amsterdam, who first introduced his principles in 1591. The controversy which was thus begun, became more ge- neral after the death of Arminius, in the year 1609. The Arminians were treated with great severity, and many of them banished ; but after the death of Prince Maurice, in the year 1625, the exiles were restored to their former reputation and tranquillity. The Arminians are also called Re- monstrants, from a humble petition, en- titled theii remonstrance, which, in the year 1610, they addressed to the states of Holland. ARMINIUS, Hermann, the deli- verer of Germany from the Roman yoke, born A.c. 18, assassinated a. d. 21. ARMINIUS, James, a Dutch divine, founder of the Arminian sect; born 1560, died l609. ARMORIAL Bearings, introduced by the English nobles 1100, taxed, 1798 — 1808. See Heraldry. ARMORICA, Little Brittany. France was colonized by the Britons of this island, 387 ; Lesser Brittany continued a kingdom till 874, when it was changed to a duchy ; it was reduced afterwards by Francis I. ARMORER'S Company, London, incorporated 1423. ARMOUR. The body armour at the time of the conquest consisted indiffer- ently either of a tunic, or of a jacket and breeches in one, composed of leather or cloth, covered sometimes with flat iron rings sewn horizontally and contiguously, sometimes with small perforated lozen- ges of steel, called mascles, from their resemblance to the meshes of a net. The general form of armour was after- wards but little changed, until mail was superseded by the complete casing of steel. Scaled mail was in use about the 12th century, as there is a specimen of it in the seal of Alexander I. of Scotland, who began his reign in 1107. About the mid- dle of the 13th century, interlaced or twisted chain mail, the rings of which were rivetted within each other, and therefore required nothing fm'ther to hold them together was introduced. The lance and the sword were still the battle-axe became the favourite weapon of Richard I., and the warriors of his time J and the martel and the maul were also among the offensive arms of chivalry. The precise date at which armorial bearings and surcoats were first used, is a much controverted question. These were originally plain garments worn over the armour, but were afterwards splen- didly emblazoned and richly embroid- ered. The monument in Westminster Abbey, of Aylmer de Valence, Earl of Pembroke, about 1315, is, perhaps, the first English effigy of a knight in com- plete mixed armour. The fuU casing of steel began aboat the time of Edward the Black Prince, used at Crecy, 1346, and Poicters. 1356. The ciixumstances which led to the adoption of complete harness of plates, are thus satisfactory stated by D. Mey- rick: "The reason of leaving off the hauberks, and substituting plate armour, was the weight of the chain-mail with its accompanying garments : indeed, it was so great, that sometimes the knights were suffocated in it when the heat was excessive ; for, although the plate-armour was very heavy, it was less so than the court of mail with the wambais, the plastron, and the surcoat, because there was no need of either of the two former under a cuirass of steel; besides, if it was of well- tempered metal, it was nei- ther pierced nor bent by the thrust of the lance, nor pushed into the body of the knight, as the mailles used to be, if the wambais, or hoketon, were ever wanting underneath." The helmet, from being cylindrical, was first made conical, closed all round with a grating for breath and sight ; then was mtroduced the moveable vizor in one piece, pierced as usual, and fastened on pivots, to the sides of the besinet, to raise at pleasure ; and, at last, early in the fifteenth century, a covering for the face was invented of several overlapping plates, which were drawn up from the chin. This was the beaver, which, as being raised over the mouth, was pro- bably so called, in contradistinction to the common vizor, from the Italian bevere, to drink. The crest surmounting the helmet, with a flowing scarf, came first into fashion in the thirteenth century, but it does not appear that plumes of feathers were of earlier use than the beginning of the fifteenth century. Tlie perfection of ARM common arms of knighthood ; but the armour in this century, while small fire- arms were not yet in general use, or had not been rendered very efficacious, had a singular and unexampled influence upon the state of warfare. Defensive armour fell gradually into disuse about the mid- dle of the fifteenth century, by the in- vention of fire-arms, which passed through a series of successive improve- ments, till they reached their murderous completion. See Cannon, Fibe- Arms, &c. ARMS, Coats of, came in vogue in the reign of Richard I, and hereditary in families about 1 192. They took their rise from the knights painting their ban- ners with diflferent figures, to distinguish them in their crusades ; though some trace it higher, and say it originated in the common custom of primitive people painting their bodies with different figures, to distinguish them from each other. The lions in the English arms were originally leopards, so says a re- cord of 1252. Formerly, none but the nobility bore arms ; but Charles the Fifth having ennobled the Parisians in 1371, he permitted them to bear arms. This was followed in other places. See Heraldry. ARMS, French, first quartered with the English, 1358. ARMSTRONG, John, M. D., a poet and miscellaneous writer, born in Rox- burghshire, Scotland, 1709, died 1779- ARMY. The first standing one in modern times was estabhshed in France in 1445, by Charles VII.; in England by Oliver Cromwell, about 1654. The troops were not clothed, whether feudatory or otherwise, at the public ex- pense, till the eleventh year of Edward III. There was no uniform in the Eng- lish army till the latter end of the reign of Henry VI., the men for that purpose wearing badges, engraved with the arms of their officers, of a form and texture resembling the badges now worn by watermen; and occasionally scarfs of a particular colour, were the only badges of unifomi. In the reign of Henry VIII. white was the prevailing colour of the national uniform ; under Ehzabeth, dark green or russet, distinguished the infan- try, while scarlet cloaks were worn by the cavalry The army of England, at the battle of Waterloo, in 1814, amounted to 200,000 regular troops, exclusive of 39 ARM about 100,000 embodied militia, a large amount of local militia and volunteers, to which might also be added a number of regiments employed in the territories of the East India Company, and in its pay. After the abdication and exile of Buonaparte, a rapid reduction of our military establishment was ef- fected. The militia was disembodied; the regular force was reduced in 1817, to 92,000 men, and in 1819, lo 69,000. Circumstances which afterwards arose in Europe, and in our own colonies, led to successive augmentations ; and in 1831, the estimates were for 88,000 men; of whom 74,000 were infantry of the line, 5700 foot guards, 1300 dragoon guards, 7000 dragoons- This was independent of 18,000 men employed m India, and paid by the Company. The charge for these forces was 6,381,000/., but of this sum 3,240,000/. consisted of half-pay, retired allowances, pensions, and other charges consequent on the former immense establishment. Of the vast host of volunteers called forth by the menaced invasion during the wars, some corps of yeomanry cavalry were all that remained, and most of these have been recently disbanded, their services being no longer deemed requisite to maintain do- mestic tranquillity. ARMY Punishments. Within the five years ending Dec. 31st. 1835, there had been punished by the lash 1 440 men in Great Britain and Ireland, and 9591 had been imprisoned. Corporal punishment was inflictedon 1227 soldiers once only, on 172 twice, on 32 three times, on 7 four times, and on 2 five times. Of the 1440 who received corporal punishment, 825 were also imprisoned, namely 294 once, 203 twice, 170 three times, 88 four times, 46 five times, 10 six times, 8 seven times, 4 eight times, 1 nine times and 1 ten times. During the above five years, 415 men belonging to the Royal Marines received corporal punishment, namely, 322 once, 70 twice, 12 three times, and 1 five times; and 1115 men had been imprisoned, namely, 86ponce, l7l twice, 56 three times, 17 four times, and 2 five times. Of the 1115 who had been im- prisoned, 263 had also received corporal punishment; viz. 46 previous to im- prisonment, l73 subsequent to impri- sonment, and 44 both before and after imprisonment. A return has also been made of the number of cases in regi- ments and depots in Great Britain and ARS 40 ART Ireland in which corporal punishment has been inflicted, specifying the offen- ces for which it was awarded, since the issuing of the circular and letter, dated Horse Guards, 24th August, 1833, re- stricting the pitnishment of flogging to certain offences, indicated in the said letter. The offences were, mutiny, insub- ordination, and violence, or using or offering violence to superior officers, 270; drunkenness on duty 80, sale of or making away with arms, ammunition, ac • coutrements, or necessaries, 139, stealing from comrades 52, disgraceful conduct 47 ; total, 588. See Flogging. ARMY, Medical Officers' Be- nevolent Fund Society, 1820. ARNE, Michael, an English musi- cian, died 1785. ARNE, Thomas Augustine, Dr., a composer, horn in London in 1704, died 1778. ARNHEIM, Guelderland, taken by Bulow, and the garrison butchered No- vember 30, 1813. ARNOBIUS, of Sicca, Numidia, pro- fessor of rhetoric, flourished 303. ARNOLD, Benedict, an American general, who deserted to the English, died in London, 1801. ARNOLD, Samuel, a doctor of music, and composer, l)orn 1739, died 1802, and buried in Westminster Abbey. ARNOLD, Christopher, the peasant astronomer, born near Leipsic, 1646, died 1695. ARNOLD, John, watchmaker, born 1744, died 1799 ARRAGON, erected into r. kingdom, 912 ; united to the crown of Castile, 1479. See Castile. ARRAY, First Commission of, for raising the Militia, 1422. ARREST, vexatious ones prevented by an act passed May 17, 1733; for less than ten pounds forbidden 1779 ; for less than twenty pounds, or on a bill of exchange for fifteen pounds, 1810. The late act 1 and 2 Victoria, Aug. 1838, abolishes arrest, except the defer dant is about to leave England, and in other cases ; also extends the remedies of cre- ditors against the property of debtors, &c. ARRIAN, a Greek historian, who flourished in the 2nd century. ARS ACES, the name of several Par- thian kings. The first laid the founda- tion of the empire a. c. 250. ARSENAL, at Corunna in Spain, destroyed by fire, when 60 persons were killed, and 50 wounded, March 1 1, 1794. ARTAXERXES, the name of seve- ral monarchs of Persia. First, died a. c 425. See Persia. A RTEMIDORUS.a Greek geographer of Ephesus, flourished a.c. 104. ARTEMISIA, Queen of Caria, widow of Mausolus. died a. c. 351. ARTHUR, the celebrated British king, born at Tindagel, in Cornwall, about 453. Made his first appear- ance against the Saxons at the age of fourteen, being then king of Cornwall and Devon, 467, defeated the Northumbrian Saxons 491 ; again defeated the North- umbrian Saxons, on the river Dugles, near Wigan, in Lancashire, 494 ; de- feated the revolting subjects of Ambro- sius, and drove their leader into Wales, when tie procured the possession ot Brecknock and Radnorshire, which he erected into a kingdom, 497 ; again took the field, at the head of 15,000 men, and defeated the Saxons under Ctrdic, near Boston, and soon aftei', a second time, near Gainsford, in 504. 508. Arthur succeeded Ambrosius in the government, and his name was terrible to the Saxons ; he was crowned at Caerleon, and defeated the North- umbrians on the borders of the river Ribroit, which runs through Lancashire, being his tenth victory over the Saxons, and soon after, again defeated another army of theirs at Cadbury, in Somerset- shire. The battle of Baden Hill, near Bath was fought in 511, where a most complete victory -was gained by Arthur, wherein two of the Saxon chiefs were slain, and Cerdic Avas obhged to retire to an inaccessible post. Here Arthur slew 400 with his own hands. 512. He retired to York to regulate tlie affairs of the church. The bishop- ric of St. David's was founded by Ar- thur, 520, and Dubritius was the first bishop. Cerdic, the Saxon king, gave him battle, and defeated him at Cherd- sey, in Buckinghamshire, 527. Cerdic subdued the Isle of Wight, and cruelly destroyed the inhabitants, 530. Modred, Arthur's nephew, surrendered a great part of Arthur's dominions to Cerdic, and was crowned king of the remainder, at London, 531. 533. Arthur discovermg Modred's villany, raised forces, and after several battles in favour of Arthur, a decisive one was fought in 542, near Camelford, wherein both fell, and with Arthur, al! ARU 41 ARU the hopes of the Britons. Arthur was bttrieu at Glastonbury, aged ninety years, seventy- six of which were spent in con- tinual exercise of arms. See Britain, Ancient. ARTICHOKES, first brought into England, 487. ARTICLES, Six, called also the six bloody articles, enforced by an act passed in the 31st year of Henry Vlll, 1536. They were as follow : — 1. The belief of transubstantiiition. 2. A declaration that the communion in both kinds was not necessary 3. That it was not lawful for priests to marry. 4. That vows of chastity were not to be broken. 5. That private masses were profitable. And 6. That auricular confession was necessary. If any person held opinions contrary to any of these articles, they were to be ad- judged heretics, and burnt, and forfeit all their lands and goods, as in high treason. ARTICLES OF Religion, 42 pub- lished without consent of paiTiament, 1552; the 42 reduced to 39, January, 1563; received the authority of parlia- ment, 1571. 104 drawn up by arch- bishop Usher, for Ireland, 1615; esta- bhshed, 1634. ARTICLES, Lords of the, a state assembly in Scotland before the Union, 1707. They were thus chosen : — the bi- shops chose eight peers, the peers eight bishops, and these sixteen chose eight knights of the shire, and eight burgesses; to these were added eight great oflScers of state ; in all forty. They prepared all matters for the parliament. ARTILLERY. See Cannon. ARTILLERY Company, London, revived 1610. ARTISTS, Society of. Great Bri- tain, incorporated, 26th January, 1765, ARTOIS, Count D', brother to Louis XV I. of France, landed at Leith, Scotland, January 6, 1796; visited London March 27, 1799 ; set out for Paris to take possession of the crown of France, April 23, 1814. See Louis XVIII. ARTS AND Sciences House, in the Adelphi, London, erected 1772. ARTS and Sciences, Society of, at New York, 1765. Royal, at London, established 1768. ARUNDEL Castle, Sussex, built by the Saxons about 800. ARUNDEL Street, Panton Square, destructive fire in, with loss of life, in 1833. ARUNDEL, Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury; born 1353, died 14l3. ARUNDELIAN Marbles, or Pa- rian Chronicle, ancient stones where on is inscribed a chronicle of the city of Athens engraved in capital letters, in the island of Paros, A.c. 264. The characters are Greek. They take their first name from Thomas, Earl of Arundel, who procured them out of the east, or from Henry, his grandson, who presented them to the university of Oxford. Ihe Arundelian Marbles in their perfect state, contained a chronological detail of the principal events of Greece during a period of 1318 years, beginning with Cecrops, a.c. 1582, and ending with the archonship of Di- ognetus, A. c. 264. But the chronicle of the last 90 years is lost ; so that the part now remaining ends at the archon- ship of Diotimus, a, c. 354 They were brought to England about 1619, and placed in the gardens belong- ing to Arundel House in London. In the turbulent reign of Charles I., and the subsequent usurpation, the chronological marble was unfortunately broken and defaced. The upper part, containing 31 epochs, is said to have been worked up in repairing a chimney in Arundel House. In 1667, the Hon. Henry How- ard, afterwards Duke of Norfolk, the grandson of the first collector, pro- eented these remains of antiquity to the university of Oxford, and they have ever since been deposited in the public schools of that city. Several learned works have been published on this chronicle. In 1620, Selden pubhshed a small volume in quarto, including about 39 inscrip- tions copied from the marbles. Selden's work becoming very scarce. Bishop Fell engaged Mr. Prideaux to publish a new edition of the inscriptions, which was printed at Oxford in 1676. In 1732, Mr. Maittaire published a more compre- hensive view of the marbles than either of his predecessors. Lastly, Dr Chand- ler published a new and improved copy of the marbles in 1 763, in which he cor- rected the mistakes of the former edi- tors. In 1788, their authenticity was questioned by Mr. Robertson, in a dis- sertation entitled " The Parian Chroni- cle." In 1789, a vindication of it was undertaken by the Rev. J. Hewlett, B.D., editor of a classical and elaborate edition of the Bible. On the appearance of this ASI 42 AS I vindication, the controversy almost instantly ceased, and the Parian Chroni- cle was re-established on the basis, on which it had always rested from the time of its first discovery. ASAPH, St., a native of North Wales, flourished 590. ASAPH, St., church built at the town of, 560; rebuilt, 1402. ASBESTOS, or Cotton Stone, Pliny says, was spun imi\ersally in Cy- prus, 1 50 years before his time. It has been found in Scotland ; garments were made of it in 1760. ASCANIUS, the son of .Eneas, founder of Alba Longa, died a.c. 1139. ASCENSION Island, in the Atlantic Ocean, formerly uninhabited, discovered 1503: made a permanent station to ac- commodate British vessels, 1830. ASCENSION DAY, first comme- morated, 68. ASCLEPIODORUS, a British prince, opposed to the Romans, crowned 235, slain 260- ASCUE, Ann, burnt for heresy, (denying the real presence) in 1546. She was first racked at the Tower, in the pre- sence of the Lord Chancellor, who, throwing olF his gown, drew the rack himself so severely, that he almost drew her body asunder. ASDRUBAL, a Carthaginian general, flourished a. c. 203. ASH, Dr. John, author of an English dictionary and grammar, born 1724, died 1779. ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, Leicester- shire, Castle of, built, 1399. ASHMOLE, an English antiquarian, founder of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, born I6l7, died 1692. ASIA. In this quarter of the globe, we trace the origin of the human race. The kingdom of Babylon was founded by Nimrod, called also Belus, the son of Cush, and grandson of Ham, A. c. 2245, rather more than a century after the flood, and two years after the confusion of Babel. About the same time, Assur, the son of Shem, led his companions from the plains of Shinar into the country afterwards called Assyria, where he built a city, known in the sequel by the name of Nineveh. See Assyria and Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar governed Babylon about A. c. 608. He subdued the Is- raelites and other neighbourina: states, carrying away all their valuables, and transplanting the inhabitants into his own dominions. The empire was con- quered about A. c. 538, by Cyrus, king of Persia, who had alreaay subjugated Media, the eastern parts of Asia, and the kingdom of Lydia. Alexander the Great, A.c. 311, defeated Darius, the Persian king, conquered all the provinces of Asia Minor, and took Tyre. His conquests were spread over Media, Persia, Syria, India, and a part of Scythia. The other countries of Asia arose to eminence at diflferent periods. See the principal facts of their history undertherespective heads. There are still large tracts of country in Asia very little known. Indeed the interior was for ages almost as un- known as the African deserts. It was not till affer the British became undis- puted masters of India that satisfactory information could be obtained respecting this portion of the world. Since that period, the mountainous territories of Cabool and Candahar, the vast sandy plains of Mekran, have been illustrated by the missions of Elphinstone and Pot- tinger; while Turner and Moorcroft penetrated into the high interior table- land of Thibet. There still remained, however, a great terra incognita, respect- ing which our information rested chiefly upon the obscure reports of Marco Polo, and the meagre narrative of Goez. In 1829, Lieutenants Conolly and Burns traversed the regions of Central Asia, by diflferent routes. Lieutenant Conolly passed through Russia, and along the western shores of the Caspian and Tabreez, effecting a journey across Toor- kistan and Affghanistan, and proceeded from Tabreez to Astrabad, where he arrived in April 1830. He travelled through Khiva, Bokhara, and Cabool. Crossing the pass of Akrobat, they left the dominions of modern Cabool, and entered Toorkistan, called Tartary by Europeans, and visited several cities but little known to Europeans. Lieutenant Burns visited Tehran the modern capital of Persia. He tra- versed the scenes of Alexander's wars, of the rude and savage inroads of Jeugis an(i Timour, as well as of the campaigns and revelries of Baber ; marched on the very line of route by which Alexander pursued Darius, whilst the voyage back to India took him to the coast of Mekran and the track of his admiral Nearchus. At the same time northern Asia was explored by Professor Enuan. "It would ASS 4'S AST r»e the most important result," says M. Erman, " of my travels, if the prejudices M'hich make Siberia a barbarous and fearful place of exile, were to give way to the impression of an opposite character, which I experienced in these arctic regions. I travelled from Irkutsk to Ochotsk attended only by a single Cos- sack, through themidst of the Yakuts and Tonguses, and through Kamtschatka. I mixed continually with the natives. My astronomical and other instruments at- tracted much curiosity, and were thought tobe of inestimable value, yet through the whole course of my journey, I never once experienced an insult, or an act of dishonesty." ASIATIC Society, at Calcutta, found- ed by Sir W. Jones, January, 15, 1784. ASIATIC Society, Royal, founded in 1820. ASKEW, Ann. See Ascue. ASPARAGUS, first produced in Eng- land in 1608. ASPERN, Battle of, between Na- poleon and the Archduke Charles, May 21, 1809. ASSASSINATION Plot, against William III., discovered by Pendergrass, February 14, IG96. ASSASSINS,, or Assassinii, were originally a body of men who possessed ten or twelve cities about Tyre, and who chose themselves a king, in 1090; their profession was murder ; the Tartars overcame them, killed their king in 1257, and the faction became extinct in 1473. ASSAY-MASTER, established at Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773. ASSAYING of gold and silver legally established, 1354. ASSES, Feast of, in France, held in honour of Balaam's ass, when the clergy at Christmaswalked in procession, so as to represent the prophets. Sup- pressed early before 1445. ASSESSED TAXES advancedin 1797; reduced, 1798 ; new ones added, 1801 ; reduced 1823; and farther, 4 & 5 Will. IV.. 1834, authorizes a composition; to continue for 5 years. ASSIENTO Contract, for supply- mg America with Slaves from Jamaica, began 1689; vested in the South Sea Company, 1713; resigned to Spain by the peace of 1748. ASSIGN ATS, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April 17, 1790. ASSIZE of Bread, estabhshed iu England, 1266. See Bread. ASSUMPTION OF the Virgin, Festival of, instituted, 813. ASSOCIATION, British. See Bri- tish A.SSOCIAT10N. ASSURANCE, Life. See Life As- surance ASSURANCE Companies, Royal AND London. See Companies. A SSYRI A, kingdom of, began under Ninus, or Assur, the second son of Shem, about A.c. 2245 ; lasted about 1264 years. Sardanapalus was the last of the ancient Assyrian kings. Arba- ces, governor of Media, withdrew his allegiance and rose up in rebellion against him, defeated the Assyrian army, and besieged Sardanapalus in his capital, Nineveh. Here, being driven to the last extremity, he retired to his palace, where he collected all his treasures, and setting fire to the splendid pile, was con- sumed in its ruins, A.c. 801. After the death of Sardanapalus, the Assyrian em- pire was divided into three kingdoms, namely, the Median, Assyrian, and Ba- bylonian. Arbaces retained the supreme power, and fixed his residence at Ecba- tana in Media. After the death of As- sarbaddon, the brother and successor of Sennacherib, the kingdom of Assyria, was split, and annexed to the kingdoms of Media and Babylon. Several tribu- tary princes afterwards reigned in Nin- eveh ; but no particular account of them is found in the annals of ancient nations. Cyaxares, king of Media, assisted Ne- buchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in the siege of Nineveh, which they took and destroyed, a.c. 606. The Chaldean or Babylonish kingdom was transferred to the Medes, after the siege of Nabonadius, son of Evilmero- dach, and grandson of Nebuchadnezzar ; styled Belshazzar in the sacred records, and conquered by Cyrus, a.c. 538. As- syria has since successively belonged to the Romans, Parthians, Persians, Sara- cens, Turks ; and at present is an almost useless part of the Persian empire. See Babylon. ASTAPIANS, a people of ancient Spain, who had acquired great wealth by robbery and plunder, being attacked by the Roman army, and conscious that, if defeated, they should have no quarter, determined to conquer or die. They carried their wealth into the market-place where they placed their wives and chil- dren, and such old men as could not bear arms surrounded them with a large AST 44 A ST pile of faggots, and when they were beaten by theRomans.set fire to the wood, and cut in pieces those which escaped, 60 that every one perished, a.c. 209 ASTLEY, Philip, founder of amphi- theatres in London, Paris, and Dublin ; born 1742, died 1814. ASTLEY'S Amphitheatre and 19 houses destroyed by fire, August 17, 1794; and again, Sept. 2, 1803, when many houses were burned. ASTORGA, in Spain, taken by the French, April 12, 1810; evacuated June 12, 1811; capitulated to the Spaniards August 18, 1812. ASTRACAN,Tartar town, belonging to Russia, taken by the Russians 1554, besieged by the Turks, 1559; incorpo- rated with the government of Caucassus, 1785, and made a separate government, 1801. ASTROLOGY, supposed to have ori- ginated either in Chaldsea or Egypt ; the Greeks and Romans received it from the latter country, and the Europeans were instructed in the art principally by the Arabians. During the middle ages, there was scarcely a monarch or prince in Europe who had not astrologers at his court. King Edward VL had his na- tivity cast, and Queen Elizabeth con- sulted Dr. John Dee, on the subject of determining an auspicious day for her coronation. At the close of the seventeenth century, most physicians regulated the time and manner of their prescriptions by the prog- nostics of the stars ; since then it has gone out of repute, except with the ig- norant, who rely with implicit faith on the astrological predictions of Moore's ASTRONOMER Royal. Flamstead was the first, and resided at Greenwich ; obser\'-atory built, 1676, by order of Charles IL Flamstead died, 1719. and was succeeded by Dr. Halley, who, dying in 1742, Dr. Bradley succeeded, and after him, the Rev. Mr. Maskelyne, in 1762. ASTRONOMICAL Observations first made at Babylon, about a.c. 2250; tables made 1253. ASTRONOMICAL Society insti- tuted 1825, ASTRONOMY and Geography brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary, 1201. ASTRONOMY was probably the first science studied but when, or by whom, is not known. It is generally ascribed to the Grecian colonies that inhabited Africa ; learned by them from the Egyp- tians. Anaxagoras was the first that taught it, in the year that Xerxes entered Greece. About a.c. 2250, observations at Babylon were transmitted to Aristotle by Callisthenes (according to Porphyry). a.c. 1100, La Place speaks confidently of Chinese observations, a.c. 719,720, eclipses of the moon were observed at Babylon, with accuracy. About a.c. 640, the globular form of the earth, the five zones, some principal circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar eclipses taught, and an eclipse predicted by Thales of Miletus. The earliest philosophic astronomer on record was Anaximander, born about A.c. 610. He is said to have been the inventor of maps and charts. He also maintained that the planets are uncon- nected with the earth ; that they are the habitations of animated beings ; that the fixed stars are the centres of other sys- tems ; and that the earth moves round the centre of the system of the world. About A.c. 556 was bornAnaximenes,who maintained that the earth is a plane, and that the heavens are a firmament (, to throw, those islanders having there been celebrated for their dexterity in using the sling. The Balearic slingers were conspicuous in the time of Hannibal, and in his battles with the Romans did memorable execution. They were after- wards eiu"olled by Caesar under the Ro- man eagle, and their assistance proved equally effective in the Gallic wars. After the Romans' occupation of these islands terminated, the Vandals took possession of them, under Genseric, about the year 426 ; and, in the year 798, they fell into the power of the Moors, from whom they were wrested by James I. king of Arrogan, in 1259. At that period they formed the kingdom of Majorca or Mallorca, which was unit- ed to the kingdom of Arragon, and afterwards in 1375, attached to the crown of Spain. The English con- quered Minorca in 1708, but lost it again in 1782, and finally relinquished their claims to it, by a treaty with Spain, in 1783. BALEN, Henderic Van, an emi- nent Dutch portrait painter, born 1560, died 1632. BALES, Peter, an eminent \mting- master, who wrote the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Decalogue, and two short prayers in Latin, his ovni name, motto the day of the month, year of our Lord, and reign of the queen, plainly legible, within the circle of a single penny, which he presented to queen Elizabeth at Hampton-court, died 1575. BALIOL, John, the successful com- petitor of Robert Bruce for the crown of Scotland, was the great-grandson of Da- vid, Earl of Huntingdon, third son of King David.I., began his reign a.d. 1292. BALIOL, Sir John De, founder oi Baliol College, Oxford, was a person very eminent for his power and richee, BAL during the reign of King Henry III. He died in the year 1269. BALIOL College, Oxford, found- ed A.D. 1268. BALISTA, and Catapulta, of the Romans, engines for hurling stones and darts, first invented by Uzziah, king of Judah, and fixed on the walls of Jeru- salem, A.c. 1003. BALKAN, passed by the Russians under General Diebitsch, June 19, 1830. BALL of fire fell, during a thunder storm, upon a public-house in Wapping, which instantaneously set fire to it and tie house adjoining, July 4, 1803. BALLARD, Edward, was the last of the fraternity of booksellers that lived in Little Britain. His shop was the sign of the globe, over against the pump ; he died Jan. 2, 1796, aged 88, in the same house in which he was born. BALLOON. See ^Eegstatic As- cent. BALLOON Air, hint given by Ga- lien, A. D. 1755. Hint by Dr. Black as to hydrogen, 1767. Constructed by Montgolfier, 1782. Filled with hydro- gen by Roberts and Charles, who made the first voyage, 1783. Parachute in- vented by Le Normand, 1783. BALLOW, in Russia, had 458 houses destroyed by fire, in 1803. BALLYHEAUGH. A sanguinary faction-fight took place, June 24, 1834, at the races of, 13 miles from Tralee, in Ireland, between the clans of the Coo- leens and Lawlors. At least 1000 per- sons were engaged, of whom eight or ten were killed in the battle, and thirty- five were drowned in the river, on the banks of which the affray took place. BALMERINO, Lord, one of the re- bel Highland chiefs, who was taken pri- soner at the battle of Culloden, April 16, 1746 ; tried at Westminster Hall, with the earl of Kilmarnock, July 28, and found guilty. The execution took place Aug. 18. Being permitted to have an interview, they took an affecting leave : Lord Kilmarnock said, " My dear lord, I am only sorry I cannot pay this reck- oning alone : once more farewell for ever." The earl of Kilmarnock, who was first executed, then kneeling down, joined in prayer. The multitude showed the deepest signs of commiseration and pity; and his lordship at the same time, struck with such a variety of dreadful objects at once, — namely, the multitude, the block. 56 BAL his coffin, the executioner, and the in- strument of death, turned about to Mr. Hume, and said, " Hume, this is ter- rible," without changing his voice or countenance. After putting up a short prayer, concluding with a petition for his majesty King George, and the royal fa- milj"^, he then embraced and took the last leave of his friends. The executioner, who had previously had something ad- ministered to keep him from fainting, was so affected with his lordship's dis- tress and the awfulness of the scene, that on asking his forgiveness, he burst into tears. When all things were ready for the execution, and the black baize which hung over the rails being turned up, that the people might behold the execution, in about two minutes after his lordship kneeled down ; when dropping his hand- kerchief, the executioner, at one stroke, severed his head from his body. Lord Balmerino, observing the axe in the hand of the executioner, he took it from him, and feehng the edge, returned it, saying, " Have courage," accompanied by a clap on the shoulder; then folding down the collar of his shirt and waist- coat, he pointed out the place where he was to strike, desiring him to do it reso- lutely; "for in that," added his lord- ship, " will consist your kindness." Im- mediately, without trembling or changing countenance, he again knelt down at the block; and having, with his arms stretched out, said, " O Lord, reward my friends, forgive my enemies, and re- ceive my soul :" he gave the signal by letting them fall; but his uncommon firmness and intrepidity, and the unex- pected suddenness of the signal, so sur- prised the executioner, that though he struck the part directed, the blow was not given with force enough to wound him very deep : a second blow imme- diately succeeding the first, rendered him quite insensible, and a third finished the work. During the whole of this tra- gedy, Tower-hill and the scaffoldings were crowded with spectators, who be- held it with the greatest decorum ; a con- duct that evinced how much the people entered into the rectitude of the execu- tion, though feeling too humane to re- joice at the catastrophe. BALSHAM, Hugh, founder of Peter House, Cambridge, died 1286. BALTIMORE. General Ross killed, in an unsuccessful attack on, by the Bri- tish, Sept. 2, 1814. BAN 57 BALTIMORE House, Southampton- row, built 1759. BAMBERG Bishopric, instituted 1002, others say 1007. Taken by the French, Aug. 4, 1796. It suffered from an inundation in 1784. BAMBOROUGH Castle, built by Ina, 559; this town was the capital of the kingdom of Northumberland. BANBURY, Oxfordshire, battle be- tween Yorkists and Lancasterians here,, 1469. First sent members to parliament 1553. Church fell Dec, 16, 1790. BANBURY, earldom, became extinct 1632; but the earl's widow married Lord Vaux, who assumed the title, and the family has continued it since. BANCROFT'S Almshouses, Mile- end, Middlesex, built 1735. BANCROFT, Archbishop, born 1544, died 1654 BAND, order of knighthood, insti- tuted in Spain, 1232. BANDA Isles, seizea by the Dutch, 1621, — taken by the English, Aug. 1801. BANDA ORIENTAL, or Uru- guay, new republic. South America, lying between the east bank of the Uru- guay river and the ocean ; and between the La Plata river on the south, and the Sierra de Topas on the north, which se- parates it from Brazil. The Banda Ori- ental has attained notoriety from the long and sanguinary struggle which its possession occasioned, between the em- pire of Brazil and the United Provinces of La Plata. It was at first settled by Spain ; next became the subject of con- tention between the Spanish and Portu- guese ; after violent and long continued struggles, Portugal consented to the line of Sierra de Topas, in 1 777, but afterwards seized the territory of the missions, which was exchanged for the Portuguese for- tress of Olivenza, in 1804 In the revolutionary war, the Ori- entalists attached themselves to the re- pubhc of Buenos Ayres, and declared their complete independence, imme- diately after the battle of Gaubiju, in 1815. The Imperiahsts of Brazil made an irruption into the Banda Oriental, and until 1822, retained possession of it. Brazil then also declared itself indepen- dent of Portugal, and the Orientalists revolted from their obedience, and at- tached themselves once more to the republic of Buenos Ayres. In 1826, the standard of independence was again raised by Fructuoso Rivera, and then a violent war began, in which blood and BAN treasure were profusely lavished. When both parties had nearly exhausted their resources, Great Britain interfered, and obtained a cessation of actual war. On August 28, 1828, a treaty of peace was signed at Rio, by which the Banda Oriental was declared an independent state. In July 1836, an insurrection broke out. General Rivera v/as then ex- presi- dent of the State; General Oribe was president in possession ; therefore Gene- ral Rivera and his partizans opposed the government, assumed arms, and took the field. Oribe, brother of the presi- dent, and Lavalleja, from Buenos Ayres, with superior numbers, gave him battle in September: he was totally routed; almost the whole of his force being killed or taken. The war continued through 1837; Rivera again assumed a formida- ble attitude, and found himself at the head of a considerable force of mal- contents in the autumn of the year; but nothing occurred. On June 15, 1838, the revolutionary general, Fructuoso Ri- vera, engaged and defeated Oribe, the president, and menaced Monte Video the capital. Oribe found it necessary to abdicate after this reverse, and was re- placed by General Lavalleja. Endea- vours were made to negociate with the victorious chief, and a commission ap- pointed to proceed to his quarters; but apparently with no success. The town was soon afterwards closely invested by Rivera's forces, and reduced to great distress ; but he was repulsed at last. On March 10, 1839, this republic declar- ed war against Buenos Ayres. BANDS, for lawyers, first used by Judge Finch, 1615; for clergymen, about 1652. BANGALORE, in the East Indies, became subject to the Rajah of Mysore, 1687. Taken by Earl Cornwallis, 1791. BANGOR, in Flintshire, North Wales, monks of, slain by the Danes, 580. BANGOR Cathedral, built 616. BANGOR, North America, taken by the British, May 3, 1814. BANK MILL, Manchester, used as a cotton factory, destroyed by fire, Oct. 31,1813; damage estimated at £30,000. BANK. This term is applied to all establishments intended to serve for the safe custody of money; to facilitate its payment by one individual to another ; and, sometimes, for the accorrjmodation of the public with loans. The first insti- tution of banks was in Italy, where the I BAN 58 Lombard Jews kept benches in the market places, for the exchange of mo- ney and bills ; and banco being the Ita- lian name for bench, banks took their title from this word The bank of Ve- nice was established about 1 1 7 1 , the bank of Genoa in 1345, the bank of Hamburg in l6l9, the bank of Rotterdam in 1635, the bank of Amsterdam in 1659, the bank of England in 1694, the bank of Scotland in 1695, the bank of Ireland in 1783, the bank of France in 1803, the bank of the Netherlands in 1814, the bank of the United States in 1816. See Bank of England, Bankers, &c. BANK OF England, was ongmally projected by a merchant of the name of Patterson, and established in 1694. The following year it was incorporated by King William and the Parliament, in consideration of £1,200,000, lent to go- vernment, which was then its capital. This capital, however, has gone on gra- dually increasing to the present period, by sums lent to government. The charter of the Bank of England was executed July 27, 1694, and was granted for twelve years, the corporation being then determinable on a year's no- tice. The original capital of £1,200,000 was lent to government at 8 per cent, interest, with an allowance of £4000 per annum for their expenses of manage- ment. The term of the charter was, in 1706, extended to five years beyond the original period, in consideration of the company ha^dng undertaken to circulate for government exchequer bills, to the amount of £1,500,000, and it has since been further extended at different times. In 1709 to 1st of August 1732 1713 1742 1742 1764 1763 1786 1781 . . , . . 1812 1800 . ... 1833 1833 1854 TTie total permanent debt due from government to the bank is, £14,686,100, bearing 3 per cent, interest ; but the ca- pital stock of the company is,£lO,914,750, on which they usually pay a dividend of 10 per cent, per annum to the proprie- tors. According to the accounts pre- sented to the House of Commons, in the year 1824, the average amount of ba- lances of public money in the hands of of the bank during the last year was, £5,526,645. The profit of the bank (at 3 per cent., the rate which the govern- BAN ment pays them for their capital of fif- teen millions), is therefore upwards of £165,792, in its capacity of banker to the public departments. From the report of the secret com- mittee appointed in 1797, to investigate the affairs of the bank, it appeared that on the 25th of February, in that year, there was a balance of £3,826,903 ; and" on the 11th of November, a balance of £3,839,500 in favour of the company; their profits since must have been greater than while they were obUged to main- tain a large stock of cash to answer their notes; which has enabled them to make several occasional dividends to their pro- prietors, and at Lady Day, 1807, to raise their usual dividend from 7 per cent., which it had been for the last nineteen years, to 10 per cent. The building in which the affairs of the bank are transacted, is situated in the city of London, near Threadneedle-street; it was built 1732, enlarged 1771, consi- derably improved and insulated in 1796, and the exterior partly rebuilt in 1824, The style of their firm is, " The Gover- nor and Company of the Bank of Eng- land." They discontinued paying in cash, Feb. 25, 1797; issued 20s. notes, March 9, 1797; issued 5s. tokens, 1798; raised the value of these tokens to 5s. Qd., 1811 ; discontinuance of their payments in cash restricted by Pariiament, 1816, not to extend beyond April 5, 1818; cash payments resumed, 1821 ; notes a legal tender, &c. 1833. BANK OF England's Accounts. Amount of coin and bullion possessed by the Bank in each year, from 1815 to 1832:— Year ending 28th Feb. £ 1815 2,179,147 1816 .... 3,399,114 1817 7,504,284 1818 11,109,381 1819 ..... 6,721,647 1820 3,969,528 1821 8,174,419 1822 11,631,090 1823 10,254,698 1824 12,606,963 1825 11,858,595 1826 4,521,702 1827 6,607,976 1828 10,201,253 1829 9,640,000 1830 7,285,000 1831 10,322,000 1832 6,389,000 BAN Tlie Bank of England has always acted as banker to the Government, The fol- lowing are the balances of public money in its hands, from 1807 to 1831 1807 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 £12,647,551 11,761,448 11,093,648 1 1,950,047 10,191,854 10,390,130 10,393,404 12,158,227 11,737,436 10,807,660 8,222,187 7,066,187 4,538,373 3,713,442 3,920,157 4,107,853 5,526,635 7,222,187 5,347,314 4,214,271 4,223,867 3,831,697 3,862,656 4,761,952 3,948,102 59 BAN Private deposits in the hands of the Bank during each year, from 1807 to 1831 :— 1807 ..... £1,582,720 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1,940,630 1,492,190 1,428,720 1,567,920 1,573,950 1,771,310 2,374,910 1815 1,690,490 1816 . . . . . 1,333,120 1817 . . . 1, '672,800 1818 . . . . . 1,640,210 1819 1,790,860 1820 1,325,060 1821 1,326,020 1822 ..... 1,373,370 1823 2,321,920 1824 2,369,910 1825 2,609,900 1826 3,322,070 1827 3,931,370 1828 . ... 5,701,280 1829 . . . . . 5,217,210 1830 5,562,250 1831 5,202,370 Liabilities and Assets of the Bank of England : from 1833, to 1839. Quarter or Month endin Liabilities. Assets. 1 Circulation. Deposits. Bullion. Securities. £ £ £ £ 1833. Dec. 28, . . . . 17,469,000 15,160,000 10,200,000 24,576,000 1834. March 29, . . . 18,544,000 13,750,000 8,753,000 25,787,000 June 28, . . . . 18,684,000 15,372,000 8,885,000 27,471,000 Sept. 27, . . . . 18.437,000 12,790.000 6,917,000 26,915,000 Dec. 28, . . . . 17,070,000 13,019,000 6,978,000 25,551,000 1835. March 28, . . . 18,154,000 9,972,000 6,295,000 24,533,000 June 27, . . . . 17,637,000 11,753,000 6,613,000 25,221,000 • Sept. 26, . . . 17,320,000 13,866,000 6,284,000 27,724,000 Dec. 26, . . . . 16,564.000 20.370,000 7,718,000 31,764,000 1836. March 26, . . . 17,669,000 12,875,000 8,014,000 25,521,000 June 25, . . . 17,184,000 15,730,000 6,868,000 28,847,000 Oct. 18, ... . 17,936,000 13,324,000 5,257,000 28,815,000 Nov. 15, . . . . 17,543,000 12,684,000 4,933,000 28,134,000 Dec. 13, . . . 17,361,000 13,330,000 4,545,000 28,971,000 1837. Jan. 10, ... . 17,422,000 14,354,000 4,287,000 30,365,000 Feb. 7, . . . . . 17,868,000 14,230,000 4,032,000 31,085,000 • March 7, . . • . 18,178,000 13,260,000 4,048,000 30,579,000 April 4, . . . . 18,432,000 11,192,000 4,071,000 28,843,000 May 2, . . . . . 18,480.000 10,472,000 4,190,000 28,017.000 May 30, ... . 18,419,000 1 0,422,000 4,423,000 27,572,000 June 27, . . • . 18,202,000 10,424,000 4,750,000 26,932,000 July 25, . . . 18,261,000 10,672,000 5,226,000 26,727.000 Aug. 22, . . . . 18,462,000 1 1,005,000 5,754,000 26,717,000 Sept. 19, . . . . 18,814.000 11,093,000 6,303,000 26,605,000 Oct. 17, . . . 18,716,000 10,501,000 6,856,000 25,316,000 BAN 60 ("Table Continued.') BAN Quarter or Month ending. Liabilities. Assets. Circulation. Deposits . Securities. Bullion. £ £ £ £ 1837. Nov. 14 . . . 18,344,000 10,242,000 23,985,000 7,432,000 Dec. 12 ... . 17,998,000 10,195,000 22,727,000 8,172,000 1838. Jan. 9 17,900,000 10,992,000 22,606,000 8,895,000 Feb. 6 18,206,000 11,266,000 22,569,000 9,543,000 March 6 ... 18,600,000 11,535,000 22,792,000 10,015,000 April 3 . . . . 18,987,000 11,262,000 22,838,000 10,126,000 May 1 .... 19,084,000 11,006,000 22,768,000 10,002,000 May 29 ... . 19,018,000 10,786,000 22,648,000 9,806.000 June 26 ... . 19,047,000 10,426,000 22,354,000 9,722,000 July 24 .... 19,286,000 10,424,000 22,601,000 9,749,000 Aug. 21 ... . 19,481,000 10,298,000 22,747,000 9,746,000 Sept. 18 ... , 18,665,000 10,040,000 22.846,000 9,615,000 Oct. 16 ... . 19,359,000 9,327,000 22,015,000 9,437,000 Nov. 16 ... . 18,900,000 8,949,000 21,171,000 9,339,000 Dec. J 1 .... 18,469,000 9,033,000 20,707,000 9,362,000 1839. Jan. 8 18,201,000 10,315,000 21,680,000 9,336,000 Feb. 5 ... 18,252,000 10,269,000 22,157,000 8,919,000 March 5 . . , 18,298,000 9,950,000 22,767,000 8,106,000 April 2 . . . . 18,371,000 8,998,000 22,987,000 7,073,000 April 30 ... 18,350,000 8,107,000 23,112,000 6,023,000 May 28 ... . 18,214,000 7,814,000 23,543,000 5,119,000 June 25 ... . 18,101,000 7,567,000 23,934,000 4,344,000 July 23 ... . 18,049,000 7,955,000 24,905,000 3,785,000 Aug. 20 ... . 17,969,000 8,029,000 25,588,000 3,265,000 Sept. 17 ... . 17,960,000 7,781,000 25,936,000 2,816,000 BANK OF Scotland. This institu- tion was projected by Mr. John Hol- land, merchant of London, and was es- tablished by act of the Scotch Parliament, (Will.III. Pari. I. Sec. 5), in l695,bythe name of "Governor and Company of the Bank of Scotland." Its original capital was £1,200,000 Scotch, or £100,000 ster- ling, distributed in shares of £1,000 Scotch, or £83 6s. 8d. sterling each. The capital of the Bank was increased to £200,000 in 1744, and was enlarged by subsequent acts of parliament, the last of which (44 Geo. III., c. 23), was passed in 1804, to £1,500,000, its pre- sent amount. Of this sum £1,000,000 has been paid up. On the union of the two kingdoms, in 1707, the Bank of Scotland undertook the re- coinage, and effected the exchange of the currency in Scotland ; it was also the organ of go- vernment in the issue of the new silver coinage, in 1817- The Bank of Scotland is the only Scotch bank constituted by act of Par- liament : it began to estal)lish branches in 1696, and issued notes for £1 so early as 1704. The bank also began, at a very early period, to receive deposits on inte- rest, and to grant credit on cash ac- counts ; a minute of the directors, with respect to the mode of keeping the latter, being dated so far back as 1729. According to an official abstract of the constitution and objects of the Bank of Scotland, printed for the use of the pro- prietors in 1818, it appears that the sta- tutory capital is at present £1,500,000 sterling : it is raised by voluntary sub- scription, and has been subscribed for. £1,000,000 has been called for and paid in. Bank of Scotland stock may be ac- quired, in any portions, by any person, community, or other lawful party what- ever, wthout selection, exclusion, or li- mitation of numbers. The management is vested by statute in a governor, deputy- governor, twelve ordinary, and twelve extraordinary, directors. 'I'hey are cho- sen annually on the last Tuesday of March, by the stockholders, having £250 of stock, or upwards. Those above £250 have a vote for every £250, to £5,000, for twenty votes. No person can have more than twenty votes. The governor must BAN 61 BAN hold at least £2,000 of stock, the deputy- governor £1,500, and each director £750. They swear to be equally favourable to all persons, and cannot hold any inferior office in the bank. BANK OF Ireland was established in 1783, with similar privileges to those of the Bank of England, in respect to the restriction of more than six partners in any other bank : and the injury that Ireland has sustained from the repeated failure of banks, may be mainly attribut- ed to this defective regulation. In 1797, when the Bank of England suspended its payments, the same privi- lege was extended to Ireland ; and after this period the issues of the Bank of Ire- land were rapidly increased. In 1797, the amount of the notes of the Bank of Ireland in circulation, was £621,917; in ISIO, £2,266,471 ; and in 1814, £2,986,999- These increased issues led to corresponding increased issues, by the private banks, of which the number was fifty in the year 1804. In 1821, in consequence of eleven banks having failed nearly at the same time, in the preceding year, in the south of Ireland, government succeeded in making an arrangement with the Bank of Ireland, by which joint stock compa- nies were allowed to be estabhshed at a distance of fifty miles (Irish) from Dub- lin ; and the bank was permitted to in- increase its capital £500,000. The Act of 1 and 2 Geo. IV''., c. 72, was founded on this agreement. The capital of the Bank of Ireland at its establishment, in 1783, amounted to £600,000 , but it has been increased at various periods, and has, since 1821, amounted to £3,000,000. At present no bank ha^ang more than six partners, can be estabhshed any where within fifty Irish miles of Dublin ; nor is any such bank allowed to draw bills upon Dublin for less than £50, or at a shorter date than six months. BANK OF Venice seems to have been the first banking establishment in Europe. It was founded so early as 1171, and subsisted till the subversion of the repubhc in 1797- It was essentially a deposit bank ; and its bills bore at all times a premium, or agio over the cur- rency of the city. BANK OF Amsterdam was esta- blished in 1659. It was a deposit Bank, and payments were made by writing off sums from the account of one individual to those of another. According to the principles on which the bank was esta- bhshed, it should have at all times in its coflTers, bullion equal to the full amount of the claims upon it. But the directors privately lent about 10,500,000 florins to the states of Holland and Friesland. This circumstance transpired when the French invaded HoUand, and caused the rum of the bank. BANK OF THE Netherlands was established in 1814. It is formed on the model of the Bank of England, and was to enjoy, for twenty- five years, the exclu- sive privilege of issuing notes. The ori- ginal capital of 5,000,000 florins, wag doubled in 1819. The affairs of the bank are managed by a president, secre- tary, and five directors, who are chosen every six months, but may be indefinitely re-elected. BANK OF Hamburg, established in 1609 ; its affairs are managed ac- cording to a system that insures the fullest publicity. It receives no deposits in coin, but only a bullion of a certain degree of fineness. The Bank of Ham- burg is universally admitted to be one cf the best managed in Europe. BANK OF France was founded in 1803. The exclusive privilege of issuing notes payable to bearer, was granted to it for forty years. The capital of the bank consisted at first of 45,000,000 francs, but it was subsequently increased to 90,000,000 francs, di\ided into 90,000 shares or actions of 1000 francs each. Of these shares, 67,000 are in the hands of the public : 22,000 being purchased by the bank from part of her capital. The notes issued by the bank are for 1000 and 500 francs. The discounts in 1827 amounted to 621,000,000 francs. The administration of the bank is vested in a council-general, of twenty members, viz. seventeen regents and three censors, who are nominated by 200 of the principal proprietors The king appoints the go- vernor and deputy-governor. BANK OF THE United States was incorporated in I8I6. The capital is 35,000,000 dollars, divided into 350,000 shares of 100 dollars each. Seven mil- lions were subscribed by the United States, and the remaining 28,000,000 by individuals, companies, corporations, &c. In 1832, 84,000 shares were held by foreigners. The bank issues no note for less than five dollars; all its notes are payable in specie on demand. It dis- BAN 62 BA N (Jounts bills, and makes advances on bul- lion at the rate of 6 per cent. The ma- nagement is under twenty-five directors, five of whom being holders of stock, are annually appointed by the President of the United States. The principal office of the bank is in Philadelphia; but in Jan. 1830, it had twenty-seven subordinate offices or branch-banks, established in different parts of the Union. Subjoined is a statement of some of the items in the affairs of the United States, on April 1, 1830, and Nov. 2, 1832 : — Notes Discounted, Domestic Bills Discounted, . . . Funded Debt held by the Bank, . Real Estate, Funds in Europe, equal to Specie, Specie, Public Deposits, Private Deposits, Circulation, 1830. 32,138,270.89 dol 10,506,882.54 11,122,530.90 2,891,890.75 2,789,498,54 9,043,748.97 8,905,501.87 7,704,256.87 16,084,894.00 1832, 45,726,934.95 dol 16,304,498.48 4,747,696.45 1,822,721.51 2,885,016.26 8,026,055.45 6,957,621.54 7,622,898.84 17,968,733.36 The total liabilities of the bank to the public on Nov. 1, 1832, including its notes in circulation, deposits, and debts to the holders of public funds, were 37,296,950.20 dollars; and its assets, including specie, cash in Europe, debts from individuals, banking companies, &c. were 79,593,870.97 doUars, leaving a surplus of 42,296,920.77 dollars. The charter of the Bank of America ex- pired in 1836. A bill for its renewal passed both houses of congress in 1832, but was rejected by the president; since then it has been re-chartered, in so far at least as respects Pennsylvania, by the le- gislature of that state ; and it seems to be expected that it will be re-chartered by the legislature of some of the other states. Although, therefore, the United States Bank no longer exists as a great national establishment, it maintains its place as the greatest banking company in the new world. 1839. In consequence of great com- mercial difficulties felt in England, as well as in America, Oct. 14, the American banks suspended their cash payments. The United States Bank set the example, followed by all the banks in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Virginia, and the interior of Pennsylvania. BANK Notes, origin of, occasioned by a run on the bank by the Jacobites, during the rebellion of 1745. The amount of Bank of England notes in circulation, and bank post-bills, at the following pe- riods, were, — 1778 £7,440,330 1790 10,040,540 1800 16,954,470 1810 21,019,600 1815 27,361,650 1820 23,484,010 1826 . ... 25,467,910 1832 18,657,710 In 1833, 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837, «nd 1838, the amounts were as follows:— 1st Quarter. 2nd 3rd ■ 4th 1833. £ 18,876,200 18,722,080 18,483,250 17,531,910 1834. £ 18,571,810 18,493,560 18,517,250 17,361.310 1835. 18,215,220 17,690,380 17,413,960 17,016,780 1836. 17,833,620 17,621,200 17,443,680 17.209,970 1837. £ 17,941,090 17,185,930 17,845,040 17,086,610 1838. £ 18,636,490 19,184,710 18,369.420 17,782,610 BAN 63 BAN The aggregate amount of Notes circulated in England and Wales, by private Banks, and by Joint Stock Banks and their branches ; distinguishing Private from Joint Stock Banks. (From Returns directed by 3 and 4 Will.. IV., c. 83.) Quarters Ending. Private Banks. Joint Stock Banks. Total, £ £ £ 1833. Dec. 28, . . 8,836,803 1,315,301 10,152,104 1834. March 29, . 8,733,400 1,458,427 10,191,527 June 28, . . 8,875,795 1,642,887 10,518,682- r Sept. 27, .. . 8,370,423 1,783,689 10,154,112 Dec. 28, . . 8,537,655 2,122,173 10,659,828 1835. March 28, . 8,231,206 2,188,954 10,420,160 - — - June 27, . • 8,455,114 2,484,687 10,939,801 r Sept. 26, .. . 7,912,587 2,508,036 10,420,623 Dec. 26, . . 8,332,863 2,799,551 11,134,414 1836. March 16, . 8,353,894 3,094,025 11,447,919 June 25, . . 8,614,132 3,588,064 12,202,196 Sept. 24, . . 7,764,824 3,969,121 11,733,945 Dec. 31, . . 7,753,500 4,238,197 12,011,697 1837. March 31, . 7,275,784 3,755,279 11,031,063 June 30, . . 7,187,673 3,684,764 10,872,000 Sept. 30, . . 6,701,996 3,440,053 10,142,049 Dec. 30, . 7,043,470 3,826,665 10,870,135 1838. March 31, . 7,005,472 3,921,039 10,926,039 June 30, . 7,383,247 4,362,256 11,745,503 Sept. 30, . 7,083,811 4,281,151 11,364,962 Dec. 31, . 7,599,942 4,625,546 12,225,488 1839. March 30, . 7,642,104 4,614,363 12,259,467 - — ^ June 30, . 7,610,708 4,665,110 12,275,818 The amount of country bankers' notes, at the following periods were : — 1813 ..,,'. £22,597,000 1827 1,239,755 1820 ... .■ 11,767,391 1830 2,403,700 1825 . . . . . 14,147,211 1833 1,751,685 Bank Notes issued by the Bank of England, and which have not been paid into the Baiik up to the end of November, 1831 ; distinguishing the amount and description of each class, were : — Total. £1,000 2,964,000 None issued until 1815. 500 494,500 300 327,300 200 338,800 100 1,237,400 50 1,101,650 40 166,040 30 241,770 25 • None issued since 1822, 20 944,360 15 None issued since 1822. • 10 2,433,190 5 2,288,459 None issued until 1793. • - 2 and 1 301,340 None issued until 1797, or since 1826. BANK Paper, edict issued by the em- at one-fifth of its nominal value, March perorof Austria, fixing its current value 20, 1811. BAN 34 BAN BANK Post Bills, first issued in 1754. BANK Restriction Bill, passed 1797 ; ceased after nine renewals, 1823. BANK Stock. See Funds. BANKERS. The first bankers in England were goldsmiths ; and the busi- ness of banking was committed to them under the following circumstances : — The Mint, in the Tower of London, was anciently the deposit for merchants' cash, till Charles I., in the year 1640, laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the Mint. 'ITiis circum- stance drove the traders to some other place of security for their gold, which their apprentices did not fail to rob them of when at home, and to run off with it to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths, in Lombard-street, who were otherwise obliged to prepare strong chests for the deposit of their own valuable wares ; and this became the origin of banking in Eng- land. -See the preceding Articles. BANK, Savings', the first instituted 1816 ; number of, in England, Wales, and Ireland, to Nov. 1833, were 484. The ac- count of investment in English Sa\'ings' Banks, to Nov. 1833, £14,473,953. The number of these institutions on Nov. 20, 1837, was 508; in England, 398; Scot- land, 9 ; Wales, 23 ; and Ireland, 78. In the twenty years ending Nov. 1837, the sum of £9,558,060 has been paid to the trustees of Savings' Banks, and Friendly Societies, for interest on deposits and other charges. See Savings' Banks. BANK, Joint Stock. It was for- merly understood, that the act of 1708, and the other acts conveying exclusive privileges to the Bank of England, pre- vented any company with more than six partners, from issuing notes payable on demand, or from undertaking ordinary banking business. Lately, however, it was held by the attorney and attorney- general, that such banks might be legally established within the limits to which the exclusive privileges of the Bank of Eng- land were restricted by the act, 7 and 8 Geo. IV., c. 46. But as the opinion of other eminent lawyers differed from theirs, a clause has been inserted in the act, 3 and 4 Will. IV., c. 98, (1833,) which au- thorises the establishment of banks not issuing notes, with any number of part- ners, any where within the district to which the exclusive privileges of the Bank of England, as a bank of issue, are restricted. From the official returns, dated July 4, 1833, there were then 34 Joint Stock Banks in England and Wales ; but from the subjoined account, up to Nov. 26, 1836, the number had increased to 101; and in 1839, to 152, with 903 branches. The progress of the system has been as follows : — In 1826 there were registered 3 1827 4 1828 1829 7 1830 1 1831 9 1832 7 1833 . 9 1834 . 10 1835 9 1836, Nov 26 42 1839, Jan. 5. . . 51 Total 152 BANKRUPTS, in England, first re- gulated by law, 1543; enacted that mem- bers of the House of Commons proving bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their seats, 1812. Bankrupts, at different periods : from the year 1701 to 1839, 1701 1702 1713 1714 1726 1727 1744 1745 1746 1762 1763 1772 1773 1774 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 1791 1792 1793 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 38 28 200 173 416 446 197 200 159 205 233 525 562 360 675 544 449 438 537 528 517 604 628 1304 736 871 861 923 921 876 953 BAN Bankrupts (continued.) 1807 . 1036 1808 1058 1809 16/0 1810 . 2000 1811 .... . . 1616 1812 1599 1813 1066 1814 1285 1815 . 2029 1816 2030 1817 1879 1818 1059 1819 1416 1820 1335 1821 1287 1822 1064 1823 964 1824 977 1825 .... . . 846 1826 2489 1827 .....*. . 1528 1828 1332 1829 1409 1830 1467 1831 • . . , . ... 1269 1832 • 1591 1833 • . . ... 1136 1834 • 1191 1835 • . . • . . . . 9591 1836 • 890 1837 .890 1838 1462 1839 930 BANKRUPTCY, New Court op, established 1 & 2 Will. IV. 1831, opened Jan. 11, 1832. This court con- sists of one person, being a serjeant or a barrister at law of not less than ten years' standing, to be chief judge of the said court, and three persons, being Serjeants, or barristers at law, of not less than ten years' standing at the bar, or of five years' standing at the bar, having previously practised five years as a special pleader below the bar, to be other judges of the said court, and six persons, being bar- risters at law of not less than seven years* standing at the bar, or of four years' standing at the bar, having previously practised as a special pleader for three years below the bar, to be called com- missioners of the said court, and the same court shall be a coiurt of law and equity, and shall, together with every judge and commissioner thereof have all the rights, incidents, and privileges of a court of record, or judge of a court of record, and of her Majesty's courts of law or judges at Westminster. 65 BAR 1830. The bankruptcy law of Ireland came under review by 6 Will IV. c. 14. entitled " An Act to amend the laws re- lating to Bankruptcy in Ireland," This act consists of 160 sections. Its object is to consolidate all the former statutes relating to bankruptcy in Ireland, and it accordingly repeals them, and contains in itself a complete system of adminis- tring bankruptcy estates. BANKS, Sir Joseph, bom 1743; elevated to the chair of the Royal Society, 1777; discontents at his proceedings, 1 783 ; confirmed in the presidency, 1 784 ; died March 19, 1820. BANKS, Thomas, sculptor, born 1735; died 1805. BANNERETS first created in Eng- land, 1360; renewed by Hen. VII. 1485. BANNS, Publication of, for mar- riage, instituted 1210. See Marriage. BANQUETING- HOUSE, White- hall, Westminster, built 1607. BANTAM, flourishing town in the island of Java, once the capital of the kingdom of Bantam. It was at first a Hindoo kingdom, changed in the fifteenth century into a Mahammedan dynasty, by the victorious chief Cheribon. The Dutch settled here in 1595 ; the English in 1602 ; but the latter settlers lieing cruelly murdered, the Dutch enjoyed the whole pepper trade without a rival. In 1674, the king of Bantam was possessed of a fleet of his own, with which he traded to the Persian Gulf, and in 1682, sent eight ambassadors into England ; but, after this period. Bantam fell gradually under the Dutch-Batavian government. In 1811, this district was convulsed by civil wars, when the British invaded and took possession of the whole territory, deposed the refractory sultan Achmet, and set up another in his place. In 1813, the sultan transferred his rights, unequivocally, to the British, in consi- deration of an annual pension of 10,000 rupees; and, in the year 1817, it was finally restored to the Dutch. Since 1817, Bantam has been abandoned for Sirang, or Ceram, seven miles higher up the river. BARABIS, T. Phil., a Prussian; a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age ; master of mathematics at twelve, &c., died, 1740, aged 19 years, and 8 months. BARBADOES, one of the Caribbees, and the most eastern of the West Indian BAR islands, eupposed to have been dis- covered by the Portuguese about 1614, and named and planted by them in 1624. In 1627, the island was made over to the Earl of Carlisle, and its possession was disputed by different parties. Some years after this, disputes broke out be- tween the earl and the planters, which terminated in the island being made a crown colony in 1662. It has suffered a succession of dreadful hurricanes. On October 18, 1780, a storm arose exceed- ing aU that were ever before e.xperienced in any part of the world; so teiTific were its effects that the whole country pre- sented a scene of wild desolation. Up- wards of 6000 persons perished in this awful visitation, and the damage done to property exceeded a million sterling. July 11, 1831, another dreadful hur- ricane occurred, by which 3000 lives were lost, 16 vessels driven on shore, and the whole island nearly desolated. The hurricane also extended to the islands of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and the da- mage done was very extensive, tliough not attended with such a serious loss of life. BARBAROSSA, Aruch, celebrated corsair chief; his name, together with that of his brother, Hayradin, became terrible, from the Straits ot the Darda- nelles to those of Gibraltar. In 1516, being invited to assist Euteini, king of Algiers, against the Spaniards, he mur- dered the prince he came to aid, causing himself to be proclaimed king in his stead. Charles V. sent the Marquis de Gomarez, governor of Oran, with troops to suppress him, by whom he was de- feated and killed, near Tremecen, in 1518. His brother, Hayradin, known also by the name of Barbarossa, assumed the sceptre of Algiers, with the same abilities and with better fortune. He put his do- minions under the protection of the grand Signior, Solyman the Magnificent, and obtained the command of the Tur- kish fleet. He acquired the kingdom of Tunis, in 1534, in a manner similar to that by which his brother gained Algiers. The time of his death not known. See Algiers. BARB AULD, Letiti A.whose lessons for children from two to three years old have considerably assisted in educating the young, was the daughter of the Rev. John Aikin, D.D., and bom at Kibworth, June 20, 1743. She pubUshed in 1772, 66 BAR a volume of poems, which immediately gave her a place in the first rank of living poets. In 1774, she was married to the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld. In 1776, she went to reside at Palsgrave, in Suflblk, where her " Early Lessons" and "Hymns in Prose, for Children," were composed, — master-pieces in the art of early instruction — monuments at once of her genius^ and of the conde- scending benevolence which presided over its exercise. In 1802, she and Mr. Barbauld fixed their abode at Stoke- Newington, where a selection from "ITie Guardian," " Spectator," and " Tatler," introduced by an elegant essay ; another from the manuscript correspondence of Richardson, with a life of the author, and a view of his writings prefixed, and a collection of the best English novels, with biographical and critical prefaces, served in succession to amuse her leisure. A higher effort of her powers was the splendid poem entitled " Eighteen Hun- dred and Eleven," which appeared early in the ensuing year. She died at Stoke- Newington, Apl. 9, 1825, in the eighty- second year of her age. BARB ARY, that long hue of territory, from 100 to 200 miles in depth, which extends eastward from Egypt to the shores of the Atlantic. The name is de- rived from the Barbees, a race of native inhabitants, but is not recognised in the country itself. It comprises Morocco, Fez, Tunis, Tripoli ; some geographers also include the kingdom of Barca. Barbary occupied a more conspicuous place in the ancient than the modern world. It formed a prominent part in the great system of civilized nations around the Mediterranean. Cyrenaica corresponding now to Barca, and part of Tripoli, was one of the most flourish- ing Grecian colonies ; and Tunis is on the site of Carthage. Barbarj' was sub- jected to the Ottoman power m 647, by Omar and others ; Algiers was built by Zeiri, a distinguished Arab, m 944 ; he died in 970, and his family held the reins of government, under the appella- tion of the Zeirites, till 1148, when Roger, king of Sicily, took from Hassan- ben-Ali, the last of the dynasty, a great portion of his territory; and the other parts were soon after seized by the Mo- ravides. This latter dynasty ruled the whole coast, till the year 1269, when the kingdom of Tunis was founded by the negro prince Abonhafs. The most im- BAR G1 portant cities, Oran, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, were raised into independent sovereignties, which, by the expiilsion of the Moors and Jews from Spain, in and after 1492, became very populous. About 1594, they began to revenge themselves upon Spain by repeated acts of piracy. This provoked Ferdinand to send a powerful expedition against them, with great success. But after the death of the Spanish monarch, the Algerines called to their assistance, the famous Turkish pirate, Barbarossa, who carried all before him, and at length caused himself to be proclaimed king. See Barbarossa. In 1544, the pacha of Egypt conquered Tremears; in 1555, Bujia, and in 1569, Tunis; which, how- ever, regained its independence in 1628, but, in 1754, was conquered a second time, and since then has remained more or less dependent upon Algiers. See Algiers, Tripoli, Tunis, &c. BARBERINI Urn, said to h:;ve con- tained the ashes of the Roman emperor, Alexander Severus, deposited in the earth about 235 ; dug up by Pope Bar- berini, alias Urban VIII. between 1623 and 1644; sold to the duke of Marlbro', out of the Portland Museum, for 980 guineas, 1^86 ; others are of opinion that the workmanship is Roman, not Grecian, and older than the time of Severus, and sculptured by the wheel; On the Sar- cophagus is the story of Achilles and Briseis ; on the vase, that of Admetus and Alcestes , it is 9f inches high, and 21 1 inches round. BARBERS, brought from Sicily to Rome, A.c. 299; incorporated with the surgeons in London a. d. 1540; disasso- ciated again, 1744. , ■. BARBUDA Isle, first'^anted by the Enghsh, 1628. BARCELONA, town of Spain, the capital and largest city of the province of Barcelona, was founded by the Cartha- ginians, and called after the general Hannibal Barcino. After the foundation of this ancient city, its fortunes were various, and its masters many. The Romans, Goths, Moors, and Franks, were succeeded by the counts of Barce- lona, who governed it until some time in the 12th century, after this period, by the marriage of Raymond V. with PetroniUa, daughter of RamiroII.,king of Arragon, it became united with that ancient king- dom. In 1640, it attached itself to France, but returned to its former and natural al- BAR liance in 1652. In 1691, it was be- sieged by the French, and taken by them in 1697, but restored by the treaty of Ryswick. In the war of the Spanish succession, Barcelona joined the party of the archduke Charles, but was besieged and taken by the duke of Berwick, for Phihp v., Sept. 7, 1714, when the for- tress on the east side of the city was erected. In 1809, the Freneh general Duhesme, took the city by surprise, and retained possession until 1814, when the French were called home to defend their own country. In 1821, Barcelona was desolated by the yellow fever. BARCLAY, Robert, one of the most eminent among the quakers. He joined them in 1669, and distinguished himself by his zeal and abihties in defence of their doctrine. In 1676, he published, in Latin, at Amsterdam, his " Apology for the Quakers," which is the most ce- lebrated of his works. He travelled with the famous Mr. WiUiam Penn, through a considerable part of England, Holland, and Germany, and was every- where received with the greatest respect. He died October 3, 1690, aged forty- two. BARCLAY, Captain, concluded his walking bet, to walk 1000 miles in 1000 successive hours, July 10, 1809. BARCLAY & Go's Brewery, Bank- side, Southwark, destroyed by fire. May 22, 1832. BARDS, Welsh, massacred by order of Edward I , 1282. BARHAM of 74 guns foundered on the coast of Corsica, July 29, 1811. BARING, Transport, wrecked on the rocks off Beerhaven by a gale, and several lives lost, Oct. 10, 1814. BARK, Jesuits', virtue of, discover- ed 1500 ; first brought to Europe, 1650. BARKER, Robert, an English ar- tist, inventor of the panorama, died 1806. BARKWAY greatly damaged by fire, Aug. 18, 1748. BARLING Abbey, Lmcolnshire, built 1180. BARLOW, Joel, envoy extraordi- nary from the United States, to the court of France, born 1756, died 1812, BARLOW, William, natural philo- sopher, died 1625. BARLOW, Dr. Thomas, a learned prelate, born 1607, appointed fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, in 1633, was keeper of the Bodleian Library, and in BAR 1657. chosen provost of Queen's Col- lege. In 1675, he was made bishop of Lincoln. Tlie greatest part of his writ- ings are against popery. But after James ascended to the throne, he seemed to have relaxed in his opposition to it. His compliances were much the same after the revolution. He died at Buckden, Huntingdonshire Octobers, I69I, aged eightv-five. BARNABITES, (foundation of) in France, 1533 BARNARD, Sir John, his statue erected in the Royal Exchange, London. May 23, 1747. BARNEVELT, John-Olden, a mi- nister of Holland eminently distinguished by his abilities and patriotism, was born m 1547. In I6I8, he was arrested and imprisoned in the castle of Louvenstein, for his attachment to Arminian princi- ples. Prince Maurice, to whom appli- cation was made from various quarters in his favour, remained inexorable, and he was condemned to death. On the morning of execution, having prayed with the minister who attended him, he rose from his knees with composure, declared his mnocence to the specta- tors, and desired the executioner to per- form his office. His head was struck off at a blow, in his seventy-second year. May 13, 1619. BARNWELL, near Cambridge, de- stroyed by a fire, Sept. 30, 1751 ; again, Dec. 16, 1757. BARNWELL Castle, Northamp- tonshire, built 1132. BAROMETERS, invented by Tor- ricelli in 1643; pressure of the air proved l)y Pascal in 1648 ; employed as a wea- ther-glass, and for the measurement of heights about I66O. BARON, the title first created by pa- tent in England, 1388. BARON OF Renfrew, wonderful timber ship of 9000 tons burden, bound from Quebec to London ; lost between Calais and Dunkirk, Oct. 23, 1825. BARON, the French Roscius, born 1652, died 1729- BARONS, first summoned to parlia- ment in 1204 ; the writ was directed to the bishop of Salisbury. BARONETS first created in England, 1611. BARONETS of Nova Scotia first created 1625. BARONIUS, C^SAR, a learned car- dinal, born 1538, died, 1607, aged 68. 68 BAR BARRAS, chief of the excecutive di- rectory during the French revolutionary government, died January 29, 1828. BARRl, Madam Du, formerly mis- tress of Louis the 15th, was guillotined Dec. 8, 1793. BARRINGTON Isle, one of the Gal- lopagos, explored, June, 1793. BARRINGTON, John Shute, Lord Viscount, a learned nobleman, particu- larly distinguished by his attention to theological subjects, born at Theobald's in Hertfordshire, in 1678. In 1701, commenced his literary career, by " An Essay upon the Interests of England in respect to Protestants dissenting from the Established Church." Obtained the oflSce of commissioner of the customs, from which he was removed by the Tory administration of queen Anne in 1711, on account of his avowed opposition to their principles and conduct. In 1720, he was advanced by the king to an Irish peerage, under the title of viscount Bar- rington, of Ardglass. In 1723, he suffered the very severe and unmerited censure of expulsion from the house of commons, for opposing the reigning ministry. In 1725, he published, in two volumes 8vo., his " Miscellanea Sacra," and in the same year, "An Essay on the several Dispensations of God to Mankind, in the order in which they lie in the Bible ; or, a short system of the religion of Nature and Scripture." He was also the author of several other tracts, chiefly on subjects connected with toleration in matters of religion. He died in 1734, aged fifty-six. BARRINGTON, Daines, antiqua- rian and miscellaneous wiiter, born 1727, died 1800. BARR0W, Dr. Isaac, a very emi- nent divaVlmd mathematician, was born in London 1630. In 1643, was admitteda pensioner of Peter-house, in Cambridge ; 1645, entered a pensioner of Trinity College, where he was erected fellow in 1 649. Percei\ing that the circumstances of the times were, in consequence of his at- tachment to the royalcause, unfavourable to persons of his opinions, he determined to devote himself to the medical profes- sion. In 1652, commenced master of arts, and was incorporated in that degree at Oxford. But influenced by the aspect of public affairs, he resolved to travel abroad, and set out in 1655. He visited France and Italy; and in 1656, set sail from Leghorn to Smyrna; and in the course of his voyage, he had an opportunity of BAR 69 manifesting his intrepidity by standing to his gun, and defending the ship on which he had embarked, against the at- tack of an Algerine corsair, and beat- ing off the enemy. In l659,he passed through Germany and Holland into England. Soon after his return, he was ordained by bishop Browning ; and when the king was restored, his friends expected that this attachment to the royal cause wDuld have been rewarded by some consider- able preferment ; but their expectations were disappointed. In 1 660, he was chosen Greek professor at Cambridge ; and in consequence of this appointment, he read lectures on the rhetoric of Aristotle. In 1662, he was elected to the professorship of geometry at Gresham College. In 1 663, was included in the first choice of mem- bers made by the Royal Society, after receiving their charter. He determined in 1669 to exchange his mathematical studies for those of divinity. In 1670, he was created doctor in divinity by man- date; and in 1672 he was nominated to the mastership of Trinity College, by the king, who observed, "that he had be- stowed it on the best scholar in England." In 1675, he was chosen vice-chancellor of the university ; but his services in this high and honourable station were speedily terminated by his death, occasioned by a fever, in London, May, 1677, aged 47. His works on theology appeared in 1685, in three volumes, folio ; there have been several editions since. They con- sist of sermons, of expositions of the creed, the Lord's prayer, and the deca- logue ; of the doctrine of sacraments, and of treatises on the pope's supremacy, and the unity of the church. A fourth volume in Latin, entitled " Opuscula," was published in 1687, and consists of Determinationes, Conciones ad Clerura, Speeches, Latin poems, &c. BARROW'S Straits, discovered by Lieut. Parry, 1819, who penetrated as far as Melville Island, in lat. 74° 26" and long. 113° 47" W. The straits were en- tered Aug. 3. BARRY, an eminent Irish artist, bom in 1741. He formed an acquaintance with the celebrated Edmund Burke, and under his patronage, set out for the Con- tinent in 1765. In 1775, he published an inquiry into the real and imaginary obstructions to the acquisition of the arts in England. He undertook to ex- BAR ecute by himself the paintings for the great room of the Society of Arts, in the Adelphi, They consist of a series of six pictures, intended to illustrate the de- pendence of public and individual happi- ness upon the cultivation of the human faculties. The earl of Buchan set on foot a public subscription on his behalf, which amounted to about a , thousand pounds, when these benevolent exertions were rendered useless by his death, which happened Feb. 22, 1806. BAR-SUR-AUBE, taken by general Wrede, Feb. 26, 1814. BARTHELEML John James, a French abbe, highly celebrated for his literary attainments and virtues, bom at Cassis, a little sea-port on the shores of the Mediterranean, Jan. 1716. In 1747 he succeeded M. Burette, as associate to the academy of inscriptions. In 1753, he succffided M. de Boze as principal keeper of the medals. In 1754, he fol- lowed M. de Stainville, prime minister, afterwards duke of Choiseul to Rome, and made a tour to Naples, where the subterraneous treasures of Herculaneum and Pompeii engaged his particular at- tention. He returned to Paris in 1757, and in 1758, obtained the place of secre- tary-general of the Swiss. When his patron, the duke of Choiseul, was ba- nished in 1771, Barthelemi accompanied him in his exile. In 1788, appeared bis celebrated work entitled "Voyage du Jeune Anach arsis in Grece, dans le Milieu du quatrieme Siecle avant 1' Ere Chre- tienne." He had begun it in 1757, and, during an uninterrupted succession of 30 years, occupied his leisure hours in bringing it to maturity. In 1789, he was elected to the chair in the French academy. Aug. 30, 1793, he was de- nounced as an aristocrat, and imprisoned, but afterwards liberated. He died April 30, 1795, aged 80. BARTHOLOMEW, St., in the West Indies, taken from the Danes by Eng- land, March 20, 1801. BARTHOLOMEW, St. Monas- tery Smithfield, built 1162; hospital founded,1546; rebuilt froml750 tol770. BARTHOLOMEW, St., festival, in- stituted 1130. BARTHOLOMEW Fair, London, Philips' booth fell, two persons killed, and many wounded, Aug. 23, 1749. Toll abolished, 1755. BARTHOLOMITES, Sect of. B AS founded at Genoa, 1307 ; suppressed by pope Innocent X., 1630. BARTOLO, PiETRo Senito, an eminent painter, born 1635, died 1700. BARTOLOMEO, Fra. de St. Marco, an eminent Florentine painter of scriptual subjects, born 1469, died 1517. BARTON-STACY, in Hampshire, had 27 houses, beside out-houses, de- stroyed by fire. May 8, 1792. BARTON, Eliza, "Holy Maid of Kent," an epileptic impostor, whom the catholic clergy made use of to deter Henry VHI. from his quarrel with the pope. This " lewd and silly nun," as Sir Thomas More, who once counte- nanced her pretensions to a divine mis- sion, terms her, while in the humble ca- pacity of a servant at an inn at Adlington in Kent, acquiring a local reputation tor sanctity and miraculous end^vments, the parson of her parish, with some other priests, determined to convert her trances and ravings to their own views and in- terests. But the deluded prophetess venturing to prophesy against evil doers in high places was, with her accomplices, beheaded, April 21, 1534, at Tyburn, for her predictions against Henry VHI., respecting his divorce from Catherine, and his marriage with Ann Boleyn. BASIL, St., died 379, aged 53. BASIL, Switzerland, University of, founded 1458. BASSINGWARK Abbey, FUnt- shire, built 1131. BASKERVILLE, John, a celebrated printer of Birmingham, born 1706, died 1775. BASSORA, Balsorah, or Basrah, a city in Arabia Irak, built by command of the caliph Omar, in the 15th year of the Hegira, a. d. 656, for the sake of carrying on, more commodiously, an extensive commerce between the Sy- rians, Arabians, Persians, and Indians. After repeated contests between the Turks and the Persians, about this place, it came into the power of the former in 1668. In the year 1777, the Persians took it, but abandoned it to the Turks the year following. In 1787, the Turks were expelled by the Arabs ; but some time after they succeeded in recapturing it, under Soliman, pacha of Bagdad, and it has remained in their hands ever since. BASS'S vStraits, discovered 1797. Mr. Bass, Surgeon of his majestys ship • Reliance," penetrated as far as Wes - ro BAS tern Port, in a small open boat, from Port Jackson, and was of opinion that a strait existed between New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. In 1799, Lieut. Flinders circumna\ngated Van Diemen's Land, and named the strait after Mr. Bass. BASTIA, a town in the island of Corsica, formerly the capital of the island. Taken from the Genoese by the English in 1745, but restored in 1746: it was besieged, ineffectually, by the Austrians and Piedmontese, in 1748 ; in 1768, it was annexed to the crown of France ; the English possessed them- selves of it in the year 1794, but held it only for a short period ; and with this exception, it has been attached to France since 1768. In the territorial partition of France, in 1791, Bastia was made the capital of a department, in which rank it has been since superseded by Ajaccio. BASTILLE, orBastile of Paris, was begun to be built in 1369, by order of Charles V., and was finished in 1383, under the reign of his successor. Its chief use was for the custody of state prisoners ; or, more properly speaking, for the clandestine purposes of unfeeling despotism. This castle consisted, ac- cording to Mr Howard, of eight very strong towers, surrounded with a fosse about 120 feet wide, and a wall 60 feet high; It was attacked and taken by the Parisian mob, July 14, 1789. It was just at the commencement of the French revolution, that some un- known individual, on that morning, after attracting the attention of the citizens, exclaimed, " Let us take the Bastile." The name of this fortress, which recalled to the memory of the people everything hateful and odious in the ancient despo- tism, operated with all the effect of elec- tricity. The cry of "To the Bastile," resounded from rank to rank, from street to street, from the Palace Royal to the suburbs of St. Antoine. Though a formidable resistance was made by De Launay, the governor, the gates were at length forced, the besiegers entered, and this castle was taken by storm in less than four hours, which had menaced France for nearly as many ages, and which an army, headed by the great Conde, had formerly besieged in vain, during three-and-tvventy days. De Launay, whose name had been long odious to the Parisians, was put to death, in his way to his town-house. The Bas- BAT tile was immediately devoted to destruc- tion: the unhappy prisoners were released in triumph ; the instruments of torture were dragged from the dungeons, and exposed to day, and the destiny of the monarch and the monarchy seemed to be already decided. BATAVIA, town in the island of Java, the capital" of all the Dutch possessions in the East Indies. It was founded by the Dutch in the year 1619, after the conquest of Jocastra, by John Pieterson Coen, it was taken by the British, Jan. 1782, and again, Sept. 1800, but remained in their possession only a short time. Batavia was formerly notorious for its in- salubrity. Recently, however, the Baron Capellen exerted himself to prevent its further decay ; he widened several of the streets, filled up some of the canals, and cleaned others, demolished useless forti- fications, &c., so that it is now as healthy as any other town in the island. The population in 1834, consisted of 3,025 Europeans and their descendants, 23,108 natives, 14,708 Chinese, 601 Arabs, and 12,419 slaves ; inal?, 53,861 persons, ex- clusive of the garrison. BATH, order ot Knighthood, insti- tuted in England at the coronation of Henry IV., 1399, renewed, 1725. BATH, City, the Aquae Solis of the Romans, early celebrated for its medici- nal waters, which are said to have been discovered a.c. 871. Bath was one of the principal Roman stations in England, and probably, originally l)uilt by them, about A. D. 44. Attracted by the medi- cinal and warm springs, the Roman sol- diers were fixed in this place in the reign of Adrian, about 118. The Ro- mans having enjoyed the possession of Bath for nearly four centuries, it was subjugated by the Saxons in 577- King Edgar was crowned and inaugurated here, 973, and testified his regard for the place by granting it several privileges. Seve- ral coins of Canute the Great, struck here, during the Danish dominion, are still remaining in some select cabinets. After the Norman conquest in Rufus's reign, in the insurrection raised by Odo, bishop of Bayeux, Geoffrey, bishop of Constance, and Robert de Mowbray, the two latter took the place by assault, and delivered it over for plunderand burning. John de Villula purchased it of Rufus, in 1090, for 500 marks, and obtained permission to remove the pontifical seat from Wells hither. He rebuilt the city. 71 BAT erected a new monastery upon the ruins of the old one, and united the bishopric to this institution. Thus reinstated, Bath gradually increased its monastic possessions, but the dissolution of Henry VIII. drove the monks from its monas- tery, when the abbey-house with its lands, &c , were granted to private indi- viduals. In the eariier part of the civil wars, this city was garrisoned f6r Charles I., notwithstanding which, it quickly surrendered to the enemy, and was made one of the principal posts for the parliament's forces, till after-the battle of Round way-down, July 13, 1643, when the king's troops took possession of the city. 1755. A most valuable remnant of antiquity was discovered August 18, at Bath, under the foundation of the abbey- house, then taking down, in order to be rebuilt by the duke of Kingston. The workmen, when digging, came to the remains of an ancient building, and some cavities, which led to a further research, when Roman baths and sudatories, con- structed upon the most elegant plans, were found with floors suspended upon square brick pillars, and surrounded with tubulated bricks for the convey- ance of heat and vapour. It appears that the Romans, although at so remote a period, entertained higher ideas of the convenience, elegance, and use of baths, than the opulent inhabitants of Britain have yet discovered for themselves. The present city rose to eminence chiefly during the 18th century, and it is now probably the handsomest and most regularly built city in England. The guildhall, a magnificent structure, containing several very noble apartments, was commenced in 1766, and finished in 1775 The pump-room was erected at the expense of the corporation in 1797 ; it is 85 feet in length by 46 in width, with a height of 34 feet. The springs are carefully enclosed, and there are two hot baths, called the king's and queen's, attached to the pump-room, the first of which is supplied immediately by the hot spring, and extends 65 feet in length by 40 feet in breadth, containing, when full to the proper depth, 346 tons of water. The queen's bath is supplied from the king's and the water suffers a diminution of temperature in its transit. Attached to this establishment are pri- vate baths, sudatories, &c. Besides this great establishment, there are the BAT Kingston, the hot, and the cross baths, all fitted up with much elej^ance, and having pump-rooms attached to each. BATHS, Ancient. The most mag- nificent baths among the Romans were those of Titus, Paulus iEmilius, and Dioclesian,of which there are some ruins still remaining. It is said that at Rome, there were 856 public baths. Nero, Vespasian, Titus Domitian, Severus, Gordian, Aurelian, Maximian, Dioclesian, and most of the emperors who studied to gain the affections of the people, erected baths laid with the richest marble, and wrought according to the rules of the most delicate architecture. Baths of Agrippa were built of brick, but painted in enamel : those of Nero, were not only furnished with fresh water, but even had the sea brought into them : those of Ca- racalla were adorned with 200 marble columns, and furnished with 1 600 seats of the same material. The Romans who enjoyed dominion in our island near four hundred years, had their baths here. At Hovingham in the north riding of Yorkshire, 1745, a Roman bath was discovered which had its sudaria and vaporarium; and ten years after m taking down the abbey- house at Bath, to build a new set of baths, the workmen found the remains of very noble Roman baths, for a more particular account of which see the pre- ceding article. In England, a magnificent building of the kmd occurs among the monastic conveniences of the middle ages, erected by Hugh, the sacrist of the monastery of Bury, early in the 12th century, fi- nished by Sampson, who was elected abbot in 1182. BATHURST, Earl, the friend of Pope, born 1684, died 1775. BATTERSEA-BRIDGE, built 1770. BATTERING-RAM, invented a. c. 441. BATTLES. The following are the principal, arranged in chronological order : — A.c. 669. The Horatii and Curiatii. A.c 480. Salamis, which delivered Greece from the Medes. A.c. 470. Eurymedon. A.c 373 Leuctra. A.c, 363. Mantinea. A.c 338. Cheeronea A.c. 490. Marathon. A.c. 334. The river Granicus, when Alexander defeated the Persians. n BAT A.c. 333. Battle fought at Issus, where Darius lost 100,000 men. A.c. 331. Arbela. See Arbela. A.c. 216. Cannae, where 40,000 Ro- mans were killed. See Cannae. A.c. 47- Pharsalia, when Pompey was defeated. A.c. 40. PhiUppi, which terminated the Roman republic. A.c. 31. Actium. A.D. 51. Shropshire, when Caracta- cus was taken prisoner. 449. Stamford, in Lincolnshire. The first between the Britons and Saxons. 455. Aylesford. 457. Crayford, in Kent, when the Britons were defeated. 458. Kydwelly, between the Britons and the Armoricans. 466. Ipswich, between the Britons and Saxons. 520. Bath. 542. Banbury, in Oxfordshire. 571. Bedford. 542 and 908. Camelford. 633. Hatfield, in Yorkshire, between Cadwallen and Edwin. 641. Oswestry, between Panda and Mercian, and Oswald of Northumber- land. 642. Malerfield, in Shropshire, Aug. 1. 651. Gelling. 665. Leeds. 740. Lindesfarne- 771 Benson, in Oxfordshire. 834. Helstone, in Cornwall, and in the Isle of Sheppy, between Egbert and the Danes. 842. Romney. 843. In Somerset- shire. 915. In Devonshire. 852. At London and Canterbury, between Ethel- wolf and the Danes. 854. The Isle of Thanet, where the English were defeated, and the Danes settled. 871. Assenden, where the Danes were defeated by Alfred and Ethelred. Another defeat at Merton. 872. Wilton, in Oxfordshire, where the EngUsh were defeated by the Danes. 894. Farnham, in Hampshire, where the Danes were defeated. 905. Bury, in Suffolk, between Ed- ward the elder, and his cousin Ethel- wald. 910, 913, and 914 Edward and the Danes 916. Griffith, of Wales, and Leofric, the Dane BAT r 918. Battle fougnt at Maiden, in Es- sex, between Edward and the Danes. 922. Chester. 923. Stamford, in Lincolnshire, be- tween Edward, the Danes, and Scots. 924. Benfield. 938. Widendane, between Athelstane, the Irish, and Scots . 938. Brombridge, in Northumberland. 938 to 1016. Saxons and Danes, fought several with different success. 1016. Ashden, in Essex, between Ca- nute and Edmund . 1038. Crossford, with the Welsh . 1054. Dunsinane, in Scotland, be- tween Siward and Macbeth. 1066. Stanford-bridge, or Battle- Ijridge, between Harold II. and Har- finger, September 25. 1066. Hastings, when king Harold was slain, October 14. 1092. Alnwick. 1 106. Tinchebray, in Normandy. 1117. Rouen, in Normandy. 1119. Brenneville, in Normandy. 1129. Velweves, in Portugal. 1136. Cardigan, in Wales. 1138. Northallerton, or the Stand- ard, August 22. 1141. Lincoln. 1174. Alnwick. 1191. Ascalon, September 16 1128. Gisors. 1214. Bovines, July 25 1217. Lincoln, May 19. 1264. Lewes, May 14. 1264. Evesham, August 5. 1296. Chesterfield. 1296. Dunbar, April 27. 1298. Falkirk, July 22. 1302. Courtras, in Flanders. 1303. Biggar. 1314. Bannockburn, June 25, when the English were totally defeated. 1315. Morgarten, so glorious in the annals of Swiss libert)', in which 1,300 Swiss heroes, under the glorious Ru- dolph Reding, defeated 20,000 Austri- ans, and freed their country from the foreign yoke, Nov. 15. 1322. Boroughbridge, in Yorkshire. 1333. Halidon-hill, near Berwick, where 20,000 of the Scots were slain, and only 15 EngUsh, July 29. 1346. Halidon Hill, August 26. 1337- Causant, inFlanders, November. 1344. Auberoche, in Fi-ance. 1346. Cressy, Aug. 26. See Cress y. 1346. Durham, where David, king of Scotland, was taken prisoner, Oct 17. } BAT 1347. Battle fought at Devil's Cross, in Durham. 1356. Poictiers, where the king of France and his son were taken prisoner 9, September 19. See Poictiers. 1363. Auray, in Brittany. 1363. Brignai, in Provence. 1369. Najard. 1371. Rochelle. 1378. Near Berwick. 1388. Otterborn, between Hotspur and the earl of Douglas, July 31. 1402. Nisbet, between the Enghsh and Scots, when 10,000 of the latter were slain, May 7. 1403. Shrewsbury, July 22. 1405. Monmouth, when the Welsh were defeated, March 11, and May 11. 1415. Agincourt, October 25. See Agincourt. 1421. Beauge, where the duke of Clarence and 1,500 English were killed, April 3. 1423. Crevent, June. 1424. Verneuil, August 16. 1429. Herrings, February 12. 1434. Herberoy, in France. 1444. Basil, in Switzerland. 1452. Castillon, in Guiene. 1455, St. Albans, May 22. 1459. Bloreheath, September 22. 1460. Northampton, July 19. 1460. Wakefield, December 31, 1461. Towton, March 29. 1461. St. Albans, Shrove Tuesday. 1461. Mortimer's Cross. 1463. Hexham, May 15. 1469. Banburj', July 26. 1470. Stamford, March 13. 1471- Barnet, April 14. 1471. Tewkesbury, May 4. 1471. Morat, or Murten, in which the heroic Swiss destroyed the entire army of Charles the Bold, duke of Nor- mandy, and, of the bones of the slain, made two pyramids as a memorial of their braver)'. 1485. Bosworth, August 22» 1487. Stoke, June 6. 1488. St. Aubin, in France. 1491. Knockton, Ireland. 1497. Blackheath, June 22. 1513. Flodden, when James IV. of Scotland was killed, September 9. 1515. Marignon, in Italy, Octo- ber 13. 1524. Pa^da, in Italy. See Pavria. 1522, and 1525. Bicoca, in Italy. 1542. Solway, November 24. 1544. Cerisoles in Piedmont. B A T 74 BAT 1547. Battle fought at Musselburgh, Scotland, September 10. 1557. St. Quintin, August 10. 1558. Gravelines, in Flanders. 1562. Dreux, in France. 1069. Jarma, in Poictiers. 1585. Ardavat, in Ireland. 1600. Newport, in Flanders. 1620. Prague, Bohemia. 1633. Lutzen, king of Sweeden killed, September 7. 1635. Avein, in Liege, May. 1637. Newcastle, in Northumber- land. 1638. Calloo, in Flanders. 1640, Arras, June. 1642. Hopton-heath, in Staffordshire, March 1 9. 1642. Worcester, September 23- 1642. Edgehill, October 23. 1642, Brentford. 1642. Kilrush, Ireland. 1642. Liscarrol, Ireland. 1643. Liskard, in Cornwall, Jan. 19. 1643. Hopton-heath, near Stafford, March 19. 1643. Barham-moor, March 29. 1643. Ross, Ireland, March. 1643. Rocrav, in France. 1643. Shatton, May 16. 1643. Lansdown, July 5. 1643. Round-awaj'-down, July 13 1643. Newbury, September 20. 1644. Alresford, March 29- 1644. Cropedy-bridge, 0.vfordshire, June 6. 1644 Friedburgh, m Suabia. 1644. Marston-moor, July 2 1644. Newark. 1645. Aldera, May 15. 1645. Naseby, June. 1645. Alford, July 2. 1645. Norlingen, in Suabia, Aug. 3 1646. Benburb, Ireland. 1647. Kingston, in Surrey. 1647. Knocknoness, in Ireland, No- vember. 1649. Rathmines, in Ireland. 1650. Dunbar, September 3. 1651 Worcester, September 3. 1651. Bothwell-bridge, June 22. 1654. Arras. 1668. Brod, in Sclavonia. 1674. Zintzheim, in Germany. 1674. Seneffe,, in Flanders. 1674. Mulhausen, in .Alsace, Decem- ber 31. 1675. Fahrbellin, in Brandenburgli, June 18. 1675. Altcnheim, Jiilv 28. 1679. Battle fought at Bothwell- bridge, in Scotland. 1683. Argos, Allies and Turks, 1683. Barkan, in Hungary, Allies and Turks 1683. Vienna, Allies and Turks, July 18. J 685. Sedgemoor, in Somerset.<5hire, August 6. 1685. Coron, in European Turkej', Allies and Turks. 1687. Mohats, in Hungary, Allies and Turks, August 4. 1687. Hersen, in Hungary. Allies and Turks. 1688. Tors^an, between the Germans and Turks. 1689. Walcourt, Allies and French. 1689. Killikrankie, in Scotland. 1689. Newton Butlers, in Ireland. 1690. Boyne, in Ireland, July 1. See BOYNE. 1690. Salusses, in Piedmont, Aug.8. 1690. Fleurus, in Flanders, July 1 2 . 1690. Staflferda, French and Pied- montese. 1691. Salenkemen, Austrians and Turks. 1691. Leuse, Allies and French. 1691. Angrim, July 22. 1692. Potsheim, Germans and French 1692. Steinkirk, Allies and Frencli. 1693. Landen, Allies and French, July 19 1693. Marfaglia, Piedmontese and French, October 8. 1693. Neckar, Germans and French. 1695. In Transylvania, Allies and Turks 1696. Olasch, Germans and Turks. 1697. Zeuta, in Hungary, Germans and Turks. 1700. Nerva, by Charles XII , of Sweden, December. 1701. Chiara, Frenchand .Allies, Aug.6. 1701. Riga, Russians and Poles. 17"1. Carpi, in Modena, Frenchand Allies. 1702. Glissa, in Poland, Swedes and Saxons. 1702. Fridlingen, in Suabia, French and Germans. 1702. Vittoria, French and Allies. 1702. Lauzara, in Italy, August 15 1703. Pultusk, Poles and Swedes. 1703. Eckeren, in Brabant, French and Dutch, June 30. 1704. Donaveit, French and Ger- many, July 2. 1704. Punit-s Swedes and Saxons. BAT "5 1704. Battle fouglit at Blenheiin, Allies and French, August 2. See Blen- heim. 1704. Sclilemburg, Austrians and Bavarians. 1705. Mittau, Swedes and Russians, July. 1705. CassanOj in Italy, French and Allies. 1705. Tirlemont, French and Allies. 1706. Fraunstadt, in Silesia, Swedes and Saxons. 1706. Calcinate, in Italy, French and Allies. 1706. Rarailies, French and Allies, Whit Sunday. 1706. Turin, French and Germans, September 7. 1707. OflFenburg, Germans and French. 1707. Calisch, in Poland, Poles and Bavarians, April. 1707. Almanza, in Spain, Allies and Spaniards. 1708. Oudenarde, French and Allies, June 30. 1708. Holowzin, in Russia, Russians and Swedes. 17O8. Czanianapata,in Muscovy, Sep- tember 22. 17O8. Lezno, in Poland, Russians and Swedes. 17O8. Gemauthorff, in Poland, Rus- sians and Swedes. 1708. Winnendale, French and Allies, September 28. 1709. Caya, French and Allies, May 17. 1709. Pultowa, Russians and Swedes, Junes. 1709. Malplaquette, French and Al- lies, September 11. 1709. Rumersheim, French and Germans. 1709. Gudina, Allies and Spaniards. 1710. Almanza, French and Allies, July 16. 1710. Elsinburgh, Swedes and Danes. 1710. Saragossa, French and Ger- mans, August 20. 1710. Villa Viciosa, French and Ger- mans, December 12. 1711. Arleux, Allies and French, 1712. Gadebash, Swedes and Danes. 1712. Denain, in Netherlands, Allies and French 1713. Pulkona, Russiansand Swedes. 1713, Friburg, French and Germans. 1715. Preston, in Scotland, when the rebels were defeated, November 12. 1715. Dumblain, ditto, November 13, BAT 1716. Battle fouglit at Peterwarden, Austrians and Turks, August 5. 1717. Belgrade, Austrians and Turks, July 16. See Belgrade. 1719. Glenghields,inScotland,JunelO. 1733-4. Before Babylon, between the Turks and Persians, when Kouli Khan lost 10,000, and killed 30,000 men, Fe- bruary 28. 1734. Parma, June 29- 1734. Guastella, August. 1734. In Persia, where the Turks were totally defeated by Kouli Khan, and lost near 60,000 men, a general, and six bashaws. May 22. 1734. Bitonto, Austrians and Spa- niards. 1734. Parma, France and Spain against Austria. 1 734. Secchia, French and Austrians, 1735. Turks and Persians; 50,000 of the latter killed. 1737. Bagnialuk, in Eiuropean Tur- key, Russians and Turks, July 27- 1738. Bog, Russians, and Turks. 1738. Krosta, Austrians, and Turks, 1739. Kernal, Turks and Persians. 1 739. Choezin, in Hungary, July 21 . 1741, Molwitz, Prussians and Aus- trians, April 10. 1741, WiUiamstadt, in Sweden, Swedes and Russians, July 23. 1742, Hilkesburg, Prussians and Austrians, April 8. 1742. Czaslaw, ditto, May 7. 1742. Teyn, Austrians and Fi-ench. 1743. Brenau, Austrians and Bava- rians. 1743. Campo Santo, Spaniards and Allies. 1743. Dettingen, Allies and French, June 15. 1744. Cani, Allies, French and Spa- niards. 1745. Landshut, Prussians and Aus- trians. 1745. Friedburg, Prussians and Aus- trians, June 4. 1745, Fontenoy, April 30. 1745, Preston- Pans, Sept. 21. 1745. Erzerum, Turks and Prus- sians, 1746. Falkirk, in Scotland, Jan.' 17- 1746, Roucoux, French and Allies, April 12. 1746. CuUoden, in Scotland, April 17. See CULLODEN. 1746. St. Lazaro, French and Allies, May 31. 1746. Placentia, Spaniards and Allies June 15. BAT 1746. Battle fought at Exilles, in Piedmont, Allies and French, July 6. 1747- Vail, in Flanders, Allies and French, June 20. l747.Lassielt,AlUesandFrench,July20. 1751. Arania, in India. 1752. Bahoor, in India, Aug. 7 • 1755. Fort du Quesne, North Ame- rica, July 9. 1755. Lake of St. George, Sept. 8. 1755. Paraguay. 1756 and l759,Calcutta in India, June. 1756. Lowoschutz, Prussians andAus- trians, Sept. 30. 1757. Norkitten, Russians and Prus- sians. 1756. Plassie,inthe East Indies, Feb.5. 1757. Prague, Prussians and Aus- trians, May 22. 1757. Reichenberg, in Bohemia, ditto. 1757- Kolin, ditto, June 12. 1757. Haslenbeck, French and Allies, July 25. 1757. Jagersdorf, in Prussia, Aug. 3. 1757. Rosbach, French and Prussians, Nov. 5. 1757. Breslau, Prussians and Aus- ians, Nov. 21. 1757. Lissa, ditto, Dec. 5. 1758. Hoya, in Westphalia, French and Allies, Feb. 24. 1758. Crevelt, French and Allies June 23. 1758. Sandershansen, ditto, July 25. 1758. Meere, ditto, Aug. 5. 1758. Zorndorff, Prussians and Aus- trians, Aug. 25. 1758. Olmitz, ditto. 1758. Hockkirchen, Oct. 10. 1758. Landwarenhagen, French and Allies. 1758. Colies. 1759. Bergen, French and Allies, April 14. 1759. Minden, ditto, Aug. 17. 1759. Zulichaw, in Silesia, Prussians and Russians, July 27. 1759. Peterswalde, Prussians and Austrians. 1759. Pasberg, ditto. 1759. Niagara, in North America. July 24. 1759. Warburg, French and Allies, Aug. 6. 1759. Montmorenci, French and Eng- lish, Aug 10. 1759. Cunersdorf, Prussians, Rus- sians, and Austrians, Aug. 12. 1759- Plains of Abraham, French and English, Sept. 15. 7(i BAT 1760. B.\TTLE fought at Wanwash, East Indies, Jan. 10. 1760. Strehla, in Silesia, Prussians and Austrians. 1760. Near Quebec, April 28. 1760. PasffendoflF, Prussians and Au8« trians, Aug. 12. 1760. Torgau, ditto, Nov. 3, 1760. Fulda, ditto. 1760. Plains of Silleri, English and French. 1761. Langensaltze, Allies and French 1761. Slangerode, ditto 1761. Kirk-Dankern, ditto. 1761. Fillinghansen, in the Palati- nate, Prussians and Austrians, July 16. 1761. Dippolswalda, ditto. 1762. Graebenstein, French and Allies, June 4. 1762. Buckersdorf, ditto, July 22. 1762. Frcdburg, in Hesse, Prussians and Austrians, Oct. 29. 1762. Homburg, Allies and French. 1762. Johannesburg, Allies and French. 1762. Minden, ditto. 1762. Buckr-Muhl, ditto. 1763. Bushy Bun, in America. 1763. Nunas Nullas, in the East In- dies. 1764. Buxard, ditto. 1765. Calpi, ditto. 1767. Errour, ditto, 1768. Mulwaggle. 1769. Choczim, Russians and Turks, April 30. 1770. Braillow, in European Turkey. 1773. Silistcia in European Turkey. 1775, Lexington, near Boston, April 19. 1775. Bunker's-hill, June 27- 1776. Long-Island, America,Aug. 27. 1776. White Plains, near New York, Nov. 30. 1777. Brandy- Wine Creek, in Ame- rica, Sept 13. 1777. Of the Lakes, July 5. 1777. Skenesborough, in North America, July 7. 1777. Bennington ditto, Aug. 16. 1777. Albany ditto. 1777- Saratoga, General Burgoyne surrendered to the Americans, Oct. 7. 1777. Germantown, Oct. 14. 1778. St. Lucie, ditto 1778. Monmouth, ditto 1778. Rhode Island, Americans. 1779. Briar Creek, ditto. 1779. Stony Ferry, ditto. 1780 Camden, ditto, Aug. 16. BAT 1780. Battle fought at Perimban- cain, in the East Indies. 1780. Waxau and Catauba, in N America. 1761. Broad River, ditto. 1781. Guilford, ditto, March 16. 1781. Hobkirk's-Hill, ditto, 1781. Eutaw Springs, ditto. 1781. York town, when earl Corn- wallis surrendered, Oct. 29- 1781. Port Novo, in the East Indies. 1781. Amee, ditto 1781. Russians and Turks. 1788. Russians and Swedes. 1788. Austrians and Turks. 1789. Bassarabia and Ukraine. 1789. Finland, Austrians and Turks. 1789. Lassmarc, Austrians and Turks. 1790. Ukraine, Russians and Turks, 1791. Maczin, ditto. 1791. Seringapatara, in the East In- dies. Again, in 1792, when Tippoo was reduced by Lord Cornwallis. 1791. The Austrians defeated the French, near Mons, April 30. 1792 At Longwy, when the Aus- tsians were defeated, Aug. 14. 1792. Grand-pre, when the French were defeated, Sept. 10. 1792. Valory, between the French and Austrians, Sept. 20 1792. Menehould, Prussians and French, Oct. 2. 1792. Conde, Austrians and French Oct. 2. 1792. Hanau, ditto, Oct. 27- 1792. Bossu, ditto, Nov. 4. 1792. Jamappe, when Dumourier entered Brabant, Nov. 6. 1792. Arderlecht, Austrians and French, Nov. 13. 1792. Thu-lemont, ditto, Nov. 17- 1792. Varoux, ditto, Nov. 27- 1793. Hockheim, ditto, Jan. 7. 1793. Aldenhoven, ditto, Feb. 28. 1793. Aix-la-Chapelle, ditto, Jan. 15. 1793. Tongres, ditto, March 4. 1793. Jurvienden, near Thirlemont, ditto, March 18. 1793. Thirlemont, ditto, March 19- 1793. Lovaine, or the Iron Moun- tain, ditto, March 22. 1793. Coblentz, ditto, April 1 1793. Cassel, ditto, April 7- 1793. Tournay, Austrians and Eng- lish against the French, May 8. 1793. St. Amand and Maulde, ditto. May 10. 77 BAT 1793. Battle fought at Valenciennes, Allies and French May 23. 1793. Manheim, ditto. May 30. 1793. Fumes, Dutch and French, June 21. 1793. Fumes, Austrians and French, June 26. 1793. Villiers, ditto, July 18. 1793. Cambray, or Caesar's Camp, ditto, .4.ug. 9- 1793. Lincelles, ditto, Aug. 8. 1793. Fumes, ditto, Aug. 21. 1793. Rexmond, ditto, Aug. 29. 1793. Dunkirk, EngUsh and French, Sept. 7. 1793. Quesnoy, ditto, Sept. 11. 1793. Limbach, Austrians and French Sept. 12. 1793. Menin, ditto, Sept. 15. 1793. Toulon, English and French, Oct. 14. 1793. Maubeuge, Allies and French,, Oct. 16. 1793. Tirlemont, ditto, ditto, 1793. Orchies, ditto, Oct. 20. 1793. Wanzenaw, ditto, Oct. 25. 1793. Landau, ditto, Nov. 29. 1793. Toulon, when it surrendered to the French, Nov. 19. 1793. Lebach, ditto Nov. 27- 1793. Roussillon, the Spaniards and French, Dec. 11, 1793, Perpignan, ditto, Dec. 20. 1794. Oppenheim, the Allies and French, Jan. 8, 1794. Waterloo, ditto, Jan. 23. 1 794. Werwick, ditto, March 1. 1794. Beyonne, Spaniards and French, March 19- 1794. Perle, Allies and French, March 22. 1794. Cateau, Allies and French, March 28. 1794. Cracow, Russians and Poles, April 4. 1794. Durkheim, Allies and French, April 5. 1794. Piedmont, Sardinians and French, April 6. 1794. Crombech, Allies and French, April 29. 1794. Arlon, ditto, April 17^ 1794. Warsaw, Russians and Poles, April 21. 1794. Landrency, Allies and French, April 24, 1794. Cambray, English and French, ditto. 1794. Cateau, ditto, April 26. BAT n 1794. Battle fought at Courtray, Allies and Fiench, April 29- 1794. Ostend, ditto. May 5. 1794. Montesquan, Spaniards and French, May 1. )794. Aost, Sardinians and French, May 2. 1794. Saorgia, ditto, May 8. 1794. Tournay, English and French, May 16. 1794. Courtray, Allies and French, May 12. 1794. Mons, ditto, May 16. 1794. Tournay, EngUsh and French, May 10. 1794. Bouillion, Allies and French, ditto. 1794. Tournay, ditto. May 22. 1794. Lautern, ditto. May 23. 1794. Lithuania, Russians and Poles, June 3 1794. Piliczke, ditto, ditto. 1794. Barcelona, Spaniards and French, June 26. 1794. Charleroi, Dutch and French, June 17. 1794. Cracow, Prussians and Poles, ditto. 1794. Aost, Sardinians and French, June 26. 1794. Puycerda, Spaniards and French, ditto. 1794. Blonie, Russians and Poles, July 7. 1794. Manheim, Allies and French, July 12. 1794. Dorhilos, Prussians and Poles, July 19. 1794. Fontarabia, Spaniards and French, Aug 2. 1794. Zogre, Prussians and Poles, Aug. 22. 1794. Bellegarde, Spaniards and French, Aug. 26. 1794. Valley of Leira, ditto, Sept. 8. 1794. Maestricht, Allies and French, Sept. 18. 1794. Clermont, ditto, Sept. 20. 1794. Piedmont, ditto, Sept. 23. 1794. Posnania, Prussians and Poles Sept 24. 1794. Kophir Bazsee, Russians and Poles, Sept. 25. 1794. Milan, Sardinians and French Sept 30. 1794. Emmerick, Allies and French, Oct. 2. 1794. Warsaw, Poles defeated by the Russians, &c. Oct. 12. BAT 1794. Battle fought at Druten.Eng- lish and French, Oct. 20. 1794. Pampeluna, Spaniards and French, Oct 28. 1794. Nimeguen, Allies and French Nov. 4. 1794. Sandomir, Poles and Prus- sians, &c, Nov. 16. 1794. Navarre, Spaniards and French Nov. 25. 1794. Mentz, Allies and French Dec. 1. 1795. On the Waal, Jan. 11. 1795. Nantes, between the Cho- nans and Republicans, Jan. 18. 1795. Catalonia, March 5. 1795. Neve Munster, where the French were repulsed March 3 ; again the 18th ditto. 1795. At Figuras, the Spaniards Avere defeated, April 5. 1795. Piedmont, the Piedmontese were defeated, April 12. 1795. Pontas, in Catalonia, where the French were defeated, June 14. 1795. Piedmont, the French were defeated, June 14 ; again the 27th, and again July 1. I'r95. Pampeluna, when the French were defeated, July 2. 1795. Bilboa, when the Spaniards were defeated, July 17- 1795. Quiberon, the Emigrants were defeated, July 21. 1795. Urutia, when the French were defeated, July 30. 1795. Vittoria, when the Spaniards were defeated, Aug. 14. 1795 Piedmont, the Austrians were defeated, Aug. 20. 1795. La Pietra, when the French were defeated, Aug. 31. 1795. On the Lahu, when the French were defeated, Sept. 19. 1795. Manheim, when the Austrians were defeated, Sept. 23. 1795. Piedmont, when the French were defeated, Oct. 1. 1795. On the Mayne, when the French were totally defeated, Oct. 1 1 . 1795. Mentz, when the French were defeated, Oct. 29. 1795. Worms, ditto, Nov. 8. 1795. Moselle, ditto, Nov. 22. 1795. Deux Fonts, ditto, Nov. 28. 1795. Alsentz, ditto, Dec. 8. 1796. Piedmont, Sardinians were to- tally defeated by the French, April 14. 1796. Lodi, French and Austrians, May 11. BAT 1796. Battle fought at Mantua, ditto. May 29. 1796- French defeated near Wetz- laer, June 4 1796- Ditto, under Jourdan, by Gene- ral Kray, near Kirpen, June 20. 1796. Austrians defeated by Jourdan, Jvily 6. 1796. The Archduke repulsed by the Fr6nch, July 8. 1796. Mantua's siege raised, when the French left behind them 140 cannon, 100,000 shells, balls, &c. July 31. 1796. The Austrians were defeated by General Jourdan, Aug. 11. 1796. Jourdan was defeated by the Archduke near Auremburg, Aug. 18. 1796. The French were defeated by the Austrians near Neuvvied and Am- berg, Aug. 24. 1796. Jourdan was defeated near Mu- nich, Sept. 11 1796. Again near Limberg, and on the following day at Ishy, on the Leek. Sept. 18. 1797. Between the Austrians and Buonaparte, when the Austrians were defeated, Jan. 19 and 27. 1797. Buonaparte defeated the Arch- duke, April 1. 1797. The Austrians were again de- feated on the Upper Rhine, when the French took Frankfort Kehl, &c. May 7. 1798. The Swiss Troops were totally defeated by the French, and their inde- pendency abolished, Sept. 19. 1798. Between the Irish Rebels and king's forces, at Kilcullen, May 22. 1798. Ditto at Naas, May 23; the same day at Stratford upon Sleney; at Backestown, May 25; at Dunleven May 25; at Taragh, May 26; at Carlow, May 27 ; at Monastereven the same day ; at Kildare, May 28 ; at Ballacanoe and at Newtonberry, June 1 ; at New Ross, June 5 ; at Antrim the same day ; at Acklow, June 9 ; at Ballynahnich, June 13; at Ovidstown, June 19; at Ballynarush, June 20; at all which places the insurgents wei-e defeated. 1798. In Connaught, where the French aided the Irish Rebels, and were all taken prisoners, September 7. 1799 Near Naples, between the French and Neapolitans, January IS. 1799. Near Stockach, where the Arch- ess and courage to speak the plain honest truth, in his memorable speech to George HI., in vindication of the people's right to remonstrate to the throne, died 1770. BECKFORD'S, Alderman, monu- ment set up in Guildhall, 1770. BEDA, commonly called Venerable Bede, one of our most ancient historians, born 672, in the neighbourhood of Weremouth, in the bishopric of Dur- ham; published his Ecclesiastical His- tor)% 731. He died 735, of a lingering consumption, probably occasioned by a sedentary life. His learning, for the times, was extensive, his application in- credible, his piety exemplary, and his modesty excessive. His writings are deservedly considered as the foundation of our ecclesiastical history. All his works are in Latin. BEDELL. Bishop of Kilmore, born 1570, died 1641. BEDFORD, Duke of, made Regent of France, 1422, died 1435. BEDFORD, late Duke of, died Oct. 20, 1830, in his seventy-fourth year. BEDFORD, sixty houses at, destroy- ed by fire. May 25, 1812. BEDLOE, Capt. William, infa- mous for perjury, died 1680. BEER. See Ale. By the statute of James L one full quart of the best beer or ale was to be sold for one penny, and two quarts of small beer for one penny. The duties on beer from the years 1783, to 1786, produced7,308,655/. On malt for the same years, yielded 6,156,020/. In 1788 the duties on beer were 1,666,152/ From Jan. 5, 1816, to Jan. 5, 1817, 9,881,772/. 1830. The duties on ale and beer were repealed by 1 Will. iv. cap. 51. In the same year another act received the sanction of the- legislature. This was the Act 1 Will. iv. cap. 64, entitled, " An Act to permit the general sale of beer and cider by retail in England." Under its provisions, which came into operation Oct. 10, 1830, any person could obtain a license to sell ale, beer, and porter by retail. Previously, the justices of the peace were alone em- powered to grant licenses for the sale of malt liquor. By this act another class of dealers in beer was created, inde- pendent of the magistracy, and deriving their privilege from an excise license costing two guineas, and renewable annually. 1834. An act was passed (4 and 5 Will. iv. cap. 85) introducing some new regulations. Each beer-seller was in future to obtain his license only on con- dition of placing in the hands of the Excise a certificate of good character from six of the rated inhabitants of his parish. In Esse.v, Suffolk, Uxbndge, York, Lincoln, and several other agri- cultural districts, there was in 1837 an increased consumption of malt, though on the total consumption of England there was a diminution to the extent of 1,661,043 bushels. Since 1838, the increase of beer-shops in England has been 31-32 per cent., and in Kent and Sussex, 30-90 per cent. From these two counties there are gratifying statements of the growth of provident habits, and there is nothing in this statement which is inconsistent with the increase of properly-regulated places for the sale of beer by retail dealers. Crime has also diminished. The proportion of offenders was 9 per cent, less in 1837 than in any previous year since 1830; and yet the beer-shops have increased from 1,508 in 1834 to 1,974 in 1837 ; the number of licensed victuallers and licensed retailers together having been 3,907 in 1834 ; 4,205 m 1835 ; 4,447 in 1836 ; and 4,496 in 1837. BEE &7 BEE The quantity of the different sorts of ])eer made in England and Wales in each year from 1787 to 1825, is as follows: — Years ending 5th July: iStrong Beer Barrels. TableBeei- Barrels. Small Beer Barrels. 1787 4,426,482 43.'5,620 1,342,301 , 1788 4,304,895 524,176 1,334,947 1789 4,437,831 .514,900 1,244,046 1790 4,525,950 546,260 1,282,157 1791 4,754,588 579,742 1,347,086 1792 5,082,293 625,260 1,401,870 1793 5,167,850 620,207 1,414,255 1794 5,011,320 586,551 1,464,939 1795 5,037,804 576,464 1,453,036 1796 5,504,453 565,630 1,479,130 1797 5,839,627 584,422 1,518,512 1798 5,784,467 622,064 1,547,570 1799 5,774,311 611,151 1,597,139 1800 4,824,306 574,995 1,360,502 1801 4,734,574 500,025 1,191,930 1802 5,345,844 392,022 976,787 1803 5,582,516 1,660,828 1804 5,262,623 1,779,570 1805 5,412,131 1,776,807 1806 5,443,502 1,771,754 1807 5,777,176 1,732,710 1808 5,571,360 1,710,243 1809 5,513,111 1,682,899 1810 5,735,319 1,635,588 1811 5,902,903 1,649,564 1812 5,860,869 1,593,395 1813 5,382,946 1,455,759 1814 5,624,015 1,432,729 1815 6,150,544 1,518,302 1816 5,982,379 1,514,867 1817 5,236,048 1,453,960 1818 5,364,009 1,434,642 1819 5,629,240 1,460,244 1820 5,296,701 1,444,290 1821 5,575,830 1,439,970 1822 5,712,937 1,492,281 1823 6,177,271 1,419,589 . 1824 6,188,271 1,401,021 1825 6,500 664 1,485,750 It appears from the foregoing table that the quantity of strong beer manu- factured by the public brewers had in- creased about a third since 1787; but the quantity of malt consumed in 1787, was quite as great as in 1828; a fact, which shows conclusively, either that the quality of the beer brewed in the public breweries has been deteriorated since 1787, or that less, comparatively, is now brewed in private families, or. which is most probable, that both effects have been produced. BEES, Ruber's discoveries and ex- periments 1793; new observations, 1821. BEES, St. college, for the education of candidates for holy orders in the four northern dioceses, 1817. BEES Prioky, Cumberland, found- ed, 1120. BEL 88 BEESTON Castle. Cheshire, built by Randal Bundeville, 1220. BEETHOVEN, Ludwig Von, the celebrated German composer, born 1770, at Baun, Germany, where his father was the tenor singer in the elector's chapel. In 1792 he was sent to Vienna, as court organist, under the celebrated Haydn. In 1809, the archduke Rodolph and the princess Lobkowitz and Kinsky settled upon him an annuity of 4,000 florins, £400 a year. Nevertheless, the latter period of his life was passed almost in a state of destitution. Some benevolent friends in England raised a subscription for him early in the year 1827; he died at Vienna March 31 of the same year, aged fifty-seven. BEGGARS, relieved by act of par- liament, 1496. BEGGING Friars established in France, 1587. BEGUINES, an order of religious, began, 1208. BEHEADING of noblemen first introduced into England, 1074. BEHiMEN, Jacob, called the Teu- tonic Philosopher, a remarkable vision- ary, born in a village of Germany near Gorhtz, in 1575. He died 1624. BE H RINGS Straits, explored and designated by a Danish Navigator in the service of Russia, whose name it bears. Behring thus estabUshed the fact that the continent of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about thirty-nine mUes. BELFAST, long bridge at, built 1782. Bank built 1787 ; riot at, July 1835. BELGIUM, originally part of the territory of the Belgae, conquered by the Romans, a.c. 47. It consists of ten provinces, a part of those anciently called the Netherlands, divided between the Dutch, the Austrians, and the French. See Netherlands. After the French Revolution, Belgium was incorporated with France, and divid- ed into nine departments; but on the abdi- cation of Buonaparte, and the restoration of legitimate authority in France and Holland, 1813, it was transferred to the house of Orange by a revolution com- menced at Brussels Aug. 25. Separated, by another revolution, from HoUandOct. 1830. The Belgians elected Leopold king June 4, 1831. July 21, Leopold I. made his entrance into Brussels, after a most triumphant progress through his domi- nions from Ostend, where he landed BEL from England. On the 22d, his in- auguration took place, and, in the pre- sence of the congress, he took the oaths to preserve and defend the Belgic con- stitution. Aug. 3. The king of the Nether- lan(is having endeavoured to subdue the Belgians, resumed war against them, and obtained several advantages over the Belgic troops. King Leopold ap- plied for protection to the Five Powers under whose auspices the settlement of the differences between the two states was proceeding. France immediately despatched 50,000 men to his assistance; upon which, on the 13th, the king of the Netherlands agreed to withdraw his troops, and consented to an ar- mistice. Oct. 20. In the Belgian Chamber of Representatives, the Secretary for Fo- reign Affairs sul)mitted the protocol agreed upon by the plenipotentiaries of the Five Powers respecting the terms of the division of Belgium and Holland, which is declared to be final, and to be enforced by the whole of the subscri- bing powers. Nov. 3. The Belgian Congress, after several days debate, adopted the articles of separation from Holland proposed to them by the conference, by a majority of 35 to 8 ; but they were not accedea to by the House of Holland. Nov. 13, 1832. The Belgian Cham- bers opened by the king in person. His Majesty announced the recognition of Belgium as an independent state, by the leading powers of Europe ; and likewise his recent marriage with one of the daughters of the king of France, He also alluded to the situation of their affairs with regard to Holland, of which, however, he declared his confi- dence of obtaining, a satisfactory settle- ment. Same day, the French army, com- manded by Marshal Gerard, entered Belgium, and, marching directly for- ward, encamped before the citadel of Antwerp. The marshal having formally summoned Genera] Chasse, the gover- nor, to surrender, hostilities commenced on the 30th, by the Dutch garrison firing on the besiegers. Dec. 24. The citadel of Antwerp having been battered and bombarded by the French, tiU it was no longer tenable. General Chasse surrendered it to the French commander. Baron Chass^ and BEL S9 the garrison were held as prisoners of war till the surrender of Lello and Leifkenshock, two other Belgian for- tresses on the Scheldt, in the possession of the Dutch. The king of Holland having refused to allow of the surrender of these forts, the garrison were marched into France, and the French army pro- ceeded immediately to evacuate Bel- gium. 1832. A new treaty called the 24 Articles, was proposed by the Five Pow- ers, by which, as the basis of separation, a certain portion of the Duchy of Lux- emburgh was definitively assigned to the king of Holland as Grand Duke, (no right of redemption being any longer reserved to Belgium) together with the entire sovereignty of Maestricht, and a considerable part of Limburgh. It was, moreover, determined, that Belgium should contribute 8,400,000 florins an- nually, as her share of the joint debt of the two countries. The king of Hol- land obstinately refused his concurrence, and for several ensuing years, the matter remained unadjusted. At length, in March 1838, the king of Holland, through his ambassador, inti- mated to the Conference at London his entire assent, upon his part, to the con- ditions of separation which the courts of Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia, had declared to be unalter- able and irrevocable. His Majesty, therefore, declared his readiness to ac- cept the 24 articles. 1839. Treaty signed, April 19, ratifi- cation exchanged June 8. BELGRADE, one of the most im- portant cities in the north of the Turkish empire. Being situated on the frontier of Hungary, it has borne a conspicuous part in almost every contest between the two great powers of Austria and Turkey. It has been occupied successively by the Visigoths, Huns, Goths, Greeks, and Austrian s. In 1442 and 1456, it was besieged by the Turks, and in 1521 taken by Solyman II. In 1668 it was seized by the Imperialists, but wrested from them by the Turks in 1690. Prince Eugene made himself master of Bel- grade in 1717, when the Turks lost 20,000 men. At the peace of Passa- rowitz, it was allowed to remain in the hands of the Austrians, who, however, were unable to hold it longer than after the year 1739. By the conditions of BEL the peace of Belgrade, made m the same year, the Porte was permitted to retain the possession, provided the fortifica- tions erected during Austrian occupancy were immediately demoUshed, which was accordingly done, after the con- stant exertion of nine months on the part of as many persons as could be conveniently occupied at the task. On March 19, 1765, more than half the city was destroyed by fire. In 1789, it was taken by General Laudon, but re- stored to the Porte at the peace of Szistowe, in 1791. In 1806, it was seized by the revolutionary Servians, but upon their suppression, it was re- occupied by the Turks. BELISARIUS, a celebrated Roman general who flourished under the Em- peror Justinian, in the sixth century. In 533 the supreme command of the fleet and army destined for the African war was delegated to Belisarius, who invaded Sicily, 535, which he succeeded in re- storing to the subjection of the Romans. He then proceeded to Rome, which svir- rendered without opposition, Dec. 10, 536. In 563 he was falsely accused of a conspiracy against the emperor. He died of resentment and grief, 564. BELL, Rev. Dr. Andrew, author of the Madras system of education, born in 1753, died 1832. Shortly pre- vious to his death, he had transferred very large sums to diflferent bodies for the promotion of the improvement and diffusion of education. Among the sums so applied, were upwards of £100,000 for the establishment of schools in the towri of St. Andrew's where he was born, and £10,000 to the British Naval school. BELL, John, an eminent surgeon, died 1820. BELL of the church of Notre Dame, baptized and received the names of the duke and duchess of Angouleme ; the prince de Foix and duchess de Dames being proxies, Nov. 15, I8I6. BELL, Book, and Candle, swearing by, originated in the manner of the Pope's blessing the world yearly, from the balcony of St, Peters, at Rome. He holds a wax taper lighted; a cardinal reads a curse on all heretics, and no sooner is the last word uttered, than the bell tolls, and the pope changes the curse into a blessing, throwing down his taper among the people. N BEL BELLAIR, North Ahierica, attacked unsuccessfully by the 'British, and Sir Peter Parker killed, Aug. 30, IS 14. BELLAMY, Thomas, bom at Kings- ton-on-Thames, 17-44, and after twenty years in business as a hosier, he pro- jected the " General Magazine," and the " Monthly Mirror," and devoted the whole of his time to hterature, under the auspices of Harrison, the bookseller, and friend of Montgomerj', the poet. He was a man of original genius and talent, author of several elegant poetical eflusions and some dramatic pieces. BELLARMIN, Cardinal, one of the ablest controversial writers among the Roman Catholics, bom in Tuscany 1542. In 1576 he read lectures at Rome with such applause, that Sixtus V. sendmg a legate into France in 1590, appointed him as a di\-ine. In 1599, he was made a cardinal, and died 1621. He left, at his death, to the Virgin Mary one half of his soul, and to Jesus Christ the other. BELLA Y, French poet, bom 1524, died 1561. BELLEISLE. An engagement took Elace oflf this island in the year 1759, etween the Enghsh fleet, under Hawke, and the French, commanded by Con- flans, when the latter were defeated. It was taken by the English in the year 1761, but restored to France at the peace of Fontainbleau. BELLINGHAM, Northumberland, twenty-five houses at, destroyed by fire, Aug. 25, 1750. BELLINGHAM, John, shot Spen- cer Perceval, prime minister of Great Britain, in the lobby of the House of Commons. May 11, ISll. BELLINI, a musical composer, au- thor of I. Puritani, died 1S35. BELLOWS, invented a. c. 554. BELLMEN, first appointed in Lon- don 1556. They were to ring their bells at night, and cry. — " Take care of yom- fire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray for the dead." BELLROCK Light-house, Scot- land, finished Feb. 12, 1811. See Light- house. BELLS, invented by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, in Campagnia, about 400 ; first known in France, 550 ; first used by the Greek empire, S64. Bells were introduced into monaste- ries in the seventh or eighth centurj-. 90 BEL Pope Stephen III. placed three bells in a tower on St. Peter's at Rome. They were introduced in the churches of Europe, 900. The first tuneable set in England, were hung up in Croyland abbey in Lincolnshire, 960. They were first generally introduced into Switzer- land, 1020. Used to be baptized in churches, 1030. ITie following are the weights of the principal bells in Europe : — lbs. Empress Anne's, Moscow 432,000 Boris Godinuf s, ditto 288,000 Novogorod great bell 70,000 Ambrise bell, Rou^n 40,000 Vienna bell, cast from Turkish cannon 40,200 Erfurt, Prussian Saxony 30,000 Great Tom, of Oxford 18,000 St. Paul's, London 1 1,400 Ghent, Flanders 11,000 Great Tom, of Lincoln 10,400 Worcester great bell 6,600 York ditto 6,600 Gloucester ditto 6,000 BELSHAM, Rev. Thomas, Unita- rian minister, and author of the " Calm Inquiry into the Scripture Doctrine of the Saviour," died 1S29. BELTON, Rutlandshire, 27 houses, with their offices, destroyed by fire. May 27, 1776, BELUS, according to some, the Nira- rod of Scripture, began the kingdom of Babylon, a. c. 2245. According to others, Belus, tbe Assyrian began to reign at Ninevah a.c. 2124, and during 55 years extended his conquests and territory- on ever)' side. BELVOIR Castle. Greater part of this noble seat of the Duke of Rutland destroved by fire, Oct. 28, 18 16, BELZONI, the Egjptian traveller, bom in Italy about 1795. Arrived' in England in IS 13, and for some time procured a livelihood by exhibitmg ex- periments in hydraulics, &c. Embarked from Malta for Egypt about 18 16, where he remained several years, and disco- vered many remains of Egj'ptian an. tiquity. 1820. He returned to England with numerous and important remains, among which, was the colossal bust of Memnon. During the years 1821 and 1822, these were exhibited at the Gothic Hall, PaU Mall, London. Set out for Africa 1S22 to join the other travellers, Clapperton BEN 91 and Denham, at Haussa. He was at- tacked with dysentery at Benin, (on his way to Haussa and Timbuctoo) Nov. 26, 1823, and died at Gate, Dec. 3; was buried at Gato Dec. 4. BEMBO, cardinal of Venice, died 1547, aged 77. BENBOW, Admiral, fought the French off Carthagena, 1702. Having had his leg shattered in that engage- ment, he died of his wounds the 4th of November following. Five captains under Admiral Benbow, were tried at Port Royal, in Jamaica, for cowardice in this engagement, when tn'o were shot on their return to England. BENDER, a city in European Russia. In 1709, it became the retreat of Charles Xn. of Sweden, after his disastrous defeat at Pultowa, where he remained until 1711. In 1770 it was taken by storm by the Russians, under General Panim, who butchered the greater part of the inhabitants, at that time amount- ing to 30,000 individuals, nearly half of whom were soldiers, and reduced the city to ashes. At the peace of Kay- nardgi, it was restored to the Turks ; but on Nov. 15, 17S9, the Russians again took possession of the place. They finally made themselves masters of it a third time, and retained it at the peace of 1812. BENEDETTO. See Castiglione. BENEDICT, St. founder of the Be- nedictines, born in Italy about 480; died 546, aged 66. BENEDICTINT:S, founded about 528, introduced into England 596, mo- nasteries destroj^ed under Henry VIII., re-established at Douay in the Nether- lands in I6O8. BENEFICES, began, about 500. The number in England and Wales, is 10,674 benifices and parochial chapel- ries, with 649 chapels not parochial, and 227 new cturches and chapels, erected under the authority of the Church Building Acts. The number of Irish benefices is 2,168. In England, theii" patronage, or gift, is as follows : — Befitories. Vicarages, Of the crown 558 490 the bishops 592 709 deans and chapters 190 792 the University of Oxford 202 112 the University of Cambridge 152 131 BEN Collegiate Esta- Rect. Vic. blishments 39 107 In corporations .. .3444 3175 The number of benefices, churches, and chapels, in the respective dioceses is as follows, — Benefices. Churches Sf Chapels, Asaph, St 160 143 Bangor .. 131 - 193 Bath and Wells 440 493 Bristol 255 306 Canterbury 343 374 Carhsle. 128 129 Chester 616 631 Chichester 266 302 Davids, St 457 561 Durham 175 214 Ely 156 160 Exeter 607 711 Gloucester 283 330 Hereford 326 360 Llandaff 194 228 Litchfield & Coventry 623 655 Lincoln 1273 1377 London 577 689 Norwich ....1076 1210 Oxford 208 237 Peterborough 305 338 Rochester 93 111 Salisbuiy 408 474 Winchester 389 464 Worcester . 222 260 York 825 876 In Ireland, the patronage of 2,073 of the benefices is as follows : — Rectories 4" Vicarages. Of the crown 293 The Bishops 1,392 Impropriators 367 Dublin Universitj' 21 The crown has also the patronage of the bishoprics, the deaneries, prebends, &:c. The annual incomes of the English livings are, — 290 under £50 a year, 1,621 of £50 and under £100 a year 1,591 .. 100 150 1,355 .. 150 200 1,964 . . 200 300 1,317 .. 300 400 830 . . 400 500 504 . . 500 600 337 . . 600 700 247 . . 700 800 129 .. 800 900 91 . . 900 1,000 137 . . 1,000 1,500 31 .. 1,500 .. , 2,000 18 . . 2,000 and upwards BEN 92 The English benefices are held by in- dividuals in the following proportions : — Number of Livings held individuals. by each 1 11 1 8 5 7 12 6 64 5 209 4 567 3 2,027 2 4,305 1 The 2,073 Irish hvings are held by about 700 individuals. The income of the English church, viz., £9,500,000, is shared among less than 8,000 individuals; that of the Irish church, or £1,500,000, is shared among about 3,000 individuals. BENEFICENCE, Society of, esta- blished in Holland, for the amelioration of the condition of the poor, in 1818. BENEFIT OF Clergy. By the statute 7 and 8 Geo. iv. c. 27- passed June 21, 1827, various statutes in England, relative to the benefit of clergy, and to larceny, and other offences connected therewith, and to malicious injuries to property, and to remedies against the hundred, are re- pealed. See Clergy, Benefit of. BENEFIT Societies' Act, passed, 1795. BENEVENTO, seized by the king ot Naples from the Pope, in 1768. BENGAL, formerly a province of the Mogul empire, first known to Europeans in 1517, when some Portuguese, ac- cording to their history, were thrown on the coast by a tempest. Mohammed Buktyar Khillijee invaded Bengal, drove out the native sovereign, and assumed the government himself, 1203. Erected into an independent kingdom, 1340, which existed until 1533, when it again became an appendage to the throne of Delhi. 1634. The British obtained permis- sion to trade to Bengal, but were re- stricted to the port of Pipley in Orissa, where they established their factory. In 1656, owing to extortion and oppression, the company withdrew their factories. In 1664, the French and Danes esta- bhshed themselves here. In 1678, the British appear to have returned, and, in 1681, Bengal was constituted a distinct agency. In I696, the Dutch atChinsura, the French at Chandernagore, and the British at Chattanuttee, were permitted BEN to raise regular fortifications to protect their possessions. In 1706, the whole stock of the East India Company had been removed to Calcutta, where the garrison consisted of 129 soldiers. In 1740, the empire of Delhi was virtually annihilated. 1756. Seraje-ud-Dowlah took un- disputed possession of Bengal, Bahar, and a portion of Orissa; and on June 20, in the same year, he captured Cal- cutta and shut up his prisoners, 146 in number, in the black hole, a room 20 feet square, where all except 23 perished in one night. See Calcutta. In 1757, Calcutta was re-taken by the British, and from this era may be dated the commencement of the British govern- ment of this province, although the dewanny, or authority to collect the revenue, was not obtained from Delhi until 1765. In 1768 and 1769, the crops proved scanty, and scarcely any rain having fallen in October, of the latter year, the December crop totally failed, which caused a most dreadful and deso- lating famine, during which the child fed on its parent, and the mother on her child; the number cut off by this scourge exceeded 3,000,000. In 1772, the osten- sible seat of government was removed to Calcutta ; English supervisors were sent into the districts to superintend the col- lection of the revenue, which hitherto had been done by natives; the direct authority of the British now pervaded the interior in the civil administration of justice, and the native government was abrogated, with the exception of criminal jurisprudence, which was still exercised by the nabob; who abused his power by vesting his authority in some Mohammedan delegate, who filled the inferior courts by sale. This destructive system soon became insupportable, and, m 1786, during the administration of Lord Cornwallis, the nabob was induced to appoint the governor-general in coun- cil his delegate in the office of supreme criminal judge. At the same period the land revenue was permanently fixed, and British power predominated in every department. 1834. On the renewal of the charter of the East India Company, the commer- cial character of that great establishment was resigned, and its political authority only, continued in Bengal. The East India trade is now open to all British subjects and vessels without restriction. BEN BENGAN, on the Danube, was taken by the French, September 16, 1747. BENIN, a kingdom. Western Africa, coast of Guinea, extending along the coast from the river Lagos to cape For- mosa, first explored by Alfonso de Aveiro, in 1486. Described by Adams, who visited it about 1812. BENNETT, Timothy, one of Gilbert Wakefield's " Two Village Hampdens," who by his public spirit, compelled Lord Halifax, the ranger of Bushy Park, to re-open the footpath from the village of Hampton Wick to Kingston-upon- Thames, through that park, which had been shut up from the public for several years. The other village patriot was Lewis Richmond, who nobly resisted some meditated royal encroachments. BENSERADE, the French poet, born 1612, died 1691. BENTHAM, Edward, English di- vine, and writer of the history of Ely cathedral, died 1776. BENTHAM, Jeremy, an eminent English lawyer, born 1747, died 1832. He was an eccentric character during his life, and at his death his body was bequeathed to Dr. Southwood Smith, for the service of anatomy. BENTIVOGLIO, Cardinal, author of the " Civil Wars of Flanders," born 1579, died 1644, aged 65. BENTLEY Richard, a very eminent critic, born at Oulton, near Wakefield, ■ in Yorkshire, January 27, 1661-2. In 1691-2, hepublished his first work, which was a Latin epistle to Dr. Mill, contain- ing, " Critical Observations on Malala's Chronicon." In 1692, he was installed a prebend of Worcester; and in the following year he was appointed keeper of the royal library at St. James's. In 1696, he was admitted to the degree of doctor of divinity in the university of Oxford. In 1697, he published "Disser- tations on the Epistles of Themistocles, Socrates, Euripides, Phalaris, and the Fables of Msop." This publication was succeeded by a literary controversy with Mr. Boyle, on " The genuineness of the Epistles of Phalaris," which engaged at the time a great degree of public atten- tion. In 1711, he published his edition of " Horace," said to be the most com- plete work produced by criticism since the restoration of learning. In I7l6, Dr. Bentley was appointed regius pro- fessor of divinity. In 1726, he published an edition of " Terence and Phsedrus;" 93 BER and in 1732, the last of his works, which was his edition of " Milton's Paradise Lost." He died July 14, 1742, aged 81. BENYOWSKI, Count, a singular Hungarian adventurer, born 1741, slain 1786. BERCROFT'S Almshouses, Mile End, Middlesex, built 1785. BERCHEM, OR Berghem, a cele- brated Dutch painter of landscapes and cattle, born 1624, died 1689. BERENGER, principal of the public school at ToLu-s, and archbishop of An- gers, was much celebrated for his oppo- sition to the doctrine of transubstantia- tion as early as the year 1045. Pope Nicholas II. summoned him to Rome, 1058, and in the council which was held there the following year, so terrified him, that he declared his readiness to embrace and adhere to the doctrines which that venerable assembly should think proper to impose upon his faith. The remainder of his life for 30 years exhibited the same vacillation of mind which he had already manifested. He died in 1088. BERE-REGIS, Dorsetshire, 42 dwel- lings at, with outhouses, destroyed by fire, June 8, 1788. BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, taken by the French, September 16, 1747, again 1794. Attempt by the British to carry the place by storm defeated, March 8, 1814. BERGHAMABBEY,Sussex,builtl 160. BERGMAN, a celebrated Swedish chemist, a native of Catharineberg, in West Gothland. Bom in 1735, and re- ceived his education at the university of Upsal. In l76l he was appointed pro- fessor of mathematics and natural philo- sophy at Upsal, and in 1767, on the resignation of Wallerius, he obtained the professorship of chemistry in the face of a violent opposition ; a situation which he filled during seventeen years, with the greatest credit to himself, and advantage to the science. He deter- mined the true nature of fixed air, and died in 1784. BERIOT Madame Malibran db, the celebrated singer, who had been taken ill during one of her performances at the Manchester musical festival, died September 23, 1836, aged 28. BERKELEY, George, the celebrated bishop of Cloyne, in Ireland, was born at Kilcrin, near Thomastown, in the county of Kilkenny. Became a fellow of Trinity college, Dublin, in 1707. In BER 94 BER 1717, created doctor of divinity by di- ploma. In 1721, obtained the deanery of Down. In May, 1734, he was con- secrated bishop of Cloyne, and vacated his deanery. On that occasion he said to his few intimates, " I will neA'er ac- cept of a translation." He adhered to this resolution to the end of his life, though he was offered the vacant see of Clogher, of more than double the value of Cloyne. In 1751, he removed to Oxford, to superintend the education of his son, where he died, January 14, 1753. Few persons were ever held in higher estimation by those who knew him than this excellent prelate, whose worth was of so high a standard as to render the praise of Pope scarcely hyper- bolical, when he ascribes " To Berkeley every virtue under heaven." His principal works were, " An Essay towards a new Theory of Vision," " The Principles of Human Knowledge," "Al- ciphron, or the Minute Philosopher," "The Analyst," and the " Querist." A complete edition of his works, with an account of his life, and several letters, was published in two quarto volumes in 1784. BERKELEY, Judge, arrested on his seat in the court of King's Bench, and sent to prison for giving his opinion in favour of ship-money, February 10, 1640. BERKLEY Castle, Gloucestershire, began by Henry I., 1108; finished by Henry II. BERLIN, founded in 1163, by Albert, the Bear, and settled by emigrants from Holland. It was taken by the Austrians and Russians in 1760, and occupied by Napoleon in I8O6, after the battle of Jena In 1828, the annual meeting of German naturalists for the promotion of natural science was held here, the president, Alexander Von Humboldt. BERLIN coach, invented 1509. BERLIN decree, issued by Buona- parte, declaring the British territories in a state of blockade, and interdicting the whole world from having any commu- nication with them, November 21, 1806, revoked as to America, April 28, 1812. BERLIN University, founded by the king of Prussia, 1809. BERMUDAS, or Somers' Islands, in the Atlantic ocean, discovered by Juan Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522 ; and, in 1602, Sir George Somers, an English- man, being wrecked here, his crew form- ed the first settlement, and since that time they have belonged to England. During the civil war in England many withdrew from their native country to these islands ; amongst the number was the poet Waller, who celebrated the praises of the land of his exile in pa- triotic measures. 1813. Hurricane at Bermuda, by which one-third of the houses were de- stroyed, and all the vessels in the har- bour, except two, driven ashore or sunk, July 26. On April 3, 1 834, ( he House of Assembly passed a resolution, declaring slavery, without any modification of ap- prenticeship, abolished in the colony, from August 1, following. BERNADOTTE, General, elected crown prince of Sweden, 1810; con- cluded a treaty of subsidy and amity with Great Britain, 1812. At the death of Charles XIII., he ascended the throne, 1818. BERNARD St., born IO91, founded the abbey of Clairvaux, 1115, died 1153. BERNARD, St., of Savoy, the founder of a religious community, was born in the Genevois, in 903. Having witnessed the hardships and dangers en- countered by the pilgrims, in their pas- sage to Rome over the Alps, he founded two monastries, or hospitia, for their relief, on Mount-joux, called from him, " Great and Little St. Bernard." He died at Novara, at the age of 85, and was canonized by the Romish church. His institution has undergone a varity of vicissitudes, and lost great part of its riches ; but it still subsists, and is emi- nently useful to travellers. BERNARD, Dr. Edward, the as- tronomer, born 1638, died 1695. BERNARD, Peter Quesnel, a French writer, died 1773. BERNARD, Sir Thomas, an Eng- lish philanthropist, conductor of poor societies, died July 1, 1812. BERNARD, Sir John, statue erected on the exchange, died 1764, aged 80. BERNARD Castle, Durham, built 1270.^ BERNE, in Switzerland, made an imperial city, 1290; ancient government of, overturned by the French ; re-esta- blished, December 24, 1813; the diet met here by rotation in 1835-6 ; at Lu- cerne in 1827-8. BERNO, Italian poet, poisoned 1536. BERNOULLI, James, a celebrated mathematician born at Basil, December 27; 1654. Having taken his degrees at BER 95 BER the university of Basil, he applied him- self to divinity, not so much from in- clination as from deference to his father, who had designed him for the church. But his predilection for the mathematics induced him to make it his constant study, in opposition to his father's wishes, so that he soon became a geometrician, without any assistance from masters, and at first almost without books. In 1676, he composed universal gnomonic tables, but they were never published. In 1687, he was made professor of ma- thematics at Basil. In 1699. he was admitted into the academy of sciences at Paris as a foreign member, and in 1701, the same honour was conferred upon him by the academy of Berlin. He died A.ugust 16, 1705, aged 58. BERNOULLI, John, the brother of the above, and no less celebrated as a mathematician, was born at Basil in 1667- Received the degree of doctor m philosophy in 1685. He was a member of most of the academies of Europe, and received as a foreign associate of that of Paris in 1699- He died 1748, aged 81. BERNOULLI, Daniel, a celebrated physician and philosopher, and s(m of the preceding, born at Groningen, Feb- ruary 9, 1700. In 1748, he succeeded his father in the academy of sciences. He died in 1782. BEROSUS, the Chaldean historian, flourished, a.c. 268. BERRETINI, an Italian, and an ex- cellent painter of history and landscapes, born 1596, died 1669. BERRI, Duke de, assassinated at Paris, February 13, 1820, by Louvel, a fanatic. BERRI, Duchess op, took part in the Carlist movements in France, 1832. Arrived at La Verdee in May. Imme- diately on ascertaining the presence of the duchess, a royal ordinance appeared on June 3, placing under martial law the departments of Maine and Loire, La Vendee, the. Loire Inferieure, and Deux Sevres. Issued proclamations in the name of her son as Henry V., and her- self as regent ; the royalist cause failing, she escaped in disguise. In the beginning of November, she came into Nantes, and on the morning ot the 6th, her house was surrounded by gendarmes, and searched. No person was found. The police was accompanied by masons to detect, by sounding the walls, private places of concealment, but none was discovered. In one apartment a corner was marked by a chimney, in which the gendarmes had lighted a fire during the night. It had been allowed to go out, bu was rekindled in the mor- ning. It was thought that the apparatus of the chimney was not precisely as it had been. The fire was raised higher ; voices were heard behind it. The in- mates of the secret recess, to- which it was the entrance, unable longer to en- dure the heat, came forth from their hiding place, and the duchess of Berri, with three of her ladies, was a prisoner. She behaved with great good humour and cheerfulness. They had remained fifteen hours in this narrow hole, too small to be called a closet. The duchess was immediately conveyed by sea to the castle of Blaye, on the banks of the Gironde, where she was treated with the civility, and accommodated with the comforts, which were demanded by her sex and rank, no less than by her spirit and fortitude, however imprudently di- rected. 1833, February 22. Having beenfound pregnant in her prison at Blaye, she de- clared herself to have been secretly mar- ried in Italy. May 10. Delivered of a female child, on which occasion she declared herself the wife of Count Hector Luchesi Palli, gentleman of the chamber to the king of the Two Sicilies, and Neapolitan En- voy at the Hague. June 9. Liberated and sent off to Palermo, it being considered that the recent disclosures had nutralized her power of giving disturbance. 1834, March 8. The duchess as guar- dian of the Duke of Bourdeaux, having appealed against the sequestration placed on the estate of Chambord, the civil tribunal of Blois delivered judgment, restoring the full possession of the do- main to the young prince. BERRY, Rear-Admiral Sir E., bom 1769, died 1831. BERRY, Pomperoy, Castle, Devon, built 1070. BERTHIER, Marshal, prince of Wagram, threw himself from the win- dow of a house at Bamberg, and was killed, June 1, 1815. BERTH OLD, or Schwartz, a monk, who, mingling the ingredients of which gunpowder is composed, for a medicine in a mortar, and laying a stone upon it, it caught fire by his striking a B I B light near it, and blowing up the stone with violence the idea of gunpowder was suggested; died 1340. BERTHOLLET, Count, the French chemist, died 1822. BERTIN, N., an eminent French his- toric painter, born 1667, died 1736. BERWICK, Duke of, born 1670, killed at the siege of Philipsburg, June 12 1734. BESANCON. Burgundy, university of, founded in 1540. BETHLEHEM Hospital, Moor- fields, built 1553, rebuilt 1675, pulled down 1818, and removed to Lambeth, being built on the site of the Dog and Duck gardens, and called "New Bethle- hem hospital," First stone laid, April 20 1812. BETHLEHEMITES, religious sect, began 1248. BETTENSON, Mr., of Queen's square, left £30,000 to charitable uses, £10,000 of it to Mr. Hetherington's charity for the blind, October 28, 1788. BETTERTON, player, bom 1635, died 1605. BEVELAND, South, the island of, taken by the English, August 3, 1809. BEVERLEY Church, Yorkshire, built 711- BEVERLEY, near Nottingham, 14 houses at, burnt March 19, 1816. BEVERTON Castle, Gloucester- shire, built 1076, BEZA, Theodore, one of the prin- cipal pillars of the reformed church, born at Vezelai, in Burgundy, 1519. In 1549, he accepted the Greek professorship at Lusanne. In 1571, he was chosen mo- derator of the national synod of Rochelle. In l600, he discontinued his public ad- dresses, and died October 13, 1605. BIANCHINI, aVeronese philosopher, founder of the academy of Altofili, born 1662, died 1729. BIBLE. The word comes from the Greek Bi/3Xia, or BtjSXtov, used to denote any book ; but, by way ot eminence, apphed to the book of Scripture, which is " the book," or " book of books," as being superior in excellence to all other books. The list of the books contained in the Bible, is called the canon of Scripture. They are called canonical, by way of contradistinction from others called deutero-canonical, apocryphal, &c., which either are not acknowledged as divine books, or are rejected as heretical and spurious. See Apocrypha. 95 BIB The first canon or catalogue of the sacred books was made by the Jews, but the original author of it is not satisfacto- rily ascertained; it is generally allowed to be by Ezra, about a.c. 445. The original language of the Bible is probably the Hebrew. The most ancient manuscripts were written between a.d. 900 and 1100 ; but though not more than eight or nine hundred years old, they were transcribed from others of a much more ancient date. The manuscript preserved in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, is not less than 800 years old. The most ancient printed Hebrew Bibles are those pub- lished by the Jews of Italy, especially those of Pisars and Bresse. The Chaldee Bibles are but expositions made by the Jews at the time when they spoke the Chaldee tongue, and, therefore, are most usually called by the name of Targu- mim, or paraphrases, as not being any strict version of the Scripture. The Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, sup- posed to be done about 50, is a Chaldee paraphrase, rather than a version, on Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets. The Samaritan is ranked among the most ancient oriental versions, al- though neither its date nor author can with certainty be ascertained. It com- prehends only the Pentateuch, and has never been printed any where but in the London and Parisian Polyglots. TheSEPTUAGiNT. AccordingtoAris- tobulus, the Pentateuch and Joshua, if not other books also, must have been translated into Greek, before the time of Alexander the Great. The Septuagint, or Greek version ascribed to seventy interpreters, was not composed till long after. Josephus, Philo, Justin Martyr, Epiphanius, and others, say it was done by seventy- two Jewish transla- tors, at the request of Ptolemy Phila- delphus, king of Egypt, for the use of his library, 284. This version prepared the way for Christianity, and was very much used by the primitive churches, as well as among the Hellenistic Jews, The Copts, or remnant of the ancient Egyptians, have a very old translation of the Bible. The Old Testament is done with considerable exactness from the Alexandrian Septuagint. ITiere are several MS. copies of the Coptic Bible in public libraries. There was one much BIB esteemed in that of the late king of France, Louis XVI. The Gospels and Psalter have been recently printed by the Bible Society. English Bibles. Adelm, bishop of Sherbourn, made an English- Saxon ver- sion of the Psalms as early as 709 ; and Edfrid, or Ecbert, bishop of Lindisferne, translated several books of Scripture into the Anglo-Saxon about 730. It is said also, that Venerable Bede translated the whole Bible into that language prior to 785, in which year he died. In 699, a version of several books of the Bible was made by Elfric, Abbot of Mahns- bury : it was published at Oxford, and copies of it are still extant. One of the first attempts at a translation of the Scriptures into the English language, as spoken after the Norman conquest, appears to have been made by Richard Rolle, a hermit of Harapole, in York- shire, who translated the Psalter, and wrote a glossary upon it, and a metrical paraphrase of the book of Job ; he died in 1349. About 1360, John WickUfFe composed his version of the Scriptures, which was never printed, but is still ex- tant in manuscript in many of the pub- lic libraries. A translation, however, of the New Testament, by WickUfFe, was published about 1731. The first printed copies of the New Testament were of the translation of W. Tindall, assisted by Miles Coverdale, afterwards bishop of Exeter. It was printed abroad in 1526, but most of the copies were bought up and destroyed by bishop Tonstall and Sir Thomas More. It was, however, reprinted in 1530. In 1532, Tindall and his colleagues com- pleted all thg canonical books, and printed them abroad in one volume. John Rogers, the protomartyr of queen Mary's reign, and Miles Coverdale, car- ried on the work, revising Tindall's translatiian by a careful comparison with the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, adding the Apocrypha and notes from Luther's Bible. Rogers had the work printed at Hamburgh, vmder the assumed name of Thomas Matthews, and hence it was called Matthews' Bible. It was further corrected by Cranmer and Coverdale. jCranmer added a preface to it, and had it printed in England, 1540; it was the first ever printed in this country, and is called Cranmer's Bible. By a royal proclamation, king Henry VIII. ordered a copy of it to be supplied to every church, and left open for the perusal of 97 BIB all svho chose; it was afterwards sup- pressed by the same authority that gave it sanction. It was restored, under the authority of Edward VI., but again sup- pressed in the reign of queen Mary, and finally restored by queen Elizabeth, going through a new edition in 1562. When Coverdale, Cole, and others were exiles, they framed another translation, to which they added notes, and had it printed at Geneva. This was called the Geneva Bible, and was the first Bible in English in which any division was made of chapters into verses. 1568. That version denominated the Bishops' Bible appeared. Archbishop Parker was desirous of superseding the Geneva Bible, and therefore, engaged the bishops, with other learned divines, to take each a portion to translate ; and these several parts were eventually brought together, and published in folio. In 1589, it was published in octavo, and the chapters divided into verses like the Geneva edition. 1584. The Rheiraish New Testament was published. The English Roman Catholics at Rheims procured this to counteract the influence of the protestant versions. About 1609 or 1 6 10 the Ro- man catholics of England published a translation of the Old Testament at Douay. They have therefore now their own version of the whole Scriptures in the Enghsh language, but are forbidden to read it without a special permipsion first obtained The last English version of the whole Scriptures was that which resulted from the Hampton Court conference. The puritans on that occasion suggested un- answerable objections to the Bishops' Bible, and king James entertained an unconquerable aversion to the Geneva Fifty-four men of very considerable clas- sical learning were therefore, in 1604, nominated to produce a new translation, and, in 1607, forty-seven of them entered on the actual duties of their office. In three years their work was complete, and the new version made its appearance in 1610. This is the version still autho- rized in England by royal authority, and is esteemed, next to the Flemish, the best extant. Of this version the fol- lowing have been issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society up to the 5'ear 1838 : English various editions 3,208,150 Bibles, 3,626,055 Testaments. Total 6,834,205. Psalms 264,154. Gos- pels and Acts 5,198. o BIB 98 BIB Tlve following is an alphabetical list of the other principal translations and editions of the Scriptures : — Arabic. There is an Arabic trans- lation of a part of the Scriptures as early as 710. About the year 900, Saadiaa Gaon, a Jew, translated the Old Testa- ment into Arabic. There was an Arabic edition of the Old Testament printed at Rome in 1671, by order of the congrega- tion de propaganda fide ; it is not, how- ever, in much repute, having been alter- ed to correspond with the Vulgate. The British and Foreign Bible Society have issued an edition of the Arabic Bible, amounting to 30,558 copies. Armenian. The Armenians have a translation of the Old Testament done from the Septuagint by Moses Gram- maticus in the fifth century. In 1666, it was collated with, and altered from the Vulgate, and printed at Amsterdam under the direction of one of their bishops. The British and Foreign Bible Society have printed the entire Bilile in ancient Armenian, and the New Testa- ment in modern Arminian, (with ancient, in columns,) to be circulated in Armenia Proper; and prepared for the Armenians of Constantinople, Calcutta, &c.. They have also printed the New Testament in the Ararat Armenian, to be circulated around Mount Ararat, south of Georgia. Bohemian. The Bohemian Tabo- rites, about 1506, published a Bible in their language, done from the Vulgate. In the sixteenth c^ntuiy, eight Bohe- mian divines, having pre^nously qualified themselves by a course of study in the original languages at Wirtemberg and Basil, pubUshed a version of both Testa- ments from the original texts ; this was printed in Moravia, 1539. The British and Foreign i3ible Society have printed the entire Bible in Bohemian, for Tschehs of Bohemia, and Slovaks of Hungary. Calmuc. The society of united brethren at Sarepta, having begun a translation of the gospel of St. Matthew into this language, the whole New resta- ment was completed under the super- intendance of the British and Foreign Bible Society. As this dialect is likely to be understood by other Mongolian tribes in Siberia, and on the confines of China, the most beneficial eifects are anticipated. Chinese. The late Dr. Morison, of Canton, completed the translation of the Bible in the Chinese language { and the British and Foreign Bible So- ciety have printed the entire Bible (Morison's version) to be circulated in China Proper, and among the numerous Chinese in the Indian Archipelago, and the New Testament in the Mantchou, to be circulated in Mantchuria; it is also the court language in Pekin. Danish. In 1550, Peter Paladus, Olaus Chrysostom, John Synningius, and John Maccabaeus, published the first Danish Bible from the German of Martin Luther. In 1605, Paul Risenius, bishop of Zealand, published another Danish Bible; and, in 1624, John Michel published a Danish version of the New Testament. The British and Foreign Bible Society have also pubhshed several editions Dutch or Flemish. Bibles of tliis description done by Roman catholics are very numerous; but all of them are anonymous except that of Nicholas Vinck, printed at Louvaine in 1540. The Calvinists of the Low Countries used originally a version done from that of Luther; but, in 1618, the synod of Dort appointed deputies to produce a new Flemish translation from the original languages. This was published in 1637, and is considered a remarkably correct version. The British and Foreign Bible Society have published the entire Bible in Dutch, to be circulated in Holland and Dutch colonies ; and in Flemish, to be circulated in Belgium. French. There are three ancient French translations. The first by Peter de Vaux, chief of the Waldenses, pub- lished in 1160. The next in 1290, by Guinard les Moulins. The third in the reign of Charles V. of France, about 1383, by Raoul de Preste, who made a new translation into the French. Be- sides these there are sevei-al ancient French versions of detached books of Scripture. There are also a considerable number of Bibles and Testaments trans- lated by protestants. Faber's version of the New Testament was printed for those of Piedmont in 1534. The British and Foreign Bible Society have pub- lished the entire Bible of the versions of Martin, Ostervald, and De Sacy, to be circulated in France, Switzerland, and the French colonies The New Testa- ment in the Breton, or Armorican, to be circulated in the province of Brittany ; the Old Testament being translated, l»ut not printed.^ The French Basque, the BIB 99 BIB entire Bible, to be circulated in the de- partments of the Pyrenees, and province of Navarre. Gaelic. A few years ago a version of the Bible in this language was pub- lished at Edinburgh; and recently the British and Foreign Bible Society have published and circulated several editions. Georgian. The inhabitants of Georgia, in Asia, have long possessed a version of the whole Scriptures in the ancient language of the country. The British and Foreign Bible Society have printed the New Testament in the Georgian, ( Kedvuli, or ecclesiastical characters, and also in the civil, or common characters,) to be circulated in Georgia, south of the Caucasus. German and Gothic. The most ancient translation in this tongue was made about 360, by Ulphilas, bishop of the Goths. Between 1527 and 1532, Luther composed his translation, and published it in seven parcels as it was ready. It is agreed by competent judges that the language is pure and free from intricacies. The British and Foreign Bil)le Society have printed the entire Bible in German, (Luther's version,) to be circulated in protestant Germany, Prussia, &c., and the New Testament in the three versions of Gosner, Van-Ess, and Kistemaker, for Roman catholics in Germany. They have also printed the Pentateuch, Prophets, and Psalms, for German Jews, in the German and He- brew, in columns ; and the New Testa- ment, the German version in Hebrew characters. Greek. Although the editions of the Greek Bible are very numerous, they may all be reduced to four versions. 1. The Complutension, published by Car- dinal Ximines, in the Complutension Polyglot in 1515. 2. The Venetian Greek Bible is that printed at Venice in 1518, from the collation of many ancient copies, by Andrea Asulanus. 3. The Vatican Greek Bible in 1587- It was formed from the Vatican by Cardinal Carraffa, and several other eminently learned men. 4. The fourth, or Grabe's Alexandrian Greek Bible, is that of Ox- ford, taken from the Alexandrian manu- script, by Dr. Grabe, in 1707. The New Testament in its original Greek has undergone a great variety of edi- tions. Those of Mills, Kuster, Wetstien, and Bengelius, are the most valuable, aj^having various readings. The British and Foreign Bible Society have printed the New Testament in the ancient Greek version, for students. The entire Bible in the Russian Bible Society's version, for the Greek churches. The New Tes- tament in the modern Greek, and the entire Old Testament translated, for the Greek people in general. The Albanian version, ovith modern Greek,) of the New Testament, for the province of Al- bania, on the Adriatic. Hebrew. The Hebrew Bible, as published by Vander Hooght, in 1705, is preferable to every printed edition by which it is preceded. Dr. Kennicot, after a laborious collation of between six and seven hundred manuscripts, many of the whole, others of only parts of the Scriptures of the Old Testament in 1780, published his foho Hebrew Bible, in two volumes. The text is that of Vander Hooght, differing only in the disposition of the poetical parts, which Dr. Kennicot has printed in hemistics, as they naturally divide themselves, but still retaining the order of words as be- fore. The British and Foreign Bible Society have reprinted the Old and New Testament in Hebrew, for the Jews, and for students. Icelandic. The inhabitants of Ice- land have a version of the whole Scrip- tures in their language, which was made by Thorlak, and published in 1584. The British and Foreign Bible Society have reprinted the entire Bible, to be circu- lated in Iceland. Irish. About 1630, Bedell, bishop of Kilmore, caused the English Bible to be translated into Irish. The manu- script, however, was not put to press till 1685. The British and Foreign Bible Society have printed the entire Bible for circulation in various parts of Ireland. Italian or Grisson. An Italian version of the Bible was produced from the Latin Vulgate by Nicholas Malerme, a benedictine monk, and published at Venice in 1471. In 1530, Anthony Bruccioli published another translation, which was prohibited by the council of Trent. The protestants have two Italian versions, one by the celebrated Diodati, which is rather a paraphrase than a translation, of which the first edition was published in 1607, and the second with corrections in 1641. The other translation was executed by Maxim us Theophilus, and dedicated to the duke of Tuscany, about 1537. A translation BIB 100 BIB corrected by the more recent translation of St. Jerome, and this is called the modern Vulgate. A modem Vulgate was published in folio, 1571, by Arius Montanus. A fourth class is the Vul- gate edition corrected from the originals. Since the reformation there have been several Latin versions of the Scriptures done by protestants from the original. The versions m the highest estimation are those of Munster, Leo Juda, Cas- talio, and Tremelius, from 1534 to 1573. The British and Foreign Bible Society have printed a correct edition of the whole of the Bible in Latin, chiefly for the use of the ecclesiastics in various parts of Europe. Malayan. About 1670, Sir Robert Boyle procured a version of the New Testament in the Malayan language. The Malayan Bible was also translated by Brower and Valentine, two Dutch missionaries in the East Indies, feet. A third version is the old Vulgate, The following are the versions printed and circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society in the Malay language : — Versions. What printed. Malay, in Roman characters The entire Bible of the Bible into the language of the Grissons, in Italy, was completed by Coir, and published in 1720. The Bri- tish and Foreign Bible Society have printed the entire Bible, in the two ver- cions of Diodati and Martini, to be cir- culated in Italy. In the Romanese, for the Grissons of Switzerland. Lower Romanese, or Enghadine, for the bor- ders of the Tyrol. The New Testament in Piedmontese, for Piedmont. And St. Luke, and St. John, in Vaudois, (with French,) for the Vaudois, or Waldenses. Latin. The editions of the Bible in Latin during the primitive ages of Christianity were very numerous, but they may all be classified under four general distinctions. First, the ancient Vulgate which was translated from the Septuagint, and used in very primitive times. Second, a version by St. Jerome, made about 370, far preferable to the the old Latin Vulgate, but far from per- Malay, in Arabic characters Ditto ditto Malay, Low New Testament Where circulated. For the Moluccas, and eastern part of the Archipelago. Malay peninsula ; seaports and coasts of Sumatra, Java, and other islands. Batavia, and its neighbour- hood. Javanese, (Old Testament preparing by the Nether- lands Society) Ditto ditto Island of Java. Persian. The Old and New Testament, in the days of Chrysostom, were found in the Persic language. Of those ancient versions nothing now remains. The following versions have been printed and circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society in the Persian language : — Versions. What printed. Persic, (H. Martyn) New Testament. . . . EntireOldTestament Do. (Archdeacon Robinson) Do. (Mr. Glen; the prophets translated, but not printed. Ditto, (Mirza Ibrahim). . . . Ditto, (Mirza Jaffier) .... Pushtoo, or Affghan New Testament, and history books Where circulated . For the Mohammedans, Par- sees, and Persians of India. Ditto ditto. Psalms and Proverbs Persia Proper. Isaiah Ditto ditto. Genesis Ditto ditto. Belochee, or Bulochee .... Three Gospels Affghanistan, an eastern pro- vince of ancient Persia, west of the Indus. Belochistan, south of ditto, on the Arabian sea. Polish. The first Polish version of the protestants published another ver- the Scriptures is ascribed to Haddewich, sion founded on Luther's German trans- wife of Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who lation. In 1599, a Polish translation embraced Christianity, 1390. In 1596, of the Bible was puWished at Cracdw. BIB 101 BIB The British and Foreign Bible Society have printed the New Testament in Polish, to be circulated in Poland, Posen, Silesia, &c., and the New Testament in Judaeo-Polish, for Polish Jews. Russian. The Russians have their Bible in the Sclavonic tongue, done from the Greek, by St. Cyril, their apostle, and first printed in 1581- That trans- lation, however, being too obscure, the czar, Peter the Great, ordered another in 1722. The following are the versions printed by the British and Foreign Bible Society for Russia and its dependencies : — Versions. What printed. Where circulated. Slavonic, ancient and eccle- siastical language The entire Bible. , Russ. modern New Test., Psalms, and Octateuch . . Slavonic, and modern Russ. (in columns) New Testament. . . . Dorpat Esthonian New Test. & Psalms Reval Esthonian The entire Bible . . For the purposes of the Rus- sian church. Russia generally. Ditto ditto. Southern part of Esthonia. Northern ditto, on gulf of Fin- land. ditto Provinces of Livonia & Cour- land. St. Matthew For a Finnish tribe in go- vernment of Tver. ditto Ditto, in the government of Vologda. For a Finnish tribe on the banks of the Oka and Volga in the government of Nische Novogorod and Kasan. ters in 1553. The court of Spain, in 1796, ordered Spanish Bibles to be printed under the sanction of royal authority. The following are the versions of the Bible printed, circulated, or promoted by the British and Foreign Bible Society, in the Spanish language : — Lettish or Livonian Ditto Karelian. Zirian or Sirenian Ditto Mordvinian or Morduin . . New Testament. . . . Spanish. The oldest Spanish Bible of which we have any knowledge, was published about 1500. The Jews pub- lished one of their own in Gothic charac- Versions. Spanish, the two versions of Scio and Enzinas ^ Catalan ; Pentateuch and Psalms not yet printed. . Spanish Basque, or Escuara What printed. The entire Bible . . New Testament. . . . Gospel of St. Luke. Where circulated^ Spain generally, and Spanish colonies. Province of Catalonia and Valencia. Provinces of Biscay, Guipus- coa, and Alava. Spanish Jews in Turkey, &c. Judaeo Spanish New Testament. . . . Portuguese ; the two ver- sions of Pereira and Al- meida The entire Bible . . Portugal, & Portuguese colonies. Swedish. Olaus and Lawrence pub- lished a Swedish translation, done from the German version of Martin Luther, in 1534. In 1617, Gustavus Adolphus ordered some learned men to revise it, since which time it has been almost universally received in Sweden. The British and Foreign Bible Society have printed the entire Bible in Swedish, to be circulated in Sweden ; in Laponese, to be circulated in Russian and Swedish Lapland; in Finnish, to be circulated in Finland Syria c. There are two versions of the Old Testament extant in this lan- guage, one done from the Septuagint about 300 or 350, the other called an- tiqua et simplex, supposed to be done from the Hebrew about the time of the apostles. BIB 102 BIB The following versions have been printed, circulated, &c., by the British and Foreign Bible Society : — Versions. What printed, Syriac The entire Bible Where circulated. For the Syrian church in Tra- vancore, and for those parts of Syria where the Turks have little intercourse with the natives. Carshum, (Arabic in Syriac characters) New Testament. . and Mesopotamia Aleppo, other parts of Syria. Syriac and Carshum in parallel columns Ditto ditto Ditto ditto Syro Chaldaic; (Syriac in ,, , t^. • rr. • , o Nestorian characters) . . Gospels Mosul, Djezira. Tolam'.sk, & country west of Kurdistan. Turkish. In 1666, a Turkish New said, the Grand Signior ordered an im- Testament was printed in London for pression of the Bible, that it might be dispersion in the east. In 1721, it is confronted with the Koran. The following shows the versions printed, and where circulated, by the British and Foreign Bible Society :— Versions. What printed. Turkish The entiie Bible . Do. in Greek Characters. ditto Do. in Armenian character. New Testament. . Moldavian, orWallachian. . Th«i entire Bible Servian, or Serbian New Testament. . Bulgarian Gospels and Acts Welsh. The oldest "Welsh transla- tion was that in 1563. Another ver- sion, generally considered a standard translation, was printed in 1690, called bishop Lloyd's Bible. The British and Foreign Bible Society have printed several editions of the whole Bible a- mounting to 174,714 Bibles; 247,876 Testaments. Total 422,590. Besides the above, the Bible has been translated into the following languages, either in whole or in part, under the auspices of the British and Foreign Bible Society India. In the Sanscrit, or Sung- skrit, the entire Bible. Hindoostanee, or Oordoo, (H. Martyn,) New Testa- ment. Ditto, by Mr. Thomason, Bible to 2 Kings. Ditto, Serampore version, the entire Bible. Northern and Central India. Bengalee, the entire Bible. Ditto, two versions, (EUerton and Yeates,) New Testament. Magudha, the New Testa- ment. Orissa, or Oreia, or Uteula, the Where circulated. Turkey in general. For Greek Christians using the Turkish language, with Greek characters. For Armenian Christians using the Turkish language, with Armenian characters. Moldavia, Wallachia, and part of Transylvania. In Servia and some bordering Austrian states. Turkish provinces E. & S. of Hungary. entire Bible. Hinduwee, or Hindooee, the entire Bible. Ditto, (called Hindee, by Ser. Trans.) both in the Nagree and Kythee characters, the whole Bible. Dialects of the Hinduwee. Bu- ghelcundee, the New Testament. Bruj, or Brij-bhasa, the New Testament. Canoj, or Canyacubja, the New Testa- ment. Kousula, or Koshala, St. Mat- thew. Dialects of Central India, or Rajport States. Harrotee, New Testament. Oojein, or Oujjuyunee, New Testament. Oodeypoora, St. Mat- thew. Marwar, the New Testament. Juyapoora, St. Matthew. Bikaneera, New Testament. Buttaneer, or Virat, New Testament. Sindhee, St. Matthew. Moidtan, or Wuch, New Testament. Punjabee, or Sikh, the entire Bible. Dogura, or Jumboo,the New Testament. Cashmerian, the New Testament, Penta- teuch, and history books. GoRKHA Dialects. Nepalese, Khas- poora, or Parbutti, the New Testament BIB 103 BI Palpa, New Testament. Kamaon, the New Testament. Gunvhal, or Shreena- gur, the New Testament Southern India, — Madras Presi- dency. Telingei, or Teloogoo, New Testament and Pentateuch. Kernata, or Canarese, New Testament. Malaya- lim. New Testament. — Bombay Presi- dency. Kunkuna, New Testament and Pentateuch. Mahratta, the entire Bible. Gujerattee, the New Testament. Cut- chee, or Catchee, Ncv Testament pre- paring. Ceylon. Pali, New Testament. -Cin- galese, the entire Bible. Indo-Portu- guese, Pentateuch, Psalms, and New Testament. Indo-Chinese Countries. Assa- mese, the entire Bible. Munqioora, New Testament. Khasse, the New Testament. Burmese, the entire Bible. Siamese, or Thay, Testament not printed. Polynesia. Huwaian, New Testa- ment. Tahitian, the entire Bible. Raro- tonga, the New Testament. Marquesan, some portions given, versions preparing. Tonga, ditto. New Zealand, New Tes- tament. Madagasse, the entire Bible. Africa. Ethiopic, New Testament and Psalms. Amharic, New Testament and Psalms, and greater part of the Old Testament. Berber, part of St- Luke. BuUom, St. Matthew. Mandingo, St Matthew. Namacqua, small portions, and others preparing. Se^huana, ditto. CafFre, Isaiah, Joel, and Luke. North America. Esquimaux, New Testament, Genesis, Psalms, and Isaiah. Mohawk, St. John. Chippeway, ditto. Delaware, Epistles of St.John. Creolese, New Testament, South America. Negro-English, New Testament. Aimara St. Luke. Mexican, St. Luke. BIBLE. The following is a dissec- tion of the Old and New Testament : — In the Old. In the New. Total. Books 39 27 66 Chapters.. 929 260 1,189 Verses 23,214 7,959 31,173 Words.... 592,493 181,253 773,746 Letters . . 2,728,100 838,380 3,566,480 The Apocrypha has 183 chapters, 6,081 verses, and 125,185 words. The middle chapter, and the least in the Bible, is the ll7th Psalm. The middle verse is the 8th of the 118th Psalm. The middle line is the 2nd book of the Chroniclps, 4th chapter, and 16th verse. The word and occurs in the Old Tes- tament 35,535 times. The same word in the New Testament occurs 10,684 times. The word Jehovah occurs 6,855 times. Old Testament. The middle book is Proverbs; the middle chapter is the 29th of Job ; the middle verse is the 2nd book of Chronicles, 20th chapter, and the 18th verse ; the least verse is the 1st book of Chronicles, 1st chapter, and 1st verse. New Testament. The middle is the 2nd Thessalonians ; the middle chapter is between the 13th and 14th of the Romans ; the middle verse is the 1 7th of the I7th chapter of the Acts ; the least verse is the 35th of the 11th chap- ter of the gospel by St. John. The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra, has all the letters of the alphabet in it. The 19th chapter of the 2nd book of Kings, and the 37th chapter of Isaiah are alike. The book of Esther has 10 chapters, but neither the words Lord no*' God in it. BIBLE, principal events of, arranged in the order of their dates A.c. 4003. The birth of Cain, the first who was born of a woman. Abel was born soon after. 3875. Abel was murdered by Cain, because his sacrifice was more acceptable to God 3874. Seth born, whose offspring wei'e the children of God, by way of distinction from those of Cain, who were named the children of men. 3017. Enoch, for his piety, was trans- lated to heaven. 2469. The term of 120 years was al- lowed by God for the repentance of the world, before the deluge. This was com- municated to Noah, who was sent to them as a preacher of righteousness. 2349. On the tenth day of the second month, which was on Sunday, Nov. 30, God commanded Noah to enter into the ark with his family, &c., and on Sunday, 7th Dec, it began to rain, and rained 40 days J and the deluge continued 150 days. 2348. The ark rested on mount Ara- rat, on Wednesday, 6th May ; the tops of the mountains became visible on Sunday, 19th July ; and on Friday, 18th Dec. Noah came out of the ark, with all that were with him. He built an altar and sacrificed to God for his deliverance. BIB 104 BIB A. c. 2247. The Tower of Babel was built about this time, by Noah's posterity, in the fall of Shinar, upon which God miraculously confounded their language, and thus dispersed them into different nations. 1996. Abram, the patriarch, born at Ur, in Chaldea, died 1821, aged 175. 1927. Sarah, wife of Abram, born, died 1859, aged 127. 1925, Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, subdued the five kings of Sodom, Go- morrha, Adam a, Seboim, and Zoar. 1921. The covenant of God made with Abram, when he left Haran to go into Canaan, on the 15th of Abib, or Wednesday, 4 th May, which began the 430 years of sojourning. Abram and Lot went into Egypt on account of the famine, and returned the next year, when they separated, the one for Sodom, and the other to Hebron. 1912 The five kings rebelling against Chedorlaomer, were defeated by him. He plundered Sodom, and carried off Lot captive. Abram pursued, and defeated Chedorlaomer, and rescued Lot. On his return he received the benediction of Melchizedek, king of Salem, the priest of the Most High God. 1 910. Ishmael was born to Abram by Hagar; died 1773, aged 137. 1897. The covenant was renewed with Abram, in memorial of which circumci- sion was instituted, and his namechanged to Abraham. The cities of Sodom, &c. were destroyed for their wickedness by fire from heaven. Lot, with his wife and two daughters, left Sodom beforehand, being warned; his wife looking back was turned into a pillar of salt. 1896. Isaac born to Abraham by Sarah, 90 years old; died in I7l6, aged 180- 1871. The faith of Abraham was prov- ed in offering to sacrifice his son Isaac, who was then 25 years old. 1836. Esau and Jacob were bom to Isaac by Rebecca, after above I9 years' barrenness. 1821. Abraham died, being 175 years old, 1759. Jacob having received his father's blessing, went to Haran to his uncle Laban, and married his two daugh- ters. 1739. Jacob returned into Canaan after a 20 years' servitude under Laban. 1731. Dinah, Jacob's daughter, was ravished by Shechem. He and all his people were treacherously put to death on the third day after circumcision, by Simeon and Levi. A.c. 1728. Joseph was sold into Egypt by his brethren. 1715. Joseph interpreted Pharaoh's dreams, and was promoted. The seven years of plenty began. 17O8. The seven years of famine began ; and the year after, Joseph's ten brethren came into Egypt for com. 1706. Joseph discovered himself to his brethren, and, at Pharaoh's desire sent for Jacob and his family into Egypt. 1704. All the money in Egypt and Canaan was collected by Joseph into Pha- raoh's treasury ; and the year following, they sold him their herds and flocks. 1702. The property of all the lands of Egypt was sold to Joseph, who let them out with a perpetual tcix of the fifth part of their produce. 1689. Jacob on his death-bed, adopted Manasseh and Ephraim, the two sons of Joseph, and collecting all his children, blessed them, foretelling many things, particularly the coming of the Messiah ; he died aged 147, ha\'ing resided 17 years in Egypt. 1635. Joseph foretold the egress of the Israelites from Egypt, and died, aged 110, having been prefect of Egypt for eighty years. His death concludes the book of Genesis, which contains a period of 2369 years. 1574. Aaron born; and the year after, Pharaoh published an edict for drowning all the male children of the Israelites. 1252. The fourth servitude of the Israelites, under the Midianites, which continued 7 years. 1206. The Israelites being given to idolatry, were delivered by God into the hands of the Philistines and Ammonites. This was their fifth servitude and con- tinued 18 years. 1188. Jephtha, the seventh Judge of Israel, for six years. He defeated the Ammonites, and rashly made a vow, which deprived him of his daughter. He chastised the insolence of the Ephraimites, having kiUed 42,000 of them in battle. 1182. Ibzan the eighth judge of Is- rael, for seven years. 1175. Elon, the ninth judge of Is- rael, for ten years. 1165. Abdon, the tenth judge of Is- rael, for eight years. BIB 105 1167. Eli, the high priest, eleventh judge of Israel, for 40 years. 1156. The sixth servitude of' the Is- raelites, under the Philistines, which continued 40 years. 1096. The Philistines were defeated by Samuel, at Eben-ezer. 1095. The IsraeUtes asked a king which was granted, though with God's displea- sure ; and Saul was anointed by Samuel, to be their king. 1093. Saul defeated the Philistines. Before this, they did not allow him a smith in all his kingdom. Saul was re- jected of God for disobedience, with re- gard to the Apialekites; and David, when 22 years old was anointed by Samuel to be king after Saul. 1062. David, finding that Saul sought his life, retired into the deserts of Judah. 1056. David retired among the Phi- listines, who gave him Ziklag, where he was one year and four months. 1055. Saul consulted the witch of En- dor, and was totally defeated by the Phi- listines next day, upon Mount Gilboa. — Three of his sons were slain, upon which he killed himself. 1048. Jerusalem taken by David from the Jebusites, and made the seat of his kingdom. 1034. David was reproved by Nathan for his adviltery, &c., and repented. 1023. Absolom rebelled against Da- vid, and took Jerusalem, but was defeat- ed and killed by Joab. 1012, Solomon began the building of the Temple, 480 years after the going out of Egypt. 1004. The Temple was solemnly dedi- cated on Friday, 488 years after the go- ing out of Egypt. 992. Solomon finished the building of his palace, which with that of the Temple employed him twenty years. 975. The division of the kingdom of Judah and Israel. Jeroboam set up two golden calves, one at Dan, and the other at Bethel, to prevent his subjects going to worship at Jerusalem. 971. Shishak, king of Egypt, took Jerusalem, and carried off the treasures of the Temple and of the palace. 941. Zerah, the Ethiopian, with one million men, totally defeated by king Asa, in the valley of Zephathah. 940. Benhadad, king of Syria, at- tacked Baasha, king of Israel, and took several of his cities. BIB 896. Elijah the prophet was taken up into heaven. 878. Athaliah, queen of Judah, was put to death by order of the priest Je- hoiada, surnamed Johanan. 839. The army of Hazael, king of Syria, desolated great part of the king- dom of Judah. 807. Ahab was killed by the Syrians in the battle of Ramoth Gilead, according to the prophecy of Micaiah ; upon this the Moabites revolted, having been tri- butary from the days of king David. 787. Amos prophesied against Jero- boam, second king of Israel. 785. Hosea, the prophet, lived, died in 721. 771. Azariah, king of Judah, pre- suming to burn incense, was struck with leprosy, which continued till his death. 757. Isaiah the prophet, began to prophesy, and continued it for above 60 years. 731. Habakkuk, the prophet flourish- ed about this time. 721. Samaria taken after three years' siege, and the kingdom of Israel was fi- nished by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria. 717. Tyre was besieged in vain for about five years, by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria. 710. Sennacherib's army destroyed by an angel in one night, to the amount of 185,000 men. 677. Manasseh, king of Judah, was taken prisoner, and carried in chains to Babylon. 641. Amon, king of Judah, was trea- cherously put to death by his domestic servants. 627. Jeremiah, the prophet wrote ; died 577. 626.Zephaniah, the prophet flourished. 608. Josiah, king of Judah, was slain in battle at Megiddp in the spring, by Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt. 605. The beginning of the captivity. 597. Jehoiachim, king of Judah, was carried away captive by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon. 587. The city of Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a siege of eigh- teen months, June 9- 586. The Temple of Jerusalem was burnt on the seventh day in the fifth month. 558. Daniel the prophet lived. 528. Haggai and Zachariah, the pro- phets, flourished about this time. F BIB • 106 458. Ezra was sent from Babylon to Jerusalem with the captive Jews, and the vessels of gold and silver, &c., by Artaxerxes, in the seventh year of his reign, being 70 weeks of years, or 490 years before the crucifixion of our Sa- viour. 456. Nehemiah, the prophet lived. 436. Malachi, the last of the pro- phets lived. 430. The history of the Old Testa- ment finished about this time. BIBLE SOCIETY, British and Foreign, instituted 1804. First anni- versary May 1, 1805, at the new London Tavern, Cheapside. 1811, In India the exertions for rendering the Scriptures into the eastern dialects were unremitt- ing. In this work the late Dr. Carey, Baptist Missionary at Serampore, was the most distinguished labourer. A Bibliotheca Biblica was established at Calcutta, consisting of two departments ; a Bible Repository, designed to contain bibles and testaments in all languages, and a Translation Library. 1812. The Rev. Mr. SteinkopflF, one of the Secretaries of the society, de- parted to make a tour through several kingdoms on the continent. The com- BIB England Wales Berwick upon Tweed Scotland . Ireland mittee considered it expedient to make him the fully accredited agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, and to authorize him, wherever he should visit, to hold ample encouragement for the formation of bible societies ; they therefore placed the sum of £2000 at Mr. Steinkopff's disposal, and subse- quently made such communication as to induce him in the course of his journey, to make grants of money, bibles, and testaments, to the amount of £2712 10s. A bible society was formed in tlie capi- tal of Russia, under the title first of the St. Petersburg, and afterwards the Rus' sian Bible Society. Hjs imperial ma- jesty Alexander, soon after its public or- ganization desired to be enrolled as one of its members, making a donation of 25,000 rubles, and promising an annual subscription of 10,000 rubles. The period from the year 1812 to 1816, forms an important era in the his- tory of this society. In 1812 and 1813, among other advances made by the society the formation of juvenile and female auxiliary societies must be enumerated. These were followed by branch societies, and bible associations. In 1816, a\ix- iliary and branch societies were in 306 Isle of Man 43 Guernsey 1 Jersey 122 66 Total 544 The issues of Bibles and Testaments by the British and Foreign Bible Society to 1816, were as follow : — Total issued in Great Britain Purchased and issued on the continent of Europe Bibles. 654,427 25,000 Test. 828,546 50,000 Total. 1,482,973 75,000 679,427 87,8546 1,557,973 114,000 188,600 302,600 Printed and printing on the continent of Europe, ' by bible societies, aided by donations from the British and Foreign Bible Society, Bibles. Editions of the Scriptures printed for French 13,000 the Society, pre\'iously to the 31st of March, 1816. Bibles. Test. Enghsh, various edi- tions 563,558 565,097 Wales 46,242 81,178 Gaehc 22,000 20,000 Irish 7,500 Manks 2,250 Spanish Portuguese. . . . Italian Dutch Danish German Greek, ancient modern . . Greek, modern and 5,000 500 8,000 Test. 79,000 20,000 20,000 11,000 15,000 10,000 13,000 5,000 10,000 BIB 107 BIB Bibles. 1,439 Test. Arabic Esquimaux the four Gospels 1,000 Mohawk, St. John's Gospel 2,000 Ethiopic Psalter 2,100 1835. Atthe annualmeeting at Exeter- hall, it appeared from the report May 5, that the receipts of this society, for the last year, exceeded those of any preceding year, the total amount collected being £107,926, and that, after paying all ex- penses, and increasing the number of their establishments, the society had a balance of £23,676. The number of in- dividuals who attended to hear the pro- ceedings was so great, that upwards of six hundred were accommodated in an- other room, to whom a report of what was passing was conveyed. 1839. At the annual meeting held at Exeter-hall, May 1, it appeared that the receipts of the society during that year had amounted to £105,255 2s. lid., be- ing £8018 is. Od. more than in the pre- ceding year — the free contributions from Auxiliary Societies to £33,^46 8s. 9d., showing a progressive increase under this item of receipts — the legacies to £15,788 3s. Od., of this sum, £10,000 had been received from the executors of the late Geo. Hammond, Esq., who, in addition to the above, had bequeathed to the society one-fourth of the residue of his estate, which, it was expected, would amount to something considerable. The amount received in donations had been £3542 10s. Id. Bible Societies connected with the British and Foreign Bible Society in Great Britain in 1838 : AuxiUaries, 352; Branches, 327; Associations, 1730: total, 3,409. In the colonies and other dependencies. Auxiliaries, 88; Branches, 77; Associations, 139 : total, 304. Con- nected with the Hibernian Society, Aux- iliary and Branch Societies in 1838, in the four provinces, 538. Foreign Agencies, connected with the British and Foreign Bible Society, which have the superintendence of De- pots of the Holy Scriptures, in 1838. I. In France, at Paris. II. In Germany, at Frankfort. III. In Sweden, at Stock- holm. IV. In Norway, at Christiania. Christiansand, Stavanger, Bergen, and Drontheim. V. In Russia, at St. Pe- tersburg. The British and Foreign Bi- ble Society have also depots of Bibles and Testaments in the following places : viz., Constantinople, Smyrna, Athens, Corfu, Malta, Gibraltar, Sleswick, &c. Foreign Societies formerly or at present assisted by the British and Fo- reign Bible Society, with the amount of their issues by themselves and auxiliaries, and the date of the institution. Western Europe. French, Breton, Spanish, Catalonian, Portuguese, Ger- man, &c. Copies of Scriptures. Protestant Bible Society at Paris, instituted 1818 176,451 French and Foreign Bible Society at Paris, ... 1833 99,156 Strasburg, 1815 26,662 Issued from the Society's Depot in Paris from April, 1820 1,228,452 Northern Europe. Iceland, Swedish, Finnish, Lapponese, Danish, &c. Iceland, 1815 10,445 Swedish 1819 460 434 The Agency at Christiana formed 1832 13,278 Stavanger 1828 6,643 Finnish 1812 43,000 Danish 1814 149,766 Western Europe. Netherlands 182,557 Belgian and Foreign Bi- ble Society, at Brus- sels 1834 7,623 The Agency at Brussels, appointed 1835 45,100 Antwerp 1834 220 Ghent 1834 7,131 Sleswig-Holtein 1815 80,488 Eutin 1817 4,147 Lubeck 1814 9,097 Hamburgh 1814 69,169 Bremen 1815 15,975 Lanenburgh-Ratzeburgh.l8l6 9,767 Rostock 1816 8,692 Hanover 1814 80,330 Lippe-Detmold I8I6 3,569 Waldeck 1817 2,800 Hesse-Cassel 1818 22,981 Hanau ....1818 3,316 Marburgh. 1 825 6,110 Frankfort 1316 73,565 The Agency at Frankfort 1830 373,561 Hesse-Darmstadt 1817 31,484 Duchy of Baden 1720 18,585 Wurtemberg 1812 347,948 Bavarian Protestant Insti- tution at Nuremburg 1821 69.574 Saxon 1814 171,469 BIB 108 Copies of Script. Anhalt-Koethen 1818 "Weimer 1821 3,773 Eisenach 1818 4,938 Brunswick 1815 700 Prussian 1805 900,304 Issued to the Prussian Troops since 1830 124,314 Switzerland and Italy. German, French, Italian, and Romanese. Basle 1804 194,078 Schaffhausen 1813 7,193 Zurich 1812 14,656 St. Gall 1813 34,008 Aargovian 1815 13,102 Berne 40,841 Neufchatel 1816 6,430 Lansanne 1814 32,000 Geneva 1814 36,651 Glarus 1819 5,000 Coire or Chur 1813 12,267 Waldenses 1816 4,238 Greece andTuRKEY. Ionian 1819 7,377 Russia. Russian 1826 861,105 St. Petersburg 1826 45,543 India. Calcutta 1811 240,033 Madras 1820 240,708 Serampore Missionaries. 200,000 Columbo.., 1812 36,114 Bombay 1813 91,011 America. American Na- tional 2,353,298 Philadelphia 233.029 Total of Copies of Scripture.. 7,972,275 Issues of Copies of the Scriptures from 1805 to 1808 81,157 .... 1808 .. 1809 77,272 .... 1809 .. 1810 64,468 1810.. 1811 102,618 1811 .. 1812 106,423 .... 1812.. 1814 352,569 1814.. 1515 249,932 1815.. 1816 248,236 1816 .. 1817 193,021 1817.. 1818 194,101 1818.. 1819 260.031 1819.. 1820 256,883 1820.. 1821 246,957 1821.. 1822 255,739 1822.. 1823 259,850 1823 . . 1824 290.495 1824.. 1825 280,655 1825 . . 1826 286,402 .... 1826.. 1827 294,006 .... 1827.. 1828 336,270 .... 1828.. 1829 365.424 BIG Purchased and issued pre\'ious to 1829 1,114,287 1829 . . 1830 434,422 1830 .. 1831 470,929 1831 .. 1832 583,888 1832 .. 1833 536,841 1833.. 1834 393,900 1834 .. 1835 653,604 1835 .. 1836 558,842 1836 .. 1837 541,843 1837.. 1838 594.398 1838.. 1839.. 658,068 Total 11,546,111 Expenditure of the British and Foreign Bible Society. £. s. d. 1805 619 10 2 1806 1,637 17 5 1807 5,063 18 3 1808 12,206 10 3 1809 14,565 10 7 1810 18,543 17 1 1811 28,302 13 7 1812 32,419 19 7 1813 69,496 13 8 1814.... 84,652 1 5 1815 81,021 12 5 1816 103,680 18 8 1817 89.230 9 9 1818 71,099 1 7 1819 92,237 1 4 1820. 123,547 12 3 1821 79,560 13 6 1822 90,445 6 4 1823 77,076 10 1824 89,493 17 8 1825 94,044 S 5 1826 96,014 13 7 1827 69,962 12 3 1828 86,242 9 8 1829 104,132 6 11 1830 81,610 13 6 1831 83,002 10 9 1832 98,409 10 9 1833 88,676 1 10 1834 70,404 16 7 1835 84,249 13 4 1836 107,483 19 7 1837 103,171 5 2 1338 91,179 14 11 1839 106,509 6 4 Total expenditure £2,529,985 4 11 BIBLE Society, Naval and Mili- tary, instituted 1780. BICKERTON, Admiral, Sir R. H., a 'gallant officer, trained under Duncan, born 1760, died 1832. BIG 109 BIL BIDASSOA River, crossed by the allied Spanish army, and Lord Welling- ton entered France, Oct, 7, 1813. BIDDENDEN Cakes, so called from a small town of that name, famous for giving a 1000 cakes to the parishioners on Easter Sunday, impressed with the figure of two females joined together. BIDDLES, John, the miser; he con- gratulated himself that sixpence per day was sufficient for his support; he was worth a million sterling; died Novem- ber 4, 1833. B I D L O O, Gregory, celebrated Dutch anatomist, bom at Amsterdam 1649, made professor of anatomy at Ley- den 1694, died 1702. BIGAMY, Statute, first passed in 1276. BIGGLESWADE nearly destroyed by fire June 16, 1785. BIGLAND, John, author of letters on history, born in 1750. He was a na- tive of Slurlough, in Holderness, and the greater portion of his life was spent in the humble occupation of a village schoolmaster. When upwards of fifty years of age, he began to write for the public. In 1803, he published his first work, "Reflections on the Resurrection and Ascension of Christ," and in 1805, "Letters on the Study and Use of Ancient and Modern History ;" and " Letters on the Modem History and Political Aspect of Europe." From that time he be- came an author by profession, and his works are very numerous. His subse- quent productions are : Essays on vari- ous subjects, two vols. 1805; Letters on Natural History, 1806; a System of Geo- graphy and History, five vols., 1809; History of Spain, two vols., 1810; His- tory of Europe, from the peace of 1783, to the present time, two vols., 1811, (in the later edition continued to 1814) ; the Philosophic Wanderers, or the History of the Tribune of the Priestess of Mi- nerva, 1811 ; Yorkshire, being the l6th volume of the Beauties of England and Wales, 1812; the History of England; Letters on Natural History, from the earliest period to the close of 1812; two vols., 1813, (subsequently continued to 1814); a System of Geography for the use of Schools, 1816; an historical dis- play of the eflfects of Physical and Moral Causes on the Character and Circum- stances of Nations, 1817; Letters on French History, 1818: also Letters on English History, and a History of the Jews. HediedFeb. 22, 1832. BILBOA, built by Diego Lopez de Haro, 1300, taken and re-taken by the French, English, and Spaniards, 1808, 1 809, and finally evacuated by the French, August 11, 1812. Relieved from the siege by the Carlists, Dec. 24, 1836. BILL OF Rights, deUvered by the Lords and Commons to the Prince and Princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1688 passed (1 Will. & Mary, stat. 3,, c. 2,) in 1689. BILLING, Great, Northampton- shire, steeple at, destroyed by lightning, April, 11, 1759. BILLING, Little, Priory, Nor- thamptonshire, built 1076. BILLINGSGATE, London, supposed to be built 370. BILLS OF Exchange, first men- tioned, 1160; used in England, 1307; the only mode of sending money from England by law, 1381; regulated, 1698, 1735 ; made felony to counterfeit, 1734; taxed, 1783; tax reduced, 1797, 1804, 1814; punishment of death for forgery of, exchanged for transportation, 1832. 1838. 2 and 3 Victoria c. 37, enacts that bills of exchange and contracts for loans or forbearance of money above £10, and not having more than twelve months to run, shall not be aflfected by the usury laws. BILLS OF Mortality. These ' registers took their origin from the great plague of 1593; but the continued weekly bills did not begin till 1603, when another great plague, more tremendous than the former, desolated London. See Plague. Originally, the bills of mor- tality comprehended 109 parishes; but in 1660, they were extended to 146 ; and that number is now divided into Q7 parishes within the walls, 17 without the walls, 29 out-parishes in Middlesex and Surrey, and 10 parishes in the city and liberties of Westminster. The great ex- tension which London has received since the institution of the method of ascer- taining the births and deaths, the dura- tion of life, and the apparent causes of its termination, have, however, rendered the bills of mortality very imperfect ; at best they can be considered only as ap- proximations to the truth. For instance, the large parishes of Saint Marylebone and St. Pancras, are not comprised in them; neither are the accounts of the births and deaths amongst the dissenters. The classification of the diseases which occasion the deaths is also very incorrect, being founded entirely on the returns of BIL 110 BIL the sworn searchers, who are a set of ig- norant women. The general bill of all the christenings and burials within the bills of mortality, from December 15, 1807, to December 13, 1808. Christened, males, 10,189; females, 9,717; total,19,906. Buried,males,10,22S; females, 9,726: total, 19,954. From December 12, 1815, to Decem- ber 10, 1816 ; christened, males, 12,132; females 11,448: total, 23,581. Buried, males, 10,105; females, 10,211: total, 20,316. From December 11, 1821, to Decem- ber, 10,1822; christened, males, 11,968; females, 11,405 • total, 23,373. Buried, males, 9,483 ; females, 9,382 : total, 18,865. From December 10, 1822, to Decem- ber 17, 1823; christened in the 97 parishes within the walls, 1059. Buried, 1162. Christened in the 17 parishes without the walls, 5443. Buried, 3990. Christened in the 23 out-parishes in Middlesex and Surrey, 17,092. Buried, 10,727. Christened in the 10 parishes in the city and liberties of Westminster, 4,095. Buried, 4,708. Diseases this year, 20,279. Casualties : — bitten by a mad dog, 1; broken limbs, 1 ; burnt, 39 ; drowned, 118; excessive drinking, 6; executed, 14; found dead, 12 ; fractured, 1 ; killed by falls and several other accidents, 61 ; killed by fighting, 2 ; murdered, 2 ; overlaid, 1 ; poisoned, 6 ; scalded, 9 ; smothered, 3, starved, 1 ; suflfocated, 7 ; suicide, 24 : total of casualties, 303. Christened, males, 13,945 ; females, 13,734 : total, 27,679. Buried, males. 10,455; females, 10,132: total, 20,587- whereof have died — under two years of age, 5,905 ; between two and five, 1937; five and ten, 757; ten and twenty, 757 ; twenty and thirty, 1,375 ; thirty and forty, 1764; forty and fifty, 1,902 ; fifty and sixty, 1,932 ; sixty and seventy, 1,874 ; seventy and eighty, 1592 ; eighty and ninety, 680 ; ninety and a hundred, 105 ; a hundred, 4 ; a hundred and two, 1, hundred and seven, 1 ; and a hundred and nine, 1 . Number of christenings and burials within the city of London and bills of mortahty, for 1833. In the 97 parishes within the walls • christened, 835 ; buried, 1336. In the 17 parishes without the walls; christened, 4556; buried, 4753. In the 24 out- parishes in Middlesex, Surrey, including the district churches ; christened, 17,740, buried, 16,172. In the ten parishes in the city and liberties of Westminster ; christened, 3,959 ; buried, 4,316. Total number of males christened, 13,553 ; females, 13,537: in all, 27,090. Total number buried, males, 13,319 ; females, 13,258 : in all, 26,577. Stillborn, 934; under two years of age, 6,261 ; two and under five years, 2,805; five and under ten, 1,145; ten and under tv/enty, 970 ; twenty and under thirty, 1,700; thirty and under forty, 2,225 ; forty and under fifty, 2,615; fifty and under sixty, 2,412 ; sixty and under seventy, 2,551 ; seventy and under eighty, 2,043 ; eighty and under ninety, 802 ; ninety and under a hun- dred, 107; one hundred, 3; one hundred and one, 1 ; one hundred and two, 1 ; one hundred and three, 1; and one hundred and four, 1. Christenings and burials within the city of London and bills of mortality, from December 1836, to December, 1838. Ending 1837- Ending 1838. Chr. Bur. Chr. Bur. In the 97 parishes withm the Walls 958 958 794 815 In the 17 parishes without the Wall 6 363 3,863 4,119 3,558 In the 24 out-parishes in Middlesex and Surrey (the district churches belonging thereto being included) : 25,948 13,883 13,303 11,884 In the 10 parishes of the city and liberties of Westminster 2,437 2,359 l,6l7 2,009 Totals 35,706 21,063 19,833 18,266 BIR 111 B IS The bill for 1837 is said to be more imperfect than usual, both in the enu- merating of christenings and deaths, and as a table of medical statistics ; and the following explanation is given to ac- count for this fact : — " By the operation of the new Registration Act, much dif- ficulty has occurred in obtaining reports of the christenings and burials ; in con- sequence of which, in some parishes, the reports have been wholly withheld ; and in those of several other parishes, wherein the office of searcher has been discon- tinued, the diseases of which deaths have taken place, have been necessarily omit- ted. The annual bill of mortality is now superseded by the new registration act, which came into operation July I, 1837. See Registration. B ILSTON, StaflFordshire,v/aggon from, with coals, drawn by distressed colliers, was stopped on Maidenhead thicket, by the magistrates, and a compensation having been made to the persons drawing it, for the coals, they proceeded with it quietly on their way home July 6, 1816. Another waggon was stopped at St. Albans, and quietly returned, having been similarly treated. BINDON Abbey, Dorsetshire, built 1172. BINGHAM Priory, Norfolk, built 1206. BINGHAM, Major Gen. Sir Geo. had charge of Napoleon, from England to St. Helena, born 1777, died 1833. BINGHAM'S, Sir John, Castle in Ireland burnt, damage estimated at £50,000, Nov. 11, 1755. BIGN, Borysthenites, the phi- losopher, 290. , I BIRCH, Dr. Thomas, historical and biographical writer, born 1705; took or- ders 1732; admitted into the royal so- ciety and society of antiquaries, 1735 ; died Jan. 19, 1766. His chief work was the "General Dictionary, Historical and Critical," comprehending a new transla- tion of Bayle's, with several thousand new lives. BIRCH, Mr., and his servant, mur- dered at Greenwich, Feb. 12, 1818. BIRKENHEAD Priory, Cheshire, built 1189. BIRMAN Empire. See Burman Empire. BIRMINGHAM obtained a charter to hold markets and fairs, from Henry II. and III., and in the reign of Charles II., became an asylum for nonconformist ministers ; riots at in 1791, at which several houses and meetings were de- stroyed, on account of some persons commemorating the French revolution there. Theatre burnt down, Aug. 16, 1792. Free Chapel began by subscrip- tion, 1803. Church of St. Peter's de- stroyed by fire, Jan. 24, 1831. Erected into a borough, 1832. 1833. Town-hall completed ; the sa- loon or hall is 140 feet in length, 65 feet wide, clear of the walls, and 65 feet high. It was completed in eighteen months, at the cost of £18,000. 1834. Musical Festival, at which £13,400 were collected, and the proceeds applied to the use of the Birmingham Hospital, Oct. 7. BIRNIE, Sir R., many years chief magistrate of police in London, died April, 1832, aged 72 years. BIRON, Duke of, executed in the Bastile, Paris, 1602. BISHAM Abbey, Berks, built, 1338. BISHOPS, their translation first in- stituted, 234 ; first in England, 694 ; first in Denmark, 939 ; made barons, 1072 ; precedency settled, 1075 ; ba- nished England 1208 ; consented to be tributary to Rome, 1245; deprived of the privilege of sitting as judges in ca- pital offences, 1388 ; the first that suf- fered death in England by the sentence of the civil power, 1405 ; six new ones instituted, 1530; elected by the king's conge d'elire, 1535 ; held their sees dur- ing pleasure, 1547 ; form of consecration ordained, 1549. Those who held their sees for life obliged to hold them during good be- haviour 1552 ; seven deprived for being married, 1554; several burnt for not changing their religion, 1558 ; fifteen consecrated at Lambeth, 1559 ; expelled Scotland, 1589. Twelve impeached, and committed for protesting against any law passed in the house of lords, during the time the popu- lace prevented their attending parlia- ment, 1641 ; their whole order abolished by parhament, Oct. 9, 1646; nine re- stored, and eight new ones consecrated October 25, I66O; regained their seats in the house of peers, November 30- 1661. Seven committed to the Tower, for not ordering the king's declaration for liberty of conscience to be read through- out their diocese, 1688 ; six suspended for not taking the oaths to king William, BIS 112 BIS 1689 1 deprived of their bishopries, 1690. BISHOPRICS of England and Wales, according to the antiquity of their insti- tution. London, an archbishopric and me- tropolitan of England, founded by Lucius, the first Christian king of Bri- tain, 185; LandafF, 185; Bangor, 516; St. David's (the archbishopric of Wales from 500 till 1,100, when the bishop submitted to the archbishop of Canter- bury as his metropolitan), 519; St. Asaph's, 547. St. Augustin, or Austin, made Can- terbury the metropolitan archbishopric, by order of Pope Gregory, 596 ; Wells, 604 ; Rochester, 604 ; Winchester, 650 ; Litchfield and Coventry, 656 ; Wor- cester, 679- Hereford, 680; Durham, 690; Sodor and Man (with jurisdiction of the Heb- rides in Scotland), 838 ; Exeter, 1050 ; Sherborne (changed to Salisbury), 1056. York, archbishopric, 1067 ; Dorches- ter (changed to Lincoln), 1070; Chi- chester, 1071 ; Thetford (changed to Norwich), 1088 ; Bath and Wells, ib. ; Ely, 1109; CarUsle, 1133. The following six are founded upon the suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII., 1538 : — Chester, Peterborough, Gloucester, Oxford, Bristol, Westmins- ter. Westminster was united to London, 1550. Estimated revenues attached to the several bishoprics of Great Britain and Ireland per annum. The real amount is far higher. England. — Canterbury, 8,000?. ; York, 7,000/. ; London, 6,200.Z ; Durham, 8,700/ ; Winchester, 7,400Z. ; Ely, 4,000/.; Worcester, 3,400Z. ; Salisbury, 3,500Z. ; • Norwich, 5,000/. ; Lincoln, 3,200/. : Hereford, 3,000/. ; Chichester, 2,200/. ; Bath and Wells, 2,400/. ; St. Asaph's, 1,500/.; Carlisle, 1,800/.; Llandaff", 1,600/.; Peterborough, 1,700/.; Gloucester, 2,200/. ; Rochester, 2,400/. ; Litchfield and Coventry, 2,900/.; Ban- gor, 1,200/. ; Chester, 2,700/. ; Oxford, 2,800/. ; Exeter, 2,700/. ; St. David's, 400/. ; Bristol, 1,500/. Ireland. — Armagh, 8,000/. ; Dublin, 5,000/. ; Tuam, 4,000/. ; Cashel, 4000/.; Derry, 7,000/. ; Clonfert, 2,400/. ; Clog- her, 4,000/. ; Kilmore, 2,600/. ; Elphin, 3,700/. ; Killala, 2,900/.; Limerick, 3,500/. ; Cork, 2,700/. ; Cloyne, 2,500/.; Down, 2,300/. ; Dromore, 2,000/. ; Leigh and Ferns, 2,200/.; Kildare, 2,600/.; Raphoe, 2,600/. Meath, 3,200/. ; Killa- loe, 2,300/. ; Ossory, 2,000/. ; Water- ford, 2,600/. Irish sees reduced from 22 in number to 12, in 1833. BISHOPRICS, Colonial. Bishop of Nova Scotia first appointed Aug. 11, 1787 ; of Jamaica, 1824 ; of Barbadoes and Leeward Islands, 1824 ; of Quebec, 1825; of Calcutta, 1833; of Madras, 1834; of Bombay, 1834; of Montreal, 1836; of Australia, 1836. BISHOPRICS in Germany, first founded by Charlemagne, a.d. 800. BISHOP and WILLIAMS executed for " burking" the Italian boy, Dec. 5, 1831. BISHOP'S AUCKLAND palace re- built, 1665. BISHOPSGATE. London, pulled down, and sold, 1761. BISSET, Robert, LL.D., author of " Burke's Life and History of George III.," died May 3, 1805, aged 46. BISSEXTILE, or Leap Year, a year consisting of 366 daj's, happening once every four years, by the addition of a day in the month of February. Caesar having appointed it to be introduced by reckoning the 24th of February twice ; and as this day, in the old account, was the same as the sixth of the kalends of March, which had been long celebrated among the Romans on account of the expulsion of Tarquin, it was called " bis sextas kalendas Martii ;" and from hence we have derived the name Bissex- tile. By the statute de anno bissextile, 21 Henry III. to prevent misunderstand- ings, the intercalary day, and that next before it, are to be accounted as one day. The astronomers concerned in reforming tlie calendar, by order of Pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, observing that the bis- sextile in four years added forty-four mi- nutes more than the sun spent in return- ing to the same point of the zodiac, and computing that these supernumerary mi- nutes, in 133 years, would form a day, to prevent any changes being thus in- sensibly introduced into the seasons, di- rected that, in the course of 400 years there should be three bissextiles re- trenched ; so that every centesimal year, which according to the JuUan account, is Bissextile, or Leap Year, is a common year in the Gregorian account, unless the BLA 113 BLA number of centuries can be divided by 4, without a remainder. Thus, I6OO and 2000 are bissextile ; but 1700, 1800, and 1900 are common. The Gregorian com- putation was received in most foreign countries ever since the reforming of the calendar ; and, by an act of parliament, passed in 1751, it commenced in all the dominions under the crown of Great Britain. BITHYNIA, kingdom of, begun by Daedalus, a.c 383 ; bequeathed to the Romans, A. c 75, by Nicomedes IV.; plundered by the Goths about a.d. 253; afterwards taken by the Turks, and now forms one of the districts of Anatolia. BLACK, Dr. Joseph, distinguished for his discoveries in chemistry, born at Bourdeaux, in France, in 1728. He went to the University of Glasgow in 1746, directed his views to medicine, and became a pupil of Dr. CuUen. In 1756, having taken his degree of doctor, he succeeded Dr. Cullen as professor in me- dicine, and lecturer in chemistry. Here he made his grand discovery relating to fixed air, which was the subject of his inaugural dissertation. The essay con- taining the account of his experiments was published in 1756 ; next year he fur- ther enriched his favourite science with his experiments on latent heat. In 1765 he succeeded Dr. Cullen as professor of chemistry at Edinburgh. He died Nov. 26, 1799, aged 71 years. BLACK Act passed, 1723. BLACK Assize, the Assize held at Oxford Aug. 15, 1577, so called, from the lieutenant of the county, two knights, eight esquires, the justices of the peace, and almost all the gentlemen of the grand jury dying soon after their return into the country, of a disorder occasioned by inhaling the noxious effluvia of the town gaol. BLACK Book, was a book kept by the English monasteries in which a detail of the scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the in- spection of visitors, under Henry VIII., in order to blacken them, and hasten their dissolution. Hence the vulgar phrase, " I'll set you down in my Black Book." BLACK Eagle, order of knight- hood, in Prussia, instituted 1701. BLACK Hole, at Calcutta. See Calcutta. BLACK Prince, son of Edward III., of England, obtained a great victory over the French at Poictiers, Sep. 20, 1356, where John, the French king, and his son Philip, were taken prisoners. He made his triumphal entry into London, 1357, with king John, his prisoner, and was met by the lord mayor and aldermen in all their formalities June 8, 1376. Ed- ward, the Black Prince, died in the 46th year of his age, and was buned at Can- terbury. BLACK Rent established in Ire- land, 1412. BLACK Sea. In the times of queen Elizabeth and of Charles II., British merchants were permitted to navigate the Euxine throughout its whole extent, for the purpose of commerce ; yet his- tory does not afibrd a single instance of a ship of war, antecedent to a short ex- cursion made by his Majesty's ship. Blonde, in November, 1829, having been permitted to navigate the Euxine. BLACKBURN, church at, destroyed by accidental fire, Jan. 6, 1831. BLACKBURN, England, erected into a borough, 1832. BLACKBURN, archdeacon, born 1705, died 1787. BLACKFRIARS' Bridge, building voted for in common council, 1755 ; bill passed. May 17, 1756, and the first stone laid, Oct. 3, 1760; passable, 1766; finished, 1770 ; cost 150,840/. Toll houses built, June, 1773 ; burnt by the rioters, and re-entered, June 7, 1780 ; toll taken off June 24, 1785; Sunday toll took place, June 24, 1786 ; bridge paved, 1792 ; repaired, 1839. See Bridge. BLACKLOCK, Thomas, the blind poet, born 1721, died 1791- BLACKMORE, Sir Richard, phy- sician and poet, author of the "Creation," born 1650, received the honour of knighthood from king William III., 1697, died, 1729. BLACKSMITHS' Company, - Lon- don, incorporated, 1577- BLACKSTONE, Sir William, born July, 1723. He was put to school at Charter House, 1735; entered a com- moner at Pembroke College, Oxford, 1738 ; entered in the Middle Temple, 1741 ; elected into the society of All Souls College, Oxford, 1743; com- nienced bachelor of civil law, 1745 ; called to the bar, 1746; elected recorder of the borough of Wallingford, Berk- shire, 1749; commenced doctor of civil law, 1750. Q BLA 114 BLA He read lectures on the laws of England at Oxford, which were attended by a very crowded class of young men of the first families, characters, and hopes, 1753 ; published his Analysis of the Laws of England, 1754; was ap- pelated one of the delegates of the Cla- rendon press, 1755; elected Vinerian professor of common law, in the Uni- versity of Oxford, 1758. He was elected member of the House of Commons for Hindon, in Wiltshire, and appointed principalof NewInnHall, 176I; published in 4to. the first volume of his Commentaries on the Laws of England, 1 765 ; and in the course of the four suc- ceeding years, the other three volumes : returned a member for Westbury in Wiltshire, 1768 ; accepted the office of judge of Common Pleas, 1770. He died Feb. 14, 1780, aged 56. BLACKWELL Hall, first appointed repository for woollen cloths, 1515. BLACKWOOD, Admiral Sir H., a gallant friend of Nelson, born Dec. 28^ 1770, died Dec. 13, 1833. BLAIR, Dr. Hugh, an eminent Scottish divine, born at Edinburgh, April 7, 17 18; ordained to the ministe- rial office, 1742. In 1757,the University of St. Andrews conferred on him the degree of doctor of divinity; and, in 1758, he was promoted to the High Church of Edinburgh, the most important eccle- siastical charge in the kingdom; in 1759, the university instituted a rhetorical class under his direction; and, in 1762, his majesty was graciously pleased to erect and endow a professorship of rhetoric and belles lettres in the University of Edinburgh, and to appoint Dr. Blair regius firofessor thereof. His lectures were pub- ished in 1783 ; by a royal mandate in 1780, a pension of £200 a year was con- ferred on him. He expired Dec. 27, 1800. BLAIR, Rev. Robert, the author of " The Grave," the best specimen of blank verse in the English language, ex- cept Milton's Poems, born 1699, died 1746. BLAIR, Dr. John, author of the " Chronology and History of the World," died 1782, BLAKE, Robert, a celebrated En- glish Admiral, born Aug. 1589; he was elected member for Bridgewater, in 1640; In 1643, engaged in the service of parlia- •iient and was entrusted with a little fort. which he held out against Prince Rupert. In 1644, he was appointed governor of Taunton, which he found means to keep, though not properly furnished with sup- plies. In 1648-9 he was appointed, in conjunction with Colonel Deane and Colonel Popham, to command the fleet; and soon after blocked up Prince Mau- rice and Prince Rupert, in Kinsale Har- bour; and, in 1652, was promoted to the rank of sole aimiral for nine months. 1652. When Van Tromp appeared on the Downs, with a fleet of 45 men of war, Blake, who had then but 20 ships engaged him and obtained the mastery. In November, he received a check from Tromp, Avho however bought this vic- tory dear, for in February, 1653, Blake gained a signal victory over the Dutch, who continued retreating towards Bou- logne. 1654. He humbled Algiers and Tunis, bore into the Bay of Porto Ferino with his great ships and their seconds, assaulted the pirates, and burnt all their ships, with the loss of 25 men killed, and 48 wounded. April, 1567, destroyed or took the Spanish fleet in the Bay of Santa Cruz. On his return to England, as he came within sight of land he ex- pired, Aug. 17, 1657, aged 59. BLAKE, John Bradley, botr»nist, born 1745, died 1773. BLANC, Mont, a stupendousmoun- tain in SaA'oy, the highest in Europe, and probably of the ancient world. Ac- cording to the calculations of M. de Luc, it is 1 5,304 English feet ; or, according to the measurement of Sir George Shuck- burgh, 15,662 feet above the sea. It is impossible to form any adequate idea of the difficulty and danger attending its ascent. During the last half century, not more than twelve persons, exclusive of the guides, have ever reached the summit, as appears by the following list, extract- from the New Monthly Magazine for March, 1827; 1. Dr. Paccard, and James Balme, a guide, Aug. 8, 1786 ; 2. M. Saussure, Aug. 3, 1787 ; 3. Colonel Beaufoy, English, Aug. 9, 1787 ; 4. Mr. Woodley, Enghsh, Aug. 5, 1788; 5. Baron Doothesan, Courland, and M. Forneret, Lausanne, Aug. 10, 1802; 6. M. Roday, Hamburgh, Sept. 10, 1812 ; 7. Count Mateyeski, Aug. 4, 1818; 8. Dr. Renselaen, and Mr. Howard, American.s, BLI 1)5 BLO July 12,1819; 9. Captain Uiidrell, R.N. English, Au^. 13, 1819; 10. Mr. Clis- Bold, English, Aug. 20, 1822; 11. Mr. Jackson, English, Sept. 4, 1823; 12. Captain M. Sherwill, Aug. 26, 1825. BLANCO, Cape, on the coast of Africa, discovered, 1441. BLANDFORD, assizes at, the judges, sheriff, and others, died of the jail dis- temper, 1730; burnt June 4, 1731, when 300 houses were destroyed; and again in 1775. BLANDY, Miss, hanged at Oxford, April 6, 1752, for poisoning her father. BLANKETS, first made in England, 1340. BLANTYRE, Lord, killed by an ac- cidental shot during the insurrection of the Belgians, in Sept. 1830. BLANTYRE, Priory, Scotland, built 1296. BLAZE, St. order of knighthood at Aeon, began, 1250. BLENHEIM, a village near Hock- stet, Bavaria, remarkable for the defeat of the French and Bavarians, Aug. 5, 1 704, by the English and their confederates. The French army, which amounted to 60,000, was commanded by Marshal Tallard and the duke of Bavaria. The allied army, commanded by Prince Eu- gene, and the duke of Marlborough, amounted to about 52,000 men. Count Tallard himself was among the nume- rous prisoners of rank; 10,000 men, ex- clusive of 1,200 officers, and 3,000 de- serters, was the lowest amount of the captives, and the total loss, including the killed and wounded, was not less than 40,000 men. There were found in the enemy's camp 100 pieces of brass cannon, with other warlike stores, and baggage in proportion. The loss of the allies amounted to 4485 killed, 7525 wounded, and 273 prisoners. On the next day, when the duke of Marlborough visited his prisoner. Marshal Tallard, the latter assured him that he had beaten the best troops in the world. " I hope. Sir," replied the duke, " you will except those troops by whom they were conquered." In consequence of this victory, the allies became masters of a country 100 leagues in extent. BLI BURGH Priory, Suffolk, 1110. BLIGH, Captain^ and nineteen of his men, having been comj^elled by the mutinous crew of the Bounty, to go into an open boat near Anamooka, one of the Friendly Isles, arrived at the Island 01 Timor, after a perilous voyage of 1,200 leagues, 1789. Blind first began to be instructed about 1728. BLIND, School for the Indigent, instituted, 1799. The new building in St. George's Fields commenced, April, 1834. BLISTER PLASTERSjinvented A. C.60. BLISWORTH, near Northampton, fifty dwellings, with their offices, de- stroyed by fire. May 28, 1798. BLOCK Machinery, for ships, at Portsmouth, suggested to government by Mr.Brunel, in 1802; forty-four machines set to work in 1804, at the dock-yard at Portsmouth, seven of which were em- ployed as sawing machines for general purposes, and the remaining thirty-seven for blocks and sheaves only ; altogether forming a most complete and perfect system of manufacture by machinery. BLOCKS, or masses of artificial stone, made by mingling together river or sea sand, skreened shingle, powdered caustic lime, siliceous, or other hard substances and boiling water together, 1833. BLOIS, Peter of, an eminent writer of the twelfth century, was born about the year 1 120, at Blois, in France, whence he derived his name. Being appointed preceptor to Wilham II., king of Sicily, 1167, he obtained the custody of the privy seal, and, next to the archbishop of Palermo, the prime minister, he had the greatest influence in all affairs. In 1168 he left the court of Sicily, and returned into France. From France he was in- vited into England by Henry II., who employed him as his private secretary, made him archdeacon of Bath, and gave him some other benefices. He retired into the family of Richard, archbishop of Canterbury, who made him his chancel- lor, about 1176. After the death of this prelate, in 1183, he acted as secretary and chancellor to archbishop Baldwin, his successor, and was deputed by him on an embassy to Rome, 1187, in order to plead his cause before pope Urban III. in the famous controversy between him and the monks of Canterbury. "When Baldwin departed into the Holy Land, 1 1 90, Blois was involved in various trou- bles in his old age, the causes of which are not distinctly known. He died about the end of the twelfth century. BLOOD OF Christ, order began in Mantua, 1608. BLOOD, Colonel, siezed the duktt BOA 1!6 of Ormoml. with an intent to lianp; him at Tyburn, but was prevented, Dec. 6, 1670 ; attempted to steal the crown. May 9, 1671 ; died Aug. 24, 1680. BLOOD, Shower of, fell about the beginning of the year 1608, near the suburbs of the Aix, and for many miles around. BLOOD, Circulation of, through the lungs, first made public by Michael Servetus, a French physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas, and improved it after- wards by experiments, 1559; but it was illustrated by experiments by Hervey, 1619, and fully confirmed by that emi- nent physician, 1628. BLOOMFIELD, Robert, author of "The Farmer's Boy," &c., born 1766, died 1823. BLOUNT, Charles, a miscellaneous writer, born 1654, died 1693. BLOUNT, Sir Thomas Pope, au- thor of several learned works, born 1649, created a baronet by Charles IL, 1679, died 1697. BLUCHER, Marshal Prince, born 1742, visited England, 1814; died 1819. BLUE, Prussian, discovered at Ber- lin, 1704. BOADICEA, queen of the Britons, having been insulted by the Romans under Nero, incited the Britons to re- venge her wrongs and assembled 250,000 men, attacked the Romans in London, Camelodunum, Verulum, and other places, and destroyed upwards of 70,000 Romans, without regard to age or sex. But Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman ge- neral, returning from the conquest of Mona (Anglesea), engaged the Britons commanded by Boadicea, and totally defeated them, killing 80,000. Boadi- cea, to avoid being taken prisoner, poi- soned herself, a.d. 61. BOADICEA Brig, stranded near Kinsale, Ireland, when 200 of the 92d regiment perished, Jan. 31, 1816. BOARD Wages first commenced with the king's servants, 1629- BOATS, flat bottomed, invented in the reign of William the Conqueror, who used them in the Isle of Ely. Life Boats. — M. Berniers, director of the bridges and causeways in France, in- vented a boat not liable to be overset or sunk by winds, waves, &c., in 1777- Also 1785 a patent was granted to Mr. Lionel Lukin, a coach-maker in London, BOC for his improvement in the constrnclion of boats and small vessels, so that they will neither overset nor sink. They were made with projecting gunwale^, sloping from the top of the common gun- wale, in a faint curve, towards the water. 1805 a gold medal was voted by the So- ciety for the Encouragement of Arts to Mr. Christopher Wilson, for a secure sailing boat, balanced exactly according to Mr. Lukin's device, byempty project- ing gunwales into compartments, by which means the failure of one will not injure the others, and is, imdoubtedly, a material improvement. The life boat invented 1789, by Mr. Henry Greathead, of South Shields, ranks the foremost among the number of use- ful inventions of this nature. The in- ventor's attention was originally attracted to the principle on which the life boat is constructed, by observing, as he himself expresses it, "that each part of a spheroid divided into quarters, nearly resembles a wooden bowl having projecting ends. If this be thrown into the sea, or broken waters, it cannot be upset, or lie with the bottom upwards." Mr. Greathead for many years derived no pecuniary advan- tage from it, untilJune, 1802, when, in consequence of a petition to parliament, he received a grant of 1,200Z. The So- ciety for the Encom-agement of Arts, and the Royal Humane Society, also each ac- knowledged their sense of its value by the presentation of a gold medallion, and the latter by various gratuities in money. BOCARDO, the ancient prison at Oxford, in which Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer were confined, 1554. Bocardo was sold by the corporation to the com- missioners of the paving act for 306/. In pidling it down, several curiosities were found in it, particularly a silver coin in a recess of an upper room, having on one side the figure of an owl, and on the other the Greek letters A. 9. E., the ini- tials of Athenae. BCEOTIAN WAR commenced A. c. 379, ended 336. BOCCACIO, John, an eminent Ita- lian writer, and one of the restorers of literature in Europe, was bom at Cer- taldo, in Tuscany, in 1313. He enjoyed the friendship of Petrarch, and in 1351 was sent to negociate his return to Flo- rence- About 1361 he assumed the cle- rical habit. He was deputed by his countrymen as ambassadoi to pope Ur- ban v., at Avignon, and in 1367 he at- BOE ur BOH tended the pontiff, under the same cha- racter, at Rome. A public lecture on the " Comedia" of Dante having been insti- tuted at Florence, he commenced his ex- ])ositions of that author in October, 1373, but preferring the retirement of Certaldo, his native place, towards the close of his life, he died there in December, 1375. His most celebrated production is his " Decamerone," or collection of one hundred stories, or novels, feigned to have been recited in ten days by a com- pany of ladies and gentlemen who had retired into the country from the plague of Florence, in 1348. BOCHART, Samuel, one of the most learned writers of his age, born at Rouen, in Normandy, in 1599 ; was for many years pastor of a protestant church at Caen ; published in 1646 his Phaleg and Canaan, which are the titles of the two parts of his Geographia Sacra. He ac- quired also great fame by his Hierozoicon, printed in London in 1675. He died May 16, 1667, aged 78. A complete edition of his works was published in Holland, in two volumes folio, 1712. BODIAM Castle, Suffolk, built 1139- BODLEIAN LiBRAKY was founded on the remains of that established by Humphry, duke of Gloucester, by Sir Thomas Bodley, in 1595.' He added to the old a new collection of the most va- luable books then extant, which he or- dered to be purchased in foreign coun- tries. The nobility, the bishops, and several private gentlemen, made consi- derable benefactions in books. The room not being large enough to contain them, on the 19th of July, 1610, he laid the first stone of the new foundation, which was finished after his death. BODLEY, Sir Thomas, founder of the Bodleian Librarj' at Oxford, bom at Exeter, in 1544. In 1563 he took his degree of master of arts, at Magdalen College, Oxford ; in 1565 he obtained a fellowship in Merton College; in 1569 he was elected one of the proctors of the university ; and, for a considerable time, during a vacancy, he supplied the place of university orator. In 1576 he went abroad to make the tour of Europe, and perfect himself in the modern languages. Queen Elizabeth made hina her repre- sentative in the counsel of state of the United Provinces in 1588. After found- ing the library which bears his name, he died January 28, 1 6 1 2 . BOERHAAVE, Dr. Herman, a ce- lebrated physician, born at Voorhout, near Leyden, Dec. 31, 1668. In 1693, he was created doctor . of medicine at the university of Hardenvick ; afterwards made professor of medicine, chemistry, and botany in the University of Leyden. Peter the Great, in 1715, attended Boer - haave to receive his lessons. His reputa- tion was spread as far as China : a man- darin wrote to him with this inscription. " To the illustrious Boerhaave, physician in Europe." He died September 23, 1738, in the 70th vear of his age. BOETHIUS, or Boetius, Flavius Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus, an illustrious Roman, was born about 476. He had the honour of introducing to the Romans, in their own language, the geometry of Euclid, the music of Pythagoras, the arithmetic of Nicoma- chus, the mechanics of Archimedes, the astrology of Ptolemj?^, the theology oi Plato, and the logic of Aristotle. He enjoyed the titles of consul and patrician. "When Theodoric became king of Italy, Boethius for some years enjoyed his favour and friendship. He was at length, however, suspected of being hostile to his government, and after suffering many indignities, was put to death, 524. BOG IN Ireland, quantity of, 3,000,000 acres. BOG OF Castleguard, or Poule- nard, in the county of Louth in Ireland, Dec. 20, 1793, moved in a body from its original situation to the distance of some miles, cro.ssing the high road to- wards Doon, covering every thing in its way, at least twenty feet in many parts, and throwing down several bridges, houses, &c, BOGOTA, Santa Fe de, capital of the republic of Columbia. Bolivar pro- claimed dictator at, 1828. National Academy opened at, Jan. 6, 1833. BOHEMIA, derives its name from the Boii, a people of Gaul, who, imder their leader Sergovesus, settled in that country about 590. They were soon after expelled by the Marcomanni, a na- tion of the Suevi, who were afterw-ards subdued by the Sclavi, a people of Scy- thia, whose language is still spoken in Bohemia and Moravia. At first they were governed by dukes ; but the em- peror Otho I. about 932, conquered the Duke of Bohemia, and reduced the pro- vince under the empire. Afterwards, Henry V., about 1106, gave the title of king to Ladislaus, Duke of Bohemia, and since that time these kings have BOL 113 COL beien electors and chief cup-bearers of the empire, and the kingdom has been elective. Popery was established by Boleslaus, surnamed the Good, and which, notwithstanding the attempts of John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to effect a reformation, in the fourteenth and fif- teenth centuries, continued to be the prevailing religion, until an edict of to- leration was passed by Joseph II. in 178 1, ^ince which, the Protestant religion has been more prevalent. BOHEMIA, Queen of, visited Eng- land May 17, 1661, died there, Feb. 1662. BOHEMIAN brethren, (the sect of), began in Bohemia 1467. BOIARDO, an Italian poet, born 1434, died 1494. BOILEAU, Sieur Nicholas Des- preaux, a celebrated French poet, born at Paris in 1636. After studying suc- cessively law and divinity, he betook himself entirely to the belles-lettres, and took possession of one of the foremost places in Parnassus. He was afterwards chosen a member of the French Aca- demy. He died of a dropsy, March 2, l7ll, aged seventy-five. His Lutrin was published in 1647- BOIS-LE-DUC, in Languedoc, taken by the French in 1714, destroyed by vio- lent rains, 1776. BOL, Cornelius, a Dutch artist, who painted views of the fire of London in 1666, when he flourished. BOLAM, Archibald, clerk in the Newcastle Savings' Bank, committed for the murder of John Mellie, clerk of the same bank, Dec. 7, 1838, found guilty of manslaughter July 30, 1839. BOLEYN, or Bulleyn, Queen of Henry VIII. memorable in English his- tory as the first cause of the Reforma- tion, and as the mother of Queen Eliza- beth, born in 1507. She was tried for high treason, and suffered with great resolution. May 19, 1536. BOLINGBROKE, Henry St. John, Lord Viscount, a great statesman and fhilosopher, born at Battersea, 1672. n 1710 he was made secretary of state. He sustained almost the whole weight of the difliiculties in negotiating the peace of Utrecht. In July 1712, he was cre- ated Baron St. John of Lediard-Tregoze in Wiltshire, and Viscount Bolingbroke. He joined the Pretender in 1715, and was attainted of high treason Sept. 10; procured a promi se of pardon, upon cer- tain conditions, from his majesty King George I. in 1716, but a full and free pardon was not granted him till 1723. He died at Battersea, Nov. 15, 1751. " With all his passions, and with all his faults, he will perhaps," says the writer of his life, " be acknowledged, by posterity in general, as I think he is by the majority of the present age, to have been, in many respects, one of the most extraordinary persons who adorned it." BOLINGBROKE Castle, Lincoln- shire, birth-place of Henry IV., remains of, fell down. May, 1815. BOLIVAR, the illustrious South Amerian patriot, styled the Liberator, descended from a family of distinction at Caraccas, was born there about the year 1785. In his twenty-third year contemplated the establishment of the independence of his countr)', and all his studies and observations were directed to that object. In 1817, before the fall of Angostura into the hands of the pa- triots, wrote to his agent in London, Don Luis Lopez Mendez, requesting him to send out volunteers. When nearly the whole of New Grenada was in the possession of the Spaniards, was nominated supreme director of Vene- zuela. 1819. He presided at the opening ol the congress of Venezuela at Angostura ; same year it was decreed that New Grenada and Venezuela should form one undivided commonwealth, under the title of the republic of Columbia; gene- ral congress assembled 1821, when he was invested with executive power. 1823, He was despatched to Peru with a considerable body of troops from Columbia. 1824. He remained for some time bene- ficially employed in subduing the Spa- nish force and sustaining thegovernment. By the end of 1826, the whole of the country was free from the Spaniards. 1828. Was proclaimed dictator at Bogota. Decree issued by him for aug- menting the army of the Columbian republic to 40,000, in consequence of the accumulation of Spanish troops in the Havannah, which threatened Colum- bia. On Sept. 13, proclamation of Bolivar to the Columbians. As the minister of the sovereign people, he engaged to obey their legitimate desires ; to protect reli- gion ; to cause justice to be observed ; to exercise economy in the administra- tion of the public funds ; to discharge BOM 119 BOO the obligations of the repubUc towards foreign states and individuals ; to resign the supreme command when the peo])le require its restitution ; to convoke the national representation within a year un- less otherwise commanded by the people. Sept. 25. Conspiracy against the life and government of Bolivar, directed by the late vice-president Santander and General Padilla. A part of the garrison having been reduced, attacked the resi- dence of the general, who narrowly es- caped with his life. His aids-de-camp Colonels Bolivar and Ferguson were killed. The conspiracy was defeated : 4000 inhabitants rose in favour of the general ; and the chief conspirators, among whom was Santander, were ap- prehended. Padilla was previously in prison. This extraordinary man after con- tinuing to render service to his country died Dec. 17, 1831. BOLIVIA, (or Upper Peru) new re- public, South America, so called in 1825, from Bolivar the Liberator. See the pre- ceding Article. See also Peru. BOLOGNA, University of, (Italy.) founded, 423 ; city siezed by the French, June 18, 1798 ; taken by the Austrians, June 12, 1799; evacuated by Murat, and entered by the Austrian army, April 16, 1815. BOLOGNESE, Grimalbi, a cele- brated Italian painter of landscape, his- tory, and portraits, born 1606, died 1680. BOLTON, England, erected into a borough, 1832. BOLTON, Messrs. Hardcastle's bleachworks, nearly destroyed by fire, Oct. 27, 1825, the loss calculated at £30,000. BOLTON ABBEY, Yorkshire, built 1120; castle built, 1297. BOMBAY, taken possession of by the Portuguese, from an Indian chief at Salsette, in 1530; ceded to Britain in 1661 ; and, in 1668, placed under the control of the East India Company. Nearly destroyed by fire, and many lives lost, Feb. 27, 1803. 1838. A public meeting was held at Bom- bay, July 8, to consider the best means of honouring the memory of Sir Robert Grant, G. C. H. the late governor. It was resolved to devote the fund pro- posed to be collected to the erection of a suitable building for the medical college, planned by Sir Robert Grant. The Cham- ber of Commerce signified its intention, (besides contributing to the general sub- scription) of raising a monument to his memory. BOMBS, first invented by a man at Venlo, 1588 ; first used in the service of France, 1634. BOMB Vessels, invented in France 1681. BONAPARTE; See Buonaparte. BONAR, Mr. and Mrs. of Chisle- hurst, Kent, murdered, by Philip Ni- cholson, their servant. May 31, 1813. BONDAGE, released by Queen Eliza- beth in several of her manors, 1574. BONES and teeth of the elephant and rhinoceros found in pits of brick earth at the village of Fisherton Auger, near Salisbury ; the fossil remains of the hyaena, in the quarries of Boughton, three miles south of Maidstone, 1827; and the bones of a rhinoceros and hy- aena, in one of the Cefu caves in the vale of Cyflfredau, Denbighshire, 1832. BONHOMMES, a religious sect, be- gan in 1257- BONN, town of Prussia, occupied by the French, 1703, but though well gar- risoned, taken by the duke of Marlbo- rough ; taken again by the French, 1794 ; university founded by the king of Prus- sia, 1818. BONNER, bishop of London, enter- ed at Oxford about 1512 ; made bishop , of London, 1539; deprived. May, 1550, died in the Marshalsea, Sept. 5, 1569. BONNET, Charles, a naturahst, born 1720, died 1793. BOOKS first supposed to be writ- ten in Job's time ; in the present form, were invented by Attains, king of Per- gamus ; 30,000 burnt by order of Leo, 761. A very large estate given for one on Cosmography, by king Alfred: were sold from £10 to £30 each, 1400; the first printed one was a vulgate edi- tion of the Bible, 1462 ; the second was Cicero de officiis, 1466, first began to be sold by catalogue, 1676; Cornelius Nepos published at Moscow, April 29, 1762, was the first classical book printed in Russia. BOOK-KEEPING, first used after the Italian method in London, 1569. BOOKSELLERS' Provident Institu- tion, established in January, and enrolled in May, 1837. BOOTH, Barton, the player, born 1681, died May, 1733. BOOTHIA, a newly discovered pe- ninsula in the Arctic Ocean, so namedby Captain Ross, from Sir Felix Booth, who BOR 120 BOT principally enabled him to equip the ex- pedition, discovered Jan. 1830. Tlie country, as far north as 72° is inhabited, and Captain Ross had communication with a very interesting tribe of natives, who had never before seen any Euro- peans. BOOTS were invented, a.c. 907. BORGE, a seat near Frederick stadt, in Norway, sunk into an abyss 100 fa- thoms deep, which instantly became a lake, and drowned 14 persons, with 240 head of cattle, 1702. BORGIA, CiBSAR, natural son of Pope Alexander VI. was a brave general, but a most abandoned villain. Swarms of assassins were constantly kept in pay by him at Rome, for the sake of remov- ing all who were either obnoxious or in- convenient to him. In 1503, he very narrowly escaped dying by poison ; for having concerted with the rope a design of poisoning nine newly-created cardi- nals at once, for the sake of possessing their effects, the poisoned wine, destined for the purpose, was, by mistake, brought to and drank by themselves. He was killed in 1507, as he was serving as a volunteer in the army of king John, his brother-in-law. BORGOGNONE, Jacopo Cortese, a celebrated French painter of battle pieces, born 1621, died 1676. BORING for water, coal, &c,, &c., first adopted, 1804. BORLASE, Rev. William, the an- tiquary, died 1772. BORNEO, first known to the Portu- guese, in 1513. The inhabitants of the north coast have a tradition that their country was once subject to China, and in modern times it has become a grand receptacle for the surplus popula- tion of that overflowing empire. The Dutch commissioners at Pontiana put forth a claim to the whole of the islanil, 1811 ; the Chinese gold mmers at Sink- wang were in a state of insurrection against the Dutch, who at the commence- ment were unsuccessful, and obliged to evacuate that portion of the coast, 1824. BORNOU, extensive kingdom of Central Africa, till lately but very im- perfectly known. First visited by Den- ham, Clapperton, and others, in 1823, 1824, and the situation and Hmits of the country ascertained with some degree of correctness. Comprehended between the 15th and 10th parallel noith latitude, and the r2th and 13th east longitude. BOROUGH. See Corporations. BOSCAWEN, Admiral, died 1761, aged 50. BOSCOVICH, Joseph Roger, an eminent mathematician and philosopher born at Ragusa, in 1711- Sent in 1725, to the Jesuits' College at Rome. He was the author of a new system of phi- losophy pubhshed in 1758, entitled Tl»e- oria Philosophiae Naturalis. In 1792, he went to America, for the purpose of observing the expected transit of Venus, over the sun's disk; died Feb. 13, 1/87, aged 76. BO SI A (the village of,) at Piedmont, near Turin, suddenly sank, together with above 200 of its inhabitants, April 8, 1679. BOSSU, Rene' LE, eminent French scholar, born 1631, died 1680. BOSSUET, James Benigne, a cele- brated French dinne, born at Dijon, Sept. 27, 1627; sent to Paris to the College of Navarre, 1642; appointed preceptor to the dauphin, and afterwards bishop of Meaux, 1670; died 1704. His writings both in French and Latin were collected together, and printed at Paris, in 17 vols. 4to., 1743. BOSTON, New England, proscribed, the port closed by the English parlia- ment, as a punishment for a riot, April ,4, 1744; bill for its removal, 1775; the tide breaking do'\\Ti the bank of the sea, deluged the town and the country round for many miles, Nov. 10, 1810. BOSTON, New England, sustained a loss by fire of its court-house and re- cords, Dec. 23, 1 747 ; again, of above 100,000;. March 20, 1760 ; again in 1761, 1763, and 1775 ; again April 20, 1787; 100 houses burnt ; again, July 23, 1794 : when it received damage to the amount of 200,000/.; again in Dec. 1797- BOSTON Church, Lincolnshire, founded 1309; damaged by fire. May 23, 1803. BOSWELL, jAMES,.chiefly celebrated as the biographer of Dr. Johnson, born at Edinburgh, 1740. In 1773, he ac- companied Dr. Jolmson in a tour through the Higlilands and the western isles of Scotland, of which tour he wrote an en- tertaining account, published in 1784. In 1790, he published his Memoirs of Dr. Johnson, in 2 vols. 4to. and since reprinted in 3 vols, 8vo., died May I9, 1765. BOTANY. On this science Hippo- crates is the oldest writer extant, who BOT 121 flourished at the beginning of the Pelo- ponnesian war, A.c. 431. Aristotle, who lived about half a century after, left two books now existing, which bear his name, but of such inferior merit, that they are generally thought to be spurious. Theophrastus, a.c. 322, the disciple of Aristotle, is the first professed writer on plants, whose works have in- contestibly descended to modern times. From the age of Theophrastus to that of Dioscorides and Pliny, there is an in- terval of 400 years. Dioscorides was a physician, and wrote entirely as such. Botany was not studied to much benefit, till the time of Gesner, the great natu- ralist, who discovered the expedience of dividing plants into classes, genera, and species. He died of the plague in 1565, at the early age of fifty. At this time also flourished Dr. William Turner, who may be accounted the father of English botany. It was he who first gaA'e names to many English plants. Ceesalpin was the first to execute what Gesner had first conceived ; the arrangement of the whole vegetable creation in a regular system. The publication of Gaspard Bauhins's, "Pinax Theatri Botanici," in 1623, may be considered a new era in botany. The fruit of forty years' labour, it threw over the subject, as it then stood, a clear con- spicuous light, and showed at one view the information which had been given by a multitude of scattered authors. Botany as a science, made little progress for nearly half a century afterwards; when Morison, Ray, Rivinus, and Tourne- fort, all nearly at the same time, direct- ed their attention to the classification of plants, and investigated the true princi- ples on which it ought to be formed. The distinction of sexual parts in plants had been discovered, and pretty generally admitted, before the time of Linnaeus : but he was the first who made it the basis of an artificial system. The first sketch of his " Systema Naturae," was published in 1735, and the "Fundamenta Botanica," in 1736. In 1737, they were followed by the " Critica Botanica," "Ge- nera Plantarum," " Hortus Cliffbrtia- nus," " Flora Lapponica," and " Me- thodus Sexualis." In 1751, appeared his great and most finished elei giat arv work, the " Philosophia Botanica|^%nd in 1753, the first edition of the " Species Plantarum," which completed his system by extending to the lowest division under which indi^-idual plants were coUec- BOU tively arranged. Linnaeus devoted the greatest part of his life to a system con- fessedly artificial, but he has left what he calls fragments of a natural order, with- out pointing out their peculiar distin- guishing characters j and the substance of his lectures on natural orders has been published, since his death, by his pupil Giscke. The most successful at- tempt at a natural method was that of the Jussieus. The plan of this system was originally formed by Bernard Jus- sieu, demonstrator of botany at Paris, and published by his nephew, Anthony Lawrence, in 1789, in a work entitled Genera Plantarum, secundum Ordines Naturales disposita. Since then, many works have appeared, but no material changes in the great principles of the science. BOTANY BAY, a spacious bay on the south-east coast of Australia, dis- covered, 1770, by Captain Cook, who so named it from the number and variety of plants, unknown to Europeans, which he found there. It was afterwards con- verted into a penal settlement for exiled criminals. The first expedition, with 778 convicts on board, to this spot, was placed under the command of governor Philip, who sailed. May, 1787, and arrived in Jan. 1788. As however neither the bay nor theland afforded shelter to commerce, or hope to the agriculturist, the settle- ment was transferred to Port Jackson, which was only three leagues distant. BOTH, Andrew and John, two celebrated Dutch painters. Andrew died 1656; John died 1650. BOTHEL Castle, Northumberland, built 1330. BOTOLPH'S Priory, Colchester, built 1109. BOTTLE, containing two hogsheads, blo^vn at Leith, Scotland, Jan. 7, 1748-9- See Glass. BOTTLE Conjurer, imposed on the credulous at the Haymarket Theatre, Jan. 16, 1748-9. BOUGAINVILLE, the navigator, es- caped from the massacre at Paris of 1792, and died Aug. 3, 1811. BOULOGNE Flotilla, the unsuc- cessful attack on, by Lord Nelson, 1801, BOULTER, archbishop of Armagh, Ireland, gave 30,000Z. to charitable uses, born 1671, died 1742. BOULTON, Matthew, the inge- nious mechanic and engineer of Soho, Birmingham, died 1809- BOU 122 BOY ^ BOUNDARIES and divisions of coun- ties, and limits of cities and boroughs, foi the purposes of parliamentary reform, 1832. BOUNTIES, first legally granted in England for raising naval stores in Ame- rica, 1703 ; for exporting corn, 1689 ; re- pealed 1815. See Corn. BOURBON, erected into a duchy 1336. BOURBONS, family compact, 1761; expelled France, 1791 ; restored, 1814; re- expelled, and again restored, 1815; the Orleans branch elected to a monarchy, 9th ot August, 1830. BOURBON Isle, island in the In- dian Ocean, 400 miles east from that of Madagascar, discovered by the Portu- guese in the year ] 645, and named by them Mascarigne ; first taken possession of and colonized by the agent of the French East India company, and for some years it was used as a place of banish- ment for criminals. Upon the increase of he colony the name of the island was changed to Bourbon, in compliment to the Royal Family of France, by M. de Flacourt, in the year 1 649 ; colony regu- larly established by the French, 1672; taken by the EngUsh, 1810, restored, 1814. In 1829, there was a violent hur- ricane at the Isle of Bourbon, by which upwards of sixty vessels were damaged, and the whole of the eastern side of the island devastated. BOURBON-LES-BAINS, in Bassig- ni, France, the vault under the church there gave way during mass, when 600 persons were killed, Sept. 14, 1778. BOURDALOUE, Louis, a celebrated French preacher, and one of the greatest orators that France has produced, born at Bourges, Aug. 20, 1632. He fre- quently preached before Louis XIV. He died at Paris, May, 13, 1704. BOURDON, Seb. a French painter of history and landscape, born I6I6, died 1671, BOURGEOIS, Francis, an English landscape painter, founder of the Dul- wich Gallery, born 1756, died 1811. BOURIENNE, Mons. de, secretary and biographer of Napoleon, died in a maison de sante, in Normandv, 1834. BOURIGNON, Madam, 'the enthu- siast, born 1616, died I68O. BOURN, Thomas, an English topo- graphical UTiter born 1771, died 1832. BOURRALT, Edm. Fr. a French writer, born 1632, died 1701. BOUTERWEK, Professor of the University of Gottingen, died Sept. 2 J, 1828 BOW-BRIDGE, first buUt, 1087- BOW-CHURCH, Cheapside, built 1673, tower finished, I68O. BOWS and Arrows introduced into England, 1066. See Archery. BOWYER'S Company, London, incorporated, 1620. BOWYER, William, the printer, born 1669, died Nov. 18, 1777. BOXGROVE Priory, Sussex, built 1110. BOYCE, Dr. William, organist and composer to his late Majesty George II. born in London, 1710, appointed master of the king's band, 1757, organist of the chapel royal, 1758. He died Feb. 9, 1779, aged 69. BOYDELL, Josiah, alderman of London, a portrait and landscape painter and engraver, born 1750, died 1817. BOYDELL, John, alderman of Lon- don, promoter of the graphic art in Eng- land, born 1719, died 1805. BOYER, Abel, the lexicographer, born 1664, died 1729. BOYLE, Richard, earl of Cork, born 1556, died 1643. BOYLE, Roger, inventor of the orrery, born 1621, died 1643. BOYLE, Robert, celebrated philo- sopher, born at Lismore, county of Cork, Ireland, 1627- He was one of the first members of a small but learned body, which after the Restoration were incor- porated, as the Royal Society- During his residence at Oxford, he invented the air-pump, which was perfected for him by Mr. Hook, in the year 3 658 or 1659. Ill 1663, the Royal Society being incor- porated, Mr. Boyle was appointed one of the council. He died in 1691. BOYLE, Charles, earl of Orrery, born 1676, died 1731. BOYLE, John, earl of Orrery, born 1707. died 1762. BOYLE, Richard, earl of Burling- ton, born 1695, died 1753. BOYNE, river in Ireland, memorable for a battle fought on its banks between James II. and king William III. in which the former was defeated, July 1, I690. BOYNE, man of war, of 89 guns, Avas destroyed by fire at Portsmouth, whefi*'great mischief was done by the explosion of the magazine, onMay 1,1795. BOYSB, John, a divine, and one of the translators of the Bible, born 1560, died 1643. BRA 123 BRA BOYSE, Samuel, a man remarkable for the fineness of his genius, for the lowness of his manners, and the wretch- edness of his hfe, was born at Dubhn in the year 1708. About the year 1740, he was reduced to the last extremity of to his trial. They condemned him to the flames; and he was accordingly burnt alive in Smithfield, July 1, 1555. BRADLEY, Dr. James, a celebrated astronomer, was born at Shireborn, in Gloucestershire, 1692 ; admitted a cora- wretchedness. In May, 1749, he died in moner of BaliolCollege,Oxford, 1710-11. obscure lodgings near Shoe Lane. BRABANT, province of the Nether- lands, erected into a duchy in the 7th century, and long subject to the Fran- kish monarchy; after which it became a German fief. The last duke, a de- scendant of Charlemagne, dying in the year 1005, Lambert, count of Louvain, succeeded him, from whose posterity In 1721, he succeeded Dr. John Kiel, as Savilian professor of astronomy. In 1727, he pubhshed his "Theory of the A- berration of the Fixed Stars," which is allowed to be one of the most useful and ingenious discoveries of modern astronomy. See Aberration. He was made astronomer royal, 1741-2. In 1742, admitted into the council of the Royal again it passed to Phihp II., duke of Society; and in 1748, a member of the Burgundy, and afterwards to the em^ peror Charles V. The north portion of the duchy was seized by the republic of Holland in the I7th century, from which it acquired the distinctive appellation of Dutch Bra- bant, and in 1810, was annexed to the French empire. Upon the formation of the kingdom of the Netherlands, it was restored to the Dutch, and now forms part of the kingdom of Holland. South Brabant belonged for a consi- derable period to Austria, was occupied by the French in 1746, btit restored by the peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe. It was a second time seized by the French in 1797, to whom the possession was con- firmed by the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797, and of Luneville, in 1801. Royal Academy of Sciences and Belles Letters, of Berlin; in 1752, a member of the Imperial Academy, at Petersburg ; and in 1757, of that instituted at Bologna. He died 1762, aged 70. BRADSHAW, John, one of the judges of Charles I., born 1586, died 1659, BRADSOLE Abbey, Kent, built, 1191. BRADSTOW Pier, in Kent, destroy- ed by a storm, January 2, 1767 ; rebuilt 1772. BRADY, Rev. Db. Nicholas, the first protestant bishop of Meath, in Ire- land, born 1659, died 1726. BRADY, Dr. Robert, physician to King James II., and author of the "His- tory of England," died 1770. BRAHE, Tycho, a celebrated Swedish Upon the formation of the kingdom of astronomer, born December 14, 1546. the N^etherlands, in 1815, this province The great eclipse of the sun August 21, with othei"s was included in that king- dom, but it was again separated by the Belgian insurrection in 1830, and is now the metropolitan province of the king- dom of Belgium. BRADDOCK, General, killed at Du Quesne, July 9, 1755. BRADENSTOCK Priory, Wilts, built, 1076. BRADFORD, in Wiltshire, damaged by fire, April 30, 1740, erected into a borough, 1832. BRADFORD, John, a divine, and martyr to the reformation, who flourished during the reign of Queen Mary. In 1550, he was ordained by bishop Ridley; and in 1553, he was made chaplain to Edward VI., during which time he be- caiiie one of the most popular preachers in the kingdom. In the early part of Queen Mary's reign he was confined to the tower for sedition, and at last brought 1560, happening at the precise time the astronomers had foretold, he began to study the science. In 1574, by his ma- jesty's command, he read lectures on the theory of the comets, at Copenhagen, Tycho Brahe's skill in astronomy is universally known ; and he is famed for being the inventor of a new system which he endeavoured, though without success, to establish upon the ruins of that of Copernicus. He died October 24, 1601, aged 55, and was interred in a very magnificent manner in the prin- cipal church at Prague. BRAHILOW, town of European Turkey. Von Stoffel, the Russian general, invested this town in the year 1770, and set fire to it in many places. June 19, 1828, after a bloody and unsuccessful attempt to take it by storm, a capitula- tion for the surrender of the fortress was concluded between the grand duke Mi- BRA 124 BRA cliael, chief in command of the Russian during the 3 years ending with 1789, besiegers, and Soliman Pasha, the Tur- and the 1-1 years ending with 1828. kish commander of that place. years. hectolitres. BRAIN, functions of, first discovered, 1787 305,638 1792. 1788 221,499 BRAMAH, Joseph, engineer and 1789 234,500 mechanist, born 1749, died Dec. 9, 1814. BRAMBER Castle and Church, 1815 154,160 Sussex, built before the conquest. 1816 137,398 BRANCEPETH Castle, Durham, 1817 61,697 built 1140. 1818 99,402 BRANCH Banks, establishment of, 1819 231,652 at Gloucester, Manchester, Swansea, 1820 253,349 Birmingham, Liverpool, Bristol, Leeds, 1821 .... : 153,408 Exeter, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Ports- 1822 230,186 mouth, Plymouth, Hull, and Norwich, 1823 310,059 1834. 1824 317,347 BRANDENBURG, created a mar- 1825 250,937 quisate, 926 ; created a dukedom, 1526. 1826 194,110 BRANDENBURG House, residence 1827 273,574 of Queen Caroline, taken down, 1824. 1828 403,207 BRANDY has always formed a very Which, as the hectolitre is equal to prominent article in the exports of 26.42 wine gallons, shows that the ex- France. The following is an account of portation in 1828, was equivalent to the exportation of brandy from France 10,252,728 gallons; but it has since de- clined considerably. The number of gallons (imperial measure) of foreign brandy which entered for home consumption in Great Britain and Ireland since 1814. quantity entered for home consumption. Years. Great Britain. Ireland. United Kingdom. ■ Imp. gals. Imp. gals. Imp. gals. 1814 500,592 7,169 507,76] 1815 656,555 5,160 661,715 1816 657,062 5,275 662,337 1817 634,017 3,875 637,892 1818 531,583 6,232 537,815 1819 787,422 7,080 794,502 1820 842,864 6,025 848,889 1821 914,630 6,001 920,631 1822 1,001,607 7,308 1,008,915 1823 1,083,104 17,118 1,100,222 1824 1,226,715 984 1,227,699 1825 1,321,327 3,550 1,324,877 1826 1,473,243 7,371 1,480,614 1827 1,313,217 7,271 1,320,488 1828 1,327,929 7,556 1,335,485 1829 1,301,450 8,529 1,309,979 1830 1,285,967 1831 1,226,280 8,821 1,235,101 1832 1,570,075 31,577 1,601,652 BRASIL.— See Brazil. BRASS exported in 1799, amounted to 77,033 cwt. 3qr. l61b., at 7^. 14s. 8d. per cwt. amounted to 595,728Z. 15s. 5d. BRAY, Dr. Thoma.s, deviser of pro- pagating the gospel in foreign parts, born 1656, died 1730. BRAY, William, an English anti- quary, born 1736, died 1833. BRAY, Berks., famous in song for BRA 125 BRE its vicar ; who, from the reign of Henry to Elizabeth, changed his religion three times, and being called a turncoat, said he kept to his principle, that of living and dying vicar of Bray. BRAZEN-NOSE College, Ox- ford, founded 1513. BRAZIL, South America, discovered April 24, 1500, by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was driven on its coasts by a tempest. He called it the land of the Holy Cross. It was subsequently called Brazil, on acount of its red wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, from 1500 to 1504. It was settled by the Spaniards, 1515 ; settled by the Dutch, 1624 ; taken from Holland by the Portuguese, 1654 j government fixed at Rio, 1763. January 19, 1808, the royal family of Portugal landed at Bahia. In 1808 the ports were first opened for the unconditional entrance of all friendly vessels, and the exportation of all Brazilian produce, under certain du- ties, except Brazilian wood. A treaty of alliance and commerce was concluded with England in 1810. In 1815 Brazil was declared a monar- chy, and its connexion with Germany drawn closer by the marriage of the crown prince, Don Pedro, afterwards emperor, with the daughter of Francis I. of Austria. After the close of the con- gress of Vienna, the same year, a despe- rate struggle took place between Brazil and the republic of Buenos Ayres. In 1817 an insurrection broke out in Per- nambuco, which was suppressed by the garrison stationed there. In 1821, after the revolution of Portu- gal, Don Pedro accepted the Portuguese constitution in the name of his father and himself. Don Pedro was elected con- stitutional emperor, October 12, 1822; abdicated in favour of his son, Don Pe- dro, then five years old, April 7, 1831. The representatives of the nation imme- diately met, and appointed a regency to act in the name of the young emperor. In 1833, a conspiracy, concocted in March, by the governor of the young emperor, to overthrow the constitution and restore Don Pedro, was discovered and defeated. In April a bill was brought in to prohibit Don Pedro from ever en- tering the territories of Brazil, even as a foreigner and private individual. In Au- gust, 1834, the legislature and the re- gency ratified a measure for establishing a federal form of government through- out the entire Brazilian territory, upon principles similar to that of the United States. In the beginning of the year 1835 an insurrection of the negro slaves broke out. They attacked simultaneously the different barracks in the city ; but the military, having been forewarned, were prepared to receive them. They took the town of Para, whicL had been rising into importance during late years as a place of consumption for British manufactures. Then followed an indis- criminate massacre of all white men who fell into their hands, without regarding to what nation they might belong. In 1836 Brazil recovered the town of Para, of which the insurgent Indian po- pulation in the previous year had taken possession. When the city fell into the hands of the insurgents it was said to have contained British property to the amount of 300,OU0Z., of which scarcely a trace remained. In 1837, Feijo, regent of Brazil, resigned his post. A new go- vernment was installed, of which Senhor Galvao was named president. Although this revolution was effected without bloodshed, great alarm existed lest fur- ther trouble should arise, and the negro slaves be mduced to take their part like- wise in the conflict. In 1838 Bahia, to- wards the latter end of December, was retaken by the imperial troops under General Callado by storm, which put an end to the revolt. In the province of Rio Grande the insurrection continued during the year, and the attempts on the part of the government to suppress it were less successful than at Bahia. BRAZIL diamond mines discovered, 1730. BREAD. Origin of the art of mak- ing bread not known. Unleavened bread was common in the days of Abra- ham (Gen. xviii. 8). Leavened bread was used in the time of Moses (Exod. xii.15). The Greeks affirmed that Pan had in- structed them in the art of making bread ; but thej', no doubt, were indebted for this art, as well as for their knowledge of agriculture, to the Egyptians and Phoenicians, who had early settled in their country. The method of grinding corn by hand mills was practised in Egypt and Greece from a very remote epoch ; but for a lengthened period the Romans had no other method of making flour than by beating roasted corn in mortars. The Macedonian war helped BRE 12G BRE to make the Romans acquainted with the arts and refinements of Greece ; and Phny mentions that pubUc bakers were then, for the first time, established in Greece. The use of yeast, in the raising of bread, seems to have been practised by the Germans and Gauls before it was practised by the Romans. It was not practised in France in modem times, till towards the end of the seventeenth cen- tury ; introduced into England, 1656. Wherever it is easily and success- fully cultivated, wheaten bread is used, to the nearly total exclusion of most others. In the reign of Henry VIII. the gently had wheat sufficient for their own tables, but their household and poor neighbours were usually obliged to con- tent themselves with rye, barley, and oats. In 1596, rye-bread and oatmeal formed a considerable part of the diet of servants, even in the great families, in the southern counties. Barley bread is stated, in 1626, to be' the usual food of the ordinary sort of people. In 1758 wheat had become much more generally the food of the common peo- ple ; but even then not more than half the people of England fed on wheat. About the middle of the last century hardly any wheat was used in the north- ern counties ; but wheaten bread is now universally made use of in towns and villages, and almost every where in the country. At the middle of the last century, Scotch agriculture was in the most de- pressed state. In 1780 no wheaten bread was to be met with in the country places and villages of Scotland ; oat cakes and barley bannocks being universally made use of. But at present the case is widely different ; the upper, and also the mid- dle class, and lower classes in towns and villages, use only wheaten bread ; and even in farm houses it is very extensively consumed. In many parts of England it is the custom for private families to bake their own bread. This is particularly the case in Kent, and in some parts of Lan- cashire. In 1804 there was not a single baker in Manchester ; and their number is still very limited. Owing to the vast importance of bread, its manufacture has been subjected, in most countries, to various regulations, some of which have had a beneficial, and others an injurious operation. Assize of Bread. From the year 1 265, in the reign of Henry III., do^vn to our own days, it has been customary to re- gulate the price at which bread should be sold according to the price of wheat or flour at the time. But in consequence of the increase of intelligence as to such matters, the practice of setting an assize was gradually reUnquished in most places; and in 1815 it was expressly abolished, by an act of the legislature (55 Geo. III. c. 99), in London and its environs. In other places, though the power to set an assize still existed, it was seldom acted upon, and had fallen into comparative disuse. Lastly, it. was entirely set aside by 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 37— July 28, 1836, entitled, an " Act to repeal the several Acts now in force relating to bread to be sold out of the City of London and the Liberties thereof, and beyond the Weekly Bills of Mortality and ten miles of the Royal Exchange ; and to provide other regulations for the making and sale of Bread, and for preventing the adultera- tion of meal, flour, and bread, beyond the limits aforesaid." This act recites that it is expedient (as in the title) to proceed forthwith to repeal all acts re- lating to the making and selling of bread, or to the punishment for adulterating meal, &c. out of the City of London and beyond the Bills of Mortality, and e- nacts that there shall be no longer any assize of bread beyond such limits, or any regulation respecting the price there- of. It authorizes bread to be sold beyond those limits, if made of flour or meal, of wheat, barley, rye, oats, buck wheat, Indian corn, peas, beans, eggs milk, barm, leaven, potato, or other yeast, and mixed in such proportions as the bakers shall think fit. Adulterating Bread, by mixing other ingredients than those mentioned, to be punishable by a fine not exceeding 10/., nor less than 5l., or imprisonment for not exceeding six months ; and the names of such offenders are to be pub- lished in a local newspaper. Adulter- ating corn, meal, or flour, or selling flour of one sort of corn as the flour of another sort, subject to a penalty not ex- ceeding 20/., nor less than 5/. Price of Bread. In the year 1754, the quartern loaf was sold for 4c/. ; three years afterwards, in the year 1757, it rose to lOd. ; in March 1800 to Is. od., when new bread was forbidden, under BRE 127 BRE the penalty of 5s. per loaf, or if the baker sold it until twenty-four hours old. In March 1809 the quartern loaf was sold for Is. 3d.; in June 1810, for Is. 5rf. ; in July 1812, for Is. 8d. ; from January to September, 1813, for Is. 6|d. ; in 1813, 1814, and 1815, from \l\d. to Is.J ; in 1816, from 10c?. to Is. 5|d. ; in June, 1817, for Is. 8rf. ; in 1836, for ^d; in 1839, from 9^. to lOjrf. BREAD, made from the fibres of wood in Germany, 1834. BREAD Fruit Tree, first intro- duced into the West Indies by Captain Bligh, Jan. 1793. BREAKWATER, at Plymouth, com- menced Aug. 10, 1812. March 31, 1813, made its appearance above the surface of the Sound at low water of the spring-tide. The quantity of stone deposited in 1812 was 16,045 tons; in 1813, 71,198 tons; in 1814, 239,480 tons; in 1815, 264,207 tons; and in 1816, up to Aug. 12, 206,033 tons; at which time, the total quantity of stone sunk, amounted of 896,963 tons; and at the conclusion of the year, to upwards of 1,000,000 tons. The total quantity of stone re- quired for the construction of the break- water, as originally estimated by Messrs. Rennie and Whidbj"-, amounted to 2,000,000 tons ; and the probable ex- pense to £1,171,100. 1817- A decided proof was afforded of its benefit, by its sheltering the Sound and Catwater from the furj' of one of the most tremendous hurricanes remem- bered by the oldest inhabitant. BREAST-PLATES for armour first invented, a.c. 397. BRECKNOCK Castle, buUt 1089, priory buUt 1100. BREDA. Since the establishment of a town here in 1534, it has frequently been attacked and occupied by the French and Spaniards. It was surprised and taken by the Spanish general Cloud de Barlaimont in 1581 ; by Maurice, prince of Orange, in 1590. Again taken by the Spaniards under Spinola 1625, after a siege of ten months; and by Henry of Orange 1637, after four months' siege. In 1667, it was the seat of the famous conference, in which a general peace was established between Louis XIV. of France, Charles II. of England, Frede- rick III. of Denmark, and the governor of the United Provinces. In 1793, Dumouriez, the French general, made himself master of the town and citadel, but was compelled to abandon his ad- vantages owing to a defeat which the French sustained at Neerwinden. In 1794, in the month of September, Pi- chegru made an attack on Breda, but did not succeed in getting possession until the following winter, when it sur- rendered to France with the rest of Holland. In 1813, when the Russian army approached this place, the French sallied out to oppose them, and the towms-people, taking advantage of the opportunity, shut the gates against them, and prevented their re-admission. Since then, it has continued under the Dutch government. BREECHES, first introduced into England, 1654. BREEDING of Cattle. In 1710 the average weight of bullocks was 370 lbs., of calves 50 lbs., of sheep 28 lbs. ; but in 1832, that of bullocks was 800 lbs., of calves 140 lbs , and of sheep 80 lbs. The Chatsworth ox, which was four years and a half old, weighed 3,080 lbs. BREMEN, fortified 1010; damaged by an explosion of gunpowder, 1000 houses destroyed and 40 persons killed, Sept. 10, 1739 ; capitulated to the Russian general Tettenborne, Oct. 14, 1813. BRENNUS, a celebrated captain among the Gauls, who, about a.c. 338, entered Italy with a powerful army, made great conquests there, defeated the Romans, and sacked Rome BRERE, a village in Dorsetshire, several fires broke out at, and threaten- ed the total destruction of the place, July, 1816. BREREWOOD, Edward, mathe- matician and antiquary, bom 1565, died 1613. BRERETON, Lieut. Col., destroyed himself while a court-martial was sitting on his conduct, after the riots at Bristol, Jan. 11, 1832. BRESCIA, in Italy, seriously da- maged by an explosion, Aug. 8, 1779. BRESLAU, taken by the Austrians, 1758 and 1761, entered by the French, June 1, 1813. BREST, seaport town of France, in the department of Finisterre. The En- glish, under Lord Berkeley and General Talmache attempted to take possession of this harbour in 1694, but were de- feated with the loss of 900 soldiers, and BRI 128 BRI 400 seamen. The magazine, 400 yards long, was destroyed by fire, to the value of 7,000,000f. in stores, besides the building, Jan. 19, 1744. Marine Hos- pital burnt, with fifty galley-slaves, Dec. 1, 1766 ; magazine, &c. destroyed by fire, July 10, 1784, to the value of l,000,000f. The French fleet were beaten, and lost seven of their ships off this harbour, by the British under Howe, June 1, 1794. BREVAL, John Durant, dramatic writer, died 1739. BREVIARIES, first adopted, 1080. BREWER'S Company, London in- corporated 1438. BREWER'S license taxed, 1781. BREWERY. See Beer. BREWHOUSE of H. Meux, two large vats in, suddenly burst, deluging and destroying several neighbouring houses, Oct. 17, 1814. Several lives were lost, and the total loss of beer was estimated at between 8000 and 9000 barrels. BRIBERY, first practised in Eng- land 1554. BRIBERY AT Elections, forbidden by law, 1696, 1729, 1735. The act 2 Geo. II. c. 24, inflicts a penalty of £500 on any person bribing voters at elec- tions. In the Cambridge election 1835, the case Henslow v. Fawcett was decided against tVie defendant, and the penalty enforced. .BRICHIAN, order of knighthood began in Sweden, 1366. BRICKLAYERS' Company, Lon- don, incorporated 1568- BRICKS, first used in England by the Romans ; the size ordered by Charles I. 1625, duties regulated July, 1839. BRICKS AND Tiles taxed 1804. BRIDE-CAKE, originated in the Ro- man custom, called Confarreation, of dividing a cake of wheat and barley, as a firm alliance between man and wife. BRIDEWELL, formerly a palace of King Henry VIII., London, built 1522, converted to an hospital 1558. BRIDGE. The first stone one in England was at Bow, near Stratford, 1087. The first bridge of cast-iron was the arch at Colebrook Dale, in Shrop- shire, thrown over the Severn, in the year 1779, under the direction of Mr. Abraham Derby. It consists of a single arch, lOOi feet in width, composed of five ribs, each rib formed of three con- centric arcs, connected together by ra- diating pieces ; another iron bridge, was that over the Wear, at Sunderland, commenced in 1790, and completed in three years. Suspension Bridges In 1816-17, three suspension bridges of iron were pro- jected. The first at Galashiels, in Scot- land ; the second, Dryburgh, over the Tees; and the third, the famous bridge over the Menai, connecting England and Wales. The Menai Suspension Bridge, begun May 1819, completed Jan. 30, 1826, was the design of Mr. Telford, and was built under his direction. It has justly been considered as one of the most stu- pendous monuments of modern art in the world. The narrowest part of the strait is 500 feet in width, and it is now. crossed by this magnificent bridge, thirty feet in breadth, suspended 100 feet above the surface of the water, from enormous stone buttresses 152 feet in height. The extreme length of the chains from the fastenings in the rocks, is about 1600 feet. The height of the roadway from the high-water line, is 100 feet. Each of the seven small piers from high-water line to the spring of the arches, is sixty-five feet. The space of each arch is fifty feet ; each of the two suspending piers is fifty-two feet above the road. The carriage-roads pass through two arches, in the suspending piers, of the width of nine feet, by fif- teen feet in height to the spring of the arches. The chains, sixteen in number, contain five bars each. The suspending power is calculated at 2,016 tons, and the weight to be suspended, exclusive of the cables, is 342 tons, leaving a dis- posable power of 1674 tons. The weight of the whole bridge between the points of suspension, is 489 tons. Hammersmith Suspension Bridge was erected by Captain Brown, in 1828, cost £180,000. It was opened for the first time October 6. Two piers, or suspen- sion towers, 400 feet from each other, and about 143 feet from either shore, have been built in the river, where at this place it is about 750 feet wide. The suspension towers are of stone, 48 feet high above the railway, making a total height of 64 feet above the highest level of the river. The total weight of metal employed was 472 tons. The length of the chains themselves, from the cuter face of one retaining or shore pin, to that of the other, is 841 feet, 7 inches. BRI 129 BRI being 18 feet 11 inches longer than the strait hne or chord. Besides the above, the following are the principal bridges of this kind : over the Avon, at Clifton, erected by Mr. Brunei ; over the South Esk, near Montrose ; Galton bridge, Birmingham, erected in 1826 ; over the Aire, near Leeds, 1832 ; over the Trent, near Dur- ham, 1832. A steel one has been erected over the Danube, near Vienna. The credit of having first suggested the practicability of constructing bridges of iron, has been claimed for Thomas Paine, who is said to have conceived the idea, from contemplating the fabrication of a spider's web, in America. What- ever may be thought of this assertion, it is certain that, in 1787, Paine pre- sented to the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, the model of a bridge which he had invented ; and it is equally a fact that, during the greater part of the year following, he resided at Rotherhara, in Yorkshire, where a bridge, chiefly of wrought iron, was constructed, under his direction, by Messrs. Walker. What- ever may have been the precise principle of this pattern bridge, it was taken to London, exhibited there for a time, re- turned again to Rotherham, and broken up at that place. Bridges of London. Up to the close of the last century there were only three over the lliames, in London ; there are now six. Vauxhall Bridge, the uppermost, con- sists of 9 cast iron arches, of 78 feet span. Its length is 800 feet, and it cost about £150,000; it was completed about 1805. Westminster Bridge, began l708, com- pleted in 1750, consists of 15 arches, the centre being 76 feet in width. The length of the bridge is 1,223 feet, and it cost £389,000. Waterloo Bridge has 9 elliptical arches, each 120 feet span. With the abut- ments, it measures 1,242 feet, but with the dry arches on each side of it, it ex- tends 2,900 feet. Itcostabove£l,000,000. It was begun in 1811, and finished in 1817, by public subscription. Blackfriars' Bridge consists of 9 arches, the centre 100 feet wide, and its length is 995 feet. It cost £152,840; and was finished in 1768. See Blackfriars. Southwark Bridge consists of 3 cast iron arches, the centre 240 feet span ; each of the others 210 feet. Its length is 708 feet, and it cost £800,000. It was begun in 1815, and finished in 1819, London Bridge was originally buUt of timber about 1000 ; it was carried away by the flood February 13, 1098, and about 200 years after, was entirely re- built of stone, being begun 1176, and completed 1200 ; had originally 20 small arches, with houses and shops upon it, but both the latter were removed in 1758, when the avenues to the bridge were enlarged, and the two middle arches thrown into one. This was the only bridge across the Thames at London during 750 years. New London Bridge. About 1820, an opinion having prevailed that the old London bridge was in a dangerous state, an act of parliament was passed for the "rebuilding the same, and improving and making suitable approaches thereto." The government contributed £200,000 towards the undertaking. Mr. Rennie's estimate for the new bridge was £430,000, with £20,000 for the temporary bridge. The change in the site, with the new approaches, added £456,000 to this esti- mate ; but in consequence of the nature of these approaches, others had after- wards to be submitted, which increas- ed the actual expenditure to nearly £2,000,000. The first pile of a cofferdam for the south pier was driven March 15, 1824. The first coflFerdam was completed April 27, 1825; the first stone laid, June 15 The first arch was keyed in, August 4, 1827 ; and so much progress had been made in the other arches, that the last was keyed November 19, 1828. The last day of July, 1831, saw the bridge finally completed The time occupied in its erection, from the driving the first pile, March 15, 1824, was seven years, five months, and thirteen days. The ceremony of opening the bridge to the public, took place August 1, 1831. The solemnity was graced with the pre- sence of the late king, William IV., and his court, who came and went by wa- ter ; and a banquet was given on the bridge by the civic authorities, to their illustrious visitors. The bridge consists of 5 semi-elliptical arches. The least of these is larger than any stone arch of this description ever before erected. The centre arch is 152 feet span, with a rise above high-water mark of 29 feet 6 inches; the two arches next the centre are 140 feet in span, s BRI 130 BRI and rise 27 feet 6 inches; and the two abutment arches 130 feet span, rising 24 feet 6 inches. The length of the bridge, from the extremities of the abut- ments, is 928 feet; within the abutments, 782 feet. The road-way is 53 feet, be- tween the parapets, being 8 feet wider than the old bridge, and 11 feet wider than any other bridge on the Thames. Of this width the foot-ways occupy 9 feet each, and the carriage-way 35 feet. The whole of the bridge, including the dry arches over Thames and Tooley streets, is constructed of the finest gra- nite, selected from the quarries of Aber- deen, Heytor, and Penryn. The arches over which the approaches, on each side, are carried, with the exception of the two above-mentioned, are built of brick. The total quantity of stone employed in the structure was about 120,000 tons. The raising and blasting at the quarries, the loading, removing, preparing, and Betting the stones, together with other operations connected with the bridge, gave daily employment to upwards of 800 men, during the whole time the work was in progress. BRIDGE of Puerta de St. Maria, near Cadiz, fell down as soon as finished, while receiving the benediction, and kill- ed several hundred persons that were over and under it, February 22, 1779. BRIDGENORTH Castle, Salop, built 800. BRIDGE TOWN, Barbadoes, de- stroyed by fire, April 1668 ; had 160 dwelling houses destroyed by fire, Feb- ruary 8, 1756 ; again, 120, February 14, 1758 ; again. May 14, 1766 ; again, De- cember 27, 1767. BRIDGEWATER Castle and Bridge, Somersetshire, built 1204. BRIDGEWATER, Duke of, cele- brated as the patron of canal navigation, born 1736, died 1803. See Canal. BRIDGEWATER Treatises, a series of scientific works lately presented to the public under the following pecu- har circumstances. The right honourable and reverend Francis Henry, Earl of Bridgewater, who died February 1829, by his will dated February 25, 1825, directed certain tnastees to invest in the pubhc funds £8000 ; this sum, with the dividends thereon, to be at the disposal of the president for the time being of the Royal Society of London, to be paid to the persons nominated by him. The testator further directed that the persons selected by the president should be ap- pointed to write, print, and publish one thousand copies of a work " On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation ;" illus- trating such work by all reasonable argu- ments ; as for instance, the variety and formation of God's creatures, in the ani- mal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms ; the eflFect of digestion, and thereby of conversion; the construction of the hand of man, and an infinite variety of other arguments ; as also, by discoveries an- cient and modern in arts, sciences, and the whole extent of literature. He de- sired, moreover, that the profits arising from the sale of these works, should be paid to their respective authors. In consequence of this bequest, the following interesting tracts were succes- sively published : " The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intel- lectual Constitution of Man," by Rev. Dr. Chalmers, Professor of Divinity in the University of Edinburgh, in 1833. " Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Constitution of Man," by J, Kidd, M.D., Regius Professor of Medi- cine in the University of Oxford, 1833. ** On Astronomy and General Physics," by Rev. Wm. Whewell, F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, 1833. *' On the Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design," by Sir Charles Bell, F.R.S., 1833. "On Animal and Vegetable Physiology," by P. M. Roget, M.D., Secretary to the Royal Society, 1834, "On Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Diges- tion," by W. Prout, M.D., F.R.S., 1834. " On the History, Habits, and Instinct of Animals," by Rev. W. Kirby, F.R.S., 1835. " On Geology and Mineralogy," by Rev. Dr. Buckland, Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford, 1837. BRIGANTINES, a sect that began, 1370. BRIGGS, Henry, a celebrated ma- thematician, born 1556. In 1596, he was chosen the first professor of geome- try at Gresham college. In 1615, he was employed about the noble invention of logarithms, then lately discovered; in the improvement of which, he had after- wards a large share. In 1619, he was made Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford ; and resigning his professorship of Gresham college, he removed to Ox- ford ^ died January 26, 1630. He was BRI 131 BRI the inventor of the common logarithms, that system of which 1 is the logarithm of 10, 2 of 100, 3 of 1000, &c. BRIGGS, Dr. William, physician to king William III., born 1650, died 1714 BRIGHT, Edwakd, of Maiden, in Essex, was supposed to have been the largest man living, or perhaps that had ever lived in this island. He weighed forty-two stone and a half. He was active till a year or two before his death, when his corpulency so overpowered his strength, that his life became a burden, and his death a deliverance to him ; he died November 10, 1750, aged 30. BRIGHTON, or Brighthelmstone, although a place of considerable anti- quity, was little noticed till last century ; erected into a borough, 1832 ; chain pier at, blown down October 15, 1833. BRINDLEY, Mr., the Duke of Bridgewater's engineer, born 17 16, died September 27, 1772. See Canal. BRINKBURN Priory, Northum- berland, built 1331. BRINKLEY, Dr., bishop of Cloyne, died in Dublin September 14, 1835. Previous to his promotion to the bishop- ric of Cloyne, Dr. Brinkley held the astronomical chair in Trinity college, Dublin. Cloyne is one of the sees abolished by the Irish Church Tempo- ralities Act. BRISSOT, James Peter, one of the principal agents in the French revolu- tion, and from whom a party of the revo- lutionists derived the name, Brissotines. He was born at Chartres, in the Or- leannois, in 1754. In 1780, he entered most entirely into the views of the revo- lutionary party, and published several works, the tendency of which was, ac- cording to his own account, the extirpa- tion of political and religious tyranny. In 1791, he was chosen one of the repre- sentatives in the legislative assembly, of which he was also appointed secretary. The party of the Mountain imder Marat, Robespierre, and Danton predominating, the arrest of the Brissotines was decreed, and Brissot was condemned to the guil- lotine ; his execution took place October, 1793. BRISTOL was a place of importance during the Roman invasion. Gildas, as early as 430, reckons this among the fortified and eminent cities of Britain, under the name of Caer Brito. Nennius also, 620, mentions it in his enumera- tion of 28 cities of Britain. It was first encompassed with a strong wall by Ro- bert, the illegitimate son of Henry 1., in 1130, who also rebuilt and improved the castle, which, excluding the out- works, was 450 feet in length, and 300 in breadth. The fortress was razed to the ground by order of Oliver Cromwell, in 1665. The town surrendered to the king's forces under Prince Rupert, July 26, 1643. Riot at Bristol, when the turnpikes were demolished, and many houses de- stroyed, July 20, 1749. The floating harbour effected by damming up the bed of the Avon and Frome nearly as far down as the HotweUs, and cutting a new channel for the river from near Totter- down to Rownham Ferry, was completed in 1809. 1831. Reform riots at Bristol, Oc- tober 29, on the entrance of Sir Charles Wetherell, as recorder, com- menced, and continued through Sunday until Monday morning; during which, the gaols were broken open and burnt, the mansion house and custom house destroyed, the toll-gates pulled down, and many private houses plundered and set on fire. The loss of lives, either by the rioters perishing in the flames they had thennselves created, or from the ex- ertions of the soldiery to repress the tumult, has been roughly estimated at two or three hundred. The most me- lancholy part of the calamity was the deaths of several females and children, who, on the attack of the rioters, had retreated to the upper part of the houses, and were consumed in the flames applied by the miscreants at the bottom. 1832. Opening the commission for the trial of the Bristol rioters, by Chief Justice Tindal, January 2. Of the nu- merous rioters taken into custody during the insurrection, four were subsequently executed, and twenty-two transported. Trial of Pinney, the mayor of Bristol, for neglect of duty during the riots, Oct. 26. He was acquitted Nov. 1. BRISTOL Cross built, 1373 ; taken down and removed to Sturhead, 1760; exchange buUt, 1741 ; bridge biU passed. May 22, 1760. BRITAIN, Ancient. The Britons were of the same stock with the ancient Gauls or Celtae. a. c. 55, Julius Caesar first invaded Britain with two legions, August 20 ; he landed at Dover, and the first battle was fought at Deal. BRI 132 BRI Britain was at this time divided into several petty kingdoms, which were now united under Cassivelaunus. a. c. 54, Cgesar made a second descent with a fleet of 600 vessels and twenty- eight gallies, in which he embarked five legions and 2000 horse, near Canterbury. He defeated the Britons, May 20 ; he passed the Thames at Cowey Stakes, and pene- trated as far as Verulam (St. Albans). Csesar imposed a tribute of £3,000 on the Britons, and Cassivelaunus and the princes of South Britain having submit- ted, and given hostages, the Romans returned to the continent, September 26. A.D.46. Claudius, the Roman emperor, sent Plautius into Britain with an army, who attacked and defeated Caractacus in three successive battles. See Carac- tacus. 48. Christianity first introduced into Britain. It is said that the wife of Plau- tius and a British lady Claudia Ruffina, were Christians. In 51, Ostorius Scapula, a Roman general, was sent to Britain in the room of Plautius ; he defeated Caractacus. In 53, Ostorius died in Bri- tain, and Claudius sent Aulus Didius in his room, who, the same year, was re- moved, and Veranius succeeded him, who dying in 58, Suetonius Pauhnus took the command. In 61, defeat of Boadicea, the British queen. See Boa- DICEA. 78. Julius Agricola, who succeeded Fontinus, reduced South Britain in 83, into the form of a Roman province, in- troducing the laws, customs, &c., of the Romans; he also defeated Galgacus in North Britain. In 84, Agricola built a chain of castles from the Clyde to the Forth. He afterwards subdued the Ork- ney Islands, and reduced the Caledo- nians. At this time Britain Avas first discovered to be an island. In 104, the emperor Adrian, landed in Britain, and in 121, built a wall of earth from Car- lisle to the river Tyne, containing eighty miles in length, as a defence against the Caledonians. 208. The emperor Severus came into Britain, repulsed the Caledonians, and built a wall of stone where the emperor Adrian's wall of earth stood. He was killed at York. In 211, Severus dying at York, his brother Caracalla, was cho- sen, who ordered his brother Geta and others to be put to death. In 270, Con- stantine, afterwards the Great, was born at York. In 284, Carausiua arrived, and was proclaimed emperor in Britain, and is said to be the first who bestowed Scot- land on the Picts, as a recompense for their assistance. In 294, Constantius repulsed the Scots. He married Helena, daughter of Coilus, duke of Colchester, by whom he had Constantine the Great ; she first walled the city of London. 306. Constantius died at York, and was succeeded by his son Constantine. He embraced the Christian religion, and was unanimously saluted by the name of Constantine the Great. In 310, he di- vided Britain into four governments, viz., Britannia Prima, comprehending the country between the river Thames and the sea ; Britania Secunda, consist- ing of all that lay west of the Severn to the Irish sea ; Flavia Csesariensis, com- prehending Cornwall, Devonshire, So- mersetshire, and part of Wilts and Gloucestershire ; and the fourth division was named Maxima Csesariensis, includ- ing the northern counties of England, with Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Staf- fordshire, and Lincolnshire. In 337, Constantine died. May 22, and was buried at Constantinople. In 365, the Britons rebelled against the Romans, in conjunction with the Picts. In 393, the Northern Britons joined the Picts, and determined to expel the Romans from the island. In this the inhabitants of the south refused to concur, and even implored the assistance of Rome against the Picts, which induced the northerns to treat them as common enemies, and lay waste their flourishing provinces. In 427, and the year following, was the last assistance the Romans afforded the Britons. In 428, the emperor Honorius abandoned Britain, and discharged the Britons from their allegiance. This was 480 years after the first attempt of Julius Caesar against this island. 447. When the Romans abandoned South Britain, Vortigern, a prince of the Dunmonii, (inhabitants of Devon and Cornwall,) was elected sole monarch of South Britain. He invited over the Saxons (who inhabited the north-west of Germany) to defend them against the ravages and devastations of the Picts and Scots. In 449, the first embarkation of the Saxons, who arrived at Ebbsfleet, in the isle of Thanet, in three gallies, being commanded by Hengist and Horsa, two brothers. In 454, Vortigern was compelled by his subjects to admit his son Vortimer partner in the throne^ and was BRI 133 BRI deprived of all authority. The Britons endeavoured to rid the kingdom of the Saxons, but were resisted by them, when a war commenced, which terminated in favour of the latter. In 455, the first battle was fought at Aylesford, in Kent, when the Saxons were commanded by Hengist and Horsa, and the Britons by Vortimer. Immediately after the battle, Hengist first took upon him the title of king of Kent. In 458, numbers of the Britons retired into Wales, and some went to Holland, and landed near Ley- den. Thus the unhappy Britons, for seven or eight years, suffered all the calamities of a civil war, till, by agreement, a division of the kingdom put an end to their animosities. In 466, the wai*-was again renewed against their common enemy, the Saxons. It was in this war the famous Arthur, at fourteen years of age, first made his appearance. He was king of Cornwall and Devon, and gained many victories. See Arthur. 547. Ida, an Angle, landed at Flam- borough, and became the first king of Northumberland. In 571, Ufia assumed the title of king of the East Angles. In 584, Crida, a Saxon chief, arrived in Britain with a large fleet, and made great conquests, which obliged the Britons to retire entirely into Cambria, and Crida founded the kingdom of Mercia, which was the last of the seven Saxon king- doms. About the same time the Anglo- Saxons unanimously agreed to call the seven kingdoms in general by the name of England, that is, the country of the Angles. This government was called the Saxon Heptarchy, and lasted till 827, when Egbert having subdued and united Ihem under one government, he was crowned king of England. See England. BRITAIN, Great. The appellation of Great Britain seems to have been in- troduced chiefly by the union of the kingdom of England, and the princi- pality of Wales, with the kingdom of Scotland, under the reign of the Scot- tish monarch, James VI., who succeeded to the throne of England after the death of Queen Elizabeth, by the title of James I. For the chronology of the three coun- tries to the time of James I., see Eng- land, Scotland, and Wales. From the period of Queen Elizabeth's death, and the accession of King James I., we are now therefore to trace the principal events under the heads of the different sovereigns, to the present time. James I. was born at Edinburgh, June 19, 1566, crowned king of Scot- land July 22, 1567, married Anne, prin- cess of Denmark, Aug. 10, 1589. 1603. James was proclaimed king by the council, March 24. He was the son of Henry Stuart Lord Darnley, and Mary Queen of Scots, the only child of James V. king of Scots, who was son of James IV. and Margaret his queen, the eldest daughter of Henry VIII. king of England. Set out from Edinburgh, April 5, in order to take possession of the crown of England, Arrived at Theobalds in Hertfordshire, May 3, a seat of Secretary Cecil's, where he was met by the privy council ; and the Duke of Lenox, the Earl of Mar, the Lord Hume, Sir George Hume, Sir James Elphin- stone, and Lord Kinlass, all Scots, were called to the council-board. The plague being in London (of which 30,244 per- sons died), a person was whipped through the town for going to court when his house was infected, June ], On July 25, the king and queen were crown- ed at Westminster, by Archbishop Whit- gift. Nov. 4. Lord Cobham, Lord Grey, and Sir Walter Raleigh, were tried for high treason, in conspiring against the king, and condemned on the I7th, but reprieved ; the treason they were prin- cipally charged with, was conspiring to set the lady Arabella Stuart, the king's cousin-german, upon the throne, and inviting the Spaniards to assist them. 1604. Jan. 14. A proclamation was issued for banishing priests and Jesuits, and another for enforcing the act of uniformity; out of 10,000 ministers of parishes, only forty-nine refused to con- form, and were deprived. March I9. The first Parliament met and recog- nized the king's title. The king granted a I'oyal license to Lawrence Fletcher, William Shakespeare, and others, to act comedies, tragedies, &c., at their usual house, the Globe, or elsewhere. An Act passed this year, appointing com- missioners to treat of an union of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland. Tonnage and poundage were granted to the king for life, as they had been to his predecessors from Henry VII. to Queen Elizabeth, for defence of the realm, and the guard of the seas. On June 16, the commons addressed the king concern- ing certain grievances, and represented BRI 134 BRI their grievances, which displeased the king, and ho prorogued them to the 7 th of February. 1605. Nov. 5. The gunpowder plot was first discovered by one of the con- spirators, who, through a desire to save William Parker, Lord Monteagle, wrote him a letter of caution. The Earl of Northumberland was suspected, by be- ing related to Percy, who was at the head of the plot ; and was committed to the tower, and fined £30,000, for ad- mitting Percy into the band of pension- ers without tendering him the oath of supremacy. Lord Monteagle had a grant of £200 per annum in land, and a pension of £500 per annum, as a reward for discovering the letter concerning the conspiracy. 1606. Jan. 27. The conspirators in the gunpowder plot were convicted. Jan. 30. Some of them were executed at the west- end of St. Pauls, and in Palace-yard, Westminster. The con- spirators were attainted in parliament, and an act was made for annually so- lemnizing the 5 th of November, as a day of thanksgiving for the discovery of the powder-plot. Another act passed, empowering the crown to levy twenty pounds a month on Popish recusants absenting themselves from church, or to seize two-thirds of their lands, and de- claring it to be a premunire to refuse the oath of allegiance. Nov. 18, an act passed, (4 Jac. 1, cap. 1.) repealing all hos- tile laws made against the Scots ; and in Calvin's case soon after, it was resolved that all Scotchmen, born after the acces- sion of King James to the crown, should enjoy all the privileges of denizens. 1610. The king issued a proclama- tion, commanding all the Jesuits to de- part the kingdom, and all recusants not to come within ten miles of the court, and caused all his subjects to take the oath of allegiance. James put the go- vernment of Ireland under the English laws, and caused justice to be adminis- tered with the utmost impartiality. 1612. Prince Henry died November 5, aged 19, and was buried at West- minster Abbey, Dec. 12. His funeral charge, amounted to £l6,Ol6. The king would allow no mourning to be worn on this occasion. 1613. Frederick Prince Palatine of the Rhine, married the king's daughter, the princess Elizabeth, Feb. 14, and carried her over to Germany, April 10. 1614. The second parliament of this reign met April 5 ; but beginning to debate on their grievances, viz., the king's profuseness to the Scots, and the increase of the Popish recusants, they were dissolved June 7, without passing one act ; after which, the king commit- ted several members of the commons, for the freedom they had taken, and raised money on the subject by way of benevolence, to the amount of £52,909. 1615. George Villiers, afterwards duke of Buckingham, taken into favour, and appointed a gentleman of the bed- chamber, with £1000 salary. 1616. The earl of SuflFolk, being con- victed of taking bribes, and embezzling the fling's treasure, was disgraced and fined £30,000, and Sir John Bennet, judge of the prerogative court, was con- victed of bribery, and fined £20,000 by the covurt of the star chamber. The king delivered up Flushing, Ramekins, and the Brill, to the states of Holland, for less than a tenth part of the charges they were to pay for the assistance Queen Elizabeth gave them. 1617. The king resolved to compel the Scotch to conform to the church of England. He met with great opposition. This year the book of sports was pub- lished, giving leave for innocent recrea- tions after evening prayers on Sundays ; and the clergy were enjoined to read the book in their churches, for neglect whereof, some of them were prosecuted in the star chamber. August. Sir Walter Raleigh sailed to America in search of a gold mine. Oct. 29. At the instigation of the Spanish ambassador. Sir Walter Raleigh was executed, (by virtue of his former sen- tence) for high treason. 16 19- Queen Anne died at Hamp- ton Court, in the forty-sixth year of her age, March 2. 1621. The third parliament of this reign met Jan. 30, when the lord chan- cellor Bacon was convicted of bribery, fined £40,000, and imprisoned du- ring the king's pleasure. The seals were taken from him, and given to Dr. Williams, dean of Westminster, who was made bishop of Lincoln, and af- terwards archbishop of York. See Bacon. In this parliament were first formed the parties of court and country. Great heats arose in the house of commons, and they drew up a remonstrance, and B RI 135 B R I protested in vindication of their pri- vileges. The parliament again met in November, and insisted on their pri- vileges in freedom of speech, and James sent for the journal of the house, and tore out the leaf containing their pro- testation. The king dissolved the par- liament by proclamation ; many were confined, and the earls of Oxford and Southampton were sent to the tower. 1623. The king made a declaration in favour of the Roman Catholics. The bi- shop of Chalcedon came into England to exercise jurisdiction over the Catholics, and a chapel was begun to be built at St. James's for the infanta's use. 1624. James put in force the laws against the Popish recusants, particu- larly against friars and priests, some of whom were imprisoned. August. A match was proposed and concluded be- tween Prince Charles and the Princess Henrietta of France, daughter of Henry IV., but was not consummated till King James's death. After the treaty of mar- riage was signed, the recusants were no longer prosecuted. 1625. King James died at Theo- bald's March 27, in the 59th year of his age, and the 23rd of his reign, of a tertian ague, and was interred (May 7) with great state in Westminster Abbey, Prince Charles being chief mourner. His wife, Anne, was the daughter of Frederick H. king of Denmark. His issue were Henry Robert, who died young; Charles, who succeeded him; Ehzabeth, who married the elector Pa- latine, from whom her present Majesty's family is descended ; also Margaret, Mary, and Sophia, who died young. Charles I, the third, but only surviving son of James I. by queen Anne, daughter of Frederick 11. king of Denmark, succeeded to the crown on the demise of his father, March 27, 1625. On May 11, King Charles's mar- riage with the princess Henrietta Maria, youngest daughter of Henry HI., of France, was solemnized at Paris. June 16, their majesties arrived in London. A great plague raged at this time in London, which swept away 35,417 per- sons. Buckingham became a favourite with the new king. The first parliament in this reign met at Westminster, June 18, and his majesty, and the lord- keeper each of them made a speech to both houses. The parliament was ad- journed from Westminster, July 11, on account of the plague, and met at Ox- ford, Aug. 1. The parliament petition- ed the king against recusants. Aug. 12. The parliament having refused to settle the revenue of tonnage and poun- dage on his majesty for more than one year, or to grant supplies sufficient to maintain the war with Spain, and em- ploying their time in finding out griev- ances, and arraigning the conduct of the king's ministers, particularly of the duke of Buckingham, they were this day dissolved, both at Westminster and Oxford, not having sat three weeks, nor having passed a single act. The parliament having made no provision for the civil list, the Spanish war, or the guard of the seas, the king found him- self under the necessity of ordering the officers to continue to collect the usual duties settled on his predecessors, by his own authority. The king entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with Holland against Spain, to which France and Denmark acceded. 1626. King Charles L was crown- ed at Westminster, Feb. 2, with his Queen, by Archbishop Abbot ; his majesty chose to be clothed in white, rather than purple, as his predecessors usually were at a coronation. Feb. 6, the second parliament in this reign met at Westminster. Committees were ap- pointed, one for religion, one for redress of grievances, and one for secret affairs. May 8. Articles of impeachment were preferred against the duke of Bucking- ham by the commons, for several high crimes and misdemeanours, committed in his administration ; to which the duke put in his answer. Sir Dudley Diggs and Sir John Elliot, two of the mem- bers of the commons, who carried up the impeachment against the duke of Buckingham were committed to the tower, for some obnoxious expressions that fell from them on that occasion (the first began, and the other ended the impeachment) but they were released soon after, and explained themselves. 1627- The king of France broke the treaty of peace, and seized 120 En- glish ships. Charles declared to his coun- cil the cause of his making war with France. June 27. The duke of Buck- ingham, with 100 sail of ships of all sorts, and 7000 land forces on board, set sail from Portsmouth, for the city of Rochelle, in France, where, being re- BRI 136 BRI fused admittance, he landed on the isle of Rhe, but not l)eing able to make him- self master of the fort La Prce, he re- turned to England in November, with some disgrace, having lost one-third of his troops. 1628. The third parliament of this reign met, March 17, and preferred a petition of right to his majesty, praying. That no loan or tax might be levied but by consent of parliament, 2. That no man might be imprisoned but by legal process. 3. That soldiers might not be quartered on people against their wills. 4. That no commission be grant- ed for executing martial law. To which the king answered, " I will that right be done according to the laws and cus- toms of the realm." June 7- Both houses addressed his majesty for a fuller answer to their petition of right, whereupon they received this satisfactory answer, viz .- Soitfait comme il est desire. June 26. The commons being about to re- monstrate against his majesty's receiv- ing tonnage and poundage, the king came to the house of peers, and ha^dng passed the act confirming the rights and liberties of the subject, (as above demanded,) and two other acts, whereby the clergy and laity respectively granted five entire subsidies, &c. the parliament was prorogued to Oct. 20, and then by proclamation to Jan. 10, following. Aug. The duke of Buckingham being at Portsmouth, equipping another fleet for the relief of Rochelle, was stabbed by John Felton, a discontented lieutenant. Sept. 8. The fleet set sail for Rochelle, under the command of Robert, earl of Lindsey,butwasobliged to return without effecting any thing; Rochelle was ulti- mately taken, and out of 15,000 persons in the city, only 5,000 remained alive, the rest being starved by famine. 1629. Jan. 20. The parliament met. Jan. 21. The commons proceeded again on their grievances, and debated concerning the increase of Arminians and Papists, and Mr. Pym moved, that a covenant might be taken, to maintain their reli- gion and rights. March 2. The speaker being called upon to read a remonstrance, and put the question, said he dared not, the king having commanded the con- trary ; and endeavouring to leave the chair, was held in by force, and the doors locked, till a protestation was read, "That whoever should bring in innovations in religion, or seek to bring in Popery or Arminianism ; and whoever should advise the taking of tonnage or poundage, not granted by parliament, or that should pay the same, should be accounted enemies to the kingdom." On March 5, warrants were issued by the privy council for seizing the opposing members of the commons, and Mr. Holies, Mr. Coriton, Mr. John Elliott, and Mr. Valentine, appearing before the council, refused to answer for what was said or done in the house, and were thereupon committed close prisoners to the tower. The king came to the house of peers, March 10, and in a speech declared that the seditious behaviour of some of the commons, obliged him to dissolve the parliament, though he commended the behaviour of some mem- bers of that house. 1634. Mr. Pryn prosecuted in the star-chamber, July 2, for publishing his book called Histriomastix, being a libel on the administration for sufi"ering and countenancing plays, masquerades, &c. Pryn was fined 5000/., expelled the university of Oxford, and Lincoln's-inn, disabled to profess law, to stand twice on the pillory, lose his ears, and remain a prisoner for life. 1636. The book of common prayer, composed for the church of Scotland, being appointed to be read by the dean of Edinburgh in his surplice, at St. Giles's, July 23, he was inter- rupted, and had a stool thrown at his head ; it was with some difficulty that the magistrates of Edinburgh dispersed the mob ; after which the service was read through, in that and the rest of the churches in Edinburgh ; but the bishop of Edinburgh was in danger of being murdered on his return to his house. 1638. An insurrection in Edinburgh July 19, by the presbyterians. The Scots threw off" their allegiance, and en- tered into a covenant or association against the government, which they com- pelled all people to subscribe. Arch- bishop Spotswood and several other Scotch bishops fled into England. April. The case of ship-money, between the king and Mr. Hampden, was argued before all the judges of England in the Exchequer chamber; and Mr. Hamp- den was cast. He was adjudged to pay twenty shillings, being the sum he was charged with, towards fitting out a fleet for the guard of the seas. 1639. The king marched towards the Scots, March 27, with an army of 6000 horse, and as many foot, attendee? BRI by great numbers of the nobility and gentry. The earl of Arundel was general, the earl of Essex lieutenant-general, and the earl of Holland general of the horse: also a fleet of sixteen men of war, fitted out under the marquis of Hamilton. June 1, the Scots preferred a petition to the king, professing all obedience and submission ; whereupon the king con- sented to a treaty with them. The king having disbanded his army, Aug. 1, re- turned to Theobald's, and two days after to Whitehall. 1640. The parliament of England met, April 13, when the earl of Straf- ford acquainted the house that tbe par- liament of Ireland had granted the king four subsidies for the maintaining 10,000 foot, and 1500 horse, which was urged as a good precedent for the par- liament of England. The long parlia- ment of England, which began the re- volution in 1641, met Nov. 3, this year, and the commons chose William Len- thal, esq. for their speaker. 1641. The earl of Stafford was be- headed on Tower-hUl, May 12. The king departed for Scotland, Aug. 10. The king passed an act of pacification between the kingdoms of England and Scotland, to effect which, all the Scots' demands were granted ; and it was com- puted their coming into England and stay here, cost this nation 100,000Z. be- sides the damages they did to private men. The Irish rebellion and massacre, Oct. 23. The Scotch first incited this rebellion in Ireland, suggesting there was a design to eradicate all the Irish catholics. The latter surprised and put to death upwards of 10,000 English in cold blood. There were since the rebellion broke out in Ireland, from Oct. 23, to March 1, following, 154,000 protestants cruelly massacred ; and until the cessa- tion, Sept. 15, 1 643, above 300,000 mur- dered in cold blood, destroyed, and ex- pelled their habitations. The king re- turned from Scotland, and was splen- didly treated by the city of London, Nov. 25. 1642. The king ordered lord Kim- bolton to be apprehended, Jan. 3 , to- gether with Mr. Pym, Mr. Hampden, Mr. Holies, Sir Arthur Haslerig, and Mr. Stroud, and their trunks and papers to be sealed up ; whereupon the com- mons resolved, that whoever should at- tempt to seize any of their members, or their papers, they should stand upon 137 BRI their defence. The same day the com- mons voted it a breach of privilege. The commons ordered the seals to be taken off. The king went to the com- mon council of London, and demanded the five members out of the city, when one Henry Walker threw into the king's coach a paper, wherein was the city pe- tition to the king, who sided with the commons, written, " To your' tents, O Israel," This may be considered as the origin of the civil war. May 19, the par- liament published a manifesto, under the name of remonstrance or a declara- tion, setting forth the reason of their conduct. The parliament voted, that whoever should serve or assist his ma- jesty in raising forces, were traitors : and sent their Serjeants to York, to ap- prehend some gentlemen that attended the king there, as delinquents. Oct. 23, being Sunday, about two in the after- noon, began the battle of Edge-hill, near Keynton, in War^vickshire, where the king's horse beat the parliamentarian cavalry out of the field; but pursuing them too far from the field of battle, left the king's infantry exposed to the enemy's foot, who were more numerous; however they maintained their ground till night parted them, when both armies drew off : and the next day both claim- ed the victory, and gave thanks for it, but neither of them thought fit to renew the fight. On the king's side were killed the earl of Lindsey the general. Lord Aubigny, son of the duke of Le- nox, and Sir Edmund Verney, the stan- dard bearer. On the other side were killed only lord St. John of Bletso, and colonel Charles Essex, of any note. The royal standard was taken, but after- wards rescued by Captain John Smith, who was knighted for it, and made standard bearer. The king advanced towards London, Nov. 16, whereupon the parliament ordered the earl of Essex to march towards the city for their pro- tection, and invited the Scots into Eng- land again. 1643. Reading surrendered to the earl of Essex, April 26, the parliamen- tary leader, after a siege of ten days ; the garrison consisted of 4000 men, and were permitted to march out with their arms, &c., but all deserters were given up ; colonel Fielding, deputy governor, who hung out a flag of truce, was con- demned to lose his head, but afterwards pardoned by the king. Prince Rupert, BRI and the marquis of Hertford invested Bristol, and storming the place, it sur- rendered on the 26th ; the garrison con- sisting of about 3000 men, being per- mitted to march out with their swordsand baggage July 22. The two houses having made a new great seal, Nov. 11, declar- ed that aU letters, patents, and grants, passed the great seal by the king, after May 22, 1642, should be void, and that henceforward their own great seal should be of the same authority as any great seal of England had formerly been ; they committed the custody of it to the earls of Bolingbroke and Kent, and to Mr. St. John, Serjeant Wild, Mr. Brown, and Mr. Prideaux. The parliament's forces seized the regalia and plate in Westminster Abbey, and sold them, 1644. The royalist members who had deserted the parliament at West- minster being summoned by the king to appear at Oxford, assembled there, Jan. 22, to the number of 44 lords and 118 commoners. 1645. General Fairfax invested Ox- ford, May 22. The king took Leicester by storm, and marched to Daventry in Northamptonshire, May 31. Fairfax re- tired from Oxford, June 9. Fairfax ob- tained an intercepted letter, which made him resolve to give the king battle. Both armies met near Naseby, in Northamp- tonshire, where the king was defeated, lost all his foot, artillery, arms, &c.,with his cabinet of papers, and retired to Lichfield, and from thence to Ragland Castle, the seat of the old marquis of Worcester. The parliament took 5,000 prisoners. There wereslain,on the king's side, about 600 men ; and, out of these, 150 officers. On the parliament's side, there were about 1,000 officers and men slain. 1646. Exeter surrendered to the par- liament, April 13. Oxford surrendered upon articles dated at Water Eaton, June 20. The number of the soldiers and scholars in pay, amounting to about 7,000 men, were allowed to march out with marks of honour, and returned to their respective dwellings. Upon the surrender of Oxford, the great seal, and all the other seals of state, were sent to Westminster, where they were broken in the presence of the two houses. 1647. The Scots, in consideration of 400,000Z. of their arrears paid them by the English parliament, delivered up the king to the English commissioners, Ja- 138 B RI nuary 30. The king was brought to Newmarket, June 8, where he was per- mitted his recreations, and the gentry to resort to him, with his chaplains and servants ; and Cromwell made great pro- fessions of serving him. The king was removed from Newmarket to Royston, June 24 ; the 26th to Hatfield house ; July 1 to Windsor ; July 3 to Caver- sham ; July 22 to the earl of Devon- shire's ; from thence to Woburn ; then to Stoke Pogis and Oatlands. The king having for the most part marched with the army after he left Newmarket, was, on the 16th of August, fixed at Hamp- ton Court, and afterwards conducted to Carisbrook Castle. The parliament al- lowed him 5000/. for his expenses there. His household was all dissolved. The king made his escape to Titchfield, No- vember 11, a seat of the earl of South- ampton, and was afterwards persuaded to trust himself with Hammond, gover- nor of the Isle of Wight, who detained his Majesty in the island, and gave ad- vice to the parliament where he was. The parliament sent the king four bills to the Isle of Wight for his royal assent, Dec. 24. 1. He was to acknowledge the war raised against him to be just. 2. To abolish episcopacy. 3. To settle the power of the militia in persons nominated by the two houses. 4. To sacrifice all those that had adhered to him. 1648. Upon the king's refusal to pass the four bills, the commons, on the 3d of July, voted that they would make no more addresses to the king, but pro- ceed to settle the kingdom without him, and to this resolution the lords, on the l7th, gave their concurrence, and his Majesty was made a close prisoner. Cromwell's troops engaged sir Marma- duke Langdale near Preston, in Lanca- shire, August 17, and the Scots, not supporting him, after an obstinate fight, sir Marmaduke was routed. Afterwards Cromwell engaged the Scots, and routed them, the Scots making a very faint re- sistance. Duke Hamilton fled, and was taken at Uttoxeter, with 3,000 horse, surrendering upon no better conditions than that of quarter. November 30, the king was taken out of the hands of co- lonel Hammond, and carried to Hurst Castle, by an order of the council of of- ficers of the army. December 4, the commons voted that the seizing the king's person and carrying him to Hurst Castle was \vithout the consent of the BRI house. December 6, Colonel Pride was sent with a strong detachment to West- minster, who seized and imprisoned for- ty-one of the members as they were going to the house, and stopped above one hundred and fifty permitted to sit in the house ; and these were most of them officers of the army. December 21, the king was brought by colonel Har- rison from Hurst Castle to Windsor. December 28, a committee was appoint- ed to consider of drawing up the charge against the king. 1648-9. The names of the commis- sioners that were to try the king amount- ed to 150. January 10, John Bradshaw, of Gray's-inn, a sergeant lately created, was made president of the intended high court of justice, there were but about seventy-nine of the commissioners named for the king's judges that acted. Janu- ary 20, the king was brought from St. James's to Sir Robert Cotton's house at Westminster, from whence he was car- ried before the high court of justice in Westminster-hall the same day ; and re- fusing to acknowledge their jurisdiction, he was remanded to Cotton-house. Ja- nuary 22, the king was brought before the court a second time, and objected to their jurisdiction again. January 23, the king appeared in Westminster-hall the third time, and persisted in denying the jurisdiction of the court ; whereupon Bradshaw ordered his contempt to be recorded. The king's refusal to answer before the high court was taken, accord- ing to the laws of England, as a confes- sion. A little before his sentence was pronounced he earnestly desired to be heard before the two houses, saying, he had something of importance to offer them ; but his desire was rejected. Ja- nuary 27. The king being brought into Westminster-hall the fourth day, the clerk was ordered to read the sentence which concluded, " For all such treasons and crimes this court doth adjudge, that he, the said Charles Stuart, as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and a public enemy, shall be put to death, by severing his head from his body." The warrant for the king's execution was signed by fifty- nine of his judges. Jan. 30. The king being ordered to be put to death this day, about ten in the morning, he walked from St, James's to Whitehall, under a guard, being allowed some time for his devo- tions ; he was afterwards led by colonel Hacker, through the banqueting-hous ; 139 BRI to the scaffold erected m the open street, where, having made a speech, he sub- mitted to the block, and his head was severed from the body at one blow, about two in the afternoon, in the 49th year of his age, and tlie 24th of his reign. His body was put into a coffin covered with black velvet, and removed to his lodging-room in Whitehall, being embalmed ; it was delivered Feb. 7, to four of his servants, and by them that day was removed to Windsor ; he was silently interred Feb. 9, in a vault about the middle of the choir, over against the seventh stall on the sovereign's side, near Henry VIII., and Jane Seymour, with this inscription on a fillet of lead "King Charles, 1648." The king was married in the year 1625, to the Princess Henrietta Maria, youngest daughter of Henry IV., sur- named the great king of France, and sis- ter to Louis XIII, arid had issue by this princess, 1. Charles, who died the same day he was born ; 2. Charles, who succeeded his father by the name of Charles II ; 3. James, who succeeded his brother Charles by the name of James II ; 4. Princess Mar)^, married to William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, by whom she had issue, William of Nassau, prince of Orange, afterwards king of England ; 5. The Princess Elizabeth, who died a prisoner in Caris- brook castle, in the Isle of Wight, Sep. 8, 1650, in the 15th year of her age ; 6. The Princess Anne, who died about three years of age, and, 7. The Princess, Henrietta Maria, born at Exeter, June 15, 1644, and married to Philip, duke of Anjou, afterwards duke of Orleans, by whom she had issue Anna Maria, mar- ried to Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, and king of Sardinia. The Commonwealth. — 1649. The, commons in January passed an act, de- claring it high treason to proclaim the prince, or any other person, king of England, without consent of parUament, and styled themselves the common- wealth of England. March 17, an act was passed for abolishing kingly govern- ment, and the house of peers. 1650. An act was passed June 26, con- stituting Ohver Cromwell captain-gene- ral of all the forces raised, and to be raised, by authority of parliament, with- in the commonwealth of England ; with a power of granting, and altering the officers' commissions. July 22, Crom- well passed the Tweed, and invaded BRI 140 BRI Scotland, wliereuponthe Scots destroyed their country, and retired before him, till he came within sight of Edinburgh. Dec. 24, Edinburgh Castle surrendered to Cromwell, said to be the first time that ever it was taken. 1651. King Charles II. was crowned, Jan. 1, at Scone in Scotland, and again subscribed the covenant, and swore to promote it, and to establish the presbyterian religion, &c.j in Scotland. Charles set up his standard at Aberdeen, and made duke Hamilton Ueutenant- general. He put himself at the head of the Scotch army, consisting of 18,000 horse and foot, and encamped at Torwood. On July 31, Cromwell being now further northward than the Scotch army, the king suddenly decamped with the Scots, and marched for England; Argyle and many others of the army leaving him, and retiring home. Aug. 6, the king entered England by Carlisle, with an army of 16,000 men, Scotch and English, at the head of which he was proclaimed king of Great Britain. Sep. 3, the battle of Worcester was fought, where the king's forces were entirely routed, about 3000 of them killed, and 6000 or 7000 taken prisoners, with all their cannon, ammunition, and baggage ; in this action, WiUiam, duke of Hamilton, was mortally wounded, taken prisoner, and died the next day. The king's standard and 158 colours were taken. The king himself, with the duke of Buck- ingham, the earls of Derby and Lauder- dale, the lords Talbot, Wilinot,and about 50 horse, after the battle was lost, about seven in the evening, marched out of St. Martin's gate, Worcester, and ar- rived at White-ladies, twenty-five miles from Worcester about four the next morning ; the earl of Derby and the other lords took their leave of his majesty, and "left him to the care of the Pendrils (five brothers) who concealed him, in the night-time, in their barns, and in the day-time, in the woods, till he had an opportunity of making his escape farther. In these woods was a thick oak, within which his majesty often stood concealed, which from thence was called the Royal Oak. Sep. 12, Cromwell was met at Acton by the speaker and members of parliament, and the council of state, and rode in triumph into London, whither the Scotch prisoners were brought up, and sold to the West Indies for slaves. Oct. 15, after the king had wandered about si.x weeks, from the house of one loyalist to another, he embarked near Brighton, in Sussex, with lord Wilmot, and arrived at Foscan, near Havre de Grace in Normandy, October 22. Hos- tiUties commenced Avith the Dutch; an English man-of-war meeting with some Dutch fishermen, demanded the tenth herring, which they refused ; the English sunk one of their ships, and all the men perished. 1652. There was an engagement, Oct. 28, between the English fleet under Blake, and the Dutch under De Witt, upon the coast of Kent, where the Dutch rear-admiral was taken, and two more of their men-of-war sunk, and they were driven home to their own coasts, without the loss of one English ship. Nov. 29, Van Tromp, with eight sail of Dutch men-of-war, fell upon Blake, who was riding with forty sail of English in the Downs ; six of the English ships were taken and destroyed, and the rest drove into the Thames ; after which Van Tromp sailed in triumph through the channel, with a broom at the topmast-head. 1653. A fight between the English and Dutch fleets, Feb. 18, 19, and 20, off Portland, where the English ob- tained a great victory, taking and destroy ing eleven Dutch men-of-war, and thirty merchantmen, out of 300 the Dutch had under their convoy: Van Tromp was admiral of the Dutch, and Blake of the English ; generals Monk and Dean com- manded under Blake in this engage- ment. April 20, Cromwell went to the house of commons with a guard, and turned out the members, and locking the doors, declared the parliament dis- solved. April 22, Cromwell, with his council and officers, published a decla- ration, with reasons for dissolving the parliament, and authorizing all civil of- ficers to proceed, as formerly, in the ex- ecution of their respective offices. June 2, the Dutch fleet under Van Tromp, and the English under general Monk, being about 100 men on a side, engaged off the North Foreland. At the first broadside, admiral Dean was killed with a cannon ball. The fight lasted two days, and the English obtained a great victory, taking and destroying twenty of the enemy's ships, and pursuing them to their own harbours. June 8, Crom- well issued his letters of summons to about 140 persons to appear at White- hall July 4, to take upon them the ad- BR I ministration of the government, July 4, the persons summoned by Cromwell met in the council-chamber at White- hall, to the number of 120. Cromwell produced an instrument under his own hand and seal, whereby he did, with the advice of his officers, devolve and en- trust the supreme authority and govern- ment of the commonwealth into the hands of the persons met ; and that they, or any forty of them, should be acknow- ledged the supreme authority of the na- tion. July 29, the English fleet under Monk and Blake, fought the Dutch, commanded by Van Tromp, upon their own coasts, and obtained a great victory, destroying thirty of the Dutch men-of- war, and Van Tromp himself was killed in the engagement with a musket-shot. This was the seventh and last fight between the two Commonwealths ; all fought within little more than the com- pass of a year. Oliver Cromwell. December 16, 1653, the council officers sent for the commissioners of the great seal, with the lord mayor and aldermen of London, and caused to be read a writing, called " The Instrument of Writing," and CromweE was made protector. He was proclaim- ed in London and Westminster, and throughout England afterwards, with the same solemnity as the kings of England were heretofore. 1654. The Dutch ambassadors having audience of the protector, March 4, in the banqueting-house, acquainted him that aU the provinces had consented to articles of peace, and desired a cessa- tion of arms. September 4, Cromwell went to Westminster abbey, in the same state as the king used to go to the par- liament house. The members having retired to the house, chose Mr. Lenthal their speaker, who had been speaker of the long parliament. 1656. A plot was discovered against the protector, Jan. 19. Miles Syndercombe, who had been cashiered in Scotland, conspired with one Cecil, and a troop of Cromwell's life-guard, to kill the pro- tector; but Syndercombe was betrayed by the confederates, and condemned to die, the judges declaring it to be high treason by the common law, to conspire the death of any chief magistrate whe- ther king or protector, and that the 25th Edw. III. was but the declaration of the common law. 1657. Cromwell was inaugurated in 141 BR I his office of protector, June 26, in Westminster-hall. The ceremony was performed with great pomp. 1658. Cromwell being taken ill of a fever, Aug. 12, at Hampton Court, returned to Whitehall, where he died, Sept. 3, aged 60, having enjoyed the title of protector four years, eight months and eighteen days. On the day he died, there happened the greatest storm of wind that ever was known. ^He ap- pointed his son Richard his successor. Richard Cromwell, the late pra- tector's eldest son, was proclaimed lord protector, Sept. 4, 1658. He received the compliments of condolence and con- gratulation from the foreign ministers, and numerous addresses from all parts of England of the same tenor, with promises of adhering to his Highness with their lives and fortunes against all opposers. The late protector was buried with great pomp, Nov. 23, in Henry VII's. chapel, in Westminster Abbey, after lying in state in Somerset house, at the expence of 60,000Z. Richard called a parliament after the ancient form, Dec. 4, and summoned his house of peers, to meet Jan. 27, following. 1659. The officers petitioned the protector, April 6, desiring Fleetwood for their general, which was rejected. Desborough with a strong retinue, de- manded an audience of the protector, and required him, in the name of the army, to dissolve the parliament, which if not speedily done, they threatened to fire the house, and kill all who should resist. By commission under the great seal, the parliament was dissolved, April 22, at which time Richard's authority was reckoned to expire. The officers seized the government, chose Fleetwood their general, and discharged several colonels. Fleetwood and the general officers of the army published a decla- ration. May 6, inviting the members of the long parliament to return to their seats in parliament, and exercise their former power. Lenthal the speaker, and several of the members of the long parliament met in the house of com- mons. May 7, to the number of about forty-one; but several of the members who were excluded in the year 1648, attempting to enter with them, they were stopped. The officers constituted a council of twenty-three men, Oct. 26, most of them general officers, to take upon them the exercise of the govern- BRI ment. Letters arrived that general Monk had summed a convention in Scotland, Nov. 17. and told them, he had a call from God and man to march into England, to settle the peace there ; he required them to suppress all insur- rections in his absence, and demanded money for his troops, which they pro- mised to levy. 1660. King Charles II. was pro- claimed in Ireland, May 14. His ma- jesty being invited into Holland, May 16, by the States, came to the Hague from Breda. A committee of six lords and twelve commons attended the king at the Hague with an invitation to re- turn and take the government of the kingdom into his hands. A deputation of the city of London attended his ma- jesty at the same time, with assurances of their duty and affection. Charles II. May 23, 1660, king Charles II. embarked at the Hague, for England, and arrived at Dover the 25th, where he wasmetbygeneral Monk, whom he honoured with the order of the garter. The king went to the house of peers, Aug. 29, and having made a speech, he passed the act of indemnity; out of which most of the regicides. Sir Henry Vane, Lambert, and Hugh Peters, were excepted. The convention parliament was dissolved, Dec. 29, having first passed several acts for increasing the king's revenue, and another for esta- blishing the post-office, &c. 1661. The new parliament met, May 8, and the king rode from his palace, "Whitehall, attended by the nobility in their robes to Westminster abbey, and heard a sermon before he went to the house. 1662. The marriage between king Charles and the infanta of Portugal, was solemnized May 21, by Dr. Gilbert Sheldon, bishop of London, at Ports- .mouth. She was then about 24 years of age. 1664. War was declared against the Dutch. The duke of York returned from cruising, Dec. 4, having taken about 130 Dutch merchant-ships, and particularly their Bourdeaux fleet, as they were returning home, laden with wine and brandy, before the war was declared. This was sufficiently justified by the Dutch admiral, De Ruyter's faUing upon our factories at Cape Verd, on the coast of Africa ; his attempting the island of Barbadoes, and several other of the English plantations ; and 142 B R I the depredations of the Dutch in the East Indies, and on the high seas upon the Enghsh merchants, in the time of fuU peace. 1665. The plague broke out in Lon- don about April, and an order of council was issued, requiring the lord chief jus- tice to take proper measures to prevent the spreading of the infection. June 3, the English obtained a victory over the Dutch, oflF Harwich, taking eighteen capital ships, and destroying fourteen more. Admiral Opdam was blown up with all his crew. The English lost only one ship, but several commanders and men of honour were killed in the action ; amongst the rest, the earls of Falmouth, Portland, and Marlborough ; lord Mus- kerry, and rear-admiral Sanson ; and admiral Lawson died soon after of his wounds- September 28, the king and court arrived at Oxford. October 9, the parliament met at Oxford, and the king made a speech to both houses in the great hall of Christ church, desiring supplies for the war. 1666. The Dutch fleet, consisting of ninety sail, under the command of De Ruyter and Tromp, fell upon that part of the English fleet commanded by the duke of Albemarle, consisting of about fifty sail, June 1, who maintained the fight for three days, though the Dutch were joined by sixteen sail more, the second day. July 25, 26, the English and Dutch fleets engaged again, and the English gained a complete victory, de- stroying about twenty Dutch men-of- war, and driving the rest into their har- bours. In this action the Dutch lost four of their admirals, besides 4000 other officers and seamen ; and the loss on the side of the English is said to have been inconsiderable. September 2, the great fire of London broke out where the Monument now stands, which destroyed in the space of four days, eighty-nine churches, among which was the cathe- dral of St. Pauls, the city gates, the Ex- change, Custom-house, Guildhall, Sion college, and many public structures, hospitals, schools, libraries, a vast number of stately edifices, 1 3,200 dwelling-houses, in all 400 streets. The ruins of the city were 436 acres, extending from the Tower along the Thames' side, to the Temple church, and from the north-east gate, along the city-wall to Holborn- bridge or Fleet-ditch. 1667. The Dutch sailed up the Med- BRI 143 BRI way, June 11, as far as Chatham, and made themselves masters of Sheerness, and burnt the Royal Oak, the Loyal London, and the Great James, with se- veral other English men-of-war. They likewise burnt a magazine full of stores, to the value of £40,000, and blew up the fortifications, and retired with the loss onl»y of two of their ships, which ran aground, and were burnt by themselves. The English, fearing their coming up to London bridge, sunk thirteen ships at Woolwich, and four at Blackwall. June 29, peace was concluded with the French, Danes, and Dutch, at Breda. 1668. Treaty of alliance concluded, Jan. 23, with the states- general against France, for the preservation of the Spanish Netherlands. Jan. 26, Sweden entered into the alliance with England and Holland, from whence it obtained the name of the triple league. 1672. A declaration of war pub- lished against the states -general March 17. The duke of York engaged the Dutch in Southwould-Bay, May 28. In the beginning of the action the IDutch had some advantage by having the wea- thergage ; but in the evening they fled, and were pursued by his royal highness to their own coasts. The battle was very obstinately fought from morning to evening; several great ships and some thousands of men were destroyed, and among the rest the earl of Sandwich, admiral of the blue, whose ship was set on fire and blojvn up. The French lost their rear-admiral, monsieur De la Rabi- nere ; and the Dutch lost De Ghent, admiral of their blue squadron. 1674. A treaty of peace was signed by his majesty's commissioners at Lon- don, Feb. 9, with Spain and the states- general. Feb. 28, the peace with Hol- land proclaimed ; by this peace the Dutch agreed to strike to the English in the British seas ; to settle the commerce with the Indies, and that the English planters at Surinam (which the Dutch had possessed themselves of) should have liberty to sell their effects, and retire ; and that the Dutch should pay the king of England £200,000 in heu of the claims his majesty had on them. 1678. Titus Oates's plot. Aug. 11, Dr. Tongue, a physician, laid certain papers before the lord-treasurer Danby, pretending a conspiracy against his ma- i'esty's life, and the protestant religion, )y the Jesuits, afterwards called the po- pish plot. Sep. 6, Dr. Tongue and Titus Oatcs having drawn up a narrative of the plot, Oates made oath of the truth of the narrative, before Sir Edmondsbury Godfrey, a justice of peace of St. Martin in-the-Fields ; but it was afterwards proved that he was perjured. 1681. The commons resolved Jan. 7, that until a bUl was passed for exclud- ing the duke of York, they could not give any supply without danger to his majesty, and extreme hazard of the protestant religion. March 28, the bill of exclusion was read the first time, and ordered a second reading; whereupon the king came to the house of lords, and having sent for the commons, he told them, he observed such heats amongst them, and such differences between the two houses that he thought fit to dis- solve the parliament. 1683. The plot or conspiracy to as- sassinate his majesty at the Rye-house, in Hertfordshire, was discovered, June 14, by a letter from Joseph Keeling to Lord Dartmouth and secretary Jenkins. By Reeling's deposition, the conspira- tors were to seize the king and duke of York, and to massacre the magistrates of London, and the officers of state. Nov. 21, colonel Algernon Sidney was brought to trial, for high treason, and convicted : he was condemned on the 26th, and on the 7th of December, was beheaded on Tower-hill, glorying that he died for the good old cause in which he had been engaged from his youth. 1685. His Majesty, king Charles II. died at Whitehall, February 6., in the 55th year of his age, and the 37th of his reign, about 25 years after his restora- tion, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. He had but one wife, Catharine, infanta of Portugal, who survived him many years. He had no issue by her, but his natural children were numerous.. The natural issue of king Charles II. were as follows : — James, duke of Mon- mouth his eldest son (by Mrs. Lucy Walters), born at Rotterdam, in Hol- land, 1649, married to the sole daughter and heiress of Francis, earl of Buccleugh, in Scotland ; Mary, his na- tural daughter, by the said Mrs. Lucy Walters, married first to Mr. WiUiam Sarsfield, of the kingdom of Ireland, and afterwards to William Fanshaw, Esq. ; Charlotte Jemima Henrietta Maria Boyle, alias Fitzroy, his daughter by Elizabeth, viscountess Shannon, married first to BRI 144 BRI James Howard, Esq., grandson to the earl of Suffolk, and afterwards to Sir Robert Paston, Bart., created earl of Yarmouth ; Charles, surnamed Fitz- Charles, by Mrs. Catharine Pegg, who died at Tangiers ; a daughter also by Mrs. Pegg, who died in her infancy ; Charles Fitzroy, duke of Southampton, his eldest son by BarbaraVilliers, daugh- ter and heir to William Villiers, vis- count Grandison, and wife to Roger Palmer, earl of Castlemain, who was created baroness of Nonsuch, countess of Southampton, and duchess of Cleve- land, with remainder to Charles and George Fitzroy, her sons, and their heirs male respectively ; Fitzroy, duke of Grafton, his second son by the said Bar- bara Villiers ; George Fitzroy, duke of Northumberland, his third son by the said Barbara ; Charlotte Fitzroy, his daughter by the said Barbara, married to sir Edward Henry Lee, of Ditchley, in the county of Oxon, afterwards created earl of Litchfield ; Charles Beauclair, duke of St. Albans, his son by Mrs. Eleanor Gwyn, the player, who refused all titles of honour ; Charles Lennox, duke of Richmond, his only son by Louisa Queroualle, a French lady, maid of honour to the duchess of Orleans, the king's sister, afterwards created duchess of Portsmouth ; Mary Tudor, his daugh- ter by Mrs. Mary Davis, married to Francis, lord RadclifFe, son and heir of Francis, earl of Derwentwater, whom he succeeded in that honour. James H. February 6, 1685, James IL, the third, but only surviving son of king Charles L, and brother and heir to king Charles H., succeeded to the crown, and was proclaimed with the usual so- lemnity. May 8, Titus Gates, the au- thor of the pretended popish plot, was tried on two indictments for perjury, and convicted. June 11, the duke of Mon- mouth landed at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, with about 150 followers, and arms for 5,000 more. He published a declara- tion reviling the king, and charging him with introducing popery and arbitrary power. June 18, the duke of Mon- mouth having increased his forces to about 3,000 men, took possession of Taunton Dean. June 20, the duke was proclaimed king at Taunton. June 21, the duke marched to Bridge- water, his army being increased to 5,000 men. He was there proclaimed king, and marched towards Bristol ; but hearing of the king's army advancing towards him, he retired back to Bridge- water, and defeated a body of the king's horse quartered at Philips Norton. June 22, the duke of Monmouth published a declaration setting a sum of 5,000?. on king James's head ; and another declar- ing the parliament of England a sedi- tious assemblj', and the duke of Albe- marle a traitor. July 6, the duke of Monmouth was defeated by the earl of Feversham and lord Churchill at Sedge- moor, near Bridgewater, in Somerset- shire. July 15, the duke was beheaded on Tower-hill. He was about 36 years of age. August 37, Lord chief justice Jeflferies was sent into the west with four other judges to try the rebel prisoners. At Dorchester JefFeries condemned twen- ty-nine, who were immediately executed. In another place 200 persons were in- dicted, and four score were executed ; in all, 500 were condemned, and 200 of those were executed, and their quarters set up in the highways. Many pur- chased their lives of the judge ; and one Mr. Prideaux alone gave him 14000?. for his life. Major General Kirk, who was sent down with the judge, commit- ted many cruelties. He caused 19 per- sons to be executed at Taunton without any trial, with the drums, &c. playing at the time of execution. In the same town, whilst at dinner with his officers, he ordered 30 condemned persons to be executed while he was at table. October 11, Colonel Talbot was made earl of Tyrconnel, and lieutenant-general of the Irish army. He had no sooner arrived in Ireland than he began breaking the protestant officers and soldiers, and put- ting Roman catholics in their places. Two or three hundred English who had laid out fortunes in purchase of their posts were arbitrarily disbanded. 1686. The earl of Tyrconnel having modelled the Irish army according to the king's mind, came to England, February 12, and was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, in the room of the earl of Cla- rendon. Things were carried to such extremes against the protestants in Ire- land, that many English merchants with- drew their effects. 1687. The king sent his mandate to Magdalen college, 0.xon, April 11, to elect Mr. Anthony Farmer president, who had promised to become a papist, which they rejected, and selected Dr. Hough, who was chosen by a great ma- BRI 14fi BRI jority. The bishop of Winchester swore him in, and admitted him to his office. 1688. The prince of Orange, after- wards William III., in order to concert measures for the English protestants, assembled his army at Nimeguen, Sep- tember 10; and, under colour of electing an archbishop of Cologne, encaniped an army, and prepared a fleet. September 21, the king published a declaration, setting forth that he intended a legal es- tablishment of liberty of conscience; that he would inviolably preserve the church of England; and that he was content that the Roman catholics should remain incapable of being members of parlia- ment. September 23, the king received certain intelligence that the preparations of the Dutch were intended against Eng- land. He put Portsmouth and Hull under the government of papists, and took care to have the majority of officers and soldiers in those garrisons of the Romish religion. October 19, the prince of Orange set sail from Holland, with about 50 men of war, 300 tran- sports, and about 14,322 land forces on board, accompanied by the earls of Shrewsbury and Macclesfield, and se- veral other English gentlemen of quali- ty ; but they were driven back by a storm. November 1, the prince of Orange, with the Dutch fleet, set sail again, and on the 5 th landed with his forces at Torbay, in Devonshire. No- vember 3, the prince's fleet entered the channel and passed the gun-fleet in a foggy day ; the English could not weigh their anchors, and were kept in by eas- terly winds. The prince of Orange pub- lished a letter to the officers of the En- glish army containing his reasons for un- dertaking the protestant cause. He also sent one to the fleet. November 22, the king published a pioclamation of pardon to all that had deserted him, pro- vided they would quit the prince of Grange's service again in twenty days. December 10, the king embarked for France, accompanied by sir Edward Hales, Mr. Sheldon, and a Frenchman. He sent orders to the earl of Feversham to disband the army. 1689- Both houses agreed Feb. 7, that the prince and princess of Orange should be king and queen of England ; but the sole and regal power should be in the prince, only in the name of both ; It was carried in the house of lords by two or three voices only- King James reigned three years nine months, and eleven days. Married first Anne, eldest daughter of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, lord high chancellor of England, Nov. 24, 1659, by which lady, (who lived not to be queen, but died March 31, 1671,) he had eight children, two only of whom survived. Mary, afterwards queen Mary I., Anne, afterwards queen Anne. King James H. married secondly, Nov. 21, 1673, Mary Beatrix Eleanora d'Este, daughter of Alphonso, second duke of Modena (who survived him, and died May 8, 1718,) and by whom he had issue, James Francis Edward, born June 10, 1688. After his father's death he was proclaimed at Paris king of England, and was designated in Eng- land by the name of " The Pretender ;" married 1719, Mary Clementina, daugh- ter of prince James Sobieski, and gran- daughter of John Sobieski, king of Po- land; died June 1, 1766, leaving issue two sons : 1. Charles Edward Louis Cas- simer, (commonly called the Chevalier St. George, or, in England " The Young Pretender,") born Nov. 1720. 2. Henry Benedict, (called the Cardinal York,) born March 25, 1728; elevated to the purple by Pope Benedict XIV., 1747; died 1807, when the whole issue of king James II. became extinct. William and Mary. 1689. The princess of Orange having arrived at Whitehall, from Holland, Feb. 12 ; both houses attended the prince and prin- cess with a declaration asserting the rights and liberties of the subject. The prince refused the crown, unless the power, as well as the name of king, was conferred upon him, to which the house consenting, William Henry, and Mary, prince and princess of Orange, were proclaimed king and queen with the usual solemnity. 1691. King William went over to Holland, Jan. 16, attended by the dukes of Norfolk and Ormond, the earls of Devonshire, Dorset, Essex, Nottingham, Scarborough, and Selkirk, the bishop of London, and many other persons of quality ; and after encountering a se- vere storm, on the 21st arrived at the Hague. The king made his triumphal entry at the Hague the 26th, and was complimented and congratulated on his narrow escapl. He took his seat as Stadt- holder in the assembly of the States. King William placed himself at the bead BRl 14G BRI of the confederate army in the Nether- lands, in order to relieve Mens, April 9. 1693. The confederate army com- manded by the king, was entirely de- feated by the French, July 29, under the command of Luxemburgh at Landen. The French, under the command of Monsieur Catinat, defeated the confede- rates under the command of the duke of Savoy and prince Eugene, at Marsig- lia, near Turin. Duke Schomberg, who commanded the troops of England, was mortally wounded and taken prisoner. This was the first battle where the foot charged with baj'onets on their loaded muskets, to which stratagem the success of the French in this battle was attri- buted. Soon after this action pikes were laid aside, and bayonets used in their room, all over Europe. The parliament of England met, and king William made a speech, wherein having mentioned the defeats the confederates had met with by land, and the miscarriages and losses at sea ; he imputed the first to the su- perior number of the enemy, and as- sured them the other should be enquired into. He acquainted them also, that there was a necessity of increasing their forces by sea and land, and desired suitable supplies. 1694. The queen was taken ill of the small-pox, at Kensington, Dec. 21 ; she died, Dec. 28, aged 33, in the 6th year of her reign. William III. Dec. 31, 1694, the lords and commons waited on the king with an address of condolence, upon the death of his queen, which was fol- lowed with an address from other parts of the kingdom. 1695. The parliament of Scotland met. May 4, the marquis of Tweedale being his majesty's high commissioner. In this parliament the massacre at Glen- coe one of the greatest stains on the character of William III, was enquired into. The castle of Namur capitulated to the confederates, Sept. 2, and the garrison marched out, when marshal Boufflers was arrested, to procure sa- tisfaction of the French king for the garrisons of Dixmude and Dbinse, whom he detained prisoners contrary to the cartel. Boufflers was carried to Maes- tricht, but soon after released on his parole of honour given, that the garri- sons of Deinse and Dixmude should be sent back. The confederates did not lose less than 12,000 men before Namur. 1697- King William had an inter- view with the Czar Peter I, emperor of Russia, June 26, who in disguise had accompanied his ambassadors to Hol- land, where he discovered himself to king William. The peace was signed at Ryswick, between France, England, Spain, and Holland ; and ratified by king William at Loo the 15th. By the treaty between France and Spain, France was to restore to the king of Spain, Barcelona, Roses, Girone, and all that had been taken this war in Catalonia; as also Luxemberg, Mons, Charleroy, and all other towns in the Low Countries, as well as in America. 1700. The long expected death of Charles II. king of Spain, happened Nov. 1 ; he died in the 39th year of his age, and the 36th of his reign ; and hav- ing been provoked by the partition of his dominions by the English and Dutch, he made his will the preceding month, and disposed of his crown to Philip duke of Anjou, second son to the dau- phin of France ; and in case he died without issue, or the crown of France should descend to him, Spain to pass to the duke de Berri, his youngest brother j and in case he died, &c., or France de- scended to the duke de Berri, then Spain to go to the archduke Charles ; then to the Duke of Savoy, without any par- tition or dismemberment of the mo- narchy. 1701. It was resolved in parliament, March 12, that England should not be bound to engage in a war for the defence of the foreign dominions of any succeed- ing monarch ; that future kings should join in communion with the English church ; that no sovereign of England should quit his dominions without con- sent of parliament ; that after king Wil- liam and princess Anne the crown should be limited to Sophia of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being protestants. A protest was put in by the duchess of Savoy, daughter of princess Henrietta, duchess of Orleans (who was youngest daughter of Charles I.), and next in blood to the British crown, against al- tering the succession. July 15, an al- liance was formed between kingWilliam, the king of Denmark, and the States, whereby the Danes engaged to furnish 3,000 horse, 1,000 dragoons, and 8,000 foot, on receiving a subsidy of 300,000 crowns per annum during the war. The British fleet consisted of 48 ships, be- BRI 147 BRI sides frigates, &c., which was ready at Spithead, under the command of Sir George Rooke. Sept. IG, King James II. died of a lethargy at St. Germain en Laye, near Paris, aged 68. James Fran- cis Edward, immediately on the demise of James, was, by the king of France, proclaimed monarch of England, &c., by the name of James the third. King William, in consequence, commanded the earl of Manchester, his ambassador at Paris, to return to England, and or- dered Monsieur Poussin, the French se- cretary, to depart from Great Britain. December 30, King William, in a speech to parliament, stated that the setting up the prince of Wales was not only an in- dignity offered to himself, but concerned every man who regarded the protestant succession ; that the French king had made himself master of the Spanish mo- narchy, which would aiFect British trade abroad, and peace and security at home ; to guard against which, he had entered into alliances which he trusted parlia- ment would enable him to make good. 1702, King WiUiam, while riding from Kensington towards Hampton Court, February 26, was thrown from his horse, and dislocated his right collar bone, upon which he was transported to the latter palace, where the bone was set ; after which, he, the same evening, returned to Kensington. March 8, King WiUiam expired at Kensington, about eight o'clock in the morning, in the 52d year of his age, and the fourteenth of his reign, and was interred in Henry the Seventh's chapel, Westminster. He was posthumous son of William, prince of Orange, by princess Mary, eldest daugh- ter of Charles I. On the 4th of Novem- ber, 1677, he espoused his first cousin, princess Mary, eldest daughter of James, duke of York, afterwards James II. Mary died December 28, 1695, by whom he left no issue ; neither does it appear William had any natural oflFspring. Anne. March 8, 1702, Anne, second, and only surviving daughter of James II., succeeded to the English throne, being the twenty-ninth sovereign from the Norman conquest. April 23, being St. Geoi'ge's day. Queen Anne was crowned at Westminster. May 4, the queen of England, the emperor, and the States, declared war against France and Spain. May 25, by an act of parlia- ment her Majesty's person and succes- sion to the crown in the protestant line were rendered more secure, in order that the hopes of the Pretender and his abet- tors might be altogether extinguished. An act was passed obliging the Jews to provide for their protestant children. July 9, the States gave the command of their forces to Marlborough, who compelled the French troops to evacuate Spanish Guelderland. Oct. 8, Admiral Sir George Rooke, and the confederate fleet, attacked the French under Cha- teaurenard, and the Spanish galleons, in the port of Vigo, while Ormond landed his troops, attacking the castle, and se- curing the harbour. The English cap- tured four galleons and five men of war, and the Dutch five galleons and one man of war ; six galleons and fourteen men of war being also destroyed, with im- mense riches. 1703. The allied forces under general Opdam, Jime 30, were surrounded by the French under Boufflers, at Eckeren, when the former fled to Breda. The otherDutch commanders, however, stood firm, on which occasion there was a great slaughter on both sides; and night coming on, the French retired. The elector of Bavaria invaded the Ty- rol, to open a communication with the French in Italy, but the Imperalists hav- ing made a division in Bavaria, the for- mer was obliged to retire for the defence of his territories. November 26, dur- ing the night, commenced the most dreadful tempest ever known in England. 1704. The A.ctof Security was passed in Scotland, July 6, whereby it was spe- cified, in case of the queen's death, with- out issue, that the states of that king- dom should have power to name a suc- cessor, provided such person was no^ the successor to the English crown. Foi security against England, they also en- acted that all the protestant heritors and the burghs should provide themselves with fire-arms for such as were protest- ants, and that they should be disciplined once a month. August 5, the allies, under prince Eugene and Marlborough, fought the French and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard, at Blenheim, near Hock- stet, where the former gained a signal victory, the latter losing 40,000 in killed, wounded, and drowned in the Danube, with 13,000 prisoners. See Blenheim. 1707. During the month of March it was settled that the peers of Scotland should sit in the upper house, and 45 Scottish commoners in the lower house. BRI That all the Scotch peers were to rank as British peers, and enjoy the same privileges and immunities, except sitting in the house of lords, and on the trial of peers. The churches of England and Scotland were confirmed in tlieir several rights and privileges, as fundamental and necessary conditions of the union. 1709. Preliminaries were arranged between the combined powers and France, April 28, whereby the latter ac- knowledged king Charles the Third for king of Spain, and surrendered up all the Spanish possessions to the house of Austria. In case of the refusal on the part of king Philip, the allies were then to concert measures for securing the full execution of that article, the French mo- narch agreeing to withdraw his troops from the Spanish territories within two months. The French equally agreed to put Strasburg, Barissac, &c. into the hands of the emperor; to acknowledge queen Anne of England, and the pro- testant succession, and to demolish Dun- kirk. In addition to which, Namur, Mons, Charleroy, Luxemburgh, Furnes, Menin, Lisle, Ypres, Douay, Tournay, Conde, and Maubeuge, in the Nether- lands, were also to be relinquished to the allies. These pacific measures were, however frustrated. 1712. Richard Cromwell, who suc- ceeded Oliver in the protectorate of England, died at Cheshunt, in Hertford- shire, July 12, aged 90 years. July 17, a cessation of arms between Great Bri- tain and France was proclaimed in the duke of Ormond's camp, and that of the French on the same day. The British forces, under the duke of Ormond, march- ing towards Dunkirk, were denied en- trance into Bouchain and Douay by the Dutch in which last place was the En- glish hospital. In consequence, the duke directed his march towards Ghent and Bruges, of both which places he took possession, and, on the 23d, sent six battalions to reinforce the garrison of Dunkirk. 1713. The chief preliminary articles of the peace between Great Britain and France were entered into April 10, for the security of the protestant succession, the disuniting the French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the British colonies and plantations in America, and fully satis- fying the claims of the allies. The pri- mary articles between France and Savoy 148 BRI stipulated the cession of Sicily to the duke of Savoy, thus giving the latter a defence against France, as well as the limitation of the crown of Spain to the duke of Savoy, on failure of heirs to king Philip. July 13, Great Britain and Spain signed the treaty of peace at Utrecht, where that between Sjiain and the duke of Savoy was also ratified. 1714. Died June 8, in the 84th year of her age, princess Sophia, electress and duchess dowager of Hanover. Princess Sophia was fourth daughter of Frederick, king of Bohemia, and Elizabeth of Eng- land, daughter of James the First. She was born at the Hague in 1630, and mar- ried in 1658, to Ernest Augustus, duke of Brunswick and Lunenburgh. July 29. The queen, was seized with a dangerous illness. August 1, Queen Anne died a little after seven in the morning, in the 50th year of her age, and the 13th of her reign. She was se- cond daughter of James, duke of York, afterwards James the Second, by his first wife, lady Anne, daughter of Edward Hyde, chancellor of the exchequer, and afterwards lord chancellor of England. She was married on the 28th of July, 1683, to prince George of Denmark, se- cond son of Frederick the Third, king of Denmark, and had issue by that prince a daughter, still-born, on the 12th of May, 1684 , the lady Mary, born at Whitehall, who died in 1685 ; lady Anne Sophia, whose death occurred in 1686; William, duke of Gloucester, born in 1689, who attained his eleventh year; the lady Mary, born in 1690, who ex- pired shortly after ; and prince George, another son, born the l7th of April, whose dissolution occurred immediately after his birth. George I., duke of Brunswick Lu- neburgh, and elector of Hanover, suc- ceeded to the crown of Great Britain on the death of queen Anne, May 1, 1714, according to the various acts of parlia- ment for securing the protestant succes- sion, being thirtieth monarch of England from the Norman conquest. He was the eldest son of Ernest Augustus, bi- shop of Osnaburgh, duke of Hanover, and elector of Brunswick Luneburgh, by princess Sophia, daughter of Frede- rick the Fifth, elector palatine, and king of Bohemia, and the princess Elizabeth, daughter of James the First of England. September 16, George the First, and the prince, his son, embarked for Eng- BRI 149 BRI land, and arrived at Greenwich on the ] 8th. He was received by the duke of Northumberland, captain of the life- guards, and the lord chancellor Har- court, at the head of the lords of the re- gency. October 20, George the First was crowned at Westminster, with all the usual solemnities, when several peo- ple were killed in the procession, and many dangerously wounded by the fall- ing of scaffolding in palace yard. 1715. The Pretender was proclaimed king by the earl of Mar, September 3, who assembled his forces at Aboyne, in Aberdeenshire, and erected his standard upon the 6th. On the 9th,the duke of Ar- gyle was appointed commander in chief of the forces in Scotland, and set out for that kingdom, where he arjived on the 14th. October 6, the general of the Pretender's forces, Mr. Forster, as- sembled his army at Greenrig, in Nor- thumberland, upon which the English government sent a body of troops to guard Newcastle. On the 1 9th, the lord viscount Kenmure, the earl of Derwent- water, the earls of Nithisdale, Carnwath, and Wintoun, joined Mr. Forster, with 2,000 Scotch horse they had raised in Nithisdale and the west of Scotland. November 13, the battle of Sheriff Muir was fought in Scotland. General Willes was joined by general Carpenter, with 800 dragoons, when lord Derwentwater, conceiving it impossible to resist such accumulated forces, proposed a capitula- tion without the consent of the other re- bel leaders. Nov 30, the duke of Argyle having advanced within eight miles of Perth, the rebels immediately abandoned that place, and passed over the river Tay upon the ice. 1716. The earl of Derwentwater and viscount Kenmure were beheaded on Tower-hill, February 24. General Ca- dogan, in April, completed the reduc- tion of the Highland clans and the rest of the Scottish insurgents, who laid down their arms and sued for mercy. July 7, the prince of Wales having been ap- pointed guardian to the kingdom, George the First set out from St. James's, and landed in Holland on the 9th, through which country he passed incognito, and arrived at Hanover on the 15th, from whence he set out to drink the waters at Pyrmont. I7l7- King George the First landed at Margate, from Holland, January 18. 1718. The treaty of alliance, July 22, between the emperor. Great Britain, and France, to settle the terms of peace be- tween the emperor and the king of Spain was signed this day. The chief design of which was, to guarantee the succession in Great Britain and France, and to settle the partition of the Spanish monarchy. 1726. Sophia Dorothy, queen of England, died November 2, at the castle of Ablen, in the electorate of Hanover, where she had been confined for many years. She was only daughter of George William, duke of Brunswick Zell, was born in 1666, and married George Louis, elector of Hanover, afterwards king of Great Britain, by whom he had issue, George Augustus, king of Great Britain, born October 30, 1683, and Sophia Dorothy, born March 1685, who was married to the late king of Prussia, in 1706. 1727. Articles for a general pacifica- tion were signed at Paris, May 20, by the ministers of the emperor, the king of England, the king of France, and the States General. By that treaty his im- perial Majesty agreed that every species of trade from the Austrian Netherlands to the East Indies should be suspended for seven years, and that all privileges of commerce which the English and French nations, and the subjects of the States General had previously enjoyed, as well in Europe as in the Indies, should be restored to the same usages and re- gulations as had been stipulated between each of them by treaties antecedent to the year 1725. June 10, George I. died at Osnaburgh in Germany, in the night between the 10th and 11th of June, aged 67. Mar- ried Sophia Dorothy, daughter and sole heiress of George William, duke of Zell and by her (from whom he was divorced, and who died November 13, 1726) had issue, 1. George Augustine, prince of Wales, afterwards George II. ; 2. Sophia Dorothea, born March 16, 1685, married November 28, 1706, Frederick WillJam, afterwards king of Prussia? 1706, created duke of Cambridge, &c. October 5. Princess Sophia, his queen, mother of George II. died June 8, aged 83. George TI June 14, 1727, a cou- rier arrived with the intelligence of the death of his Majesty, George the First, when a proclamation was drawn up an- nouncing his Majesty George the Second BRI 150 BRI as king of these realms, who caused the members of the late cabinet to be sworn of his own privy council. 15th, the king was proclaimed in the court before Leicester-house, and afterwards at Cha- ring-cross. Temple-bar, Cheapside, and the Royal Exchange, by the title of George the Second, king of Great Bri- tain, France, and Ireland, defender of the Faith, and so forth, being the thirty- second monarch from the Norman con- quest. The lord high chancellor then resigned the great seal into the king's hands, which his Majesty was pleased to redeliver to him, upon which his lord- ship took the oath of lord chancellor; the lord Trevor, lord privy seal, the duke of Newcastle, secretary of state, and lord viscount Lonsdale, constable of the tower, likewise took the oaths. 19th, the king was also proclaimed at Edin- burgh and Dublin. 1740. Upon the deathof the emperor Charles the Sixth, October the 20th, his eldest daughter, MariaTheresaWalpurge, married to tiie duke of Lorraine and Tuscany, was proclaimed queen of Hun- gary and Bohemia, princess of Transyl- vania, archduchess of Austria, and uni- versal successor to all the hereditary do- minions of the house of Austria, in pur- suance of the Pragmatic sanction made by the late emperor, in the year 1713, which was guaranteed by Spain in 1725, then by England, and soon after by the United Provinces in 1731; by the diet of the empire, 1732 ; and by France, Savoy, and Spain, a second time, in 1739. This succession was disputed by the kings of Spain and Poland, while the elector of JBavaria founded his preten- sions on the will of Ferdinand the First, who had married his eldest daughter to the duke of Bavaria. The king of Prus- sia also pretended to an indisputable right to certain provinces m Silesia. This conflict created a sanguinary strug- gle, called " the seven years' war," in which Great Britain and most of the other powers of Europe were engaged, the issue of which answered to the mag- nanimity and heroism displayed by the illustrious Maria Theresa. Her right was ultimately acknowledged and con- firmed by the treaties of Breslau, Dres- den, and Aix- la-Chapelle. 17^3. A desperate battle was fought, June 16, between a body of the forces commanded by his Majesty in Germany, and the French, under M. Noailles, near Dettingen, when victory was declared in favour of the Hessians and Hanoverians. The king of England was in the heat of battle the whole time, in perfect safety, and the duke of Cumberland received a wound in the leg. The French had 3,000 men killed, besides a great many prison- ers, amongst whom were numerous field officers. The allies had nearly 1,500 killed, and among them general Clayton, who was much regretted. Universal re- joicings were subsequently testified in all parts of London for his Majesty's success in Germany. 1745. The number of forces voted to be employed in Flanders for this year was 28,107, being 7,000 more than the year preceding. The number and amount of prizes taken from the 1st of March, when war was declared against France, to the 1st of April, 1745, were 695 ves- sels, valued at 4,924,000?., of which 286 were captured by privateers. April 30, a battle was fought between the allied armies and the French, at Fontenoy, when the former were defeated, with great slaughter, losing 12,000 men, ow- ing to the cowardice of the Dutch. Aug. 30, while the king was at Utrecht an express arrived, stating that several persons of distinction had joined the Pretender, whose son had set up his grand standard on the 11th, and pub- lished a manifesto, in which lie took the title of Carolus Princeps Custos Pregnj. September 4, a detachment of the re- bels took possession of Perth, and pro- claimed the Pretender the same evening. The young chevalier also granted passes to people journeying from Perth, couch- ed in these words ; " Charles, prince of Wales, and regent of Scotland, England, France, and Ireland, and of the domi- nions belonging thereto." 21st. Early in the morning about 1,000 Highlanders peaceably entered Edinburgh. Soon af- ter, their commander arrived, in a High- land habit, and proceeded to Holyrood palace, where he changed his dress, when the pursuivants being sent for, and clothed, proclaimed the Pretender. The king's troops were defeated, and Sir John Cope, with 450 dragoons, retired to Lander. November 18, the rebels entered Carlisle, the Pretender being then six miles from that place. 25, His royal highness the duke of Cumberland set out from St. James's to take the com- mand of the royal army on its march to- wards Lancashire. BRI 151 BRI 1746. The arrival of the duke of Cumberland at Edinburgh, January 29, animated the royal army, and struck the rebels with terror and confusion. April 16. This day the battle of Culloden was fought, when the duke of Cumberland obtained a complete victory. See Cul- loden. The greatest part of the rebel chiefs were killed or captured, and the young Pretender was wounded, who fled by In- verness, being pursued by the light horse. June 28, trial of three rebel lords, prisoners in the Tower, the earl of Kilmarnock, the earl of Cromartie, and lord Balraerino. They proceeded, under a strong guard, to Westminster-hall, where the trial took place, August 12. The young Pretender, with a few of his deluded followers, escaped from the isle of Uist, in an Irish vessel, and another ship of the same nation landed several of the lebels at Morlaix in France. Au- gust 18, the execution of the earls of Kilmarnock and lord Balmerino took place. See Balmerino. Lord Kilmar- nock was executed first. The earl of Cro- martie was pardoned. 1747. Lord Lovat was executed, April 9. As soon as he came upon the scaffold, he asked for the executioner, and presented him with ten guineas in a purse then desiring to see the axe, he felt the edge saying, " He believed it would do ;" and after saying a short prayer, and throwing his handkerchief on the floor as a signal, the executioner, at one blow, severed his head from his body, 1748. A courier arrived from Aix-la- Chapelle, October 21, with an account that the plenipotentiaries of his Catholic majesty had acceded on the 20th instant, to the definitive treaty of peace ; that of the empress queen arrived on the 23rd ; the duke of Modena's on the 25tl:||^ and those of the Sardinian and Genoese plenipotentiaries soon after completed the treaty of Aix-le-Chapelle. 1752. New Style adopted in Britain. See Style. In 1755, Lord Clive ob- tained Bahar and Orissa in Bengal. See East Indies. In 1759, battle of Que- bec, death of Wolfe. See Quebec. 1760. Between seven and eight o'clock in the morning, October 25, King George the Second was suddenly seized at his palace at Kensington, with a violent dis- order, when he fell speechless, and not- withstanding every medical aid, almost immediately expired. His Majesty de- parted this life in his 77th year, and the 34th of his reign, beloved, honoured, and regretted by his subjects, for his many eminent and princely virtues. George III., son of Frederick, prince of Wales, born June 4, 1738, created prince of Wales, 1751, succeeded his grandfather October 25, 1760, was pro- claimed the next day. Married Sophia Charlotte, princess of Mecklenburg Stre- litz, September 8, I76l, who was born May 19, 1744, and ded November 19, 1818, and both were crowned September 22, 1761. 1763. Peace of Paris, Feb. lO.*' France ceded to England, Canada, Cape Breton, St.Vincent, St.Domingo,Tobago, and the coast of Senegal. Spain ceded Florida. In 1764, taxes were increased to the En- glish Colonies of North A merica, which afterwards gave rise to the American war. In 1770, tax upon tea in North America. 1774. Revolt of the American Colo- nists began the latter end of this year. 1775. The two Houses of Parhament presented an address to his Majesty, ^^gjj- ruar^^ condemning the conduct of the American colonies, and promising to stand by his Majesty in the maintenance of the just rights of the Crown. .^b- ru^^^JLO, a bill to restrain the trade and commerce of Massachussets bay, and New Hampshire, the colonies of Con- necticut and Rhode Island, &c., and to prohibit such provinces and colonies from carrying on any fishery on the banks of Newfoundland ; this bill created very animated discussions in the House, but was eventually carried by a very large majority in both Houses. 1775. The City of London presented an address, remonstrance, and petition, on the subject of American affairs, April JO^ justifying the resistance of the co- Ibhies, and praying the dismissal of the ministers who advised coercive measures. 4iy''l-JJ:> a detachment of 900 men, under the command of leutenant- colonel Smith, and major Pitcairne, marched to Lexington, where they found the mihtia of the town embodied, who, being ordered to disperse, and refusing, the detachment fired upon them, and killed eight of the militia, and wounded several ; this was the first blood drawn in the unhappy contest between Great Britain and her American colonies. June 17 . battle of Bunkers'-hiU, in which major-general BRI 152 BRI Howe, and brigadier general Pigot, with 2000 troops, after a severe and sangui- nary engagement, defeated the Ameri- cans ; the works were carried, and the Provincials driven out; the loss of the king's troops in killed and wounded, amounted to 1045, of whom 226 were killed, of the latter were 19 commissioned officers, and 70 officers were wounded. During the contest, Charlestown was set on fire and totally consumed ; the loss of the Provincials, as stated by them- selves, amounted only to 450 killed, wounded, and missing. J^ji^jabec 23, bill to prohibit all trade and intercourse with the revolted provinces during the continuance of the rebellion, also for re- pealing the Boston port bill, and the fishery restraining bills. 1776. The lord mayor, aldermen, and common council of the city of London, went in procession, J^^ay 22, from Guild- hall to St. James's, and presented an ad- dress to his Majesty, praying a speedy termination to the war with America. July 4, the Congress of North America issued their declaration of independence, and published their articles of confedera- tion and perpetual union between the thirteen United States, under the title of " The United States of America." See United States. 1778. Lord North presented a con- ciliatory bill, Eebyyi^ry lQ. with reference to the dispute withtHe American co- lonies, enabling his Majesty to appoint commissioners to treat with the colonies in rebellion, and giving the commission- ers full power to treat of all matters what- ever ; to suspend, pro tempore, all the acts since the year l7M2j and to declare a cessation of arms as soon as they shall land; to grant pardons to whomsoever they think proper, and to appoint go- vernors, &c. March IJ j, the corporation of the city of London presented an ad- dress to his Majesty, deprecating the American war, and the manner in which it was carried on, and hoping that no- thing might stand in the way of con- ciliatory arrangements with the colonies. June 1^ the American Congress, after several debates upon the subject of the conciliatory proposition offered by the British commissioners, returned answer, that they were ready to enter into a treaty of peace and commerce, when the King of Great Britain should demonstrate a sincere disposition for that purpose, the only proof of which would be the explicit acknowledgment of their independence, and the withdrawal of his fleets and armies. 1780. War of England against Hyder Ali. See East Indies. Riots in Lon- don. See London. England acknow- ledged the independence of the United States of North America, November 30, 1782. Peace of Versailles between Eng- land, and North America, France, and Spain, September 3, 1 783 ; with Holland, May 20717841 — — ^ ]f/94 IffaGeas Corpus Act suspended on account of disturbances in England. Lord Howe's victory, June 1 . American minister received at Paris. Retreat of the British army in Flanders. Trial of John Home Tooke, Thomas Hardy, and other members of the Corresponding Society, on a charge of high treason. 1795. The English took the island of Ceylon. The French entered Holland, and the Stadtholder arrived in England. Suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act continued. Warren Hastings acquitted. Mungo Park began his travels. Mobs and riots in various parts of England. Assault on George III. 1796. Irish Insurrection Act passed, English goods prohibited in France. French fleet destined to invade Ireland dispersed, after having touched at Ban- try Bay. Several victories at sea. 1797. Peace of Campo-Formio. Vic- tory of St. Vincent, F^gb. 14. Various petitions for the dismissal of ministers. Mutiny at Sheerness. Battle of Cam- perdown. Political discontent in Eng- land. Death of John Wilkes. Rebel- lion in Ireland. 1798. Rebellion in Ireland continued. A detachment of French landed in Ire- land. Battle of the Nile. Income Tax imposed. 1799. Tipoo Saib conquered by the Engli^. Division of Mysore. Buona- parte in Syria and Egypt. Sir Sydney Smith at Acre. Seringapatam taken. Expedition to Helder, and the Texel. Suvvarrow's campaign. British and Russians leave Holland. Mr. Canning's first official appointment. 1800. The East India Company took possession of the Carnatic. Great scar- city of provisions. Peace of El Arisch, by which the French evacuated Egypt. 1801. Peace of Arcot,&c. The English took possession of Malta. Nelson be- fore Copenhagen. Peace of Luneville. Union with Ireland. Expedition to BRI 153 BRI ^gypt. Battle of Alexandria. Death of general Abercromby. 1802. Peace of Amiens. Execution of governor Wall for cruelty. Depard's conspiracy. 1803. War between France and Great Britain. Victories in India. 1805. Trial of Lord Melville. Battle of Trafalgar. Death of Nelson. SeeNei,- SON. 1806. Mr. Pitt died. Mr. Fox and his friends in office. British manufac- tures prohibited in America. 1807. Peace of Tilsit. Bombardment of Copenhagen. The Slave-trade abo- lished by the English parliament. Monte Video taken. Buonaparte de- clared Britain in a state of blockade. Change of the administration. Duke of Portland took office. 1808. Alhance with Spain and Portugal. Convention of Cintra. 1809. Retreat and death of Sir John Moore. Colonel Wardle's charges against the duke of York. Battle of Talavera. Mr. Perceval prime minister. Expedition to Walcheren. 1810. Sir Francis Burdett committed to the Tower. 1812. War between France and Rus- sia. Retreat of the French, Oct. 18. War between England and North America. Mr. Perceval assassinated. Battle of Salamanca. 1813. All Europe took arms again to recover their independence. The English passed the Bidassoa, October 17, and entered France. Treaty of Va- lencia. William, Prince of Orange, re- called. 1814. Peace of Kiel, Jan. 14. Nor- way ceded to Sweden. Britain retained Heligoland. The allied Sovereigns en- tered Paris, March 31. Abdication of Napoleon, April 11. Louis XVIII. en- tered Paris, May 3. Ferdinand VII. entered Madrid, May 14. Peace between France and the allied Sovereigns, May 30. France confined ■within her fron- tiers, as at January 1, 1792. Hanover made a kingdom, October 26. Congress of Vienna, Nor. 3. Indictment of Lord Cochrane and others. 1815. Napoleon Buonaparte returned to France, March 1. Battle of Waterloo, June 18. See Waterloo. Paris sur- rendered the second time, to the allied Powers, July 3. Louis XVIII. made his second entry, July 8. Buonaparte ban- ished to St. Helena, Aug. 12. The holy al- liance concluded between the emperors of Austria and Russia, and the king of Prus- sia, Sept. 26. Foundation of the republic of the Ionian Islands, Nov. 5. Peace between the allied Powers and France, Nov. 20 ; the frontiers to remain as in 1790. Riots about the corn laws. Em- bassy to China, Lord Cochrane escaped from the King's Bench pi'ison, and voted in parliament. 1816. Algiers bombarded by the fleet under Lord Exmouth. The captives set free, Aug. 27. See Algiers. Riots in London. Spafields meeting, Nov. 1 5, at which Hunt harangued the populace. 1817. Disturbance in various parts of England. Habeas Corpus Act suspended. Cash payments resumed at the Bank. Princess Charlotte died. Abolition of the slave trade by France, Spain, and Holland. 1818. Negotiation between the allied Powers and France, concerning indem- nities, April 25. Congress of Aix-la- Chapelle. Evacuation of the French ter- ritory. Distress of the disbanded sea- men. 1819. Discontent in the manufactu- ring districts of England. Southwark bridge opened. King George III., after a reign of 59 years, 3 months, and 7 days, (being 3 years longer than that of Henry III., and 8 years longer than Edward III.,) died at Windsor, Jan. 29, 1820, and was buried at Windsor. See Geokge III. George IV., eldest son of George HI., born Aug. 12, 1762. Appointed regent, 1811. Succeeded his father, George III., Jan. 29, 1820. July 5, act of accusation against the Queen of England; her trial, August. See Ca- roline. 1821. Coronation of George IV., July 19. Queen Caroline died August 7. George IV. visited Dublin, October 10, public entry of George IV. into Hano- ver. Catholic Bill passed the Com- mons; lost in the lords. See Ca- tholics. 1822. Great distress in Ireland. George IV. visited Scotland. Death of Lord Castlereagh. 1823. The government of Great Bri- tain sent consuls to the new states of South America, Oct. 30. London Bridge ordered to be rebuilt. See Bridge. 1824. Jan- 21, the EngHsh troops de- feated by the Ashantees. March 5, X BRI 154 BRI Lord Hastings, the governor-general of India, declared war against the Burmese. April 30 till May 9, disturbance in Lis- bon ; departure of Prince Miguel. May 5, English took Rangoon. June 16, commercial treaty between Great Britain and Denmark. July 22, peace between Great Britain and Algiers. The English drove the Ashantees from Cape Coast Castle. Nov. 19, hurricanes on the coasts of England, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Russia. Inundation of Petersburg. Chancery Commission ap- pointed. Mechanics' Institutions began. Union of the Scotch dissenters. Catho- lic rent collected. 1825. Communication by Mr. Can- ning of the intention of Great Britain to negociate treaties of commerce with the go- vernments of Colombia, Mexico, Buenos Ayres, &c., upon the basis of recogni- tion of their independence respectively. Feb. 2, treaty of commerce concluded at Buenos Ayres between Great Britain and the united provinces of Rio de la Plata. February 28, convention con- cluded between Russia and Great Bri- tain, for the freedom of navigation, the commerce, and fishery on the Pacific Ocean, and the frontiers of the north- west coasts of America. April 18, treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation con- cluded between Great Britain and Co- lombia. 1826. Commercial distresses. Bill brought in to prohibit the circulation of small notes after Feb. 5, 1829. Excep- tion in favour of the Bank of England. Bill brought into the House of Lords to enable private banks to have an unlimited number of partners ; clause introduced authorizing the Bank of England to es- tablish branch banks. Hostilities car- ried on with the Burmese. Military operations in the neighbourhood of Prome. Defeat of the Ashantees. 1827. Illness and death of the duke of York. Succeeded by the duke of Wellington in the command of the army. Illness of the earl of Liverpool. Mr. Canning was made prime minister. Coalition with the Whigs. Death of Mr. Canning. See Canning. Forma- tion of a new ministry under Lord Goderich. Changes in the cabinet. 1828. Duke of Wellington appointed first lord of the treasury, Jan. 25, and formed anew ministry. Mr. Goulburn, chancellor of the Exchequer ; Mr. Peel, secretary to the Home Department ; Mr; Harris, master of the Mint ; the earl of Aberdeen, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. Repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts. 1829. Bill for suppressing the Catho- hc Association ; voluntary dissolution of the same. Mr. Peel introduced the Ca- tholic Relief Bill, March 5. Bill passed the Commons, March 30. Bill passed the Lords, April 10. See Catholics. 1830. Death of George IV. at Wind- sor, June 26, who was there buried. Succeeded by his next surviving bro- ther. William IV., third son of George III., born August 21, 1765; succeeded his brother, George IV., June 26, 1830. The session of parliament opened by the king in person, Nov. 2. The duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel in the house of Lords and Commons respec- tively announced the resignation of the ministry, Nov. 22 ; the king commis- sioned Earl Grey to form a new adminis- tration. 1831. The ministerial measure for parliamentary reform introduced to the house of Commons, March 1, by Lord John Russell. April 20, ministers de- feated in the house of Commons, on the reform bill. April 22, parliament pro- rogued by the king in person, and dis- solved on the 23rd, by proclamation. New reform bill introduced Dec. 12. 1832. Reform bill thrown out by the Lords, May 7 ; resignation of ministers. May 9 ; afterwards recalled, and the bill passed both houses, June 5. Scotch re- form bill passed, July 13. Irish bill, July 30. See Reform. 1833. Ministerial Changes, March. Irish Church Bill passed. May. Bill for abolition of slavery under the appren- ticeship system. See Slavery. 1834. The Melbourne administration. Poor Law Amendment Bill. 1835. Muni- cipal Reform Act. See Municipal Reform. 1836. Lord John Hay, the com^ mander of the British naval squadron, stationed oflfthe northern coast of Spain, intimated to general Cordova, the com- mander-in-chief of the Spanish forces, that he had received orders from the British government, to aid and protect the operations of the Spanish army, on that part of the coast, against the Car- lists. BRI 155 BRI 1835^. May 24, being the eighteenth anniversary of the birthday of the prin- cess Victoria, and also the day on which, by act of parUaraent, she attained her majority in the event of the demise of the crown, a great number of congratu- latory addresses were presented to her, and the daywas very generally celebrated throughout the country. During the spring and early part of the summer, trade, especially in the manufacturing districts, was very much depressed, ow- ing chiefly to an almost totEil derange- ment of commercial affairs in the United States. All the American banks sus- pended specie payments, and very ex- tensive failures occurred ; the effect of which was felt to a considerable extent in Britain. William IV. died at W^indsor, June 20, 1837, leaving no legitimate issue; was buried in St. George's Chapel, Windsor, July 8, and succeeded by his niece. See William IV. Alexandrina Victoria I., daugh- ter of the duke and duchess of Kent, born at Kensington, May 24, 1819, pro- claimed queen, June 21, 1837. The pro- clamation of queen Victoria took place on the anniversary of a day not less me- morable in the annals of British fame, than for the fact that it bears the same name as the queen of England herself — the battle of Vittoria, in 1813. It is also singular that the young queen should have been called to the high station of royalty within a few days of the exact time (18 years of age) granted to her by law to prepare for it. The following have been queens of England in their own right since the conquest : — 1. Mary, reigned from July 6, 1553, to November 7, 1558. 2. Eh- zabeth, reigned from November 7, 1558, to March 24, 1603. 3. Mary, reigned from February 13, 1684, to March 8, 1702. 4. Anne, reigned from March 8, 1702, to August 1, 1714. 5. Victoria, began to reign June 20, 1837. Alteration in the royal arms. The royal arms of England will vary much from those borne by her Majesty's five predecessors. The sovereign being a female, they will be borne on a lozenge, instead of a shield, and the imperial crest of a lion surmounting the crown will be discontinued, as will also the es- cutcheon of pretence bearing the arms of Hanover surmounted by the crown of that kingdom. The arms will in future consist of the four grand quarters only, namely, England in the first and fourth; and Scotland and Ireland in the second and third quarters. Lineal descent of her Majesty queen Victoria, from William the Conqueror. A.D. 1060. William I. 1100. Henry I. Matilda Empress of Ger- many. March bridge. VII. IV. 1154. Henry II. 1199. John. 1216. Henry III. 1272. Edward I. 1 307. Edward II, 1327. Edward III. Lionel, duke of- Clarence. -■ PhiUippa, countess of Roger, earl of March. Anne, countess of Cam- Richard, duke of York. 1461. Edward IV. Ehzabeth, queen of Henry Margaret, queen of James of Scotland. James V., of Scotland. Mary, queen of Scots, 1603. James I. Elizabeth, queen of Bohe- Sophia, electress of Hano- 1714. 1727. George I. George II. Frederick, prince of Wales. 1760. George III. Edward, duke of Kent. 1837. Victoria. Insurrection in Canada commenced December, 1837; continued in 1838; Lord Durham appointed governor. See Canada. 1838. Coronation of queen Victoria was celebrated, June 28. Marshal Soult, the old opponent of the duke of Welling- ton, was the French ambassador, and much interest was excited in witnessing the cordial reception he met with. See Coronation. July 29, the Bri- tish ambassador at the court of Persia threw up his diplomatic relations in consequence of the siege of Herat under- taken by Mahomet. August 1. The co- lonial government of Jamaica, and other of the West India islands, abolished the apprenticeship system, and gave full emancipation to the slaves. See Sla- BRI 156 BRI VERY. September 18. A treaty of com- merce between Austria and England was concluded at Milan. In this month the treaty of commerce between Turkey and England was also concluded, and signed by Mehemet Ali and Mr. Bulvver; finally ratified, November 16. By this treaty all British articles imported into the Ot- toman dominions are subject to an ad valorem duty of 3 per cent ; and in lieu of all other inland duties heretofore re- quired previous to the sale of the goods by the importer, one fixed duty of 2 per cent, is to be levied, after which the goods may be sold and resold in the in- terior without any further duty being re- quired. English vessels are also free from any charge on passing the Darda- nelles, the Bosphorus, and the Black Sea ; and a free transit is granted to all foreign goods passing through Turkey for exportation. By other articles, the provisions of former treaties (except as affected by the present) are confirmed ; and any advantages which may hereafter be granted to other powers by the Porte are claimed for a British trader. 1839. Lord Melbourne announced in the house of peers. May 7, that in consequence of the division in the house of commons on the 6th, on the Jamaica bill, when the majority of ministers was only five, they had determined to resign. On the 8th, Sir Robert Peel received her Majesty's commands to form an admi- nistration, but owing to a refusal of the queen to dismiss the ladies of her house- hold, on which Sir Robert Peel insisted, he declined the commission, and on the 10th, lord Melbourne was reinstated. July, victory in India. See Cabool. Attack on Newport by the chartists, Nov. 4. See Chartists. 1840. Marriage of Queen Victoria, to Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg, Feb. 10. See Coburg and Victoria. BRITAIN, NEW. This island, and the straits which separate it from New Guinea, discovered by Dampier, in 1699. This enterprising seaman made a voyage round the world at the period of this discovery. BRITISH ASSOCIATION, for the advancement of science, instituted 1831. Annual meetings, lasting for a week each, have been held successively during the summer of each year from the com- mencement at the following places : Oxford 1831, Cambridge 1832, York 1833, Edinburgh 1834, DuUin 1835, Bristol 1836, Liverpool 1837, Newcastle 1838, and Birmingham 1839. The meet- ing for 1840, to be held at Glasgow, Sept. 17. At the fifth annual meeting held at Dublin, Aug. 15, 1835, the provost of Trinity College gave an entertainment to about 300 members, including all the foreigners then in the city. Before dinner the company assembled in the library of the University, when the lord lieutenant, who was one of the guests, conferred the honour of knighthood upon professor, now Sir William Hamilton, (the professor of astronomy in the Uni- versity.) Mr. Thomas Moore, who had been admitted a member of the associa- tion by acclamation, and without pay- ing the usual fees, was also among the guests, and an entire absence of party feeling and political allusion distinguisg- ed the entertainment. During the eighth meeting of this association, held at Newcastle, 1838, the general meeting assembled on the Mon- day evening, May 20, in the Central Ex- change, when there were more than 3,200 persons present. It appeared from the report of the treasurer, that the re- ceipts for the past year amounted to the sum of 2,410/. 13s. Among the nume- rous papers read in the successive sit- tings, many were of high scientific in- terest. On this occasion 1,000 local members were enrolled, which exceeded by above 300, either of the two preceding meetings at Bristol and Liverpool, and more than 2,500/. was obtained by local subscription. 1,000 ladies' tickets were issued, and they were admitted to two of the sections. There was an exhibition of models, philosophical instruments, and products of national industry, 1. Local. Articles manufactured in the district, showing the nature of the pro- ducts of local industry, the present state of the manufactures, specimens illus- trating the improvement or progress of the several branches. 2. General. Products of industry from all parts of the kingdom, specimens illustrating the different steps, from a raw material, to a finished article, and raw materials of a less common kind, which are or may be applied to useful purposes in the arts. 3. Mechanical and Philosophical, consisting of models of machines, or parts of machines, old, new, or improved; or illustrating the giadual progress of invention ; models of working in mines. BRI W BRi philosophical instruments, remarkable minerals, interesting geological sections, fossils, rare or curious specimens in any branches of natural history. BRITISH Consuls, appointed to South American States, Oct. 30, 1823. BRITISH Islands. See Britain. BRITISH Queen, packet, from Os- tend to Margate, wrecked on the Good- win Sands, and all on board perished, Dec, 16, 1814. BRITISH Q,UBBN, steam vessel, one of the largest in the world, was launched May 24, 1838. This steam ship, was intended to carry goods and passengers between London and New York. She had accommodation for 280 passengers. The following particulars of the dimen- sions, given by the builders, may be thought worth recording. Length, extreme, from figure-head to taffrail Length on upper deck Length of keel . . . . , Breadth within paddle boxes Breadth including paddle boxes Depth Tonnage ...... Power of engines .... Diameter of Cylinders .... Length of stroke . . : . Diameter of paddle wheels Estimated weight of engines, boilers, and water Ditto of coals for 20 days' consumption Ditto of cargo ...... Draught of water with the above weight and stores 275 feet. 245 feet. 223 feet. 40 feet 6 in. 64 feet. 27 feet. 1,862 tons. 500 horse. 77i inch. 7 feet. 30 feet. 500 tons. 600 tons. 500 tons. 16 feet. BRITISH Herring Fishery, in- corporated in 1750. BRITISH Institution, founded June 4, 1805 ; opened Jan. 18, 1806. BRITISH AND Foreign Bible Society. See Bible Society. BRITISH AND Foreign School Society, instituted in 1815. See Schools. BRITISH Linen Company, erect- ed 1746. BRITISH MiNERALOGICAL SOCIE- TY, commenced 1799. BRITISH Museum, contains the largest collection of antiquities, natural curiosities, natural history, and books, in the metropolis. It is situated in Great Russel Street, Bloomsbury. This establishment originated in the munificent bequest of Sir Hans Sloane, who, hav- ing at a vast expence formed a museum of natural and artificial curiosities, left it at his death, in 1753, on certain terms to the nation ; in consequence of which an act of parliament was passed for the foundation of the British Museum, for adding to it the Cottonian library, which was previously public property, and for making future augmentations. Monta- gue house. Great Russell Street, Blooms- bury, a mansion built by the duke of Montague, in the reign of William III, was purchased for the use of the esta- lishment, and other buildings were sub- sequently erected. Vast additions have been recently made both to the library and the museum, and the whole now forms a uniform and magnificent structure. The new build- ings for the reception of the King's Library and the manuscripts of that in- stitution were ready for the public ac- commodation in 1828. The new library is a room of great extent and magnifi- cence. BRITISH Residents in France made prisoners by Buonaparte, 1803. BRITISH Lying-in Hospital, Brownlow Street, London, instituted 1749. BRITONS, Ancient. See Britain. BRITTANY founded as a kingdom, 383 5 made a duchy, 874. On the mar- riage of Francis I. of France, to the grandaughter of one of the dukes, in the year 1532, it was incorporated with the French territory. Reorganized at the period of the French revolution, about 1792, when it was divided into the fol- lowing departments : — viz. Lower Loire, Ille et Vilaine, Finisterre, Morbihan, and Cotes du Norde. BRITTON, Thomas, the musical small coal man, died 17 14. BRO 158 BRO BRIXTON, in Norfolk, the ground for a considerable extent sunk near 30 feet, June, 1788. BROAD Seal of England first used 1050. Stolen from the Lord Chancellor's house, in Ormond street, March 24, 1784. A new one brought into use on the union of Ireland with Great Britain, January 1, 1801. BROAD Swords forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh, July 26, 1724. BRODIE Castle, Scotland, built, 1113. BRODY in Galicia, 1500 houses burnt at. May 5, 1801. BROKERS regulated in London by law, 1697. BROMFIELD, William, surgeon, born 1712, died 1762. BROOKE, Lord, Fulk Greville, stab- bed by his servant, September 30, 1628, aged 70. BROOKE, John Charles, Somer- set herald, crushed to death at the Hay- market theatre, February 3, 1794, aged 45. BROOKE, Henry, an ingenious but eccentric writer, author of the Fool of Quality, born in Ireland 1706, died Oct. 1783. BROOKES, Joshua, an eminent English anatomist, F. R. S., F. L. S., &c., born Nov. 24, 1761. During the forty years he publicly taught anatomy at his theatre, in Blenheim street, Marlborough street, he educated no less than 7,000 pupils. His museum, which was second only to that of the illustrious Hunter, was the admiration of all who had the gratification to witness it. In 1826, he retired (on account of ill-health) from his arduous duties. In the classification of his museum, he followed the nomen- clature of Cuvier, Mac Leay, Temminck, Gray, Vigors, (M.P.), Horsfield, and the most esteemed modern naturalists ; died January 10, 1833. So much esteemed were his talents by Sir Astley Cooper, that when the baronet concluded his spring lectures, at St. Thomas's hospital, he made it a constant practice to exclaim to his pupils, — '• Now, Gentlemen, if you want to learn anatomy go to Joshua Brookes." BROOME, Rev. William, joint translator of the Odyssey with Pope, died 1745. BROOMHOLME Priory, Norfolk, built 1113. BROOMSGROVE nearly destroyed by an inundation from a waterspout, April 13, 1792. BROOM-FLOWER, order of knight- hood in France, began 1234. BROTHELS were allowed in London as necessary evils, 1162; suppressed 1545; tolerated in France, 1280; Pope Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, which amounted to twenty thousand ducats a year, 1471. BROTHERLY Love, order of knight- hood, began 1708. BROTHERS, Sworn, probably arose from a custom in Morlachia, and other places, where friendship between the same sex are like manages ratified at the altar. Others say, from persons covenanting formerly to share each other's fortunes in any expedition to invade a country, as were Robert d' Oily, and Robert d' Ivery, in the first expedition of William I. into England. Hence the term of " brethren in iniquity," because of their dividing plunder. BROUGHAM, Henry, Lord, born in Edinburgh, September 19, 1779. First sat in Parliament in 1 8 10, for the borough of Camelford; afterwards forWinchelsea; returned for Yorkshire in the memorable election of 1830. In that year he was raised to the chancellorship, and to the peerage by the title of Baron Brougham and Vaux, of Brougham, in Westmore- land. He held office till the change of administration, in 1834. October, 1839, an accident occurred which caused a false report of his death. BROUGHAM Castle, Westmore- land, built in 1070. BROUGHTON. Lancashire, suspen- sion bridge at, fell while a party of the 60th rifles were passing over ; six had limbs broken, but no lives were lost, April 11, 1831. BROUWER, Adrian, a celebrated Flemish painter of scenes from low life, born 1608, died 1640. BROWN, Robert, founder of the Brownists, in the reign of Queen Eliza- beth. In 1585, he was cited to appear before archbishop Whitgift. Towards the close of his life, having some dispute with the constable of his parish, he pro- ceeded to blows, and was so insolent to the justice, that he committed him to Northampton jail, where he died in 1630, aged 80. BROWN, Dr. William Law- rence, a Scotch writer on divinity. BRU 159 BRU and metaphysics, born 1753, died 1830. BROWNE, Isaac Hawkins, the poet, born 1703, died 1760. BROWNE, William, poet, born 1590, died 1645. BROWNE, Sir Thomas, author of " Vulgar Errors," died 1645. BROWNE, Edwakd, natural his- torian, died 1682. BROWNISTS, sect began in the l6th century. Two persons of this sect were hanged, in 1583, at Bury, for dispersing Brown's books, against the established church. See Brown. BROWNRIGG, Sib Robert, Bart, governor of Ceylon, born 1759. He ac- companied the duke of York to Holland in 1799. In 1813, he was appointed go- vernor and commander-in-chief of the island ol Ceylon; 1815, successfully in- vaded and conquered the kingdom of Candy, (situated in the interior of the island of Ceylon,) now annexed to the possessions of Great Britain. Created a baronet 1816; and continued governor of Ceylon until the year 1820. Died April 27, 1833. BRUCE, Robert, Scottish general and king, landed in Ireland with an army. May 25, 1315. Soon after crown- ed at Dundalk; slain 1318. See Scot- land. BRUCE, James, the celebrated tra- veller, discoverer of the Nile, born at Kinnaird, Stirling, Scotland, December 14, 1730. Set out on his grand expedi- tion, the accomplishment of which had been ever nearest his heart, the discovery of the sources of the Nile, June 15, 1768, and after various dangers and difficulties, arrived, on February 15, 1770, atGondar, the capital of Abyssinia. Arrived at the sources of the Nile, November 14. On his return to Gondar, November 1 9, he was detained by the king. He at length obtained permission to depart, and left Gondar on December 16, 1771, taking the dangerous way of the desert of Nubia; and on January 10, 1773, after more than four years' absence, he arrived at Cairo. His work on Abyssinia appeared in 1790, five large quarto volumes, embellished with plates and charts. The very singu- lar and extraordinary picture which he gives of Abyssinian manners, startled the belief of some. But the accounts of recent travellers confirm almost every particular he narrates. The first impres- sion of his work being almost wholly dis- posed of within a short time, a second was preparing for the press, when he was removed by death, on April 26, 1794. BRUCE, Major-General Sir Charles, a brave and distinguished British officer, born 1777, died 1832. BRUDENELL. In acquitting Cap- tain Wathen, of the 15th or King's Hus- ' sars, of the insubordinate and un-officer- like conduct with which he was charged,' the court martial, held at Cork, expres- • sed so unfavorable an opinion of the course pursued by the accuser. Lieutenant Colo- nel Lord BrudeneU, that his majesty directed his removal from his command, February 1, 1834. BRUEGHEL or Breughel, Peter, the elder, an eminent Dutch painter of landscapes, bom 1510, ^Jied 1570, BRUEGHEL, Peter Petersz, the younger, a Dutch painter of extravagant • allegorical subjects, died 1642. BRUEGHEL, John, or Velvet Brueghel, a Dutch painter of land- scapes, fruits, and marine subjects, born 1560, died 1625. BRUEGHEL, Abraham, called the Neapolitan, a Dutch painter of still life, bom 1762, died 1690. BRUGES founded, 700; fortified 890. Erected into a bishopric by Paul IV. 1559, and continued so untU it was taken by the French in 1794, when it was in- corporated with the French empire, and remained united until the fall of Napo- leon. In 1798, an English force under Gen. Coote, destroyed the sluices be- tween this place and Ostend, but the greater part of them were taken pri- soners, being assailed by a superior force. BRUGES, University of, French Flanders, founded in 1665. BRUN, Charles Le, a celebrated French painter, descended of a Scots family, and born at Paris, 1619- A painting of St. Stephen finished in 1651, raised his reputation to the highest pitch. About 1662, he began his five large pieces of the history of Alexander the Great. When Louvois succeeded Col- bert as superintendent of the royal edi- fices, Mignard was set up as a rival to Le Brun, and the mortification he ex- perienced preyed upon his spirits, so that he fell into a decline, and died in 1690. BRUNCHAUT, widow of Sigebert, king of Austrasia, put to a cruel death, 613. BRU 160 BRU BRUNO, founder of the Carthusians, died 1101. aged 71. BRUNSWICK, city of, built in 261 ; duchy of, had its origin in the 10th cen- tury. See the next article. Seized by the French, 1806; restored 1814. 1830. A tumult and partial revolution began, Sept. 8, which continued for some days, during which the palace was set on fire and destroyed, together with much valuable property. The duke Charles fled to England, but at length Prince WiUiam, his brother, with the assistance of the burgher guard, succeeded in re- storing tranquillity. He was afterwards invested with the sovereignty of the states of Brunswick, with the consent of William IV. of England, and his bro- thers, the dukes of Cambridge, Sussex, and Cumberland^ which was given in February, 1831. The diet of Frankfort, also gave its approbation to this en- gagement, in May. Ex- duke Cliarles afterwards took refuge in France. 1835. The duke of Cambridge as viceroy of Hanover, instituted proceed- ings, January 26, against Charles, ex- duke of Brunswick, for the purpose of having all the property of the latter placed in his hands, according to arrange- ments to that effect which were repre- sented to have been made between his late Majesty, William IV. of England, the reigning duke of Brunswick, the duke of Cambridge, and other members of the family, and by which the duke of Brunswick was also placed under the tutelage of the duke of Cambridge. The tribunal, according to the directions of M. Glaudaz, Avocat du Roi, decided that it had no power to interfere as prayed for, and authorized the duke of Brunswick to retain possession of all property belonging to him in France, and condemned the plaintiflf to pay the costs of the suit. BRUNSWICK, HousB of, owes its origin to Azo IV. of the family of Este, son of Hugo HI., marquis of Ferrara, in Italy. About 940, he married Cu- nigunda, or Cuniza, heiress of the first Welphs, or Guelfs, earls of Altorf, in Suabia ; and their son Welph, or Guelf, obtained the duchy of Brunswick of Henry IV., in 1071. His grandson, Henry, duke of Bavaria, acquired Bruns- mck, along with Saxony. In 1 1 65, WU- liam, son of Henry the Lion, and of Matilda, eldest daughter of King Henry II. of England, in whom was united the Anglo-Saxon and Norman blood, ac- quired Lunenburg ; and his son Otho, in 1235, was the first duke of Bruns\vick and Lunenburg. From him all the suc- ceeding dukes of this family have de- scended. The house of BrunsAvick has since then divided into several branches, from one of which sprang the elector of Hanover, and the illustrious family now seated on the British throne. BRUNSWICK, Duchess of, sister to George III., died March 23, 1813. BRUNSWICK Club. The first gene- ral meeting of the Brunswick Club of Ireland, held in the Dublin Rotunda, Nov. 4, 1828. BRUNSWICK Theatre, Wellclose square, fell down on the fourth day after its opening, February, 1828. On its site " the Sailors' Home," or Brunswick Ma- rine establishment, for the reception of imemployed seamen in the port of Lon- don is erected. BRUNSWICK, New, province of British North America, originally formed part of Nova Scotia, but separated from it in 1785. In 1825, this colony suffered from one of the most extraordinary con- flagrations recorded in history. The summer was unusually warm. During July and August, extensive fires raged in different parts of Nova Scotia, and the protracted drought, acting upon the aridity of the forests, had rendered them more than naturally combustible. On October 7, the heat increased, a tremen- dous roaring in the woods, was succeeded by volumes of dense smoke that darkened the face of day; then burst forth the ter- rific element above the trees, rolling for- ward with impetuous fury, till in an hour, the towns of Douglas and Newcastle, situated on tlie river Miramichi, were en- veloped in the vortex. The whole north- ern side of the river, extending from Bortibog to the Naashwaak, a distance of more than 100 miles in length, became enveloped in an immense sheet of flame, that spread over nearly 6000 square miles. The country has not yet recover- ed from the desolating effects of the great fire, but the recent establishment of the New Brunswick Company, will, it i^ hoped, facilitate the settlement of so fine a territory. In 1829, the exports were stated at £346,000, and the imports at £483,000. 1838. The colonial government of New Brunswick expressed itself strongly in opposition to the Canadian revolt. BUG 161 BUG Early in January, both houses concurred in a series of resolutions, thanking Sir Francis Head and the militia of Upper Canada, for their conduct in suppressing the insurrection of Toronto. A bill pas- sed for placing at the disposal of Sir John Harvey, the Lieutenant-governor, a force of 1,200 militia volunteers, with a view to give assistance, if required, to the support of the royal authority in any part of British North America. On March 8, they passed a resolution, pla- cing £10,000 at his disposal, " to meet any emergency which the public interests of this province, or the welfare of the British colonies may appear to require." BRUSSELS, formerly the capital of the Austrian Netherlands, but now of the Belgian kingdom. Damaged by fire, and the ducal palace consumed, January 31, 1730. It was several times captured by the French, and in 1789-90, took the lead in the troubles which broke out in the Netherlands. During 20 years, from 1794 to 1814, it was in the possession of the French, and the chief town in the department of the Dyle. Since 1831, it has been the seat of the Belgian go- vernment and the residence of king Leopold. BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, a Roman patriot, and founder of the Roman repub- lic. Delivered Rome from Tarquinius's tyranny, and with GoUatinus was elected magistrate of the state, a. c. 509. The same year, Brutus and Arnus Tarquinius fell by mutual wounds. BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, an illus- trious Roman, and chief conspirator against Gaesar. At the instigation of Gassius, he engaged in the conspiracy against Gsesar's life, which proved fatal March 15, A.c. 44. At the battle of Phillippi, Gassius being slain, and Bru- tus being surrounded by the enemy, he threw himself on the sword of Strato, a Greek, who had formerly been his fellow student, and expired, in the 43rd year of his age. BRYANT, Thomas, shot by the mili- tary that escorted Sir F. Burdett, to the Tower of London, April 9, 1810. BRYANT, Jacob, an eminent scholar, died Nov. 14, 1804, aged 88. BUBBLE Years; 1722, when the South Sea bubble took place. — 1792, when the canal mania prevailed. — 1825, when hundreds of absurd projects were set on foot by scheming and fraudulent men. BUCGANEERS, daring piratical ad- venturers, who infested the West Indian and American coasts. In 1632, they drove the Spaniards out of the small island of Tortuga; and fortifying them- selves there, with amazing intrepidity, made excursions against the common enemy. The buccaneers, when they had acquired a considerable booty, at first held their rendezvous at the island of Tortuga, in order to divide the spoil; but afterwards the French went to St. Domingo, and the English to Jamaica. Each person, holding up his hand, so- lemnly protested that he had secreted nothing of what he had taken. Montbar, a gentleman of Languedoc, particularly distinguished himself about the middle of the 17th century. Bartholomew, L'OIo- nois, and De Balca,also in their turn sig- nalized themselves by their rourage and their cruelty. Sir Henry Morgan, at- tacked Portobello, a strongly fortified town in the province of Costa Pica, in 1688, and compelled the inhabitants to ransom their city from the flames, by the enormous sum of 100,000 crowns. In 1697, the buccaneers attacked Cartha- gena, and acquired booty to the amount of £1,750,000. At length they met with a fleet of Dutch and English ships, both which nations were then in alliance with Spain. Several of the pirates were either taken or sunk, Avith all the cargo they had on board their ships, and from this time the buccaneers were annihilated. Without any regular system, without laws, without any degree of subordina- tion, and even without any fixed revenue, they became the astonishment of the age in which they lived, as they will be also of posterity. BUCER, Martin, an eminent German reformer, born in 1491, at Alsace. In 1548, was sent for to Augsburg, to sign the agreement between the papists and the protestants, called the interim. His warm opposition to this project, led him to retire to England, in 1549, where he died in 1551. BUCHAN, Dr. William, author of Domestic Medicine, &c., died Feb. 26, 1805, aged 76. BUCHANAN, Rev. Claudius, au- thor of " Christian Researches," born 1766, died Feb. 9, 1815. BUCHANAN, George, Latin poet, born 1506, died 1582. BUGKFASTLEIGH Abbey, Devon, built in 918. BUCKINGHAM , tower at, fell dowa^ Y BUE 162 BUG and destroyed the church, March 26, 1776. BUCKINGHAM Castle built, 918. BUCKINGHAM House, in St. James's park, built 1703. Bought for the residence of queen Charlotte, for £24,000, in 1760. Her first residence there May 19, 1762. Between 1825 and 1830, it was taken down, and rebuilt, at the cost of above half a million. The residence of Queen Victoria in 1837. BUCKINGHAM, duke of, killed at Portsmouth, by Felton, August 23, 1628. BUCKINGHAM, GeorgeVilliers, duke of, born 1627, died 1640. BUCKINGHAM, John Sheffield, duke of, born 1649, died 1721. BUCKINGHAM, late duke of, born March 20, 1776, died July 17, 1839. BUCKLAND Priory, built 1278. BUCKLES were invented about 1680. BUDA, the ancient capital of Hungary, believed to have been the residence of Attila, the chieftain of the Huns. See Attila. The castle was chosen as a palace for the Emperor Louis I. before 800. The Turks occupied Budain 1530, and after other devastations, were at length expelled, in 1686, by the duke of Lorraine. The university was removed hither from Tyrnau, in 1777, and subse- quently transferred to Pest. BUDE Light, partially discovered and recommended by Sir D. Brewster at the beginning of the present century ; invention completed by Mr. G. Gurney, and examined by a select committee of the House of Commons, 1839- BUENOS AYRES, city of South America, formerly capital of the Spanish viceroyalty of La Plata, now of the new republic of the United Provinces. City taken by the English 1806, abandoned the same year. Junta of Buenos Ayres commenced its functions on May 25, 1810. Congress of Tucuman issued a declaration on July 9, 1816, formally an- nouncing the independence of the pro- vinces of Rio de la Plata. Tranquillity interrupted by the contest into which Buenos Ayres entered against Brazil, for the possession of the Banda Oriental, in 1825. War contmued in a feeble and inefficient manner, and with doubtful success by both powers for several years. Oct. 12, 1829, treaty, by which the whole of the Banda Oriental, with its capital, is an independent power, under the direct guarantee of Great Britain. October, 1833, an attempt was made to effect a revolution in Buenos A)Tes. In June, 1834, the government resigned spontane- ously. The internal provinces were, as usual, the theatre of petty dissensions and skirmishes. Don Rosas elected governor and captain-general of the province for five years, March 7, 1835, with extraor- dinary powers, while he was at liberty to surrender whenever he might judge fit, and only restricting him in one point, by obliging him to maintain and uphold the catholic religion. March 10, 1839, war was declared by the Uruguay republic, against Buenos Ayres. BUFFALO Town, North America, taken by the British, and burnt Dec. 30, 1813. BUFFON, George Louis le Clerc, Count of, a celebrated French naturalist, bom at Montbard, in Burgundy, Sept. 7, 1707. His first publication was a translation from the English of Hales'a Vegetable Statics, in 1735, followed, in 1740, by a translation from the Latin of Newton's Fluxions. He was appointed in 1739, superintendent of the royal gar- den and cabinet, which, as he came to be known, he enriched with the productions of all parts of the world. In 1747, he made an extraordinary discovery of a spe- culum which set objects on fire at the distance of 120 yards; he also published a dissertation, to prove that there was nothing either false or absurd in the ac- count handed down by historians, of the burning Roman ships at the siege of Sy- racuse, by Archimedes. His Natural History commenced in 1749, and was completed in 1767. In 1774, he began to publish a supplement to his Natural History, consisting of the History of Minerals. Hedied April 16, 1788, agedSl. BUGDEN PALACE,Huntingdonshire, built 1480. BUGRIAH, This to^vn, said to have the finest anchorage on the coast of Africa, taken by the French, after a san- guinary conflict of three days with a tribe of barbarians, Oct. 2, 1833. BUGS are generally supposed to have been first introduced to this country in the fir timber which was imported, for the purpose of re-building London, after the great fire of 1666. It is said that bugs were not known in England before that time; and many of these insects were found, almost immediately after- wards, in the newly erected edifices. BUL BUILDERS' Act passed, 1764, a- mended 1766. BUILDING with stone first brought into England by Bennet, a monk, 670 ; with brick, first introduced by the Ro- mans into their provinces, first in Eng- land about 886 : introduced here by the earl of Arundel, 1600, at which time the houses in London were chiefly built of Avood. The increase of buildings in London prohibited, within three miles of the city gates, by queen Elizabeth, and ordered that only one family should dwell in one house, 1580. The build- ings from High Holbom, north and south, and Great Queen Street, built nearly on the spot where stood the elms or the ancient Tyburn in Edward III, were erected between 1607, and 1631. The number of houses in London and its suburbs, in 1772, was computed at 122,930 ; but in 1791 they amounted to above 200,000. In St. George's Fields near 7000 have been erected within the above period, and of late years the build- ings round London have increased to a great extent, BUILDINGS regulated by law, 1764, 1770, 1772. BUILDWAS Abbey, Shropshire, built A.D. 1153, BULGARIANS ravaged Thrace, 499; settled in the country now called Bul- garia, in the seventh century; were de- feated by the emperor Justinian 706; ravaged Greece 889; besieged Constan- tinople 917 ; Bulgaria made a Roman province 1119; threw off the Roman yoke 1186; defeated the emperor Bald- win, 1205; was conquered by Bajazet 1396, and now remains a province of European Turkey. BULKELEY, the benevolent lord, died 1822 BULKELEY Hill, Cheshire, clothed with trees, sank down into a pit of water, so that the tops of the trees were invisible, July 8, 1657. BULL, Dr. John, musician, born 1563, died 1621. BULL, a, named Comet, the property of Mr. Collin, of Ketton, near Darling- ton, sold by public auction for 1,000 guineas, Oct. 11, 1810. BULL, the famous popish, called Unigenitus, was received in France, Dec. 11, l7l5, which subsequently created a great ferment in that country. BULL Golden, is a denomination peculiarly given to an ordinance, or 163 BUO statute, made in Germany, by the em- peror Charles IV. in 1356, reputed the magna charta, or fundamental law of the empire, BULL-BAITING, first at Stamford, Lincolnshire,1209 ; at Tutbury, Stafford- shire, 1374. BULL-FIGHTING, in Spain first practised, 1560. BULL-RUNNING, at Tutbui:y, Staf- fordshire, introduced first 1374. BULLETS of stone used instead of iron, 1514; of iron first mentioned in the Fadua, 1550. BULLION of gold and silver, first method of assaying, 1354. See Bank. BULMER, William, celebrated English typographer, born 1751, died 1 8.^0. BUMPER, a corruption of bon-pere good father, i.e. the pope, whose health was always drank by the monks after dinner, in a full glass. BUNGAY, Suffolk, built 1689. BUNKER'S Hill, America, battle of, fought 1775. BUNYAN, John, the well known author of the Pilgrim's Progress, born at Elstow, near Bedford, in 1628, Ad- mitted a member of the Baptist congre- gation at Bedford, 1655 ; indicted as an upholder and maintainer of unlawful assemblies and conventicles, and for not conforming to the church of England, 1660, He was kept in prison for twelve years together. During this period he wrote many of his tracts ; but he was at length discharged by the humane inter- position of Dr. Barlow, Died of a fever at London, Aug. 31, 1688, aged 60. All his works were collected together in two vols, folio, London, 1736, 1737- BUONAPARTE, Napoleon, bom at Ajaccio in Corsica Aug. 1769. His father Carlo Buonaparte, was a lawyer of that town in moderate circumstances ; but the talents evinced by Napoleon at an early age, attracted the notice of general count Marboeuf, then governor of the island, who patronised him, and procured his admission, as an eleve du roi, into the royal military school at Brienne in 1779- He was sent to L'Ecole Royal Militaire at Paris, in 1784, where he passed his first examina- tion with honour, and entered the regi- ment of artillery De la Fere, in garrison at Auxone, as lieutenant, in 1785. In 1790, he was appointed to the command of a battalion of national guards at Ajac- BUO 164 BUO cio, his native town. In 1793-4, he was promoted to the rank of general by the convention. In 1794, obtained the com- mand of an expedition against Ajaccio, the island of Corsica having been sur- rendered to the British. In this, how- ever, he was repulsed, and returned to Paris. 1795. While the forty-eight sec- tions of Paris seemed unanimous in their acceptance of a new constitution, forty-six of them rejected the decree that the two-thirds of the members of the convention should be re-elected for the new legislature, and the decree which de- clared, that if the departments did not re-elect two-thirds, the convention would form an elective body, and supply the deficiency by its own nomination. In consequence of this a scene of horror and tumult prevailed in Paris. Barras gave him the second command of the conven- tional troops, employed to quell the tu- mult. In 1 796, he became commander- in-chief of the army of Italy. His army was very inferior in point of numbers to that of his enemies : " But, if we are vanquished," said he, " I shall have too much ; if conquerors, we stand in need of nothing." Having crowned his con- quests in Italy by the peace of Campo Formio, he returned to Paris. "When it was resolved to seize upon the territory of Egypt, Buonaparte was appointed to the command, and on May 20, 1798, put to sea from Toulon on board the L'Orient, of 120 guns. June 10, the Toulon fleet appeared before Malta, which soon capitulated, when three millions in specie fell into the hands of Buonaparte. There was also found one frigate, four galleys, twelve hundred pieces of cannon, forty thousand muskets and one million five hundred thousand pounds weight of powder. July 21, between the villages of Embabch and Gizah, near the Nile, and in the sight of the Pyramids, was fought the battle so designated, where Napoleon commanded in person. On that memorable occasion he used the following emphatic exclama- tion ; " Frenchmen remember that from the summit of yonder monuments forty centuries are looking down upon you." The French were victorious, and on the following day entered Cairo. 1799- Buonaparte finding the tenure of Egypt exposed on the side of Syria, Feb 10, resolved to undertake an expe- dition to those territories, (which was called the Syrian Expedition,) in order to seize the treasures and destroy the do- minion of the Djezzar Pacha, who, from his residence at Acre, despatched bands to the western borders of the Desert of Bahama, which had afforded a retreat to Ibrahim Bey. After several successes in Syria, on the l6th of April, generals Kleber and Junot, with 2000 French, sustained a most obstinate contest against the combined Turks and Arabians, at the battle of Mount Tabor. On that occa- sion, Buonaparte with a small troop, overthrew 25,000 cavalry and a host of infantry, which had collected from va- rious parts. May 21, the army of the east, under Buonaparte, raised the siege of Acre, after the trenches had been open for 60 days, the besiegers having repeated the assault eight times. The loss of the French was estimated at 7000 men ; among whom, Buonaparte had to regret the death of Caffarelli Dufal- gar. Napoleon instantly commenced hia march for Egypt, in order to oppose the Turks who intended to effect a landing. June 25, the battle of Aboukir, between Buonaparte and the Turks, was fought, in which the latter lost 18,000 men, and the former not 1,000 in killed and pri- soners. Five thousand Turks, who had shut themselves up in the fortress of Aboukir, Aug. 2, all perished by famine or the sword, with the exception of a trifling number made prisoners. The army having suffered from repeated de- feats and the climate, on August 23rd Buonaparte left the army in Egypt to General Kleber and embarked for France. He landed at Saint Raphau, near Frejus, Oct. 9, with his staff from Egypt, and on the sixteenth, arrived at Paris. Nov 4, Buonaparte, indignant on finding that all his conquests in Italy had been lost by the mal-administra- tion of the directory, and that France was on the point of once more falling into a state of anarchy, dismissed the council of Five Hundred at Saint Cloud. Nov. 9, the director Abbe Sieyes and Buo- naparte i)lanned a new form of govern- ment for France. The two councils de- creed the abolition of the directory. May 11, when Napoleon, aided by his bro- ther Lucian, and Abbe Sieyes, instituted a provisionary government, composed of three consuls ; namely Sieyes, Roger Ducos, and General Buonaparte. Na- poleon Buonaparte was chosen first con- BUO 165 BUO sal. Dec. 24, and soon after formed his plan for attacking Italy. 1800. The famous battle of Marengo was fought, June 16, and gained by Buonaparte over the Austrians, com- manded by General Melas, when the latter had 6,000 killed, and 12,000 made prisoners. Dec. 24, an attempt was made on Buonaparte's life in Paris, by means of a machine called the Infernale, whereby several lives were lost. 1802. Buonaparte convoked a con- sulta of the Cisalpines at Lyons, Jan. 26, when he was named president of the Italian republic, which was no longer to be styled Cisalpine, but receive a consti- tution analagous to that established in France. The famous Legion of Honour was created by Buonaparte, May 1 9, des- tined to reward such as rendered them- selves conspicuous in a civil or military point of view. The senatus consultum conferred on Napoleon Buonaparte the title of consul for life, AugJ^ In his reply to the message oT tnesenate, he stated, "The life of a citizen belongs to his country ; the French people are desi- rous that mine should be entirely conse- crated to its service. I obey the will of the people — the liberty, the equality, and the prosperity of France shall be secur- ed ; the best of people shall be the hap- piest." Sept. 30, Buonaparte declared himself mediator of the Helvetic repub- lic. Napoleon reinstated the pope at Rome, and restored peace to his holiness for his having made a trifling sacrifice to the French republic, in ratifying the con- cordat. 1803. In February Buonaparte of- fered provision for life to Louis the Eighteenth, if he would renounce his pretensions to the throne of France, which the latter refused. The reply to Napoleon's proposal contained the fol- lowing paragraphs of Louis the Eigh- teenth : " I do not mean to confound Monsieur Buonaparte with those who have preceded him ; I esteem his bravery and military talents, and I only have to complain against some acts of his ad- ministration, — but he deceives himself if he imagines I can renounce my rights ; far from that being the case, he would reestablish them himself, if he could be litigious, by the proceedings which he adopts at the present moment." 1804. Cambaceres waited upon the first consul, at St. Cloud, May 1 8, and there made known to him the wish of the senate that he would accept the im- perial title; upon which Napoleon made answer ; " Every thing that can contri- bute to the welfare of the state is essen- tially connected with my hapjjiness. I accept the title which you deem of utility to the glory of the nation. I submit to the sanction of the people the law as re- lates to heriditary possession. I trust that France will never have, cause to repent the honours with which she may environ my family. At all events my spirit will no longer influence my posterity, the day when it shall cease to deserve the love and confidence of the great nation." May 20, Napoleon Buona- parte, first consul of the French republic, was proclaimed emperor of the French. Dec. 2, the coronation of Napoleon and the Empress Josephine was solem- nized, in the cathedral of Notre Dame, at Paris, by Pope Pius the Seventh, with the greatest pomp and solemnity possi- ble. One of the first acts of the new emperor was to alter the name of the Civil Code of the French, introduced under the consular government, to that of The Code Napoleon. His two brothers Joseph and Louis, and his two colleagues, Le Brun and Cambaceres, were declared grand elector, constable, arch-chancellor, and arch-treasurer of the empire. For the political events of the reign of Buonaparte, See Britain, France, &c. The following are the principal events of his personal history. Divorced from the Empress Josephine Dec. 17, 1809. Manied to Maria Louisa of Austria, April 1, 1810. Son born April 20, 1811, and entitled king of Rome. Made overtures of peace to England, which were rejected April 17, 1812 Quitted his army in Russia, on the 5th, and arrived in Paris, Dec. 18, 1812. Quitted Paris, Jan. 15, and join- ed his army at Mentz, April 20, 1813.'^ Quitted his army at Eh-esden, to return to Paris, Oct. 7, 1813. 'Quitted Paris to rejoin the army, Jan. 25, 1814.*-^Re- nounced for himself and heirs the thrones of France and Italy, and accepted the Isle of Elba, April 28, 1814. Arrived at Elba, May 3. AU artists forbidden, by the mayor of Lyons, to engrave or paint his Ukeness, Dec. 3, 1814. Quitted Elba, and landed at Cannes, March 1, 1815. Arrived at Fontainbleau, Match 20, 1815. Joined by the army and ar- rived at Paris, March 22, 1815. Allied sovereigns signed a new treaty for his ex- BUO 166 BUR termination, March 25, 1815. Abolished the slave trade, March 29, 1815. Left Paris to join the army at Laon, June 12, 1815. Defeated at Waterloo, returned to Paris, June 20, and abdicated on the 23rd, in favour of his son. Arrived at Rochefort, intending to sail to America, July 3, 1815. Failing in his design, he surrendered himself and suite of forty persons, to Captain Maitland, of the Beilerophon, July 15, 1815. Trans- ferred at Torbay from the Beilerophon to the Northumberland, which sailed with him for the island of St. Helena, decreed by the allied sovereigns to be his place of residence for life, Aug. 8, 1815. Arrived at. St. Helena Oct. 16, 1815. His relatives of every description ex- cluded for ever from France, by the law of amnesty, Jan. 12, 1816. Died 1821, and was buried at St. Helena. His statue set up in Paris again, 1833. His mother, Marie Letitia, died Feb. 4, 1836. BUONAPARTE, Jerome, made king of Westphalia, 1807. BUONAPARTE, Joseph, made king of Naples, 1806, transferred to Spain, 1808. BUONAPARTE, Louis, created king of Holland, 1806; abdicated, 1810. BUONAPARTE, Prince Louis, a nephew of Napoleon, and son of Louis the ex-kmg of Holland, attempted an in- surrection in France, Oct. 1836. Early on the morning of the 30th he appeared at Strasburgh, dressed in an uniform somewhat resembling that which his uncle used to wear. Accompanied by Colonel Vaudrey, he proceeded to the barracks of the artillery. The colonel told his men that a revolution had been accomplished in Paris — that Louis Phillippe was no more — that Napoleon H., the descendant of the " great man" had been proclaimed, and thathere, presenting prince Louis, was Napoleon IL One body of the mutineers marched to the house of general Voirol, the commander of the divi- sion, informed him ofthenews,and request- ed him to do his duty to the emperor. The general addressed the soldiers and soon succeeded in convincing them that they had been imposed upon An aid- de- camp of general Voirol, who had made his escape, while the general was haran- guing the soldiers, gave notice to the colo- nel of that regiment. The gates were immediately closed, and the whole party arrested. The other persons implicated were detained for trial ; but prince Louis was allowed to go to the United States, and a French frigate sailed with him from L' Orient, Nov. 21. BUONAPARTE, Lucien, put him- self under the protection of the British at Malta, 1810 ; brought to England the same year ; created a Roman prince by the Pope, Aug. 1814; refused passports for himself and family to North Ame- rica, by the allied sovereigns, March 18, 1817. BUONAROTTI, Michael Angelo, a most incomparable painter, sculptor, and architect, born 1474, in the territory of Arezzi, in Tuscany. His most capital performances are " The Crucifixion," and "The Last Judgment," which last is the ornament of the chapel of Sixtus V. in the Vatican. He discontinued paint- ing in the seventy-fifth j'ear of his age, and died at Rome, aged 90, 1563. BURCKHARDT, J. Lewis, the eas- tern traveller, born in Switzerland, 1784, died April 15, 1817. BURDER, Rev. George, author of some valuable works on divinity, bom 1754, died April 15, 1832. BURDETT, Sir Francis, committed to the To^Ver, by the House of Commons April 9, 1810. Liberated June 21, fol- lowing. On the commitment of Mr. Gale Jones for a libel in the House of commons. Sir Francis Burdett, on the 12th of March, delivered an elaborate speech, tending to prove, that although the house possessed the power of com- mitting its own members, it had not the like power over others. Sir Francis sent the substance of his speech to Cobbett's Weekly Register which on account of its radical sentiments was declared by the house to be a libellous and scanda- lous paper, reflecting upon the just rights and privileges of that house on which account he was committed to the Tower, On the change in the worthy baronet's political sentiments in 1838, attended by Lord Maidstone and Sir George Sinclair, he made a " Conservative progress" through the northern provinces. A series of political banquets awaited him in the course of his tour, at Leeds, Sal- ford, Manchester, and other large towns. BURDETT, Captain Geo., R.N., killed by drinking oil of tar by mistake. May 22, 1832. BURDOCK, Mary Ann, was tried at Bristol for poisoning an old lady who BUR 167 BUR had lived with her. The trial lasted two days, and excited more than ordinary interest. It appeared that the lady who was poisoned was possessed of a con- siderable sura of money, which excited the cupidity of the prisoner, who de- stroyed her, October 23, 1833, by mixing arsenic in some milk or gruel. Circum- stances having subsequently excited suspicion, the body was, fourteen months afterwards, taken out of the grave and examined, when the appearances pre- sented led to the apprehension of the prisoner. She was executed March 15, 1835, and it is stated that the crowd as- sembled on the occasion was calculated to amount to upwards of 50,000 persons. BURGESSES were first appointed in Scotland, 1326. See Municipal Cok- PORATIONS. BURGH, James, ingenious Scotch author, born 1714, died 1775. BURGLARY was formerly considered felony in all cases. The laws, however, have lately been considerably amended. By 7 and 8 Geo. IV., c. 29, passed June 21, 1827, entitled an act for consolidating and amending the laws in England, rela- tive to larceny and other offences con- nected therewith. Also by 1 Victoria, c. 86, July 17, 1837, which recites that it is expedient to amend so much of the 7 and 8 Geo. IV., c. 29, as relates to the punish- ment of any person convicted of burglary, &c., and accordingly, 1. repeals such pro- visions after Sept. 30, 1837, except as to offences on or before that day. 2. Bur- glars using violence to suffer death. 3. Pu- nishment of burglary, transportation for life, or for not less than ten years, or im- prisonment for not exceeding three years. 4. And so fat as the same is essential to the offence of burglary, the night shall be considered and is hereby declared to commence at nine o'clock in the evening of each day, and to conclude at six o'clock in the morning of the next suc- ceeding day, 5. Stealing in a dwelling- house with menace or threat, shall be felony, and punishable by transportation for not exceeding fifteen years, nor less than ten years, or imprisonment for not exceeding three years. 6. And every principal in the second degree, and every accessary before the fact, shall be punish- able with death or otherwise in the same manner as the principal in the first de- gree ; and every accessary after the fact (except only as receiver of stolen pro- perty] shall be imprisoned for not ex- ceeding two years. BURGO, Luc. DE, the first European writer on Algebra, died 1494. BURGOS, siege of, abandoned by the allied army under Lord Wellington, Oct. 20, 1812. Castle, and works of, blown up by the French, June 13, 1813. BURGOYNE, General, who sur- rendered himself and the British army to the Americans, at Saratoga, 1777> author of the " Heiress," &c., died the some year. BURGUNDIAN Cross, order of knighthood, began 1535. BURGUNDY, the dukedom of, es- tablished, 890; the kingdom founded, 413, again in 814, united to the German empire, 1035 ; disunited by a revolt, and divided into four sovereignties, 1074; organized by Charles V., 1548; is now included in the kingdom of France, and divided into the departments of Cote d'Or, Saone and Loire, Ain and Yonne. BURGUNDY Canal, which has been many years in progress, was opened for navigation, July 16, 1834. BURIAL-PLACE, first christian one in Britain, 596. Burial-places first per- mitted in cities in England, 742. Bu- rials first permitted in consecrated places, 750, ; in church-yards, 758 ; taxed, 1695, 1783 ; forbidden within towns in Poland, 1792. BURIALS AND Christenings. See Bills of Mortality. BURKE, Edmund, born at Dublin, January 1, 1730. He was chosen mem- ber for Wendover, 1765, and his first speech was on the stamp act. He maintained a steady and uniform oppo- sition to the American war ; and his speech against the Boston port bill was one of the most perfect specimens of oratory that had ever been exhibited in the British senate. In 1774, elected member for Bristol ; 1775, brought for- ward his thirteen celebrated propositions, which were intended to close the fatal breach between America and the mother country. His impeachment of Warren Hastings was one of the next and most important events of his life, 1789. In 1790, he published his Reflections on the Revolution in France. He died July 8, 1797. " The qualities of his heart," says one of his biographers, "were not less amiable and estimable than his talents were astonishing — bene- volent, just, temperate, and magnani- mous. His principles were as strict, and habits as virtuous, as his dispositions were kind." BUR IGS BUR BURKETT, Rev. William, author of the Commentary on the New Testa- ment; born 1650, obtained the vicarage of Dcdham, Essex, 1692, died 1703. BURLEIGH, Cecil Lord, the ce- lebrated minister of queen Elizabeth, born 1520. In 154/, appointed by the protector master of requests ; 1548, made secretary of state ; but the following year, the duke of Northumberland's fac- tion prevailing, he suffered the disgrace of the protector Somerset, and was sent prisoner to the Tower. On queen Eliza- beth's accession, in 1558, he came into power; 1572, was honoured with the garter and raised to the office of lord high treasurer of England. Having filled the highest and most important offices of the state for forty years, and guided the helm of government during the most glorious period of English history, he died August 4, 1598, in the 78th year of his age. BURLINGTON, American camp at, surprised by Colonel Vincent, June 5, 1813. BURLINGTON Pier built, 1797. BURLINGTON House, grand fete given at, by White's club, to the duke of Wellington, June 30, 1815; — grand fete given at, by the officers of the army to the duke of Wellington, July 18, 1815. BURMAN, Peter, the commenta- tor, born 1668, died 1741. BURMAN, or Birman Empire. Little is known of the ancient history of the Burmans, except that they were go- verned by a long line of kings, subject to the king of Pegu. The empire, in the present form, originated about the mid- dle of the sixteenth century, when the Birmans effected a revolution, and made themselves masters of Ava. In 1740, se- veral provinces revolted, and a civil war ensued, which was prosecuted on both sides with great fury. In 1752, the capital of Ava was invested by the Peguers, and the BirmaAs, after a short siege, were compelled to surrender at discretion. The Pegu sovereign when he had com- pleted the conquest of Ava, returned to nis own country. 1753. Alompra (the founder of the present dynasty), a person of low ex- traction, gained possession of Ava, and founded the town of Rangoon. In 1756 he advanced against the city of Pegu, and took possession of it in a few months, giving up the city to pillage and massa- cre, and taking the king himself prisoner After repeated triumphs, and the capture of several important towns, he died May 15, 1760. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Namdogee Praw, who, after suppressing several insur- rections, died 1764, leaving an infant son, named Momien. His uncle, Shem- buan, second son of Alompra, usurped the royal power, and sent the minor to be educated in obscurity among the Rhahaans, or monks. After various military exploits, in the course of which he subjected to a state of permanent vas- salage several of the neighbouring pro- vinces, the emperor Shembuan died in 1776, and was succeeded m the govern- ment by his son, Chengeuza. He was slain in 1781, and fell unlamented, as he lived despised. 1782, his uncle, Minde- rajee Praw, the fourth son of Alompra, thie founder of the dynasty, ascended the throne. The Burmese arms were then turned towards the Siamese, from whom, between 1784 and 1793, they conquered the provinces of Tavoy, Te- nasserim, Junk Ceylon, and the Mergui isles. In 1795, a Burmese army of 5,000 men pursued three distinguished robbers into the British district of Chit- tagong, where their progress was op- posed by a strong detachment from Cal- cutta, and, after much negociation, re- treated within their own limits ; the then refugees were subsequently given up, and two out of the three executed with tor- tures. This acquiescence on the part of the British government had a prejudicial effect on the subsequent conduct of the Burmese. From the year 1795, until 1809, when captain Canning's mission took place, the condition of this empire, both moral and political, had been pro- gressively deteriorating. 1814. This barbarous court formed a confederation of all the native princes of India to effect the expulsion of the Bri- tish. In 1817, and the following years, they directed their arms towards the north, where they made a conquest of the extensive jungle countries of Assam and the adjacent petty states south of the Brahmaputra, where they established and retained a permanent military force, and threatened the north-western quar- ter of the Bengal province, hitherto re- puted unassailable. Minderajee Praw died in 1819, and was succeeded by his grandson, Madu Chew, and son of the Engy Tekien, or heir apparent, favour* BUR 169 BUR aMy mentioned by colonel Symes in 1795. 1824. The unprovoked aggressions of the Burmese troops on the south- eastern frontier of Bengal, and the con- temptuous silence of the court to every remonstrance on the subject, led to a rupture with the British, which com- menced in May, and lasted until the 24th of February, 1826, when a treaty of peace was concluded by Sir Archibald Campbell at Yandaboo. By the condi- tions of this treaty the king of Ava re- nounced all claims on Assam, Cacliar, Gentiah, and Munipoor ; ceded the pro- vinces of Arracan, Ye, Tavoy, Tenesse- rim, and Martaban, south of Saluen ri- ver ; engaged to pay one crore of rupees as an indemnity, and to receive a resi- dent British ambassador in his capital. This war was distinguished from every other by its duration, by its great priva- tions, by difficulties of every kind, aris- ing from the climate and nature of the country. All these the British army, never exceeding 5,000 fighting men, surmounted, and distated peace almost at the gates of the enemy's capital. 1837. A revolution took place; the reign- ing sovereign having been deposed by his brother,Therawadee, theheir presumptive to the throne. The new monarch exhi- bited a decided aversion to the British, and seemed disposed rather to contract than extend his relations with them. He gave the British resident to understand that he would not tolerate an English spy in his dominions, and his conduct became so violent in 1838 as to render a rupture with Burmah highly probable. BURNET, Gilbert, an eminent English prelate, born at Edinburgh, 1643. In 1679, he published his His- tory of the Reformation, for which he had the thanks of both houses of parlia- ment ; the same year he became ac- quainted with the earl of Rochester, with whom he spent one evening in a week, dis- coursing with him seriously on the great truths of the christian religion. The happy eflfects of these conferences oc- casioned the publication of his account of the life and death of that earl. In 1688, finding King James plainly sub- verting the constitution, he omitted no method to support and promote the design which the Prince of Orange had formed for delivering Great Britain, and came over with him in quality of chaplain. He was soon advanced to the see of Salisbury. In 1698, appointed precep- tor to the duke of Gloucester, in whose education he took great interest. In 1699, he published his exposition of the Thirty- nine Articles ; which occasioned a re- presentation against him in the lower house of convocation, in the year 1701 ; but he was vindicated in the upper house. He died in 1715. " Bishop Burnet," says the marquis of Halifax, "makes many enemies by setting an ill-natured example of living, which they are not inclined to follow. His in- difference for preferment, his contempt not only of splendour, but of all unne- cessary plenty, his degrading himself into the lowest and most painful duties of his catling, are such unprelatical qua- lities, that let him be never so orthodox in other things, in these he must be a dissenter. Virtues of such a stamp, are so many heresies, in the opinions of those divines who have softened the primitive injunctions so as to make them suit better with the present frailty of mankind. No wonder, then, if they are angry, since it is in their own defence; or that, from a principle of self-preserva- tion, they should endeavour to suppress a man, whose parts are a shame, and whose life is a scandal to them." BURNET, Thomas, a learned and ingenious divine, born at Croft, in York- shire, in 1635; entered, in 1651, at Clare- hall, in the University of Cambridge. Of his celebrated work, entitled, " Tel- luris Theoria Sacra," &c., the first two books were published in 1680, and the two remaining books in 1689, in 4to. To the 6th edition in 1726, is added, the " Author's defence of the Work from the Exceptions of Mr. Warren, and the Examination of Mr. Keil." In 1685, Dr. Burnet was elected into the mastership of the Charter-house. In 1692, he published his " Archeologise Philoso- phicse," in which he not only questioned the literal history of the fall, but impru- dently introduced an imaginary dialogue between Eve and the serpent, which gave great offence. So sensible was he of the imprudence of this dialogue, that when a new edition of the "Archeologiae" was printed in Holland, he desired that it might be suppressed ; and it was like- wise omitted in the second edition, of the year, 1733. He died September 27, 1715. BURNEY, Charles, Mus. Doc. born 1726, died 1814. z BUR 170 BUR BURNEY,Dr.Charles, an eminent classical scholar, died Dec. 28, 1817. BURNHAM Priory, Bucks, built, 1266. BURNING-GLASSES. Their use appears to be of great antiquity. Ari- stophanes, who flourished a. c. 400, makes mention of them as far as relates to refraction, in his comedy of the Clouds. Euclid, a. c. 280, notices in his optics, the burning power of refrac- tors. Archimedes, as we are informed by Tezetzes, set fire to the Roman fleet under Marcellus, which had assembled before the city of Syracuse, " by means," says Kircher, " of a burning-glass, com- posed of small square mirrors, moving every way upon hinges ; which, when placed in the sun's rays, directed them upon the Roman fleet, so as to reduce it to ashes, at the distance of a bow-shot," A.c. 210. We are likewise informed by Zonaras, that, when Vitalianus besieged Byzantium, a.d. 514, his ship experi- enced a similar fate, by means of a brazen speculum, contrived and managed by Proclus. The most remarkable burning-glasses of modern date, are those of Magine, Sapatala of Milan, Settala, Villette of Lyons, Newton, Tschirnhau- sen, Buffon, Trudaine, and Parker. Mr. Parker's lens, made about 1800, was two feet and a half in diameter, its weight was 212 pounds ; focal length, six feet eight inches, and the diameter of the focus one inch. BURNING-HILL, or Cliflf, on the north-eastern coast of Weymouth Bay, opposite the island of Portsmouth, ap- peared March 16, 1827. BURNING Alive, on account of religious principles, the first was Sir William Sawtree, Feb. 19. 1401. BURNS, Robert, the celebrated Scottish poet, born January 25, 1759, of humble parents. Published the first edition of his poems, in 1786, which pro- duced him nearly twenty pounds. In 1787, the second edition made its pubhc appearance. The fame of our poet, which had hitherto begun to dawn, now burst forth in meridian splendour. Having settled accounts with his publisher, in February, 1788, Burns became master of £500, when he fell into dissipation. Received an appointment as an excise- man, about 1789. At last, crippled, emaciated, having the very power of animation wasted by disease, quite broken-hearted by the sense of his er- rors, and of the hopeless miseries in which he saw himself and hi§ family plunged; he died at Dumfries, in July, 1796, in the 38 th year of his age. A monument to his memory at Ayr, was completed July 4, 1823. BURR, Colonel Aaron, who made himself conspicuous in the American war, was born in 1756, and joined the army under general Washington, then before Cambridge, as a volunteer, in Aug. 1775. He was aid-de-camp to general Montgomery on the remarkable night of the 31st December, 1775, when the as- sault was made on the city of Quebec. After serving the campaign of Canada, he returned to New York, and entered the family of general Washington ; ap- pointed aid-de-camp, to general Put- man, and fought bravely in the battle of Long Island; after which he was made colonel in 1777, remained in the army, and was a conspicuous officer in the battles of New Jersey. In 1780, retired in consequence of illness. As soon as peace was declared, he was ap- pointed a judge of the supreme court of the state of New York, which honour he decUned. Was chosen United States' senator, which he held from 1793 to 1799- In 1801, he was chosen vice- president, which teiTTi expired in 1805. On the 10th of July, 1804, he killed, in a duel, general A. Hamilton, who had been ambassador from the United States to France. This unfortunate occurrence put an end to his official career, and in fact drove him from his country. He then engaged in the celebrated Burr's expedition destined to Mexico, was arrested, tried for high-treason, and acquitted at Richmond in 1807- He soon after left the country, but returned in 1811, and re-commenced his profes- sion as counsellor-at-law. Died at the Richmond House, Mesereau's Ferry, Staten Island, October, 1836, aged 80. BURROUGH Chapel, Somerset- shire, was standing 900. BURROW, Sir James, law writer, born 1701, died 1782. BURTON, Robert, author of the Anatomy of Melancholy, born Dec. 8, 1576. BURTON Abbey, Staflfordshire, built, 1040. BURWELL, in Cambridgeshire, had a barn with 160 persons in it, to see a puppet-show, set fire to, when all, ex- cept six, were burnt, Sep. 8, 1727. BUT 171 BUT BURY, in Lancashire, its playhouse, containing upwards of 300 persons, fell down during the performance, and bu- ried the audience under its ruins. Five persons were killed on the spot, and many had their limbs broken, July 1, 1787. BURY CASTLE, SuflFolk, built 1020. BUSBY, Rev. Dr. R., master of West- minster school, born 1606, died 1695. BUSBY, Dr., author of " Lucretius," &c., died April 28, 1838. BUSCH, John G., a German political economist, born 1728, died 1800. BUSHES of evergreen, such as ivy, cypress, &c., were anciently signs where wine was sold. Hence the proverb, " Good wine needs no bush." BUTCHERS COMPANY, London, incorporated 1604 ; hall burnt down, 1829 ; rebuilt, 1833. BUTLER, Charles, king's counsel, and voluminous writer, born 1750, edu- cated at the Roman Catholic academy at Hammersmith, and at the English col- lege at Douay. First appeared before the public in 1773, in an anonymous es- say on " Houses of Industry." His next publication was an essay on the le- gality of impressing seamen, 1778. In 1797, he printed his "Horae Biblicae," in 1804, his "Horse Juridicse Subsecivae. He died June 2, 1832, aged 82. BUTLER, Samuel, author of Hudi- bras, born 1612. The first part of Hu- dibras was published in 1663, in 8vo., and afterwards came out the second part, and both were printed together, with se- veral additions and annotations. The third and last part was published some time after, and a complete edition of the whole was printed under the author's inspection in 1678. He died in poverty in 1680. A monument, raised by private sub- scriptions, was erected to his memory in Westminster-abbey, on which are in- scribed the following lines : — " A few plain men, to pomp and pride unknown. O'er a poor bard have raised tliis humble stone. Whose wants alone his genius could surpass. Victim of zeal ! the matchless Hudibras I "What ! tho' fair freedom suffered in his page 1 Reader ! forgive the author — for the age — How few, alas ! disdain to cringe and cant, When 'tis the mode to play the sycophant ! But oh ! let all be taught from Butler's fate Who hope to make their fortune by the great. That wit and pride are always dangerous things And little faith is due to courts and kings." Mr. Granger observes, that Butler stands withoutarival in burlesque poetry. " His Hudibras," says he, " is in its kind almost as great an effort of genius as the Paradise Lost itself. It abounds with uncommon learning, new rhymes, and original thoughts. Its images are truly and naturally ridiculous. There are many strokes of temporary satire, and some characters and allusions which cannot be discovered at this distance of time." BUTLER, Bishop, born 1692, died 1752. BUTLEY PRIORY built l77l. BUTTER. According to Beckmann, butter was not used either by the Greeks or Romans in cooking, or the preparation of food, nor was it brought upon their tables by way of dessert, as is every where customary at present. We never find it mentioned by Galen and others as a food, though they have spoken of it as applicable to other purposes. No notice is taken of it by Apicius, nor is there any thing said of it in that respect by the authors who treat of agriculture, though they have given us very particu- lar information with respect to milk, cheese, and oil. This, as has been re- marked by others, may be easily account- ed for, by the ancients having accustom- ed themselves to the use of good oil ; and, in the like manner, butter is very little employed at present in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and the southern parts of France. Considerable quantities of but- ter are made in Ireland, and it forms a prominent article in the exports of that country. The production and consumption of butter in Great Britain is very great. In the metropolis it may be averaged at about one half pound per week for each individual, being at the rate of 261bs. a year ; and, supposing the population to amount to 1,450,000, the total annual consumption would, on this hypothesis be, 37,700,000lbs., or 16,830 tons. To this may be added 4000 tons for vic- tualling ships, &c., making a total of about 21,000 tons. The average pro- duce of each cow in the dairies is 168 lbs. per annum. It has, therefore, been estimated that it requires 280,000 cows to produce an adequate supply for the London markets. The total quantity (in hundred weights) of butter imported into Great Britain from foreign countries and Ireland in each year, from the 5th of January, 1801, to the 5th of January, 1832, was as follows : — BYR 172 BYR Quantity of Butter imported i Years. into Great Britain from Ireland. Total from all parts, except Ireland. Cwt. Cwt. 1801 186,821 115,130 1802 254,248 93,018 1803 246,388 104,120 1804 196,037 126,734 1805 242,441 96,843 1806 261,911 85,657 1807 314,386 87,346 1808 312,408 79,590 1809 317,676 76.283 1810 311,551 33,244 1811 353,791 2,810 1812 311,475 25,894 1813 351,832 Records were destroyed by fire. 1814 315,421 115,798 1815 320,655 125,300 1816 280,586 64,143 1817 305,662 20,690 1818 352,538 83,694 1819 429,614 66,050 1820 457,730 68,557 1821 413,088 115,827 1822 377,651 118,420 1823 466,834 122,331 1824 431,174 160,654 1825 425,670 279,418 1826 No account 196,200 1827 received. 211,141 1828 201,673 1829 148,164 1830 108,854 1831 123,670 1832 : 131,202 BUTTONS covered mth, and button- holes of cloth prohibited by law, 1721. BYE LAWS of corporations restrain- ed, 1534; regulated by Municipal Re- form Act, 1836. BYLAND ABBEY, Yorkshire, built, 1134. BYNG, admiral, misbehaved off Mi- norca, May 20, 1756; brought prisoner to Greenwich, August 9, 1756 ; tried at Portsmouth, and condemned, January 28, 1757; shot at Portsmouth, onboard the Monarch ship of war, March 14, 1757. BYRNE, William, an English en- graver, born 1743, died Sept. 24, 1805. BYRON, Lord, tried for murder and acquitted, April 16, 1765. BYRON, George Gordon Noel Lord, born at London in 1788, and suc- ceeded to the title and estates of Wil- liam, the 5th Lord Byron, at the early age of ten years. His lordship's mother died in 1811. Lord Byron spent some of the first years of his life in Aberdeen- shire. His frame, which was delicate, was invigorated by the keen air of that mountainous district, and in 1798, he was sent to Harrow School. He became a student at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1804. While enthusiastically attached to classical pursuits, he caught all the inspiration to be derived from the poets and historians of Greece and of Rome. In 1807, he took up his residence at Newstead Abbey, and in about a year afterwards, embarked at Falmouth for Lisbon, and travelled in Spain, Portu- BYR 173 By z gal, and his beloved Greece. In 1811, he published the "Giaour," the "Bride ofAbydos," and the "Corsair." Jan. 2, 1815, he married at Seham, in the county of Durham, the only daughter of Sir Ralph Milbanke Noel, but shortly after a separation took place, and he suddenly left the kingdom, with the re- solution never to return. During his travels while at Rome, he completed his "Childe Harold," thelast canto of which was published in 1818. His lordship proceeded to Greece, to take part in the cause of freedom there : the chivalrous ardour with which he had engaged in the cause, manifested itself even on his death-bed. " He began," says Count Gamba, (who attended him in his expedition) " to talk wildly, as if he was mounting a breach in an assault. He called out half in English, half in Italian, ' Forward ! forward ! Courage ! Follow my example!— don't be afraid !' &c. At another time, on recovering his faculties, he spoke of Greece, saying, * I have given her my time, my means, my health, and now I give her my life — what could I do more.' " The immediate cause of his lordship's death was inflamatory rheumatic fever, supervening on a previous attack of ill- ness, brought on by perturbation of mind, and from which he had only partially recovered. Refusing to be bled, the dis- order made a rapid progress, and in ten days he was no more. His lordship's decease took place at Missolonghi, April 19, 1824. The remains of this illustrious noble- man were conveyed to England, and de- posited in the church ol Hucknal Tor- card, in Nottinghamshire, about four miles from Newstead Abbey, where an elegant Grecian tablet of white marble, is erected to his memory. It bears the following inscription : — " In the vault beneath, where many of the ancestors of his mother are buried, lie the remains of George Gordon Noel Byron, Lord Byron of Rochdale, in the county of Lancaster, the author of ' Childe Harold's Pilgrim- age.' He was born in London, on the 22nd January, 1788 ; he died at Misso- longhi, m Western Greece, on the 19th of April, 1824, engaged in the glorious attempt to restore that country to her ancient freedom. His sister, the Hon- ourable Augusta Maria Leigh, placed this tablet to his memory," The following is a list of his principal works, not already mentioned : — The Prisoner of Chillon, a drama ; Manfred, a dramatic poem ; and the lament of Tasso, 1817; Beppo> a Venetian Story; 1818; Mazeppa; Don Juan; Marino Faliero, the Doge of Venice, an historical tragedy ; Sardanapalus, a tragedy ; the Two Foscari; and Cain, a Mystery, about 1819. The last works of his lord- ship were, Werner, a tragedy ; Heaven and Earth, a Mystery ; and the De- formed Transformed. In 1823, he was invited to Missolonghi, by the heroic Marco Botzari, who fell soon after. BYSHAM Abbey, Berks, built 1338. BYZANTINE Historians. The whole of the Byzantine series (36 volumes in folio,) was published at Paris, 1 643, from the royal press of the Louvre, with some collateral aid from Rome and Leipsic ; the Venetian edition was pub- lished 1729 ; though cheaper and more copious it is inferior in correctness as well as magnificence to that of Paris. The merits of the French editions are various ; but the value of Anna Com- nena, Cinnamus, Villehardouin, &c., is enhanced by the historical notes of Charles du Fresne du Cange. His sup- plemental works, the Greek Glossary, the Constantinoplis Christiana, the Fa- miliae Byzantinse, diffuse a steady light over the darkness of the Lower Empire. (Gibbon.) BYZANTIUM, an ancient city of Thrace, situated on the Bosphorus, now known by the name of Constantinople. According to Diodorus Siculus, this city was founded about a.c. 1263. Byzantium underwent many revolu- tions, and frequently changed masters, having been sometimes in the posses- sion of the Persians, sometimes of the Lacedaemonians, and also of the Athe- nians, who took it about the year A.c. 407. It was attacked by Philip of Ma- cedon, a.c. 339, and reduced to the form of a Roman province, a.d. 71- In 194, this city, being invested by Severus, the inhabitants defended them- selves with the greatest resolution. In 323, it was taken from Licinius by Con- stantine the Great, who enlarged and beautified it. The removal of the im- perial seat from Rome to Constantinople, happened in the year 330, the 25th of Constantine's reign, and 1128 after the foundation ot Rome. CAB 174 CAB c. CABINET Council first instituted, April 25, 1670. CABLES, a method of making them, invented 1792, by which 20 men were en- abled to do the work of 200. The machine is set in motion by 16 horses, for the cable is of the dimensions of the largest ship. Chain cables were invented in the I7th century, and gradually introduced in the navy. About the year 1838, an improved French cable was invented consisting of a combination of the hempen with the chain cables ; it has been introduced into the French navy, with some success ; the chain cable bemg affixed to the anchor in the usual way, in length from twenty- five to forty fathoms. The object of this arrangement, is to allow the chain to drag along the bottom of the sea, and prevent abrasion to the hempen cable. Thus, it is supposed, that greater elasticity is pro- duced than can be obtained by a chain cable alone, and the durability of the hempen cable is prolonged. The cable also being lighter ^nd more manageable, is more favorably adapted for the evolu- tions of the ship, either in casting or weighing anchor, likewise for kedging : the advantages of lightness are evident ; and there are other recommendations besides cheapness. CABOOL or Cabul, kingdom of, central Asia, comprising a large part of Afghanistan. The Afghans, are a robust hardy race ; originally lived in the moun- tains between Persia, Hindoostan, and Bactria. In 997, Cabool was invaded by Sebuctaghi, the first sovereign of the Ghizni dynasty. The whole was finally subdued by Sultan Mahmood about 1008. Cabool attracted attention in 1809, when the French projected the invasion of Hindostan through the Afghan do- minions, to counteract which, Mr. El- phinstone was sent to Peshawer, by the Bengal government, and concluded arrangements which completely neu- tralized the projected expedition. In 1826, Cabool was partitioned amongst the sons of the late Vizier Futteh Khan, who were always at variance. 1838. The Chief of Cabool, Dost Ma- homed Khan joined the Persians in their attack upon Herat, and advised that the troops of Persia and Cabool should march upon the Indus. The ruler of Herat, Shah Soojah, having defeated the Shah of Persia, attempted the re- covery of the crown of Cabool which he had lost. In consequence, a treaty was concluded between the British and Sikh government on the one part, and Shah Soojah, the dethroned sovereign of Ca- bool, on the other, to restore this prince to his rightful power. The British troops entered Afghanistan as auxiliaries of the legitimate king of Cabool, at the close of the year. 1839. In July, the British army which marched from Candahar, in four divi- sions, on May 27, 28, and 29, and June 3, was concentrated at Nanee, 12 miles from Ghizny. At two o'clock on the morning of the 23rd, the troops under the command of Sir J. Keane, com- menced an attack on the citadel of Ghizny, (one of the strongest places in Asia,) defended by a garrison of 3,500 men, and commanded by a son of the ex-king of Cabool. At 3 o'clock, the gates were blown in by the artillery, and under cover of a heavy fire, the infantry forced their way into the place, and suc- ceeded at five o'clock in fixing the Brit- ish colours on the tower of the citadel. Five hundred of the garrison were killed, and the remainder, with their command- er, made prisoners. The loss on the English side was 191, killed and wound- ed. When the news of this event reached Cabool, Dost Mahomed sallied forth with 13,000 men, but was shortly deserted by the greater part of his army, and com- pelled to fly with only 300 men, abandon- ing his artillery, ammunition, baggage, &c. Shah Soojah was consequently res- tored to the sovereignty of Cabool. CABOT, Sebastian, the first disco- verer of the continent of America, born at Bristol in 1477. He sailed in 1497, and discovered Newfoundland, and afterwards the coast, as far as Cape Florida. In 1552, he laid proposals before the king for a dis- covery of the north-east passage to China and the Indies, which produced the first voyage the English made to Russia, and the beginning of that commercewhich has ever since been carried on between the CAE 175 CAF two nations. Tbe Russian company was also founded, of which he was appointed governor. He was the first who took notice of the variation of the compass. He died about 1557. CABRIOLETS, Hack, the first in- troduced into London, and 50 started, 1823 and 1824. CADE, Jack, the rebel, killed by Alexander Iden, 1451. CADIZ. The origin of the city, is re- ferred, by tradition, to the Phoenicians, who are said to have settled a colony there, giving it the name of Gadir, which the Romans changed into Gades. This city was taken and pillaged in 1596, by the English, under the earl of Essex, and the lord-high admiral Howard ; was attempted again in 1626, by lord Wim- bledon, who was sent hither with a fleet of eighty ships; again in 1702, by the duke of Ormond, and sir George Rooke. Cadiz was bombarded by the English, in 1800, and it was from its bay that Villeneuve sailed in 1805, to fight the battle of Trafalgar. In 1808, the French fleet here surrendered to the Spaniards ; and in 1809, Cadiz became the seat, first of the central Junta, and afterwards of the Cortes. It was blockaded by the French, from February 6, 1810, to Aug. 25, 1812, and not released until sifter the battle of Salamanca. The French occu- pied it after a short siege, in 1823. 1829. Cadiz was made a free port,- that is, a port where goods may be con- sumed and bonded, without paying duty. This afforded opportunity for smuggling. The government having seen this effect of the franchise, it was withdrawn on December 22, 1832. CADMUS, founder of Thebes, intro- duced letters into Greece a.c. 1493. CADOUDAL, George, the French royalist, guillotined, 1804. CAEN, in Normandy, is of very great antiquity ; it is known to have been a place of note in the time of William the Conqueror, who chose it for his favorite residence, and who lies buried in the Abbaye aux Honames. Edward III. of England, in advancing to fight the battle of Cressy, in 1346, took it after a des- parate resistance. Caen was taken by the English in 1417, and continued in their hands until 1448, when it was re- taken by Charles VII. of France. Ad- miral de Coligni took it for the Protest- ants, in 1562. It was occupied by the Prussians in 1815. CAERLAVERVE Castle, Scotland, built 1638. CAERNARVON, North Wales, ori- ginally erected by Edward I., in 1282, and completed in a year. In 1283, Ed- ward I. constructed a strong castle, where his son Edward II., the first prince of Wales, was bom. In 1294, the town and castle were suprised by the Welsh, and many Englishmen slain. Long af- terwards, it participated in the civil wars of Charles I , and was twice captured and retaken before his death. CAERNARVON, second earl of, born bom June 3, 1772, died April 16, 1833. CiESALPINUS, And., the first sys- tematic writer on botany, born 1519, died 1603. C^iSAR. See Julius C^sar. CJESAR, Sir Julius, the antiquary, bom 1557, died 1636. CJSSAREA Stratonis, built after twelve years' labour by Augustus Caesar, a.c. 7 ; afterwards enlarged by Herod the Great. In this city, Peter was the means of converting Cornelius and his kinsmen to Christianity. Here Paul de- fended himself against the Jews and their orator TertuUus ; seethe Book of Acts. Dr. Clarke, who visited the ruins of Cae- sarea, thus expresses his feelings on be- holding it : " But as we viewed the ruins of this memorable city, every other cir- cumstance respecting its history was ab- sorbed in the consideration, that we were actually beholding the very spot where the scholar of Tarsus, after two years' imprisonment, made that eloquent ap- peal, in the audience of the king of Judea, which must ever be remembered with piety and dehght." The city is now in utter desolation. CiESARIAN Section, first perform- ed in midwifery, on living persons, in the sixteenth century. CAFFA or KAFFA, (ancient Theo- dosia), town in the Crimea, formerly a rich and populous place. It was plun- dered by the English in 1346; and cap- tured by the Turks, 1475. The Tartars called it Little Constantinople, but from the period of its capture by the Turks, it began to decline. In 1783, it was ceded to Russia, and the empress called it Feodocia, from its ancient name of The- odosia. CAFFRARIA, a name adopted by the Portuguese, from the Arabs, who called all the African continent south from Sofala (their most southerly settlement^ CAI 17 o CAL the land of Cafirs, (Infidels). Caffraria was at first applied, in the I7th cen- tury, to the whole width of the conti- nent, but the name is now restricted to the territory on the north-east border of the Cape Colony. See Cape of Good Hope. CAGLIARI, called Paul Veronese, an Italian historic painter, born 1532, died 1588. CAGNOLA, Marquis Luigi, one of the most eminent Italian architects, of the present age. Besides various other structures executed by him, the Arch of Siinplon, one of the noblest and most clussical pieces of architecture Italy can boast of, will remain an enduring monu- ment of his ability and taste. At the time of his death, he was occupied in erecting for himself, a villa of extraordi- nary beauty and splendour. He died August 18, 1833, aged 74. CAILLE, Nicholas Louis de la, an eminent mathematician and philoso- pher, born at Rumigny, in the diocese of Rheims, in 1713. In 1739, he was con- joined with M. deThury, son of M. Cas- sini, in verifying the meridian of the royal observatory, through the whole ex- tent of the kingdom of France. In 1741, he was admitted into the Royal Academy of Sciences. Besides many excellent pa- pers of his, dispersed up and down in their Memoirs, M. dela Caille published Elements of Geometry, Mechanics, Op- tics, and Astronomy. He also compiled a volume of astronomical ephemerides from the year 1745 to 1755; another from the year 1755 to 1765; a third from the year 1765 to 1775; an excel- lent work, entitled Astronomise Fun- damenta, novissimis Soils et Stellarum observationibus stabilita, and the most correct solar tables that ever appeared. On November 21, 1750, he sailed for the Cape of Good Hope, to observe the southern stars, and arrived there on April 19, 1751. During his residence there, he observed more than 10,000 stars; and made important observations on the parallax of the Moon, Mars, Ve- nus, and the Sun. He returned to Paris 1754, where he settled the results of the comparison of his own with the observa- tions of other astronomers, for the par- allaxes. He was elected a member of the Royal Society of London ; of the Institute of Bologna; of the Imperial Academy of Petersburgh ; and of the Royal Academies at Berlin, Stockholm, and Gottingen. He died March21, 1762 CAILLET, M., a young Frenchman, arrived at Toulon, on his return from Africa, October 2, 1828, having pene- trated to Timbuctoo. CAIN born, a.c. 4003. CAINAN born, a. c. 3679, died a. c. 2769. CAIRO, Grand, founded by the Saracens, 969, nearly destroyed by an earthquake, and 40,000 inhabitants lost, June 2, 1754; taken by the French 1798; there was an insurrection there, the same year; recovered by the French, 1800, who were expelled by the British, 1801; restored to the Turks, 1803. CAISSAR, in Turkey, ruined by an earthquake, when 6,000 persons were killed, April, 1794. CAIUS, or Kaye, John, an anti- quary, born 1510, died 1573. CAIUS C^sAR went as general to the Armenian war, a.c. 2; his interview with Tiberius, a. d. 1. CAIUS L^Lius, the Roman orator, flourished 196. CAIUS Marius, imprisoned Metellus 119. CAIUS Martius RuTiLius, the first dictator at Rome, 356. CALABRIA, a country of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, divided into Calabria Ultra, and Calabria Citra, or Farther and Hither Calabria. It has been in all ages convulsed and desolated by earthquakes. Those in 1783 were the most ruinous in their effects. The re- iterated shocks extended from Cape Spartivento to Amantea above the Gulf of St. Eufemia, and also affected that part of Sicily, which lies opposite to the southern extremity of Italy. In 1832, on March 8, an earthquake was felt in the Calabrias ; the centre of which ap- peared to be in that part of the second Calabria Ultra, where Calanzaro, the chief town, is situated. The shock lasted about eleven seconds, and took place in a direction south east and north west. The commune of Cutro was reduced to a heap of ruins. The number of the dead was said to exceed sixty. On Nov. 12, 1835, a strong .shock was felt in Ca- labria Citra. Castiglioni, a commune in the district of Cosenza, was levelled to the ground, and 100, out of a population of 1,000, met an untimely death. The vil- lages of Bovello, Leppano, Rende, and Casole, all sviffered severely. CALAFAT abandoned by the Turks, CAL 177 and occupied by the Russians under general Geismar, Oct., 1828. CALAIS. In the twelfth century it was but a village, belonging to the counts of Bologne, but was afterwards forfeited ; taken by the English army, under Ed- ward III., 1347, continued in the pos- session of the English until 1558, when it was taken by surprise by the duke of Guise. It has since frequently changed masters, and was bombarded by Sir Cloudesly Shovel, in 1694 and 1696, but without receiving much damage. At the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty, in 1814, Louis XVIII. landed here, and a monument is erected on the spot to com- memorate the event. CAL AMY, Edvp-ard, born 1600, ejected from his living 1662, died 1666. CALAMY, Edmund, son of the pre- ceding, and an eminent nonconformist divine and writer, born at London, April 5, 1671. In 1694, he was ordained at Mr. Annesly's meeting-house, in Little St. Helens, London, In 1702, chosen to be one of the lecturers in Salters'Hall; and in 1703, succeeded Mr. Vincent Al- sop, as pastor of a large congregation in "Westminster. He drew up the table of contents to Mr. Baxter's History of his Life and Times, which was sent to him in 1696 ; to which he added an account of other ejected ministers; an apology for themselves and adherents ; and a con- tinuation of their history to the year 1691- In 1728, appeared his further continua- tion of the account of the ministers, lec- turers, masters, and fellows of colleges, and schoolmasters, who were ejected, after the restoration in I66O, by or be- fore the act of uniformity. He died, June 3, 1732, regretted not only by the dissenters, but also by the moderate members of the established church, both cler^ and laity, with many of whom he lived in great intimacy. CALATRAVA, order of knighthood instituted in Spain, 1158. CALCUTTA, founded on the site of a small village, 907. The English first obtained permission to settle in this place in 1690. In 1717, it was still little more than a village, appertaining to the district of Nuddea, the houses of which were scattered about in clusters of ten and twelve each, inhabited principally by husbandmen. In 1742, a ditch was dug round a considerable portion of the town, to prevent the incursions of the Mahrattas ; at that time there were CAL about seventy houses in the town belong'- ing to the English. 1 756. Calcutta was taken by the na- bob Surajah Dowla, who marched against it with 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants. In the evening of June 20, the English prisoners, to the number of 146, were about eight o'clock crammed together in the Black Hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, in. a close sultry night, in Bengal, shut up to the east and south, the only quarter from whence air could reach them, by dead walls, and by a wall and door to the north. They had been but a few minutes confined before every one fell into a per- spiration so profuse, that no idea can be formed of it. This brought on a raging thirst, which increased in proportion as the body was drained of its moisture. Before nine o'clock every man's thirst grew intolerable, and respiration diffi- cult. Before eleven o'clock, one-third of the whole number were dead. When the day broke, the Soubah, who had received an account of the havoc death had made among them, sent one of his officers to inquire if the chief survived, Mr. Hoi well was shown to him, and near six in the morning an order came for their release. Thus they had re- mained in this prison from eight at night until six in the morning, when the poor remains of 146 souls, being only 23, came out alive ; but most of them in a high putrid fever. The place was re- taken by Admiral Watson and Colonel Clive, early in 1757 ; Surajah Dowla was defeated, deposed, and put to death, and the triumph completed at the battle of Plassey, after which Fort William was built. The Asiatic society planned by Sir William Jones, was formed here into a regular institution January 15, 1784. In 1825, there were three daily, two three-day papers, besides one published weekly, and four native newspapers, two in the Persian and two in the Bengalese languages. The principal merchants and traders of Calcutta consist of the following classes, viz., British and other Europeans, Portuguese born in India, Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Persians from the coast of the Persian gulf, commonly called Persees, Moguls, Mohammedans of Hindostan, and Hindoos ; the latter usually either of the Brahminical or mer- cantile castes, and natives of Bengal. In 1813, the total number of adult male 2a CAL 178 CAL British subjects, in the Bengal provinces (the great majority being in Calcutta,) engaged in trade or agriculture, was 1,225; in 1830, it was 1,707. 1829. December 26, great confusion prevailed among the trading classes at Calcutta, in consequence of the discovery of a series of forgeries practised by some of the natives, to the amount, as esti- mated, of £180,000. In 1836, very great improvement was effected in the do- mestic economy of our Indian empire, and of Calcutta in particular, by the abolition of the duties on the transit of goods from one part of the country to another. The new customs law was enacted in May. GALDER Priory, Cumberland, built in 1134- CALDERONE, Spanish dramatist, flourished about 1640. CALEDONIA, Ancient, compre- hended all the country lying to the north of the rivers Forth and Clyde ; or, as others state its boundaries, from the wall of Severus, connecting the east coast near Tinemouth with the Solway Frith, at Boulness, on the west coast to the northern shore. As early as the reign of Constantine, the inhabitants of Caledonia were divided between the two great tribes of the Scots and of the Picts ; the former possessing the western, and the latter the eastern division of that country. CALEDONIA, New, discovered by Captain Cook, 1774. CALEDONIA East Indiaman, ac- cidentally burnt. May 29, 1804. CALEDONIAN Canal, the greatest tmdertaking of the sort attempted in the British empire. It stretches S.W. and N. E. across the island from a point near Inverness to another near Fort William. It is chiefly formed by Loch Ness, Loch Oich, and Loch Lochy. The total length of the canal, including the lakes, is 58 1 miles; but the excavated part is only 2I5 miles. At the summit it is 96 1 feet above the level of the Wes- tern Ocean. It has been constructed upon a very grand scale, being 20 feet deep, 50 feet wide at bottom, and 122 at top; the locks are 20 feet deep, 172 long, and 40 broad. Frigates of 32 guns, and merchant ships of 1,000 tons bur- den may pass through it. This canal was opened in 1822, having been executed entirely at the expense of government. The cost has been £986,924 ; it promises to be a very un-. profitable speculation. During the yeaf 1829, the total revenue of the canal, arising from tonnage dues and all other sources, amounted to only £2,5/5 6s. 4d., while the ordinary expenditure, du- ring the same year, amounted to £4,573 Os. Igd. The twenty-eighth report states that during the year, from May 1, 1831, to May 1, 1832, the number of passen- gers were 1,246, of which 325 only were through the canal, viz., 143 from west to east sea, and 182 from east to west sea; 143 passengers were made on part of the line by steam vessels, and the re- maining 778 passengers were by ordi- nary vessels, likewise on parts of the canal. The amount of tonnage rates col- lected in this period was £2029 18s.; in addition to which a further sum of £289 5s. 7d. was received by the commis- sioners for rents, and from the sale of decayed vessels. The expenditure for the year amounted to £3,742 5s. 7d., showing a balance of expenditure over income to the amount of £1,423 2s. CALENDAR, received its name from calendse, a word which among the Ro- mans denoted the first days of every month, and was written in large charac- ters at the head of each month. The calendar varies in diflferent countries, according to the different forms of the year, and distributions of time ; as the Jewish, the Roman, the Julian, the Gregorian, &c. The Jewish calendar was fixed by Rabbi Hillel, about 360, from and after which the days of their year may be reduced to those of the Julian calendar. The Roman Calendar, which has in great part been adopted by almost all nations, is stated to have been intro- duced by Romulus, the founder of the city. He divided the year into ten months only; Mars, Aprilis, Maius, Junius, Quintilis, (afterwards called Julius,) Sextilis, (afterwards called Au- gustus) September, October, Novem- ber, December. Mars, Maius, Quin- tilis, and October contained 31 days, and each of the six other months 30 days ; so that the ten months comprised 304 days. The year of Romulus was, there- fore, of 50 days less duration than the lunar year, and of 61 days less than the solar year ; and its commencement of course did not correspond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius corrected this ca- CAL 179 CAL lendar a.c. 709, by adding two months, Januarius, and Februarius, which he placed before Mars. JuUus Caesar, a.c. 46, being desirous to render the calendar still more correct, consulted the astronomers of his time, who fixed the solar year at 365 days, 6 hours, comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another. The six hours were set aside, and, at the end of four years, forming a day, the fourth year was made to con- sist of 366 days. The day thus added was called intercalary, and was added to the month of February, by doubling the 24th of that month, or, according to their way of reckoning, the 6th of the calends of March. Hence the year was called bissextile. This almost perfect arrangement, which was denominated the Julian style, prevailed generally through the christian world till the time of Pope Gregory XIII. The Gregorian Calendar, a. d. 1582. The calendar of Julius Caesar was defective in this particular, that the solar year, consisting of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes, and not of 365 days, 6 hours, as was supposed' in the time of Julius Caesar, there was a dif- ference between the apparent year and the real year of eleven minutes. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII., had amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox falling on the 11th, in- stead of the 21st of March, at which period it fell correctly at the time of the council of Nice, in the year 325. To obviate this inconvenience, Gregory or- dained, in 1582, that the 15th October should be counted instead of the 5th for the future ; and to prevent the recur- rence of this error, it was further deter- mined that the year beginning a century should not be bissextile, with the excep- tion of that beginning each fourth cen- tury. Thus, 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so, but the year 2000 will be bissextile. In this manner three days are retrenched in four hundred years, because the lapse of the eleven minutes makes three days in about that period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as pos- sible to correspond with the true solar year, and future errors of chronology are avoided. The adoption of this change, which is called the Gregorian or New Style, (the Julian being called the old style,) was for some time resisted by states not under the authority of the see of Rome. The change of the style in England was established by an act of parliament passed in 1752. It was then enacted that the year should commence on the 1st of January, instead of March, 25; and that in the year 1752, the days should be numbered as usual until Sept. 2, when the day following- should be accounted the 14th September, omit- ting eleven days. The Gregorian prin- ciple of dropping one day in every hundredth year, except the fourth hun- dredth, was also enacted. The altera- tion was for a long time opposed by the prejudices of individuals ; and even now, with some persons, the old style is so pertinaciously adhered to, that rents are made payable on the old quarter- days, instead of the new. The Russians still retain the old style, thus creating an inconvenience in their public and commercial intercourse with other nations, which we trust that the growing intelligence of the people will eventually correct. French Calendar. During the period in which France was a republic, the authorities introduced an entire change in the calendar, which was in existence more than twelve years ; and is important to be noticed, as all the pubhc acts of the French nation were dated according to this altered style. The National Convention, by a decree of the 5th October, 1793, estabhshed a new era, which was called, in the place of the Christian era, the era of the French. The commencement of each year, or the first " Vendimiaire," was fixed at the midnight commencing the day on which the autumnal equinox fell, as determined at the observatory at Paris. This era commenced on Septem- ber 22, 1792, being the epoch of the foundation of the Repubhc ; but its es- tablishment was not decreed till the 4th " Frimaire," of the year II., (November 24, 1793.) Two days afterwards, the public acts were thus dated. This ca- lendar existed till the 10th "Nivose," year XIV., (Dec. 31, 1805,) when the Gregorian mode of computation was re- stored. CALENDS, Calends, in the Ro- man chronology, denoted the first days in each month. The Romans reckoned their calends backwards, or in a retro- grade order; thus, the 1st of May, for CAL 180 CAL instance, being the calends of May, the last, or 30th of April, was the pridie calendarum, of end of the calends of May ; in like manner the 29th of April was the 3id of the calends of May, and so on back to the 13th, when the ides commenced ; which were likewise numbered backwards to the 5th, when the nones began ; and these were likewise reckoned backwards in the same manner to the 1st day of the month, which was the calends of April. To find the day of the calends answering to any day of the month, the nile is as follows : — Subtract two from the date, and subtract the re- mainder from the number of days the month contains ; this last remainder will be the number of or before the calends. CALIBER instrument invented at Nuremhurg, 1540. CALICO first imported by the East India Company, 1631. Printing, and the Dutch loom engine first used in JEngland, 1676. Prohibited from being printed or worn, 1700 — 21. First made in Lan- cashire, 1772. See Cotton. CALICUT, an ancient Hindoo king- dom, ceded to the British in 1792. From this port the first vessel was freighted with Indian produce and manufactures for England, by Vasco de Gama, in 1498. CALIFORNIA. This peninsula was probably first discovered by Sir Francis Drake, 1577, and by him called New Albion. The Jesuits made their first establishment here in 1742. CALIGULA, Caius C^sar, the fourth Roman emperor, began his reign in 37- After having murdered many of his subjects with his own hand, and caused others to be put to death without any just cause, he was assassinated by a tribune of the people as he came out of the amphitheatre 41, in the 29th year of his age, and the fourth of his reign. CALIPPUS, cycle of, commenced A.c. 330. CALLIMACHUS, the inventor of the Corinthian order of architecture, flou- rished A.c 540. CALLIMACHUS, the author of " Greek Hymns and Epigrams," flou- rished A.c. 300. CALLIMACHUS, the inventor of wildfire, died ad. 670. CALLISTHENES, the philosopher, flourished A.c. 333. CALMAR, union of, between Den- mark, Sweden, and Norway, 1 397 ; the league dissolved, 1448. The town was nearly annihilated by a fire in 1800; the public buildings, including the maga- zine, academy, and 200 houses, were totally destroyed. CALMET, Augustine, the cele- brated commentator on the Bible, born at Mesnil le Horgne, a village in the diocese of Toul, in France, in the year 1672, and took the habit of the Bene- dictines in 1688. In 1704 he settled as sub-prior in the abbey of Munster, in Alsace. After a long course of literary labour, he died, highly esteemed, in 1757. Among the many works he pub- lished are, — 1. A Literal Exposition in French, of all the' books in the Old Tes- tament, in nine volumes folio. 2. An Historical, Critical, Chronological, Geo- graphical, and Literal Dictionary of the Bible, in four volumes folio, enriched with a great number of figures of Jewish antiquities. 3. A Civil and Ecclesiasti- cal History of Lorraine, three volumes folio. 4. A History of the Old and New Testament, and of the Jews, in two vo- lumes folio, and seven volumes duode- cimo. 5. An Universal Sacred and Pro- fane History, in several volumes, quarto. A new and valuable edition of his Dic- tionary, with considerable retrench- ments and additions, and a new set of plates, under the direction of Mr. C. Taylor, appeared in London in 1797, &c. CaLMUCS, a people and country of central Asia. Piior to the time of Genghis Khan a part of this people made an expedition towards the west, as far as Asia Minor, and being lost amongst the CaucasianMountains, never returned. In the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies the Soongar Calmucs subdued the other tribes, and made a desperate war upon the Chinese ; but this ter- minated in the dispersion and ruin of the whole tribe. In 1759, about 2,000 families of the Choschot tribe settled on the banks of the Wolga, and submitted voluntarily to the Russian monarch. CALONNE, Charles Alexandre DE, minister to Louis XVI., died Octo- ber 30, 1802, aged 68. CALORIC Engine, by which, the heat required to give motion to the en- gine at the commencement of its opera- tion is returned, and made to act over and over again ; by which application of heat an almost unlimited quantity of mechanical power may be obtained ; in- vented, 1833. CAM CALPEE, or Kalpee, town, Hin- doostan, in the province of Agra. In 1203 the Mahommedans overran this country; and in this district occurred the first engagement between the British and Mahrattas in 1765. The Calpee chief having joined the enemies of the British in 1804, his fort and territory at Calpee were immediately occupied by the latter, but were subsequently restored to him, with the exception of the fort of Calpee. In 1806 he exchanged the whole of his chieftainships with the Bri- tish for an equivalent in Bundelcund. CALSHOT Castle, Hampshire, built in 1540. CALTHORPE Street (Cold Bath Fields) riot, 1833. CALVI, in Corsica, surrendered to the British forces, after a siege of fifty- nine days, AugustlO, 1794. CALVIN, John, the eminent refor- mer, and founder of the sect since called Calvinists, was born at Noyon, in Pi- card}', in 1509. The persecution against the protestants in France (with whom he was now associated) obliged him to re- tire to Basle, in Switzerland, where he published his famous " Institutes of the Christian Religion," in 1535. In 1537 he obliged all the people solemnly to ewear to a body of doctrines which he had framed. He arrived at Geneva, September 13, 1541, and established a form cf ecclesiastical discipline, and a consistorial jurisdiction. He died May 27, 1564, in the 55th year of his age. Although he had his failings, which were chiefly those of a dogmatical and irritable temper, the general and just opinion of him is, that he was "a man whose extensive genius, flowing elo- quence, immense learning, extraordinary penetration, indefatigable industry, and fervent piety, placed him at the head of all the reformers." All his treatises were collected in 1560, in nine volumes folio. CALVINISM originally subsisted in its greatest purity in the city of Geneva, and, from thence, it was first propagated into Germany, France, the United Pro- vinces, and England. In France it was abolished by the revocation of the edict of Nantz in 1685. It has been the pre- vailing religion in the United Provinces ever since the year 1571- CAMBODIA, a country of India be- yond the Ganges, extending from Cape St. James in the China sea, to near the 181 CAM same parallel in the Gulf of Siam. In 1590, the king of Cambodia sent a mis- sion to the governor of the Phillippines, begging his assistance against the king of Siam. This country is now divided into three parts : one tributary to Siam, another to Cochin Chma, and a third independent. In 1819, the king of Cochin China interdicted to foreigners all direct commerce with his poYtion of Cambodia. Shortly after this, the Ame- ricans despatched some vessels to make their way up the Douay River, which falls into a bay close to Cape St. Jacques, and is a branch of the great river Cam- bodia. One of these, named the Frank- lin, was commanded by Captain White, who published a history of this voyage in the year 1823. Captain White describes the natives as being in a state of deplor- able barbarism, but their country is little known. CAMBRAY, town of France, in the early ages, successively the capital of the kingdom of the Nervii, of Belgic Gaul, and of the kingdom of the Franks. Since the sixteenth century it has been the see of an archbishop, and is celebrated as the residence of Fenelon, the author of Telemachus, who once filled that dignity. See Fenelon. Cambray is memorable in history as the scene of various important negotia- tions, and, as a frontier town of consi- derable strength, was subjected to nu- merous sieges. Near it are the remains of a Roman entrenchment, to which the French retired after their reverses in 1793. On April 23, 1794, they received a check at the same place by the allied army under the late duke of York. It was taken by the English, under general Sir Charles Colville, June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was occupied by Louis XVII I. and his court from Ghent. CAM BRICKS from France prohibited, 1745; totally, 1758; re-admitted, 1786. CAMBRIDGE, esteemed the site of the Roman Granta, in the year 1010, was burnt and plundered by the Danes, Henry I., in 1101, made it a corporation on payment to the exchequer of 100 marks annually. In 1174, nearly the whole of the town was consumed by a fire " so merciless," says Fuller, " that it only stopt for want of fuel to feed its fury." Richard the Second, summoned a parliament here in 1383. In 1630, it was visited by a dreadful plague, which CAM 182 CAM occasioned the business of the University to be suspended. The town was first paved in the reign of Henry VIII., who, in his 36th year, about 1544, caused it to be enacted by Parhament, that all per- sons who had any houses, lands, &c., in Cambridge, bordering on the highways, should pave them to the middle of the said ways. In 1787, an act passed "for the better paving, cleansing, and lighting the town, and widening the streets, lanes, and other passages." Many improve- ments in each of these respects have since been eflfected. See the next ATtlClG CAMBRIDGE, University of, first rendered a seat of learning by Sigebert, king of East Angba, who instituted a school for the instruction of youth in the year 631. Edward the Elder, erected halls for the teachers. In 1534, the university renounced the supremacy of the Pope, and, in 1535, resigned all its statutes, charters, and muniments to the king, who, soon after restored them and reinstated the university in its pri- vileges. James I. granted the university the privilege of sending two members to parliament in 1604. In consequence of the part taken by the university in favour of Charles I. against the parliament, every member who refused the covenant was expelled, most of whom were rein- stated at the Restoration. The thirteen colleges of Cambridge are, 1. St. Peter's, founded in 1257. 2. Corpus Christi, established in 1344. 3. Gonville, or Caius college, founded in 1348. 4. King's college, founded by Henry IV. in 1441, the chapel of which is considered one of the most beautiful specimens of architecture in the king- dom. 5. Queen's college, founded in 1448. 6. Jesus college, founded in 1 495. 7. Christ's college, founded in 1505. 8. St. John's, founded in 1509. 9. Mag- dalen, founded in 1519- 10. Trinity college, the richest and most extensive of the whole, founded in 1546. 11. Ema- nuel college, established in 1584. 12. Sus- sex college, founded in 1598. 13. Dow- ning college, of recent erection, pursuant to the will of Sir George Downing, in 1749 ; the first stone was laid in 1807, and, in 1821, the students were first ad- mitted ; the expense of the buildings is estimated at £60,000. Chancellors since the Revolution. — Charles Seymour, duke of Somerset, installed in 1688. Thomas Holies Pel- ham, duke of Newcastle, 1748. Augus- tus Fitzroy, duke of Grafton, 1768. Duke of Gloucester, June 29, 1811. Marquis Camden, 1834. July 4, the usual ceremonies commenced on the in- stallation of the Marquis Camden as chancellor. A great many distinguished individuals were present ; among others. Prince Pozzo di Borgo, the Dukes of Cumberland, Wellington, and Grafton, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Lords Lyndhurst, Abinger, &c. &c. CAMBRIDGE, University of. New England, projected in 1630. CAMBRIDGE CASTLE,built 1068. CAMBYSES, king of Persia, over- ran Egypt, A. c. 525. CAMDEN, William, the celebrated antiquarian and historian, born in Lon- don, 1551. Entered as serAdtor of Mag- dalen college, Oxford, in 1566. About two years after, he removed to Christ- Church. In 1571, came to London, where he prosecuted his favourite study of antiquity, and was made second mas- ter of Westminster-school in 1575. From the time of his leaving the university to this period, he took several journeys to different parts of England, to make ob- servations and collect materials for his Britannia, the first edition of which he pubhshed in 1586. In 1593, he suc- ceeded Dr. Grant in the head-mastership of Westminster- school. In this oflSce he continued till 1597, when he was promoted to be Clarencieux knight-at- arms. In I6l7, his work on the history of the reign of Queen Elizabeth was finished. He died at Chislehurst in 1623, in the 73rd year of his age. CAMDEN, Earl, chancellor of Eng- land, died in 1794. CAMELEON, revenue cutter, was run down, in the day-time, off Dover, by the Castor frigate, and only five persons were saved out of nineteen on board the cutter. The officers of the frigate were brought before a court-martial, and the lieutenant of the watch was sentenced to be dismissed his Majesty's service, Au- gust 27, 1834. CAMERA Obscura. The first in- vention ascribed to Baptista Porta. See his Magia Naturalis, lib. xvii. cap 6., first published at Frankfort about the year 1589, or 1591. The first four books of his work were published at Antwerp, in 1560. But Dr. Freind, in his " His- tory of Physic*' (vol ii. p. 236), observes, that Friar Bacon, who flourished in tlie CAM 183 CAM beginning of the thirteenth century, de- scribes the camera obscura, and all sorts of glasses which magnify or diminish any object, bring it nearer to the eye, or re- move it farther off. Various improve- ments, particularly by the introduction of a double convex lens, were made in the year 1758 ; noticed by Mr. Hooper, in his " Rational Recreations," vol.ii. p. 29. CAMERA LuciDA, invented by Dr. Hook, in the eighteenth century, for making the image of any thing appear on a wall in a light room, either by day or night. 1839. A Report was received from the academy at Paris, January 7, on a new invention of M. Daguerre, by which the pictures of the camera lucida are rendered permanent. See Da- GUERRETYPE. CAMERON, Mary, a remarkable instance of longevity, died at Inverness, May 1783, aged 130. CAMERONIANS, a sect in Scotland, who separated from the presbyterians in 1666, took their denomination from Ri- chard Cameron, a famous field preacher, who refusing to accept the indulgence to tender consciences granted by king Charles II., made a defection from his brethren, and even headed a rebellion, in which he was killed. The Camero- nians adhered rigidly to the form of go- vernment established in 1648. CAMERONIANS, also the denomi- nation of a party of Calvinists in France, who asserted that the cause of men's doing good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which God infuses into them. They had this name from John Cameron, one of the most famous divines amongst the protestants of France, born about the year 1580. CAMILLUS, the Roman dictator and general, took Veil a.c. 396 ; forced the Volsci to surrender, a.c. 386 ; defeated the Gauls in Albania, a.c. 367; died, A.c. 365. CAMOENS, Lewis de, a Portu- guese poet, author of the " Lusiad," was descended of an ancient family of Gali- cia, in Spain, under the name Caamans, but changed to Camoens in 1370, when a branch of the family left Spain and at- tached itself to the king of Portugal. Camoens, the poet, sprang from a young- er branch of this family, which had been unfortunate, his father having suffered shipwreck at Goa, with the loss bf his whole property. He was born, some say, in 1517 ; or, according to others, in 1526. Disgusted with an inactive life, he went to sea in 1553. During a resi- dence of five years at Macao, he finished his " Lusiad," which he had begun some years before in Portugal. He arrived in Lisbon in 1569, after an absence of six- teen years, and published his " Lusiad" in 1572. This poem, which caijie to a second edition in the same year, was de- dicated to king Sebastian, who, it is said, allowed him a small pension of 4,000 reals, on condition of his living at court. He died in poverty in 1579. Some years afterwards a respectable monument was erected over his remains, at the expense of a Portuguese nobleman. His memory was honoured by numerous eulogies from the poets of Spain and Portugal, and the name of Camoens is still pronounced with enthusiastic venera- tion by all the votaries of Portuguese literature. CAMPBELL, Dr. John, an mgeni- ous writer, born at Edinburgh in 1708. He was engaged as chief contributor to the " Biographia Britannica," the pub- lication of which commenced in 1745. Also to the " Modern Universal His- tory," to which he contributed the his- tories of the Portuguese, Dutch, Spa- nish, French, Swedish, Danish, and Os- tend settlements in the East Indies ; and the histories of the kingdoms of Spain, Portugal, Algarve, Navarre, and that of France, from Clovis, to the year 1656. He was appointed, in 1765, his majes- ty's agent for the province of Georgia, in North America, which employment he held till his decease, which happened December 28, 1775, aged 68. CAMPBELL, George, an eminent metaphysician, divine, and biblical cri- tic, born at Aberdeen, December 25, 1719. In 1759 he was presented by his majesty to the office of principal of Ma- rischal college. In 1763 he published his celebrated "Dissertation on Mira- cles," in answer to Mr. Hume's essay on this subject, and thus deservedly gained the reputation of a most acute metaphysician, and a well-bred polemi- cal writer. He died March 31, 1796. His character is thus summed up in a few sentences by his biographer, Mr. Keith. " His imagination was lively and fertile, his understanding equally acute and vigorous, and his eruditioa was at once very deep and wonderfully diversified. His piety was unfeigned. CAN 184 C A N his moral* unimpeached, his temper cheerful, and his manners gentle and unassuming.'' His different publica- tions, besides the Dissertation on Mira- cles, are as follows. In 1771, sermon on the Spirit of the Gospel. 1776, Phi- losophy of Rhetoric. 1776, a sermon on the National Fast. 1777. sermon on the success of the first publishers of the Gospel. 1779, an address to the people of Scotland on the alarms which had been raised by the bill in favour of the Roman Catholics. His last work was his "Translation of the Four Gospels, with preliminary Dissertations and ex- planatory Notes," in two quarto volumes. CAMPERNILE of St. Mano at Ve- nice, built 1134. CAMPO FoRMio, treaty of, October 17, 1797, between France and Austria, the latter power yielding the Low Coun- tries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena, to the Cisalpine republic. CANAAN cursed by Noah, a. c. 2341. CANADA, discovery of the coast of, according to the most authentic state- ments, was made by the Cabots; who, having visited Newfoundland in 1497, coasted the continent of North America as far north as latitude 67° 50'. John Verrazani, a Frenchman, took possession of it in the name of his sovereign, Fran- cis I., about 1520, and called it la Nou- velle France. In 1540, Cartier succeed- ed in forming a settlement at St. Croix's harbour. After his death it was neglected, till Henry IV. of France ordered it to be divided into seigniories and fiefs, to be held under feudal tenure, and a com- pensation for military service when re- quired. Such was the origin of the Ca- nadian seigneurs. In 1576, Martin Fro- bisher discovered Elizabeth's Foreland, and the Straits which bear his name. In 1578 Frobisher again sailed for the Ame- rican continent, with fifteen ships, in search of gold, to the ruin of many ad- venturers, who received nothing but mica, instead of gold ore. Quebec, the capital of the future New France, was founded January 3, 1608. The Indian tribes contiguous to the new settlement obtained the aid of the French; Champ- ain taught them the use of firearms, and hence began the ruinous wars which have ended in the nearly total extermina- tion of the Indians of the North Ameri- can continent. 1627. The commerce of Canada was transferred to a powerful association, called the Company of a Hundred Part- ners, under the special management of the celebrated cardinal Richelieu. In 1628 a squadron of English vessels, un- der the command of David Kertk, a French refugee, visited Tadoussac. Met M. de Roquemont, one of the Hundred Partners, commanding a squadron of vessels -freighted with emigi'ant families, and all kmds of provisions. Roquemont was provoked to a battle, and lost the whole of his fleet, provisions, &c. Kertk afterwards captured Quebec ; but at the peace of 1632 that city, Acadia (Nova Scotia), and Isle Royal (Cape Breton), were all ceded to France. From this pe- riod to the final British conquest in 1760, a growing hostility took place be- tween the French and Enghsh settlers in North America. 1663. The proceedings of the com- pany became so obnoxious that the king of France decided upon erecting Ca- nada into a royal government. The French West India Company was re- modelled, and Canada subsequently added to their possessions, and in I666, the royal arret of the council of state granted to the Canadians the trade in furs. 1674. The king of France resumed his rights to all territories ceded to the West India Company, and appointed a governor, council, and judges, for the direction of the Canadian colonies. The French settlement in Canada ra- pidly progressed, and as it rose in power, and assumed offensive operations on the New England frontier, the jea- lousy of the British colonies was roused, and both parties, aided alternately by the Indians, carried on a destructive and harrassing border warfare. 1690. The French sent a strong force who massacred the greater part of the Indians of Skenectadaj', This had the effect of inducing the Iroquois and other nations to become more closely attached to the English. The French pushed on their outposts by means of the fur tra- ders ; but while preparing to take the field, the news of the treaty of peace be- tween France and England arrived. 1702. The renewal of the war be- tween great Britain and France, led to hostilities in America. Under several French governors, the warfare was con- tinued till the year 1755, when the ad- ministration of the Marquis de Van- CAN 185 CAN dreuil de Cavagnal was auspiciously opened by the defeat of the brave but rash general Braddock, in one of the defiles of the Aleghany mountains. The campaign was closed in October by the British retiring to Albany. ITie cam- paign of 1759, opened with a plan of combined operations by sea and land against Canada, and the capture of Que- bec, decided the fate of the French do- minions in Canada. See Quebec. 1775. The American forces invaded Canada by Lake Champlain, and from the sources of the Kennebec river. Montreal, Chambly, St. John's, Lon- gueuil, and other important posts soon fell into their hands. The Canadians exerted themselves to preserve Canada for England, and with success, the Ame- ricans being obliged to evacuate the pro- vince. From this period (1776) to 1812, Canada remained free from a foreign enemy, and rapidly rose in population and prosperity. 1791. The territory was divided into the two governments of Upper and Lower. The boundary between the provinces commenced at Pointe au Bau- det, on Lake St. Francis, about 55 miles above Montreal, running northerly to the Ottawa river, up that river to its source in Lake Temiscaming, and thence due N. to the Hudson's Bay boundary. Origin of the Canadian War. Since the year 1791, by the 31st Geo. IIL cap 13, each province had a deputy- governor, a legislative council, and a house of assembly. An intelligent Bri- tish traveller, speaking of the house of assembly, says : *' The events of the last war gave ample opportunity for a display of popular feeling in the acts of this assembly. The Canadians have shown, both during the war with Ame- rica, and since its termination, that they have appreciated the value, and imbibed the spirit of the constitution which Bri- tain has bestowed upon them." The house of assembly consisted almost en- tirely of French Canadians. The legis- lative council was composed chiefly of British colonists. Jealousies between the two bodies existed almost from the first ; and they have been repeatedly at open variance. Under the judicious administration of Sir John Sherbrooke, much was done to allay party feeling and remove irritation. Under the go- vernment of the late duke of Richmond differences between the two houses first arose respecting the voting of the supplies. On his death Lord Dalhousie succeeded, who appeared to have had recourse to vigorous measures. The house of assembly having (Nov. 20, 1827,) elected, as a speaker, the notorious agitator Papineau, his lord- ship refused to sanction the appoint- ment, and, on the 22nd, prorogued the assembly. The excitement produced was extreme ; and the late contest may be traced to this event. 1834. Tumults commenced in Lower Canada, Feb. 15, in consequence of the unpopularity of the legislative council, which the home government had de- clined to alter according to the wishes of many of the colonists. Seventy re- solutions were this day proposed in the legislative assembly, strongly condem- natory of the conduct of the governor (Lord Aylmer,) and of the despatches of Mr. Stanley, the language of which was characterised as " insulting and in* considerate." Articles of impeachment against Lord Aylmer were afterwards added to the above ; and a vote to mode- rate their warmth was negatived by a ma- jority of 52 to 19. 1835. Earl Gosford, having been ap- pointed go vernor-in -chief of Canada^ and head of the commission sent out by the British government to investigate, and endeavour to redress, the grie- vances complained of by the Canadians, opened the parliament of Lower Canada Feb. 27, by a speech addressed to the two houses, in which he assured the members of his anxiety and determina- tion to effect, if possible, a satisfactory termination to their differences. 1837. Lord John Russell, March 6, brought forward a series of resolutions respecting Lower Canada, rendered ne- cessary, he said, by the discontented and agitated state of the province, and the refusal of the colonial legislature to vote the supplies of money requisite for carry- ing on the government. One of the resolutions declared it to be unadvisable that the legislative council of Lower Canada should be an elective body. Aug. 18. An extraordinary session of the parliament of Lower Canada was opened by the earl of Gosford, the go- vernor-in-chief. In this speech, allu- sion was made to the resolutions re- specting Canada, which had been passed by the British legislation. The assem- bly was soon after dissolved by lord 2 B CAN 186 CAN Gosford, on account of its refusing to accede to the measures proposed. The law officers having applied to Sir John Colborne, commander of the forces in Lower Canada for a militar)- force to assist the civil power in apprehending Papineau and some of his adherents, hostilities commenced at the close of the month of November by the capture of the villages of St. Denis and St. Charles, where the insurgents had taken up strong positions. Dec. 14, the Ca- nadian insurgents came to an engage- ment with the royalists at Eustace, Lower Canada; were beaten from their entrenchments, and dispersed. The in- surgents next day laid down their arms, their chiefs saving themselves by flight. During the same year, the revolt broke out also in Upper Canada. But the queen's troops were every where suc- cessful, and strong hopes were enter- tained that the insurrection would soon be completely put down. 1838. The insurgents of Upper Ca- nada, under the command of JDr. Mac- kenzie, surrounded Toronto, Jan. 5, but were repulsed from the town by the governor. Sir Francis Head. Procla- mation was issued by the president of the United States of America against the citizens who had taken, or might take, arms in favour of the insurgents of Ca- nada ; and message to the senate on the subject of a revision of laws, to pre- vent the attacks on neighbouring nations by the citizens of the United States. Jan. 16. The Right Hon. John George Earl of Durham was appointed gover- nor-general, &c., of her Majesty's provinces within and adjacent to the continent of North America, and also " High Commissioner for the adjust- ment of certain important affairs affect- ing the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada." His instructions were to as- certain the wishes of the people of both the provinces in regard to some legis- lative measure of a comprehensive nature for the permanent adjustment of the grievances. He was empowered to select three members from the legislative council of Upper Canada, the House of Assembly also to nominate ten of its members, to form a committee. And during the suspension of the legisla- ture, in Lower Canada, to select three members of the body at present com- posing the legislative council, and to take measures for calling on the electors in each of the five districts into which Lower Canada is now divided, to elect the persons to sit on the committee. Feb. 10. The act 1 Victoria, c. 9, passed to make temporary provision for the government of Lower Canada, sus- pends the powers of the present legis- lature of Lower Canada ; and empowers her majesty to appoint a special council for the affairs of Lower Canada ; who are to take the same oath as is now re- quired to be taken by the members of the legislative council and assembly The governor and council may make laws or ordinances for the government of Lower Canada ; but such laws must first be proposed by the governor, and none shall last beyond Nov. I, 1842. This act was amended by 2 and 3 Vic. passed Aug. 17, 1839, which permits the council to impose taxes, but they must be for public works and objects of municipal government, and must not be appropriated by the government. It also repeals the provision prohibiting the alteration of acts of parliament ; but no laws shall be made affecting the tem- poral or spiritual rights of ecclesiastics, or the law of tenure. Oct. 9- Lord Durham issued a docu- ment on the occasion of proclaiming the indemnity act passed during the last session, in which he justified the policy pursued by him since his arrival in Canada, and announced his determi- nation of resigning his government. 1839. The spirit of rebellion again manifested itself in Beauharnais, Lower Canada. Sir John Colborne, in his de- spatch of Nov. 11, says, "The habitans generally, of Beauharraais, La Prairie, and L'Acadie, were in arms on the night of the 23rd ult. and attacked all the loyal subjects residing in their neighbour- hood, and either drove them from their homes or made them prisoners. At Beau- harnais, Chateauquay, and Napierville, the rebels assembled in great numbers ; about 4,000 of them were concentrated at Napierville, under the command of Dr. Robert Nelson, Dr. Cote, and Gug- non, between the 3rd and 6th inst." The governor having despatched some troops to that quarter, the rebels dis- persed ; but collecting again, 900 of them attacked Odel town, but were re- pulsed with some loss by the volunteers stationed there. A detachment of troops was also sent to Beauharnais, and some companies to other disturbed parts. CAN 187 CAN where some skirmishing took place. The loss of the loyalists was not severe but several of the rebels were killed and wounded, and many hundred prisoners were taken by the queen's troops. About the same time, some bands of persons disaflFected to the government, aided by a number of American citizens, having assembled on the borders of Upper Canada, Sir George Arthur issued a proclamation, calling upon the in- habitants to assist him in the steps he had taken to repress their outrages, which was promptly responded to, and the rebels and invaders ultimately sup- pressed. October. Despatches from Canada, announced the total suppression of the rebellion. The insurgents having mus- tered in considerable numbers at Wind- mill Point, near Prescott, in Upper Canada, were attacked by the troops under the command of Major Young, and (on the following day) by lieu- tenant-colonel Dundas, who, after an obstinate resistance, succeeded in dis- persing the rebels, several of whom were killed, and many taken prisoners ; the troops, however, also suffered con- siderably. After the attack of lieu- tenant-colonel Dundas, the remainder of the rebels surrendered. In these en- gagements they were aided by Ameri- cans of the United States, who invaded the Canadian territory in great numbers, and appear to have been the principal instigators of the outrages committed upon the peaceable inhabitants. When the news reached New York, a strongly worded ])roclamation, was however, issued by the president, condemnatory of such actions, and holding out to the invaders no hopes of assistance on the part of their government. In Lower Canada, no further tumults of import- ance occurred, and the rebellion was con- sidered at an end in both the Cana- das. Oct. 18. The arrival at Quebec and in- stallation of the new governor-general, Mr. Poulett Thompson, took place. He issued a proclamation calling on the inhabitants to assist in the preservation of peace and amity. Dec. 20. The union of the two pro- vinces, agreeably to resolutions of the British government, was carried in the legislative council by a majority of seven. CANALS. Navigable canals were known to the ancients. From the most early accounts we read of attempts to cut through large isthmuses, in order to make a communication by water, either betwixt different nations, or distant parts of the same nation. The inhabi- tants of Babj'lon or Chaldsea guarded against the detrimental inundations of the Tigris and Euphrates by a great number of artificial rivers and canals. A large and navigable canal cut from the Euphrates, about Babylon, to the Tigris at Apamea, 60 miles below Seleu- cia, was called Naarmalcha. From the Naarmalcha, the emperors Trajan and Severus, in their wars with the Parthians, dug a new canal to the Tigris, near Coche on the west, and Ctesiphon on the east side of the river. At the distance of 800 furlongs from Babylon, to the south, was another canal, called by Arrian, Pallacotta, derived from the branch of the Euphrates that passed through Babylon, and conveyed water to certain lakes or marches in Chaldaea. On this canal or river, as Arrian calls it, Alexander sailed from the Euphrates to these lakes. Canals of Egypt. Of aU ancient countries, Egypt was the most distin- guished by its numerous canals, which, according to Savary, amounted to 80, several of which are 20, 30, and 40 leagues in length. These served to receive and distribute the waters of the Nile, at the time of its inundation. Most of these are neglected, and, con- sequently, one-half of Egypt deprived of the means of its cultivation. The Alexandrian Cajial was the prin- cipal of these, by which a commu- nication was made between the Nile and the Red Sea. This was beg\m, accord- ing to Herodotus by Necos, the son of Psammitichus. It was resumed and carried on by Darius, son of Hystaspes, who relinquished the work on the re- presentation made to him by unskilful engineers, that the Red Sea being higher than the land of Egypt, would over- whelm and drown the whole country. Ptolemy II. finished the undertaking, and constructed, in the most convenient part of the canal, a dam, or sluice, in- geniously contrived, which opened to give passage, and immediately closed again. Hence the river which dis- charges itself into the sea, near the city of Arsinoe, has received the name of Ptolemy. By means of this canal, about CAN 188 CAN the commencement of the christian era, the valuable commodities of India, Persia, Arabia, and the kingdoms on the coast of Africa, which were brought by shipping to the Red Sea, were con- veyed to the Nile ; and thence distri- buted by the Mediterranean, not only to Greece and Rome, but to all the sur- rounding nations, until the Portuguese discovered a passage to India, by the Cape of Good Hope. This canal was disused, and goods were conveyed from Berenice to the Nile by land, till it was again opened about 635, by Amru, governor or prefect of Egypt under the caliph Omar, for the conveyance of the corn from Egypt to Arabia, which was then grievously distressed by a famine. The Alexandrian Canal was stopped again, at the end next the Red Sea, by the caliph Abu Jaafer, or Almansor, a. h. 150, a.d. 767. Some traces of this canal are still subsisting; and M. Boutier, in 1703, discovered that end of it, which rises out of the most easterly branch of the Nile. This communication after being shut up some centuries, was re-opened in 1 8 1 9, by Ma- hommed Ali, who dug a canal from Alexandria to Fouah, on the Nile, about 27 miles above Rosetta. This important work is 48 miles in length, 90 feet in breadth, and from 15 to 18 feet deep. 100,000 labourers were set to work upon it in January, 1819, who were subse- quently increased to more than double that number. It was completed by European engineers in 1821. In China, canals have existed from a very early period, but the dates of their construction are not known. The most celebrated amongst them is, the Imperial or Grand Canal, forming a communica- tion between Pekin and Canton, said to be about 1,660 miles long. This in- cludes the various rivers which really form the greater part of the navigation, the excavated portion being of compa- ratively limited dimensions. The canal is said not to have, at any time, more than from 5 to 6 feet water ; and in dry seasons, its depth is frequently reduced to 3 feet. The Italians were the first people in modern Europe that attempted to plan and execute canals. They were principally undertaken for the purpose of irrigation j and the works of this sort executed in the Milanese and other parts of Lombardy, in the 11th, 12th, and 13.th centuries, are still regarded as models. In 1271, tbe Navilio Grande, or canal leading from Milan to Abbiate Grasso and the Tcsino, was rendered navigable. The construction of canals in the Netherlands commenced as early as the twelfth century, when, owing to its central and convenient situation, Flan- ders began to be the entrep6t of the commerce between the north and south of Europe. Their number has since been astonishingly increased. The canal from Amsterdam to Nievvdiep, near the Helder, is the greatest work of its kind in Holland, and probably in the world; it is designed to afford a safe and easy passage for large vessels from Amster- dam to the German Ocean. The dis- tance between these extreme points is 41 English miles, but the length of the canal is about 50^. The breadth of the surface of the water is 124^ English feet. The breadth at bottom 36 ; the depth 20 feet 9 inches. This canal was begun in 1819, and finished in 1825. The cost was estimated at about £1,000,000 sterling. The volume of water which it contains is twice as great as that of the New York canal, or the canal of Languedoc, and two and a half times as great as that of the artificial part of the Caledonian canal. The Holstein Canal, in Denmark, joins the river Eyder with Kiel Bay on the north-east coast of Holstein, form- ing a nnavigable communication be- tween the North Sea, a little to the north of Heligoland, and the Baltic ; enabling vessels to pass from the one to the other by a short cut of about 100 miles, instead of the lengthened and dif- ficult voyage round Jutland, and through the Cattegat and the Sound. It is navig- able by vessels of 1 20 tons burden. The total cost of the canal was about 500,000Z. It was opened in 1785. During the five years ending with 1831, no fewer than 2,786 vessels passed each year, at an average through the canal. Swedish Canals. An internal na- vigation connecting the Cattegat and the Baltic, was undertaken about the middle of the last century, by means of the river Gotha, and the lakes Wener, Wetter, &c., from Gottenburgh to So- derkoeping on the Baltic. The Gotha is navigable, through by far the greater part of its course, for vessels of con- siderable burden ; but the navigation at the point called Trcillhaetta is interrupt- ed by a series of cataracts about lli^ CAN 189 CAN feet in height. Polhem, a native engi- neer, undertook the Herculean task of constructing locks in the channel of the river, and rendering it navigable. Owing to the all but insuperable obstacles op- posed to such a plan, the works were wholly swept away. From this period, down to 1793, the undertaking was abandoned ; but in that year the plan was proposed, of cutting a lateral canal through the solid rock, about one mile and a half from the river. This new en- terprise was begun under the auspices of a company incorporated for the pur- pose in 1794, and was successfully com- pleted in 1800. The canal is about three miles in length, and has about six feet and a half of water. It has eight sluices and admits vessels of about 100 tons. In one part it is cut through the solid rock to the depth of 72 feet. The ex- pence was only about 80,000/. The navigation was afterwards extend- ed to Soderkceping. The lake Wener was joined to the lake Wetter by the Gotha canal, and the prolongation of the navi- gation to the Baltic from the Wetter, partly by two canals of equal magnitude with the above, and partly by lakes, is now about completed. The entire un- dertaking is called the Gotha Navigation and deservedly ranks among the very first of the kind in Europe. The canal of Arboga unites the lake Hielmar to the lake Maelar ; and since 1819, a canal has been constructed from the latter to the Baltic at Sodertelge. The canal of Stroemsholm, so called from its passing near the castle of that name, has effect- ed a navigable communication between the province of Dalecarlia and the lake Maelar, &c. The first canal executed in France, was that of Briare, 34^ English miles in length, intended to form a communi- cation between the Seine and Loire. It was commenced in 1605, in the reign of Henry IV., and completed in 1642, un- der his successor, Louis XIII. The canal of Orleans, which joins the above, was commenced in 1675. But the most stupendous undertaking of this sort that has been executed in France, or indeed on the Continent, is the canal of Lan- fuedoc. It was projected under Francis ., begun and completed in the reign of Louis XIV. It reaches from Narbonne to Toulouse ; and was intended to form a communication between the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mediteranean. It is 64 French leagues long, and six feet deep; and has, in all, 114 locks and sluices. In its highest part it is 600 feet above the level of the sea. In some places it is conveyed by bridges of great length and strength, over large rivers. It cost upwards of 1,300,000Z. It .was planned and executed by Riquet the engineer, who advanced a fourth part of the entire sum laid out upon the canal, and had the tolls made over to him. At the revolution, most part of the pro- perty of the canal was confiscated ; but at the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814, such parts of the confiscated pro- perty as had not been sold were restored to the successors of M. Riquet, who have the principal management of the canal. Besides this, France possesses several magnificent canals, such as that of the Cantre, connecting the Loire with the Saone, 72 English miles in length, completed in 1791- St. Quentin, 28 English miles in length, completed in 1810. A canal joining the Rhone to to the Rhine 200 English miles, is in progress. The canal of Burgundy will when completed, be about 150 English miles, in length : but at present it is only navigable to the distance of about 60 miles. It was opened July, 1834. The Prussian States are traversed by the great navigable rivers the Elbe, the Oder and the Vistula; the first having its embouchure in the North Sea, and the others in the Baltic. An internal na- vigation, that should join those great waterways, excited the attention of go- vernment at an early period ; and this object has been successfully accomplish- ed partly by the aid of the secondary rivers falling into the above, and partly by canals. In 1662, the canal of Muhl- rose was undertaken, uniting the Oder and the Spree. Frederick the Great constructed, towards the middle of the last century, the Finnow canal, stretch- ing from the Oder at Oderberg, to the Havel. The communication is continu- ed by the latter and a chain of lakes to Plauen ; from which point a canal has been opened, joining the Elbe near Magdeburg. The Oder is united to the Vistula, partly by the river Netze, and partly by a canal joining that river to the Brahe, which falls into the Vistula, near Bromberg. Russia. The improvement of inland navigation engaged the attention of Peter the Great. The canals projected CAN and hastily executed by him are, that of Cronstadt begun about 1719, that of Ladoga, begun in 1718, that of Vishnei- Voloshok, and that for forming a com- munication between Moscow and the Don. The grand project of uniting the Caspian and the Baltic with the Black Sea, by the junction of the Don and Volga, was planned by Peter the Great. Repeated attempts have been made to carry the latter into execution, but they have hitherto failed. In 1802, a beau- tiful chart was published, exhibiting a view of all the canals in Russia, that have been formed between the White and Black Sea, and between the Baltic and the Caspian. The inland navigation is already carried through such an extent in Russia, that it is possible to convey goods by water 4472 miles from the frontiers of China to Petersburgh, with an interruption only of about 60 miles ; and from Astracan through a tract of 1434 miles. British Canals. No attempt was made, in England, to construct canals, till a comparatively recent period. The efforts were limited to atteroi)ts to deepen the beds of rivers. In 1635, a Mr. Sandys, of Flatbury, Worcestershire, formed a project for rendering the Avon navigable from the Severn, near Tewkes- bury, through the counties of War- wick, Worcester, and Gloucester; but 190 CAN the project was abandoned. An act passed in 1755, for improving the navi- gation of Sankey Brook on the Mersey, gave rise to a lateral canal, which was the earliest effort of the sort in Eng- land. The origin of regular canal na- vigation in England may be traced to the exertions of Mr. James Brindley, an obscure mechanic, whose talents were called into exercise by the patronage of the duke of Bridgewater. About 1757, the duke conceived the idea of a canal for the purpose of co nveying coals from his estates of Worsley in Lancashire, to Salford, near Manchester. Profiting by the advice of Brindley, who was a mill- wright and engine-maker, the duke per- fected and carried into execution, the great and important schemes which he had projected, and for which he obtained the first act of parliament. The principal canals of Great Britain are about one hundred in number, and occupy three thousand miles of naviga- tion in extent ; 30 million sterling being the valuation of the cost. In the various canals there are 48 subterraneous pas- sages, 40 of which have an extent of 32 miles. None of these works, important as they are, were projected prior to 1755. The length, commencement, termina- tion, and time when undertaken of the most important of the British canals, are as follow: — Canals. Aberdare Aberdeenshire . . Ashby-de-la-Zouch Andover Ashton- under -Line, or Manchester & Oldham. Barasley Basingstoke Birmingham Birmingham and Fazeley Brecknock & Abergavenny When begun. Length in miles 1793 1805 n 19 1805 1790 40i 22^ 1797 18 1799 18 1790 1772 37 22^ 1790 1776 I6i 33 Commencement and Termination. From Glamorgan to Aberdare. From Aberdeen Harbour to the river Don. From Coventry canal to Ticknal. From Southampton Water to An- dover. From Rochdale canal to Hudders- field. From Calder River, below Wakefield, to Barnby Bridge. From Wye to Basingstoke. From Birmingham and Sheffield canal to the Birmingham and Fazeley canal. From Coventry canal to Birmingham. From Monmouthshire canal to Brecon canal. CAN 191 CAN Canals. Comicencement and Termination. Bridge water. 1758 40 Bristol and Taunton . . Caldon and Uttoxeter Caledonian Cardiff, or Glamorgan- shire Chester Chesterfield Coventry Cromford Croydon » Derby Dorset and Somerset Dublin and Shannon Dudley and its branches Edinburgh and Glasgow EUesmere and Chester and its branches . . Erewash Fazeley Forth and Clyde, with the Glasgow branch Foss Dyke Glasgow and Saltcoats 1822 1775 1775 1776 1794 1801 1794 1803 1776 1776 1804 1777 1790 1790 1812 41 28 2lf 25 I7i 46 27 18 9i 9 42 65i 13| 50 109 llf 11 37i 11 331; From the tideway of the river Mersey, and forming two divisiona at Longfordbridge, one of which terminates at Manchester, and the other at Pennington, near Leigh. This canal was the first (except the Sankey Canal, for which a statute was passed in 1755, though not begun until 1760,) undertaken in Great Britain ; and its projector, the duke of Bridgewater, to enable him to carry on the stupendous undertaking, limited his personal expenses to £400 a-year. The en- gineer employed was Mr. John Brindley. From Taunton-bridge to the rnoulh of the river Avon. A branch of the Grand Trunk canal. See Cal}sdonian Canal, From a sea-basin in the Severn, near Cardiff, to Merthyr. From Chester to Nantwicb. From Stockwith-on-the-Trent to Chesterfield. A part of the line of canal navigation between London and Liverpool From Langley-on-the-Erewash canal to Cromford. From the Grand Surrey canal to Croydon. From the river Trent to Derby. From the Kennet and Avon canal to the river Stour. From Dublin to Moy-on-the-Shan- non. The various branches of this canal have a navigation of 38 miles, opened 1759. From the Worcester and Birmingham canal. From Edinburgh ; at Falkirk it unites with the Forth and Clyde canal. From the river Trent to Qromford canal. A part of the Liverpool line of canal navigation, uniting the Grand Trunk and Coventry canals. From the tidewater at the junction of the river Carron with the Forth to Glasgow. From Torksey, on the Trent, to the river Witham. CAN 192 CAN Canals. When begun. Length in miles. Commencement and Termination. Glenkenns 1802 27 From Kirkcudbright on the Dee to Dairy. From Berkeley Hill, on the Severn, Gloucester and Hockcrib 1793 20i to Gloucester. Grand Junction, with the 1805 147 From London to Braunston, on the Paddington and six Oxford canal, and forming part of other branches line of canal navigation between London and Liverpool. Grand Surrey 1801 12 From Rotherhithe, on the Thames, to Mitcham. Grand Western, with the Tiverton branch . . 1796 42 From Topsham, at the mouth of the E.X, to Taunton Bridge. Grand Trunk and its 1777 130 A part of the line of the canal naviga- branches tion between London and Liverpool. Grand Union . . 23j From near Foxton, on the Leicester and Northampton Union canal, to the Grand Junction canal. Grantham 1799 33f From the river Trent to Grantham. HasMngden 1793 13 From the Manchester, Bolton, and Bury canal, at Bury, to the Leeds and Liverpool at Church. Hereford and Gloucester 1790 36i From Gloucester to Hereford on the Wye. Huddersfield 1798 19i From Huddersfield to the Manchester, Ashton, Oldham canal. Kennet and Avon 1801 57 From the Avon to the Kennet and Newbury canal. From the Severn to Kingston. Kingston and Leominster 1797 45f^ Lancaster 1799 1^ From Kirby Kendall to Haughton. Leeds and Liverpool 1771 130 From Liverpool to Leeds. Leicester . . 21 From the Loughborough Basin to the Soar. Leicester and Northamp- ton Union 1805 43f From Leicester to Market-Har- borough. From the river Trent to Lough- Loughborough . . 1776 9^ borough. Monmouthshire . . 1796 i7i Montgomeryshire, with the Welchpool branch 1797 30i Neath 1798 14 From the river Neath to the Aber- deen canal. Norwich and LowestoflF 1829 50 Navigation Nottingham 1802 15 From the river Trent to the Crom- ford canal. Oxford 1790 91^ From the Coventry Canal to the river Isis, at Oxford, forming part of the line of canal navigation between Liverpool and London. Peak Forest . . . . 1800 21 From the Manchester, Ashton, and Oldham canal, to Chapel Milton Basin. Portsmouth and Arundel 1815 14^ From the river Avon to the bay con- nected with Portsmouth Harbour. CAN 193 CAN Canals. Regent Rochdale Royal Irish ... Sankey ShornclifFe and Rye, or Royal Military Shrewsbury , Somerset Coal, and its branch Radstock Southampton & Salisbury Staflford and Worcester Swansea, with the Llan- samlet branch . . Thames and Medway. . Thames and Severn . . Warwick and Birming- ham Warwick and Napton. . Wey andArun Junction Wilts and Berks, with the Calne branch . . Worcester and Birming- ham Wyrley and Essington with its four branches When beRUii. Length in miles Commencement and Termination. 1820 9 From Paddington to Limehouse. 1804 31 From the Bridgewater canal to the Calder and Hehble navigation. 68 From Dublin to the river Shannon, 1760 12^ From the Mersey and Irwell naviga- tion to Sutton Heath Mines. 1809 18 From Hythe to the mouth of the Rother. 1797 17i From Shrewsbuiy to the Shropshire canal. 1802 16 From the Kennet and Avon canal to Paulton. 1804 171 From the river Itchin to the river Avon. 1772 464 From the river Severn to the Grand Trunk canal. 1798 204 From Swansea Harbour to Hen Noyadd. 1 800 8i From Gravesend to the river Medway. 1789 30i From the Stroudwater canal to the Thames and Isis canal. 1799 25 From Warwick and Napton canal to Old Birmingham canal. 1799 15 From the Warwick and Birmingham canal to the Oxford canal. 16 From the river Wey to the Arun river navigation. 1801 55 From the Kennet and Avon canal to the Thames and Isis navigation. 1797 29 From the river Severn to the Birming- ham and Fazeley canal. 1796 35f I From the Fazeley canal to the Bir- mingham canal. Various canals have been undertaken in Ireland, of which the Grand Canal and the Royal Canal, are the principal. The Grand Canal begun in 1756, com- mences at Dublin, and stretches in a westerly direction, to the Shannon, with which it unites near Banagher, a distance of 87 statute miles. The total length, with its various branches, is about 156 English miles. It cost above £2,000,000. In 1829, 191,774 tons of commodities were conveyed along the canal to and from Dublin, and about 67,000 passen- gers. The tonnage dues, amounted to £31,345, and the fares to £10,575. In 1831, the produce conveyed by the canal had increased to 237,889 tons, and the tonnage dues to £36,736. The royal canal was undertaken in i789- It stretches westward from Dublin to the Shannon, which it joins at Tormanbury. Its length is about 83 miles ; its highest elevation 322 feet above the level of the sea. It has cost, exclusive of interest on stock, loans, &c., advanced by govern- ment, £1,421,954. The tolls produced in 1831, £12,729 6s. id. The United States are distinguished the most magnificent plans for improving by and extending internal navigation. Be- sides many others, the canal connecting the Hudson with Lake Erie, is 363 mile^ 2 c CAN 194 CAN long, forty feet \vi(5e at the surface, 28 feet wide at the bottom, and four feet deep. The locks, eighty-one in number, exclusive of guard locks, are ninety feet long, and fourteen feet wide, the average lift of each being eight and a quarter feet. The rise and fall along the entire line is 661 feet. This great work was opened October 8, 1823, but was not finally completed till 1825. It cost nearly £1,800,000 sterling. Besides Erie Canal, the state of New York has com- pleted Champlain canal, stretching from the Hudson, near Albany, to the lake of that name, and two smaller ones ; the Champlain canal is 63 miles in length, the Oswego 38, and the Cayuga and Seneca, 20 miles in length. A great number of other canals have been completed in different parts of the Union, and many new ones are now in progress. Canada. The British governmenthas expended a very large sum upon the Ri- deau River and Canal, stretching from Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to the Ot- tawa, or Grand River. CANARY Isles, a cluster of islands in the Atlantic, considered as belonging to Africa, the most easterly being about 150 miles from Cape Non. They are 13 in number, seven of which are considerable, namely Palma, Ferro, Go- mera, Teneriffe, Grand Canary, Fuerte- ventura, and Lancerota. They were supposed to be known to the ancients. J uba 11,, king of Mauritania, described them first with some degree of accuracy. Pliny followed his description of the is- lands, but nothing more was known till between 1316 and 1334, when the Spani- ards, pressed by the Moors, discovered and conquered these islands; and they are laid down with accuracy in the old map which Andreas Branco published in Venice, 1436. They were afterwards abandoned to the Portuguese. In 1478, the SpaniaVds undertook again the con- quest of the Canaries. At the end of the fifteenth century they had subdued the original inhabitants entirely, and they extirpated them at a later period. The island Lancerota has three volcanos which, in 1823, experienced violent erup- tions. CANDAHAR, a frontier city in India beyond the Ganges, which, when the Mogul and Persian empires flourished, was the scene of many sanguinary strug- gles. In 1638, it was betrayed into the hands of the emperor Jehangir, by AU Merdan Khan, the Persian governor. The Afghan chiefs took possession of it on the decline of the two great rival em- pires, and held it until 1737, when it was taken by Nadir Shah, after a siege of 18 months. After the assassi- nation of Nadir, it fell into the power of Ahmed Shad Abdalla, who rebuilt it; it then became the capital of the Dur- rany empire, till his death, when the city and province became subject to the Afghan chief of Cabool. It was from hence the British army was concentrated in the late Indian war, 1839. See Ca- bool. CANDAULES, king of Lydia, flou- rished A. c. 735, assassinated a. c. 718. CANDIA, the ancient Crete, island in the Mediterranean, The earliest part of the history of this island is involved in fable ; yet it appears certain that the Cretans had made considerable progress in civilization at an early period. Before the time of the Trojan war, little is known of this people. Crete received its name from Cres, its first monarch. He was author of several useful inventions Among his successors Rhadamanthus and Minos are the most celebrated ; the former as their first lawgiver, who laid the foundation of their civil government; and the latter for having raised a most admirable superstructure many ages after. After theTrojan war, the monarchical go- vernment in Crete was exchanged for a republic, about a. c. 1184. This island was anciently celebrated for having 100 cities ; but of these 40 only are men- tioned by Ptolemy a. c. 493, St. Paul introduced the christian faith here, a.d. 62. This island was purchased by the Ve- netians in 1104, and by them called Can- dia, as was also the chief city of the is- land ; the Candian war waged between the Venetians and Turks commencing about 1644, was one of the most san- guinary recorded in history. On Sep- tember 27, 1669, the protracted conflict ended, and Candia was resigned to infidel misrule. In this war of twenty-five years, 30,985 christians, and 118,754 Turks had been killed or wounded, 56 assaults had been made upon the city of Candia, by the Turks, 96 sallies by the christians; 472 mines were spnmg by the former, 1 173 by the latter; 509,692 cannons were discharged by the fortress, and 1 80,000 cwt. of lead con- CAN 195 ■CAN sumed in musket balls by the christians. In 1715, the Venetians being finally ex- pelled, Candia became a Turkish mous- selimhk. Under the Ottoman govern- ment, the commerce of this beautiful and productive island dwindled totally away. In 1821, the Candiotes favoured the Greek insurrection. In 1823, the island was occupied by the Greek fleet, and beat off the Turks, but lost 2000 people in the conflict. CANDIAC, John Jennes, an extra- ordinary child of precocious intellect, who knew his letters at thirteen months old, and at seven years of age, was master of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew j died 1725, aged seven years. CANDLE. Some kind of light similar to candles, was of very ancient construc- tion. The candles in use among the Ro- mans, were at first little strings dipt in pitch, or surrounded with wax ; though afterwards they made them of the papyrus, covered likewise with wax ; and some- times also of rushes, by stripping off the outer rind, and only retaining the pith. Candles were first used in christian churches, in 274. Tallow candles came into government use in 1290. From the very great utility of candles, they early became the object of adulteration ; hence it is provided by various acts of parlia- ment, that all adulterated candles shall be forfeited, and several other important statutes have passed for the regulation of the manufacture of candles. By the act 1 and 2 William IV., c 19, 1831, all duties on candles were repealed, and the makers are put on the same foot- ing as melters of tallow. Until the above act, candles were, for a length- ened period, subject to an excise duty ; and their consumption was, in conse- quence, pretty exactly ascertained. — The following is an account of the num- ber of lbs. weight of tallow, wax, and spermaceti candles, and the total annual nett revenue derived from candles, in Great Britain, from 1820 to 1829; since which time it has not been ascertained. Years. TaUow. Wax. Spermaceti. Net Revenue, lbs. lbs. lbs. £ S. d. 1820 88,352,461 692,705 193,463 373,455 14 5 1821 93.816,346 697,196 165,647 395,911 8 7 1822 98,311,801 682,241 179,208 415,609 15 3 1823 102,461,879 694,194 180,401 433,537 15 8 1824 109,810,900 759,751 179,454 466,042 16 1 1825 114,187,550 851,370 208,377 485,014 8 9 1826 110,102,643 705,615 201,790 467,069 12 1 1827 114,939,578 713,655 226,277 487,318 3 4 1828 117,342,157 748,293 270,263 497,770 2 9 1829 115,156,808 746,052 303,683 489,059 1 9 CANDLEMAS. A feast of the church held on the second of February, in me- mory of the purification of the Virgin Mary. It takes its name from the prac- tice of the Romish church, who, on that day, consecrate all the tapers and candles which they use in their churches during the whole of the year. This ceremony was prohibited in England, by an order of council in 1548. CANDY, kingdom formerly occupy- ing the central and mountainous part of the island of Ceylon. The king of Candy, dying in 1798, a war broke out in 1803, which was carried on with va- rious succeitt for upwards of two years, during which a whole British detachment was massacred or imprisoned. In 1815, the Candians appealed to the British for protection. The king fled from his capital and throne, and was defeated and made prisoner, by general Brownrigg, Feb. 18, deposed and the sovereignty vested in Great Britain, March 2. See Ceylon. CANEA, the second town in the island of Candia, resisted the Turks for fifty days in the year 1645, and capitulated at last upon honourable and advantageous terms. It was occupied by the Greeks in the late war, 1823. See Candia. It suffered dreadfully from a storm in 1833 CANICULAR Days, or Dog-days, a certain number of days before and after the heliacal rising of Canicula, or the dog-star, in the morning. Accoirding to CAN 196 CAN our almanacs, they extend from July 3, to AufTust 11. CANICULAR Year, the Egyptian and Ethiopian natural year, which ex- tended from one heliacal rising of Cani- cula to the next. It consisted ordinarily of 365 days, and every fourth year of 366 ; so that, like the Julian, it was ac- commodated to the civil year. CANN^, a small town of Apulia on the Adriatic, situated at the mouth of the river Anfidus, now in ruins. It is remarkable for tlie battle fought in its vicinity between Hannibal and the Ro- mans in the second Punic war. This great engagement, which nearly annihi- lated the power of Rome, and which, in that case, would have totally altered the destinies of the world, was fought a.u.c. 536, A.c. 216. The carnage was dread- ful, the number of Romans killed and taken at the battle was estimated at 45,000. CANNING, THE Right Honoura- ble George, born in London April 11, 1770. Tiie future prime minister was placed at Eton, where, while yet a boy, he exhibited considerable indications of genius, and contributed several papers to "The Microcosm," the first number of which was published in 1786. He entered at Christ Church, Oxford, Oc- tober 1787, where the fame of his early talents had prepared for him a wel- come. 1793. Mr. Canning came into par- liament as member for Newport, in the Isle of Wight, which was vacated by Sir R. Worsley for that purpose. The first occasion on which he was induced to rise was on the debate respecting the treaty with the king of Sardinia, which took place January 31, 1794, the point in dispute being whether parliament should agree to assign to the king of Sardinia a sum of £200,000 a year, on condition of his keeping on foot, for the defence of his own territories, a force of 50,000 men. In 1796, Mr. Canning was appointed one of the under secretaries of state for the foreign department, under Lord Grenville, and continued in office until the retirement of Mr. Pitt in 1801. On the anniversary of Mr. Pitt's birth- day. May 29, 1802, Mr. Canning pro- duced the song, "The Pilot that wea- thered the Storm." He was appointed treasurer of the navy, which situation he held until the death of Mr. Pitt in 1806, after which he went into opposition: About this time he fought a duel, upon a dispute arising out of the conduct of the Walcheren expedition, with Lord Castlereagh; at six o'clock in the morn- ing of September 21, 1809, the parties met near the Telegraph on Putney Heath. Mr. Canning stood four times for the representation of Liverpool, and was each time elected, but never without strong opposition. The third election, of 1818^ was distinguished by an extraordinary quantity of electioneering manoeuvres. The last election of 1820, was less warmly contested, his chief opponent being a gentleman of the name of Crompton, who succeeded only in oIj- taining 345 votes. In 1818, he came into office as president of the board of control ; but left England, and aban- doned his place, in prefererKie to taking part in the proceedings against queen Caroline. Subsequently, in 1822, he v/as named governor of India, and was on the point of again quitting the coun- try, having actually taken leave of his constituents at Liverpool, for the pur- pose of proceeding to Bengal. At that very moment, however, the death of the marquis of Londonderry suddenly open- ed the situation of secretary of foreign affairs to him. This appointment took place in the early part of 1827- After a hfe of toil he died August 8, 1827, in the fifty-eighth year of his age, and was interred in Westminster Abbey, on the 16th. His funeral was private, though awaited in the abbey by a numerous- body of friends. " In private life Mr. Canning was unostentatious, and accessible to the humblest individual. No man was ever farther removed from presumption or vanity. He loved simplicity, and was gentle and affable to those about him. He was exquisitely sensitive ; but on no occasion was the smallest unkindness ever wantonly inflicted by him upon others. As a domestic man his conduct was exemplary in all its relations. In most things he seemed to partake of the character of his eloquence; open and manly, conscious of power, and conse- quently, simple and unpresuming. The eloquence of Mr. Canning was of a high order, singularly elaborate and correct for one of his poetical tem^rament. It was a stream of pure and ^adulterated English, flowing copiously with classic elegance, seldom assisted by flights of Can ^ 197 CAN passionate declamation, and never de- names were given to cannon; Louis XIl graded by meanness of phraseology or in 1503, had twelve brass cannon cast metaphor; the happiness of his expres- of an extraordinary size, called after the sion, and easy flow of his language ir- twelve peers of France. The Spaniards resistibly fixed the stranger's attention, and Portuguese named theirs after their And though the tongue of the scholar, saints. The emperor Charles V., when the orator, and the statesman, is dumb he went against Tunis, had twelve can- for ever, England will inscribe his name non founded, which he called the twelve among the list of lofty intellects that apostles. At Milan there is a seventy adorn the pages of her history." pounder called the Pimontelli; and there 1833. In the square adjoining St. is one at Bois-le-duc called the Devil. Margaret's church, and facing New Pa- At Dover castle there is a sixty pounder lace Yard, a colossal statue was erected called Queen Elizabeth's pocket-pistol, by subscription to the memory of this There is an eighty pounder in the tower statesman. It is placed on a granite of London, brought thither from Edin- pedestal bearing the inscription — burgh castle, called Mounts-meg. About George Canning. the beginning of the 15th century, these This statue was designed and executed uncommon names were mostly laid aside, by Mr. Westmacott. and the following among other more CANNING, Captain Hon., (son of general ones adopted, the late prime minister,) in command of Pounders. Cwt. his majesty's ship Alligator, off Madeira, Cannon royal or carthoun . . 48 about 90 drowned while bathing in a reservoir, Bastardcannon or | carthoun 36 .... 70 September 25, 1828, Half carthoun 24 60 CANNON. The first were made of Whole culverins 18 .... 50 bars of iron, hooped together with strong Demi-culverins 9 .... 30 iron rings; and were employed in throw- Falcon 6 .... 25 ing stones and metal of several hundred ( Largest size 8 .... 15 weight. The ancient inhabitants of Eu- Saker ■< Ordinary 6 .... 15 rope and Asia had their cannoe, or fiery ' Lowest sort 5 .... 13 tubes, which being charged with pitch. Basilisk 48 .... 85 stones, and iron balls, were exploded Aspic 2 . . . . 7 with a vehement noise and smoke, and Dragon 6 .... 12 produced great effect. According to Syren 60 .... 81 Isaac Vossius, a kind of cannon were Falconer 3,2&1 . . 15, 10&5 used in China by the emperor Kitey, as Rabinet 1 early as 85. Some sort of artillery was Moyene 10 or 1 2 ounces, used by the Moors in Spain in 1312, At present, cannon take their names but it is the general opinion that what is from the weights of the balls, which properly termed cannon, were not used they respectively discharge : ship-guns, till 1336 or 1338. Cannons were cer- consisting of 42, 36, 24, 18, 12, 9, 6, tainly used by the English at the battle and 3 pounders ; garrison-guns, con- of Cressy, in 1346, at the siege of sisting of 42, 32, 24, 18, 9, and 6 Calais in 1347, by the Venetians at pounders ; battering-guns, consisting of Chioggia in 1366, and in their wars with 24, 18, and 12 pounders, and sometimes, the Genoese in 1379 and 1380. The though but seldom, of 42 pounders ; Turks employed them at the sieges of field-pieces, consisting of 12, 9, 6, 3, 2, Constantinople, in 1394 and 1453. When li, 1, and f pounders. The dimensions first introduced they were for the most of ship-guns were settled by the Board part very heavy and unwieldy, and threw of Ordnance in 1753. The dimensions, balls of an enormous size. They were, &c., of all other sorts of brass and iron however, owing to their frequent burst- cannon were established by the Board of ing, about as dangerous to those using Ordnance in 1764, as also those of brass them as to their opponents. Larrey as- howitzers, which may be regarded as a serts that brass cannon were not known sort of short cannon. Those of mortars, in England before 1535, that none of also a kind of short cannon of large iron were cast here before 1547, and that bores, with chambers, and made either the invention of brass cannon is due to of brass or iron, were also estabhshed J. Owen. by the Board of Ordnance in 1764. Formerly, strange and uncommon About 1838, was introduced an im- CAN 198 CAN Provement in cannon-locks. The per- cussion prineiple has been adapted to the locks of great guns by Commander Henderson, R. N., by a method at once simple and effective. The apparatus consists of two square pieces of iron, a common fowling-piece nipple, and an iron cap to cover the nipple. The two pieces of iron are made just large enough to cover the groove about the touch- hole, and are connected with each other in the form of a hinge. One of these is fastened to the gun, by means of a screw, to the left of the touch-hole, and has an iron cap fastened to it in the same manner. The other piece of iron has the nipple screwed on its centre, and, of course, communicates with the touch- hole of the gun when folded down. The gun being loaded, the cartridge pricked, and tube introduced, a common copper cap (such as is used for fowling-pieces) is put upon it ; the iron cap is then brought over the copper one, when a tap with a wooden mallet never fails to ignite it, and discharge the gun. When fired, the plate of iron, with the nipple, is thrown back upon the other, thereby exposing the touch-hole, and giving room for the vent to be closed by the thumb in the usual manner. It is not the least of its advantages that the ship's armourer can fit the gun of a first-rate in this manner in a few days, and it does not interfere with the present equipment, as percussion, or other locks, may be used at the option of the commanding oflicer, 1840. At the Royal Arsenal at Wool- wich, the machines are among the largest in the kingdom. Friday, June 5, an extraordinary casting of brass can- non took place at the latter founder)\ The quantity of metal was 16 tons, and the cannon cast consisted of 10 24 pounders and two 12 pounders. At 11 o'clock the vent of the furnace was open- ed and the melted metal poured into the the moulds. The casting turned out excellent, and the guns were nearly all perfect, which is not generally the case. The crowd of visiters was immense both on the day of casting, and on the follow- ing Monday and Tuesday, when the guns were removed from the moulds. CANNON-BALL, found in the ruins of Berwick-castle, weighed 961b8., and measured 30 inches in circumference, April, 1811. CANON, one who possesses a pre^^ bend or revenue, in a cathedral or col- legiate church. The common opinion attributes the institution of this order to Chrodegangus, bishop of Metz, about the middle of the eighth century. Ori- ginally canons were inferior ecclesiastics, who lived in community ; residing by the cathedral church to assist the bishop ; depending entirely on his will. They inherited his moveables till 817, when his was prohibited by the council of Aix-la-Chapelle, and a new rule substi- tuted in the place of that which had been appointed by Chrodegangus, and which was observed, for the most part in the west, till the twelfth century. In the tenth century there were communities, or congregations of the same kind, established even in cities where there were no bishops : these were called col- legiates. CANON, a law or rule, either of doc- trine or discipline. Canons are decisions of matters of religion ; or regulations of the polity and discipline of a church, made by councils either general, na- tional, or provincial. See Council. There have been various collections of the canons of the eastern councils ; but four principal ones, each ampler than the preceding, llie first, according to Usher, 380, containing only those of the first oecumenical council, and the first provincial ones : they were but 164 in number. 2d. Those of Dionysius Exiguus, in 520, who, added the fifty canons of the apostles, and those of the other general councils. 3d. To these are subjoined those of the council of Sardica, and the African councils. The 4th and last collection comes down as low as the second council of Nice, 787. CANON, the authorized catalogue of the sacred writings. See Bible. CANON of Ptolemy, in Chronology, a canon of the Chaldsean, Persian,Grecian, and Roman kings, compiled by Clau- dius Ptolemaeus, the astronomer, author of the system of the universe, who flourished in Egypt in the reigns of Adrian and Marcus Antoninus, about 150; piXbhshed from two MSS. in the Royal Library at Paris. The author computes from the epoch of the Nabonassarean aera, a. c. 747 ; and from that day of the month on which the Egyptian Thoth fell. The years made use of are Egyptian, and consist of 365 days, without intercala- CAN 199 CAN lion. In every reign the years are which are less than a year, are omitted, reckoned as complete ; and those reigns as in the following tahle. Name. Nab. Years. Year of Reign. A. C. KINGS OP CHALDEA. Nabonassar Nadius Chinzirus and Porus Jugaeus Mardokempadus Archians First inter-reign Belibus Apronadius Regibelus Mesessimordacus Second inter-reign Asaradinus Saosduchinus Chyniladanus Nabopolasar Nabocolasar, or Nebuchadnezzar. . Ilvarodamus, or Evil-Merodach Niricassolazar Nabonadius PERSIAN KINGS. Cyras Cambyses Darius Hystaspes . . Xerxes Artaxerxes Darius II Artaxerxes II Ochus Arses Darius III , Alexander of Macedon KINGS WHO REIGNED AFTER ALEXANDER, Philip Aridseus Alexander iEgus Ptolemy Lagus . , Ptolemy Philadelphus Ptolemy Euergetes I Ptolemy Philopator Ptolemy Epiphanes Ptolemy Philoraeter Ptolemy Euergetes II Ptolemy Soter Dionysius. Cleopatra 1 15 17 22 27 39 44 46 49 55 56 60 68 81 101 123 144 187 189 193 210 219 227 263 284 325 344 390 411 413 417 425 432 444 464 502 527 544 568 603 632 668 697 14 2 5 5 12 5 2 3 6 1 4 8 13 20 22 21 43 2 4 17 36 21 41 19 46 21 2 4 12 20 38 25 17 24 35 29 36 29 22 747 , 733 731 726 721 709 704 702 699 693 692 688 680 667 647 625 604 561 559 555 538 529 521 485 464 423 404 358 337 335 331 324 317 305 285 247 222 205 181 146 117 81 52 CAN 200 CAN ROMAN EMPERORS. Augustus Tiberius Caius Claudius Nero V Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Adrian Antoninus Pius Nab. Year of Year. Reign. 719' 43 762 22 784 4 788 14 802 14 816 10 826 3 829 15 844 1 845 19 864 21 885 23 30 V. D. 14 36 40 54 68 78 81 96 97 116 137 CANON Law introduced into Eng- land, 1140, arranged and methodised by Gratian, an Italian monk, 1151. CANONICAL hours for prayers in- stituted, 391. CANONIZATION first introduced by papal authority, 993. CANOSA, a town of Naples, the an- cient Canusium founded by Diomed, and afterwards a Roman colony. It became one of the most considerable cities in this part of Italy. The era of Trajan seems to have been that of its greatest splendour. Genseric, Totila, and Au- tharis treated it with extreme cruelty. It was reduced to a deplorable state in 590. In 1090, it was assigned, by agreement, to Bohemund, Prince of Antioch, who died here in 1111. Its ancient grandeUr is still attested by many fragments of aqueducts, amphi- theatres, baths, military columns, &c. The church built in the sixth century, contains the mausoleum of Bohemund, which in 1461 the prince of Taranto broke open, and disturbed the ashes of that hero. Modern Canosa was ruined by an earthquake, in 1694. CANOVA, an ancient Venetian sculp- tor, born 1757, at Possagno, died at Ve- nice, October 13, 1822, after a short but severe illness. His merits as an artist are well known to Europe. He left be- hind him a fortune of 7,000,000 francs, a sum not far ^ short of £300,000 ster- ling. CANTERBURY, Cantwarabyrig of the Saxons, the principal place in the kingdom of Kent, and during the reign of Ethelbert, was constituted the metro- politan see of all England. When St. Augustin, and his forty monks, landed in the isle of Thanet in 597, part of the ancient Durovernum which is now called " Stable-gate," was assigned as their residence. St. Augustin's monastery, the first christian establishment in Great Britain, was built here in 978. Can- terbury was successively occupied by the Romans, Saxons, Normans, &c., and became the scene of repeated sieges and battles. The Danes besieged it in 1011, and on the twelfth day of the siege, set it on fire, and completely consumed the cathedral. Egelnothus, or Agelnoth, the archbishop, who governed the see from 1020 to J 038, refounded, and made con- siderable progress in rebuilding this structure, which was again burnt in 1067- On Dec. 29, 1170, archbishop Becket was barbarously murdered at the foot of the altar. See Becket.- In 1573, Queen Elizabeth kept her court here, in her progress through Kent. An act of parliament for paving, lighting, and watching the city, was obtained in 1787. 1838. At Boughton, near Canterbury, a riot took place, attended by loss of life A lunatic named Thom, who as- sumed the name of Sir W. Courtenay, attached himself to the lowest rabble, and incited them against the Poor Law Act, and shot a man. On this outrage, the military were called out, and Lieut. Bennett proceeded to take the murderer CAN 201 CAN into custody, but Thorn advanced, and, firing a pistol, killed the lieutenant on the spot. His death was avenged by one of the soldiers, who fired at Thorn, and laid him dead by the side of Lieutenant Bennett. CANTERBURY, Archbishop of, attacked by the mob at Canterbury, August, 1832. CANTERBURY Castle built 1075. CANTERBURY Palace robbed, October 11, 1778. CANTON, China, the only place in that empire frequented by Europeans. The intercourse began in 1517, when Emanuel, king of Portugal, sent a fleet of eight ships to China, with an ambas- sador, who was conveyed to Pekin, and obtained permission to establish a trade at Canton. About 1634, some ships from England visited Canton, but a rup- ture and battle immediately took place. In 1680, we find the first notice of a ship sent direct by the East India Com- pany, to Canton. In 1700 there were three ports open for the reception of English vessels, but Canton has latterly been the only one. The monopoly of all foreign trade is consigned to a limited number of merchants, seldom exceeding eight, but occasionally more. In 1793, they were twelve ; in 1808, fourteen. In 1832, the principal mercantile firms con- sisted of eight British establishments, seven American establishments, and one joint French and Dutch establishment. 1831. A dispute between the British residents at Canton, and the Chinese authorities occurred, the former com- plained of injuries and insults received from the latter, and announced that un- less remedied, all commercial intercourse would be suspended on August 1. The act 3 and 4, Will. IV.,' c. 93, for regulating the trade to China and India, passed in 1834, contains new regulations as to the British trade with Canton ; also the repeal of prohibitions upon the im- portation of tea and goods from China, imposed by 6, Geo. IV., c. 107. Oct. 1833, 10,000 houses swept away, and 1000 persons perished, in conse- quence of an inimdation, occasioned by incessant rains. In 1835, Oct. 22, a great fire in Canton. It was stated to have consumed vipwards of 3,000 houses. 1839. Disputes arising about the opium trade, an edict was issued by the Chi- nese government, containing new port regulations against opium. 1840. In consequence of the Chinese war, an order from the emperor reached Canton, Feb. 12, suspending trade with all foreign nations. See China. CANTON, John, natural philoso- pher, born at Stroud, in Gloucester- shire. July 31, 1718. In 1742, he suc- ceeded Mr. Watkins in his school. In 1745, he made the science of electricity, the object of his particular investigation. In 1749, he assisted his friend, Benjamin Robins, Esq., in his experiments for ascertaining the height to which rockets ascend, and. the distance at which their light may be seen. In January, 1750, Mr. Canton communicated to the Royal Society, his method of making artificial magnets, without the use of, and yet far superior to any natural ones. 1752. He had the honour of being the first person in England, who, by draw- ing the electric fire from the clouds, du- ring a thunder storm, verified Dr. Frank- lin's hypothesis of the similarity of lightning and electricity. In 1753, his paper entitled, " Electrical Experiments, with an Attempt to account for their several Phenomena," was read at the Royal Society. In 1759, he inserted a letter in the Gentleman's Magazine, for September, on the electrical properties of Tourmaline. Mr. Canton's observa- tions on the transit of Venus were com- municated to the Royal Society, in No- vember 1761 ; and in 1762, a letter ad- dressed by him to Dr. Franklin was read, containing remarks on Mr. Delaval's electrical experiments : in December of the same year, his curious paper entitled " Experiments to prove that Water is not incompressible," was read. Mr. Canton had the gold medal delivered to him, November 30, 1765. In 1768, he communicated to the Society, " an easy Method of making a phosphorus, that will imbibe and emit Light, like the Bolognian stone, with Experiments and Observations." His last paper address- ed to the Royal Society, was read in December, 1769, and contained " Ex- periments to prove that the Luminous- ness of the Sea arises from the Putrefac- tion of its Animal Substances." His death took place in March, 1772^ at the age of 54. CANUTE, recognised king of all England, 1017- He married Emma, the widow of Ethelred. In 1019, he went over to Denmark, subdued Norway, and was made king of England, Den- 2 D CAP •202 C A P mark, and Norway. In 1025, he made a second voyage to Denmark, on account of the invasion of the Swedes, but was compelled to return to England. In 1028, he entered on another war with Sweden, and set sail for Denmark, when he seized on the crown of Sweden, of which he remained in quiet possession, and took the title of king of England, Den- mark, Norway, and Sweden. In 1033, he went on an expedition against the Scots, for refusing to do homage, which was compromised. Acquired the surname of Great, on account of his conquests. In 1034, he showed a contempt of flattery from his nobility, on the sea not obeying his commands, and never after would wear his crown, but ordered it to be put on the head of a crucifix, at Winchester. He died November 12, 1036, at Shafts- bury, and was buried at Winchester, having reigned 19 years. CANVAS Batteau, capable of conveying 100 soldiers across the widest river, invented by Colonel Brown, 1809. CAOUTCHOUC, or India-rubber, introduced into Europe in 1735. No- thing was known concerning its natural history, till a memoir was presented, in 1736, to the French academy, by M. Condamine. It is obtained from the milky juice of different plants, in hot countries. The chief of these are the Jatropha elastica, and Urceola elastica. The juice is applied in successive coatings on a mould of clay, and dried by the fire or in the sun ; and when of a sufficient thickness, the mould is crushed, and the pieces shaken out. M. de la Condamine mentions, that, owing to its being im- pervious to water, it was made into boats by the Indians. Means have, within these few years, been discovered of reducing it to a state of solution; and when thin filaments of it are spread over cloth, or any other substance, it is rendered impervious alike to air and water. Air cushions and pillows are manufactured in this way, as are water-proof cloaks, hats, boots, shoes, &c. Previous to 1830, the im- portations of caoutchouc were compara- tively inconsiderable. In that year, they amounted to about 52,000lbs ; while, during the year ending April 5, 1833, the quantity entered for consumption, amounted to 178,676ibs. The duty has been reduced from 5d. per lb: to Is. per cwt. CAPE BojADOR, or Nun, doubled for the first time by the Portuguese, 1434. CAPE Blanco, on the coast of Africa, discovered 1441. CAPE Breton, island, British North America, country of Nova Scotia, first settled by the French in 1712; surrend- ered to a British force in 1745, and was confirmed with all the other French possessions in North America, to Eng- land, by the treaty of 1763. In 1820, it was annexed as a county to Nova Scotia, with the privilege of sending two members to the House of Assembly, at Halifax. The trade of the island is yearly augmenting in value and impor- tance. The imports, in 1832, were in value £78,000. CAPE-CLEAR, an island in Ireland, long known to mariners as a landmark and is mentioned in the voyage of Pietro Quirino in the year 1431. CAPE-COAST-CASTLE, town and fortress, in Western Africa, for some time the seat of the British government on the Gold Coast. It was originally settled by the Portuguese, but the Dutch dispos- sessed them in a few years, and took great pains to strengthen the fortifica- tions. Admiral Holmes captured it, and demolished the citadel, in 1661, since which time it has remained in the pos- session of Great Britain. When the Dutch admiral, De Ruyter, destroyed all the English factories along the coast in 1665, this place withstood his utmost endeavours. In 1757, with a small force, it successfully resisted the French, under De Kersin. Cape-Coast-Castle was originally surrounded with wood, but a large tract of country has been lately cleared ; streets are now formed, and a population is rising. CAPE OF Good Hope, descried and rounded in 1493, by Bartholomew Diaz ; but that nax'tgator, appalled by the stormy aspect, returned, and named it the Cape of Tempests. Emanuel, king of Portugal, inspired by a nobler spirit, called it the Cape of Good Hope. He equipped Vasco de Gama, who, in 1497, passed with safety, and even with ease, round th^s di-eaded boundary, into the seas of India. The Portuguese neg- lected it, but the Dutch soon discovered the advantages to be derived from it. In 1650, they founded Cape-Town, and ex- tended their settlement to its jjresent limits of the Nieuwveld mountains in the north, and the Great Fish River in the east. Cape-Town was attacked and re- duced by a British naval force in Sep- tember, 1795. It was restored by the CAP 203 CAP ])eace ot Amiens, but, on the renewal of of hostilities, was re-captured by the British in January, 1806. Under the administration of the earl of Calcedon, from 1807 to 1811, this co- lony rapidly rose to wealth and import- ance ; but under succeeding governors, a different policy was pursued, and dis- turbances arose with the Caffres. A treaty had been made with these people, by which it was agreed that a neutral ground should be established between the Great Fish River, (the British boun- dary), and the Keiskamma, (the Caffre boundary); but, in 1834, along the frontier line from the Winterberg to the mouth of the Keiskamma, a distance of about 100 miles, 15,000 Caffres made a simultaneous irruption into the colony. The aggregate of distress is thus summed up in the report. The number of peti- tions for relief amounted to 1895, com- prising at least, 8370 individuals. Of these applications, 891 were from per- sons of Dutch extraction, 300 from Bri- tish settlers, and 704 from Hottentots and other persons of colour. It appears, however, that ample vengeance was taken on the Caffres, on the arrival of the military, by the unjustifiable and indi- scriminate slaughter of many of the de- fenceless inhabitants, as well as those engaged in the insurrection. There were taken from them also (besides the conquest and alienation of their country) about 60,000 head of cattle, and almost all their goats ; their habitations were every where destroyed, and their gardens and corn-fields laid waste. To this may be added the horrible murder of the chief Hintza. In 1835 and 1836, in consequence of these disasters, about 1000 families, chiefly Dutch, emigrated to the neigh- bourhood of the Zoola countrj^ which is under their despotic chief Dingan. By the latest accounts in 1840, the Caffres continued to make irruptions, and to carry off the cattle, CAPE-HORN, doubled by Le Maire and Schouten, Dutch navigators, in 16 16, who called it after the town of which Schouten was a native. These enterprising men performed a voyage round the world in about two years. CAPE-DE-VERDE, discovered by Denis Fernandez, a Portuguese, in 1446. CAPE-DE-VERDE Islands, dis- covered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese in the service of Portugal, in 1449. CAPERNAUM, a town of Palestine, which stood on the coast of the sea of Galilee, in the borders of Zebulon and Nephtalim. Matt. iv. 15. It was cele- brated as the residence of Jesus Christ. Although it stood till the 7th and 8th centuries,its precise situation is quite lost. CAPILLARY Attraction, the property of liquids to rise above the com- mon level, and preserve their elevation, as if exempt from the power of gravity. This phenomenon, though the subject is still somewhat obscure, has been illus- trated by Hook, Clairant, Young, Lap- lace, and Poisson. The latter disco- vered the inferiority of density which takes place near the exposed surface of a liquid, which he illustrated in an article on the Equilibrium of Fluids, published in the ninth volume of the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, and more fully developed in his " Nouvelle Theorie de I'Action Capillaire," 1829. CAPITAL Punishments. In the seventy-five heads, under which crimes have been defined in the criminal tables, the offences classed under thirty-one were subject to capital punishments after the passing of the acts of the 7th and 8th Geo. IV., in 1827, for consoli- dating and amending the Criminal Laws. In 1832, capital punishment was abo- lished for cattle-stealing, larceny to the amount of £5. in a dwelling-house, coin- ing, and forgery, (except of wills and powers of attorny to transfer stock) ; in 1833, for housebreaking; in 1834, for returning from transportation ; in 1835, for sacrilege, and letter-stealing by ser- vants of the post-office. 1837. By the act of the 1st year of Victoria I., capital punishment was abo- lished for all offences except the follow- ing : — murder and attempt to murder, when accompanied with injuries dange- rous to life ; rape, and carnally abusing girls under ten years of age ; unnatural offences ; burglary when attended with violence to persons; robbery, when at- tended with cutting or wounding ; arson of dwelling-houses or ships, when the lives of persons therein were endangered; piracy, when murder is attempted ; show- ing false signals to cause shipwreck; setting fire to her majesty's ships of war; riot, or feloniously destroying buildings; embezzlement by servants Of the Bank of England; high treason. These last six offences, from their unfrequent oe- currence, have not found heads in the tables, so that of the offences classed under thirty-one heads in the tables, CAP 204 CAP which remained capital till the year 1833, only the six first of the foregoing are now subjected to the extreme pe- nalty of the law. See Criminal Law ; Punishments, &c. CAPITATION, a tax or imposition raised on each person in proportion to his labour, industry, office, rank &c. This kind of tribute is very ancient. In France, it was introduced by Louis XIV. in 1695. CAPITOL, Capitolium, the ancient fort or castle, on the -Mons Capitohmus at Rome, wherein was a temple dedicated to Jupiter, thence also denominated Ca- pitohmus. The foundations were laid byTarquintheElder,A.u.c. 139, A.C.615, in consequence of a vow which he had made to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, on occasion of his last battle with the Sabines, in which he obtained the victory. He levelled the steep top of the Tarpeian-hill, marked out the plan of the temple, which he had promised to erect, and laid the foundation of that struc- ture, which afterwards became the prin- cipal place of the Roman worship. It was finished by Tarquin the Proud, a.u.c. 221, A.c. 533. The ceremony of the dedication of the temple was performed by the consul Horatius, a.u.c, 246, a.c. 508. The capitol occupied eight acres of ground ; it was 200 feet broad, and about 215 long. It was burnt in the time of Sylla (a.u.c. 670, A.c. 84), by the negli- gence of those who kept it ; re-built by Q. Lutatius Catulus, as being consul at the time, 'a. c. 79. It was burnt a second time in the reign of Vitellius, Dec. 19, A. D. 69, and rebuilt under Vespasian. It was burnt again in the reign of Titus, 80, and rebuilt by Domi- tian with a sumptuous magnificence which had no bounds. No remains of the ancient structure are now to be seen; but the present edifice was built on the same spot by pope Boniface IX., Gre- gory XIII., and Clement VIII., and com- pleted about the l6th century. CAPITOLINE Games, instituted by Domitian, 86, and continued every fourth year. CAPO D'ISTRIA, Count, arrived in Greece, on board the Warspite, British ship of war, and assumed the office of President of the Republic, January 18, 1828. He entered Napoli di Romania, the seat of government, March 2. The fortress of Palamide, the upper citadel, was delivered up byTheodoraki Griva, the Greek commander, who submitted to the new government. In 1831, the new pre- sident was assassinated, October 9, while on his way to attend divine service, by the brother and son of the Mainote chief, Mauromichaelis, whom he had impri- soned. See Greece, CAPPADOCIA, Kingdom of, owed its origin to Pharnaces, prefect of the Assyrian monarchy, who established himself in it during the revolution, and about A. c. 744, assumed the regal title. His descendants continued on the throne of Cappadocia, till the death of Archelaus, who bequeathed his kingdom to the em- pire, A. D. 13. Cappadocia was made a Roman pro\dnce in 17. CAPRANU, a town of Greece, near the site of the ancient city of Chaeronea. The plain, where Philip of Macedon crushed the liberties of Greece by the overthrow of the Athenians and Thebans, A. c. 338, lies a little to the north of this place. On this plain were also fought two other sanguinary conflicts ; one between the Athenians and Beotians, a.c, 447, and another, in which the army of Mith- ridates was defeated by Sylla, a.c, 86. CAPRI Isle, in the Mediterranean Sea, the Caprea of the ancients, celebra- ted as having been the retreat of the em- perors Augustus and Tiberius about the commencement of the Christian era. CAPS. Caps and hats were first seen in these parts of the world, at the entry of Carles VII. into Rouen, in 1449. When the cap was of velvet, they called it mortier ; when of wool, simply bonnet. None but kings, princes, and knights, were allowed the use of the mortier. In 1571, a law enacted that every person above seven years of age should wear on Sundays and holidays, a cap of wool, knit made, thickened and dressed in England, by some of the trade of cappers j under the forfeiture of three farthings for every day's neglect ; excepting maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and every lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks of land, and their heirs, and such as have borne office of worship in any city, town, or place, and the wardens of the London companies. CAPTAIN, the title of, first applied to regipiental commanders, in the reign of Henry VII. The commanding officers of ships are noticed xmder this title, as early as the reign of Edward I. CAPTIVITY, the punishment inflicted CAP 205 CAP by providence on the Jews, for their idola- try and wickedness. The scripture history informs us of five principal captivities, which took place during the government of the judges. The first was that under Chushan-Rishathaim, king of Mesopo- tamia, and continued eight years, from A. c. 1391 to 1383. The second was under Eglon, king of Moab, and lasted eighteen years, viz. from A. c. 1343 to 1325. The third was that of the nor- thern tribes, by Jabin, king of Hazor, from which they were delivered by Deb- orah and Barak, in A. c. 1285. The fourth, comprehending north and east Israel, was that under the Midianites, which lasted seven years, from a.c. 1245 to 1238. Their fifth was that under the Ammonites and Philistines, while Jair was judge over north afld east Israel A.c. 1173. But the most signal captivities were those of Israel and Judah, under the sovereigns of these kingdoms, after they were separated, A. c. 975, denominated the Assyrian and Babylonish. The As- syrian captivity, which comprehended that of the ten tribes, commenced in the reign of Pekah, king of Israel, a.c. 740. It closed, in the 22nd. year of Ma- nasseh, king of Judah, a.c. 676. It has been generally supposed, that the greater part of the ten tribes was lost in that captivity, which put a period to the kingdom of Israel. The Babylonish captivitycomprehended that of the kingdom of Judah, or of the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin, and lasted seventy years. The mode of esti- mating its duration has been attended with some diflSculty, on account of the diflferent captivities of the Jewish nation, which occurred about the same period. But that in the foiirth year of Jehoiakim A.c. 606, seems to be the most accurate commencement of this period, and also the most agreeable to Scripture. The interval extending thence to the second year of Cyrus, a. c. 536, when the Jews were permitted to return to their own land, amounts to seventy years; for Cyrus conquered Babylon towards the close of the year 538 ; so that the year following, viz. 537, was the first year of his reign, and 536 the second, and the seventy-first from the fourth year of Je- hoiakim. CAPUA, ancient city of Italy, the metropolis of Campania, founded a. c. 801, famous for being the abode of Han- nibal, the Carthaginian general, after the battle of Cannje, a.c. 216. After the departure of the Carthaginians, Ca- pua surrundered to the consuls Appius Claudius, and Q. Fulvius Flaccus, a.u.c. 542. Although the buildings were left undemolished, Capua was consigned to be the lodging place of husbandmen, of the adjoining plain, a warehouse for goods, and a granary for corn. Caesar sent thither colonies, and restored it to its ancient privileges. Cicero was the patron of this new city, a.u.c. 704, a.c. 50. A. D. 26. Tiberius dedicated in this place, a temple to Jupiter; and in the reign of INero, 57, the colonies of Capua, and also of Nocera, which were almost extinct, were revived and strengthened by a number of old soldiers, sent thither with the same prerogatives as the ancient inhabitants. In 841, the city was totally destroyed by an army of Saracens, and the inhabitants were driven into the mountains. The Lombards descended again into the plain, built a smaller one on the river Volturno, choosing for its site that of Casilinum, and calling it by the old name of Capua. Since the foundation of the new city, old Capua, distant from it about two miles, has re- mained in ruins, occupying a considera- ble extent of ground. In 856, Landulph formed at Capua, an independent earl- dom, dismembered from the duchy of Benevento ; and in the course of a few generations, it acquired the title of a principality. In the eleventh century, the Normans of Aversa expelled the Lombard race of princes, and Richard, their chief, became prince of Capua, Capua is at present the see of an arch- bishop, founded in 968. It was taken from the pope, by the king of Sicily, 1035. Capua was fortified by Vauban ; it possesses a strong citadel, and is the key of Naples. In January, 1799, it was taken by a body of troops, com- manded by captain Troubridge, of the British navy. In 1803, the town was considerably affected by an earthquake. CAPUCHINS, a religious sect of the order of St. Francis. They are a reform, made from the order of Cordeliers, set on foot in the sixteenth century by Mat- thew de Bassi, a religious observant of the monastery of Montefiascone. Pope Clement, in 1525, gave him permission to retire into solitude ; together with as many others as would embrace the strict CAR 206 CAR observance. In 1528, they obtained the pope's bull. In 1529, the order was brought into complete form. In 1543, the right of preaching was taken from the Capuchins by the pope; but in 1545, it was restored to them again with ho- nour. In 1578, there were seventeen general chapters in the order of Capu- chius. CARACALLA, the Roman emperor, son of Severus, born 188. The dignity of Caesar was confirmed to him in 197, by a decree of the senate. He was made consul in 202. Caracalla, and his bro- ther Geta, were invested with the tribuni- tian power, in 208. They succeeded Severus, who died at York, 211. After several attempts to murder his brother, Caracalla effected his purpose, on oc- casion of an interview which was pro- posed, with a view to their reconciliation. He permitted the memory of his brother to be honoured, using at the same time this memorable expression, "Let him be a god, as long as he is not alive ;" and accordingly the senate issued a decree, by which he was enrolled among the gods. Dion Cassius informs us, that in the general massacre of his brother's partisans and friends, Caracalla ordered all his domestics to the number of 20,000 persons, to be inhumanly put to death. Having established in the capital of his empire, a character detestable for cruelty and oppression, and levelled the prero- gatives of the Roman empire, he was assassinated April 8, 217, at the age of 29, and after a reign of six years, two months, and six days. CARACCAS, city and province of South America; with the province of Carabobo, it constitutes, according to the law of June 23, 1824, the depart- ment of Venezuela, one of the twelve departments of Colombia. The city is the capital of the department of Vene- zuela, formerly a captain generalship. In 1812, the population was estimated at 50,000. March 26 of that year, the city was partly destroyed by an earth- quake, and nearly 12,000 persons were buried in the ruins. By the political events which followed this catastrophe, the population was reduced, in four or five years, to less than 25,000. Car- accas has been conspicuous throughout the revolution of Venezuela and New Grenada, against the government of Spain. See Bolivar and Columbia. It capitulated to the Spanish royalists. July 28, 1812 ; and was taken again by the royalists, July 7, 1814. CARACCI, LuDovico, Augustino, andANNiBAL, three celebrated Italian painters. Having reaped all the advan tages they could by contemplation and practice, formed a plan of association, continued always together, and laid the foundation of that celebrated school which has ever since been known by the name of Caracci's academy. Annibal, born 1560, died 1609- Ludovico, born ] 555, died 1619- Augustino, born 1558, died 1602. CARACTACUS, one of the most re- nowned of the British kings. The cir- cumstances of his early years not ascer- tained. In the reign of Claudius, when Aulus Plautiup, the Roman general, landed on the island, a.d. 43, by the direction of a giiide, he overtook and de- feated Caractacus. In 51, Ostorius Sca- pula, a Roman general, was sent to Bri- tain in the room of Plautius. He de- feated Caractacus, who had taken the command of the Silures (South Wales), and the Ordovices (North Wales), in se- veral battles. Caractacus, flying for pro- tection to Cartismandua, queen of the Brigantes (Yorkshire), was delivered up by her to the Romans ; but Claudius, in consequence of his intrepid behaviour, restored him to liberty. The subsequent events of the British chieftain's life had no historian to pen them. CARADOC of Llancarvan, the Welsh historian, died 1157- CARAUSIUS proclaimed emperor of Britain, 284 ; said to be the first who bestowed Scotland on the Picts, as a re- compence for their assistance. Till this period the Picts are not mentioned in history. In 293 Carausius was assas- sinated by Alectus, who then assumed the purple. CARAVAN, or organized company of merchants, &c., who associate together in Asia and Africa, that they may travel with greater security. The commercial intercourse of Eastern and African na- tions has been principally carried on, from the remotest period, by means of caravans. During antiquity the pro- ducts of India and China were conveyed either from Suez to Rhinoculura, or from Bussorah, near the head of the Persian Gulf, by the Euphrates, to Babylon, and thence by Palmyra, in the Syrian Desert, to the ports of Phoenicia, on the Medi- terranean, where they were exchanged CAR 207 CAR for the European productions in demand in the east. After the establishment of the Moham- medan faith in the seventh century, large caravans of pilgrims used to assemble annually in every country where that faith was prevalent, to visit the Caaba in the temple of Mecca; and though the number of pilgrims has of late years de- clined greatly, it is still very consider- able. The Holy City is crowded during the month of Dhalhajja, colresponding to the latter part of June and the begin- ning of July, not only with eealous de- votees, but with opulent merchants, A fair, or market, is held in Mecca and its vicinity on the twelve days that the pil- grims are allowed to remain in that city. The two principal caravans which yearly rendezvous at Mecca, are those of Damascus and Cairo. The first is com- posed of pilgrims from Europe and wes- tern Asia ; the second of Mahommedans from all parts of Africa. The Syrian caravan is always accompanied by the pascha of Damascus, or one of his prin- cipal officers, who gives the signal for encamping and starting, by firing a mus- ket. Tlie caravan which sets out from Cairo for Mecca is not generally so large as that of Damascus, and its route along the shores of the Red Sea is more dan- gerous and fatiguing. The commerce carried on by caravans in the interior of Africa is widely extended, and of consi- derable value. Besides the great cara- van which proceeds from Nubia to Cairo, and is joined by Mahommedan pilgrims from every part of Africa, there are ca- ravans which have no object but com- merce, which set out from Fez, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, and other states on the sea coast, and penetrate far into the interior. CARAVAN, consisting of 2,000 souls, returning from Mecca, were all destroy- ed, except twenty, by a kamsin, or pes- tilential wind, in the deserts of Arabia, August 12, 1812. CARDAN, Jerom, a voluminous phi- losophical and medical writer, was born at Pavia, September 24, 1501. At the age of 20 he entered the university of Pavia, where he prosecuted his studies with success. He went to Padua in 1524, and in 1525, he took the degree of doc- tor in medicine. 1529. He repaired to Milan, and in 1539 was admitted a member of the me- dical college in that city. In 1547 the king of Denmark, on the recommenda- tion of Vesahus, invited him to accept the office of a professor in the university of Copenhagen, which he refused. At Milan he continued to reside until 1559, his time being employed in the practice of medicine, and in teaching mathema- tics. From 1559 to 1562, he resided at Pavia, being invited to accept the chair of professor in medicine there ; and from 1562 to 1570, at Bologna, where he filled a similar office. Soon after, he was sent for to Rome, was made member of the college of physicians there, and assigned a pension by the pope, which he retained to the time of his death, Sept. 21, 1576. He wrote on every branch of medi- cine ; and also some treatises on Natural History. His other principal works are, his " De Varietate Rerum," published in 1550, and again, 1557; "Commen- taries on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates," in 1553; treatise " De Subtilitate," pub- lished in 1550, entirely botanical, and containing descriptions of numerous plants, then first introduced into Italy ; " De Chinse et Sarsapariilae Radicibus," in 1566, and "Opuscula Artem Medi- cam exercentibus utilissima." In ma- thematical science. Cardan claims a tri- bute of more unrestricted commendation than in medicine; in algebra particiilarly he challenges the honour of having made some important discoveries ; though his pretensions, as an original inventor, have been contested by Tartaglia. These dis- coveries are contained in the 10th book of his arithmetical writings, which was published at Mikn in 1545. CARDIGAN Castle, built in 1155, for the defence of the borders, besieged by Rhys Gryflfydd in 1164, when it was taken and razed to the ground. CARDINALS were originally the parish priests at Rome ; title began to he used, 308 ; college of, founded by pope Pascal I., 817 ; did not elect the jDopes till 1160 ; wore the red hat (to re- mind them, that thy ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion) and were declared princes of the church, 1222 ; set fire to the conclavj, and separated, and a vacancy in the papal chair for two years, 1314 ; Carassa was hanged by order of Pius IV, 1560 ; as was Cardind Poll, under Leo X ; title of Eminence first given by pope Urban, VIII. , about 1630. CAR 208 CAR CARDS said to have been invented about the year 1390, for the purpose of diverting Charles VI., king of France, by Jaquemin Gringonneur, a painter in Paris ; forbidden the use of in Castile, 1387- Known in England, in the time of Edward IV. On an apphcation of the card-makers of London to parlia- ment, 1463, an act was made against the importation of playing-cards, 3 Edwd. IV., c. 4. Cards and dice were doubly taxed, April 8, 1755; additional tax in 1789. 428,000 packs stamped in Eng- land in 1775. CAREW Castle, Pembroke, built 1100. CAREY, Db. William, an eminent Christian missionar)^ and distinguished oriental scholar, was born at Paulers- pury, in Northamptonshire, Aug. 17, 1761. At a very early period, he dis- covered a great aptitude in acquiring knowledge; at 14 years old was ap- prenticed to a shoemaker in the village of Hackleton, where he attracted the notice, and obtained the friendship of, the Rev. Thomas Scott, then of Raven- stone. He joined a baptist congrega- tion, and commenced village preaching in 1783, and was publicly baptized at Northampton, in the river Nen, by the late Dr. Ryland. Chosen pastor of the baptist congregation, at Moulton, near Northampton, in 1791. His resources were then limited, yet he studied the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, and devoted his spare time, and employed the energies of his active mind in ex- tracting from the Holy Scriptures, and arranging for himself, a system of divine truth. From Moulton he removed to Leicester in the year 1787, having been invited to take charge of the baptist con- gregation in that town. With Mr. Thomas, who died in India not long after, he was designated as a missionary to India, May 20, 1793 ; June 13 following, the two missionaries embarked on board a Danish Indiaman, accompanied by Mr. Carey's whole fa- mily. Early in 1794, they arrived in Bengal, and the same year Mr. Carey was invited to take charge of an indigo factory near Malda, the property of Mr. Udney, a servant of the East India Company, of high rank. In 1795 he succeeded in establishing a school in the neighbourhood of his factory, and began to preach there in the language of the country every sabbath day. In 1797, he made a journey into Bootan, and ob- tained the consent of the Soubah to an attempt to introduce Christianity into that country. In 1799 he resolved to relinquish his appointment in the neigh- bourhood of Malda, and to take up his residence in the Danish settlement of Serampore. 1801. Mr. Carey's success in ths study of the vernacular languages of India recommended him to the Governor General, Marquess Wellesley, who had founded a college in Fort William, to fill the chair of professor, in the Sanscrit. Bengalhee, and Mahratta languages. In 1805, Mr. Carey pubhshed his grammar of the Mahratta language, and in the same year opened a mission chapel in the Loll bazaar in Calcutta. 1806. The Vellore mutiny occurred, sup])osed to have been occasioned by the apprehensions of the native troops, lest the company should determine to pursue a system of forcible proselytism. This event so alarmed the Bengal Coun- cil that orders were issued for the discon- tinuance, for a time, of all missionary exertions. But the order was very much modified; and, although preaching in the Loll Bazaar in Calcutta was for a time discontinued, the missionaries were assured that the Government was " well satisfied with then: character and deport- ment, and that no complaint had ever been lodged against them." In 1805 Mr. Carey received from one of the Bri- tish universities a diploma as doctor of divinity, and in the following year was elected a member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta. In the department of philology, Dr. Carey's labours were immense ; his " Mahratta Grammar," already mention- ed, was followed by a " Sanscrit Gram- mar," 4to., in 1806 ; a " Mahratta Dic- tionary," 8vo. in 1810; a " Punjabee Grammar," 8vo., in 1812; a " Telinga Grammar," 8vo. in 1814; also, between the year 1806 and 1810, .he published the " Raymayana," in the oiiginal text, carefvilly collated, with the most authen- tic MSS., in three volumes, 4to. His philological works, of a later date are, a " Bengalhee Dictionary," in three volumes 4to., 1818, of which a second edition was published in 1825 ; and another in 8vo. in 1827-1830 ; a " Bho- tanta Dictionarj^" 4to. 1826 ; also, a " Grammar" of the same language, edited by him and Dr. Marshman. He CAR 209 liarl also prepared a Dictionary of the Sanscrit," which was nearly completed, when a fire broke out in Serampore and burnt down the printing office, destroy- ing the impression together with the copy, and other property. The versions of the " Sacred Scrip- tures," which have issued from the Serampore press, and in the preparation of which. Dr. Carey took an active and laborious part, are numerous. They are in the following languages : — Sanscrit, Hindee, Brij Bhassa, Mahratta, Ben- galhee, Orissa or Ooriya, Telinga, Kur- nata, Maldivian, Gujurattee, Buloshee, Pushtoo, Punjabee or Shekh, Kash- meer, Assam, Burman, Pali or Magtidha, Tamul, Cingalese, Armenian, Malay, Hindosthanee, and Persian ; to which must be added the Chinese. Dr. Carey lived to see the Sacred Text, chiefly by his instrumentality, translated into the vernacular dialects of more than forty different tribes. In September, 1833, he had a stroke of apoplexy, and died June 9, 1834. His character is thus summed up by his bio- grapher, the Rev. Eustace Carey. " In his religious feelings and experience, his simplicity was most to be admired, and was worthy of unqualified imitation. The plain, substantial, unvarnished doc- trines of the Gospel, were the basis of his hope, the stay and consolation of his spirit." CARIA, an ancient province of Asia, occupying the south western part of Asia Minor. Though frequently mentioned in ancient history, its exact limits are not known in the present day. The Carians claimed the honour of being aborigines, and traced their name and origin to Car, the brother of Lydus and Mysus From the 11th to the 27th Olympiad, they constructed vessels and traversed the sea, and thus ac- quired a degree of power which gave them the rank of a maritime empire. About A. c. 734, the Carians acquired the power of the Mediterranean. After various struggles in defence of their country and their liberty, they were at last obliged to submit to the Per- sians. In the expedition of Xerxes against Greece, the Carians assisted him with seventy vessels, which were annexed to his naval armament. Lygdamis ascended the throne of Caria towards the 83d olympiad, and was succeeded by Heca- CAR tomnus, who made Mylasa the capital of his kingdom. He was allowed by the Persian coint to possess the kingdom of Caria till his death, which happened in the 99th or 100th Olympiad, a.c. 353, the Rhodians threw oflF the yoke of the Carians ; but Artemisia, the sister and widow of Mausolus, reduced them to their allegiance, and also the inhabitants of the island of Cos, who had imitated their neighbours in their revolt. When Alexander had gained the battle of Granicus, a.c. 334, he penetrated into Ca- ria, and re-established Ada, the queen of that countr)', in possession of her kingdom. CARIBBEE Islands, West Indies, extend in a right line from Anguilla in the north to Tobago south, and form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea. The principal of them are, St. Christo- pher's, Guadaloupe, Antigua, Mont- serrat, Mariegalante, Martinico, St. Lu- cia, St. Vincent's, called the windward isles, and Grenada, Tobago, Barbadoes, &c. They were discovered by Colum- bus in his second voyage, in November, 1493 ; and thus called by him from the name which the natives of Hispaniola gave to their ancient possessors. See the several Islands. Carinthia, a duchy of Austria, derives its name from the ancient Carni, who were a colony of the Celtes, called, in later times, Carantani and Carinthi. The inhabitants are partly descendants of the ancient Germans, and partly of the Sclavonians or Wends. Christianity was introduced into this duchy in the seventh century. In the year 1282, the Emperor Rodolph I. gave this duchy to Maynard, count of Tyrol, on condition that when his male issue failed, it should revert to the house of Austria, which happened in 1331, This duchy was occupied by the French under Buonaparte, who fixed his head-quarters at Villach, in March, 1797- It is again under the Austrian govern- ment, and divided for more convenient jurisdiction into Upper and Lower. CARINUS, the Roman emperor, hav- ing become odious for his vices, the army elected Dioclesian, in 284. Ca- rinus was assassinated by a soldier, whose wife he had violated in 286. CARISBROOK Castle built 692 ; rebuilt in 1610. CARLISLE, Richard, convicted of publishing Paine's "Age of Reason," 2 E CAR 210 CAR Oct. 15, IS 19. On November IG, fol- lowing, sentenced to three years' impri- sonment in Doncaster gaol, and fined 1500/. Jan. 10, 1831, tried and con- victed for a seditious libel, alleged to have a tendency to excite the agricultural population to riot, and destroy property. He was subsequently sentenced to two years' imprisonment, to pay a fine of 200/., and to give securities to the amount of 1000/. to keep the peace for ten years. CARLISLE, capital of the county of Cumberland, flourished in the time of the Romans, as appears from the anti- quities that are to be met with here, and the Roman coins that have been dug up. During the incursions of the Danes, in the eighth and ninth centuries, this city underwent its full share of calamity, and was wholly consumed by fire ; its in- habitants were massacred and its walls overthrown. In 875 its very founda- tions were buried in the earth, so that, it is said, large oaks grew upon them. In this desolate state the city remained nearly 200 years. William Rufus, about 1094, made a visit to this city, and, per- ceiving its importance as a frontier sta- tion, gave orders that it should be com- pletely restored ; several public edifices were built, a strong fortress erected, and the whole defended by a wall of circum- vallation. Having been ceded by Stephen to the Scottish king, David, about the year 1136, it was made a place of retreat by the latter, after his defeat in the dreadful battle of the Standard, in 1138. In 1153, David, king of Scotland, e.xpired here; and in 1216, Alexander, king of Scotland, made himself master of the place. In the 35th year of Edward I., 1307, the parliament met here, Jan. 20, and continued sitting till the palm Sun- day following. In 1338, Carlisle was besieged by the Scots, and the suburbs burnt. In the war between Charles I. and liis parliament, it sustained a siege, and the general distress was increased by the calamity of famine. The block- ade commenced October 9, 1644, and continued till 1645, when the place sur- rendered to General Lesley, who com- manded for the parliament. In 1745, it surrendered, after a «hort siege, to the forces of the pretender. CARLISLE Castle, built 680 ; city walls built 690 ; both repaired 1092 and 1434. CARLOS Don, Prince of Spain, poisoned by order of his father through jealousy, 1568. CARLOS Don, brother of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, whose contest for the crown has agitated the country for many years. In 1812, the Cortes having re- established the Salic law, and Ferdinand having no sons, Don Carlos became heir presumptive to the throne ; but Ferdi- nand not acknowledging the legality of these proceedings of the Cortes, issued a decree in March 1830, replacing the right of succession on the same footing on which it had stood in 1789, and his daughter was thus capacitated to mount the throne. About 1825, Don Carlos began to lay claim to the crown. Pro- clamations in his favour were circulated throughout the kingdom. Oct. 4, 1833, the monks of the convent of San Fran- cisco came out of their monastery with their cross, and proclaimed Don Carlos king by the title of Charles V. Although forced to seek refuge in Portugal in 1834, he continued to hang on the Spanish frontier with the armed bands which still adhered to him, afford- ing by his presence a rallying point for his partisans, and encouraging discon- tent throughout the provinces. Don Carlos, with his family and suite, Avere received, on the 31st May, on board the Donegal man of war, which immediately sailed for England; June 18, landed at Portsmouth, and was received with all due honours, as a Spanish prince. July 10, having left England secretly, he appeared suddenly among his friends and adherents in Spain. Aug. 30, 1834, the Spanish Chamber of Proceres, or Peers, voted the perpetual exclusion of Don Carlos and his heirs from the crown and even from the country of Spain ; the same vote of exclusion was after- wards agreed to by the Procuradores. 1839. The ci\il war continued to this year-, when at length tlie Carhst cause was almost annihilated. Oct. 27, royal decree of Spain, by which the families of persons attachedto the service of Don Carlos are exiled from the capital. See {"PAIN. CARLOVINGIAN, race of French kings commences 751, ends 987. CARLOVINGIAN emperors became extinct, 912. CARLOVITZAor CARLowiTZ,town, Austrian empire. At this place was concluded the celebrated treaty of 1699> CAR 211 C 4R between Germany, Poland, Russia, Ve- nice, and Turkey, by the mediation of England and Holland, CARLSBAD, town, in the Austrian empire, in Bohemia. Celebrated for its mineral waters, said to have been dis- covered in 1358, by Charles IV. while on a hunting excursion. In May, 1820, a congress was held here by the German states, in order to adopt measures for the better internal peace and order of the confederacy. CARLSCRONA, sea port town of Sweden. It derives its origin and name from Charles XI. who first laid the foundation in 16S0. It is adorned with one or two handsome churches, and a few tolerable houses of brick. In 1714 a dock was begun here, hollowed out of the solid rock : it was finished in 1724, but as it was too small for the admission of men of war, in 1757 new docks were begun, upon a stupendous plan worthy of the ancient Romans. In 1790 the town suffered from a tremendous fire, had 1087 houses, two churches, all the merchants' houses except two, and all their magazines, destroyed, June 17. CARLTON House, fete given at, when many were hurt by the pressure of the A'ast assemblage. June 20, 1811. Fete at, given to the Duke of Welling- ton, 2500 persons present, July 21, 1814. CARMELITES, or White Friars, or the Order of our Lady of Mount Carmel, an order of religious, making one of the four tribes of mendicants, or begging friars. They take both their name and origin from Mount Carmel in Palestine, formerly inhabited by the prophets Elijah and Elisha, and by the children of the prophets, from which this order pretend to descend in an uninterrupted succes- sion. Phocos, a Greek monk, says, that in his time, in 1185, Elijah's cave was still extant on the mountain, near which were the remains of a monastery; that some years before, an old monk, Ber- thold of Calabria, by revelation, as he pretended, from the prophet Elijah, fixed there, and assembled ten brothers. In 1205, Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem, gave the solitaries a rigid rule. In 1217, or, according to others, 1226, pope Honorius III. approved and confirmed this rule ; though it was afterwards mi- tigated by Innocmt IV.' The Carmel- ites came into England in 1240, and erected a great number of monasteries. Their first liouses were at Alnwick in Northumberland, and Ailesford in Kent. In England and Wales they had about forty houses. In the sixteenth century, St. Theresa, a Spanish lady of an illus- trious family, undertook the diflScult task of reforming the Carmelite order. Pius V. approved the design, and Gre- gory XIII. confirmed the reform in 1580; at the particular desire of Philip II., king of Spain. CARNATIC, a proAince, in the south- ern part of the peninsula of Hindoostan, comprehending the former dominions and dependencies of the Arcot nabobs. The first irruption of the Mahomedans into the Carnatic was in 1310; while Allah ud Deen, the scourge of the Hin- doos, reigned on the Delhi throne. But actual possession does not apj^ear to have been taken until the conclusion of Au- rengzebe's reign, in the commencement of the eighteenth century. In 1743, Anwar ud Deen was appointed Nabob of the Carnatic, and of its capital Arcot. In 1754, after a contest between the different claimants, aided by the French and English East India Companies, Mohammed Ali was left in possession of that portion of the Carnatic recovered for him by the British arms. In 1763 it was again surrendered to the Nabob Mahomed Ali, after having been a se- cond time wrested from the French. Finally, in 1783, the British had to re-conquer it from Hyder and his son Tippoo. Mahomed Ali died in 1795, and was succeeded by his son Oomdut ul Omra, who died in 1801. Azim ul Omra was then raised to the throne, on which he continued until 1819, when he. died, and was succeeded by Auzum Jah, his eldest son, who was proclaimed sou- bahdar of the Carnatic. In 1801 the whole of the possessions of the Nabob of the Carnatic, with the exception of a small portion reserved by him as house- hold lands, were transferred to the Bri- tish government by treaty. CARNEADES, theorator, authorof the third or new academy, sent a.c. 155,witli others from Athens to Rome, to plead before the senate for a mitigation of the tribute levied on their city; by their eloquence they alarmed the senate, but excited among the Roman youth an ad- miration and emulation of their talents. Carneades died A.c. 128, aged 90. CARNIiE, festivals of, instituted at Sparta a.c. 675, to be observed annually CAR 212 CAR for nine days, in August. Terpander, the poet, was the first victor. CARNIOLA, province of the Avis- trian empire, with the title of duchy, forming with Stjria, Carinthia. Friuli, and the territory of Trieste, the division of the empire called Inner Austria. Converted to Christianity about the eighth century. In the time of Charle- magne and his immediate successors, it was governed by the dukes of Friuli, and afterwards by those of Carinthia. Under ths emperor Otho II., about 976, it became a distinct margraviate, and, on its acquisition by the house of Aus- tria, was raised to the rank of a duchy. By the treaty of Vienna, in October 1809, it was made over to France, and annexed to the first military division of the Illyrian provinces ; but, in 1814, was restored to Austria. CAROLAN, author of the beautiful Irish melodies which have been put into words by Mr. Thomas Moore, died 1738, aged 68. CAROLINA, North, one of the United States of North America. The first permanent settlements were formed here about the middle of the seven- teenth century. North Carolina was long- united under the same government with South Carolina; as early as 1715, it iiad a separate legislature, and in 1727 it was formed into a distinct province. The constitution of North Carolina was agreed to by representatives chosen for that purpose at Hahfax, Dec. 18, 1776. The legislative authority is vested in a body, styled the General Assembly, consisting of a senate and a house of .I'epresentatives, both elected annually by he people. CAROLINA, South, with North Carolina and Georgia, was first granted to the Earl of Clarendon and others, by Charles II. in 1663, and the first perma- nent settlement was made at Charleston in 1710. The first constitution of this state was formed in 1775, the present was adopted in 1790. The legislative authority is vested in a general assein- ])ly, consisting of a senate and house of representatives. 1832. Disputes in the United States on account of impost duties, in which South Carolina took the lead. In No- vember, a convention of delegates from all parts of the states assembled at Co- lumbia, and assuming legislative power, enacted an ordinance by which the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 were declared null and void. Dec. 10, the Presi- dent of the United States addressed a long argumentative proclamation to the people of South Carolina, in which he endeavoured to show the propriety of the laws of which they complained, and the policy of obedience ; and, in conclu- sion, alluded to the extreme measures which might become necessary for the preservation of the Union — the recourse to arms. >'March 15, 1833, the Con- vention of South Carolina passed a re- solution revoking their nullifying pro- test of Nov. 24, 1832. CAROLINE, Elizabeth, Princess of Brunswick, afterwards Queen Consort of George IV. born May 17, 1768; married April 8, 1795. In 1808, his late majesty George III. issued a com- mission, appointing certain lords to in- vestigate her royal highness's conduct, and to report upon it to his majesty ; and they exonerated the princess from all the criminal charges which had been made against her. Feb. 11, 1813, a second enquiry was made, and after several days' minute investigation, the commissioners made their report to the prince regent, in terms which tended to establish the innocency of her royal highness. In consequence of these transactions her royal highness set out on her travels and remained abroad several years. By the death of George III. Jan. 29, 1820, she became Queen Consort of George IV. Arrived in England June 5, 1820, from Calais. June 10, demanded a restoration of all her rights, in answer to propositions which were made through the medium of Lord Liverpool. On the 22nd the queen protested against any secret investigation of her conduct, and desired time to procure witnesses. 28th, a bag, containing charges against the queen, was opened by a secret committee of the House of Lords. July 7, Ma- jocchi and other witnesses against the queen, landed at Dover. 24th, the queen petitioned for a list of times and places, as well as the several charges adduced against her, which were refused by the house of peers. Aug. 3, she removed to Brandenburgh House, Ham- mersmith. 19th, the attorney-general (Sir Robert Gifford) opened his charge against the queen. A bill of Pains and Penalties, founded on the charges to degrade and divorce CAR 213 CAR the queen, was introduced into the^house of peers by Lord Liverpool. Nov. 6, it was read a second time, when a division took place, there being 123 against 95 voices. The 10th, being the third reading, the numbers were only 108 against 99, the numerical majority of nine corres- ponding exactly to the number of minis- ters in the house, who were admitted prosecutors as well as judges in that difficult case. To pass the bill by such a majority, and in opposition to the will of a great portion of the British nation, would have been dangerous in the ex- treme, and Lord Liverpool, in conse- quence, moved that the bill should be reconsidered that day six months. 1821. At the coronation of George IV. July 19, solemnized in Westminster Ab- bey, Queen Caroline attempted to gain entrance into Westminster Hall and the Abbey, but was repulsed. Aug. 7, died at Hammersmith, after an illness of eight days. 21st. Her remains were interred in the family vault at Brunswick. CAROLINE Islands, a very exten- sive and numerous range, the most wes- tern of Polynesia, reaching between the parallels of 3i° and 94° N. over nearly 30° of longitude, from Current Island, or Pulo Anna, on the west, to Ualan, on the east. They were among the latest known in the South Sea : and were dis- covered first in 1686, by Francisco La- zeano, driven thither by a storm from the Ladrones, who gave them the name after Charles of Spain. Since that time there has been a considerable intercourse be- tween the two groups ; and the ship- wreck of Captain Wilson in 1783, made us acquainted with the Pelew Islands, Hogolen, Yap, and Ponnipet, discovered by the Russians in 1826, are high is- lands, and the largest in the Archipelago. Notwithstanding, these islands were but little known in detail till Captain Uau- perry in the Coquille, in 1834, ran through their whole extent from E. to W. discovering many small islands, and surveying in detail the island of Ualan or Oualan. This island was, about 1836, visited and described by the Russian navi- gator. Captain Luthe. It is the most easternmost of the group, and is 24 miles in circumference. The people are rather below the middle size, well made, but slight, hospitable, peaceful and- kind in their manners. The urosses or chiefs reside altogether in one small town, and are implicitly obeyed by the people. CARP, first brought to England 1525. CARPATHIAN ^Nation, surrender- ed themselves to the Romans who settled them in Pannonia in 295. CARPENTERS' Company, London, incorporated 1344. CARPET, order of the, made in Eng- land, 1553. CARR, Sir John, knt., a facetious writer of travels, born 1772. He was a native of Devonshire, and bred to the law, which he practised in the Middle Temple ; and at first had recourse to travel, on account of ill health. His first publication was " The Fury of Dis- cord, a poem," printed in 1803, in 4to. His " Stranger in France, a Tour from Devonshire to Paris," written in the same year, was read with avidity. In 1804, he published " The Sea-side Hero, a drama, in three acts," the scene of which was laid in Sussex, on the sup- posed attack of the anticipated invasion ; and in 1805 appeared " A Northern Summer, or Travels round the Baltic, through, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, part of Poland, and Prussia, in 1804." In 1806, appeared "The Stranger in Ireland ; or a Tour in the Southern and Western parts of that country, in 1805 ;" soon after, the author was knighted by the duke of Bedford, then viceroy; in 1807, he published " A Tour through Holland, along the right and left banks of the Rhine, in the South of Germany, in 1806." The frequency of his productions now began to elicit remark ; and Mr. Edward Dubois ventured to satirize Sir John Carr's trade in Tours, in a 12mo. little book, entitled " My Pocket Book, or Hints for a Ryghte Merrie and Conceit- ede Tour, in 4to., to be called The Stranger in Ireland, in 1805 ; by a Knight Errant, and dedicated to the paper makers." For this publication, the booksellers were prosecuted in 1809. It appeared on the trial, that Sir John Carr had received for the copyright of his Stranger in France £100 ; for the North- ern Summer £500; for the Stranger in Ireland £700 ; and the Tour in Holland £600. Sir John failed in obtaining a verdict, the jury considering that " My Pocket Book" contained no personal re- flections on the knight. He died July 17, 1832, in New Norfolk street, Lon- don, aged 60. CAR 214 CAR CARREL, Arm AND, editor of the " National" newspaper, and one of the political writers who were conspicuous in the proceedings which brought about the Revolution at Paris, in l-i30, died July 24, 1836, of a wound received in a duel, with the editor of " La Presse." His remains received a public funeral, at which men of such opposite sentiments as Chateaubriand, Arago, Latitte, and Beranger, were present. CARRIAGES taxed 1747, 1776, 1782, 1785, and ISOS. By 2 and 3 Will. IV., 1 832,the tax was reduced on carriages with less than four wheels. By this act, two- wheeled carriages, drawn by one horse, without metal springs, value under £21, pay only £1 10s. duty. CARRIBBEE,or Caribbee Islands. See Caribbee Islands. CARRIERS. Proprietors of carts and waggons, masters and owners of ships, hoymen, lightermen, bargemen, ferry- men, &c., are denominated common carriers. At common law, there is no distinction between carriage performed by sea or land ; but by the 7th Geo. II., c. 15, and 26 Geo. III., c. 86, corrected and amended by 53 Geo. III., c. 159, it is enacted, that ship-owners are not lia- ble for any loss or damage happening to goods on board, through the fraud or neglect of the master, without their knowledge or privity, further than the value of the vessel, and the freight ac- cruing during the voyage. Until the act of 1830, a carrier might, by express stipulation, giving public notice to that eiFect, discharge his lia- bility from all losses by robbery, acci- dent, or otherwise, except those which arose from gross negligence. Notices generally bore, that the carrier would not be responsible for more than a cer- tain sum (usually £5) on any one parcel, the value of which had not been declared and paid for accordingly. But to avail himself of this defence, the carrier was bound to show that the bailor, or his servant, was acquainted with the notice, at the time of delivering the goods. This gave rise to agreatdeal of litigation and uncertainty, and to obviate the in- conveniences thence arising, the impor- tant statute, 1 Will. IV. c. 68, was pas- sed. This act declares, that carriers by land shall not l)e liable for the loss of certain articles specified in the act, when their value exceeds £10, unless the na- ture and value of such articles be stated at the time of their delivery to the carrier, and an increased charge paid or agreed to be paid upon the same. It is further declared, that no publication of any no- tices by carriers shall have power to limit their responsibility at common law for all other articles except those specified in the act. CARRINGTON, N. T., a modern poet, author of " My Native Village," and other poems, born at Plymouth, in 1777. He entered himself as a seaman on board a ship of war, and served in the action which took place off Cape Fi- nisterre, February 14, 1797. His first poem of any importance was the " Banks of Tamar," in 1820. He next pubhshed " Dartmoor," a descriptive poem. This was written for the piu'pose of being submitted for the premium offered by the Royal Society of Literature, but the premium was awarded three or four months before Mr. Carrington was aware that the time of presentation had arrived. By some chance, it came under the notice of W. Burt, Esq., secretary of the Ply- mouth Chamber of Commerce, who per- suaded Mr. Carrington to publish it, and in 1826 it appeared. In 1827, he was attacked by consumption, and in a few months, it was apparent that the disease would inevitably be fatal. During his illness, he wrote and prepared for the press his last publication, — " My Native Village, and other Poems." He was libe- rally patronised by his late majesty, George IV. He died September 2, 1831, at his son's house, in St. James's street, Bath, after long and patiently-endured suffering, aged, 53. CARRON Iron Works, situate at a village of Scotland, in the county of Stirling, seated on a river of the same name. These works, which have attained distinguished celebrity, were first esta- blished principally under the direction of Dr. Roebuck, an ingenious chemist and physician, of Birmingham. The neces- sary preparations for the establishment of the iron-works, were finished towards the close of the year 1759; and on the first of January, 1760, the first furnace was blown. The present proprietors of this foundery are a chartered company, with a capital of £150,000 sterling, a common hall, &c. CARTE, Thomas, a learned and la- borious Enghsh historian, born April 23, I6s6. In consequence of a sermon. CAR 215 CAR preaclied Janunry 30, 1713,14, and vin- dicating the character of Charles I., he was engaged in a controversy with Mr. Chandler, which occasioned his first pub- lication, entitled " The Irish Massacre, set in a clear light, &c." In 1715, he was suspected of being concerned in the rebellion, and was for some time con- cealed in the house of a clergyman, at ColeshiU. Being charged with high treason, in 1722, a reward of £1000 was offered for seizing his person. He es- caped to France, and resided in that country several years under the name of Philips. By the interest of queen Caroline, he obtained permission to re- turn, and soon after engaged in his im- portant work, " The History of the Life of James, duke of Ormonde," published in 1735,36. He commenced his great work, the History of England, in 1738, which was not completed till 1755. He died at Caldecot house, near Abingdon, in Berkshire, April 2, 1754. CARTES, Rene' des, the French philosopher. See Des Cartes. CARTHAGE a celebrated city of an- tiquity, the capital of Africa Propria, and which for many years disputed with Rome the sovereignty of the \^'orld. The beginning of its history is obscure and uncertain. It was said to have been built by Queen Dido, a.c. 869, who to avoid the avarice of Pygmalion, had, with a few faithful followers, left her native land, and after wandering for some time in search of a settlement, fixed upon the coast of Africa. Some writers think that she only enlarged a town already built. The new city soon became very populous and floiirishing, but on account of the Punic archives being destroyed by the Romans, there is a chasm in its history for above 300 years. The Car- thaginians applied themselves to mari- time affairs, and by degrees extended their power over all the islands in the Mediterranean. From a.c. 480 to 250 perpetual wars took place between the Sicilians under Dionysius, Agathacles, and others, and the Carthaginians. A.c. 256. The first Punic war com- menced, and is said to have lasted 24 years. After many bloody engagements by which the resources of these rival republics were mutually exhausted, hos- tilities were terminated by an important naval engagement, a.c. 242, in which Lutatius, the Roman consul, destroyed the Carthaginian fleet, off the isles of yEgates, which craised the Carthaginians to sue for peace, and ended the first Punic war. Next followed the African or Lybian war, principally occasioned by a neglect on the part of the Carthaginians in set- tling the arrears of the soldiers' pay, or ful- filling the promises made to them by Hanno ; it lasted three years and fovir months, terminating in a.c. 238. -In a.c. 237, Hamilcar the Carthaginian general, led an army into Spain, and took with him his son Hannibal, nine years old, having first made him swear on the altar an eternal enmity to Rome. a.c. 219, Sa- guntum, in Spain, was taken by Hanni- bal, after a siege of about eight months', the inhabitants, to avoid falling into his hands burnt themselves with their houses and effects : this led to a new quarrel between Rome and Carthage. a.c. 218. The second Punic war began with Hannibal's crossing the Alps, and continued seventeen years : the Romans were defeated at Ticinum and Trebia, A.c. 217, and at Thrasymene, 216. Hannibal gained a complete victory over the Romans at Cannse, in Apulia, about May 21 : 40,000 of them were killed in this affair ; and three bushels of rings taken from the knights, were sent as a trophy to Carthage. Hannibal continu-^ ed in Italy about 16 years altogether,, but did little more than harass his ene- mies, for want of reinforcements, which were withheld by a faction at home. A.c. 207. Asdrubaljhavingenteredltaly across the Alps, with troops to reinforce his brother Hannibal, was defeated and slain by Claudius Nero. A.c. 204, Scipio arrived in Africa, and besieged Utica ; next year, he took, in one day, the camps of Asdrubal and his son-in-law Syphax,, a king of Numidia, who had come to relieve the city. A.c. 203, Hannibal was recalled from Italy, to defend the Carthaginian territoi'ies ; the Romans having carried the war into Africa, a.c. 202, Scipio, surnamed Africanus, defeat- ed Hannibal at the battle of Zama, Oct. 19; and, next year, the Carthaginians obtained peace on very humiliating terms which closed the second Punic war. A.c. 149. The third Punic war com- menced, and lasted three years. A.c. 146, jEmilianus Scipio finished it by the destruction of Carthage. Before he de- stroyed the city he sacrificed to the gods and caused a plough to be drawn round CAR 210 CAS the walls of the city. After this, the towers, ramparts, wall, and nil the works which the Carthaginians had raised in the course of many ages, and at a vast expense, were levelled with the ground; and lastly, fire was set to the edifices of the proud metropolis, which consumed them all, not a single house escapinsj the flames. When he saw this famous city, which had heen so flourishing 700 years, and might have been compared to the greatest empires, on account of the ex- tent of its dominions both by sea and land, entirely ruined, historians re- late that he could not refuse his tears to the unhappy fate of Carthage. According to some authors, Carthajje was rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and Stra- bo, who flourished in the reign of Tibe- rius, affirms it in his time to have been equal, if not superior, to any other city in Africa. Maxentius laid it in ashes about the sixth or seventh year of Con- etantine's reign. Genseric, king of the Vandals took it ad. 439 ; but about a century afterwards it was reannexed to the Roman empire by Belisarius. At last the Saracens, under Mahomet's suc- cessors, towards the close of the seventh century, so completely destroyed it, that there are now scarcely any traces re- maining. The city of Tunis was built about 10 miles from the site of Car- thage. CARTHAGENA, seaport town of Spain, founded a.u.c. 525, a.c. 220, by Asdrubal, the Carthaginian general, in order to secure the subjection of the country. It was taken by Scipio Afri- canus A.c. 212, after the defeat of Han- nibal under the walls of Carthage in Africa. It became a Roman colony in the time of Caesar, who established a colony in it after the battle of Munda. After having been destroyed by the Goths, it was rebuilt by Philip II., in the sixteenth centurv. CARTHUSIANS, an order of reli- gious, instituted by S. Bruno, about the year 1084, remarkable for the austerity of their rule, which obliges them to a perpetual solitude. There have been some female Carthusian convents ; but the increase of them was prohibited in 1368. They were brought into England by Henry II, about the year 1180, and had only nine houses ; their first house being at Witham in Somersetshire. CARTWRIGHT, Major John, the steady and upright advocate of parlia- mentary and national reform, died 1824. CARTWRIGHT, Rev. Edmu.nd, brother of the above-mentioned illus- trious man, and father of reform, was the inventor of the weaving-machine, died 1814. CARUS, M. AuRELius, the Roman emperor, succeeded to the throne in 282; killed by lightning, in 284. CASAL, an ancient town of Italy, in- habited by several families, some of whom pretend to have their descent from Numa Pompilius. It was formerly strongly fortified, and withstood a siege in 1629. The imperialists obtained pos- session of it in 1706, the French in 1745, and, like the rest of Italy, it has acknow- ledged diflferent masters with the rise and fall of the great powers in the late wars. CASAN, or Kasan, ancient Bulga- ria, a government of European Russia, formerly a khanship, founded by the grandson of Genghiz Khan. In 1441, the governor declared himself an inde- pendent prince, but in 1552, the district was conquered by Ivan II., and annexed to Russia. CASAS, Bartholomew de las, a Spanish prelate, eminently distin- guished for his humanity and zeal for the conversion of the Indians, was born at Seville in 1474 ; and accompanied his father who sailed to America with Christopher Columbus in 1493. He exerted himself with extraordinary zeal for fifty years together, in his endea- vours to persuade the Spaniards that they ought to treat the Indians with equity and mildness ; for which he suf- fered a number of persecutions from his countrymen. He died at Madrid in 1566, aged 92. CASAUBON, Isaac, a learned critic and commentator, born at Geneva in 1559. In 1578, he commenced his studies there. In 1598, he removed to Paris, where he was introduced to King Henry IV. After this prince's death, he went to England with Sir Henry Wotton, ambassador from King James I. He died in 1614; and was interred in Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to him. CASAUBON, Meric, son of Isaac, born at Geneva in 1599. He accompa- nied his father to England, in 1610, finished his education at Christ-church college, Oxford, where he took the de- gree of M. A. in 1621. In 1628, by the CAS interest and recoinmeiulation of Bishop Laud, lie was made prebendaty of Canterbury. He died in 1671. Uis publications were very numerous. Among others, " A Treatise concerning Enthu- siasm, as it is an Eflfect of Nature, but is mistaken by many for either Divine Inspiration, or Diabolical Possession," 1655 ; a work highly commended by Sir William Temple, as a happy attempt to account for delusions upon natural piinciples. CASHMAN, John, a Spa-fields rioter, hanged for stealing firearms from the shop of Beck with, March, 12, 1817. CASHMERE, valley and city, Cen- tral Asia, in the Afghan state of Cabool. According to tradition, the valley of Cashmere was drained and colonized by Casyapa, about a. c. 2666, from which date there is a regular chronological table of kings, down to its conquest by the Mahomedans. It was attacked and ravaged by the Mahmood of Ghizni, A. D. 1012. It was afterwards governed by a race of Tartar princes of the Chug, or Chagatay tribe, until 1586, when it was subdued by Acbar, and continued subject to the Moguls of Delhi, until the time of Ahmed Shah Abdali, of Cabul, to which kingdom, until recently, it con- tinued annexed. 1809. Mahomed Azim Khan, the soubahdar of the province, threw off the yoke. In 1816, a powerful army from Cabul attempted its recovery, but, owing to treachery, was compelled to retreat. In 1819, Runjeet Singh, of Lahore, eflFected the conquest of the city, and some portions of the country. In ] 820, the chief of Cashmere, Mahomed Azim Khan, made overtures for a treaty of al- liance, and requested that Cashmere might be taken under the protection of the British government. This proposal, however, was not assented to. CASIMIR III., surnamed the Great, king of Poland, succeeded his father Uladislaus III., in 1333, and, soon after his accession, engaged in a contest with the Teutonic knights. He first gave the Poles a regular code of written laws, such as had never before been seen in Poland. He died 1370, aged 60. CASLON, William, an eminent letter- founder, was born in 1692, at Hales Owen in Shropshire. In 1735, he established his foundery in Chiswell- street, where, in process of time, it be- came the first existing in this or in any 217 CAS foreign countries. He died in January, 1766, aged 74. CASSANDER, king of Macedon, was son of Antipater, and one of Alexander's chief captains. Upon the death of Alexander, he had the province of Caiia assigned him. Became master of Athens, A. c. 318 ; usurped the throne of Mace- don, a. c. 311; rebuilt Thebes, and founded Cassandria, a. c. 315; put to death Roxana and her son, a. c. 311; and died a. c. 295. CASSANDRA, daughter of Priam, king of Troy and Hecuba, and wife of Agamemnon ; she fell a victim on occa- sion of the assassination of that prince about A. c. 1149. CASSANO suLL Adda, town of Italy, in the Lombardo- Venetian territory. Celebrated for a battle fought here in 1705, between the French and Austrians, commanded by Prince Eugene ; and another in 1799, between the armies of the same nations. CASSAY,provinceof Indiabeyond the Ganges. In 1754, Alompra, monarch of the Burman empire, sent an army against the Cassays, and attempted to subjugate them; and again in 1757. In 1765, his son entered and plundered Cassay, and in 1774 took Munipoor, the capital, and reduced Cassay to the condition of a pro- vince of his kingdom. In this dependence it continued up to 1824, when the Bur- mese were driven from Munipoor by the British, and the independence of Cassay, was accomplished by the treaty of Yan- daboo. CASSEL, or Mont cassel, a town of France, department of the noith. Ce- lebrated in mihtary history as having been the scene of the following battles : between Robert le Prison and Philip 1., 1070 ; between Philip le Bel and the Burgundians, 1328 ; between Phihp. duke of Orleans, and the prince of Orange, in 1677. CASSEL, capital of the electorate of Hesse Cassel. During the seven years' war, this town (then fortified) was long the head quarters of the French, until in 1762, they sur^nrdered it to the allies. The fortifications were then demolished. Jerome, king of Westphalia, embellished this place, which he made the capital of his kingdom, until its dissolution in 1813. CASSINI, John Dominic, an emi- nent astronomer, born at Piedmont in 1625. The comet which appeared w 1652, was observed by him with great 2f CAS 218 CAS accuracy; and he discovered that comets were bodies of the same nature, and pro- bably governed by the same laws, as the planets. The same year he resolved the astronomical problem, which Kepler and Bullialdus had deemed incapable of so- lution, for geometrically determining the apogee and ecceatricity of a planet from its mean and true place. He di- rected peculiar attention to the theory of Jupiter's satellites, which he settled with accuracy, and published at Rome, among other astronomical pieces in 1666. In 1669, he was appointed royal astronomer at Paris, where he was naturalized in 1673. In 1672, he determined the pa- rallax of Mars and the sun. In 1677, he demonstrated that the diurnal rotation of Jupiter about its axis was performed in 9 hours 58 minutes. In 1684, he discovered four satellites of Saturn, in addition to that which Huygens had be- fore observed ; and in 1695, he visited Bologna for the purpose of examining the meridian line which he had fixed there in 1653, and there he showed, in the presence of several eminent mathe- maticians, that it had not for forty years undergone the least variation. He died September 14, 1712, aged 87. CASSINI, James, the younger son of the former, was born at Paris in 1677. In 1696, he visited England, and be- came a member of the Royal Society. In 1700, he assisted his father in the mea- surement of the meridian ; and in 1718, he finished the operation begun by M. de la Hire, north of Paris, in concurrence with Maraldi and the younger de la Hire. In 1712, he succeeded his father as as- tronomer royal at the observatory. In 1717, he communicated to the academy his researches on the distance of the fixed stars. In 1725, he undertook to investigate the cause of the moon's li- bration. In 1740, he published his "As- tronomical Tables," and his " Elements of Astronomy ;" both of which are very comprehensive and accurate works. He died, April, 1756, aged 80. CASSINI, De Thury, C^sar FRAN901S, the second son of the former, who succeeded his father as director of the observatory, and was a member of most of the learned societies in Europe, born at Paris, June 17, 1714. He was scarcely 13 years of age when he calcu- lated the phases of the total eclipse of the sun, in 1727. He undertook to measure the meridian of Paris by a new series of triangles, the result of which was pub- lished in 1740. In 17GI, he undertook an expedition into Germany, for the pur- pose of continuing to Vienna the per- pendicular of the Paris meridian. His observations of the transit of Venus, June 6, 1761, made during his stay at Vienna, were published in his " Voyage en Allemagne." The volumes of the memoirs of the French academy, be- tween the years 1735 and 1770, contain a great number of his papers. Having cultivated astronomy for 50 years, he died of the small-pox, September 4, 1784, aged 71. CASSIUS, Caius, a celebrated Ro- man, who, in the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, took part with the latter, and commanded his fleet. After the battle of Pharsalia, a.c. 48, he sailed with 70 ships to the coast of Asia, with a view of raising forces, and renewing the war against Caesar. He was engaged with Brutus in the con- spiracy against Csesar. See Brutus. He was slain at the battle of Phillipi, A.c. 42, but the particular circumstances of his death have not been ascertained. CASTALIO, (Sebastian,) transla- tor of the Latin Bible,born 1 5 1 5,died 1 563. CASTILE AND ARAGON, kingdom of, began during the civil contentions of the Saracens in Spain, in 1035 ; the former under Ferdinand, who united Leon to it next year, and the latter Ramirus. These subsisted as separate states till 1474, when Ferdinand V., heir of Aragon, married Isabella, queen of Castile, and, by the death of John II., in 1479, they reigned jointly over both kingdoms, from which period the Spa- nish monarchv commences. See Spain. CASTINE,' fort of, in the Penobscot,, taken by the British September 1, 1814. CASTLE AND Sword, order of, es- tablished by the prince regent of Por- tugal, 1807. CASTLE-ANE Priory, Norfolk, built 1090. CASTLE-ANE Monastery, York- shire, built 1085. CASTLE Cornet, Guernsey, built 1100. CASTLE Pollard, Ireland, an affray with the police. May 28, 1836. A coro- ner's inquest returned a verdict against the chief constable and eighteen of the po- lice, of having caused the death of several individuals by firing at them. The grand jury subsequently ignored the bills pre- ferred against them for murder, and the relatives of the individuals refusing to CAS 219 CAT proceed against them for manslaughter, the prosecution was abandoned. CASTLE-RisiNG Castle, Norfolk, built 1204. CASTLE-RusHEN Castle, Isle of Man, built 96O. CASTLE-TowN, Isle of Man, built 960. CASTLES IN England. The Saxons, Romans, and even the ancient Britons, had castles built with stone, yet, these were both few in number, and even at the conquest, through neglect or inva- sions, either destroyed or so much de- cayed, that little more than their ruins were remaining. Richborough, Port- chester, and Pevensej'^, are the three greatest fortresses the Romans have left us. Alfred the Great was the first of our princes with whom the building of castles became an object of national policy. To this period the most judi- cious of our writers have referred the castle at Colchester, in Essex. William I., sensible that the want of fortified places in England had greatly facilitated his conquest, and might, at any time, also, facilitate his expulsion ; made all possible haste to remedy the defect. On his accession, he began to erect castles all over the kingdom, and likewise to repair and augment the old ones, so that between 1140 and 1154, there were 1115 castles of this description. As the feudal system gathered strength, these castles became the heads of ba- ronies. But the lords of these castles began to arrogate to themselves a royal power. At length their insolence and oppres- sion becoming intolerable, in the treaty between King Stephen and Henry II., when only duke of Normandy, about 1153, it was agreed, that all the castles built within a certain period should be demolished] in consequence of which many were actually rased, but not the number stipulated. The total change in military tactics brought about by the invention of gun- powder and artillery, in the fourteenth century, conspired to render castles of little use or consequence as fortresses. The last historical notice of them is in the reign of James I., a little before the breaking out of the civil war, Jan. 22, 16.36, when a commission was issued ap- pointing lieutenant colonel Francis Co- ningsby, commissary general of and for all the castles and fortifications in Eng land and AVales, with an allowance o 13s. 4d. a-day, to be paid out of the cheques and defalcations that should be made by him from time to time ; or, in default thereof, out of the Treasury. CASTOR, in Lincolnshire, church of, nearly destroyed by lightning, June 6, 1795. CASTRO DB Ordiales, a port in Bisca)^, stormed and taken by the French, May 11, 1813, evacuated, and taken pos- session of by the English, May 25. CATACOMBS, subterraneous exca- vations for the burial of the dead. These are monuments of great curiosity, con- siderable both in size and number, and most of them of great antiquity. Some are temples, like those of India, in the mountains of EUora; some have been originally executed for the purpose of sepulture ; others have owed their origin to the operations of quarrying for building materials, and have been sub- sequently converted to other purposes : of this nature are the catacombs of Rome, and the quarries, or Latomise of Syra- cuse, which served for public prisons. The catacombs of Thebes are, among all these monuments, the most extraordi- nary and magnificent ; these consist of the Necropolis or city of the dead, on the west bank of the Nile, which was the common burial-place of the inhabitants, and the tomb of the kings. The former is situated on the north-west of this city. These excavations are almost innumer- able, and occupy a space of nearly a mile and a half square. The sepulchres of the kings of Thebes are the most an- cient catacombs with which we are ac- quainted, as they can be traced during a period of 3000 or 4000 years. The whole chain of mountains in the neigh- bourhood of Thebes, is penetrated for almost three-fourths of its height, by an .ilraost incredible number of openings, leading to an immense labyrinth of cata- combs. See Thebes. The catacombs of Paris were recently open for inspection to travellers from this country. The bones there deposited were brought from different churchyards and quarters of Paris, and the catacombs contain the bones of two millions three hundred thousand persons. On April 7, 1786, this vast charnel-house was conse- crated by the grand vicars of that me- tropolis. They were opened for inspec- tion about 18 16. CATALOGUES, Hsts, or enumera- tions of the names of books, men, or other things; disposed according to a CAT 220 CAT certain order, first adopted by George Wilier, a bookseller, of Augsburg, in the year 1554. Catalogues of English books were first printed and published in England 1595, and in Ireland 1632. 'i'lie most applauded of all catalogues is that of Thauanus's library, first drawn up l)y the two Puteani, in the ali)habetical order, then digested ac- cording to the sciences and subjects, by Islim. Bullialdus, and published by F. Quesnel at Paris, in 1679, and reprinted at Hamburgh in 1704. CATALONIA, anc. Taraconensis, a province of Spain, onp of the first which attracted the attention of the Romans, and in which they first established their dominion. It was wrested from them by the Goths in 470 ; from the latter by the Moors in 712, and from them by the French in the beginning of the ninth' century. Under the counts of Barcelona, in the twelfth century, Catalonia was di- vided into vignieries, which subsisted soon after the union of the province with the rest of Spain. During the war of the succession, the Catalonians joined the standard of the archduke Charles ; but « hen the imperial troops had evacuated Spain, they were obliged to yield after an obstinate resistance of two years to the authority of Philip V., at the begin- ning of the l7th century, becoming go- verned like the rest of the kingdom. CATANIA, the ancient Catana, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Noto, near tiie foot of mount /Etna, founded in the eighth century. It has frequently sufl'ered in ancient and modern times, from the eruption of thismoimtain. The edifices, even the walls of the city, are built prin- cipally of lava. The ancient city Catana was entirely destroyed by an earthquake, in 1693; its ruins, when dug up, have all been found to consist of lava, which fiunished materials for the modern city. Catania received considerable damage from a shock which occurred in Feb. 1783. C.\TAPULT/E, ancient military en- gines, designed to cast stones or arrows, said to have beerr invented by Dionysins, of Syracuse, a.c. 398. CATEAU Cambresis, peace of, between France, Spain and Piedmont. France ceded Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 forts in Italy' and the Low Coun- tries, in 1559, CATENARY, a mechanical curve, formed by a hpavy fle.vible line hanging freely from two points of suspension. Galileo mistook the true nature of this curve, which was not discovered till 1691, when M. John Bernoulli, jointly with Huygens and Leibnitz, gave the solution. Its properties were afterwards in 1697, investigated by Dr. David Gregory, who contends, that the cate- nary curve inverted, is the best shaps possible for the arch of a biidge. CATHARINE I., Empress of Russia, originally the natural daughter of a country girl, was born at a village near Dorpt, in Livonia, in 1687. In 1701, she espoused a dragoon of the Swedish garrison of Marienburgh. In 1704, she became the mistress of Peter the Great, and won so much upon his affections, that he soon afterwards espoused her. The ceremony was at first secretly per- formed, and in 1712 it was publicly so- lemnized with great pomp at Peters- burgh. The peace of Pruth, in 1711, by which the Russian army was rescued from certain destruction, has been wholly attributed to Catharine. On the death of Peter, Jan 28, 1725, prince Menzikof, hastened to the palace to proclaim her sovereign. The reign of Catharine may be considered as the reign of Menzikof, that empress having neither inclination nor abilities to direct the helm of go- vernment. She died May 17, 1727, a little more than two years after her ac- cession to the throne, and in about the 40th year of her age. CATHARINE 11., Empress of Rus- sia, whose original name was Sophia Augusta Fredeiica, was the daughter of Christian Augustus of Anhalt Zerbst, and was bom at Stettin, May 1, 1729. When only 14 years of age, she was married to the duke of Holstein Gottorp Oldenburg, a nephew of the empress Elizabeth, whom she had selected for her successor. Immediately after their marriage, they were formally acknow- ledged, as grand duke and duchess of Russia. On the death of the empress, Jan. 5, 1762, the grand duke ascended the throne, by the name of Peter III. ; but in consequence of the intrigues of Catharine, on July 14, he was taken prisoner by her orders, prevailed on to renounce his crown, conveyed to the castle of Robscba, and three days after- wards put to death. The empress, on her assumption of the government, noti- fied the event to all the courts of Europe, under the new name of Catharine Alex- C A T 221 CAT iewna II. The same year she expelled the lawful sovereign of Courland, and in- vested Biron, a creature of her own, with the ducal cap. In 1768, Catharine declared war against the Turks, in which the Russians were triumphant, both by sea and land. The mind of Catharine was occupied with projects of subjugat- ing the Persians, and assisting in the overthrow of the French republic, when she was seized with a fit of apoplexy, which occasioned her death, Nov. 10, 1797, aged 68, and in the 35th year of her reign. See Russia. CATHARINE of Arapon, first queen of Henry VIII. of England, born in 1483 ; married to Arthur, son of Henry VII., 1501, who died the same year ; when she was contracted to Henry VIII.; divorced 1529, died 1536. CATHARINE Hall, Cambridge, founded in 1475. CATHARINE-HiLL Chapel, Sur- rey, built in 1230. CATHARINE Howard, the fourth wife of Henry VIII., beheaded in 1542. CATHARINE St., Order of knight- hood, began in Palestine, 1063. CATHARINE, St., Order of, in modern history, belongs to ladies of the first quality in the Russian court. It was instituted in 1714, by Catharine, wife of Peter the Great, in memory of his signal escape , from the Turks in 1711. CATHOLICS, a name given in the 1st century to the Roman christians, and afterwards assumed by the chris- tian church, in order to distinguish itself from all sects. The Romish church now particularly claims the name of catholic, in opposition to all those who have separated from her communion. Laws in Enqland in relation TO Catholics. The two statutes, 1 Ehz. c. 1 & 2, 1558, 1559, commonly denominated the acts of supremacy and uniformity, form the basis of that re- strictive code of laws, which pressed heavily for more than two centuries upon the adherents to the Romish church. In 1581, an act passed, which, after repeat- ing the former provisions that had made it high treason to reconcile any of her majesty's subjects, or to be reconciled, to the church of Rome, imposes a pe- nalty of £20 a month on all persons ab- senting themselves from church. In 1584, a law was enacted enjoining all Jesuits, seminary priests, and other priests, whether ordained within or without the kingdom, to depart from it within forty days, on pain of being ad- judged traitors. 1591. A statute was enacted, 33 Eliz. c. 2, restricting popish recusants to par- ticular places of residence, and subject- ing them to other vexatious provisions. These statutes were not enforced during the reign of Charles I., so that the number pardoned, in the first X6 years of that king, is said to have amounted, in twenty nine counties only, to 11,970. In the reign of Charles II., some steps were taken towards mitigating the penal laws against the catholic religion, by the lords, in the session of 1661. In 1672, the king again published a declaration of indulgence, or a suspension of all penal laws. In 1673, parliament compelled the king to recal his proclamation, and raised a fresh barrier against the en- croachment of popery in the test act. The year 1678 was rendered memor- able by the great national delusion of the popish plot, which gave rise to the measure of the exclusion bill, and after- wards to the carrying of a measure which shut the catholic peers out of parliament. 30 Car. II., Stat. 2, 1679, is the declara- tion subscribed by members of both houses of parliament on taking their seat, that there is no transubstantiation of the elements in the Lord's supper, and that the invocation of saints, as practised in the church of Rome, is idolatrous. Unfortunately for the catholics of Ire- land, the war which followed the revo- lution in 1688, gave rise to a severe po- licy towards the catholics, which placed them almost entirely beyond the reach of any alleviating measures, so that at the end of the l7th century, the Irish or Anglo-Irish catholics could hardly pos- sess above one-sixth or one-seventh of the kingdom. The victorious party saw no security but in a system of oppression, contained in a series of laws during the reigns of William and Anne. One of the most remarkable acts of parliament ])assed during the year 1700, was that against the catholics, which enacted that all persons reared in that belief, or suspected of being papists, and succeeding to any estate ere they had attained the age of 18, should be com- pelled to take the oath of allegiance and supremacy, and the test as soon as they had attained that age ; and until they did so, the estate was to devolve CAT 222 CAT to the next of kin, being a protestant, but was , to revert back after they had taken the oaths. The same bill banished all catholic priests, condemning them to perpetual imprisonment in the event of their returning from beyond the sea ; a reward of £100 was also offered to any one discovering a priest, so as to convict him. This state of things was too grievous to remain long without some redress. In May, 1778, Sir George Saville made a motion for the repeal of some penalties enacted against the catholics. In 1790, a body of catholics formally protested against the temporal power of the pope, and against his assumed authority to release men from their civil ol)ligalions, or dispense with the sacredness of oaths. Mr. Millford brought forward a bill to relieve those protesting catholics from the penalties and disabilities to which persons professing the popish religion were by law subject. The bill passed unanimously. In the session for 1792, the government made some additional concessions to the catholics, by which all legal obstructions to their intermar- riages with protestants were removed. In March 1793, a bill of relief was brought into the House of Commons, enabling the Catholics to e?:ercise and enjoy all- civil and military offices and places of trust or profit under the crown ; but that it should not be construed to extend to enable any Roman Catholic to sit or vote in either house of Parlia- ment, or to fill the office of lord-lieu- tenant, or lord-chancellor, or judge in either of the three courts of record or admiralty, or keeper of the privy-seal, secretary of state, lieutenant, or custos rotidorum of counties, or privy-coun- cillor, or master in chancery, or a gene- ral on the staff, or sheriff, or sub-sheriff of any county, with a number of other disqualifications. The bill, at length, modified with these restrictions, passed. Early in 1800, the great measure of a legislative union Avith Ireland was car- ried into effect, which renewed the ap- plication for redress. In 1803, a bill was passed to relieve the Roman Catholics from some of the penalties and disabili- ties to which they were then subject, on subscribing the declaration and oath contained in the act of the 31st of George II. But much more effectual measures were contemplated, when, on the 5th of March, 1807, a bill was brought into the House of Commons by Lord Howick, which, without having for its object what was called the eman- cipation of the catholics, was adapted to afford them great satisfaction, and was doubtless intended as the precursor of a system of a yet more enlarged toleration. But his majesty George HI. having ma- turely considered the nature and extent of the bill, regarded it as contrary to the obligations of his coronation oath, and the princii)les of the British consti- tution, and it was abandoned. NoL'.vithstanding this abortive attempt, however, sonie further efforts were again made by the friends of catholic emanci- pation, during the years 1813 and 1817, to bring their case before parliament. This period is rendered remarkable by its giving occasion to the last exertion of the celebrated Mr. Grattan on behalf of his country, who, after a long period devoted to its service in the parhament of Ireland, resolved to proceed to Lon- don, to bring, once more, the claims of his countrymen before the imperial parliament ; but he died, on his arrival in the British metropolis, June 4, 1820. In Mr. Plunkett, however, his country found an able and worthy successor: and, on Feb. 28, 1821, the latter was entrusted with a petition, bearing the signatures of some thousands of Irish catholics, praying that their case might receive the attention of the legislature. 1823. Lord Nugent brought in a mea- sure for placing English catholics on an equal footing with those of Ireland, by giving them the elective franchise, and admitting them to hold certain offices. This concession being supported by Mr. Peel, passed the commons without much difficulty ; but it was not intro- duced into the lords. March 1, 1825. Sir Francis Burdett presented the general petition of the Roman Catholics of Ireland, and moved the appointment of a committee, to con- sider the state of the laws affecting the Roman Catholics. This was followed by a series of resolutions, the object of which was, the repeal or alteration of those oaths and declarations required by certain Acts of Parliament to be made as qualifications for offices, and which relate to opinions merely speculative, not effecting the civil duty of the sub- ject. These resolutions being adopted, a bill founded on them was introduced by Sir Francis Burdett, March 23, and CAT 223 was read a first time. The bill had made some progress, when, on April 25, the Duke of York rose in the House of Lords, and stated, that he had been re- quested to present to their lordships the petition of the dean and canons of Wind- sor, praying that no further concessions should be made to the Roman Catholics. It was on this occasion, that his royal highness, concluded his speech in the following memorable manner: — "These," continued his royal highness, " are the principles to which I will adhere, and which I will maintain and act up to, to the latest moment of my existence, whatever may be my situation of life — So help me God ! " On May 10, it was passed in the commons by a majority of 21, but was lost in the lords. Sir Francis Burdett March 5, 1827, moved the following resolution. " That this house is deeply impressed with the necessity of taking into immediate con- sideration the laws inflicting penalties on his Majesty's Roman Catholic sub- jects, with a view of removing them." The motion was lost by a majority of four, the number being, for the motion 272, against it 276. Lastly, Feb. 5, 1829, as a prelude to the relief bill, was read the king's speech, relating to the consideration of parlia- ment, " whether the removal of those disabilities of the catholics can be effect- ed consistently with the security of the national establishments in church and state ; with the maintenance of the re- formed religion established by law, and of the rights and privileges of the bi- shops and clergy of the realm, and of the churches committed to their charge." Feb. 10, as a preliminary measure, a bill wa!s brought in for the suppression of the catholic association ; entitled a bill " for the suppression of dangerous assemblies or societies, in Ireland." It was read a third time and passed, Tues- day, Feb. 24. The royal assent was given by commission on Thursday, March 5, the day on which the relief bill was brought forward in the com- mons. The relief bill, with an accompanying measure for the disfranchisement of Irish forty shilling freeholders, was brought up on Tuesday, March 10. On Monday, March 30, Mr. Secretary Peel moved the third reading. At the close of the debate, there appeared, on a divi- sion, for the amendment, 142 ; for the C A T third reading, 320, majority, 178. The bill then passed with the usual forms. It was brought into the House of Lords Thursday. April 2. The debates on the second reading were protracted during this and the two following days, and on a division, the numbers were, contents, present, 147, proxies, 70, total, 217; non-contents, present, 79, proxies, 33, total, 112; majority in favour of the second reading of the bill, 105. Friday, April 10, having been fixed for the third reading, the merits of the bill came, for the last time, under discussion. When their lordships divided, the numbers were, contents, present, 149, proxies, 64, total, 213 ; non-contents, present, 76, proxies, 33, total, 109; majority, 104. This important statute received the royal assent on Monday, April 13, and became an operative law on St. George's day, the 23rd of the same month. It is entitled " An act for the relief of his majesty's Roman Catholic subjects." The principal enacting clauses are, 1. Roman catholics are allowed to sit and vote in parliament, if otherwise duly qualified, upon taking and subscribing,- instead of the oaths of allegiance, su- premacy,and abjuration, an oath to main- tain, support, and defend, the succession to the crown, which stands limited to thePrincess Sophia, electress of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being protes- tants ; hereby utterly renouncing andJ abjuring any obedience or allegiance unto any other person claiming or pre- tending a right to the crown of this; realm. 2. Roman catholics, being otherwise- duly qualified, may vote at the- elections of members to serve in pai'lia- ment, and be elected themselves. 3. Persons professing the Roman catholic religion may, with certain exceptions,, hold and exercise all civil and military offices, and places of trust or profit, and any other franchise or civil right, upon taking the above mentioned oath, instead of the oaths and declarations before ad- ministered. 4. Roman catholics may, under certain 'restrictions, be members of any lay body corporate, or hold any office, or place of trust therein, upon taking and subscribing the oath above mentioned, instead of the aforesaid oaths and declarations. The following statement may afford a tolerable fair criterion of the feeling of the House of Commons on this import- ant measure. Out of 656 members, 378 CAT 224 CAT voted for the measure, 196 against it, and 82 were neuter. Of the 378, 293 had been generally advocates for it, (38 had previously voted against it, and 17 were either new members, or had not voted on the question in that parliament. CATHOLIC Association. Its first existence in any organized state, though not under that name, may be dated from the year 1757, or 1758, when an associated body was formed, the chief object of which was to concert measures for bringing before the legislature the grievances of the catholics, and to pro- cure them relief. In 1759-60, this body was brought into recognition by the state ; for, upon the alarm of the inva- sion of Conflans, the Roman catholic committee proposed a loyal address, which was presented by John Ponsonby, the speaker. A most gracious answer was returned, and published in the Ga- zette. In 1792, their committee as- sumed a formidable aspect. Theobald AVolfe Tone, in his memoirs, gives the following account of what may be called the association of that period : — " The general committee of the catholics, which, since the year 1792, has made a distin- guished figure in the politics of Ireland, was a body composed of their bishops, their country gentlemen, and a certain number of merchants and traders, all re- sident in Dublin, but named by the ca- tholics in the different towns corporate to represent them." 1811. That committee, of which Mr. O'Connell was a member, was made the object of a prosecution by Saurin. Mr. Kirwan and Dr. Sheridan were in- dicted upon the Irish convention act, for having been elected to sit in the ca- tholic parliament. Upon the first trial the committee were aquitted ; but upon the second, the attorney-general suc- ceeded, and the catholic committee, as a representative body elected by the peo- l)le, and consisting of a certain number of members delegated from each town and country, ceased to exist. The association, to whose exertions may be referred the measures for relief, rose out of the disai)pointment of the people. Its foundations were laid by Mr. O'Connell in 1821, in conjunction with Mr. Shiel. The ])owerful appeals of the former, stirred the mind of Ire- land. Lord Killeen threw himself into a zealous co-operation with Mr. O'Con- nell, and by his abilities aided the impres- sion which his rank and station were calculated to produce. His example was followed by other noblemen ; and Lord Gormanstown, a catholic peer of great fortune and of very ancient de- scent, although hitherto unused to pub- lic life, appeared at the catholic associa- tion. Thus the aristocracy was conso- lidated with the catholic democracy, and Mr. O'Connell began to \vield them both, with the power of which new mani- festations were every day given. This association was suppressed by act of parliament passed in 1825, which expired in 1828, when they resumed their sittings; finally suppressed in 1829, as a preliminary step to the passing of the relief bill. See the preceding Article. CATHOLIC Majesty, title of, given to the king of Spain, by the pope, 739. CATILINE, Lucius Seroius, the Roman conspirator, was descended from the illustrious patrician family of Sergii, at Rome. During the sanguinary ad- ministration of Sylla, he was the chief instrument of his cruelties, and headed a band of assassins, who dragged out of the houses and temples, persons whose names were included in the list of pro- scription, and cruelly murdered them in the presence of the emperor, a.c. 65, he formed a conspiracy with other dis- contented and turbulent persons for murdering the consuls, Aurelius Cotta, and Manlius Torquatus, together with the greatest part of the senators, and violently seizing the government. 'Iliis plot, though the execution of it was twice attempted, proved unsuccessful, in conse- quence of a mistake in the signal, on the part of Catiline ; and he was therefore under a necessity of deferring the ac- complishment of it to a future period. With a view to the more easy and certain execution of his plot, he offered himself a candidate for the consulship, and had Cicero for a competitor, but a discovery made to Cicero, had excited suspicions against Catiline, which de- feated his election, and favoured that of Cicero, his avowed adversary, a. u. c. 691. Catiline, enraged by the suc- cess of his rival, prepared for another rebellion. He led an army into Trans- alpine Gaul, but was defeated and slain. Thus the Catiline conspiracy, which was detected by Cicero, in October, and an- nounced in the senate, was terminated in December, a.c. C3. CAT CAT CATO THE Censor, was bora at Tusculum, A.u.c. 519, a.c. 235. He was elected consul, a. c. 196, in connec- tion with his friend Valerius Flaccus, and the Hither Spain was assigned to him as his province. About ten years after his consulate, he offered him- self as a candidate for the office of censor ; but the known severity of his character alarmed the nobles, and they set up seven competitors against him; however the people persisted in the choice of Cato, and they nominated as his associate his consular colleague, Va- lerius Flaccus. Cato was the occasion of the third Punic war. Being despatched to Africa, to terminate a difference between the Carthaginians and the king of Numidia, on his return to Rome, he reported that Carthage was grown excessively rich and populous, and he warmly exhorted the senate to destroy a city and republic, during the existence of which Rome could never be safe. See Carthage, He died a, u. c. 605, a.c. 149, aged 86. CATO OF Utica, so called from the place of his death, was grandson to Cato the Censor, and was born about a.c. 94. In the disputes which took place be- tween Csesar and Pompey, at the com- mencement of the civil war, a.c. 50, he was indefatigable in his attempts to re- concile these two great men ; but finding it in vain, he espoused the cause of the latter. When Pompey was slain he fled to Utica, being pursued by Csesar, ad- vised his friends to be gone, and throw themselves on Caesar's clemency. When he perceived that he must inevitably fall into Caesar's hands, he determined to resort to the Roman's final remedy, self- destruction ; and, notwithstanding all the persuasions and intreaties of his son and attendants, commanded his sword to be brought to him. After reading Plato's Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul, he stabbed himself under the left breast. The wound, however, was not fatal, and the physician endeavoured to sew it up, but Cato, on recovering his senses, tore it open, and immediately ex- pired, a.c. 46, in the 48th year of his age. CATO Street Conspiracy, dis- covered February 23, 1820. Lord Har- rowby received a secret communication, that a gang of assassins were to assassi- nate his lordship andthe restof the cabinet ministers, when assembled at his house, on the evening of that day, at a cabinet dinner. The place of rendezvous of the assassins was in Cato-Street, John- street, in the Edgware-road. Thus ac- curately informed of the intentions of the conspirators, warrants were issued to apprehend them while they were as- sembled. These warrants were put into the hands of the police-officers, under the able direction of Richard Birnie, esq., the chief magistrate of Bow-street. A detachment of the Coldstream guards from Portman-street barracks were also ordered to accompany the police officers. Unfortunately, the darkness favoured the escape of many of the wretches, and after a dreadful skirmish, they succeeded in the capture of only nine of them. They were soon afterwards brought to trial on a charge of high treason. Thistlewood, Davidson, Ings, Brunt, and Tidd, being considered as ringlea- ders, were sentenced to death, and, on May 1, paid the forfeit of their crimes, in front of Newgate, by hanging and decapitation. The remainder of the pri- soners were transported. CATOPTRICS, the science of reflex vision. The earliest work that has reached us, is ascribed both by Proclus andMarinus to Euclid the geometrician, about A. c. 300 ; but it is suspected to be the work of some other person. This piece was published in Latin by John Pena, in l604j it is also included in Herigon's Mathematics, and in Gre- gory's edition of the works of Euclid, printed at Oxford, in 1703. This sub- ject was treated on by Alhazen, an Ara- bian astronomer, in 1 100 ; and by Vi- teUio, a learned Pole, about the year 1270. CAT'S Isle, one of the Bahamas, first discovered by Columbus, 1492. CATSKILL Mountains, North America, and the woods intervening be- tween Ulster and Sullivan counties, took fire. May, 1816. CATTLE. According to the first Re- port of the Committee of the House of Commons, on Waste Lands, in 1795, cattle and sheep had, at an average, in- creased in size and weight, about a fourth since 1732. The number of head of cattle, sheep, and lambs, sold in Smith- field market, each year, from 1732 to 1832, has been as follows : — 2 G CAT 226 CAT Years. Cattle. Sheep. Years. Cattle. Sheep. 1732 76,210 514,700 1783 101,840 701,610 1733 80,169 555,050 1784 98,143 616,110 1734 78,810 566,910 1785 99,047 641,470 1735 83,894 590,970 1786 92,270 665,910 1736 87,606 587,420 1787 94,946 668,570 1737 89,862 607,330 1788 92,829 679,100 1738 87,010 589,470 1789 93,269 693,700 1739 86,787 568,980 1790 103,708 749,660 1740 84,810 501,020 1791 101,164 740,360 1741 . 77,714 536,180 1792 107,348 760,859 1742 79,601 503,260 1793 116,848 728,480 1743 76,475 468,120 1794 109,448 7 If ',420 1744 76,648 490,620 1795 131,092 745,640 1745 74,188 563,990 1796 117,152 758,840 1746 ■ 71,582 620,790 1797 108,377 693,510 1747 71,150 621,780 1798 107,470 753,010 1748 67,681 610,060 1799 122,986 834,400 1749 72,706 624,220 1800 125,073 842,210 1750 70,765 656,340 1801 134,546 760,560 1751 69,589 631,890 1802 126,389 743,470 1752 73,708 642,100 1803 117,551 787,430 1753 75,252 648,440 1804 113,019 903,940 1754 70,437 631,350 1805 125,043 912,410 1755 74,290 647,100 1806 120,250 858,570 1756 77,257 624,710 1807 134,326 924,030 1757 82,612 574,960 1808 144,042 1,015,280 1758 84,252 550,930 1809 137,600 989,250 1759 86,439 582,260 1810 132,155 962,750 1760 88,594 622,210 1811 125,012 966,400 1761 82,514 666,010 1812 133,854 953,630 1762 102,831 772,160 1813 137,770 891,240 1763 80,857 653,110 1814 135,071 870,880 1764 75,168 556,360 1815 124,948 962,840 1765 81,630 537,000 1816 120,439 968,560 1766 75,534 574,790 1817 129,888 1,044,710 1767 77,324 574,050 1818 138,047 963,250 1768 79,660 626,170 1819 135,226 949,900 1769 82,131 642,910 1820 132,933 947,990 1770 86,890 649,090 1821 129,125 1,107,230 1771 93,573 631,860 1822 142,043 1,340,160 1772 89,503 609,540 1823 149,552 1,264,920 1773 90,133 609,740 1824 163,615 1,239,720 1774 90,419 585,290 1825 156,985 1,130,310 1775 93,581 623,950 1826 143,460 1,270,530 1776 98,372 671,700 1827 138,363 1,335,100 1777 93,714 714,870 1828 147,698 1,288,460 1778 97,360 658,540 1829 158,313 1,240,300 1779 79,352 676,540 1830 159,907 1,287,070 1780 102,383 706,850 1831 148,168 1,189,010 1781 102,543 743,330 1832 166,224 1,364,160 1782 101,176 728,790 Exclusive of the cattle raised in Great Britain, we import considerable sup- plies of live cattle from Ireland. CAT 227 CAV Account of the number of Cows and Oxen imported into Great Britain from Ire- land, from 1801 to 1825. Years. Cows and Oxen. Years. Cows and Oxen. Years. Cows and Oxen. No. No. No. 1801 31,543 1810 44,553 1818 58,165 1802 42,501 1811 67,680 1819 52,176 1803 28,016 1812 79,122 1820 39,014 1804 15,646 1813 48,973 1821 26,725 1805 21,862 1814 16,435 1822 34,659 1806 27,704 1815 33,809 1823 46,351 1807 26,252 1816 31,752 1824 62,314 1808 13,958 1817 45,301 1825 63,519 1809 17,917 In 1825, the trade between Great Britain and Ireland was placed on the footing of a coasting trade, so that there are no means of continuing this account to a later date. CATTLE MARKET, Islington. The necessity of driving cattle and sheep through the crowded streets of London, to and from Smithfield, having been long complained of as a nuisance, led to this erection about 1834. A square con- taining an area of nearly 15 acres, abut- ting on the Lower Road, Islington, near to the Ball's Pond turnpike gate, has been enclosed by a substantial brick wall, about lOft. in height, between which sheds have been erected on all the four sides, each of which is 800 feet long, and the space of the roofing to the sheds is 25 feet. The market is calculated to accommodate upwards of 10,000 oxen, and 40,000 sheep. The principal entrance is from the Islington Lower Road, by an arched gateway and two minor arched footways, through the centre of a building which' contains offices for the receiving and delivering clerks, &c., and is placed in the middle of the west side of the mar- ket, and about 60 yards in from the road. CATULLUS, Caius Valerius, an eminent Latin poet, born at Verona, A.u.c. 668, A.c. 86. He formed an in- timate acquaintance with Cicero, Cinna, and Plancus, to whom he recommended himself by his wit and gaiety, and by the beauty of his poetieal compositions. He was much attached to a mistress, whom he has rendered immortal by the name of Lesbia, though her real name was Clodia. The Eusebian Chronicle has placed hi^ death, a.c. 58, and Blair's tables A. c. 40. Joseph Scaliger extends his life to 71 years, and consequently refers his death to A.c. 15. The rank of one of the principal Latin poets is assigned to Catullus by Ovid, who places him on a parallel with Virgil. The most approved editions of Catullus are those of Vossius, l684, 4to. with a commen- tary, and Utr. I691 ; of Vulpius, Pa- tava, 1710, 4to. with annotations and an index; of Corradini, Venet. 1738; the "Variorum," by Graevius, with the poems of Tibullus and Propertius, Utr. 1680; and Mattaire's, in 1715, 12mo., and in the Corpus Poetarum, with Ti- bullus and Propertius, Lond. 1713, fol. CATWORTH, Huntingdonshire, ma-^ terially injured by fire, Aug, 3, 1753. CAUCASUS, the name of the highest and most extensive range of mountains in the northern part of Asia. The an- cients erroneously considered this range as a continuation of Mount Taurus. The inhabitants were very numerous, and formed, as some say, 70, and ac- cording to others, 300 different nations, who spoke various languages. The most elevated mountain (Snowy Mountain) on the eastern side, west of the Cuban, was first ascended by an European tra- veller, in 1810. All the regions on and about the Caucasus are comprehended under the name of the Caucasian coun- tries. Since *he peace concluded be- tween Russia and Persia in 1813, they have belonged to the Russian empire. CAULIFLOWERS, first planted in England in l603. CAUTIONARY towns of the Dutch, pawned to Queen Elizabeth 1585, re- stored in 1616. CAVALLERI, or Cavallerius Bona. C A V 228 C AV ventura, an eminent Italian mathema- tician, born at Milan in 1598, and en- tered at an early age into the order of Jesuates or Hieronymites. At the uni- versity at Pisa, he applied to the study of geometry, where he made great pro- gress, and acquired an accurate ac- quaintance with the ancient geometers. Soon after this period he invented his method of indivisibles. In I629 he communicated to some ingenious per- sons and to the magistrates of Bologna, his treatise on the subject, and another on the conic sections ; and thus he ob- tained the honour of succeeding Magi- nus as professor in the university, in that year. In 1652 he published a treatise on conic sections and a system of trigonometry. The last of his works was entitled " Exercitationes Geome- trica? sex." He died in 1647. CAVALLO, Tiberius, an eminent natural philosopher, born 1749. Made experiments on inflammable air about 1777, &c. Invented a new atmospheri- cal trigonometer. Hediedl809. CAVALRY. In the states of Greece, if we except Thessaly, their cavalry formed but an inconsiderable proportion of their forces. The Thessalians were dexterous horsemen, and carried the discipline and arms both offensive and defensive of their cavalry to great per- fection. The other parts of Greece imi- tated them. And from the Greeks, the Romans borrowed the arms and armour for their cavalry, who, Polybius expressly informs us in his sixth book, were, in his time, armed exactly as those of the Greeks. The Franks, before they conquered Gaul, had but very little cavalry; the Gallic cavalry possessed much reputa- tion; Clovis, at the battle of Tolbiac, fought at the head of his cavalry, and in 537, Theodebert carried some with him on his expedition into Italy. At the battle of Tours, in 732, the French army consisted of 60,000 foot, and 12,000 horse. Under Pepin, in 768, the num- ber of their cavalry was augmented. Under Charlemagne its number almost equalled that of their infantry. Towards the end of the second race of French monarchs, and the beginning of the third, their armies were almost en- tirely composed of cavalry, the defence of their country being left in a great measure solely to the noblesse, who would not serve but on horseback. They, accordingly, formed a corps of cavalry or horse, to which the name of Gendarmerie was given. Louis le Gros, having established communities, formed from that militia, in 1108, some light horse. But there was no regular for- mation or establishment of cavalry in France before the time of Charles VII. in 1445. The order of precedence among the British cavalry is the following. First, the life-guards; secondly, the horse- guards ; thirdly, the dragoon-guards ; fourthly, the dragoons ; and lastly, the light-dragoons. The first troop of horse in our service was raised in 1660. The first regiment of dragoons was raised in 1681. Light horse were first raised in 1757. CAVE, Edward, the compiler of the first periodical magazine, born 1691> died 1754. CAVE, Dr. William, a learned En- ghsh divine, born in 1637, and educated at St. John's college, Cambridge. He became chaplain to Charles II., and in 1684, was installed a canon of Windsor. He compiled the Lives of the Primitive Fathers in the three first centuries of the church. Dr. Cave died in 1713. CAVENDISH,orCANDisH,THOMAS, an eminent navigator and naval adven- turer inthe reign of Queen Elizabeth, son of William Cavendish, Esq., of Trimley St. Martin, in Suffolk, where he was bom, and whose estate he inherited. Having consumed his property by early extrava- gance, he determined to retrieve his af- fairs l)y a predatory voyage against • the settlements of the Spaniards ; his fleet consisted only of three vessels of 1 20, 60, and 40 tons, manned with 123 persons of various qualities. He sailed from Plymouth, July 21, 1586. Having reach- ed the South Sea, he succeeded in burn- ing Paita, Acapulco, and some other settlements, in taking and destroying several ships, and ravaging the coasts of Chih, Peru, and New Spain. At length, being off California in November 1587, he performed the extraordinary exploit of capturing, with a force much reduced, the Spanish admiral's ship of 700 tons, well manned and richly laden. He crossed the South Sea with one of his two small vessels, the others being destroyed, to the Ladrones in 45 days, and arrived at Plymouth, after having circumnavigated the globe in two years, one month, and nineteen days, the' CAV 229 CAY shortest period in which it had then been effected He planned another expedition, and set sail August 26, 1591, with three tall ships and two barks, suitably equipped. This adventure was attended with various disasters, which disconcerted and defeated his projects. Sickness and chagrin at length terminated his life, probably whilst he was at sea on his way to England. " From the relations we have of this navigator, he seems to have possessed great perseverance, with a true enter- prising spirit, but not sufficiently vmder the control of prudence." CAVENDISH, William, duke of Newcastle, a distinguished leader of the king's party in the civil wars of Charles I, the son of Sir Charles Cavendish, younger brother of the first earl of De- vonshire, born in 1592, and educated by his father. James I. made him when very young, a knight of the bath ; he was raised to the peerage in 1620, by the title of Baron Ogle, and Viscount Mansfield. By Charles I. who honoured him with his favour, he was advanced to the higher title of earl of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The honourable trust was committed to him in 1638, of the tutelage of the prince of Wales, afterwards Charles II. He re- signed this honour in 1640. His attachment to the royal cause was unabated. In 1642, he took upon him- self, in consequence of the king's order, the care of the town of Newcastle and the four adjacent counties ; and was in- vested with a commission, constituting him general of all his majesty's forces raised north of Trent, with very ample powers. He levied a considerable army, with which, for some time, he maintained the superiority of the king's cause in the north, but afterwards despairing of that cause, he left the kingdom, to which he id not return tiU the restoration. Ant- werp was the place of his residence, where he suffered with equanimity and resolution, much pecuniary distress. After an absence of 18 years, he re- turned with his royal master, who, in 1664, conferred upon him the dignity of a dukedom. He died December 25, 1676, in his 84th year, and was buried together with his duchess, in Westminster Abbey, where a very sumptuous monument is erected to their memories. The duke of Newcastle ranks among the noble authors of this country. His great work is a hook on horsemanship, first published in French at Antwerp, in 1658, and af- terwards in a somewhat different form in English, 1667. CAVERLEY, Sir Hugh, the first person who used guns for the service of England, died 1389. CAXTON, William, who according to some writers, first introduced the art of printing into England, or who, ac- cording to others, improved and perfected it by the use of fusile types, born at the beginning of the fifteenth century. In 1439, he was apprenticed in London. By his long residence in the Low Coun- tries, he became acquainted with the new invention of printing; and having pro- vided himself with presses, types, and all other printing materials, he came over to England in 1472, and in a printing room at the entrance of Westminster Abbey, he produced in 1474, the first book that was ever printed in this country. Caxton died in 1491, and was buried in St. Margaret's church, Westminster. CAYENNE Isle, South America, in French Guiana, settled by the French in 1635, and abandoned in 1654, when the English took possession of it, but were compelled to leave it in 1664. The Dutch succeeded in taking it in 1676, but it was recovered in 1677, by the French. This island capitulated to the British in 1809 ; but was surrendered to France at the peace of Paris in 1814. CAYLUS, Ann-Claude Philip, Count, an illustrious amateur of the arts, descended from one of the most noble families in France, born at Paris in 1692. Having entered at an early age into the military service, he distinguished himself in Calabria in l7ll, and at the siege of Fribourg in 1713. Tn 1715, he joined the train of the French ambassador to the Porte, and visited the ruins of many places in Asia Minor and Greece, and returned to France in 1717, with a rich collection of drawings and descriptions. In 1731, he was admitted a member of the aca- demy of painting and sculpture. In 1742, he was appointed one of the hono- rary members of the academy of in- scriptions and belles lettres. By his various labours he acquired a reputation which extended throughout Europe. Ho died at Paris in 1765, aged 73 years. His principal work is a " Collection of Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, Roman, and Gaulish Antiquities," 7 vols. 4to., of which the last appeared in 1767- C E C 230 CEAULIN, king of Wessex, seized the kingdom of Sussex in 590. He w&s defeated and dethroned by Ceolric, in the battle of Wanborough, Wiltshire, in 592. CECIL,WiLLiAM, Lord Burleigh, See Burleigh. CECIL, Robert, earl of Salisbury, was the second son of the former, born about the year 1550. He began his po- litical career as assistant to the earl of Derby, ambassador at the court of France, and in 1596, was appointed by Queen Elizabeth, second secretary of state with Sir Francis Walsingham ; and when that minister died, he became principal secretary. He was continued as prime minister at the accession of James, who advanced him to the peer- age ; created him baron of Essenden in 1603, Viscount Cranbourn in 1604, and earl of Salisbury in 1605. He was chosen, in I6O8, as the fittest person to succeed the lord high treasurer, the earl of Dorset, at his death. His life ter- minated by a decline, in 1612. CECILIA, St., a noble Roman lady of distinguished piety, who, from her infancy, had been bred in the Christian faith. She is supposed to have been born in the reign of the emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus, and to have suf- fered martyrdom in that of Septimius Severus, in the beginning of the third century. The first notice of her as a saint was by Bede, in his " Ecclesiastical History," who mentions her church at Rome, as the place where Vilbrord was ordained pope in 696. A great festival was held at Rome in 1599, during the potificate of Clement VIII., for the finding of the body of St. Cecilia among other relics. The earliest notice of her as the titular saint and protectress of music seems to have been in the works of the great painters of the Italian school. Her birth day just be- gan to be celebrated by assembhes of musicians, about the latter end of the l7th century, when there was a rage among the votaries of music for cele- brating the birth day of this saint, not only in London, but in all the consider- able cities and provincial towns in the kingdom where music was cultivated. The first composition expressly pro- duced for a music meeting in England on St. Cecilia's day, was called "a mu- sical entertainment performed Nov. 22, 1683, on St. Cecilia's day, printed in CEL score by John Playford, with a dedica- tion to the gentlemen of the musical so- ciety, and particularly the stewards, written by Henry Purcell, composer of the music." CECROPS arrived in Attica, with a colony of Saites,from Egypt, and founded the kingdom of Athens, 780 years before the first Olympiad, a. c. 1556. CELEBES, a large island in the eastern seas, separated from Borneo by the straits of Macassar. It was first visited by the Portuguese in 1512, when they found but few Mahomedans. The faith of Mahomed was first introduced there by Khatib Tungal, about 1603. The Portuguese were expelled by the Dutch in I66O. In 1811, the Dutch authority in Ce- lebes was transferred to the British by a conquest and capitulation with the French governor-general of the Dutch colonies in India ; but on the return of tranquillity the British authorities quitted Celebes, and in 18 16 it was once more restored to the Dutch. In 1820, the civilized inhabitants of Celebes consisted of five distinct nations, viz., the Bug- gesses, the Macassars, the Mandars, the Kaili, and the Manado. CELERY first introduced at table in England by Count Tallard, during his captivity after the battle of Malplaquet, in 1709. CELESTIAL Observations of the Chaldeans began at Babylon, a.c. 2234; according to the register sent by Calis- thenes to Aristotle, a. c. 2331 ; contain- ing the asterial phenomena of 1903 years. CELESTIAL Sphere, first seen in Greece ; brought from Egypt, a. c. 368. CELESTINES, an order of nuns, reformed from the Bernardines in 1224, by Pope Celestine V., established in 1264, by Pope Urban IV., and confirmed by Gregory X., in 1274. CELIBACY was much discouraged among the ancients. The Spartans who lived in celibacy were subject to many humiliations. The Romans used all means imaginable to discourage it. But the first law against it, was that enacted under Augustus, a. u. c. 762, called " Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus." By this law many prerogatives were given to persons who had many children ; and penalties imposed on those who lived a single life. The celebate of the clergy among the Romanists, is of ancient standing. CEL 231 CEL It was first proposed by the council of Nice, but without passing ; it was, how- ever, in some measure, admitted, by the western councils of Elvira, Aries, Tours, &c., and enjoined by the thirty-third canon of the council of Elvira, held about the year 300, though it does not appear that it was either generally or rigorously observed. In the year 340, it was decreed in the council of Aries, that no man incum- bered with a wife, should be admitted into holy orders. Syricius issued a decree in 385, obliging all priests and deacons to observe celibacy. In 441, the council of Orange ordered those to be deposed who did not abstain from their wives ; and Leo the Great, about 442, extended the law of celibacy, to deacons and presbyters. Gregory the Great, in 591, first brought ecclesiastics to admit the celebate as a law. In Britain the celibacy of the clergy does not seem to have commenced till the arrival of Austin in the sixth century. About the middle of the tenth century, in the reign of Edred, who surrendered himself to the guidance of Dunstan, the Benedictines made a merit of the most inviolable chastity ; their principles and practices were greedily embraced and promoted by the policy of the court of Rome. 1 107. During the reign of Henry I., a synod was held at Westminster, which enjoined the celibacy of priests ; and which enacted, that even laymen should not marry within the seventh degree of affinity. Another synod was convened at London in 1129, under the pontificate of Honorius, at which presided William, archbishop of Canterbury, with the cha- racter of the pope's legate, and where all the bishops of the kingdom were present; enforcing the observance of the canons issued by other councils concerning the celibacy of the clergy ; and such of them as still kept concubines, for so their wives were called, were strictly enjoined to put them away before St. Andrew's day next following. CELLARIUS, Christopher, was born at Smalcald, in 1638, and having studied at various German universities, was invited at the age of 30, to teach moral philosophy and the Oriental lan- guages at the college of Weissenfels. In 1673, he became rector of the college of Weimar, and afterwards occupied the same post at Zerts and Mersburg. He died at Halle in 1707, in his 69th year. His principal work is " Notitia orbis antiqui," two vols. 4to., 1701, 1706, 1731. This is acknowledged to be the best work on ancient geography extant, and brings it down to the time of Constan- tine. CELSUS, an Epicurean philosopher, and an early adversary of Christianity, born towards the close of the reign of Adrian, who died a. d. 139; he is placed -by Dr. Lardner in 176, not far from the reign of Marcus Anto- ninus. The book which he wrote against the Christians, was entitled " The True Word." Of this work we have no other remains than the quota- tions made by Origen in his refutation of it. The answer of Origen was writ- ten about the year 246, and according to others 249. Celsus also wrote a piece " On the life to be led by those who meant to follow the rules of philosophy;" and another " Against Magic" is ascribed to him both by Origen and Lucian. CELSUS, A. Cornelius, a celebrated ancient physician, a Roman by birth, probably of the Cornelian family. He was born in the latter part of the reign of Augustus Csesar, and was living in the time of Caligula. The work by which he has been rendered famous is entitled " De Medicina Libri Octo." The great number of editions this book has passed through, sufficiently indicate the high esteem in which it is held. One of the best is Almeloveen's, edited at Padua, 1722, Bvo., by Vulpius, and reprinted in 1750. CELTS, or Celt^, a peoj^le who in the earliest ages inhabited the western parts of Europe, particularly Gaul and Britain, but were afterwards chiefly confined to a country called Gallica Celtica, situated between the Seine, the Marne, and the Garonne. The origin of this people is to be traced to about the fifth century before Christ, where they existed in the neigh- bourhood of the Pyrenees, from whence they were driven by the Goths and the Aquitani, into that part of Gaul which they occupied in the time of Csesar. This people have often been confounded with the Scythians or Goths, but after many contentions on the point, it is now generally admitted that they are a dis- tinct nation. It is supposed that the inhabitants of the Highlands of Scot- CEN 232 CEN land, the Welsh, and some of the Irish tribes, are the remains of the ancient Celts. CEMENT. The ruins of the ancient Roman buildings are found to cohere so strongly, that it has been generally ima- gined the ancients were acquainted with some kind of mortar totally unknown to us, the discovery of which has been long and anxiously attempted. 1770. M. Loriot, a Frenchman, pre- tended to have discovered the secret of the ancient cement, which, according to him, was no more than a mixture of powdered quicklime with lime which had been long slaked and kept under water. But the invention of this cement did not succeed to the degree the in- ventor expected. Dr. Higgins in 1779, procured a patent for a water cement of his own invention, which, he says, when set, exceeds Portland stone in hardness. But the care and expense necessary in the preparation, render it inapplicable to common purposes. It was not till the invention of Parker's Roman cement, in 1813, that this de- sideratum in building was discovered. This composition is made from septaria, or balls, which are found in various parts of the strata of London clay, and were supposed to be peculiar to it ; but similar balls of argillaceous limestone, divided by seams of calcareous spar, occur also in other strata, and are equally useful in the preparation of cement. CEMETERY. In the ealy ages, the Christians held their assemblies in the cemeteries. Valerian in the third cen- tury confiscated the cemeteries and the places destined for divine worship, which were restored again to the Christians by Gallienus about 400. Public cemeteries have been recently established in the neighbourhood of the metropolis at Ken- sal Green, Edgeware, in 1832; Norwood, 1838 ; Highgate, 1839 ; Stoke Newington 1840, and in various parts of the country. CENIS, Mount, a branch belonging to the Alps, stated to be 8610 feet above the level of the sea. It is famous for the road which leads over it from Savoy to Piedmont. During the reign of Buo- naparte, at the commencement of this century, he employed his soldiers in clearing away the snow from the roads in the passage over Mount Cenis, thus making it safely passable, even in winter. CENOLE, thirteenth king of the Mer- cians, and eighteenth monarch of Eng- land, began to reign 795. He conquered Kent, and gave that kingdom to Cudred 798. He died in 819, and was buried at Winchcomb. CENRED, eighth king of Mercia.and thirteenth monarch of England, began his reign in 795. Reigned four year.s and then became a monk. CENSOR, one of the prime magis- trates in ancient Rome, whose business was to survey and rate the people, and to inspect and correct their manners. There were two censors first created A.u.c. 311. A law was made a.u. c. 414, when Publilius Philo was dictator, appointing one of the censors to be al- ways elected out of the plebeians, which held in force till A.u.c. 622, when both censors were chosen from among the people, viz., Q. Cascilius Metellus, sur- named Macedonicus, and Q. Pompius; after which time, it was shared between the senate and the people. The power of the censors continued unimpaired to the tribuneship of Clo- dius, A.u.c. 695, who procured a law to be enacted, ordering that no senator should be degraded by the censors, un- less he had been formally accused and condemned by both censors ; but this law was abrogated, and the powers of the censorship restored soon after by Q. Metellus Scipio, a.u.c. 702. The office continued to the time of the emperors, who assumed the authority of it to them- selves. The last censors were Paulus and Plancus, under Augustus. CENSUS, among the Romans, was an authentic declaration made upon oath by the several subjects of the empire, of their respective names, and places of abode, before proper magistrates in the city of Rome, called censors. It was instituted by king Servius TuUius, about A.c. 600, to be held every five years; and this prince took the census four times during his reign. The census was taken anciently in the Forum ; but after the year 320, in the Villa Pubhca, which was a place in the Campus Martius. Censuses were taken at Rome, a.c. 566, 507, 387, 294, 279, 265, 247, 220, 192, 179, 169, 164, 85, 29. CENSUS OF THE Population of Great Britain. This is taken every ten years. The census of 1801 was limited to the following objects: — 1. The number of individual inhabitants in each parish, distinguishing males from females. 2 The number of inliabited houses, and CEN 233 CEN the niiml)er of families inhabiting the same in each parish. 3. The number of uninhabited houses. 4. A classifica- tion of the employment of individuals into the great di^-isions of agriculture, trade, manufactures, and handicraft, and a specification of the numbers not in- cluded in either of those divisions. 5. The number of persons serving in the regular army, the militia, and the em- bodied local militia. The census of 1811, embraced all the points which formed subjects of inquiry in 1801, with the exception of the fourth in the above list, which had signally failed ; and for that inquiry, which was intended to show the calling or occupa-. tion of each individual, questions were substituted in 1811, in order to ascertain this matter, with regard to the number of families ; the females, children, and servants being held to follow the calling of the head of the family. The census of 1821, Avas made to em- brace all the points included in the in- quiries of 1811, and with the same modifications, but in addition to those points, it was sought to ascertain the ages of all persons living within the United Kingdom, distinguishing in Great Britain males from females, and dividing both sexes into classes according to their ages, as follows, viz. — Males and females respectively under 5 years of age. Between 5 and 10 years. 10 „ 15 „ „ 15 „ 20 „ 20 „ 30 „ 30 „ 40 „ 40 „ 50 „ 50 „ 60 „ 60 „ 70 „ 70 „ 80 „ 80 „ 90 „ 90 „ 100 „ 100 years of age and upwards. This additional inquiry was so far successfully carried through, that the ages of 92 out of every 100 persons living were ascertained. The census of 1831, did not embrace the sam^ inquiries in regard to ages as were obtained in 1821. The other heads of enquiry were continued at the enumeration of 1831, with cer- tain additions, all of which applied to males twenty years old and upwards, with the exception of the enumeration of male servants under that age> and of female servants of all ages above and below twenty years. The persons appointed to conduct the actual enumerations were, in England and Wales, the overseers of the poor ; in Scotland, the official schoolmasters of each parish, an institution peculiar to Scotland, which has existed in full vigour since the year 1696. Hitherto, the execution of each census in the United Kingdom has been mol-e satis- factory than the execution of that by which it was preceded, giving reasonable ground of hope that the task, when per- formed in 1841, will exhibit a still nearer approach to perfection. See Popula- tion. CENTAURS, a kind of fabulous monsters, half men, half horses, men- tioned in ancient mythology. The cen- taurs, in reality, were a tribe of Lapithee, who inhabited the city of Petethronum, adjoining to Mount Pehon, and first in- vented the art of breaking horses; as is intimated by Virgil. Upon the chest of Cypselides, mentioned by Pausanias, and upon which characters were written in the year A.c. 778, in the boustro- phedon form, the centaur Chiron ap- pears half man and half horse, but re- presented as a man sustained upon two human legs and feet, with the croup- flanks and two hinder legs of a horse attached to his loins. CENTURION, a military officer among the Romans, generally defined to have been one who commanded a hun- dred men. But this is a very erroneous definition. For when the Roman state was VS its greatest vigour and perfec- tion; which it was about the time of Hannibal's invasion of Italy, the two centurions in a maniple or company ot the hastati or principes commanded twice as many men as the two centurions in the maniple of the triarii ; as a maniple of each of the former then contained 120 men, whereas a maniple of the latter consisted only of 60. Tlie legion then consisted commonly of 4,200 foot, and 300 horse. Of these 4,200 infantry, 600 were triarii, 1,200 were hastati, 1,200 were principes, and the remainder were velites or hght troops. Anciently, and before the war of Hannibal, it was the constant custom of the Romans to raise four legions annually, and tr allow to each legion 4,000 foot, and 200 horse. Towards the time of Julius Ceesar, and 2H C K P 234 C K R the close of the mixed government of the It was subject to the Venetians from Romans, the number of men commanded the year 1449, till the peace of Campo respectively by a centurion in ttiehastati, Formio in 1797. when it was ceded to or principes, and by a fcenturion in the France; during that period it was go- triarii, were in a ratio that frequently verned by a proveditor appointed by the varied. During the same period there republic. It was taken from the French were, in every legion, sixty centurions, in 1799, and formed, with the other or commanders of companies, or mani- Ionian isles, into an independent com- ples, sixty officers chosen by them to monwealth ; but at the peace of Tilsit, in take charge of the rear of the compa- 1807, it was again brought under the nies, who might be denominated sub- dominion of France. In 1809 it was centurions or sub- captains, and sixty taken by the British, under whose pro- standard-bearers or ensigns, who were tection it still continues, appointed by the captains or centurions. CERDIC, a Saxon general, who ar- CENTURY, in its more general mean- rived in Britain 495, from whom de- ing, signifies any thing consisting of a .scended the kings of England, in the hundred parts. The Roman people when male line, to Edward the Confessor ; and they were assembled for the electing of in the female line, to her present ma- magistrates, or deliberating upon any jesty. He founded the West Saxon public affair, always voted by centuries, kingdom in 519, and having overcome In chronology, century implies a period king Arthur in 527, was crowned at Win- of 100 years. This method of comput- Chester. He died in 534. See Arthur. ing by centuries is generally observed in CERES, a new primary planet, disco- ecclesiastical histoiy commencing from vered January 1, 1801, by M. Piazzi, the time of our Saviour's mcarnation. astronomer royal of Palermo, in Sicily. CEOLRED, son of Ethelred, ninth This is an intermediate planet between king of the Mercians, and fourteenth mo- the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, and ap- narch of England, in 709. He was killed pears as a star of the eighth magnitude, in battle with Ina, king of the West being, probably, about the size of the Saxons, after a reign of seven years, 716. moon. Its distance from the sun is He died without children, and was about 2 1 times that of the earth, and its buried at Litchfield. periodical time nearly four years and two CEPHALONIA, the largest of the months. The elements of its theory, islands composing the Ionian republic, communicated by Dr. Button, of Wool- The early history of the island is involved wich, to Mr. O. Gregory, and published in fable. It derived its name from Ce- in his ''Treatise on Astronomy," in 1803, phalus, an Athenian prince. Before the are as follow: — Trojan war the Cephalonites took part in Place of the ascending the war occasioned by the inhabitants of node 2s. 20° 58' 30" Epidamnus, between the Corinthiaxjs and Inclinationof the orbit 10 47 Corcyreans. Cephalonia possessed its Place of the aphelium 2 8 59 37 liberty long after the downfall of Athens, Time of the passage through the aphe- Corinth, Sparta, and the other celebrated lium, January, 1801 1.3328 repul)lics of Greece, but was finally sub- Eccentricity 0.0364 dued by the Romans. Log. of the greater semiaxis 0.4106586 Cephalonia continued as a province of Timeof the sidereal period 4. 13 years, the Roman empire until a.d. 364, when CERIGO, or Cherigo (well known it passed under the yoke of the emperors in ancient times by the name of Cythera), of the east, who continued masters of it one of the seven islands in the Mediter- until 982, when the Lombards, a people ranean which compose the Ionian repub- of Pannonia, under the command of lie. It was anciently known (according John Leone, conquered and took pos- to Pliny) by the name of Porphyris, session of the island. In 1125 Cephalo- from its possessing abundance of that nia again became subject to the emperors beautiful marble. Ptolemy attri1)utes the of the east, when they began to recover name of Cythera to Cytherus, son of from the harassing irruptions of the Ot- Phoenix, who established himself in the tomans, under Mahomet On the down- island. It was first peopled by the La- fall of the eastern empire it followed the cedemonians, who, in the eighth year of fate of Corfu, and became a dependency the Peloponnesian war, were expelled by of the Venetian republic. the Athenians under the command of CER 235 CEY Niciaa. At a subsequent period it passed under the dominion of the Spartan re- public, and served as a retreat to Cleo- inenes, who, on the approach of Antigo- nus, king of Macedon, took refuge in the island. Ptolemy, king of Egypt, was af- terwards lord of Cerigo. The Romans next came in possession ; then the Ve- netians. It was taken from them by the French in 1797, but was retaken two years after, and incorporated [into the Ionian republic. The French again ob- tained possession of it in 1807, but were expelled by the English in 1809. This island was united to the Ionian republic, under British protection, in 1815. See Ionian Islands. CERVANTES de Saavedra, Mi- guel, the author of Don Quixote, born in the year 1549. He fought at the battle of Lepanto, under Don John, of Austria, in 1571, where he had the mis- fortune or, as he rather thought it, the honour to lose his left hand. In 1574, he was taken prisoner by the Moors, among whom he had several masters ; and from whom he made many unsuc- cessful attempts to escape. On one of these occasions he and his associates were detected, and taken before the dey, from whom they could expect nothing but sentence of death, in its most cruel forms. The dey, however, consented to pardon the offenders, on condition that they should disclose which of their number was the leader of the enterprise. Unwilling to betray their countrymen, his companions hesitated, when Cer- vantes stepped forward, and acknow- ledged that he was the guilty person, and added, that to save his companions, he was ready to die. The savage ruler was so struck with his intrepidity that he refused to punish him. That he was regarded as a person of some note, is evident from the high price demanded for his ransom, which was no less than 500 crowns. This sum, with great diffi- culty, his friends at length succeeded in raising, and in i 580, he was restored to his country and his family. On his return to Spain, he applied himself to the writing of comedies and tragedies, which, though they had great failings, were on the whole well received. In 1584, he published his Galatea. But the work which will immortalize his name, is the history of Don Quixote ; the first part of which was ])rinted at Madrid, in the year 16C5. This work is a satire upon books of knight-errantry and the principal end of it was to destroy the reputation of those books which had infatuated the greater part of man- kind, and especially the Spanish nation. It was universally read ; and Cervantes, even in his lifetime, obtained the glory of having his work receive the royal ap- probation. In 16 15, he published a second part ; to which he was partly moved by the presumption of seme scribbler, wl>o had published a continua- tion of this work the year before. The last of his works was entitled "The Troubles of Persiles and Sigismunda." He died about the year 16 16, butthe exact period is not known. CETOLOGY, the department of Zoo- logy which treats of the history and anatomy of cetaceous animals or whales. Little seems to have been known by the ancients respecting these animals, but some species of them are mentioned both by Aristotle and Pliny. Among the mo- dern writers, Willoughby was the first who distinctly marked the anatomical resemblance of whales and quadrupeds. In 1692, Sir Robert Sibbald published a separate treatise, professing to describe only the rarer species of whales. La Cepede collected all that was most valu- able, employed his talents in reducing the whole to a systematic arrangement, and published it in 1804. CEUTA, OR CiBTA, a town of Fez, on a peninsula opposite to Gibral- tar. This place was wrested from the Moors, 1415, by John, king of Portugal, and with Portugal was included, in 1530, in the Spanish monarchy by Philip II., and continued under the government of Spain even after the revolution of 1640. In the peace of 1668, it was finally ceded to Spain by the Portuguese. CEVA, (ancient Ceba) a town in the north of Italy, in Piedmont. The cheese of this vicinity is praised by Pliny. In 1584, an inundation of the Tanaro prov- ed fatal to numbers, and the plague car- ried off a still greater number in 1625. It was taken by the French in the late war, but was abandoned June 15, 1799. CEVENNES, a chain of mountains in the south of France, considered to be a branch of the Alps. The French Pro- testants took shelter there, at the close of the I7th century, and bravely de- fended themselves against their merci- less persecutors. CEYLON, island in the Indian Ocean. CHA 236 CHA This island is supposed to have been known to the ancients ; but the first au- thentic account of it is, that the Portu- guese navigator, Almeyda, in 1505, entered one of its ports by accident, and was hospitably received by the natives. The Portuguese established commercial settlements there, but their cruelty and fanaticism made them so much ab- horred, that the Cingalese, in 1603, assisted the Dutch in driving them out of the island. By the conquest of Colombo, the Dutch succeeded, in 1656, in expelling the Portuguese. Bloody wars ensued, in which the Eu- ropeans were the victors, and forced their opponents to seek refuge in the interior of the island, where they remained in- dependent. After Holland had been erected into the Batavian republic by the French, in 1795, the English took possession of this island, and at the peace of Amiens in ] 802, it was for- mally ceded to them. 1815. The English subjected the whole of it by the capture of the Cingalese king of Candy, and the conquest of the principal town. In 1817, a most exten- sive and harassing rebellion broke out in the central provinces, which lasted until the end of 1819 ; since which, un- interrupted peace has prevailed, and va- rious improvements, fiscal, judicial, and commercial, have been executed. In 1821 the export of cinnamon was open- ed to all purchasers (having previously been restricted to the East India Com- pany) from the government stores, where public auctions were ordered to be held every month. CHAGRE, port and town, in the re- public of Colombia, at the embouchure of the Chagre river, and on the shores of the Caribbean sea. Taken by Admi- ral Vernon, 1740. CHAIN Cables. See Cables. CHAIN Shot, invented by Adm. de Wit, 1666. CHAIRS, Sedan, first introduced in London in 1 634, when Sir Sanders Dun- comb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of the said cover- ed chairs for 14 years. In 1694, they were first taxed by act of parliament (5 and 6 W. and M. c. 22 :) and by 9 Anne, c. 23, 200 hackney-chairs were licensed, at 10s, per annum ; and no person was obhged to pay for a hackney chair more than the rale allowed by the act for a hackney coach driven two-third parts of the said distance. In the following year, by 10 Anne c. 19, chairs were in- creased to 300; and by 12 Geo. 1, c. 12, to 400, on account of the great increase of buildings to the westward. CHAIR,S, Private sedans, 241 in DubUn city, March 25, 1787. Acts, (Irish) for the regulation of, 1772, 1785, 1786, 1787. CHALCEDON, or Calcedon, a famous city of Bithynia, seated on the Bosphorus, and built, as it is said, by the inhabitants of Megara, some years before Byzantium, anciently known by the name of Procerastis and Colbusa. It was taken by the Athenians, a.c. 409. The emperor Justinian repaired it, and gave it his own name. It after- wards became very powerful. Chalcedon was famous in Christian times for the council held there in 451 against Eutyches, which is reckoned the fourth general or oecumenical council. The emperor Valens, caused the walls of this city to be levelled with the ground, for siding with Procopius, and the ma- terials to be conveyed to Constantinople, where they were employed in construct- ing the famous Valentinian aqueduct. This city was taken after a long siege, in 616, by Chosroes II. king of Persia. Chalcedon is at present a poor place, known to the Greeks by its ancient name, and to the Turks by that of Ca- diaci, and Kodi-keni,or the Judges-town. CHALMERS, Alexander, an emi- nent voluminous modern writer, was born at Aberdeen, March 29, 1759. Having received a classical and medical education, he left his native city about 1777, and obtained the situation of sur- geon in the West Indies, when he suddenly altered his mind, and proceeded to the metropolis, where he became connected with the periodical press. He commenced his literary career, as editor of the Public Ledger, and London Packet. He also contributed to the other popular journals of the day. In 1793, he pubhshed a Continuation of the History of England, in Letters, 2 vols. In 1797, he compiled a Glossary to Shakespeare; in 1798, he published a Sketch of the Isle of Wight, and an edition of the Rev. James Barclay's English Dictionary. 1803. He editedthe "British Essayists, with jirefaces, historical and biographical, and a general Index," 45 vols. The same year, he prepared an edition of Shakes- CHA 237 CHxV peare,in9vols.,8vo., with an abridgment of the more copious notes of Sleeven's, and a Life of Shakespeare. In 1805, he wrote a Life of Burns, and of Dr. Beattie, prefixed to their respective works ; and was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. In 1806, he edited Fielding's works, 10 vols. 8vo.; Dr. Johnson's works, 12 vols. 8vo. ; Warton's Essays, the Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian, 14 vols. 8vo., and assisted the Rev. W. Lisle Bowles, in the publica- tion of Pope's works, 10 vols. 8vo. 1807. 1807. He edited Gibbon's History, with a Life of the Author, 12 vols 8vo. In 1808, and the following year, he prefixed prefaces to the greater part of the volumes of a collection, selected by himself, known as " Walker's Classics," from the name of their publisher : they consisted of 45 vols. In 1809, he edited Bolingbroke's works, 8 vols. 8vo. ; and in this and subsequent years, he conjtri- buted many of the Lives to the magnifi- cent volumes of the "British Gallery of Contemporary Portraits," published by Cadell and Davies. 1810. He revised an enlarged edition of " The Works of the English Poets," from Chaucer to Cowper; including the series edited, with Prefaces biographical and critical, by Dr. Johnson, and the most approved translations ; the ad- ditional Lives by Mr. Chalmers, in 21 vols, royal 8vo. In the same year, he published, " A History of the Colleges, Halls, and Public Buildings attached to the University of Oxford, including the Lives of the Founders." In 1811, he reA'ised through the press. Bishop Hurd's edition of Addison's works, 6 vols. 8vo., and an edition of Pope's works, in 8 vols. 18mo. In the same year, he republished, with corrections and alterations, a periodical paper, en- titled, " The Projector," 3 vols. 8vo. In 1812, he prefixed a life of Alexander Cruden to the 6th edition of his " Con- cordance." The work, on which Mr. Chalmer's fame, as an author chiefly rests, is " The General Biographical Dictionary," The preceding edition of this work, 1793, was in 15 vols. ; the present in 32 vols. It was augmented by 3,934 additional lives, and of the remaining number, 2,176 were re-written, and the whole revised and corrected. The total number of articles exceed 9000. In November, 1816, he republished, "The Lives of Dr. Edward Pocock, the celebrated Orientalist, by Dr. Twells; of Dr. Zachary Pearce, bishop of Rochester; and Dr. Thomas Newton, bishop of Bristol, by themselves ; and of the Rev. Philip Skelton, by Mr. Burdy," in 2 vols. 8vo. In 1819, Mr. Chalmers published "Country Biography," four numbers; and a Life of Dr.Paley, prefixed to his works. In 1820, he published " A Dictionary of the English Language, abridged from the Rev. H. J. Todd's enlarged edition of Dr. Johnson's Dictionary," 1 vol. 8vo. In 1822, he edited the 9th edition of Boswell's Life of Johnson ; in 1823, a new edition of Shakespeare ; and another edition of Dr. Johnson's works. He died Dec. 10, 1835. f CHALONS-SUR-MARNE, city of France, and capital of the department of the Marne; before the revolution, the see of a bishop, and the chief place of the generality of Champagne. It is fa- mous for a battle between the Romans and Attila, king of the Huns, in 451, in which the former, after an obstinate and sanguinary contest, in which the number of the slain _amounted, as some say, to 162,000 or, according to other accounts, to 300,000 persons, proved victorious, and Attila was obliged to retreat. Chalons capitulated to the allied Russians and Prussians, Feb. 6, 1814. CHALONS-SUR-SAONE, a city of France, in the department of the Saone and Loire. The great Roman way from Lyons to Boulogne passed by Chalons ; and it exhibits various traces of Roman magnificence, particularly the ruins of an amphitheatre. It was taken by an Austrian force under the prince of Hesse Homburg, Feb. 1814. CHAMBAUD, Lewis, author of the " Fiench Grammar and Dictionaiy,'* died Sept. 22, 1776. CHAMBER OF Deputies, France, number of reduced, 1816. CHAMBERS, Ephraim, the well- known author of the first Cyclopaedia published in this country, born at Milton, Westmorland; the time of his birth not ascertained. He was bound apprentice to Mr. Senex, the globe-maker, and it is said that some of the first articles of his Cyclopaedia were written behind the counter. The first edition of the Cy- clopaedia, which was the result of many years' intense application, aiipeared in 1728. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, November 6, 1729- He CHA 238 CHA was concerned in a periodical publica- tion, entitled, "The Literary Magazine," which was begun in 1735. He died in 1740, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. A supplement to his Cyclo- paedia was afterwards compiled : and in the year 1778 was published an edition of both, incorporated into one alphabet, by Dr. Rees. Another edition on a large scale was published under the title of Rees's Cyclopaedia, in 1811. CHAMBERY or Chambkri, town in the north of Italy, the capital of the Sardinian state of Savoy. At this place the emperor Sigismund erected the earl- dom of Savoy into a dukedom, and Araa- deus I. retired hither after his abdication of the Sardinian throne in 1730. This was long the residence of the duke, but since the removal of the court to Turin, it has lost its splendour. Chamberi belonged to the French from 1792 to 1815, when it was reunited to the Sar- dinian kingdom. CHAMBLE, Fort, in Canada, taken by the Provincials, Oct. 20, 1775. Re- takenby the English troops, Jan. 18,1776. CHAMBORD, treaty of, confirming the league between France and the Pro- testantprinces of Germany, Jan. 15, 1552. CHAMPAGNE, Philip de, historic painter, born at Brussels 1602, died 1674. CHAMP DE Mat, meeting of, to sign the new constitution of France, June 1, 1815. CHAMPION OF England, first in- troduced at coronations, 1377. See Coronation. CHAMPLAIN, Lake, North Ame- rica, so called from S. de Champlain, founder of the province of Canada, who first discovered it in 1608. Sept. 11, 1814, a British squadron, was defeated in Cumberland Bay, on Lake Cham- plain, by the American fleet, commanded by Mac Donough. CHAMPLAIN Canal, commences at Whitehall, reaches the Hudson river, at Port Edward, and forms a junction with the Erie canal, at Waverliet ; total length 64 miles. It was begun in 1818, and completed in 1822. CHAMPOLLION, John Francis, author of " The Antiquities of Egypt ;" born in 1 790. He was first commissioned by the French government to explore the monuments of antiquity in Egypt in 1828. He gives a favourable account of his reception, in company with other scientific travellers, at the court of Mo- hammed Ali, in August, who promised them his protection and every assistance in the accomplishment of their object. He remained some years in Egypt, during which he visited all the monuments of the neighbourhood, and copied the inscrip- tions on Pompey's pillar. He caused the hieroglyphical inscriptions, which are on the two obelisks, to be copied and sketched under his own eyes. These two obelisks, with characters in three columns on the face of each of them, were originally erected by King Maeris, in front of the great temple of the sun, at Heliopolis. The lateral inscriptions were placed there by Sesostris ; and he discovered two other short ones on the face, which were placed there by the successor of Sesostris. Thus three epochs were marked out upon these monuments. He died in 1833. CHANCELLOR, supposed originally to biNre been a notary, or scribe, under the Roman emperors, and named Can- cellarius, because he sat behind a lattice, (called in Latin cancellus,) to avoid being crowded by the people. Other accounts of the origin of the office are given, but it was undoubtedly known to the courts of the Roman emperors. From the empire it passed to the Roman church, and hence every bishop has, to this day, his chancellor, the principal judge of his consistory. And when the modern kingdoms of Europe were es- tablished upon the ruins of the empire, almost every state preserved its chan- cellor, with diflferent jurisdictions and dignities, according to their diflerent constitutions. Lord High Chancellor of Eng- land, is next after the king and princes of the blood, in all civil affairs ; the chief administrator of justice next the sovereign, being the judge of the court of chancery See Chancery. The following is a list of the Lord Chancellors of England since the Revo- lution:— Earl Somers, 1693; Sir N. Wright, 1700; Earl Cowper, 1705; Eari Harcourt, 1710; Earl Cowper, 1714; Earl Macclesfield, 1718; Lord King, 1725 ; Earl Talbot, 1733 ; Earl Hard- wicke, 1736 ; Lord Henley, afterwards earl of Northington, Jan. 1757; Lord Camden, July, 1766; Lord Hardwicke, Jan. 1770. In Commission, viz. Sir Sidney Staf- ford Smythe, Knt., Hon. Henry Ba- CHA •239 CHA thurst, and Sir R.Aston, Knt. Jan. 1/70; Earl Bathurst, Jan. 1771 ; LordThur- low, June 2, 1778. In Commission, viz. Lord Loughbo- rough, Sir William Ashurst,and Sir Wil- liam Beaumont, Hotham, April 3, 1783. Lord Thurlovv, again, Dec. 23, 1783. In commission, viz. Sir James Eyre, Sir William Henry Ashurst, Sir John Wilson, June 15, 1792. Lord Loughborough, Jan. 27, 1793 ; Lord Eldon, April 15, 1801 ; Lord Ers- kine, Feb. 7, 1806 ; Lord Eldon, again, March 25, 1807 ; Lord Lyndhurst, 1827; Lord Brougham, 1830 ; Lord Lynd- hurst, again, 1834. In Commission, viz. Sir E. Pepys, Sir L. Shadwell, and Mr. Justice Bo- sanquet. Lord Cottenham, 1836. CHANCELLORS of Cambridge. See Cambridge. CHANCELLORS op Oxford. See Oxford. CHANCERY, Court of, the grand court of equity in England, said to have lieen instituted under some form as early as 606, in the reign of Ethelbert 1. revived and confirmed in 1079, by Wil- liam the Conqueror. The judge of this court is the lord high chancellor, whose functions see under Chancellor. About the end%)f the reign of king Edw. III., when uses of land were in- troduced, the separate jurisdiction of the chancery as a court of equity, began to be established. In I6l6, arose a dis- pute between the courts of law and equity, set on foot by Sir Edward Coke, then chief justice of the court of king's bench ; whether a court of equity could give relief after or against a judgment at the common law. This matter, being brought before the king, was by him re- ferred to his learned counsel for their advice and opinion ; who reported so strongly in favour of the courts of equi- ty, that his majesty gave judgment on their behalf. Sir Edward Coke sub- mitted to the decision, and thereby made atonement for his error ; but it was fol- lowed by his removal from office. 1824. The abuses in the Court of Chancery were ordered to be investigat- ed by the earl of Eldon, Lord Redes- dale, Lord GifFord, the vice-chancellor, the solicitor-general,and many of the mas- ters in chancery. In 1828, orders were issued for the future regulation and im- provement of the practice of the Court of Chancery, by the lord chancellor. The orders, it was stated by the chan- cellor, had been framed principally by the Master of the Rolls. 1832. The act 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 111. abolishes certain sinecure offices connected with the Court of Chancery, and makes provision for the lord high chancellor on his retirement from office. By this act the offices of keeper, Clerk of his Majesty's Hanaper, &c., were abol- ished. And, as the lord high chancellor, would be deprived of the patronage and gift of the said offices, on his retirement from office, gives him an annuity of £5000. In May, 1835, in consequence of a change in the administration, the great seal, which, ever since 1793, had been associated with the chancellorship, was put in commission. But in April, 1836, lord Cottenham having been appointed lord chancellor, brought in a bill for the better administration of justice in this court. He moved the second reading, June 13, when a debate of great length took place; and the measure was ulti- mately rejected by a considerable ma- jority. 1840. The subject of chancery re- form was renewed, and a bill brought forward in June, by the lord chancellor, proposing to create two new courts of equity, with their respective establish- ments; toabolishthe court of exchequer, and to appoint new judges in the place of those of the exchequer, &c., whose functions would be superseded. CHANCES, Doctrine of, does not appear to have engaged the attention of mathematicians, until the beginning of the 15th century. Huygens in his book " De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleee," was the first who treated of it methodically. To this work succeeded an anonymous tract, " on the Laws of Chance " in 1692, and L' Analyse des Jeux de Hazard," by M. Monmort, pubhshed in 1708. De Moivre's celebrated work on the Doc- trine of Chances was first published in 1717. In 1740, Mr. Thomas Simpson published a small treatise on " the Na- ture and Laws of Chance," which is not only clear and concise, but contains some problems, whose solutions had either never been attempted, or, at least never before communicated to thepublic. CHANDA, district Hindoostan, prov. Gundwana, was given up to the Mah- rattas in 1794. The wars of 1803 in- CHA 240 CHA terrupted and dispersed the trade of the district; in 1817, it suffered a further devastation, and in 1822 was wasted by famine and cholera. CHANDERNAGORE, French set- tlement in Bengal, formerly frequented by native swindlers and rogues, but in 1757 it was taken by Col. Clive, after an obstinate resistance, and continued under British control up to 1 8 1 6, when it was delivered up to a French governor. CHANDLER, Samuel, an eminent nonconformist divine, born in 1693, at Hungerford, in Berkshire. He published in I725,atreatise, entitled, "A Vindication of the Christian Religion ;" in 1727, " Re- flections on the conduct of the Modern Deists, in their late writings against Christianity." and in 1728, "A Vin- dication of the Antiquity and Authority of Daniel's Prophecies, and their Appli- cation to Jesus Christ." He died May 8, 1766, aged 73. Besides the works al- ready mentioned. Dr. Chandler publish- ed several pamphlets, as well as sermons, in which he very ably defended the cause of Christianity against the attacks of infidelity and deism. CHAPEL AT Roscommon, Ireland, one of the pillars of the gallery gave way, when fourteen persons were killed, and many injured, April 17', 1804. CHAPONE, Mrs., author of " The Letters on the Improvement of the Mind ;" born in 1757, died in 1831, in her 75th year. CHAPPLE, de la Claude, an in- genious Frenchman, the inventor of the telegraph, died Jan. 31, 1805. CHAPTAL, Count, chemist, born 1756, died 1833. CHAPTER, a community of eccle- siastics belonging to a cathedral, &c. Anciently the bishops had their clergy residing with them. After the monastic life grew into request, many bishops chose monks rather than seculars for their attendants. Both these bodies then had the same privilege of choosing the bishop, but by degrees, their depen- dance on the bishop grew less ; and then they had part of the bishop's estate as- signed them, till the bishop had little more left than the power of visiting them. At length these capitular bodies lost their privileges, particularly that of choosing the bishop, till Henry VIII. got this power vested in the crown, and now the deans and chapters have only the shadow of it. The establishment of general chapters of religious orders is owmg to the Cis- tercians, who held the' first in 1116, and were soon followed by the otVier orders. CHARETTE, the famous Vendean commander, was captured at St. Sulpice, near Montaigu, with 32 adherents, when he surrendered, after receiving many wounds, March 23, 1796. He was shot at Nantes, on the 29th, after having conducted himself with the greatest bravery before the military tribunal. CHARENTON, town of France, in the department of Seine, five miles from Paris. The bridge is the key to Paris on that side. In 865 the Normans ob- tained possession of, and destroyed it ; in 1814, its passage was warmly but vainly contested against the allied armies. Sade, the author of Justine, was for the immorality of his writings, con- fined as a lunatic in Charenton asy- lum, by order of Napoleon, and died there in 1813. CHARING Cross, London, erected 1678; old buildings pulled down and re- cent improvements commenced in 1832. CHARING Cross Hospital, foun- dation stone laid by the duke of Sussex, September 15, 1831. CHARIOTS were anciently used both for military purposes* and in the Olym- pic games. War-chariots were very generally used by the ancient inhabitants of va- rious nations. Among the Medes and Persians they had chariots with two wheels, which were generally drawn by four horses a-breast, with two men in each. Cyrus, about a.c. 520, altered the form of the chariots, and doubled the number of fighting men that rode in them, by putting the drivers into a condition to fight as well as the othei-s. At each end of the axle-tree he caused scythes to be fastened that were three feet long, and placed horizontally ; and he caused others to be fixed under the axle-tree, with their edges turned to the ground, that they might cut in pieces men or horses, or whatever the impetuous vio- lence of the chariots should overturn. Chariots of this kind were in use for many ages in all the eastern countries. The strength and execution of the cha- riots depended upon the length of their course ; and this gave impetuosity and and rapidity to their motion, without which they were feeble and in&ignificanf. CHA 241 CHA The Romans under Sylla, at the battle of Chaeronea, defeated and put to flight the enemy's chariots by raising loud peals of laughter, as if they had been at the games of the circus. In the western world war-chariots were much used in ancient times. Those who fought from chariots of this kind, constituted the most remarkable corps in the armies of the ancient Britons. Their wheel-carriages or war-chariots are mentioned by Greek and Roman authors under several diiFerent names. It is probable that in Coesar's time cha- riot-fighting was known and practised only in this island, and continued to be so used till it was subdued by the Ro- mans, and longer in those parts of it that were not conquered. Chariots were used in the celebration of the Olympic games ; and they were introduced into these games in the 25th Olympiad, a.c. 680. Discontinued on account of the great scarcity of horses throughout all Greece, not only at the time of the revival of these games, but for many Olympiads after. In process of time these games acquired extraordi- nary celebrity, and the introduction of the chariot-race, as well as the race of riding horses, admitted in the 33rd Olympiad, served to encourage those who excelled in the breeding and managing of horses. See Olympic Games. CHARITABLE Corporation, in- stituted 1708, abolished 1734. CHARITABLE Institutions in or near London, supported wholly or in part by voluntary contributions, are of several kinds. For an account of the Hospitals, Infir- maries, Dispensaries, and Institutions for particular complaints, See Hospi- tals and Dispensaries. CHARITY Schools. The design of setting up schools for the instruction of children of the poor originated in 1698. The systems of Dr. Bell and Mr. Lancaster began almost simultaneously about the year 1797 or 1798 ; from which have arisen, throughout the kingdom, what are termed National Schools, as well as the British and Foreign School Society. See the articles Schools, Sunday Schools, Infant Schools, National Schools, &c. CHARLEMAGNE, a name given by historians to Charles I. King of France, born 742. Upon the death of his father Pepin in 768, he and his brother Car- loman succeeded to him. Charlemagne Avas crowned at Noyons ; and Carloman at Soissons : their first exploit was the defeat of Humaud, duke of Aquitaine, whose territories they seized and divided between them. In 769, Charlemagne married Bertha, daughter of Didier, king of Lombardy, and in 771 Corloman dy- ing in November, Charlemagne remained sovereign of all France. 772. Charlemagne began the Saxon war, which continued thirty years. In 773, Didier, king of the Lombards, be- sieged Rome, and took several cities from Pope Adrian I. who had recourse to Charlemagne for assistance. The French monarch, finding all milder methods to be fruitless, passed with his army into Italy, in the month of October, defeated the troops of Didier, and laid siege to Pavia, where he had shut himself up. In 774, by the surrender of Pavia, and the capture of Didier, the kingdom of the Lombards ended, after a duration of 206 years. Charlemagne took the title of King of Italy. 776. Charlemagne reduced the Sax- ons, and in 778, gained the celebrated battle of Roncevaux. In 784, defeated Witikind and the Saxons,in a battle that lasted three days. In 791, defeated the Avari in Pannonia. In 796, Pope Leo III. sent legates to Charlemagne, tore- quest him to confirm his election, against Pope Adrian. 799. Pope Leo, maltreated by the partisans of Adrian, and in danger of his life, escaped from prison into France, where Charlemagne furnished him with a numerous escort to re-conduct him to Rome, and punish the rebels. Charle- magne having extirpated the Avari, in Pannonia, in 800, arrived at Rome, and, on Christmas - day, was there crowned king of Italy and emperor of the West, by Pope Leo, After the celebration of mass, at which the king had devoutly assisted, the pope suddenly placed a precious crown on his head, and the dome of the church resounded with the acclamations of the people, " Long life and victory to Charles, - the most pious Augustus, crowned by God the great and pacific emperor of the Romans." The pope immediately consecrated the monarch, and conducting him to a throne, paid him those marks of respect which had been claimed by the ancient CaesarSk 2 I C II A ■21. C II A Charles from this time indissolubly blended, in the name of Charlemagne, the appellation of Magnus the Great. 805. The Sclavonian Boii, or Bohe- mians, ravaged the country lately occu- pied by the Avari, or Huns, and Charle- magne sent his son Charles to oppose them ; the young prince killed their chief, named Lecko. 806. Charlemagne, at the age of 64, convoked an assembly of his nobles at Thionville, and made known his vvill concerning the succession, which they approved of, and sanctioned with their signatures. In 813, Charlemagne asso- ciated his son Louis, surnamed Le De- bonnaire, or the Pious, in the Western empire, and caused him to be crowned in the month of September. In 814, Charlemagne died January 28, aged 72, in the forty-seventh year of his reign as king of France, and the four- teenth of his empire. He was suc- ceeded as emperor and king by his son Louis. " As a warrior and a politician, Charle- magne has been rarely excelled. He was indefatigable in his attention to public business, and in the performance of all the duties attaching to his high station. He showed himself the friend of learning and learned men, and made such efforts to promote the interests of literature, as entitle him to great praise; though his own literary attainments were probably not of the first order, as he did not acquire the practice of writing till he had attained to manhood. Such were the mistaken ideas of the times in which he lived, that he was highly es- teemed for his regard to religion, and to the clergy ; though his morals were stained with the charge of incontinence, to which the number of his wives and concubines bear irresistible evidence. His many wars proved that he little valued the lives of his subjects, in a cause in which his ambition was con- cerned. His humanity stands impeached by the extinction of his nephews, the sons of Carloman, and by the cruelties frequently exercised upon the valiant Saxons, whose attachment to freedom and their country, merited a very dif- ferent kind of treatment. These are blemishes in the character of Charle- magne which time cannot obliterate; but, after every allowance for his frailties, it must be admitted, that the title of Great, which has been blended with his name for more than ten centuries, has seldom been awarded upon fairer claims; and it is to be regretted that in the lapse of a thousand years, so few have been ambitious of attaining to that de- gree of celebrity which attaches to the virtues of Charlemagne." CHARLEMOiNT, with Givet ad- joining, the strongest fortress in France, founded by Charles V., in 1555. Louis XIV. fortified Givet at the foot of the hill, and extended the works of Charle- mont. This impregnable fortress is cal- culated to accommodate 11,000 men, and may be defended by 3000. In 1815, the two Givets and Mont d' Haur capi- tulated to the allies, who did not think it prudent to besiege Charlemont. It has never yet been seriously attacked. CHARLEROI surrendered to the French, June 26, 1794. CHARLES I., king of England, bom November 19, 1600. Succeeded to the crown, March 27, 1625. He married Henrietta, daughter of the king of France, the same year, and was crowned February 2, 1626; crowned at Edin- burgh, 1633. 1641. January 3, the king went to the common council and demanded five ob- noxious members, which was the im- mediate cause of the commencement of the civil war in Britain. He raised his standard at Nottingham, August 25, 1642. Battle of Naseby, June 1645, in which the king's hopes were destroyed. He travelled in the disguise of a servant, and put himself into the hands of the Scots at Newark, May 5, 1646. He was seized by Colonel Joice, at Holmby June 3, 1646. Delivered up by the Scots, January 30, 1647. Escaped from Hampton-court, and retreated to the Isle of Wight, July 29, 1648, and was closely confined in Hurst castle, Dec. 1, following. Removed to Windsor castle, Dec. 23 ; to St. James's* palace, June 19, 1649. Brought to trial the next day, condemned the 27th, beheaded at Whitehall, the 30th, aged 48, and buried in St. George's chapel, Windsor. For further particulars of the reign of Charles I., See Britain. CHARLES II., king of England, born May 29, 1630. Escaped from St. James's April .23, 1648. Landed in Scotland, 1650, and was crowned at Scone, Jan. 1, 1651. Defeated at the battle of Worcester, 1651. He landed at Dover, May 20, 1660, and was CHA 2-43 CHA restored to his throne ; crowned April 13, 1661. Married Catharine, infanta of Portugal, May 21, 1662. Accepted the city freedom, Dec. 18, 1674. Died without issue, Feb. 6, 1685, aged 54, of apoplexy. He was buried at West- minster, and Avas succeeded by his bro- ther James. Catharine, hia queen, died Dec. 21, 1705. See Britain. CHARLES v., king of Spain, and em- peror of Germany, was born at Ghent, Feb. 24, 1500. The rich inheritance of Castile, of Arragon, of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, devolved on him, by the death of his maternal grandfather, Fer- dinand, in 1516. On which event he claimed the title of king. 1519. The emperor Maximilian I. dying at Wells, in Austria, Jan. 12. Trancis L, and Charles V, of Spain be- came competitors for the empire ; the latter was elected June 28, on which oc- casion the capitulation was introduced, subjecting the emperor to the condition imposed by the electors. In 1521, a league between the emperor Charles V., king of Spain, and Henry Ylll. of Eng- land, against Francis I., king of France; and in 1523, a league against Francis L, by pope Clement VH., the emperor, the Venetians, &c. 1525. Francis I. was taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia, Feb. 24, and sent to Madrid ; but by the treaty of Madrid, Jan. 14, 1526, Francis was restored to liberty, on leaving his two sons as hos- tages. The pope and Venetians joined the French king against the emperor. 1527- Rome was taken and plundered by the army of the emperor. May 6. In 1528, Francis challenged the emperor Charles V. to meet him in single combat. In 1531, Ferdinand of Austria was elected king of the Romans through the interest of his brother Charles V. In 1532, Charles V. was reconciled to the German princes, July 23. 1536. League between Francis I. of France, and Solyman II., sultan of the Turks, against the emperor Charles V. In 1538, a ten years* truce concluded at Nice, June 18, between Charles and Francis, which lasted four years. In 1539, Charles V. passed through France on his way to Ghent, which had revolted, and was sumptuously entertained by Francis. The constitution of the Cortes in Spain subverted by Charles, 1541. Charles V. besieged Algiers. 1542. Treaty of alliance between Sul- tan Solyman and Francis I. of France, against the emperor Charles V. In 1543, a league between Henry VIII. and Charles V. against Francis I. In 1544, the Imperiahsts defeated the French at Cerisoles, April 11, which led to the treaty of Crespy, between Charles and Francis, Sep. 18. 1546. The emperor Charles V. formed a league with the pope against the Pro- testants : and in 1548, the interim was granted by Charles V. to the Protestants 1553. Treaty of Passau, between the emperor and the Protestants, signed July 31, In 1553, Charles V. resigned his possessions in the Netherlands to hia son, Philip II, husband of Mary, queen of England, and nominated his brother, Ferdinand I., who had been elected king of the Romans in 1531, as his successor in the empire. In 1556, Charles V. re- signed the crown of Spain, and all his other dominions, to Philip II., Jan. 6, and retired to the monastery of St. Just, in Estramadura. Onhis way to the place of his retreat, he visited Ghent, the place of his nativity, and after a prosperous voyage, arrived at Laredo, in Biscay. As soon as he landed, he prostrated himself on the earth, and said, "Naked I came out of my mother's womb, and naked I now return to thee, thou common mother of mankind." A considerable portion of his time was reserved for religious exercises ; and in this dignified leisure did he pass the first year of his seclusion. But the debility arising from a broken constitution, and the tendency of a superstitious faith and practice, at length degraded his sinking mind to the servilitv and insanity of mo nastic penances. Prompted by the monks, to whose direction he had resigned himself, he resolved to celebrate his own obsequies, which he did with all the solemnity of a real funeral. The awful impressions which the ceremony, however absurdly and improperly de- vised, had left upon his mind, hastened the event which he had so singularly anticipated. On the following day, he was seized with a fever, and expired on the 21st of September, 1558, in his 59th year. " The character of his mind was rather th at of careful and d eliberate attention th an of brilliant talents or rapid conception. He preferred business to pleasure, and made public concerns at once his study and amusement. But his promptitude -CliA 244 in execution vvas equal to his patience in deliberating ; he was at once sagacious in devising measures, and fruitful in resources for carrying them forward. Though he devoted himself more to the cabinet than to the field, he never ap- peared at the head of his armies without entitling himself to rank with the greatest general of the age ; but his principal excellence consisted in the feU- city with which he applied the important science of human nature to the choice of fit agents and the adaptation of abilities to situation and office. If his manners were less pleasing than those of his rival, his virtues were at least as sohd, and his adherents as faithful and attached. His confidence in his generals was unbounded; he rewarded their services munificently ; he neither envied their glory, nor mis- trusted their intentions. But his ambi- tion was insatiable, and his policy too often rigorous ; while his contemporaries Francis I., and Henry VHI., with num- berless ^'ices from which he was exempt, were characterized by an openness and credulity, which made them more popu- lar, principally because it rendered them less dangerous." CHARLES XH., king of Sweden, was born in 1682, and succeeded to the crown on the death of his father Charles XI. in 1697. In very early life he had been trained to violent and martial ex- ercises ; and had in a thousand instances shown an impracticability of disposition which no force could conquer, but which was always alive to suggestions of military glory. The inexperience of Charles encouraged the kings of Poland, Denmark, and the czar of Russia to enter into a confederacy against him, for the purpose of wresting from him a part of his dominions, which had been ceded to his father and grandfather. When their designs were certainly known, a Swedish council was convened at which the king attended, for some time, the silent spectator of their pro- ceedings. In the midst, however, of their discussions, respecting the mea- sures to be pursued, he rose, and with a dignified air declared that he had de- termined never to engage in an unjust war, but having been drawn into one by the ambitious views of an enemy, he would never desist till he had humbled and ruined him. "It is," says he, "my resolution to go and attack the first who shall dare to avow his designs : and CHA when I have conquered him, I trust the others will be intimidated." 1700. Charles quitted his capital in May, to revisit it no more ; and, era- barking his troops at Carlscroon, sailed for Denmark, and proceeded at once to Copenhagen, which he prepared to be- siege by land, while the fleet blockaded it by sea, and soon obtained possession of it. He then turned his arms against the Russians, who had under- taken the siege of Narva, with 80,000 men. The Swedish monarch advanced to the relief of the place with only 10,000 men. After a severe conflict of three hours the Russians were obliged to retreat, and Charles entered Narva in triumph, Dec. 11. He pursued his conquests till he pene- trated as far as where the diet of Poland was sitting; when he made them de- clare the throne of Poland vacant, and elect Stanislaus jtheir king, Feb. 1704; then making himself master of Saxony, he obliged Augustus himself to renounce the crown of Poland, and acknowledge Stanislaus, by a letter of congratulation on his accession. During this war an incident occurred illustrative of his character. On one occasion a peasant threw himself at his feet, with a complaint against a grena- dier, that he had robbed him of certain eatables provided for himself and his family. " Is it true," said Charles sternly, " that you have robbed this man ?" The soldier replied, " Sir, I have not done near so much harm to this man, as your majesty has done to his master, for you have taken from Augustus a kingdom, whereas I have only taken from this poor scoundrel a dinner." Charles made the peasant amends, and pardoned the soldier for his firmness. " However, my friend," added he, " you will do well to recollect that if I took a kingdom from Augustus, I did not take it for myself." 17O8. Charles arrived within 100 lea- gues of Moscow in October, when the severity of the weather and scarcity of provisions obliged him to turn aside into the Ukraine. He however shared with his soldiers all kinds of hardships, and by this means inspired them with surprising patience and fortitude. In the following spring his army was re- duced to 30,000 men, and with these he penetrated to the town of Pultowa, where Peter had laid up his magazines. CHA 1709. The czar^ having collected all his forces, was advancing on the Swedes, and Charles refusing to wait for the ene- my in his entrenchments, gave orders for a general engagement, July 7, and then went to sleep. On July 8, the famous battle of Pultowa decided the fate of the Swedish monarch. Being wounded,he was drawn in a litter at the head of his infan- try ; the horses were twice killed, and at last the litter was dashed in pieces by a can- non ball ; he was then carried by his life guards ; and though the Swedes began to retreat on every side, the officers and 9000 men being slain, he refused to flee, till he was placed on horseback by order of Poniatowski, and conveyed by his cavalry through the Russian army to the banks of the Dnieper. From thence he escaped wth a small troop to Bender, where he remained several years. During his residence here, Augustus regained the throne of Poland : the king of Denmark attacked Schonen, and took Helsingburgh, and the czar triumphed in Muscovy. Weary of his inactive life he requested leave to return to Sweden, which was readily granted. His arrival in Oct. 1714, diflfused universal joy in his kingdom, though he found it in a wretch- ed condition. 1716. He invaded Norway, but after penetrating to Chiistiana was obliged to return to Sweden. He now sought by means of his minister. Baron de Goertz, to effect a peace with Russia, and began to contrive means for the dethronement of George I. of England. But in order to lose no time, he besieged Frederick- shall, though the cold was then so severe that the sentinels were frozen to death at their posts. On the evening of the 11th of December, he visited the en- trenchments with his chief engineer. He was leaning upon the parapet watch- ing the workmen, with nearly half his body exposed to the fire of the enemy ; after remaining in this posture for some time, he was seen to fall upon the para- pet, heaving a deep sigh. He was taken up dead, a half pound ball having en- tered his right temple, and though his death was thus instantaneous, his right hand was found grasping the hilt of his sword. Thus perished Charles XH., king of Sweden, in the 37th year of his age, and the 2l8t of his reign. During his life he experienced the extremes of pros- perity and of adversity, without being 245 CHA softened by the one, or disturbed by th* other ; but he was a man rather extra- ordinary than great, and fitter to be ad- mired than imitated. His intrepidity, fortitude, perseverance, and contempt of danger, will ever rank him foremost among heroes, but no king was ever more lavish of human blood, or studied less the true happiness of his subjects. His person was tall, and of noble mien, he had a fine open forehead, large blue eyes, flaxen hair, fair complexion, but a laugh not agreeable. His manners were harsh and austere, not to say savage ; and as to religion, he was indifferent to all, though professedly a Lutheran. Baron de Goertz, his minister, was ar- rested immediately on the death of Charles, and condemned to be beheaded at the foot of the town gallows ; an ex- ample, says Voltaire, of vengeance, ra- ther than of justice, and a cruel affront to the memory of a king whom Sweden still admires. CHARLES Philip Count d' Ar- Tois, afterwards Charles X. of France, born Oct. 9, 1757, was the fifth and youngest son of the dauphin Louis, son of king Louis XV., by his se- cond wife Maria Josepha of Poland, third daughter of Augustus the Third, king of Poland and elector of Saxony. Was married Dec. 17, 1773, to the princess Maria Theresa, daughter of Vic- tor Amadeus HL, king of Sardinia, and sister to the consort of Louis XVHL, at which period he was only in the l7th year of his age. By this princess, who died at Gratz, in Hungary, June 2, 1805, he had two children — Louis Antoine, due d'Angouleme, born August 6, 1775, and Henry Charles, due de Berri. The count d'Artois quitted France at the onset of the revolution about 1796, and visited the court of his father-in- law, the king of Sardinia, at Turin, and subsequently other parts of Europe; but at length sought an asylum in Eng- land, where he resided for a considerable period. Becoming deeply involved in pecuniary embarrassments, and some of his creditors being very clamorous and urgent, Holyrood-house, Edinburgh, being a privileged place, was fixed upon by the British government as his resi- dence. Some arrangement having been effected with his creditors, he was sub- sequently enabled to live at Hartwell, with his brother Louis XVHL 1824. He succeeded his brother as king CHA 246 C U A of France, and by the title of Charles X., made his public entry into Paris, Sept. 27. On July 25, 1830, in conse- quence of the result of a general elec- tion, Charles X. issued his two ordi- nances, one abolishing the freedom of the press, and the other changing the mode of election. The three days of revolution ensued. The king retreated from St. Cloud to Rambouillet, where he offered to abdicate in favour of his grandson the due de Bourdeaux, and re- quested from the provincial government a safe conduct to a seaport. He em- barked at Cherbourg, for England, and arrived off Spithead, Aug. 17- On the 23rd he landed at Poole, and for some time he took up his residence at Lul- worth Castle, the mansion of Cardinal Weld. After two months he removed to Edinburgh, and resumed his old quar- ters at Holyrood house. He returned to the continent, Aug. 18, 1832, and took up his residence in the Austrian dominions. In consequence of a severe attack of dysentery or cholera, he breathed his last at Goritzia, Nov. 6, 1836, aged 79. See France. CHARLESTOWN, South Carolina, fire at, November 18, 1740. The whole trading part of the town was entirely destroyed, and nearly 300 houses left in ruins. The loss of houses was valued at £100,000 sterling, and the goods double that amount. 1761. May 4, a most violent whirl- wind, of that species called Typhones, passed down Ashley river, and fell upon the shipping in RebelUon Road, with incredible violence. That terrible phe- nomenon ploughed Ashley river to the bottom, and laid the channel bare. There were forty-five sail of ships in the roads, five of which were sunk. The strong gust by which it was met check- ed its progress, otherwise the town must have been driven before it like chaff. Charlesto^vn was burnt by the English, January 17, 1774; surrendered to the British forces. May 4, 1780 ; 300 houses destroyed by fire, June 13, 1796. This town has a fourth part of the ex- ports of the United States. All the cotton sent from South Carolina to foreign countries is shipped at Charles- town. In 1831-32, the exports are said to have amounted to 182,628 bales, of which 138,683 were for Great Britain. The registered, enrolled, and hcensed tonnage belonging to Charlestown, in 1831, amounted to 13,008 tons, of which 7,147 tons were employed in the coast- ing trade. The total value of the articles imported into South Carolina, in the year ending September 30, 1832, was 1,213,725 dollars ; the total value of the exports during the same year being 7,752,781 dollars. CHARLESTOWN, New England, greatly damaged by a storm, 1761 ; burnt by English troops, June 17, 1775. CHARLEVOIX, Peter Francis Xavier de, a writer of voyages and travels, born at St. Quintin, in 1684, and having entered the society of Jesuits, taught the languages and philosophy with reputation. His works are, "A History of the Island of St. Domingo," 2 vols. 4to., 1730; "A History and Description of Japan," 1736; "History of Paraguay," 6 vols- 12mo. ; "General History and Description of New France," 1744. He died in 1761. CHARLOTTE. Princess Augusta, whose untimely death excited so much interest in this country, was the only daughter of his late majesty George IV., born January 7, 1796. On May 18, 1815, her royal highness was first presented at court, and soon after this period went to Weymouth for the benefit of her health. Here an incident occurred which strikingly displayed the amiable and energetic features in her character. Just before her departure from Weymouth, her royal highness being at sea in her yacht. Captain Nixon, who commanded the Leviathan of 74 guns, which was sailing near, rowed on board the yacht, to pay his respects to the princess. She received him on deck, and, after the usual ceremonies, said, " Captain Nixon, yours seems a very fine ship of war ; I should like much to go on board her." The bishop, her aged preceptor, stand- ing by, asked whether she thought her illustrious father might not disapprove of her passing in an open boat through a rough sea. The immediate answer to this was, " Queen Elizabeth took great delight in her navy, and was not afraid to go on board a man-of-war in an open boat ; then, why should I ?" Her royal highness declined going by the chair of state when let down, saying, " I prefer going up in the manner that a seaman does ; you. Captain Nixon, will kindly follow me, taking care of my clothes ; and, when I am on deck, the chair may be let down for the other ladies and the C H A U7 CHA tlishop." Her royal highness ascended with a facility that astonished the whole delighted crew. Her royal highness did not leave the ship till she had inspected every birth, even to the cockpit, powder- magazines, store holds, &c. Having presented a purse to Captain Nixon, for the crew, she descended as she rose, under a royal salute, and the more gra- tifying cheers of the loyal and hearty crew of a British man-of-war. 1814. When the allied sovereigns visited this country, on occasion of the general peace, her royal highness was first introduced to Prince Leopold of Saxe Cobourg, and a formal proposal was soon made. Her marriage with that prince took place May 2, 1816. At length, at the pregnancy of the princess, the whole nation looked forward to a succession of princes in the same illus- trious line. The health of the princess had been anxiously watched up to the important period of her confinement. On the morning of November 4, 1817, her royal highness being taken ill, de- spatches were immediately sent to the chief officers of state, the archbishop of Canterbury, and bishop of London, who immediately hastened to Claremont. At twelve, November 5, a change was ob- served, and the princess expired, about half-past two in the morning of Novem- ber 6. This amiable princess in her general character, circumstances, and prospects, resembling our youthful sovereign Vic- toria previous to her accession, excited a scarcely inferior interest in the public mind. The princess Charlotte was re- markable for the vigour of her under- standing, the firmness of her mind, the openness of her manners, and the tender- ness of her heart ; while her well-known constitutional principles promised the con- tinuance of all those civil and religious privileges our nation had so long enjoyed. CHARLOTTE, queen of George IIL, originally princess Sophia Charlotte of Mecklenburgh Strehtz, was born May 19, 1744, married September 8, 1761, crowned September 22, 1761, died at Kew, November 17, 1818, aged 75. CHARLOTTE, the Royal, of 100 guns, destroyed by an accidental fire, near Leghorn, only 150 of her crew saved; "March 16, 1800. CHARLOTTE'S Island, Queen, discovered by Capt. Wallis, 1767. CHARLOTTE'S Islands, Queen, a cluster, discovered by Capt. Carteret, 1767. CHARONDAS, a native of Catania, in Sicily, flourished about a. c. 446, and is supposed to have been a disciple of Pythagoras. He was distinguished both as a philosopher and a legislator, and is said to have framed a code of laws for his own native place, and several other cities of the Chalcidians, and also for the Magii; and they were afterwards adopted by the inhabitants of Thurium in Magna Grsecia, rebuilt by the Sybarites, when they established their republic. CHARPENTIER, Francis, a native of Paris, where he was born in 1620. .In 1651, he was elected a member of the French Academy. In 1676, he wrote, " A Defence of the Use of the French Language, for the Inscription on the Triumphal Arch ;" and in 1683, he pub- lished two volumes " On the Excellence of the French Language." These pub- lications excited the avowed enmity of Boileau, who satirized him with unwar- rantable severity. His last work, entitled " A Dissertation on the Excellence and Utility of Academic Exercises," was published in 1695. He died in 1702; and long after his death, some literary fragments were published under the title of " Carpentariana," that are held in no great estimation. CHARRON, Peter, an eminent French writer, was the son of a book- seller at Paris, and bom in 1541. In 1594, he published his treatise, entitled, "Three Truths." In 1595, he was deputed to the general assembly of the clergy, and made secretary to that body. In 1600, he printed a volume of "Christian Discourses," and in 1601, appeared the first edition of his " Trea- tise on Wisdom," In 1603, he went to Paris to print a second edition of this work, and there died suddenly in the street. CHARTA, Magna. See Magna Charta. CHART, or Hydrographical Map. Charts were first introduced into the marine by Prince Henry, duke of Visco, son of John I., king of Portugal, about the year 1400. These were of the kind denominated plane charts. For any considerable extent, charts of this construction were soon found erroneous ; and their errors were successively ex- posed by Martin Cortes, a Spaniard, iii 1556 5 by Petrus Nonius, a Portuguese, CHA 2-18 CHA in 1587 ; by Mr. Edward Wright in 1599 ; and by others. In order to correct these errors, Mer- cator, in 1556, pubhshed a chart, in which the meridians and parallels were straight lines, as in the jjlane chart; but in order to compensate the errors arising from the parallelism of the meridians, he increased each degree or portion of the meridian with its distance from the equator. In 1645, a method, more strictly accurate, was published, as an addition to Norwood's Epitome of Navi- gation, by Mr. Henry Bond. The de- monstration of this method was still wanting : this, however, was given, for the first time, by Mr. James Gregory, of Aberdeen, in 1668 ; and in 1690 a more concise demonstration was given by Dr. Halley in the Philosophical Transactions of London, No. 219, Vol. xix. Both these demonstrations are reprinted in the second volume of Baron Maseres' Scrip- tores Logarithmici, printed in 1791. CHARTERS of community, were certain privileges whereby the inhabit- ants of towns and cities were enfranchised. The first person who conferred these pri- vileges was Louis the Gross, in France, about the beginning of the twelfth cen- tury ; and his example was soon very generally followed. In England the es- tablishment of communities or corpora- tions was posterior to the Conquest, and the practice was borrowed from France. Lord Lyttleton, however, suggests that some of the towns in England were formed into corporations under the Saxon kings, and that the charters granted by the kings of the Norman race were not charters of enfranchisement from a state of slavery, but a confirmation of privileges which they already enjoyed. However this be, the English cities were bixt inconsiderable in the twelfth century. See City. CHARTER House, a term derived from the French word Chartreuse, the name of a celebrated monastery of Carthusians, so called from a steep rocky place, in a frightful desert, five leagues from Gre- noble, in France, where St. Bruno retired from the world, and first instituted the order of Carthusians. The name has since passed to all houses of Carthusians. That of London, corruptly called Charter House, was, before the suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII., a priory belonging to that order. On occasion of ^ dreadful plague> Walter de Manny, a Flemish nobleman, purchased the site in 1349 of the master and brethren of St. Bartholomew's hospital. 1371. Manny founded in this place a Carthusian monastery; and the revenues of this convent amounted, at the time of its suppression in 1538, to 642/. per annum, which was conferred upon Sir Thomas Audley, speaker of the House of Commons, and from him descended to Thomas, earl of Suffolk, who disposed of it to Thomas Sutton, Esq., by the name of " Howard House," commonly called " Charter House." By letters patent, obtained in 1611, the hospital was established, and con- firmed by parliament in 1628. Sir Richard Sutton, one of the founder's executors, improved the estate, so that in 1673 it amounted to 5,391/. 135. %d. yearly. It has since amounted to about 12,000Z. This establishment consists of decayed gentlemen, soldiers, and mer- chants; eighty of whom have a plentiful maintenance of diet, lodging, &c. The ordinary officers are, a master, preacher, register, trea.surer, schoolmaster, &c. i CHARTISTS. This term had its origin in the year 1837 or 1838, when a very uneasy spirit began to display itself among the " working classes" in the manufacturing counties. Immense meet- ings were convened in various quarters demanding universal suffrage. A docu- ment, called the " people's charter," was framed and put in circulation, from whence they were called Chartists. It became a favourite practice with the parties to these transactions to assemble by torch-light in the open air. Among others, a public meeting was convened in the day-time, at Palace Yard, West- minster, in the autumn of 1838. The most numerous and important of these assemblages took place on Kersel Moor, near Manchester. The number present on this occasion was about 200,000 ; Mr. Fielden, the member for Oldham, was called to preside. On this occasion the well known Mr. Stephens said, "The principle of the people's charter was the right of every man that breathed God's free air, or trod God's free earth, to have his horn? and his hearth, and to have happiness to himself, his wife, an*' his children, as securely guaranteed to him as they are to every other man whom the Almighty had created." These meetings continued till Decem- ber in various parts of the country. The CttA 249 CHA people were armed with guns, pikes, &c. carrying flags and torches, and conduct- ing themselves in a tumultuous manner. A proclamation was issued declaring all such meetings illegal, and warning all persons to desist from such assemblies. 1839. July 15, Riots at Birmingham. A meeting of Chartists having been ap- pointed for the evening, the police inter- fered to prevent it, which so infuriated the mob, that a generial riot took place. They set fire to three houses in the Bull Ring, broke into the shops, and com- mitted many outrages before the arrival of a strong party of special constables, armed with cutlasses, and some troops of di-agoon guards, and rifle brigade, ultimately stopped their proceedings. The damage done by the rioters was estimated at from £30,000. to £40,000. Chartists^ Riot at Newport originated at the suggestion of John Frost, whose first public appearance was in 1819. When the Municipal Corporation Act came into operation, in 1835, Frost was chosen borough magistrate by fourteen out of eighteen town councillors who voted on that occasion; the majority being composed of Tories and Whigs indiscriminately. In the year after that appointment he was chosen mayor unanimously. In the year 1837 another contested election took place. On that occasion. Frost having had some personal diflTerence with the popular candidate, sacrificed his principles to his resentment, and gave his support to the Tory candi- date ; and, from having been the idol of the friends of liberty at Newport, he became an object of their execration. Bitter mortification and disappointment entered into his very soul. He became desperate and reckless, and ready to grasp at revenge in any form. He soon distinguished himself- by his seditious violence, and was most jiistly dismissed from the magistracy in 1838. 1839. Frost's dismissal gave him fresh claims on his co-operatives, and he soon became chairman of the Chartist Con- vention. Letters poured in upon him from various quarters, in which he was applauded for his manliness, styled the saviour of his country, and hailed as the future lord protector of a projected republic. They had been already worked up to the full extent of Chartism ; but Chartism now fell much below his mark, and a new topic was started. The unequal distribution of property was invidiously denounced as social injustice. The working classes were reminded that these were evils capable of remedy, and that the remedy was in their own hands by means of numbers and physical force. Delegates from distant districts, and inflammatory publications lent their aid, and it is not much to be wondered at that their combined ejBForts were successful. The largest estates in the country were parcelled out to the golden dreams of the multitude, who were taught to believe that one good rising was all that was required to effect the division. The great bulk was to be distributed, and every Chartist was led to believe that his share of the general plunder would en- able him to support his wife and family thenceforward in comfort, without la- bour. The first circumstance which created positive alarm, as indicative of a wide- spread combination for some bad pur- pose, was a general desertion of the hill markets on Saturday, November 2, 1839. This neglect on the part of the workmen to make the usual provision for their families for the ensuing week, led the proprietor of Tredegar iron-works to apprehend that some mischief was in- tended ; and, early on the 3rd, he com- municated his apprehensions to the mayor of Newport. In the course of the 3rd (Sunday), the Chartists collected from the mines and collieries in the neigh- bourhood about 10,000 men, most of whom were armed with guns, pikes, &c. At ten o'clock on Monday morning the 4th, the Chartists' attack on Newport commenced. They divided themselves into two bodies, one of which, under the command of Frost proceeded down the principal street of Newport; while the other, headed by Frost's son, took the direction of Stowe Hill. They met in front of the West gate Hotel, where the magistr^es were assembled with about 30 soldiers of the 45th regiment, and several special constables ; the rioters commenced breaking the windows of the house, and fired upon the inmates, by which the mayor, Mr. Phillips, and several other persons were wounded. The soldiers now made a sortie, and succeeded in dispersing the mob, which, with its leaders, fled from the city, leaving about 20 rioters dead, and many others dangerously wounded. A de- tachment of the 10th Royal Hussars 2 K CHA 250 CHA having arrived from Bristol, the city became tranquil. Frost was •apprehended on the following day, together with his printer, and other influential persons, among the Chartists. A public examination of the rioters com- menced November 14, at Newport, and concluded Saturday, Dec. 7, having lasted 23 days. The number of pi'i- soners committed was 125. 1840. The trial of Frost for high treason, under special commission, dated November 19, commenced at Monmouth January 1, and lasted eight days; ended Wednesday January 9th, by the con- viction of Frost, and a recommendation to mercy by the jury. Zephaniah Wil- liams, and William Jones, were also convicted of high treason on a subse- quent day. Thursday, January 16, sentence was passed against the above three prisoners, on which occasion the chief justice ad- dressed them in the following terms : " John Frost, Zephaniah Williams, and William Jones, after the most anxious and careful investigation of your re- spective cases before juries of great in- telligence and almost unexampled pa- tience, you stand at the bar of this Court to receive the last sentence of the law for the commission of a crime which beyond all others is the most pernicious in example, and the most injurious in its consequences to the peace and hap- piness of human society ; that of high treason against your Sovereign. It is owing to the interposition of Providence alone that your wicked de- signs are frustrated : your followers ■arrive by daylight, and after firing upon the civil power and the Queen's troops, are by the firmness of the magistrates, and the cool and determined bravery of a small band of soldiers, defeated and dispersed. What would have been the fate of the peaceable and unoffending inhabitants, if success had ^attended your rebellious designs, it is useless to con- jecture : the invasion of a foreign foe would in all probability have been less destructive to property and life. It is for the crime of treason, committed under these circumstances, that you are called upon yourselves to answer; and by the penalty which you are about to suffer, you hold out a warning to all your fellow subjects that the law of your count! y is strong enough to repress and punish all attempts to alter the establish- ed order of things by insurrection and armed force : and that those who are found guilty of such treasonable at- tempts must expiate their crime by an ignominious death. *- January 31, the day fixed for the ex- ecution of the three convicts. Frost, Williams, and Jones, the greatest ex- citement prevailed. Monday, Feb. 3, Su- perintendent May arrived at Monmouth, bearing a reprieve, as also an order for the immediate removal of the state prisoners to the hulks, from whence they were to be transported for life. Five other state prisoners who had been sentenced to die, were to be confined in Monmouth gaol for three years, and then discharged. The total number of Chartists convicted throughout the kingdom during twelve months, ending January, 1840, was 209- Of these, 11 were sentenced to death, but had their sentences commuted to transportation for life. Among these were Frost and eight others, members of the convention; seven were sentenc- ed to transportation from seven to 15 years ; 74 to imprisonment from one to four years ; and the i-emainder to im- prisonment for shorter periods. CHATEAU Cambresis. See Ca- TEAU Cambresis. CHATHAM Isle, one of the Gal- lapagos, exploi'ed 1793. CHATHAM, England. Here is es- taljlished one of the principal royal dock yards, which was commenced in the reign of Elizabeth, since which, it has gradually increased in size and impor- tance, and is one of the first arsenals in Europe. In the year 1588, Queen Elizabeth instituted a fund here, called the Chest of Chatham, for the relief of sufferers from the Spanish Armada, to which a small portion of the pay of the seamen of the navy and merchant ser- vice was to be contributed ; this has since been removed to Greenwich, and placed under the direction of the Ad- miralty. Here is an hospital for decay- ed mariners, shipwrights, and their widows, founded by Sir John Hawkins, in 1592. The hospital has been rebuilt, after a graceful and excellent design. The Chatham pensioners have an allow- ance of 8s. per week, and the widows 7s., with coals. The castles of Upnor and Gillingham afford additional defence to the town, the former, built by Queen Elizabeth ; the latter completely com- mands the river, by which the Dutch CHA .251 CHA fleet suflFered severely in its attack on Chatham, in the year 1667. Fort Pitt is a strong fortress on an eminence, erected in 1803, and was originally en- closed for a military hospital. CHATHAM, William Pitt, Earl of, one of the most illustrious of Bri- tish statesmen, was born in November 1708. He "received the early part of his education at Eton, as a scholar, on the foundation, and at the age of eigh- teen he was entered at Trinity College, Oxford. Through the interest of the Duchess of Marlborough, he obtained a seat in parhament before he was 21. • His first appearance in the House was as representative of the borough of Old Sarum. He afterv.'ards represented the city of Bath, where he continued till he was called up to the house of peers. 1746. Mr. Pitt was appointed vice- treasurer of Ireland, and soon after, paymaster general of the forces, and sworn a privy-counsellor. In 1755, he resigned the office of paymaster, on seeing Mr.Fox preferred to him. On Dec. 4, 1756, he was appointed secretary of state in the room of Mr. Fox, afterwards Lord Holland. But, having in the month of February, 1757, refused his assent to the carrying on a war in Ger- many, he was deprived of the seals on the 5th of April following. Upon this, the complaints of the people became so violent, that, on June 29, he was again appointed secretary, and his friends filled other important offices. The success with which the war was conducted is universally known ; yet, on Oct. 5, 1761, Mr. Pitt resigned the seals into his majesty's own hands. After his resignation, Mr. Pitt re- ceived for his services, a pension of £3000 a year. In 1766, he accepted of a peerage under the title of Baron Pynsent and earl of Chatham, and at the same time was appointed lord privy seal. His administration was fluctuating and unsteady ; his own influence gra- dually declined, and upon his resignation in 1768, he was so far fallen in public estimation, that he was scarcely missed by the public. The quarrel with the American colo- nies, commenced 1773, employed the remaining powers of this venerable patriot. April 7, 1778, the duke of Richmond having moved an address to iiis majesty, on the subject of the state of the nation, in" wliich the necessity of admitting the independence of America was insinuated. Lord Chatham depre- cated in the warmest terms such a ter- mination, as the ruin of British great- ness. The duke cf Richmond having replied to his speech, the earl attempted to rise a second time, but fell down in a convulsive fit ; and though he reco- vered for that time, his disorder con- tinued to increase till May 11, when he died at his seat at Hayes. A statue was erected to his memory at G uildhall, in 1782, and a bill soon after passed, by which £4000 a year was settled upon his family. His lordship had five chil- dren, among whom was the celebrated statesman, William Pitt. See Pitt. " The manners of Lord Chatham wera easy, his conversation was spirited and gay, and he readily adapted himself to the complexion of those with whom he associated. By an irresistible energy of soul, he was haughty and imperious. He was incapable of associating councils, and he was not formed for the sweetest bonds of society. He waa a pleasing companion, but an unpleasant friend. The ambition of our hero, however generous in its strain, was the source of repeated errors in his conduct. Patrior tism was the source of some of his imperfections. He loved his country too well ; or, if that may sound absurd, the benevolence at least, that embraces the whole human species, had not suf- ficient scope in his mind. He indulged too much a puerile antipathy to the house of Bourbon : and it was surely the want of expansive affections thai led him to so unqualified a condemna- tion of American independency. But the eloquence of Lord Chatham was one of his most striking characteristics. Here he outstripped his competitors, and stood alone the rival of antiquity. His oratory was unlaboured and spon- taneous : he rushed at once upon the subject ; and usually illustrated it rather by glowing language and original conception, than by cool reasoning. His person was tall and dignified ; his piercing eye looked through the souls of his opponents ; his countenance was stern, and a voice of thunder sat upon his lips : anon, however, he could de- scend to the easy and the playful. His voice seemed scarcely more adapted to energy and to terror, than it did to the melodious, the insinuating, and the sportive. If, however, in the enthusiasna. CHA 252 CHE of admiration, we can find room for the frigidity of criticism, his action seemed the most open to objection. It was forcible, but uniform, and somewhat un- graceful. In a word, the most celebrated orators of antiquity, were, in a great measure, the children of labour and cul- tivation. Lord Chatham was always na- tural and himself." CHATILON SuR Seine, Lord Cas- tlereagh, and other diplomatic characters met at, for the negociation of peace, February 6, 1814. CHATTERTON, Thomas, a poet re- markable for his genius and his unhappy end, born at Bristol, Nov. 20, 1750; and educated at a charity school. At fifteen he was articled to an attorney at Bristol, where he formed that plan of imposing on the credulity of the public which he afterwards practised with con- siderable success. A number of chests had been deposited in Redcliffe church at the time of its erection in the 15th century ; the keys to one of them being lost, it was broken open and some papers came into possession of young Chatterton, whose mind now labouring with a plan of deceiving the public, he pretended to have discovered the poetry of Rowley, a priest of the 15th century. In 1769, he addressed a letter to the Hon. H. Waipole, inclosing some speci- mens of the Rowleian poetry ; that gen- tleman being assured by good judges that they were forgeries, sent him a very cool reply. Mortified by this treatment, Chatterton gave vent to his feelings by communications to the Town and Country Magazine. He afterwards re- moved to London, in search of hterary employment. At first he met with good success J but no sooner did he find his visionary expectations in some respects disappointed, than his spirits failed him, and he sunk into indolence, poverty, vice, and melancholy. August 28, 1770, he was found dead, in consequence of having swallowed poison. CHAUCER, Geoffrey, the father of English poetry, was born at London in 1328. In 1367, he received from King Edward III. a pension of twenty marks per annum, a sum equal probably to £200 or £300 of modern money. His circumstances, he says, in his Testament of Love, were at this time so opulent, that he could live with dignity in office, and hospitality among his friends. His fortune was, however, reversed on the death of Eidward. The immediate cause of his misfortunes seems to have been his in- terference in a dispiite between the coiu-t and the city of London, in which Chau- cer took the civic side. In 1394, he obtained a pension for life of £20, and retired to Woodstock, where he spent the remainder of his days. 1398. Richard II. granted him a pa- tent of protection, which has been gene- rally supposed to be a protection from his creditors. He died October 25, 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory by a gentleman at Oxford, more than a century afterwards. His chief work, and that which will immortalize his name, is his " Canterbury Tales." The subject of the work is the journey of several travellers, going on pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury, who agree to tell stories by the way, on condition that the one who tells the best story, shall have a supper at the expense of the rest. CHAUMONT, Treaty of, between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, March 1, 1814. CHAZELLES, John Mattheav, an eminent French mathematician and engineer, born at Lyons in 1657, and educated in the Jesuits' college of his native place, whence he removed to Paris in 1675. M. Du Hamel, secretary to the Royal Academy, introduced him to Cassini, and he was placed in the ob- servatory, where he learned the practical part of astronomy. He made a voyage to the Levant, measured the pyramids of Egypt, and upon his return reported the particulars of his travels to the Aca- demy of Sciences, and was admitted, in 1695, a member of their body. The memoirs of the academy to the year 17O8, contain many of his communica- tions. He died at Marseilles, 1710. CHEAPSIDE-Ceoss, demolished, on May 2, 1643. CHELM, in Poland, 268 dwelling houses, and 107 warehouses of mer- chandise burnt. May 4, 1788. CHELMSFORD, Essex, built, 1 lOO; prison built, 1777, Chelmsford Church, walls and roof fell down, Jan. 17, 1800. CHELSEA College, began 1609, finished 1790; cost £150,000: physic- garden began 1732 ; bridge began 1762. CHELSEA Waterworks, company of, incorporated, 1722. CHELTENHAM, Gloucester- CHE 253 SHIRE. The mineral waters here were first discovered in the year 1718, at which period the first well was sunk ; from this time they became the svibject of particular investigation, and in the course of 40 or 50 years, the demand for them was so great, that serious ap- prehensions were entertained lest the supply should fail. In consequence of this, a new well was sunk, in 1778, by order of his late majesty George III., which is still called the king's well. Cheltenham was visited by their late majesties George III., and his queen, 1788. In 1806, Mr, Thompson, w^ho held a considerable part of the lands in the vi- cinity of the wells, determined to search for mineral water on his own estate. He succeeded much beyond his expecta- tions; built a new pump-room, and spared no pains till he had secured an abundant supply of the waters. Till the year 1811, no magnesian salts had been discovered in the Cheltenham waters. At that period, Mr. Thompson sunk some wells at a considerable distance from the pumprooms, the waters of which were found to contain a great proportion of muriate and sulphate of magnesia. Several other wells have been subsequently sunk, as the Sher- borne, Pittville, &c. CHEMISTRY. There are occa- sional notices in the scriptures which imply some knowledge of chemistry. In the time of the patriarch Abraham, a.c. I860, silver was employed as a medium of commerce. Mention is likewise made of an earring of gold and bracelets of the same metal, in Gen. xxiv. 22, A.c. 1857. It has been asserted, that Moses must have possessed considerable skill in chemistry to enable him to pulverize the golden calf, and to render it potable, as is related in Exodus xxxii. 20. The ancient Egyptians cultivated che- mistry to a great extent ; they fabricated bricks, glass, and porcelain; they extract- ed natron or soda from the mud of the Nile ; they prepared alum, sea salt, and sal-ammoniac ; they were conversant with metallurgical processes, especially the working of gold and copper ; they practised the art of silvering and gild- ing ; they weU understood the methods of extracting oils, preparing wine, vine- gar, soaps, perfumes, plasters, and medi- cines ; they dyed silks, &c., by means of mordants, and uaade use of burnt ashes CHE as caustic substances : in short, the knowledge of chemistry seems to have been that in which the Egyptian priests chiefly excelled. But none of the in- quisitive Greeks who visited their coun- try for improvement could ever obtain an insight into their mysteries, excepting only Democritus of Abdera, the author of the atomical philosophy, a.c. 400. He examined and prepared the juices of plants. The Chinese, if we credit their own historians, were in very remote ages coversant with many parts of chemistry, as the alloying of metals, the manfactur- ing of paper, pottery, porcelain, &c., the preparation and uses of nitre, alum, borax, verdigris, sulphur, and mercury : they were acquainted with a variety of colouring matters, and practised with success the art of dying silk, and linen. During the early centuries of the Christian era, an opinion began to pre- vail among some who applied them- selves to chemistry, that a process might be discovered whereby the base ingredients might be decomposed and separated, and a portion of any mass of inferior metal turned into gold. The pretensions of the alchemists, as these philosophers were called, were at first limited to the production of gold from brass, copper, iron, &c. ; but in process of time they proposed the total annihila- tion of diseases of every description. The fallacy of this art was, however discovered about the l6th century j early in the l7th it lost its credit; and finally, in 1669, a rational system of chemistry was founded on its ruins, by the publication of Beccher's Phy- sica Subterranea, at Frankfort. His pupil, George Ernest Stahl, sim- plified, improved, and extended the theory of his master with so much suc- cess, as to bring the science much nearer to a level with mechanical philosophy than it had heretofore attained. Stahl was born in Franconia in 1660. Hia system, of v/hich the theory of combus-- tion is the principal feature, was the re- sult of a series of cautious and laborious, researches, elucidated and confirmed l)y suitable experiments. The peculiarity of Stahl's theory consisted in the suppo- sition, that every combustible body con- tains as one of its component principles, a certain substance called phlogiston i that the separation of this substance from the body constitutes fire, and that CHE 254 CHE its various combinations produce most of the other phenomena of chemistry. His ideas on this subject were first in- troduced to the public in a work entitled "Fundamenta Chemise," published in 1723. In 1732, a collection of experi- ments, with directions for repeating them, more ample and complete than any thing of the kind that had ever appeared, was published in a system of Chemistry, by Herman Boerhaave, an accurate and accomplished philosopher, and the most celebrated physician of the age. He died in 1738. Peter Joseph Macqueer, born at Paris in 1715, in his Dictionary of Chemistry, published in 1766, describes the diffe- rent chemical substances and instruments, examines and explains the theories, points out requisite improvements, and states the existing errors and imperfec- tions, with clearness. The authority of Stahl, which had for half a century been implicitly followed, and considered as decisive, was about the same time called in question, by An- drew Sigismond Margraaf, a German chemist, whose experiments on phos- phorus shook the foundation of the Stahlian or phlogistic theory. We are indebted to the researches of this inge- nious chemist for several important dis- coveries, and among the rest, according to some accounts, for that of the metal called manganese. He was an indefatig- able member of the academy at Berlin, where he died in 1782. Torbern Bergman, a native of Catha- rineburg, in West Gothland, born in 1735, professor of mathematics and na- tural philosophy at Upsal, introduced into the science " an order, a perspicuity, an exactness, which were unknown be- fore ;" and to this has been universally ascribed the rapid acceleration of its progress, which subsequently was ob- served to take place. He collected all the different chemical substances and their products, and formed them, with the most exact method, into a cabinet ; in a second he placed, the minerals of his own country, arranged according to the places whence they were obtained ; a third cabinet consisted of the models of all the instruments used in chemistry and its kindred branches. He discover- ed in some measure the nature of fixed air, made a number of curious and im- portant experiments on the regulus of manganese, the terra j)onderosa, and other substances. He died 1784. Charles William Scheele, born in 1742, followed out the discoveries of Bergman. Discoveries were made in Scotland about the same time, which changed the appa- ratus and mode of reasoning, reduced under the dominion of chemistry a num- ber of invisible substances heretofore con- sidered as too subtile for examination, and thus occasioned a complete revolution in the science. Dr. Joseph Black had ascertained, as early as the year 1755, that certain changes are to be ascribed to the combination or separation of a peculiar kind of air, different in its pro- perties from the common air of the atmosphere. He found that lime, when combined with this air, is in a mild state of limestone ; but when this air is expelled by calcination, the lime- stone has, during the expulsion, changed its properties : namely, it is reduced from the mild to the caustic state, and its weight is considerably diminished ; also this loss of weight he proved to be exactly equal to the weight of the air that had been expelled. Thus it became known, for the first time, that aerial substances form combinations with solid bodies. This is the era of the commencement of pneumatic chemistry, which has since engaged the principal attention and labours of the chemists. The properties of fixed air, and of hydrogen gas, were likewise investigated by Mr. Cavendish, who discovered that water is not a simple element, as had been formerly asserted, but that it is composed of pure or vital air, and inflammable air ; or, in chemical language, of oxygen and hydrogen. About the year 1770, th* subject was taken up by Dr. Priestleyi who acquired splendid reputation by the discovery of a great variety of aerial fluids. 1770. The celebrated Lavoisier, repeated the principal experiments of the English and German chemists, and verified their results; and thenewviews he i,n the meantime obtained, disco- vered to him not only the imperfections of the phlogistic theory of Stahl, but that it was totally irreconcilable with the recent discoveries in pneumatic chemistry. He succeeded so far as to be himself perfectly satisfied with the justness of his own conclusions ; but a considerable time elapsed before he could gain a single convert to his theory. At length Mr Cavendish, by his C II E 255 CHE discoveries of the composition of water, and of nitric acid, removed the principal objections, and enabled him to explain his new doctrine in a satisfactory man- ner. M. BerthoUet was the first who adopted Mr. Cavendish's theory, to which he declared himself a convert in 1785. Fotircroy did the same two years after, and his example was followed by Guyton Morveau, and most of the chemists in France; as likewise by Mr. Kirwan, Dr. Black, and a majority of the British chemists. The Lavoisierian system has undergone a material change, by the researches of Sir H. Davy, and others, of a more recent date, published in his Chemical Philosophy, 1812, and in the Philosophical Transactions up to the year 1839. See the article Davy. 1839. New discoveries in chemical science ai'e continually being made. Among the researches communicated to public societies this year, are those of professor Daubeny, of Oxford, on the laws of chemical combination, and his theory of Volcanos ; Bequerel on the chemical power of solar light ; Fuche on the formation of rocks, &c. CHEPSTOW, on the Severn, a boat near the town upset, by which, out of a party of eight ladies and gentlemen, five were drowned, Sep. 22, 1812. Howick Farm, near this tawn, set on fire, by which two buildings, containing each an extensive thrashing machine, were destroyed, and a man who slept in one of the buildings perished, Oct. 14, 1815. CHERBURG, or Cherbourg, a naval depot, and one of the principal establish- ments belonging to the French marine. A battle was fought off this port in 1692. The place was invested by the English in 1758, and afterwards abandoned. From the reign of Louis XV., improvements have been continued here, a wet dock constructed, and an artificial roadstead formed, by sinking at intervals, large cones of wooden framework, filled with stone ; these, however, broke adrift, and now form a kind of breakwater. This celebrated work cost £2,000,000. This failing in its object. Napoleon commenced the excavation of an harbour on the west shore of the roadstead, a short distance from the town of Cher- burg. In 1813, a basin was formed of 1000 feet long, 700 feet broad, and 50 deep, capable of containing 50 sail of the line ; but it is found to fill with sand and mud, and is subject to the sea swell occasionally. A wet or floating dock of nearly the same dimensions, com- menced by Napoleon in 1813, has since been completed, in 1820. Total cost of these great improvements, £5,000,000. CHERDIC, third Saxon monarch in England, arrived in Britain, and over- came Arthur, near Chard, in Somerset- shire, 519. Began the kingdom of the West Saxons, the same year. Died, 534. CHEROKEE Nation. Five kings of the Cherokee Indians were brought to England from Carolina, by Sir Alexander Cummins, Oct. 1, 1730, and presented to his majesty, when they sub- mitted themselves, with their country, to the crown of Great Britain. Three others arrived in 1762 ; three more in 1766; and others again in 1791. CHERRIES brought from Pontus to Rome by Lucullus, a.c. 70 ; from the Canary Islands to Aflfane, in Ireland, by Sir Walter Raleigh, about a.d. 1579. CHERRY-TREES first planted in Britain a.c. 100; brought from Flan- ders, and planted in Kent, where an orchard of 32 acres produced in one year, £1000 worth, a.d. 1540. CHERTSEY Abbey, founded 664. CHESAPEAKE Bay, discovered by John Smith, 1607. Difference with America respectir>g it, amicably adjusted Nov. 18, 1811. CHESELDEN, William, celebrated anatomist, born at Burrow-on-the-Hill, Leicestershire, in 1688; apprenticed in 1703, to Mr. Wilkes, a surgeon at Lei- cester ; commenced lecturing in surgery and anatomy as early as the year 1711, when he was only 23 years of age. The same year he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society. In I7l3, he published his "Anatomical Description of the Human Body," in 8vo., with plates. In 1729, he was elected a corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris; and in 1732, made Foreign Associate to the Royal Academy of Surgery, then newly instituted. He had before been appointed principal surgeon to queen Caroline, to whom he dedicated his splendid work on the Bones, published in 1733, in folio. In 1739, was appointed surgeon to Chelsea hospital. In 1751, he was seized with a stroke of palsy which induced him to go to Bath ; he died in a fit of apoplexy, April 11, 1752, aged 64. CHESS. The learned Hvde has un- CHE 25G CHE (lertaken to show, from undoubted au- thorities, that this game was first in- vented in India, and passed from thence to Persia before the year 576, and from Persia to Arabia. He adds, that the antiquity of this game is traced much higher, or to the middle of the 2nd century, in an Irish chronicle, but the authenticity of it is doubtful. The game of chess, was a common game at Con- stantinople in the 12th century, when Anna Comnena flourished. The first crusaders, often remained for some time at Constantinople, and thus probably became acquainted with this game, which, on their return, they introduced into their respective countries. Among the European nations, it was first known to the Italians ; and we find by Boccace, who lived in the 14th cen- tury, that it was a most common amuse- ment at Florence. It was probably in- troduced into England during the 13th century, upon the return of Edward I. from the Holy Land, where he continued so long, and was attended by so many EngHsh. In the 16th century, it was much played in this kingdom; and in the l7th century, the treatise intitled " The Calabrian," was ti-anslated from the Italian into French, and might have contributed to revive the game after it had been supplanted, as it had been with us, by the more general amusement of cards. At a late period, and even in our own times, Philidor, who was born at Dreux, was the most distinguished champion in this game. It is well known, that he could play two games against able adversaries, and generally beat them, without seeing either of the boards. CHEST OF Chatham, for the re- lief of seamen, instituted 1558, enforced by law, 1590. See Chatham. CHESTER, called by the Romans Cestria, or Ceasler ; from castrum, a camp or military station, which it seems to have been made previous to Agricola's expedition to Scotland. That com- mander made it the head quarters of the twentieth Roman legion, whence the Britons gave it the name Caer-Fleonvawr, or the camp of Great Legion on the Dee. The Roman modes of fortification are still evident in the remains of mili- tary architecture which surround the city. From Doomsday Book, it appears tliat in the reign of Edward the Con- fessor, Chester contained 431 houses that were taxable, besides 56 that be- longed to the bishop. Chester, for two or three centuries from the conquest, was the place of ren- dezvous for troops employed in the Welsh expeditions, and frequently suf- fered during the contest between the two nations. Llewelyn ap GryfFydd carried fire and sword to the gates of the city, and destroyed every thing round it, in 1255. This city was appointed by Ed- ward I. in 1275, to receive the homage of Llewelyn ; a degradation to which that prince refused to submit, and was in consequence involved in the war which proved fatal to him and his country ; his subjects being obliged to acknowledge the sovereignty of England, and make homage and fealty of their lands to Ed- ward of Caernarvon, prince of Wales, who received their submission in this city in 1300. Richard II. converted Chester into a principality ; and having annexed to it the castle of Holt, with several lordships in Wales, and on the borders, made an act that it should only be held by the king's eldest son ; but this was rescinded by Henry IV., who, in 1399, seized the city and castle, when on his way to Flint, where Richard was then imprisoned, through the treachery of those in whom he had confided. During the civil war in the time of Charles I., Chester sustained many sieges, resisting the parliamentary forces for three years, till the siege being con- verted into a regular blockade, they sur- rendered on honourable terms, February 3, 1645-6. Within two years the city was visited by a dreadful pestilence, which carried off more than 2000 per- sons, and reduced the place almost to a desert. The Norman earls invested Chester with great privileges^ which were con- firmed by Henry III., in whose reign its government assumed the form of a regu- lar corporation. The succeeding sove- reigns granted various charters and im- munities. The date of the last is 1676, Charles II. The port of Chester was much im- proved during the last century. The great breadth of the estuary of the Dee, and the comparative smallness of the body of water flowing through it, ren- dered it liable to be choaked up with the sand brought in by the tide ; and this gradually so increased, that vessels of CHE 257 CHE twenty tons could scarcely reach the town. In 1674, a plan was formed to make a new channel for the river, and at the same time to recover, by embank- ment, a large tract of land from the sea. Betvi^een the years 1730 and 1750, a company was established to execute this project ; and different powers were granted from time to time by the parlia- ment. In 1829, a new bridge, of a single arch was begun over the Dee. The span of the bridge is 200 feet, being the largest stone arch ever built, the road-way 33 feet, the elevation from low-water mark, 54 feet. CHESTER BiSHOPRicK. About 785, Chester became incorporated with Litch- field. This attracted the attention of Peter, bishop of Litchfield, who removed his episcopal seat to Chester, in 1075. His successor established himself in the former diocese, and Chester remained without a bishop till after the suppression of the monasteries, when it was restored to its primitive honour by Henry VIII., who, in 1541, made it one of the six new sees that were then formed. The first of the new bishops, John Bird, in 1546, granted the manor and demesnes of the bishopric to the king, and accepted im- propriations and rectories in exchange. The see was thus deprived of all its pos- sessions ; and, although the greatest in extent of any in England, is of the smallest value. CHESTERFIELD, Philip Dormer Stanhope, Earl of, born at London in 1694. In his iSth year he entered Trinity Hall, Cambridge. On quitting the university, he made the usual tour of Europe. About the time of the demise of Queen Anne, on his return to Eng- land in 1715, he was presented to the new sovereign, George I., and appointed one of the gentlemen of the bed-cham- ber to the prince of Wales. He was elected member of parliament for one of the Cornish boroughs, and commenced as speaker in the debate respecting the impeachment of the persons concerned in the peace of Utrecht. 1726. On the death of his father, he entered the house of lords, and joined the opposition. Soon after the accession of George II., Lord Chester- field was nominated ambassador at the Hague. In 1730, he was appointed high steward of the household, and he was at the same time decorated with the order of the garter. He now returned to Holland, and was instrumental in forming an important treaty between the courts of London and Vienna, and the States-general. In 1732 he obtained his recal, and, on his return, he supported the plans of the prime minister. He married, in 1733, the countess of Wal- singham, neice, or probably daughter, of the duchess of Kendal. 1744. He was again sent out as- ambas- sador to the United Provinces. He en- gaged the Dutch to concur in earnest in the war against France ; and returned in 1745, at the time of the breaking out of the rebellion in Scotland . He was next sent lord-lieutenant of Ireland ; and, during his administration there, gave general satisfaction to all parties. He left Dub- lin in 1746, and in October succeeded the earl of Harrington as secretary-of- state, in which post he oflSciated until Feb. 6, 1748. Being seized with a deafness in 1752, that incapacitated him for the pleasures of society, he, from that time, led a pri- vate and retired life. He died in March, 1773, in the 79th year of his age. He left no issue by his lady, but had a na- tural son, Phihp Stanhope, Esq., whose education was for many years a close object of his attention. His " Letters" to him, published after the death of Lord Chesterfield, contain many fine observa- tions on mankind, and rules of conduct ; but it is observable that he lays a greater stress on exterior accomplishments and address than on intellectual qualifica- tions and sincerity, and allows greater latitude to fashionable pleasures than good morals will justify, especially in paternal instructions. CHEVELINE, third king of the West Saxons, and fifth monarch of England, succeeded his father, 560. Seized on Sus- sex in 590. Abdicated in 591, and died in banishment in 592. CHEYNE, George, a physician and medical writer, a native of Scotland, born in 1670. As he was a voluptuary, and had a disposition to corpulency, which produced various diseases, he de- termined on altering his mode of living. Accordingly he confined himself to milk and vegetable diet, and submitted to a total abstinence from fermented liquors. The experiment succeeded, and, struck with the benefit he had received, he published in 1722, an " Essay on the ti-ue Nature and due Method of treating the Gout." His next publication was 2 L CHI 258 CHI his faraed " Essay on Health and long Life." 8vo. inl724. In 1733, he pub- lished his " English Malady," or trea- tise on nervous diseases, which became very popular. He died at Bath in 1742, being 72 years of age. CHIANNI, famous oriental scholar, died at Warsaw, 1832. CHIARO-OBSCURO, the art of dis- tributing the lights and darks in a pic- ture, in such a manner as to give at once proper relief to the figures. The en- gravers, from the earliest period of their art till the time of Rubens, never at- tempted more than to give to each object in their engravings its proper lights and shades, leaving to painting alone the privilege of producing effect of chiaro- scuro, by the opposition of objects of dark local colour to light ones. But engravers at present, by adopting a dif- ferent principle, are enabled to make the effect of their prints, so far as relates to chiaro-obscuro, as rich and powerful as it is in the pictures they copy : this is done by giving, besides the lights and shades, the relative lightness or darkness of the local or proper colour of each object in the picture, thereby producing what is called by artists the tone of the picture. Chiaro-obscuro was but very imperfectly understood till the time of Masaccio, near the middle of the 15th century; the painters, prior to this period, having had very little idea of what are called projecting shadows. Leonardo da Vinci, towards the end of the l5th, and the beginning of the l6th century, was tlie first who, in his admirable writings, as well as in his pictvires, treated the subject of chiaro-obscuro scientifically. Caravag- gio, who flourished at the end of the l6th century, and Guercino, who came soon after, produced the most powerful effects of chiaro-obscuro. CHICHELE or CHICHLEY, foun- der of All Souls' College, Oxford, born at Higham Ferrars, Northamptonshire, 1362, admitted at New College, Oxford; afterwards chaplain to Robert Medford, hishop of Salisbury, by whom, in 1402, he was promoted first to the archdea- conry of Salisbury, and afterwards to the chancellorship of that diocese. He was employed by Henry IV. and V. in various important negotiations, and was ))romoted to the see of St. David's by the po})e, who consecrated him with his own hands. In 1414, he was translated to the see of Canterbury. 1421. He crowned Queen Catharine in London, and, during that year, he baptized Prince Henry, who, when he came to the crown, ever treated him with a sort of filial respect. He was a liberal benefactor to the university of Oxford, and in 1438, founded All Souls, one of the noblest foundations in the univer- sity. Died in 1443, and was buried in a monument which he had himself erected in Canterbury cathedral. CHICHESTER, called by the Ro- mans Regni or Regnum, was the resi- dence of the Roman propraetor. At the Roman conquest, there were, according to the doomsday-book, one church and above 100 dwelling-houses within the walls ; and soon after that event, Hugh de Montgomery was created by the con- queror, earl of Chichester and Arundel. Having obtained leave of his monarch to establish a see in his newly- acquired town, he granted the whole south-west quarter of it to Sitgandus, who was the 22nd abbot or bishop of Selsea, and the first of Chichester. In 1187, a devas- tating fire destroyed nearly the whole city; and the woodwork with some other parts of the cathedral were consumed or considerably injured. The present cathedral was founded during the prelacy of Bishop Seffrid, who, assisted by six other prelates, con- secrated the church on the second of the ides (i. e., the 12th da)') of September, 118©. The ornaments of the interior, the stalls of the choir, and the paintings on the ceilings were executed in the time of Bishop Sherburn, who was translated to this see in 1508. Chichester sent members to parliament in the 23rd year of Edward I., and had a charter granted in the reign of James II. 1685. CHIERASCO, Treaty of, by which the duke of Nevers finally took posses- sion of his Mantuan territories, 1631. CHILDHAM CASTLE, Kent, built A.C. 182. CHILDREN forbidden by law to be sold in England, 1600, bill regulating their labour in factories 1833, 1834. See Factories. CHILI or Chile, one of the new republics of South America. In 1535, the Spaniards first visited it, and were received by the Chileans with respect; but in consequence of a massacre of some of their chief men, by order of Alma- gro, llie Sjjanish general was defeated with loss, upon which the Spaniards re- CH I 259 CHI turned to Peru in 1538. Pizarro de- spatched Pedro- to Valdivia, in 1540, with 200 Spaniards, and a numerous bod}' of Peruvians to Chile, for the pur- pose of settling such districts as he should conquer : Valdivia succeeded, and founded the city of Santiago, Feb. 24, 1541. In 1550, he founded the city of Conception. The Araucanians, how- ever, attacked, defeated, and took him, Dec. 3, 1553. 1598. The Araucanians put to death every Spaniard whom they found outside of the forts ; Villanca, Valdivia, Impe- rial, and several other towns, were at- tacked and taken, and Conception and Chilian were burnt. In 1641, prelimi- naries of peace were settled between the marquis of Baydes, then governor of Chile, and the Araucanians, which lasted for many years. In 1/42 new territo- rial divisions were formed by Don Josef Merilo, who also founded several new towns. During the remainder of the 18th century, Chile appears to have en- joyed tranquillity until the late revolu- tionary movements. 1810. The people took the govern- ment into their own hands; and, in 1818, made a declai-ation of absolute in- dependence, which has been hitherto uninterrupted, and recently acknow- ledged by Portugal. The supreme au- thority was administered by an elective magistrate, callfed the supreme director, until Ma}'', 1827, when a president was substituted, in imitation of the govern- ment of the United States. 1836. The Chihans repelled an inva- sion which suddenly came upon them, in the month of July from the Peruvian government. In 1837, an expedition against Peru was sent out by the Chi- lians ; who captured Arica and Are- quipa : treaty of Paucaparta, Nov. 17, which the government refused to ratify. In July, 1838, capture of Lima and Cal- lao by the Chilians. CHILLINGWORTH, William, distinguished as a theologian, was born at Oxford in October, 1602. He was admitted a scholar of Trinity college in the year 1618, and after taking the usual degrees, was elected fellow of his college in 1628. Soon after, he was converted to poper)% through the subtilty of John Fisher, a Jesuit, at whose instance he went to the college of Douay. In 1634, having changed his sentiments, he wrote a paper in confutation of the arguments by which he had been seduced. 1637. He published a work entitled, " The Religion of Protestants a safe way to Salvation," which is one of the ablest defences of the Protestant cause. In 1638, he was promoted to the chan- cellorship of Salisbury, with the prebend of Brixworth in Northamptonshire, an- nexed to it, and in 1640, be was deputed as proctor by the chapter of Salisbury to the convocation. He. died in the- month of January, 1643-4, and was buried, according to his own desire, in the cathedral church of Chichester. His private character was marked by since- rity, candour, and benevolence : and, according to Lord Clarendon, "he was a man of excellent parts, and of a cheer- ful disposition, void of all kind of vice, and endued with many notable virtues ; of a public heart, and an indefatigable desire to do good; his only unhappiness proceeded from his sleeping too little, and thinking too much, which threw him into violent fevers." CHILOE' Isle, off the coast of Chili, South America. It is the prin- cipal of a group of the same name, in- cluding 47 islands. It was discovered- in 1558 by Don Garcia de Mendoza. Chilofe was the last possession held by Spain in the Pacific, and, at the end of the year 1825, it was still in their pos- session. Political disorder, and the military assistance furnished to Bolivar for the liberation of Peru, had hitherto disabled the government of Chili from attempting its subjugation, but, in the beginning of the year 1826, they fitted out an expedition, and succeeded in re- ducing it. The inhabitants were in- duced to accept the terms offered them by the government of Chili, viz., to be governed by a civil governor from the island, and to protect themselves by their own militia. CHIMBORAZO Mountain, South America, the loftiest of the Cordillera of the Andes, 21,440 feet above sea level. In 1745, it was ascended by Condamiue, to theheight of 15,815 feet; and in 1802, Humboldt and Bonpland reached to within 2140 feet of the highest summit. CHIMES on bells, invented at Alost, 1487. CHIMNEYS. It has been a question whether or not the- ancients were ac- quainted with their use. The use of^ CH I 260 CHI chimneys, if it ever obtained among the Romans, was superseded by that of stoves and flues ; this practice was pro- bably introduced about the reign of Nero. In the houses discovered at Herculaneum and Pompeii, there were no chimneys ; but they appear all to have been warmed by the means of flues, and a subterraneous furnace, or hypocaus- tum. The writers of the 14th century seem either to have been unacquainted with chimneys, or to have considered them as the newest invention of luxury. The oldest certain account of chim- neys that has occurred to Beckmann, in his researches, is in the year 1347 ; for an inscription at Venice, records that at the above period, a great many chim- neys were thrown down by an earth- quake. He adds that the first chimney- sweepers in Germany came from Savoy, Piedmont, and the neighbouring terri- tories, and these for a ^ong time were the only countries where the cleaning of chimneys was followed as a trade Hence, he conjectures, that chimneys were invented in Italy. Dr. Franklin is the first who has treated this subject in a philosophical manner, and in his "Observations on the Causes and Cure of Smoky Chimneys," published in 1785, he has very satisfac- torily explained all the usual causes of this defect, and shown their remedies. To this pamphlet, succeeded the essay of Count Rumford, in 1796, whose im- provements have been very generally followed in the construction of fire- places. The act, 4 Will. 4. c. 35, 1834, directs that all widths and partitionsbetween any chimney or flue shall be built or re-built of brick or stone, and at least equal to half a brick in thickness ; and every breast, back, and width or partition of any chimney or flue hereafter to be built or re-built, shall be built of sound materials, and the joints of the work well tilled in with good mortar or cement, and rendered or stuccoed within ; and also that every chimney or flue here- after to be built or re-built in any wall, or of greater length than four feet out of any wall, not being a circular chimney or flue of 12 inches in diameter, shall be in every section not less than 14 inches by nine inches ; and no chimney or flue shall be constructed with any angle therein, which shall be less ob- tuse than an angle of 120 degrees ; and every salient or projecting angle in any chimney or flue, shall be rounded off four inches at the least; upon pain of forfeiture, by every master builder or other master workman who shall make or cause to be made such chimney or flue, of £100, to be recovered by any person who shall sue for the same ; but provided, nevertheless, and be it en- acted, that nothing shall prevent chim- nies or flues being built at angles with each other of 90 degrees or more, such chimneys or flues having therein proper doors or openings not less than si.x inches square. An able critic, in a recent number of the London and Westminster review, obsen'es, that " one very common cause of smoky chimneys, where no apparent reason can be discovered, arises from the practice of using boys to sweep them. For a flue to draw well, it is essential that there should only be two openings into it, one at the bottom, the other at the top. New chimney-flues are divided from one another by single courses of bricks in width, or half-brick." These flues are built with lime mortar, which is soon restored to the state of quick lime by the heat of fire, and falling out in powder, leaves gaping chinks for mis- draught between the bricks, destroying the continuity of the flue. To provide, in some measure, against this evil, the inside of the flue is coated with lime- mortar and cow-dung, which the climb- ing-boys frequently break away, and the chimney, opening into chinks, produces an imperfect draught. This is an evil, for which there is no remedy, except re- building the chimney. Were it the practice to use iron tubes, built into the thickness of the walls, or to introduce iron columns upon the face of the walls, covering them in the apartments with perforated screen partitions, the great source of evil would cease, and the still greater evil, the crime, the degradation of humanity, would cease also." (Year Book of Facts, 1839, page 75.) Chimneys have been recently con- stni<;ted of extraordinary height. An immense chimney, attached to the new cotton factory, built for Messrs. Dixons, in Shaddongate, near Carlisle, has lately been completed. It is one of the highest buildings in England, being 305 feet from the ground ; of octangular form, of brick, with stone angles. The base, which is built v/ith fire-bricks, is seven- CHI 261 CHI teen feet eight inches wide inside, and the foundation wall is ten feet thick. It tapers upwards to a width, inside, of six feet three inches ; and on the outside, eight feet nine inches. Near the top is a cornice of stone, seven feet in depth, which projects three feet ; and above this are eight feet three inches of brick- work, surmounted by a coping-stone one foot thick. The builder is Mr. Richard Wright, of Carlisle. The erection was carried on from the inside, stages being erected as the work proceeded, and the workmen and materials being taken up in boxes by a crab worked by four men. The whole structure resembles some splendid national monument. The chimney recently erected at Mr. Muspratt's chemical works, at Newton, is stated to be the highest in England : it measures 132 yards 1 foot (397 feet, four inches.) CHIMNEY-SWEEPERS, on the ground of humanity, have frequently en- gaged the attention of benevolent indivi- duals, and latterlj', of the legislature. By Stat. 28 Geo. III. c. 48, the church- wardens and overseers of the poor of any parish, might formerly bind any boy of the age of eight years and upwards, who was chargeable to the parish, to any person following the trade of a chimney- sweeper, till he shall attain the age of sixteen years. At the close of last cen- tury the evils of this disagreeable and unwholesome occupation to those en- gaged in it were generally acknowledged; the public attention was directed to this subject, and premiums were offered for the discovery of methods which might be substituted for a practice so offensive to humanity. 1802. A number of public-spirited and wealthy persons, associated for this purpose, applied to the " Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, &c.," in the Adelphi, requesting them to engage in it, and to offer premiums on the subject. In consequence of this application the society offered their gold medal to the person who should invent the most effectual mechanical or other means for the cleansing chimneys from soot, and obviating the necessity of chil- dren being employed within the flues. Two patents were taken out in the year 1803, one by Mrs. Bell of Hampstead, and one by Mr. Davis, of Bloomsbury. 1834. The act 4. Will IV. c. 35, for the better regulation of chimney- sweepers and their apprentices, and for the safer construction^ of chimneys and flues, repeals that of 28 Geo. c. 48, be- fore mentioned, and further enacts that, no child under ten years shall be ap- prenticed to a chimney-sweeper; that chimney - sweepers, taking apprentices under 14, shall be householders, and rated to the poor, or assessed for payment of taxes. Penalty on chimney-sweepers for employing children under 14 years of age, not apprentices, not exceeding £10, nor less than 40s. Requiring any person to ascend a flue to extinguish a fire, a misdemeanor. Binding, or as- signment of apprentices to chimney- sweepers shall take place by consent of two justices, and be indorsed on the indenture. No master or mistress chim- ney-sweeper shall have more than two boys at any one time on trial, nor more than four apprentices, &c. CHINA. It has been generally sup- posed that the Chinese maintain an an- tiquity of myriads of years, and that their historical records are at such variance with the comparatively recent account of Moses, as to oblige us either to ques- tion the one or the other. The fact is, however, according to Mr. Medhurst, late missionary to that country, in his work on the " History and Prospects of China," 1838, that the Chinese, like most other heathen nations, have a my- thological as well as a chronological period; the one considered by themselves as fabulous, and the other as authentic. Thus, Chinese authors of the greatest reputation agree in considering the first part of the Chinese history as entirely fabulous. The whole is probably based on some indistinct recollections of the theory of the creation. Of the first man they say, that " soon after the period of emptiness and confusion, when heaven and earth were first separated, Pwan-ko. was produced ; his origin is not ascer- tained, but he knew intuitively the re- lative proportions of heaven and earth,, with the principles of creation and trans- mutation." According to the most authentic ac- counts, there is reason to believe that this, kingdom was founded by Fohi, or Fuh- he, 144 years after the deluge, a. c. 2204, and that Fohi was none other than Noah, who, having lived to witness the growing depravity of his children and their descendants, retired with a chosen few to this corner of the eai'th, CHI 26-2 CHI and there ended his days in peace. Chi- nese historians, J^owever, affirm that Fohi began to reign a.c. 3211. According to the best information that the peculiar manners and language of this singular people will permit us to obtain, they can trace a clear and uninter- rupted succession of 239 sovereigns from Fohi to the present emperor. Fohi was said to have been born in the province of Shense ; when he grew up, was, on account of his superior merit, styled Teen-tse, "emperor," literally "the son of heaven." Havmg appointed officers to preside over different departments of his government, he afterwards granted territory to four mandarins, and died after a reign of 1 15 years. From the year A c. 2204, the whole of the Chinese em- perors, according to their annals, are comprehended in 22 dynasties. The 1st imperial dynasty Hea, con- taining 18 emperors, commenced a.c. 2204, and lasted 438 years. The 2nd imperial dynast)', called Shang, or Tang, containing 28 emperors, is full of uncertainty, and its duration is said by one historian to be 496, and by another 600 years; it commenced a.c. 1766. The Shoo-king (an historical work of Confucius, which happily escaped the general destruction of books, ordered by the emperor Tsin-che-hwang-te, about 213 years before Christ) gives the same account of Ching-tang, the first emperor, a.c. 1766, as of all the founders of the Chinese dynasties, namely, that he dethroned the reigning family, by jtretending to have authority from heaven to take arms against them. The 3rd dynasty, called Chow, con- taining 34 emperors, commenced a.c. 1122, and was founded by Woo-wang, after a long and dreadful war. In this period the empire was attacked from several quarters, and, in some instances, with success. In the reign of Seuen- wang, A.c. 651, Se-ma-tseen, the first historian of China, begins to fix dates to his narrative. The most celebrated prince of the 4th dynasty (Tsin, containing five em- perors, commenced a.c 255) was She- hwang-te, who completely re-established the power of the emperor, and extended its boundaries by new conquests. The 5th dynasty Han, containing 29 emperors, commenced a.c. 202. Le- poo-pang, the founder, raised himself from the rank of a common soldier to the throne of China. During this dy- nasty the Chinese conquered many neighbouring provinces, but towards the close of it the empire was divided into three kingdoms. The 6th dynasty, How-Han ; (How, signifies " after," or second Han,) con- taining one emperor, commenced a. d. 221, continued to be disturbed by tu- mults. The 7th dynasty, Tsin, containing 15 emperors, commenced 265, was a scene of wars and struggles for the empire, so that very few of the princes died a natural death. The 8th, Sung, containing eight em- perors, commenced 420 ; Woo-te, the founder, was of the lowest origin.. The 9th dynasty, Tse, containing five emperors, commenced 479- The two last emperors of the last dynasty were murdered by their prime minister, Kaou-te, who became the founder of the ninth dynasty. During this period, the atheistical philosopher Fan-shin ap- peared, whose opinions were eagerly embraced by many of the illiterate. The 10th dynasty, called Leang, con- taining four emperors, commenced 502, Woo-te, the founder of the tenth dy- nasty, was the most able of all its princes, but became at length so fond of the bonzes, that he resolved to become one of their ordei". During this dynasty the northern empire was divided into two kingdoms, the eastern and the western. The 11th dynasty, called Chin, con- taining five emperors, commenced 557. The princes of this dynasty are repre- sented as wise and virtuous monarchs. In the reign of Wan-te the night watches were first intimated by the beating of the drum. The 12th dynasty called Suy, contain- ing three emperors, commenced 581. Yang-keen, the founder of this dynasty, re-united the northern and southern em- pires. He was a prince of good under- tanding, and great moderation. The 13th dynasty called Tang, con- taining 22 emperors, commenced 618. Kaou-tsoo, one of the petty princes of the empire, founded this dynasty. The se- cond prince, Tae-tsung, was the most celebrated and virtuous of the Chinese monarchs ; and his empress was not less remarkable for her excellent qualities. It was during this reign that some Nestorian christians were permitted to preach their tenets in China. CHI 2C3 CHI The 14th dynasty called How-Leang, containing two emperors, commenced 907. This dynast)' was founded by Tae- tsoo, who having been ordered by the emperor Chaou-tsung to massacre the eunuchs, on account of their ambition and insolence, afterwards murdered the prime minister and the emperor. Dur- ing this and the four following dynasties, the Tartars established a powerful go- vernment in the north of China. The 15th was called How-Tang, con- taining four emperors, and commenced 923. Chwang-tsung, son of the cele- brated one-eyed general, Le-ke-yung, assuming the name of Chwang-tsung, founded the l6th dynasty. The 16th was called How-Tsin, con- taining three emperors, and commenced 936. During this dynasty, the Tartars obliged its founder, Kaou-tsoo, to pay an annual tribute. By their assistance, the general of the army took possession of the throne, and under the name of Kaou- tsoo, founded the following dynasty. The 17th was called How- Han, con- taining four emperors, and commenced 947. This short dynasty was entirely occupied by the wars with the Tartars. The imperial general Ko-he, returning victorious from an e.xpedition against them, was proclaimed emperor by the army, and founded the 18th dynasty. This dynasty called How-Chow, con- taining three emperors, commenced 951. The third emperor, Kung-te, being only seven years old at the death of his fa- ther, his prime minister was invested by the nobles with the imperial dignity, under the name of Tae-tsoo, and became the founder of the 19th dynasty- The 19th was called Sung, containing 18 emperors, and commenced 96O. This dynasty continued for 318 years, but its founder was its most celebrated prince. He checked the Tartars, restored peace to the empire, and was remarkable for his generosity and humanity. In the reign of Kin-tsung, the 13th emperor, the power of the western Tartars arose, and they subdued those of the east. In the reign of his successor they gained possession of the northern provinces, advanced to the centre of the empire, slew or banished to Tartary three chil- dren, who were successively heirs to the throne, and after a most sanguinary con- flict, gained a complete victory, and ter- minated the power of the Sung family. The 20th was called Yuen, containing 10 emperors, and commenced 12C0. The conqueror assumed the name of She- tsoo, and founded this dynasty. Though he was the first foreign prince that go- verned the Chinese, he reconciled them to his administration, by adhering as much as possible to their ancient laws and customs, as well as by his love for learned men, and his uniformly equitable and tender conduct to all his subjects ; so that to this day, his reign is called by the Chinese, "The wise government." His most wonderful, as well as most beneficial undertaking, was that of con- structing a canal of 1500 leagues in length, for the purpose of conveying the merchandise of the southern provinces to the metropolis. The 21st dynasty called Ming, con- taining 18 emperors, commenced 1368. Tae-tsoo founded this dynasty. He is celebrated as a prince of great piety and wisdom, and obtained universal applause. The empire did not, however, long enjoy the peace which he estabhshed, for every reign of this dynasty is marked by in- ternal contests, or the inroads of the Tartars. Teen-ming, a Tartar prince, entered China with a powerful army, but sent proposals to withdraw, on receiving satisfaction for the injuries he had sus- tained, which being treated with con- tempt, he marched at the head of 50,000 men, into the province of Pih-che-le; but being checked by the Chinese forces, he retired to Seaou-tung, where he asi- sumed the title of emperor. A few years afterwards, the Tartar forces triumphed over all opposition, and Sun-che, a Tartar prince, founded the last dynasty. The 22nd, or reigning dynastj"-, is call- ed Ta-Tsing, containing five emperors, and commenced 1644. During the first 10 years, new claimants to the throne, connected with the former family, were perpetually arising. One of these was supported by the celebrated caj'tain of pirates, Chin-che-lung, who by degrees attained so much power and influence, that the emperor unable to resist him, bribed him to join the imperial army, by a promise of making him captain- general of the sea-coast. This office he exercised with unbounded cruelty and tyranny. About 1662, an earthquake was experienced, which, it is said, buried 300,000 persons in Peking alone. The emperor Kang-he, who ascended the throne in the same year, after having done more for the good of the empire CH I 2 04 CHI than any of his predecessors, died in 1722, aged 69. He was succeeded by his fourth son, who assumed the name of Yung-ching. In 1731, another dread- ful earthquake was experienced in the northern provinces, which is said to have destroyed 100,000 persons in Peking. Yung-ching died in 1736, and was suc- ceeded by his son Keen-lung. 1793. During the reign of the above emperor, an embassy was sent by the king of Great Britain to China, under the conduct of Lord Macartney, for the purpose of establishing a more secure and extensive commerce with that em- pire. The entire failure of this embassy has been attributed to various causes, chiefly to the suspicious spirit of the Chinese. 179G. The emperor Keen-lung abdi- cated the throne in favour of his son, after a reign of 60 years ; he died in 1799, in the 79th year of his age. He appointed Kea-king, his seventeenth son to suc- ceed him, of whose reign and character little is known. In 1804, the Tartars made an incursion into China, which e.xcited the gi'eater alarm because it was connected with internal disturbances ; this affair was, however, soon set at rest, by the imperial forces gaining a a complete victory over the insurgents. About this time the Chinese govern- ment first prohibited the importation of opium ; in spite of which a clandestine trade was carried on which caused much jealousy in the government. * 18 16. A second embassy was sent from England to the emperor of China, conducted by Lord Amherst, the object of which was to obtain more complete satisfaction respecting misunderstand- ings which had taken place between the English and Chinese merchants at Can- ton, and to establish on a firmer basis the rights of commerce between the two countries. But Lord Amherst refusing to comply with the ceremonies required, especially that of the Ko-tow, or bowing to the earth nine times before every re- presentation of the emperor, his ma- jesty was so highly offended, that the embassy was ordered to return imme- diately, without being even allowed a day to recover the fatigues of their jour- ney to Peking. Kea-king died in 1821, and was succeeded by his son Taou- kwang, the reigning emperor. 1 823. Disputes again arose respect- ing the opium trade. The Peking Ga- zette of Aug. 22, contains a decree with regulations promulgated respecting the prohibition of opium. Subsequently to this, other decrees were passed, of great severity, enacting even the pensJty of death against those caught trading in the drug, which continued to keep alive the angry feeling already excited. 1837, 1838. The state of our rela- tions with China again became very un- settled. A serious misunderstanding arose in .consequence of the determina- tion of the Chinese authorities to put down the contraband importation of opium, which our traders, in defiance of the Chinese law, persisted in introduc- ing. " You foreigners," says the Chi- nese Admiral Chin, in his proclamation, " giving no heed to the laws of Heaven's dynasty, are every day furtively ram- bling about ; you never let us rest a mo- ment from your visits. We would like to ask you, if our Chinese ships were to take a commodity prohibited in your country, and go on forcing it into consumption, if you would bear it patiently or not." 1839. The Chinese government ar- rested Captain EUiot, Superintendent of the British Trade in China, April 15, and several merchants, and declared they would not be set at liberty till they de- livered up the opium they had imported to that country contrary to the edict. This they consented to do, and opium to the amount of about £3,000,000 was delivered to the Chinese government, by May 30, most of which was destroyed. In reply to the claimants for indemni- fication for losses sustained in conse- quence of the delivery of opium the Biitish government issued a Treasury order, dated Nov. 11, stating that jiar- liament had placed at the disposal of the Board, no funds out of which any com- pensation could be made, and that the sanction of parliament would be required before any such claim could be recognized and paid; and that her majesty's govern- ment did not propose to submit to parlia- ment a vote for thepayment of such claims. 1840. Hostilities commenced between this country and China, but at first with- out any very important operations tak- ing place. May 7, Hwang-tung-kae, a Chinese commissioner, arrived at Ams- terdam, bearing a rescript of the emperor of China, which empowered him to deliver letters of marque against the English. An expedition was sent out by the British government. Orders in CHI 265 CHI council were also issued, authorising re- prisals as a means of bringing the Chi- nese government to reason. CHINA Ware manufactured in Eng- land, at Chelsea, 1752; at Bow, 1758; in several places in England, 1760; by- Wedgwood, 1762; at Dresden, in Sax- ony, 1706. CHINA Porcelain, first men- tioned in history, 1591. CHINESE Library, a public, con- taining above 10,000 volumes; was opened in Bartlett's Buildings, Holborn, June 14, 1825. CHINGLEPUT, collectorate Hindoo- stan, in the Carnatic. The British ob- tained this district from the Nabob of Arcot in 1750, and 1763; and in 1780, when the Madras presidency undertook its direct administration, it was rented to the Nabob on renewed leases. CHINGLEPUT, the capital of the district of the same name, was taken by the French in 1751, but retaken by the intrepid colonel Clive inthefollowingyear, CHIOS. See Scio. CHISHALL, Great, in Essex, 110 houses, valued at £10,000 ; damaged by fire, Feb. 22, 1798. CHITORE, chief town of a district of the same name, Hindoostan, in the province of Ajmeer. It was first taken by the Mahomedans, iA 1303 ; after- wards, in 1567, by Acbar ; and again in 1680, by Azim Ushaun, son of Arung- zebe. In 1790, it was taken from Bheen Singh, by Madhajee Sindia, the traitorous subject of the ranah of Odey- pore, but it was soon after restored and remains under that government or con- trol. CHITTAGONG, a district, Hindoo- stan, in the presidency of Bengal, was taken from the Bhuddists and Brahmins, by the Afghan kings of Bengal, in the beginning of the l6th century, but re- stored to the Bhuddists of Arracan, during the Mogul and Afghan wars. In 1581, the Portuguese assisted the Mughs in wasting the south-east quarter of Ben- gal. In 1638, the Delhi sovereign was called in to aid an oppressed party, and in 1666, formally took possession of the province, and called the capital Is- lamabad. 1686. The English East India Com- pany removed their factory from Hooghly to this place, and in 1760, it was finally ceded to the British, by the nabob Jaffier Ali Kahn. After 1795, the jungle and morasses of Chittagong became the asylum of many of the dis' contented subjects of the Burmese mo- narch, and he felt himself at length called on to declare war against the Bri- tish, as abettors of a band of rebels for the molestation of his government. Hostilities commenced in a decided man- ner in 1824 ; and after a sanguinary war, terminated in the expulsion of the Bir- mese from the province of Arracan, and the restoration of the Mughs. See Bir- man Empire. CHIVALRY, an institution which, according to some writers, took its rise from the crusades, but according to others, gave occasion to that enterprise. Though founded in caprice, and produc- tive of extravagance, it had a very con- siderable influence in refining the man- ners of the European nations, during the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. Bishop Warburton traces the first idea of chivalry and romance to Spain, where it was introduced by the Saracens or Arabians, who had been for some time seated on the northern coasts of Africa ; it entered Spain about the beginning of the eighth century, but it had not at- tained any regular system till the 12th century. Chivalry declined in England during the inglorious reigns of king John and Henry III., but revived under Edward I., about 1300. This prince was one of the most accomplished knights of the age in which he flourished, and both delighted and excelled in feats of chivalry. When he was on his return from the Holy Land, after his father's death, and knew that his presence was ardently de- sired in England, he accepted an invita- tion to a tournament at Chalons in Bur- gundy; where he displayed his skill and valour to great advantage, and gained a complete victory. Edward III. was no less fond of chi- VEklry, and encouraged it by his example and munificence. He celebrated several pompous tournaments, to which he in- vited all strangers who delighted in feats of arms, entertained them with great hospitality, and loaded such of them as excelled in those martial sports with honours and rewards, in order to attach them to his person, and engage them to fight in his cause. With the same view, and at the same time, he founded the order of the garter, 1 349, of which hie heroic son, the Black Prince, was the 2 m ' CHO 2(36 CHO first knight, and all the first companions were persons famous for their victories in tournaments, and in real wars Chivalry, which owed its origin to the feudal system, expired with it, in the l6lh century; the change of habits and manners, and the difference in the pur- suits of mankind in general, were alike fatal to both. But the spirit of the in- stitution may still be traced in the hu- manity which accompanies all the opera- tions of war, the refinements of gallantry, and the point of honour ; the three cir- cumstances which distinguish modern from ancient manners. 1839- An attempt was made this year to revive the feats of ancient chivalry, by the exhibition of a grand tourney. The rehearsal took place in the neigh- bourhood of London in July, and in August, and September following, a fete and tournament were given by the Earl of Eglintoun, at Eglintoun CHOCOLATE introduced into Eu- rope from Mexico, 1520. CHOLERA Morbus. This dread- ful malady, called the malignant cholera, made its appearance at Jessore, in Ben- gal, Aug. 1817. The first serious mani- festations of it consisted generally in violent vomitings and discharges of the bowels ; the evacuations presenting, for the most part, numerous mucous flakes floating in a liquid resembhng rice-water or whey. Spasmodic contractions be- ginning in the fingers and toes, gradually extended themselves to the trunk : the pulse sank ; the skin became cold ; the lips, face, neck, hands, and feet, and soon after the thighs, arms, and whole surface assumed a leaden, blue, purple, black, or deep brown tint, according to the com- plexion of the individual, and varying in shade with the intensity of the attack. The fingers and toes were reduced in size; the skin and soft parts covering them became wrinkled, shrivelled, and folded ; the nails put on a bluish pearly white hue; the large superficial veins were marked by flat lines of a deeper black ; the pulse became either small as a thread, or else totally extinct ; the voice sank into a whisper ; the respira- tion was quick, irregular, and imperfect; and the secretion of urine was totally suspended. Death took place often in 10 or 12, generally within 18 or 20 hours after the appearance of decided and well- formed symptoms. lo the space of a few- weeks, 10,000 persons fell victims to this malady, in the single district of Jessore From Jessore the cholera soon ex- tended its ravages throughout Bengal. It extended also eastward along the coast of the Asiatic continent, and through the islands of the Indian ocean, to China, and to Timor. In 1818, it appeared in Arracan ; 1819, in Penang, the island of Java, &c. ; 1820, at Canton, in Oc- tober ; and at Pekin in 1821. Before the end of 1823, it had traversed the Molucca islands, and the island of Timor ; and continuing for several years to ravage the interior of China, it had, by 1827, passed to the north of the Great Wall, and desolated several places in Mongolia. At the same time it was ex- tending to the west as well as to the east. In 1818, it made its appearance at Bombay; and broke out anew in 1819, 1820, and 1821. Ascending the Persian Gulf, it spread on one hand, from Busheer into Persia ; on the other, it passed through Bassora, along the course of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates into Asiatic Turkey. After traversing Baku and other parts on the western border of the Caspian Sea, it appeared at Astracan in Sept., 1823, but died away in the course of the win- ter. It continued during the succeeding years to wander about in different pro- vinces of Persia, and the adjacent dis- tricts, and in 1830, it broke out with renewed violence on the western shores of the Caspian Sea. The same year the cholera ravaged Georgia, and made its reappearance in Astracan; thence it ascended the Volga, and crossed over the Don, spreading northwards so as in the month of June to reach St. Petersburgh and Archangel. Holding out a western course, and en- tering Poland, it broke out in Warsaw in April, 1831; at Dantzic, in May; Berlin, in the beginning of September ; and at Hamburgh, in the month follow- ing. It made its appearance at Jassy, in June; and Bucharest and Pest, in July; and Vienna, in September. 1831. Although precautions had been taken, by enforcing quarantine regula- tions, to protect GreatBritain and Ireland, it made its appearance in Sunderland October 26. There was great contrariety of opinion among medical men. Some alleged that the malady which had bro- ken out was contagious, and identical with, the Asiatic cholera ; others asserted C HO 267 CHO that it was totally dissimilar, and was merely epidemic. This much, however, was certain, that a malady had made its appearance, presenting an assemhlage of symptoms not hitherto observed in ordi- nary conjunction in this country. Be- tween October 26 and December 28, when only seven cases remained, 528 persons were attacked in Sunderland, of whom 197 died. In the beginning of December the malady spread to Newcastle ; and by the 28th of the month, 99 had died out of 286 who were attacked. On Christ- mas-day it made its appearance in Gates- head ; and, within 48 hours, upwards of 120 cases occurred, of which 52 proved fatal. In the course of December, North Shields, South Shields, Westoe, Hough- ton-le- Spring, and Penther, were attack- ed ; and, by the 28th of that month, eight cases, out of which six were fatal, had occurred at Haddington, in Scot- land. 1832. In the beginning of February, when the disease in that quarter had run its course, there had been in Newcastle 934 cases, of which 294, less than one- third, had terminated fatally. In North Shields and its neighbourhood, out of 257 persons attacked, 67 had died. From the north of England, the disease took its course into Scotland, and, leav- ing untouched the whole intervening country, appeared first at Haddington, where the deaths were more nearly one- half than one-third of the whole number of cases. After Haddington it appeared at Musselburgh, a small town within six miles of Edinburgh, where its malignity proved peculiarly extensive and obsti- nate. The northern capital was in great alarm, but had adopted in time all pro- per precautions, so that in no spot of the United Kingdom, looking at the population, did the visitation pass off so slightly. The disease, following its erratic course, after attacking the villages around Mus- selburgh and Haddington, appeared all at once at Kirkintilloch, seven miles from Glasgow, on the banks of the great canal which joins the Forth to the Clyde. It then appeared in Glasgow, where for awhile its ravages were alarming. But though the number of cases was great, the mortality was smaller than in many other places, being altogether about one in three. In some of the manufacturing villages round Glasgow, it was much more fatal. Its progress could no longer be traced. Every day brought intelli- gence of its appearance in some new quarter; and, during the summer, it penetrated through the whole of the north and west of Scotland, being no where more fatal than among the High- land villages of the counties of Caithness and Sutherland. In the beginning of February, the cholera showed itself in London, al- though, so far as was known, the whole intervening country, whether between Newcastle and the capital, or between Scotland and the capital, remained un- affected. It appeared first among the crews of vessels afloat in the river, in Southwark, and districts in the imme- diate neighbourhood of the Thames. By the 20th of February, 40 cases had oc- curred on the river, and in Lambeth, Southwark, Limehouse, Rotherhithe, and Ratcliffe, of which 21, more than one- half, had terminated fatally. Other dis- tricts of the capital and its environs were speedily affected, and the rate of mor- tality in proportion to the number of cases, continued nearly the same. So soon as the presence of the disease was positively ascertained, bills were brought in, and hurried through both houses, giving the privy council large powers to make regulations for meeting the danger. Among other acts were 2 Will. IV. c. 10, February 20, 1832, "an act for the prevention, as far as may be possible, of the disease called the cholera, or spasmodic cholera, in Eng- land." This statute enacts that "the lords and other of the privy council, or any two or more (of whom the lord presi- dent, or one of the secretaries of state, shall always be one,) by any order, from time to time may establish, and revoke, and vary all such regulations as might appear necessary or expedient for the prevention, as far as possible, of the spreading of the said disease called the cholera, or spasmodic or Indian cholera, in England and Wales, or any other part thereof, or for the relief of any per- son suffering under, or likely to be af- fected by, the said disease, and for the safe and speedy interment of any person dying of the said disease." A central board of health was esta- blished in London. The privy council was empowered to establish them in all parts of the kingdom, and direct the for- mation of hospitals for the reception of C H O 268 C H O the sick. The expenses were to be de- 512. Up to the last of these dates there frayed by assessments levied on the had died in Paris alone upwards of 8,700 towns, parishes, or counties, to which persons ; and before the end of the they were applied. Notwithstanding, month the number was nearly doubled, however, these precautions, the malady From the capital the disease spread ra- soon spread itself over the whole king- pidly to the small towns and large vil- dom, and speedily included in its sphere lages in the neighbourhood, following, the squalid population of Ireland. But at first, principally the course of the every where it was much less fatal than Seine. Then it started up in different had been anticipated. The number of places, scattered over great part of the eases in the United Kingdom was smaller country. By the middle of April it had out of all proportion than those which made its way into the departments of occurred in Paris alone. Aisne, Eure, Loiret, the North, Orne, The cholera left medical men as it Oise, Sarthe, and Yonne. found them — confirmed in most opposite 1833. The disease continued abroad, opinions, or in total ignorance as to its December 18, Bombay papers of this nature, its cure, and the causes of its date announced that at Lucknow 1,200 origin, if endemic — or the mode of trans- persons had, in one week, fallen victims mission, if it were infectious. In Great to the malady. In 1834, the cholera was Britain, as elsewhere, it fixed its residence also committing fearful ravages about among the most needy and squalid classes this time in Sweden and Denmark. of the community. There were instances 1835. September. The cholera was of its attacking persons of a different kind ; raging at Leghorn. All commerce and but they were too few to affect the general industry were completely annihilated, law which it seemed to follow, and could The disease was invariably fatal : 50 or often be traced to particular causes. 60 were carried off daily. Most of the The cholera being completely subdued families in easy circumstances quitted in England; April 14, 1833, was ap- the town. The daily supplies of meat, pointed as a day of thanksgiving for its water, and other provisions were put in cessation. by the windows, and were even raised to Up to the beginning of 1832 France those of the third and fourth stories, had escaped the cholera. On the 28th The eating-houses, coffee-houses, and of March, however, it was positively as- shops, were closed, serted that cases of cholera had occurred 1837- Many of the principal cities of in Paris during the preceding day. Its Italy and Sicily were severely visited by ravages soon became so frightful, that the the cholera. At Palermo and Catanea the capital was seized with one universal ravages were very frightful. In the first panic, from the highest ranks of society mentioned of these cities the daily deaths to the lowest. From the 27th of March were computed at not less than 1,000; till the 1st of April the deaths had been and in the latter, 6,000 out of 30,000 in- 98; nearly 20 daily. On the 1st of April habitants perished, according to the alone they were 79, and went on increas- lowest estimate. To aggravate the ca- ing at the following rate : — lamity, the ignorant multitude, maddened April 2 168 by suffering, gave credence to the most 3 212 absurd fictions; and, in many parts of 4 342 Sicily andCalabria, disturbances of a very 5 351 serious complexion broke out, and were 6 416 not guelled without causing a great deal 7 582 of anxiety to the government. Rome, 8 769 Leghorn, Genoa, and most of the Italian 9 861 cities were in their turns, and with more This was the highest point of mortality or less severity, attacked by the disease. which the disease reached. From the August. It had reached Albano, Gen- 9th of April it gradually fell off, with the sano, Frescati, and to the north of Rome exception of sometimes a temporary rise it had spread as far as Viterbo, Narni, for a day. On the 10th of April the and Perrugia. In Rome, there were, on deaths were 848; on the 11th, 769; on the 29th of August, 336 new cases of the 12th, 768 ; on the 13th they rose to cholera, and 217 deaths ; and on the 30th, 816 ; they fell on the 14th to 692 ; on 357 new cases, and 211 deaths. There- the 1 5th to 567 ; and, on the 1 6th, to ports from all parts of Sicily, however. CHO 269 CHO were favourable. In Palermo the cholera seemed to have entirely ceased ; no new cases occurring. Letters from Malta to the 15th of August described the cholera as rapidly declining, though on the pre- ceding day, there had been no less than twenty deaths. September 20. The cho- lera was rapidly on the decline at Rome. On the 31st ult. the deaths were 241 ; on the 13th of September, the deaths were 44; and on the 15th, the deaths were 30. The following table exhibits the num- ber of cases of cholera and of deaths in various places which had been visited by it, as reported, and stated in different Journals, in 1831 and 1832 : — GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Dublin Glasgow.to Aug, 15,1831. Liverpool, „ 13 London, to April 28,1832 Cork Limerick Drogheda to July 28. . . . Edinburgh „ 25. . . . Paisley „ 25. . . . Belfast Greenock, to July 25. . . . Hull „ 26 Leeds „ 26. . . , York „ 25. , . . Plymouth „ 26. , . . Leith „ 25. . . , Warrington ,, 26. . . , Carlisle „ 25 Cases Deaths 9252 4164 4646 2532 3305 2497 1202 796 638 2559 534 726 544 384 354 194 248 214 2775 1993 1396 1334 843 843 488 467 368 303 275 250 212 152 147 112 109 109 CONTINENT OF EUROPE. St. Petersburg . Moscow , Limberg , Vienna Warsaw , Berlin , Prague Konigsberg Nisnei Novgorod Kazan Breslau , Brunn , Hamburg Magdeburg Elbing Stettin Halle Cases. Deaths 9247 8576 4922 3984 3912 2220 3234 2188 1897 1487 1276 1540 874 576 434 366 303 4757 4690 2589 1893 1460 1401 1333 1314 982 857 671 604 455 346 283 250 152 AMERICA. Quebec to Sept. 1 2218 Baltimore, Sept. 29 710 Montreal „ 2 4385 1843 Albany „ 8 1146 •418 New York „ 8 5842 3107 Norfolk „ 11 400 Ditto Oct. 12 3471 Rochester „ 3 389 107 Philadelphia, Sept, 1 2240 740 CHOSROES I. surnamed the Great, king of Persia, was the third son of Ca- bades or Cobad, succeeded to the throne in 531, In 540, invaded Syria, and marched to Antioch, which he soon re- duced to ashes. In 576, he was defeat- ed by the Roman general Justinian, and in 580, being again defeated, died of grief. CHOSROES II., grandson to Chos- roes the Great, by the assistance of the Romans in 590, was placed on the throne. To avenge the death of Mau- ricius. declared war against the Ro- mans 603, which he continued for 18 years, with so much slaughter and suc- cess, that the Romans lost nearly all their possessions in Asia. He was put to death in 627, by his son Siroes, who made peace with Heraclius, and •"estored the wood of the holy cross- CHRAMNES, natural son of Clo- thaire, king of France, appeared in arms against his father in 556. On the death of Theobald, king of Metz, his dominions were divided between Clothaire, king of Soissons, and Childebert, king of Paris ; in 560 Chramnes was defeated, and with his wife and children, burnt alive in a cottage, by order of his father. CHRIST, order of knighthood, began in Portugal, 319; in Livonia, 1203. CHRISTCHURCH College. Ox- ford, begun 1515, charter dated 1525, buildings completed 1523, damaged by fire, to the amount of 12,000?. March 3, ^ 1809. See Oxford. CHRIST Church, Birmingham, first stone laid, July 22, 1805. CHR 270 CHR CHRIST'S College, Cambridge, founded 1505. See Cambridge. CHRIST Priory, Hampshire, built, 1060. CHRIST'S Hospital, popularly caUed the Blue-coat Hospital, was an- ciently a monastery of grey friars, found- ed by Rahere, the first prior in the time of Henry I. It was dissolved by Henry VIII., and granted by him to the city of London in 1547, and the grant was confirmed in 1552, by charter of Edward VI., who converted it into an hospital for poor children, who are sup- plied with all necessaries and conve- niences, clothed, dieted, and taught. The citizens, by king Edward's char- ter, are incorporated governors of his several foundations in the city and liber- ties of London by the name of the " mayor, commonalty, and citizens of the city of London, governors of the posses- sions, revenues, and goods of hospitals of Edward VI.," &c. A great part of this building was burnt down by the great fire in 1666 ; but was again rebuilt by the care of the governors ; though not without incur- ring a great debt, and anticipating the revenues of the hospital; all which in- cumbrances have been long since dis- charged. Here were two mathematical schools; the first founded by King Charles II., Aug. 19, 1674, but they are now united 1835. There were begun very conside- rable architectural additions to this ex- tensive mass of buildings, in the court where the grammar-school is situated. The new edifice displays two sides, namely, on the north and west ; and the former of these, which is the principal one, fronts the court, and is directly opposite to the school above mentioned, yet of only half its extent. It is com- posed of five divisions, the extreme ones being octagonal towers, and that in the centre presenting one continued orna- mental compartment, forming a kind of bay window on each of its three floors above the ground one. CHRISTIAN, the term of distinction first given to the disciples of Christ at Antioch, a.d. 40. CHRISTIAN Charity, order of knighthood, began in France, 1590. CHRISTIAN Era, first applied to the computation of time, by Dionysius the monk, surnamed the Little, 516. See Era. CHRISTIAN King, the title of, first given to Louis IX. of France, 1469 ; annulled by National Assembly, 1791. CHRISTIAN Knowledge, Society for promoting, instituted 1798. CHRISTIANIA, or Christiana, capital of Norway, formerly occupied the site of Opsloe, and was rebuilt in its present situation by Christian IV. in 1624, after a plan designed by himself. It has a Latin school, founded by Chris- tian IV. in 1635, and a public library. The castle of Aggerhuus, built on the west side of the bay, at a small distance from the city, in 1310, by the Swedes, was strengthened in 1633, by Christian IV., and by succeeding kings of Den- mark at subsequent periods. The trade is good, and population has increased so rapidl)', that, according to the "Weimar almanack for 1832, about 20,000. The principal exports are timber and deal ; glass, particularly bottles ; linseed and oil-cakes ; iron and nails; smalts, bones, oak bark, &c. Salted and pickled fish, one of the staple products of Norway, is principally ex- ported from Bergen. The deals of Christiania have always been in the high- est estimation ; and in consequence of the excellence of the timber, and the care with which the sap-wood and other defective parts is cut away. The saw- mills were formerly licensed to cut only a certain quantity, and the pro- prietors were bound to make oath that it was not exceeded. This absurd regu- lation no longer exists. CHRISTIANITY, the religion taught by Jesus Christ, forming the epoch of the vulgar era. See Christian Era. Century I. During the apostolic age, churches were planted in Arabia, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Barbary, to the south and west of the Holy Land ; in Chaldea, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Assyria, and Persia, to the east; and in Phenicia, Syria, Asia Minor, Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, lUyricum, Italy, and Spain, to the north. Gildas, the earliest of our British historians, speaking of the me- morable revolt and overthrow of the Briton* under Boadicea, about 60, as- serts that the gospel then began to be successfully published in the country ; and the correctness of his statement is supported by those ancient Cambrian records called the triades. In these it is stated that the celebrated Caractacus, CHR 271 CHR who, after a war of nine years, was be- trayed to the Romans, was, together with his father Brennus, and the whole family, carried prisoner to Rome, about the year 53, where they remained for a period of seven years. At this time the gospel was also preached in the imperial city ; and Brennus, with others of his family, became professed members of the chris- tian church. Eigen, the daughter of Caractacus, is said tohave bestowed her band on a British chieftain, whose do- main, called Gaer Sarllog, is now known by the name of Old Sarum ; and Clau- dia, one of her sisters, is supposed to have become the wife of a Roman sena- tor, named Pudens. Century II. The progress of Chris- tianity was steady and triumphant. Pliny, in writing to the emperor Trajan, about 106, expressly says, "The number of culprits (as he calls the christians) is become so great as to call for serious consultation; the contagion of their superstition having spread, not only through cities, but even in villages and the country." TertuUian, speaking of the extension of the gospel, about ninety years afterwards, numbers among those who had previously embraced it, the Dacians, Germans, Scythians, and Sar- matians ; together with many of the Getuli, great numbers of the Moors, the utmost bounds of Spain, various na- tions of Gaul, and those parts of Bri- tain which were inaccessible to the Ro- man arms. And Arnobius demands, " Is not this a powerful argument for our faith, that, in so short a time, the sacraments of Christ are diffused over the world? ITiat orators, rhetoricians, lawyers, physicians, and philosophers, now love our religion, despising those things in which they previously trusted ? That servants endure cruelty from their masters, wives submit to be separated from their husbands, and children are content to be disinherited by their pa- rents, rather than abandon the chris- tian religion." Athenagoras, who, to- wards the end of this century wrote an apology for the christian religion, says, " the christians made small account of the present life, but were intent only on contemplating God, and the divine Word who is from him ; what union the Son has with the Father ; what communion the Father has with the Son ; what the Spirit is; and what are the union and distinction subsisting between the Fa- ther, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In this century ther great work of translat- ing the Holy Scriptures was carried on. As the language of the empire was more generally understood, at this time, than any other, Latin versions of the oracles of truth were multiplied with equal zeal and diligence. See Bible. Century III. The progress of Chris- tianity had continued so, that, about 245, the Emperor Philip was induced to make a profession of the new religion, and openly to patronise its friends and adherents. About the same time Chris- tianity was greatly extended both in France and Germany. And though the power of religion seemed to decline both among pastors and professors in Africa ; and Asia, from the inroads of barba- rians, became a scene of miserable con- fusion, the invaders, by carrying away with them several christian bishops, forced these people to become mission- aries, contrary to their own intentions, and rendered them instrumental to the conversion of many, who might other- wise have lived and died without the knowledge of the gospel. Century IV. The commencement of this century was marked by the eleva- tion of Constantine, commonly called the Great, to the imperial dignity, by his army about 312. At the expiration of six years, during which time he had reigned in Gaul, he resolved, if possible, to put a period to the tyranny of Maxen- tius, who had been declared emperor of Rome, and had acted in the most in- tolerable manner. With this determi- nation, and with a conviction upon his mind that the idols of his forefathers could afford him no assistance, he ad- dressed himself in fervent prayer to Je- hovah. Eusebius, his biographer, re- lates that, whilst he was on his march, a luminous cross appeared in ' the hea- vens, to the astonishment of the army, with this inscription in Greek, "By this overcome." How far this story may be correctly stated, is certainly open to sus- picion, but it is certain, that from the time to which we have alluded, he not only professed to believe in Christ, but studied the scriptures with apparent seriousness and attention, and publicly countenanced the ministers of divine truth. Having obtained a decisive vic- tory over Maxentius, and made himself master of Rome, Constantine placed, a spear, formed so as to resemble a cross. CHR 272 CHR in the hand of the statue erected for him in that city. He also built several churches for the christians, patronised the meetings of their bishops, and ex- tended his benevolence to their poor members. He afterwards took up arms against his colleague, Licinius, who reigned in the east, with pagan princi- ples and a persecuting spirit. Licinius was content to put the truth or false- hood of the new religion on the event of the war, and the result was that he lost both his dignity and his life. The christian church enjoyed great tran- quillity, and much external prosperity during this reign. The emperor erected churches, established schools, and pro- vided endowments for the christian clergy. After trying lenient measures to suppress heathenism a long time, during the last eight years of his life destroyed the idols, rased the temples, and banished the priests. By these means heathenism was so much dis- lodged from the cities and towns of the empire, that it seemed to take refuge as its last resort in the pagi, or villages, from which circumstance it was in con- tempt called paganism. But the favour of Constantine to the clergy was exces- sive, and superinduced pride, covetous- ness, supineness, and sensuality. The gospel was propagated among the Persians, Indians, and the nations on the east of the Euxine Sea. In 337, Constantine died, on which several changes took place in the empire and government ; but at length his son Con- stantius was firmly seated on the throne. In the days of the father, the Arian heresy was considerably propagated, and the son it appears was a cordial friend to the professors of those principles, and soon began to wield the secular power against those professing the orthodox faith. On the death of Constantius, in the year 361, Julian succeeded to the crown ; but he no sooner attained the imperial dignity, than he renounced Christianity, and openly professed pa- ganism. He restored idolatrous wor- ship, re-opened the temples, built new ones, and gave universal countenance to all the heathen rites. On the death of Julian, Jovian, a christian, succeeded him as emperor of the west, and gave peace to the church of Christ. About 366, Valen, the emperor of the east, who was a bigoted Arian, raised a furious persecution against the orthodox, which continued unabated till his'death, in 375. In this century the bishops of Rome began to usurp a lordly authority over other bishops and churches, and strug- gled violently to have all appeals made to them. Superstition made rapid ad- vances, ordinances were issued for ab- stinence from particular meats during stated fasts; celibacy began to be ad- mired and publicly commanded, and men and'women devoted themselves to single life and monkish habits, under the pretence of superior sanctity ; prayers to departed saints were introduced, and about the same time images and pictures in the churches, relics of martyrs, of the cross, &c., began to be revered. Century V. In the beginning of this century Arcadius and Honorius, sons of the emperor Theodosius, renewed the Arian persecution against the ortho- dox. The Goths, Huns, Vandals, and Heruli, continued to pour in upon the empire, until at length, in 476, it was totally subverted, and the Roman go- vernment existed no longer. In this age of the church the Pelagian, Nestorian, and Eutychian heresies greatly infested the church, and disturbed its peace. To this age also we must refer the origin of the celebrated doctrine of purgatory, or the middle state, in which some souls are supposed to be confined under punishment until the last day, unless delivered much earlier by the efficacy of prayers and masses performed for them by survivors. In this century St. Patrick, as he is called, visited Ireland, and, notwithstand- ing the discouragement which attended his first exertions, erected a great num- ber of churches, and instructed many of the Irish in the use of letters, as well as in the truths of the gospel. In the same century, the conversion of the southern or Lowland Picts, is said to have been eflfected through the instrumentality of a British bishop named Ninias. The baptism of Clovis, king of the Franks, took place about the year 496. Century VI. The Roman pontiff, Gregory the Great, sent a number of Benedictine monks as missionaries into Britain, under the superintendence of Augustine ; and a variety of circum- stances proved favourable to their recep- tion. Ethelbert, king of Kent, the most considerable of the Anglo-Saxon princes among whom the island was, at this time, di\'ided, consented to hear them CHR 273 CHR preach, and, after receiving the rite of baptism, he gradually introduced the profession of Christianity among his subjects. Augustine (who had been con- stituted archbishop of the English na- tion,) displayed great zeal to establish a complete uniformity in customs and dis- cipline. This was opposed by those pre- lates and monks in Wales, who were the successors of the first British christians, and altogether independent of the see of Rome. Violent altercations ensued; the Kentish prince was engaged in the quar- rel ; and the unfortunate Cambrians, whose only crime consisted in their con- scientious resistance to a foreign yoke, were doomed to suffer the invasion of their territories, and, in some instances, the loss of their lives. It has been judi- ciously remarked by Dr. Mosheim, that " The conversions and sacred exploits of this age will lose much of their impor- tance, in the esteem of such as examine with attention the accounts which have been given of them by the writers of this and the succeeding ages. For by these accounts it appears, that the converted nations retained a great part of their former impietj^ superstition, and licen- tiousness ; and that, attached to Christ by a mere outward and nominal profes- sion, they, in effect, renounced the pu- rity of his doctrine, and the authority of his gospel, by their flagitious lives, and the superstitious and idolatrous rites and institutions which they continued to observe." Century VII. Early in this century six Anglo-Saxon kings of the heptarchy, who had hitherto remained under the darkness of their ancient superstition, were induced, partly by the earnest entreaties of the Roman missionaries, and partly by the persuasion of their consorts, to enter the pale of the church. Paulinus was appointed bishop of York, and as Christianity had obtained admis- sion to the abodes of royalt)% the num- ber of adherents increased with great rapidity in all parts of the island. Wil- lebrod, an Anglo-Saxon, and eleven of his countrymen, crossed over into Bata- via, for the purpose of converting the Frieslanders to the christian faith. In 692, they went into Fosteland, which most writers consider to have been the same with Heligoland ; but being cruelly treated there by Radbod, king of the Frieslanders, who put one of the mis- sionaries to death, they departed for Cimbria and the neighbouring parts of Denmark. The next year, however, they returned to Friesland, and proved much more successful than they had formerly been, in propagating the knowledge of divine truth. Willebrod was ordained archbishop of Wilteburgh, now called Utrecht, and died among the Batavians at an advanced age ; whilst his associates continued to spread the rays of divine light among the Westphalians, and the contiguous nations. About the year 636, a Syrian mission arrived in China, under the superintendence of a minister whom the Chinese called Olopuen ; and during some following centuries, Christianity prevailed with a few variations in the Chinese empire. It was in this century that the impostor, Mahomet, began to practise his deceptions upon mankind. See Mahomet. Century VIII. At the commence- ment of this century, when a consider- able part of Germany was buried in the darkness of pagan superstition, Winfrid, a Benedictine monk, went over into Friesland to tbe churches which Wille- brod had planted. He afterwards removed to Bavaria and Thuringia ; and throughout the greater part of Hesse, even to the frontiers of Saxony, he pub- lished the gospel in 719; Gregory II. made him bishop of the new German churches. Liefuvyn, another English- man, was particularly distinguished among those who laboured as missiona- ries in Germany. Century IX. A mission to Jutland was undertaken by two eminent French divines, named Ansgar and Authbert. In 831, Ansgar was created bishop of a new church at Hamburgh> and also of the whole north ; and to this dignity, the superintendence of the church at Bremen was added in 844. Ansgar ter- minated his life and labours in the year 865. About the middle of this centurj', Christianity was propagated among the Bulgarians, a Sclavonic people of ex- traordinary fierceness ; also among the Sclavonians and the Chazari, who resided on the banks of the Danube ; the sub- jects of the prince of Moravia ; the Rus- sian inhabitants of the Ukraine, and the inhabitants of several provinces of Dal- matia. And Dr. Mosheim remarks that the missionaries of this period were superior, both in their principles and conduct, to those of preceding ages ; as they were more anxious to inform the 2 N CHR 274 CHR minds of men, than to extend the domi- nation of the pope, and they made no attempts to add to the number of their converts by rigid and coercive measures, altogether inconsistent with the spirit of the gospel. Century X. This has been em- phatically styled " an iron age, barren of all goodness, a leaden age, abounding in all wickedness ; and a dark age, re- markable above all others for the scarcity of writers and men of learning." In this deplorable age of the church, however, sonse pleasing circumstances occurred. In Poland, a daughter of the duke of Bohemia induced her consort to receive christian baptism. Hungary, which had previously received some faint dawnings of the christian faith, now became more enlightened through the exertions of Sai'olta, wife of Geysa, the king of the Hungarians, whom she per- suaded to change his religion ; and in the reign of their son, Stephen, churches were erected, bishoprics were founded, and the profession of Christianity became general in all parts of the country. Century XL, though disgraced by the horrors and desolations, of what has been most improperly styled, the crusade, or holy war, affords some pleasing in- stances of the extension and the tri- umphs of the christian faith. See Cru- sades. In Sicily, Christianity, which had become nearly extinct, was happily revived ; and among various tribes of Russians, Poles, and Danes, the word of God was crowned with brilliant success; and in Denmark, especially, the effects of the gospel were obvious and striking. In Sweden, King Olaus evinced the ut- most zeal for the spread of divme truth; and here, a learned and pious English- man, named Ulfrid, appears to have la- boured with great success till the year 1028, when he was cruelly murdered by the pagans, in consequence of his having hewed down their idol Thor, with a hatchet. Century XII. affords little more than a varied picture of the extension of the Romish faith, by force of arms. Thus, whilst the bishop of Bamberg, and the archbishops of Upsal and Lun- den are held up as apostles to the Po- meranians, the Finlanders, and the hea- then tribes on the Baltic, these nations were in reality compelled to change their religion by Boseslaus,duke of Poland.Eric, king of Sweden, and "Waldemar, king of Denmark. The Sclavonians, still attached to their ancient pagan rites, called forth the missionary zeal of Vicelinus, bishop of Oldenburg, aided by the military forces of Henry, duke of Saxony ; and the Esthonians and Livonians were con- verted in a similar manner, being literally baptized at the point of the sword. Century XIII. Whilst the crusa- ders, reckless of human life, and only intent on the accomplishment of their enthusiastic projects, continued to shed torrents of blood, and to disgrace the christian name and character, a people called the Waldenses were raised up to withstand the usurpation of the Roman pontiffs, and to contend boldly for the pure doctrines of Christianity ; nor did they shrink from the cause which they had espoused, though they were perse- cuted with such dreadful severity, that, in the city of Paris alone, 114 of their number were consigned to the flames. See Waldenses. During this century, Almeric and William of St. Amour, in France, Robert Grosthead, bishop of Lincoln in England, with many others, loudly remonstrated and de- claimed against the corruptions of the Romish clergy, although they did not profess, as the Waldenses did, to be perfectly distinct, as a church, from the papal hierarchy. Century XIV. Dante, Petrarch, . Cassidore, Casenas, Occam, and Mar- silius, very much exposed the errors of popery, and abominations of the clergy, although they remained in that commu- nion. The Waldenses still continued their testimony, notwithstanding the fury of the papists. In Bohemia, and Austria they were estimated at about 80,000. About 1360, John Wickliff, an English rector, became famous for his opposition of the tyranny, superstition, idolatry, and errors of the church of Rome. He manifested great zeal in the cause of reformation during more than a quarter of a century ; and when he died, in 1387, left his doctrines spreading widely through the kingdom, and his books were read in the colleges of Ox' ford thirty years afterwards. Century XV. We are now arrived at the darkest age of the whole history of Christianity. In England the bones of Wickliff were dug up and burnt, about forty years from the time of his decease ; his books also were condemned and burnt. William Sawtre, Thomas Badley, CHR 275 CHR and Sir John Oldcastle, all of whom had embraced and propagated the principles of WicklifF, wei'e burnt j yet consider- al)]e numbers of the people of England, many of high rank, cherished the prin- ciples for which these martyrs died. The books of WiclclifF had passed over to the continent, and excited a spirit of inquiry there. In Bohemia, John Huss, and Jerome of Prague, instructed by them, became zealous reformers. About 1414 a general council was called to meet at Constance. Its objects were various, and of high importance. The profligacy of the times seemed to call loudly for such an assembly. Ecclesiastical cor- ruptions had increased to an intolerable degree, and Christendom had been dis- tracted nearly forty years by a schism in the popedom. To settle this dispute i-e- specting the popedom, and restore peace to the church, appears to have been the most urgent business of the council. See Constance. 1453. Constantinople was taken by the Turks, and this dreadful catastrophe, in some respects so much to be deplored, was the means of driving many learned Greeks into these parts of Europe, and thus disseminating that knowledge which was soon to be applied to the general ad- vancement of the christian faith. The fugitives were protected and encouraged by the celebrated family of Medici, and under the fostering care of that influence produced a considerable change in the sentiments of the students in the west. About this time the art of printing was discovered by Koster of Haerlem, and was soon improved by Guttemberg and SchoefFer. To this the revival of religion seems to have been more indebted than to any one human cause whatsoever. Learning of every kind now made rapid progress ; the oriental languages were studied, antiquities were explored, the muses wei'e brought into repute, and all the branches of the belles lettres pursued with eagerness and proportionate suc- cess. Century XVI. At the commence- ment of this century the external condi- tion of the church was extremely low. The Waldenses, Lollards, and Bohemi- ans, were now nearly extinct, and the spiritual worshippers of God were com- paratively few, and scattered abroad like sheep fleeing from a drove of hungry wolves. The corruptions of the Romish church were loudly complained of, and yet nothing eflfectual had been done for their reformation. The council of Con- stance, and after that another called at Basil, had in the preceding age attempted in vain to introduce salutary discipUne into the church, for the corruption of the more gross departures from the fun- damental principles of Christianity. An attempt of the same kind was again made in loll, by the council of Pisa; but all efforts to reform either the head or mem- bers of the Romish church proved fruit- less. In this state of the christian world Luther arose to protest against the cor- ruptions of Rome, and insist upon the necessity for a reformation. This pro- duced a severe contest between the Ro- manists and the reformers in 1517. This was 356 years from the reformation of religion in France by the Waldenses, 146 years from the first confutation of the popish errors in England by John Wick- liff", 116 years from the time of John Huss, who opposed the papal influence and superstition in Bohemia, and 36 years from the condemnation of John de Wesalia, who opposed popery at Worms. See Reformation. Century XVII. Christianity pene- trated into many parts of North America, and in New England it obtained great success ; yet the number of Protestants decreased about twelve or fifteen millions. Twice a prelatical persecution was ex- perienced in Great Britain : and in Ire- land, besides others less considerable, one most tremendous massacre of the protestants took place. These circum- stances for a few years rendered the fate of the reformed religion in the British isles most problematical. In Bohemia, and the Palatinate of the Rhine, the Ro- man catholics almost extirpated the pro- testants, and seemed at one time to menace the expulsion of the principles of the reformation from the whole German empire. By the interposition of Gustavus, king of Sweden, and after a war of thirty years, the protestants in general, compre- hending both Lutherans and Calvinists, had their religions liberties restored and ratifiedtothemby the treaty of Westphalia in 1648. In France, Louis XI II. harassed and threatened to exterminate his protes- tant subjects ; and his son, Louis XIV., openly repealed the edict of Nantz, which was the Magna Charta of their liberties. Great numbers apostatized from the faith of their ancestors, immense num- bers were most barbarously murdered. CHR 276 CHR and several hundred thousands with great difficulty fled to Holland, Bran- denburg, Britain, &c. Thus a famous protestant association, at one period comprising 2,000 churches, and some of those churches comprehending some thousands of communicants, was en- tirely ruined. Century XVHI. The commence- ment of this century exhibited the church of Rome still apparently seated upon an immoveable basis, notwithstanding her losses by the reformation in Europe. But while the successes which attended the efforts of these zealous sons of Rome seemed to promise her re-eslablishment in a state of perfect security, a new order of adversaries arose, more dangerous than any who had hitherto assailed her conclave, A body of men appeared who lived chiefly by their pens, and were, therefore, diligent in the dissemination of their writings. These productions abounded with wit and satire, and were chiefly levelled at the follies of corrupted Christianity. Their professed aim was the destruction of the christian faith. The progress of these principles was si- lent, but it was wide and devastating. France was the fruitful source, but Ber- lin was the Asphaltis, or Dead Sea, in which the noxious waters were collected. For a time Frederick the Great patro- nized the new philosophy, but finding it as inimical to good government and social order as to religion, he became its enemy. England felt the influence of deistical principles to a considerable extent, and probably would have become the prey to their revolutionary conse- quences, like the continental states, but happily for lier, pure and undefiled re- ligion was found in her ; and at that critical period the ministers of religion stood resolutely at their posts, and by giving a new impulse to the religious feelings of the nation, counteracted the designs of their enemies. Shortly after, societies began to be formed for the dis- semination of the scriptures, and the proclamation of the gospel in foreign parts ; and these have produced a moral yenovation throughout the kingdom of the most auspicious kind. Century. XIX. Of this century it is only necessary to observe that it has been justly said to deserve " the honour- able distinction of the missionary age," greater exertions having been made, and with more abundant success than in any period since the diffusion of Christianity in the primitive ages. This success has resulted, in a great degree, from the for- mation, plans, and operations of those societies which are peculiarly the off- spring of the present age. See Bible Society, Missionary Societies, &c. With Christianity civilization has invari- ably been connected ; and hence we may hope, by the gradual, but accelerated progress of religion, that future genera- tions will see the human race, from pole to pole, living in the enjoyment of all social comforts, embracing each other as brethren, and thus fulfilhng the objects which the author of Christianity had in view in its first introduction and subse- quent dissemination. CHRISTIE, James, a modern writer, son of an eminent auctioneer of that name, was born in 1/73. He was edu- cated at Eton, and was originally intended for the church. His first production, in 1802, was an essay on the ancient Greek game supposed to have been in- vented by Palamedes antecedent to the siege of Troy. In 1806 he published a volume entitled " A Disquisition upon Etruscan Vases." A limited number of copies having been printed, the work soon became scarce, and in 1825, Mr. Christie published a new and enlarged edition, adding an appendi.v, in which some most ingenious reasoning is em- ployed to refer the shape and colour of Greek vases to the water lily of Egypt. His third publication was an essay on the earliest species of idolatry, the wor- ship of the elements ; tlie purport of which is, to show for what purpose the elements were referred to hy early na- tions, what was understood of the Deity by their means, and by what miscon- struction they became objects of worship. Mr. Christie was a member of the Dilet- tante Society, and of the Antiquarian Society of Newcastle. He died Feb. 2, 1831, in King-street, St. James's-square, after a long illness, aged 58. CHRISTINA, Queen of Sweden, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, born in 1626, and succeeded to the crown in 1632, when only six years of age. She discovered even in her infancy, a great antipathy for the employments of women; had ability and taste for abstract specu- lation, and amused herself with the study of language and the sciences. At the age of 18, she assumed the reins of government. The chief public affair in CHR 217 CHR which she was employed, was the peace of Westphalia, concluded in 1648. She invited to her court all the distinguished characters of her time : Grotius, Pascal, Bochart, Descartes, Vossius, and many others. In 1652, she communicated her resolution to the senate to abdicate the throne, who, with the people, and Charles Gustavus her cousin and successor, joined in remonstrating against it : she yielded to their importunities, and con- tinued to sacrifice her own pleasure to the will of the public till the year 1654, when she carried her design into execution. 1654. She paid a visit to France, where she was guilty of an action which has stained her memory — the murder of Monadechi, the master of her horse. Perceiving that this had greatly offended the French, she would gladly have visited England, but receiving no encourage- ment from Cromwell to do so, she re- turned to Rome. On the death of Charles Gustavus, she took a journey into Sweden, hoping to recover her crown; but, finding her people deter- mined to reject her claims, she returned to Rome where, after many wanderings, she died in 1689, aged 63. " She was indefatigable upon the throne ; firm in misfortunes ; impatient of con- tradiction ; but inconsistent in her in- clinations. The most striking instance of the inconsistency of her mind is, that while on the throne she was very desirous of a private station, and having obtained this, she was constantly repining, and anxious to recover the crown she had so capriciously resigned." CHRISTMAS, the feast of the nati- vity of Jesus Christ, said to have been first observed in 98. It appears from St. Chrysostom, that in the primitive times, Christmas and Epiphany were celebrated at one and the same feast ; that father observes, that it was but for a little while that Christmas had been celebrated at Antioch on the 25th of De- cember, as a distinct feast. The Arme- nians made but one feast of them, as late as the r2th century. The precise day, or even the month, in which our Saviour was born, is extremely uncer- tain, but it has been supposed proljable, that the era of the nativity was either in September or October, a.u.c. 748 or 749. CHRISTMAS Island, in the Pacific Ocean, lying about 1100 miles south of the Sandwich islands. Well known as the spot on which Cook, in his third voyage in 1777, landed to observe an eclipse of the sun. It appears to be more than 60 miles in circumference. It was visited by Mr. Bennett about 1835. CHRISTOPHE, late sovereign of Hayti, first aspired to the sovereignty on the death of Dessalines in 1806; maintained the conflict with Petion for five years. Published the constitutional law of the council of state, for the esta- blishment of royalty in Hayti, which was subscribed by all the members, and dated the 28th of March, 1811. Im- mediately on its publication, Christophe was proclaimed, and shortly afterwards, crowned king. He shot himself Oct. 9, 1820. See Hayti. CHRISTOPHER'S Saint, island. West Indies, discovered by Christopher Columbus. First settled under William Warren, in 1623, to whom many French emigrants attached themselves. It was finally ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 1783. CHRONOLOGY. Most of the an- cient nations measured their time by the course of the sun, but some others by that of the moon. But as the ancient inhabitants of the world had no means of ascertaining the exact measure either of the year or the month, or of adjusting the moon's motion to that of the sun, much confusion would necessarily arise in their accounts of events. Even in the histories of Herodotus and Thucy- dides, there are no regular dates for the events recorded ; nor were there any endeavours to establish a fixed era until the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus (about A.c. 240) who attempted it by comparing and correcting the dates of the Olym- piads, the kings of Sparta, and the suc- cession of the priestesses of Juno at Argos. The early records of the Ro- mans were annihilated about a.c. 388, by the Gauls ; and Fabius Pictor, the most ancient of their historians, who is supposed to have flourished about a.c 225, was obliged to borrow tlie chief part of his information from the Greeks. In other European nations the chrono- logy was necessarily much more imper- fect than at Rome ; as it was attended to at a later period than that of the Greeks and Romans. Scythia, beyond the Danube, had no letters, till Ulphilus» theirbishop, formed them, about A. D. 27^. CHR 278 CHR Germany had none till it received them from the western empire, about 400. The Huns had none as late as 526 ; and it was still later before the Swedes and Norwegians received them. For an ac- count of the improved systems of Chronology. See the Introductory CHAPTER TO THIS WORK. CHRONOMETER, a time-keeper, used for ascertaining the longitude at sea. The first person who proposed to ascertain the relative longitude of any place or ship at sea, by means of horo- logical machines for indicating the time of the first meridian, was Gemma Fri- eius, about the year 1530. This method was described and recommended in Carpenter's Geography, as early as the year 1635 ; but the state in which horo- logical machines were at that time, pre- vented his accomplishing the design. The discovery of the isochronism of the pendulum turned the minds of inge- nious men to the improvement of clocks. Lord Kincardine tried a marine pendu- lum clock by Dr. Hooke, in the year 1662; and Christian Huygens, the ce- lebrated Dutch mathematician and me- chanician, contrived a time-keeper, ac- tuated by a spring, and regulated by a pendulum, which was tried at sea by major Holmes in the j'ear 1664. Hautefeuille, in the year 16/4, pre- sented to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, a balance with a straight spring, acting instead of an escapement, which had the same object in view. This so- ciety thought the subject of such im- portance, that, in 1720, they proposed the following question to be determined for a public reward ; viz. " What is the most perfect method of preserving on the sea the equable motion of a j)endu- lum, either by the construction of the machine, or by the suspension ?" A memoir, written by Massy, a Dutch clockmaker, obtained the prize, but he had not the satisfaction of seeing his plan executed. Henry Sully, an English clockmaker, who had settled at Paris, presented the same academy with a ma- rine time-keeper, made in 1721, and pub- lished a description of it in French, by the title of " Abridged description of a clock, of a new invention for the just measure of time at sea." Besides the above. Sully made a second marine time-keeper, which was tried at sea in 1726, buttheinventordied two years after- wards, a martyr to his horological studies. The British parliament in 1714, first proposed a reward for any method of determining the longitude, and again in the year 1774. See Longitude. This produced several candidates. Mr. Har- rison, who has been justly celebrated, if not for the invention, at least for the in- troduction of the chronometer, as the means of measuring the longitude at sea, produced the first instrument of that kind in 1726, which, it has been said, did not err a second in a month for ten years together. During near forty years he made successive improvements in its construction, by the assistance of his son, who made several voyages under the direction of the board of longitude, for the purpose of proving the accuracy of the time-keepers. In this period, Mr. Harrison received different grants from government and the board, to the amount of £24,000. Since the time of Mr. Harrison, many and important improvements have been made in the chronometer, by Peter le Roy, Arnold, Mudge, Emery, Earnshaw, Brockbank, &c. Peter le Roy pre- sented his chronometer to the king of France, on August 5, 1766, for which the prize of the Academy of Sciences was awarded him on the last day of the same month. Mr. Arnold took out two patents for improvements in his chrono- meter. The former in 1776, was for the invention and application of compensa- tion bars in the construction of his ba- lance, together with the invention and application of what is called the helical, but which is properly the cylindrical balance-spring. The second patent in 1782, was for three different ways of ap- plying the com])ensation-bars, for an improvement of the balance- spring, par- ticularly in the bending of the last coil at the end of it, for his invention and application of the spring-detent, and also for the cycloidal, or more properly, epicycloidal shape of the tooth of the balance-wheel. Mr. Mudge's time-keeper was tried in 1776, and a full description of it published in 1799. Messrs. Brockbank's chronometer was tried in 1796. In the report of Lord Hugh Seymour, who tried three of Mr. Mudge's time-keepers against one of Mr. Earnshaw's and one of Messrs. Brock- banks', in a cruise from the 18th of May, 1796, to August 19, following, it is stated, that, after a proper rate was assigned, Messrs. Brockbanks' chrono- CHR 279 CHU meter performed with a degree of accu- racy which far exceeded any of the other four, and which had seldom been equalled by any other. In 1802 and 1803 other trials were made and rewards were given to Messrs. Arnold and Earnshaw by the board of longitude. The accuracy of chronometers of recent construction is most surprising. In the Athenaeum for 1838, it is stated, "Sir Thomas Brisbane having observed the surprising accuracy with which the dif- ference of longitude of London and Paris had been obtained by Mr. Dent's chronometers, he applied to that gen- tleman, who placed at Sir Thomas Brisbane's disposal twelve of his va- luable chronometers. With these, the differences of longitude of London, Edinburgh, and Mackerston, were taken ; and by a mean of all the observations taken in going to the latter station and in returning, they were found to differ only by five one-hundredths of a se- cond." Sir John Herschel states, that Kessels, of Altona, had tried this method by tak- ing his chronometers to Berlin and back again (as he believed), and the entire error was considerably within one-tenth of a second : when the paved and almost impassable roads of the continent were taken into account, this was an astonish- ing degree of accuracy. Sir John said, that in a notice lately given by Mr. Dent, of a determination by himself and Major Sabine, of the diflference of lon- gitude of London and Paris, a statement was given of the error of the observa- tions which was not quite fair ; the truth was, Mr. Pond's assistant, in giving them the Greenwich time, had been in- advertently one second wrong; this error, of course, appeared in their result, but it was afterwards detected by the assistant himself, and corrected. This very fact, however, must be striking to the public, when an error of one single second was so readily detected, and be- came such a matter of debate among philosophers. Atheneum, 1838. CHRYSIPPUS, of CiLiciA, the Stoic philosopher, flourished a.c. 240 : he died in 207, aged 73. CHRYSOSTOM, an eminent father of the church, a native of Antioch, born about 347. The name of Chrysostom, signifying in the Greek, golden-mouth, was not applied to him till after his death, when his works had rendered him illus- trious for eloquence. When he was about 27 years of age, he retired from the world to an ascetic life, first in com- pany with a monk upon a mountain near Antioch, and then in a cave by himself. He returned to Antioch, and was or- dained a deacon, and afterwards a priest, and devoting himself to the labours of the pulpit, he became so celebrated for his eloquence, that, upon the death of Nectarius, he was unanimously chosen as patriarch or archbishop of Constan- tinople, in 397. Being accused of disrespect to the empress Eudoxia, and cruelty to some of the clergy, a synod was convened, in the year 403, before which articles of accusation were brought against Chry- sostom. Declining to put himself into the hands of his professed enemies, he was condemned, deposed, and banished. When this event was known at Con- stantinople, a dreadful tumult was ex- cited. Another synod assembled at Constantinople, and rescinded all that had been done against him, and he was restored with great triumph. Towards the end of the same year, of- fending the empress, she was bent on his destruction, in which she succeeded, and Chrysostom was deposed and ba- nished to Nice. His enemies afterwards procured an order for his removal still farther from the capital, to Pitycens, a town on the Euxine Sea ; but he died on his journey, at Comanis in Armenia, owing to the great hardships to which he was exposed. Chrysostom was un- doubtedly the most distinguished of all the Greek fathers, as Austin was among the Latins. The most complete edition of his works is that published by Montfaucon, the learned Benedictine, in 1734. CHUBB, Thomas, a controversial writer, born Sept. 21, 1679, at a small village near Salisbury. In the year 1715, appeared his principal work under the title of "The Supremacy of the Father asserted ; or Eight Arguments from Scripture, to prove that the Son is a Being inferior and subordinate to the Father, and that the Father is the Su- preme God." Mr. Chubb was assailed from various quarters with so much vehe- ment abuse, that he found himself called upon to vindicate himself and his work, and thus commenced a controversy that ended only with his life. He died Feb. 8, 1746-7. CHU 280 CHU CHUDLEIGH, Devonshire, nearly destroyed by fire, May 22, 1807. CHUMLEIGH, Devonshire, nearly destroyed by fire, Aug. 19, 1803. CHURCH. This term is applied either to the collective body of christians in all parts of the world, or to any parti- cular branch of it. The ancient chris- tian church, with regard to its local es- tablishment, extent, and influence, is frequently divided into eastern or Greek, and western or Latin. The first jealou- sies between the churches were excited at the council of Sardis, in 347, and a vindictive spirit prevailed for a long time between the bishops of Rome and Constantinople, which occasionally broke out into acts of violence. The latter seconded by the authority and power of the emperors, withdrew from the juris- diction of the Roman pontiff many pro- vinces, over which they had hitherto ex- ercised a spiritual dominion. The schism, or total separation, took place in the ninth century. Photius was elected patriarch of Constantinople in 858 by the emperor Michael, in the place of Ignatius, whom that prince drove from his see and sent into exile. Pope Nicholas I. took part with the ex- iled patriarch, decreed the election to be unwarrantable in a council held at Rome, in 862, and excommunicated Photius. That patriarch assembled a council at Constantinople, in 866, and declared Nicholas unworthy of his rank in the church, and of even being admitted to the communion of christians. Ignatius was soon after restored to his high sta- tion by Balsidius, and Photius was con- fined in a monastery. Photius continued to feed the flame of discord, and having, about the same time, added the pro- vince of Bulgaria to the see of Constan- tinople, he now endeavoured to engage the oriental patriarch in his dispute, and drew up a violent charge of heresy against the Roman bishops. Upon the death of Ignatius in 878, the emperor took Photius into favour, and advanced him again to the patriarchal station from which he had been degraded. After some subsequent occasions of mutual offence, a new sentence of ex- communication was issued against Pho- tius. This sentence was treated with contempt by the haughty patriarch, who, in 886, was deposed by the emperor Leo from the patriarchal see, and con- fined in the Armenian mona-ster)', where he died in 891. The dispute between the two churches and their partisans was renewed ; religious as well as civil con- tests, occurred ; and by adding new controversies to the old, the fatal schism took place, which produced a total and permanent separation between the Greek and Latin churches. The Eastern or Greek Church is, unquestionably, the most ancient; it prevails at this day over a greater ex- tent of country than that of any other church in the christian world. It is professed through a considerable part of Greece, the Grecian isles, Walachia, Moldana, Egypt, Nubia, Lydia, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Cilicia, and Pales- tine ; all which are comprehended within the jurisdiction of the patriarchs of Con- stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Je- rusalem; also throughout the whole of the Russian emj)ire in Europe, great part of Siberiain Asia, Astracan, Casan, Georgia, and White Russia in Poland. The doctrine of the Greek church, is partly derived from the first seven oecu- menical or general councils, viz. that of Nice 325, the first of Constantinople 381, that of Ephesus 431 ; that of Chal- cedon 451 ; the second of Constantino- ple 553 ; the third of Constantinople in TruUo 680 ; and the second of Nice 787. CHURCH OF Rome. The origin of the superiority of one episcopal see over another arose from the secular division of the empire in the fourth century. Hence the pre-eminence of the see of Rome, whose bishop, before the conversion of Constantine, had only the precedency among the prelates, as bishop of the imperial city ; but no jurisdiction beyond the bounds of the provinces. The law of Valentinian, in 372, which empowered the bishop of Rome to examine and judge other bishops, that religious disputes might not be de- cided by profane and secular judges, ap- proved and confirmed in a council at Rome in 378, proved very favourable to the ambition and advancement of the Roman pontiff; and his votaries have likewise laid great stress on the fourth canon of the council held at Sardis, in 347, which prohibited the election of a successor to a bishop deposed by neigh- bouring prelates, before the bishop of Rome had examined the cause, and pro- nounced sentence. In the fifth century a variety of cir- CHU 281 CHU cuniistances united in augmenting the power and authority of the bishop of Rome ; though he had not, as yet, as- sumed the dignity of supreme lawgiver and judge of the whole christian church. The bishops of Alexandria and Antioch, iinable to make head against the prelate of Constantinople, fled often to th^ Ro- man pontiff for succour; and the inferior order of bishops used the same method, when their rights were invaded by those prelates. The protection afforded them by the Roman pontiflF, was the means of extending his dominion in the east, and of imperceptibly establishing his supre- macy. In the west its increase was owing to the declining power, and the supine indolence of the emperors, which left the authority of the bishop, who pre- sided in their imperial city, almost with- out control, and to the triumphs of the barbarians. Although the Roman pontiffs availed themselves of every circumstance that could contribute to their obtaining uni- versal dominion, towards the close of the sixth century, the emperors, and the nations in general, were far from being disposed to bear with patience the yoke of servitude, which the see of Rome was imposing upon the christian church. In the beginning of the seventh cen- tury, about 606, Boniface III. engaged the emperor Phocas to take from the bishop of Constantinople the title of oecumenical or universal bishop, and to confer it upon the Roman pontiffs. But the ambitious views of the Roman see were still vigorously opposed, and the pontiffs were obliged to acknowledge their subordination to the regal autho- rity. No event seems to have been more favourable to their ambitious views than the part they took in the eighth century, in promoting the advancement of Pepin to the throne of Childeric III., in a- nointing and crowning him as king of France. This proved an abundant source of opulence and credit to the church, and to its aspiring ministers ; for Pepin, having obtained two victories over Ais- tulphus, king of the Lombards, in 754 and 755, compelled him to deliver up to the see of Rome the exarchate of Ra- venna, Pentapolis, and all the cities, cas- tles, and territories, which he had seized in the Roman dukedom. And thus the bishop of Rome was raised to the rank of a temporal prince. The power of the Romish church was augmented in a very considerable degr«e by the divisions and troubles that arose in the empire towards the close of the ninth century ; the emperors were di- vested of their ecclesiastical authority, the power of the bishops was greatly diminished, and even the authority of both provincial and genera] councils began to decline. The Roman pontiffs promoted an opinion that the bishop of Rome was constituted by Jesus Christ supreme legislator and judge of the church universal; and that, therefore, the bishops derived all their authority from the Roman pontiff, and that the council could not determine any thing without his permission and consent. In the tenth century some mercenary and interested prelates publicly main- tained that the Roman poniiff's were not only bishops of Rome, but of the whole world ; and that their authority, though divine in its origin, was conveyed to them by St. Peter, the prince of the apostles. The crusades of the 11th century very much contributed to the augmentation of the authority of the Roman pon- tiffs ; so that towards the close of this century they seem to have attained the zenithof their dominion. See Crusades. Fron the time of Leo IX., the popes employed every method, which the most artful ambition could suggest, to render their dominion both despotic and uni- versal. They aspired to the character of supreme legislators in the church, to an unlimited jurisdiction over all synods and councils, gave themselves out for lords of the universe, arbiters of the fate of kingdoms and empires, and supreme ru- lers over the kings and princes of the earth. Gregory VII. in the same century ex- ceeded all his predecessors in the lust of dominion, as well as in the success which attended his endeavours to obtain it. He considered the Roman pontiff, under the character of Christ's viceregent, as the king of kings, and the whole uni- verse as his rightful domain. He claimed tribute from France, Saxony, Spain, England, the most powerful of the Ger- man princes, Hungary, Denmark, Po- land, &c., soliciting them to do homage to the Roman see, to make a grant of their kingdoms to the prince of the apostles, and to hold them under the jurisdiction of his vicar at Rome, as fiefs of the apostolic see. 2 o C II u 282 CHU The power of erecting new kingdoms claimed by the pontiffs, was exercised by Alexander III. in a remarkable in- stance, in the year 1179. He conferred the title of king, with the ensigns of royalty, npon Alphonao I., duke of Portugal, who, under the pontificate of Lucius II., had rendered his province tributary to the Roman see. In the 13th century the same ambitious spirit go- verned the councils and proceedings of the Romish church, and they were in- dustrious in inculcating the maxim, that the bishop of Rome is the supreme lord of the universe, and that neither princes nor bishops, civil governors nor eccle- siastical rulers, have any lawful power in church or state, that is not derived from him. In the 14th century the papal autho- rity diminished by reason of the con- tinued residence of the popes in France; and in the 15th century, by the schism Avhich happened in the papacy, the davvnings of the reformation, and a va- riety of other concurring causes. In the councils of Constance, held in 1414, and of Basil, opened in 1431, the power of the Roman pontiffs was declared to be inferior and subordinate to that of general councils, and the papal imposi- tions, called expectatives, reservatives, and provisions, were entirely annulled. When the authority of the Romish church declined in Europe, the popes sought to extend the limits of their spi- ritual dominion to other parts of the globe, and for this purpose deputed mis- sionaries to gain proselytes. And a new order was formed, that became after- wards so famous, under the appellation of Jesuits. See the articles Jesuits, Pope, Reformation, &c. CHURCH OF England. Of the in- troduction of Christianity into England nothing is certainly known : but Euse- bius positively asserts, that the gospel was preached here by some of the apos- tles. It is a traditionary report, that early in the second century, great num- bers in Britain professed the true faith. Archbishop Usher represents, that a school existed in 182, for the purpose of qualifying persons for the office of teachers in the churches. Augustin the monk, and other missionaries, were sent to England from the court of Rome, but we read of no civil authority claimed by the pope in these kingdoms, till the era of the Norman Conquest ; when the reigning pontiff, having favoured duke William in his projected invasion, by blessing his host and consecrating his banners, laid hold of that opportuni- ty for the purpose of establishing his spiritual encroachments. For some time after this, the best liv- ings were filled by Italian and other foreign clergy, equally unskilled in and averse to the laws and constitution of England. The nomination to bishop- rics, was wrested from King Henry I., and afterwards from his successor King John ; and seemingly conferred on the chapters belonging to each see : but by means of the frequent appeals to Rome,^ was eventually vested in the pope. In order to encounter the growing evil of the papal usurpations in England, the legislature were led to frame the sta- tutes of praemunire. The first of these in the 35th of Edward I., was made the foundation of all the subsequent statutes. See PRiEMUNIRE. Edward III. and his nobility wrote an expostulation to the pope : but re- ceiving a menacing and contemptuous answer, withal acquainting him, that the emperor in 1323, had established a law against provisions, and also the king of France had lately submitted to the holy see ; the king replied, that if both the emperor and the French king should take the pope's part, he was ready to give battle to them both, in defence of the liberties of the crown. Hereupon more penal laws were devised against provisors, which enact severally, that the court of Rome shall not present or col- late to any bishopric or Jiving in Eng- land; and that whoever disturbs any patron in the presentation to a living by virtue of a papal provision, such provisor shall pay fine and ransom to the king at his will, and be imprisoned till he renounces such provision : and the same punish- ment is inflicted on such as cite the king, or any of his subjects, to answer in the court of Rome. At length, in the reign of Henry VIIL the usurped power of the pope was rout- ed and destroyed, the crown restored to its supremacy over spiritual men and causes, and the patronage of bishoprics once more indisputably vested in the king. This may be considered as the origin of the church of England as a legal establishment. Henry dissolved the religious houses, and confiscated their revenues through- CHU 283 C H U out the kingdom ; and both monks and nuns were ejected and left to starve. No radical reformation however was wrought ; this was reserved for Edward VI., who, seconded by the advice and instruction of Cranmer, with his friend Bishop Ridley, drew up 42 articles of religion, which were re\dsed and ap- proved by many other bishops and di- vines. This laid the foundation for that superstructure which is now known by the name of the Church of England. These were afterwards remodelled and reduced to 39. They were passed in convocation, and confirmed by royal authority, in 1562. They were afterwards ratified in 1571 ; and again by Charles L See Articles. The Liturgy was composed in 1547, but has since undergone •several altera- tions, the last of which was in 1661. Since that time several attempts have been made to alter and amend the litur- gy, articles, and some other things rela- tive to the internal government of the church ; but hitherto no change has taken place. During the last and present century, the question of subscription to articles, and the right of imposing a form of religious belief, was agitated among the clergy, and became the subject of peti- tion to parliament. Laws had also been enacted against those who dissented from the church of England and particularly against the Catholics but in the begin- ning of the present centuiy, these were repealed. See Catholics, Corpo- ration AND Test Acts, and Dis- senters. 1835. An ecclesiastical commission was appointed for the purpose of con- sidei-ing the state of the church in Eng- land and Wales, and of suggesting a plan of church reform. The commis- sion consisted of the archbishops of Can- terbury and York, the bishops of Lon- don, Lincoln, and Gloucester, Sir Robert Peel, Mr. Goulburn, the Right Hon. C. W. W. Wynn, Henry Hobhouse, and Sir H. Jenner, Knt. The objects pro- posed for their consideration were — the more equal distribution of episcopal du- ties; the residence of the clergy; and such an adjustment of episcopal reve- nues as should permit the discontinu- ance of grants of commendams. They were also instructed to consider the state of the several cathedral and collegiate churches, with a view to the sugge.stion of such measures as might render them more conducive to the efficiency of the established church, by providing for the cure of souls, and by preventing plura- lism. A rich prebendal stall at West- minster having become vacant, it was not filled up, but left to be disposed of by the commission. Its revenues were applied for the purpose of furnishing additional spiritual instruction and su- perintendence in a neighbouring parish, where the existing provision for clerical functions was altogether inadequate to the number of the parishioners. The first report of this commission was presented to the house of commons March 19, It proposed a new arrange- ment of the dioceses, and the election of two new bishoprics, one of Man- chester, and another of Ripon ; the for- mer to be principally taken from the diocese of Chester, while the arch- dio- cese of York was to supply the latter. The sees of Bangor and St. Asaph were to be united, and those of LlandaflF and Bristol ; the outlying parts of the dio- cese of Bristol in Wiltshire and Dorset being joined to that of Salisbury, besides other changes. See Diocese. 1836. Several bills were brought into parliament to carry into efl%ct the recom- mendations of the commissioners re- garding pluralities, and non-residence. Lord John Russell introduced into the lower house a bill founded on those re- commendations which regarded the new modelling of the episcopal sees, in rela- tion to territory and income; another measure was brought in, to carry the re- ports fully into effect, by providing for the suppression of cathedral and colle- giate preferments, and sinecure bene- fices, &c. The bill concerning th_e territory and revenues of the dioceses, or, as it was termed, the established church bill, passed in the commons by a majority of 175 against 44. The lords, on the 5th of August, agreed to the bill; an amend- ment proposed by the bishop of Exeter, for the purpose of preventing the com- missioners being a perpetual corporation, having been rejected. By another act, the secular jurisdiction of the county palatine of Durham, with all forfeitures, mines, treasure-trove, and other rights belonging to that authority, were trans- ferred from the bishop of the diocese, and vested in the crown. A bill " for imposing certain restrictions on the re- CHU •2 84 f : H u newal of leases by ecclesiastical persons," likewise passed into a law. CHURCH OF Scotland, that branch of the reformed church which was established in Scotland. One of the principal agents in the progress of the reformation there was John Knox. He began his public ministry at St. An- drew's in 1547. On the first introduction of his system, Knox did not deem it expedient to depart altogether from the ancient form. Instead of bishops, he proposed to establish 10 or 12 superin- tendents in different parts of the king- dom. These, as the name implies, were empowered to inspect the life and doc- trine of the other clergy. The first general assembly of the church Avas held December 20, 1560. In order to give greater strength and consistence to the Presbyterian plan, Knox, assisted by his brethren, composed the first book of discijiline, which contains the model or platform of the intended policy. From this period to the present time, the form of doctrine, worship, and discipline, that had been established at Geneva by the ministry of Calvin, and introduced with certain modifications by Knox into Scot- land, has been maintained with invin- cible steadiness and zeal. CHURCH, a christian temple built and consecrated to the honour of God ; and anciently, under the invocation of some particular saint, whose name it assumed. In the first ages the chris- tians assembled for social worship in private houses and sequestered places. It is the opinion of many learned men, that they had no public edifices during the three first centuries. Between the years 211 and 249, during a calm of 38 years, christians, it has been said, were permitted to erect and consecrate convenient edifices for the purpose of religious worship. Under the i)ersecuting edicts of Dioclesian, the christian churches were generally de- molished. The first church publicly built by the christians, some authors maintain to be that of St. Saviour at Rome, founded by Constantine. In that age the christian temples of Antioch, Alexandria, Jeru- salem, Constantinople, &c., displayed the ostentatious piety of a prince, ambi- tious, in a declining age, to equal the perfect labours of antiquity. The most precious ornaments of gold and silver, of silk and gems, were profusely dedi- cated to the service of the altar, and hi» magnificence was supported on the basis of landed property. In the space of two centuries, from the reign of Con- stantine to that of Justinian, there were 1800 churches of the empire, enriched by the gifts of the prince and people. In the 10th century all Europe was alarmed with a terrifying apprehension, that the day of judgment was at hand, and, among the other eiFects of this general panic, the churches and monas- teries were suflTered to fall into ruin. When these apprehensions were re- moved, the temples were rebuilt, and the greatest zeal was employed in re- storing the sacred edifices to their former lustre. Accordingly, during the whole of the 11th century, all the European nations were diligently employed in re- building, repairing, and adorning their churches. In England most of the ancient churches were erected between the lllh and 15th centuries. The Normans had erected magnificent structures in their own country previous to their invasion of England, and when they had firmly established themselves, they displayed great zeal in raising ecclesiastical edifices. The period of the Norman architecture extends from the conquest in 1066, to the death of Stephen in 1154. The edi- fices in every part of the kingdom bear witness to the industry of these people, and the fifteen cathedrals, whose origin can be certainly ascertained, bear de- cided marks of Norman architecture. 1711. April 6, it was decided by the Commons that 50 new churches should be erected, for the accommodation of all such as were of the communion of the Church of England, computing 4,750 souls for each church; and they declared their willingness in an address to her majesty, to grant a sufficient supply, in consequence of the benefit that would thus accrue in abolishing schism, and promoting the interests of religion. About 1820, an act passed (58 Geo. III. c. 45) appointing commissioners for building of additional churches in popu- lous parishes, in England, empowering government to issue exchequer bills to make grants for that purpose. 1827. The Seventh Annual Report to Parliament states that 69 new churches and chapels had been completed, which aflforded accommodation for 107,200 persons (including 59,655 free seats) ; CHU that 48 churches and chapels were in progress. 1830. By the 10th Annual Report of the Commissioners appointed under the act for huilding additional churches, it appears that, in the year ending July, they had completed 25 new places of worship, and determined on, and made provisions for, the erection of 220 in the whole. The commissioners had received additional applications for aid in building churches from 45 places, whose popula- tion, of all ages and sects, in the census of 1821, was returned at 985,252 per- sons; but whose church accommodation was calculated to be only for 134,918. The Exchequer bills issued up to the 6th of July, 1830, for the above purpose, amounted to £1,262,500. Of the churches completed, or in progress, during the preceding year, ten were situ- ated in the metropolis. The Society for the Enlargement of Churches and Chapels incorporated in 1818, materially promoted this object. They stated in their Twelfth Report dated May 12, 1830, that they had made, in the year preceding, 95 new or addi- tional grants in aid, amounting to £16,200. 1835. The 15th Annual Building Commissioners' Report stated, that since the first institution of the commission, the sum of £1,500,000 in Exchequer bills had been expended under its' direc- tion. The number of churches and cha- pels which had been erected was 212, in which accommodation was provided in pews for 127,617 individuals; in free seats for 155,938 : total 283,555. Since the above time the following churches have been completed. By the 16th Annual Report, 1836, two chapels affording accommodation for 2,772 persons, including 1,585 free seats, viz. one at North Shields, the other in the parish of St. Mary, at Dover. 1837. By the I7th Annual Report, six new churches had been completed at the following places : — Tredegar, parish of Bedwethy, county of Mon- mouth ; Carmarthen ; Sheerness ; New- port, county of Monmouth ; Habergham Eaves, parish of Whalley, county of Lancaster ; and Vincent Square, pa- rish of St. John the Evangelist, West- minster. In the above places of worship accommodation had been provided for 6780 persons, including 3761 free seats. 1838. The 18th Report, this year. 285 CHU stated that five churches had been completed ; and the 19th Report, 1839, announced that 18 more had been completed, affording accommodation for 16,000 persons, including 9773 free sittings. Since their preceding report, 18 others, several of which are in an ad- vanced state, are now in progress, and provide altogether 17,156 sittings, out of which number 9949 are free.. Plans for eight other churches have been approved of; and conditional grants of money have been made to 38 parishes and townships in aid of erecting churches and chapels, as also for providing sites for others in 46 different places. 1840. In May, Sir R. H. Inglis brought in a bill proposing a grant of money for increased church accommo- dation, and an intended system of edu- cation in the principles of the established church. This measure received much opposition, both from dissenters and members of the church of England, and was finally rejected in July. CHURCH Benefices, forbidden to be held by foreigners, 1430. CHURCH Music introduced into worship, 350 ; choral service first used in England at Canterbury, Q77 ; chang- ed throughout England from the use of St. Paul's to that of Sarum, 1418; ca- thedral service first published in England, 1550. CHURCH Rates, a tax grown out of prescriptive usage, collected for the support of the fabrics and worship of the church of England. In conse- quence of the opposition made by dis- senters to this tax, March 18, 1834, Mr. Divett moved a resolution, in the house of commons, " that, in the opinion of this house, it is just and expedient that effectual measures should be taken for the abolition of compulsory payments of church rates in England and Wales." The mover stated, that by a return of the local taxation of the country for the year ending March 27, 1827, the rates appeared to amount to £564,000. The repairs of the churches in one year had cost £248,000; the charges for organs and bells £41,000 ; for books and wine £46,000 ; for payments to clerks and sextons £126,000 ; and for other charges £184,000. Some part of this, indeed, was not now enforced by law ; but the rest was enforced, aud proved most in- jurious to the established church by en- engendering in the dissenters feelings of CHU 280 CHU dissatisfaction. Lord Althorp stated, that he himself had given notice of a motion on this subject, therefore Mr. Divett, expressed himself willing to await the appearance of the govern- ment plan, and withdrew his motion. 1834. April 21, Lord Althorp brought forward his plan, in the shape of a reso- lution, " that, after a fixed time, church rates should cease and determine, and, in lieu thereof, a sum not exceeding £250,000, should be granted from the land-tax to be applied to the expenses of the fabrics of churches and chapels in such manner as parliament should direct." This proposition however did not appear satisfactory. The friends of the dissenters in the house stated, that they complained of the grievance of be- ing compelled to pay any thing towards the expences of a church which was not their own, and the relief tendered to them was, to continue to pay as much as before, for the same purpose, though in a different shape. The friends of the church objected to the plan, because in their view it questioned the rights of the church, infringed on some of them, and left others on a less sure founda- tion. On a division, the original mo- tion was carried by 256 to 140 ; but not- withstanding this majority, and the cer- tainty of ultimate success, ministers proceeded no farther with the proposed measure ; and the question of these rates remained at the close of the ses- sion in the same unsettled condition in which it had been at the beginning. 1836. A meeting was held in Lon- don, Oct. 19. Charles Lushington, Esq., M.P. in the chair, for the purpose of forming a Church-Rate Abolition So- ciety. The object of the society was to effect the entire abolition of church- rates, without any charge upon the con- solidated fund or land-tax; and to in- troduce the principle of upholding the edifices of the Church, and the expenses of divine worship, either by pew-rents, voluntary contributions of the congrega- tions, or by payments out of Queen Anne's Bounty. 1837- Feb. 1. A meeting was held at the Crown and Anchor, in the Strand, to petition parliament for the total abo- lition of church-rates. A considerable number of members of parliament at- tended the meeting. Among others the following resolutions were passed unani- mously : " That this meeting conceives it to be a duty devolving upon them, as citizens and christians, to employ all lawful and constitutional means to ef- fect the total abolition of church-rates. That they would most seriously depre- cate the imposition of the expenses hi- therto defrayed by church-rates, upon the land-tax, the consolidated fund, or any other branch of national revenue; because by such a transfer, the magni- tude of the evil of which they complain would be greatly increased, as the oppo- nents of church-rates would be deprived of the power they now possess of resist- ing the making of a rate ; because the application of any portion of the na- tional revenue to ecclesiastical purposes might tend seriously to embarrass the collection of the general taxation ; and because it would subject the inhabitants of Scotland and Ireland to the support of the Episcopal Church of England. That an interview be sought by the whole body of delegates, with the Right Hon. Lord Viscount Melbourne upon the sub- ject of church rates ; that application be made to his lordship for an appoint- ment." Next day, about 400 delegates from dissenting congregations an d anti-church- rate associations walked in procession from the Crown and Anchor to Dow- ning Street, to have an interview with Lord Melbourne. At a meeting of the delegates Feb- ruary 3, after their return from the con- ference with the Right Hon. Viscount Melbourne, it was resolved. "l.That this meeting unanimously express their grateful sense of the kind and polite at- tention with which the Right Hon. Vis- count Melbourne received the delegates, and their concurrence generally in the sentiments expressed by his lordship. 2. That in reference to his lordship's statement ; " that he hoped and trusted the measure to be proposed by Lord John Russell would prove satisfactory to all the interests equally concerned in the statement of this great question," this meeting deem it due to their consti- tuents and themselves to declare, that nothing short of the total extinction of church-rates, without commutation, will satisfy their just expectations, and ter- minate the animosities which the sub- ject of church-rates has created in many of the parishes of the kingdom. 3. That the delegates composing this meet- ing pledge themselves to continue their CHU •287 CIB efforts by all constitutional means, to accomplish the object for which they had been appointed and had assembled ,- namely, the total abolition of church- rates. " CHURCH, States of the. The pope's dominions in Italy originated with the grant of Pepin, king of the Franks, in 754 ; Charlemagne confirmed this grant in 774 ; and in return, received the title of Roman emperor from Leo III. in 800. The structure of the papal temporal power was fully completed in 1075, under Gregory VII. But the tyranny and corrupt life of the popes provoked the Romans to opposition, and they were obliged to transfer their resi- dence from 1305 to 1376, to Avignon. Julius 11. added Bologna to the papal dominions in 1513, and Ancona in 1532. The Venetians were obliged to cede Ravenna ; Ferrara was wrested from Modena in 1598, and Urbino was be- queathed to the papal chair in 1 626, by its last duke, Francis Maria, of the house of Rovera. The popes lost a great part of their temporal and spiritual influ- ence, to the diminution of which the rapid progress of the reformation from the year 16 17 greatly contributed. After the successes of the French in Italy, the pope was forced, at the peace of Tolentino, Feb. 13, 1797, to cede Avignon to France, and Romagna, Bologna, and Ferrara to the Cisalpine republic. An insurrection in Rome against the French, Dec. 28, 1797, caused the occupation of the city, Feb. 10, 1798, and the annexation of the states of the church to the Roman re- public. Pius VI. died in France. The victories of the Russiatis and Austrians in Italy favoured the election of pope Pius VII., March 14, 1800, who, under the protection of Austrian troops, took possession of Rome. By the concordat, concluded in 1801, with the first consul of the French re- public, the pope again lost a great part of his temporal power. In 1807, the holy father was urged to introduce the code Napoleon, and to declare war against England. He refused ; and on the 3rd of April, France was declared to be at war with the pope, and Urbino, Ancona, Macerata, and Camerino, were added to the kuxgdom of Italy. The possessions of the church beyond the Apennines were all that remained to the the pope. Feb. 2, 1808, a French corps of SOOO men entered Rome ; the re- mainder of the papal states were added to France, and a pension of 2,000,000 of francs settled on the pope, whose ecclesiastical power was to continue. The decree of May 17, 1809, put an end to the ecclesiastical state. The pope was detained in France until the events of 1814, again permitted him to take possession of his states, as formerly. These provinces are situated in the centre of Italy, between Lombardy Tuscany, Naples, and the Tuscan and Adriatic seas, and in 1816, with the ex- ception of Rome, Tivoli, and Subiaco, which are under the immediate admini- stration of the pope, were divided into 17 delegations. CHURCH- WARDENS and overseers instituted, 1127. CHURCH-YARDS first consecrated, 317 ; admitted into cities, 742. CHURCHILL, Charles, the satirist, received his education at Westminster school, and was admitted at Trinity col- lege, Cambridge, 1749. In 1761, he pub- lished the Rosciad. His next perform- ance was his Apology to the Critical Re- viewers, who had given to the public an unfavourable account of his work. After publishing many other poems of a po- pular kind, Mr. Churchill died in 1764. Dr. Kippis has justly remarked, that Churchill has "unhappily added another name to the catalogue, already too nu- merous in literary history, of those men of genius, who would have arisen to a much greater excellence in writing,^ and to a far more illustrious reputation, had their intellectual talents been ac- companied with the uniform practice of virtue." CHURCHILL, Duke of Marl- borough. See Marlborough. CIBBER, CoLLEY, an eminent actor, and dramatic writer, born in London, in 1671. His first essay in writing, was the comedy of Love's Last Shift, acted in 1695. The Careless Husband, acted in 1704, is reckoned his best play ; but none was of more importance to him than the Nonjuror, acted in I7l7. and levelled against the Jacobites. This laid the foundation for the misunderstanding between him and Mr. Pope, and pro- cured for him from the king a grant of £200, and the office of poet laureat in 1730. He then quitted the stage, except a few occasional performances ; and died in 1757, aged 87- CIC 288 CIC CIBBER, Mrs. Susannah Maria, the sister of Dr. Arne, has been justly celebrated as a great tragic actress. She first appeared on the stage as a singer, in her brother's opera of Rosamond; and afterwards sung in Handel's ora- torios of Sampson, and the Messiah, the first time they were performed in England. She died in 1766, aged 57. CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the celebrated orator, was born at Aspinum, A.u.c. 647, a.c. 107. He applied him- self to the study of poetry, at the early age of five years ; and while a boy, pub- lished a poem called Glaucus Pontius, which was extant in the days of Plutarch. Having finished his youthful studies, he was introduced into the forum, and studied the laws under the first lawyers and statesmen of the age. When the Italic war was begun by the principal cities of Italy, to support their claim to the freedom of Rome, Cicero followed the camp of Sylla. During the unhappy dissensions between Marius and Sylla, Cicero returned to the study of elo- quence. The first specimen he gave to the public was in defence of S. Roscius, who was acquitted A. c. 81. At the age of 28, he left the Forum, and made the fashionable tour to Greece. In his 37th year, he was elected sedile by the unanimous suflfrages of all the tribes, and in preference to eill his com- petitors. After the usual interval of two years from the time of his being chosen sedile, Cicero oflfered himself a candidate for the praetorship ; and was declared the first praetor by the suffrages of all the centuries. In his 43rd year, he declared himself a candidate for the consulship. The method of choosing was by a kind of ballot. But in Cicero's case, the people were not content with this secret and silent way ; but before they came to any scrutiny, loudly and universally proclaimed Cicero the first consul. The affair which constituted the glory of his consulship, and has transferred his name with such lustre to posterity, was the skill he showed, and the unwearied pains he took, in suppressing the conspiracy which was formed by Catiline. See Ca- tiline. Cicero, in the 45th year of his life, was involved in great and unexpected calamity in consequence of the pollution of the mysteries of the bona dea, by P. Clodius. Cicero gave testimony against Clodius, who soon formed a scheme of revenge. By his influence, Cicero was banished by the votes of the people 400 miles from Italy, a. c. 58 ; his houses were ordered to be demohshed, and his goods set up to sale. When he had been gone little more than ten months, the senate passed a vote for his return, which was carried in a most triumphant manner. He returned to Rome amidst the acclamations of the people. In the 56th year of his age he was made pro- consul of Cilicia, and his administration there gained him great honour. In his 6 1st year he lost his daughter, Tullia, whom he tenderly loved. His aflBiction at this event was so great that, to shun all company, he retired to Asturia, one of his seats. The hope of saving his country in- duced him some time after again to take a part in public aflfairs ; but betrayed by Octavianus, whose cause he had espoused, he was given up to the vengeance of his rivals, Antony and Lepidus. A pro- scription took place at Rome, a. c. 43, and among many others, he was put to death, December 7, in the 64th year of his age. As an orator, Cicero is thus charac- terized by Dr. Blair : " His method is clear, and his arguments are arranged with exact propriety. In this respect, he has an advantage over Demosthenes. He never tries to move till he has at- tempted to convince; and in moving-, particularly the softer passions, he is highly successful. None ever knew the force of words better than Cicero. He rolls them along with the greatest beauty and magnificence; and in the structure of his sentences, is eminently curious and exact. This great orator, however, is not without his defects. In most of his orations there is too much art, even carried to a degree of ostenta- tion. Though the services which he had performed to his country were very con- siderable, yet he is too much his own panegyrist. Ancient manners, which imposed fewer restraints on the side of decorum, may, in some degree, excuse, but cannot entirely justify, his vanity." The most celebrated of his works are, his Tusculan Questions; a treatise on the Nature of the Gods ; Scipio's Dream; his dialogue, entitled Cato and Laelius on Old Age [and Friendship ; and his treatises, De Finibus, De Ofiiciis, and De Oratore. The editions of his works have been numerous. Some of the best are CI M 289 CIN those of Gronovius, l692j Paris, 1740; and Oxford, 10 vols. 4to., of more recent date. CIGNY, Duchess De, gold to the amount of 500,000 francs, found in her apartment, at her death, September, 1832. CILICIA, an ancient kingdom of Asia, so called from Cilix, who first settled in the island of Cyprus, about A.c. 1493; from thence he passed into this country, which, from their leader, they called Cilicia, Afterwards several other colonies from different nations settled in this kingdom, particularly from Syria and Greece; whence the Cilicians in some places used the Greek tongue, in other, the Syriac. After the dovvnfal of the Persian empire, Cilicia became a province of Macedon; and, on the death of Alexander, fell to the share of Seleucus, and continued under his descendants till it was reduced to a Roman province by Pompey. A.D. 1190, the emperor Frederick Bar- barossa subdued Cilicia, and defeated the Saracens; but was killed by his horse throwing him into the river Salphet, or the Cydnus. Cilicia is now a province of Asiatic Turkey, and is called Cara- mania. CIMABUE, Giov., a Florentine his- toric painter, born 1240, died 1300. C IMA ROSA, the musician, died at Naples, 1801. CIMBRI, the most northern people of Germany, mentioned by Pliny, Strabo, Mela, Tacitus, and Plutarch; but they are not agreed with respect to their origin. About a.u.c. 645, they left their own country, and joined the Teu- tones, Ambrones, and Tigurians, ravaged part of Germany, Helvetia, and the Lyonnese and Narbonnese Gauls, and penetrated into Italy. After several other successes in Italy, during a war of eight years, they were totally defeated and destroyed by Marius and Catulus, A.u.a 653, in endeavouring to enter Italy, through Noricum, now the Tyrol ; 120,000 being kiUed, and 60,000 taken prisoners. Those who escaped the dreadful slaughter, probably returned into their own country; for they are said to have afterwards sent a submis- sive embassy to Augustus, and are hke- wise mentioned by an author of later date ; but their name was sunk either in that of the Teutones, or of the Saxons. CIMON, an Athenian, son of Milti- ades. He greatly distinguished himself in the naval combat of Salamis, a.c. 480. After the expulsion of the Persians, he was made admiral of the Athenian fleet, which was commanded by Pausanias. Among many other brilliant and impor- tant achievements, he reduced the island of Scyros, inhabited 'by pirates. He pursued the Persian fleet to the mouth of the Eurymedon, and there completely defeated it, destroying many vessels and capturing 200. On the same day, he gained a signal victory over the land forces of the enemy, A.c. 470. He died as he was besieging the town of Citium in Cyprus. CINCINNATUS,QuiNTius, an illus- trious Roman, of a patrician family, was taken from the plough, to be advanced to the dignity of consul, a.u.c. 292, in which office he restored public tranquil- lity, and then returned to his rural em- ployments. Being called forth a second time in the capacity of dictator, a.c. 458, he conquered the enemies of Rome, and refusing all rewards, retired again to his farm, after he liad been dictator only 16 days. Twenty years after this, Cincinnatus was again made dictator, though then 80 years of age, and called upon to suppress a conspiracy. Having effected this to the satisfaction of his countrymen, he died about a.c. 3/6. CINCINNATUS, Order of, began in America, 1783. CINNA, Lucius Cornelius, raised himself to the highest honours of the Roman state, by attaching himself to the popular faction; first elected consul a.u.c. 667, during the tyranny of Sylla, though he had been the avowed friend of Marius. At the expiration of the consular year, Cinna nominated himself and Marius consuls for another year. He made himself also consul a third time, with Papirius Carbo. He was slain by his own soldiers, at the port of Ancona, a.u.c. 670. Cinna has been described as one who, having attempted what no good man would have dared, performed what none but a very brave man could have effected. CINNAMON Trade, known in the time of Augustus Csesar ; first regularly carried on by the Dutch, in 1506. CINQUE-PORTS. Five havens that lie on the east part of England, towards France, thus called by way of eminence, on account of their superior importance. They are Dover, Hastings, Romney, 2 p CIR 290 CIR Hythe, and Sandwich ; to which Win- chelsea and Rye have been since added. Their charters are traced to the time of Edward the Confessor; they were confirmed by William the Conqueror, and by subsequent monarchs. William considering Dover Castle the key of Eng- land, gave the charge of the adjacent coast, with the shipping belonging to it, to the constable of Dover Castle, with the title of warden of the Cinque Ports ; an office resembling that of the count of the Saxon coast on the decline of the Roman power in this island. The lord warden has the authority of admiral in the Cinque Ports and its dependencies. He has under him a lieutenant and some sub- ordinate officers ; and there are captains at Deal, Walmer, and Sandgate castles, ArchclifF fort, and Moats bulwark. CINTRA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura. The Moorish palace at this place was destroyed by an earthquake in 1655 ; King Joseph built another, and equally splendid, on the same site. This place is celebrated in history for the treaty, called the conven- tion of Cintra, entered into between the British general. Sir H. Dalrymple, and the French general, Junot, on August 22, 1808. CIRCARS, Northern, five pro- vinces of Hindoostan, in the Deccan, extending along the shores of the bay of Bengal. In the 16th century the govern- ment of the Circars, under the Mogul dynasty, was vested in the nizam of Deccan, but assigned to the French, in 1752, for arrears of pay due to them as auxiliary forces. In 1759, they were conquered by the English, and formally ceded to the English East India Com- pany,during Lord Clive's administration, by Shah Alum, the Great Mogul. The local administration of the Cir- cars was continued under the manage- ment of the natives, and provincial chiefs and councils, until 1794. The system of a permanent assessment was established during 1802 and 1804, when the province was divided into five re- gular jurisdictions. From 1788 to 1823 a peshcush was paid annually to the nizam on account of the northern Cir- cars; but in that year the whole was finally redeemed by the payment to the nizam of £1,200,000 sterling. CIRCASSIA, a government of Cau- cassia, in Asiatic Russia. After the fall of the Chazaric empire, the Circas- sians became subject to the Arabs, Tartars, and Georgians, but towards the close of the 1 6th century submitted to Russia. In 1565, the Czar Iwan Wasi- liewitsch sent an army under General Daschkow to the aid of the Circassian prince Temruk ; but after Iwan's death they were made tributary to the Cri- means, whose yoke they shook off in the 18th century. Circassia was attacked by the Russians in 1836, but has never been thoroughly subdued. See Russia. CIRCUITS, Justiciary, estabUshed 1176; in Scotland, 1712; English ex- tended into Wales, 1828. CIRCULATION of the Blood. See Blood. CIRCUMCISION instituted, a.c. 1897. CIRCUMNAVIGATORS of Eng- land were Drake, undertaken in 1577; Cavendish, 1586; Cowley, 1683; Dam- pier, 1686; Cooke, 17O8 ; Clipperton and Shelooch, 1719; Anson, 1740; By- ron, 1764; Wallis, 1766; Carteret, 1766; Cook, 1768, 1772, 1776; conti- nued by King, 1780; and since by Portlocke, in 1788. The principal voy- ages of the present century are those of Wilson, 1828; Bennett, 1833 ; Holman 1834, &c. The first that entered the Pacific Ocean was Magellan, a Spaniard, 1520. Other Spanish circumnavigators were Groalva, 1537; Avalardi, 1537 ; Mendana, 1567 ; Quiros, 1625. The Dutch circumnavigators were La Maire, 1615 ; Tasman, 1642 ; Roggewin, 1721. The French were M. Bougainville, 1776; La Perouse, 1782; De Noet, 1801 ; D'Urville, 1826 to 1829; La Place, 1830 to 1832, and again 1836 ; &c. CIRCUS. An edifice in use among the Romans for the" exhibition of chariot races and other games. The first per- manent circus at Rome was built by Tarquinius Priscus, about a.c. 605, in the valley of Murcia, between the Aven- tine and the Palatine hills. It obtained the appellation of Circus Maximus from its great superiority in size to those of a later date. It was enlarged by Juhus Caesar, rebuilt and richly ornamented by Augustus. It was three and a half stadia in length, or about 2187 Roman feet, and its breadth 960 feet ; and it contained 150,000 persons. In the time of the elder Pliny, the circus maximus had been so much enlarged as to be ca- CIT 291 CIV pable of containing 260,000 spectators ; and Trajan so much increased its dimen- sions, that an inscription placed over the great gate, of which Dion Cassius has given a translation in Greek, ex- pressed that this emperor had rendered it capable of containing the Roman peo- Sle. There were many other circuses at lOme. CIRENCESTER, a town in England of very ancient foundation, was occupied by the Romans ; stormed by the Danes in 879. Canute held a parliament here; the castle was garrisoned by Robert, earl of Gloucester, and taken and burned by King Stephen. It was defended by the barons against Henry III., who recover- ed and then demolished it. Lords Sur- rey and Salisbury attempting to restore Richard II., were slain at an inn in this town. The townspeople joined the par- liament against Charles I., and in 1688 adopted the Stuart cause. CISALPINE Republic, proclaimed July 9, 1797, consisting of Austrian Lomhardy, the Bergamese, the Brescian, the Cremasco, and other parts of the Venetian states, Mantua and the Man- tuan, the duchy of Modena, Massa and Carrara, the Bolognese, the Ferrarese, and the Romagna ; the latter three were not added till the 27th of July, nor was the republic definitively formed till after the treaty of Campo Formio, October 17. This republic was new modelled January 26, 1802. Buonaparte, in a sitting of the Cisalpine consulta, convoked by himself at Lyons, accepted the presidency of the Italian republic, originally the Cisalpine republic, which, with its name, changed its constitution. See Italy. CISBURY Fort, Wiltshire, built by Cissa, 547. CISTERCIANS, order of, instituted by Robert of Molesme, in 1098 ; they are also called Bernardines, from St. Bernard, who promoted the order about 1116 ; they came to England, 1128. In 1132, they were exempted from the pay- ment of tithes, and invested with other pri- vileges and immunities by Innocent II. In 1152, this order had no fewer than 500 convents, all dedicated to the blessed virgin. CITY. Formerly the term was only understood of such towns as were bi- shops' sees ; but this distinction seems to be recognized only in England. Henry, surnamed the Fowler, who be- gan his reign 920, must be considered as the great founder of cities in Ger- many ; which he established in order to counteract the incursions of the Hunga- rians and other barbarous people. In the 11th century many slaves were en- franchised, and numbers of them settled in cities. Several mines were discovered and wrought in different provinces, which, drawing together a great concourse of people, also gave rise to several-cities. In the 12th century the cities began to form leagues for their mutual defence, and for repressing the disorders occa- sioned by the private wars among the barons, as well as by their exactions. The free cities of Italy joined together in a general league, and stood in their defence; and after a long contest, car- ried on with alternate success, a solemn treaty of peace was concluded at Con- stance, in 1183, by which all the pri- vileges and immunities granted by for- mer emperors to the principal cities of Italy were confirmed and ratified. In England the^establishment of com- munities or corporations, was posterior to the conquest ; and the practice was borrowed from France. The English cities were very inconsiderable in the 12th century. It is said that they were first incorporated in 1201, and first re- presented in parliament in 1366. See Corporations. CITY OF London School, Honey- lane Market, Cheapside, founded 1835. The first stone was laid by Lord Brougham, October 21, in the presence of the committee appointed by the com- mon council to superintend the institu- tion, and the officers of the corporation. A very large assemblage was present ; and in the evening the event was cele- brated by a dinner at the City of London Tavern. CIUDAD RoDRiGo, town of Spain, founded by Ferdinand II., as a rampart or barrier town. The fort surrendered to Massena the French general, July 10, 1810. It was stormed and taken by the duke of Wellington, after a siege of ] I days, January 19, 1812. The cortes conferred the title of duke of Ciudad Rodrigo upon the duke of Wellington, with the rank of a grandee of Spain of the first class. CIVIC Feast at Guildhall, given by the citizens of London to the prince regent, the emperor of Russia, the king of Prussia, and their field-officers, 1814. CIVIL Law, as applied to the legal CIV 292 Ci V institutions of ancient Rome, was for the most part, received and observed throughout all the Roman dominions for above 1200 years. It is contained in the institutes, the digest, the code, and the novels, otherwise called lex scripta, or the written law. It was little known in Europe, till a copy of Justinian's " Di- gests" was accidentally found at Amalfi, in Italy, about the year 1 1 30. After this time the study of it was introduced into several universities abroad, particularly that of Bologna, where exercises were performed, lectures read, and degrees conferred in this faculty, as in other branches of science. It was first brought into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was elected to the see of Canterbury in 1138, and he appointed a professor, namely, Roger surnamed Vicarius, in the uni- versity of Oxford, to teach it to the peo- ple of this country. King Stephen, 1149, issued a proclamation prohibiting the study of it ; though the clergy were attached to it, the laity rather wished to preserve the old constitution. However, the zeal and influence of the clergy pre- vailed ; and the civil law acquired great reputation from the reign of King Ste- phen to the reign of King Edward III., both inclusive. Many manuscripts of Justinian's In- stitute are to be found in the writings of our ancient authors, particularly of Brac- ton and Fleta; and Judge Blackstone observes that the common law would have been lost and overrun by the civil, had it not been for the incident of fixing the court of common pleas in one cer- tain spot, and the forming the profession of the municipal law into an aggregate body. In England the civ^il law is used in the ecclesiastical courts, in the high court of admiralty, in the court of chivalry, in the two universities, and in the courts of equity ; yet in all these it is restrained and directed by the common law. CIVIL List. The expenses formerly defrayed by the civil list were those that in any shape relate to civil government : as the expenses of the household ; all salaries to officers of state, to the judges, and each of the king's servants ; the ap- jiointments to foreign ambassadors ; the maintenance of the queen and the royal family; the king's private expenses, or j)rivy purse ; and other very numerous outgoings. These have sometimes so far exceeded the revenues appointed for that purpose, that application has been made to parliament to discharge the debts contracted on the civil list, particu- larly in 1724, when one million was granted for that purpose, by the statute II. Geo. Leap. I7 ; and in 1769 and 1777, when half a million and £600,000. were appropriated to the like use, by the statutes 9 Geo. III. cap. 34. and 17 Geo. III. c. 47, Many of these expenses are now charged on the consolidated fund, and the civil list comprehends chiefly the support of the royal household. The Act 1 Victoria, c. 2., Dec. 23, 1837, entitled, " An Act for the Support of Her Majesty's Household, and of the Honour and Dignity of the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, and Ireland,** after reciting several pre- ceding acts, and that her majesty had been graciously pleased to signify to her faithful commons in parliament assem- bled, that her majesty placed unreserv- edly at their disposal those hereditary revenues which were transferred to the public by her immediate predecessors, &c., enacts that the power of existing acts as to hereditary revenue, shall re- main in force; and that they shall be carried to the consolidated fund during the life of her majesty ; but after her demise shall be payable to her succes- sors. The clear yearly sum of ^385,000. shall be paid out of the consolidated fund for the support of her majesty's household, and of the honour and dig- nity of the crown ; to be applied accord- ing to the schedule. So much of the sum of 200,000^. granted by an act of last session to make civil list payments as shall have been so applied shall be re- paid out of the money granted for the civil list by this act. Provisions of all for- mer civil list acts to remain in force for the purposes of this act. CIVITA Vecchia, a town of Italy, States of the Church, was improved by the emperor Trajan, fortified by Pope Urban VIII, and declared free by Bene- dict XIV. in the year 174L Nearly de- stroyed by an explosion, Sept. 1779 ; taken by the French, Feb. 1799, and evacuated in Sept. following. Although the wealth and population of the coun- try round Civita Vecchia is much fallen off in modern times compared with an- tiquity, it still continues to be the entre- pot of Rome, and engrosses almost the entire trade of the papal dominions on CL A 293 CL A the side of the Mediterranean. Of the vessels entering the ports on the Me- diterranean in 1S33, full three-fourths entered Civita Vecchia, CLAIRAUT, Alexis Claude, a celebrated French mathematician, born at Paris in 1713. In his 13th year he read to the academy of sciences a memoir upon four new geometrical curves. In 1731, he was nominated adjunct mechanician to the academy ; in 1733, associate; and in 1738, pen- sioner. In 1750, the academy of Peters- burgh proposed a prize for the year 1752, on the subject of the lunar motions, which Clairaut obtained, and his paper on the subject was printed at Peters- burgh in that year, in 4to. He also gained another prize for his lunar tables, published in 1754. About the year 1756, commenced the dispute between Clairaut and D'Alem- bert, concerning- their respective theories, which engaged the public attention for some years; the papers of Clairaut, re- lating to this controversy, were publish- ed in the "Journal des Savans," for 1758, 1759, 1761, and 1762. Clairaut also published the following works separately; " On Curves of a double Curvature," in 1730, 4to. ; " Elements of Geometry," 1741, Svo.; "Theory of the Figure of the Earth," 1743, Svo. ; "Elements of Algebra," 1746, Svo. ; and "Tables of the Moon," 1754, Svo. He died May 17, 1765, aged 52. CLAPHAM Church, built 1777. CLAPPERTON, Hugh, the African traveller, was born at Annan, in Scot- land, in 1788. At the age of seventeen he was bound an apprentice to the sea, and became the cabin-boy of Captain Smith, of the Postlethwaite, of Mary- port, trading between Liverpool and North America ; in her he repeatedly crossed the Atlantic, and was distin- guished even when a youth for coolness, dexterity, and intrepidity. On one oc- casion, the ship, when at Liverpool, was partly laden with rock-salt, and, as that commodity was then dear, the mistress of a house which the crew frequented, enticed Clapperton to bring her a few pounds ashore in his handkerchief. After some entreaty the youth complied; and, being detected by a custom-house oflBcer, was menaced with the terrors of trial and imprisonment, unless he consented to go on board the Tender. He chose the latter alternative, and, after being sent round to the Nore, was draughted on board the Clorinde frigate command- ed by Captain Briggs. Through the influence of friends combined with his own professional merit, Clapperton was speedily promoted to the rank of mid- shipman. 1813. Clapperton and a few other clever midshipmen, were ordered to repair to Portsmouth dockyard, to be in- structed by the celebrated swordsman Arigelo, in what was called the improved cutlass exercise; this he taught the crew on board the Asia, seventy- four, the flag- ship of vice-admiral sir Alexander Coch- rane, and since engaged at Navarino. Her admiral had been intrusted with the command of our whole naval force on the coast of North America, and was making every thing ready to sail for his final destination. But the active work going forward on the lakes, had more attraction for Clapperton's enterprising mind, and, having procured a passage in a vessel to Halifax, he bade adieu to the flag-ship, to the regret of every individual on board. From Halifax he proceeded to Upper Canada, and, shortly after his arrival, was made a lieutenant, and sub- sequently appointed to command the Confidence schooner. 1817- When our flotilla on the Ame- rican lakes was dismantled. Lieutenant Clapperton returned to England, on half- pay, and ultimately retired to his grand- father's native burgh of Lochmaben. There he remained till 1820, amusing himself with rural sports, when he re- moj'^ed to Edinburgh, and, shortly after, became acquainted with Dr. Oudney, at whose suggestion he first turned his thoughts to African 'discovery. Next year Major Denham, Captain Clapperton, and Dr. Oudney, undertook to penetrate from Tripoli southward into the interior of Africa. They arrived at Tripoli in November, 1821, and were kindly received by the pacha. Those enterprising travellers with their servants, amounting in aU to 13 persons, set out from Tripoh March 5, 1822, with about 200 Arabs, and, travelling in a southern direction, passed through Mourzuk and Tegerhy, in lat. 24, N., the southern limit of Captain Lyon's travels, and ar- rived at Kouka, the capital of Bornou, February 24, 1823, having travelled over a space of 2000 miles. Dr. Oudney having died January 12, 1824, on his journey, Clapperton reached CLA 294 CLA Sackatoo, the residence of the sultan Bello, February 16, and entered the city amid the hearty welcomes of young and old. The morning after his arrival. Cap- tain Clapperton had his first interview with the sultan, at his palace. Left Sackatoo May 3, on his return. After spending a few weeks at Mourzuk, to recover their strength, our travellers, on Dec. 12, commenced their return to Tri- poli, which they reached Jan. 26, 1825. August 1826, Captain Clapperton undertook a new journey, for the pur- pose of further exploring the interior of Africa. He landed at Benin, and his object was to pursue a north-easterly course to Sackatoo or Bornou, on the supposition that he would cross the course of the Niger in its way to the Bight of Benin. He was not destined, however, to witness the successful ter- mination of the adventure. He died at Sackatoo, April 13, 1827, where he had been detained for five months, in conse- quence of the sultan Bello of Sackatoo not permitting him to proceed, on ac- count of the war with Bornou. His ill- ness lasted thirty-two days. The morn- ing on which he died, he breathed loud and became restless, and shortly after expired in the arms of his faithful ser- vant Richard Lander, afterwards well known as the discoverer of the termina- tion of the Niger. He was buried by him at a small village (Jungali,") five miles to the S, E. of Sackatoo, and was followed to his grave by his faithful at- tendant and five slaves. CLARE HALL, Cambridge, founded 1326. CLARENCE, Duke of, born Aug. 21, 1765; married July 11, 1818, to the princess of Saxe Meiningen, succeeded his brother George IV. on the throne of England, June 26, 1830, with the title of William IV. See Britain. CLARENDON, Edward Hyde, Earl of, lord high chancellor of Eng- land, and an eminent statesman and his- torian, born in 1608. In 1640, he was chosen for Wotton Basset and Shaftes- bury, in the parliament summoned by Charles I. on account of the Scotch rebellion. In the year 1642, the king sent for him to York, where he assisted in drawing up various papers in the cause of the falling monarch. He was recalled by parliament, but he refused to obey the summons without the royal permission. After the breaking out of hostilities between the king and parliament, when the royal court was held at Oxford, Hyde was appointed chancellor of the exche- quer, sworn a member of the privy council, and created a knight. He con- tinued with his majesty till March, 1644, when he was appointed to accompany Prince Charles to the West, and after- wards to the island of Jersey. In 1648, he received orders to attend the prince at Paris, and after the death of Charles I., the council of the young king determin- ing to send ambassadors to Spain made choice of Sir Edward Hyde and Lord Collington, who arrived at Madrid in 1649. Before the restoration his majesty made him lord chancellor of England in 1657, upon the death of Sir Edward Herbert ; and he spared no exertions to promote the restoration of his royal master to his lost dominions. He was chosen chancellor of the university of Oxford in 1660, and at the same time created a peer : in the year following he was made Viscount Cornbury and earl of Clarendon. Some public affairs having rendered him unpopular, he was, notwithstanding his former services, abandoned to the indignation of the people, and driven from every office of public trust in the month of August, 1667. He was charged with the crime of high treason by the house of commons, but the peers refused to commit him on their charge ; and while the dispute was undetermined. Clarendon received his majesty's orders to quit the kingdom. Having spent some time at Moulins, he fixed his re- sidence at Rouen, where he died in De- cember, 1674, in the 68th year of his age. His remains were brought to England and interred in Westminster Abbey. He was the author of " Contemplations and Reflections on the Psalms," "Animadver- sions on a book of Mr. Cressy's in the Roman Catholic controversy;" "A brief view of the Errors in Hobbes's Levia- than ;" but his chief work was his " History of the Rebellion." " As an historian. Clarendon will ever be esteemed an entertaining writer, even independently of our curiosity to know the facts which he relates. He is more partial in appearance than in reality. He is less partial in his relaition of facts than in his account of characters : he was too honest a man to falsify the former ; his CLA 295 CLA affections were easily capable, unknown to himself, of disguising? the latter." CLARENDON Press, printing- office, Oxford, founded 1781. CLARENDON Statutes, or Con- stitutions, a charter or code of laws established by the parliament at Claren- don in Wiltshire, 1164; 16 articles of which related particularly to ecclesias- tical matters, and were designed by King Henry IL to check the power of the pope and his clergy, and to limit the total exemption which they claimed from the secular jurisdiction. CLARKE, Dr. Samuel, a learned divine, born at Norwich, in 1675. In 1691, he entered Caius college, Cam- bridge. In 1699, he published "Three Practical Essays on Baptism, Confirma- tion, and Repentance." " Some Reflec- tions on that part of a book called Amyntor, or, a Defence of Milton's Life, which relates to the writings of the Pri- mitive Fathers, and the Canon of the New Testament." In 1701, "A Para- phrase on the Gospel of St. Matthew," which was followed by the " Paraphrase on the Gospels of St. Mark, St. Luke, and St. John." In 1704, he was ap- pointed to preach "Boyle's Lectures," and he chose for his subject, "The Being and Attributes of God;" and in 1705, he was again appointed, when he preached on the " Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion." In 1712, Dr. Clarke published a beautiful edition of "Caesar's Commentaries." In 1715 and 1716, he disputed with the celebrated Leibnitz, respecting the principles of natural philosophy and religion ; and a collection of the papers which passed between them was published in I7l7. In 1724, he published 17 sermons, and in 1729 the 12 first books of Homer's Iliad. He died in May, 1729. CLARKE, Dr. Edward Daniel, an eminent English traveller, born 1768. He was professor of mineralogy and li- brarian of the university of Cambridge. Soon after taking his degree Dr. Clarke accompanied the late Lord Berwick abroad, and remained for some lime in Italy. Shortly after his return to Eng- land, he embarked on those travels which have rendered his name celebrated throughout Europe. Upon his return from this extensive tour, during which he had visited nearly the whole of Eu- rope, and parts of Asia and Africa, Dr Clarke presented to the university those memorials of his travels which now de- corate the vestibule of the library. As some return, he was complimented in full senate with the degree of L.L.D. He died at Cambridge after a severe and painful illness, March 9, 1822. CLARKE, Adam, an eminent divine and commentator, born at Maggerafelt, about 30 miles from Londonderry, in 1760. He was introduced at an early age to John Wesley, who invited'him to become a pupil in Kingswood School, then recently established. Whilst there, he purchased out of his scanty pocket- money, a Hebrew grammar, the study of which laid the foundation of his acquire- ments in Oriental learning. In 1782, Mr. Wesley appointed him, though only 19 years of age, to the circuit of Brad- ford, Wilts. Mr. Clarke continued to travel in various circuits until 1805, after which he remained in London for several years, and devoted a great portion of his time to literature and bibliography. His first publication was a " Disserta- tion on the Use and Abuse of Tobacco," printed in 1797; his next, an undertak- ing of much more laborious character, was, " A Bibliographical Dictionary, containing a Chronological Account of the most curious books in all depart- ments of literature, from the infancy of printing to the .beginning of the 19th century ; to which are added, an ' Essay on Bibliography,' and an ' Account of the best English Translations of each Greek and Latin classic,' " 1802, 6 vols. 12mo. and 8vo. Also the "Bibliogra- phical Miscellany, or, a * Supplement to the Bibliographical Dictionary, down to 1806," 2 vols. 12mo. and 8vo. 1805. He received the honorary degree of M. A., and in the following year that of L.L.D., from the university of St. Andrews ; and he was subse- quently chosen to be a member of the Royal Irish Academy. During the se- veral years of his residence in London, Dr. Clarke was closely engaged upon his " Commentary on the Bible," but at the same time, he fulfilled the duties of his station as a preacher, and took a part in the management of various asso- ciations for literary, scientific, and bene- volent purposes. He also edited Bax- ter's several works, and was the author of many anonymous articles published in the " Classical Journal," in some early numbers of the " Eclectic Review," and in various other journals. C LA 2QG CLE 1807. Dr. Clarke was appointed one of the sub-commissioners of the public records. In 1808, he prepared several long and luminous reports on the origin and progress of that great national work, " Rymer's Foedera," and suggested a plan as to the best mode of selecting, arranging, and editing the materials necessary for its projected Supplement and Continuation. After a consideration of these several reports, the commissioners came to the resolution that the work would be best executed by a consolidntion of all the old and new materials in a chronological series, but only three volumes of the new edi- tion have been published. His learned Commentary on the Bible, the monu- ment by which he will be best known to future times, appeared under this title : "The Holy Scriptures, &c., &c., with the marginal readings, a collection of parallel texts, and copious summaries to each chapter; with a Commentary and Critical Notes, designed as a help to the better understanding of the Sacred Writings," 8 vols. 4to., 1810-1826. 1815. Dr. Clarke was persuaded by some of his friends, who had observed with solicitude the decline of his health, to relinquish, for a time, all pubhc pur- suits, and retire into the country. By their munificence, an estate was pur- chased for him at Millbrook in Lanca- shire, where he continued his Commen- tary, and brought it nearly to a close. In 1818, the third year of his residence at Millbrook, he received into his house, at the request of the Wesleyan Mission- ary committee, and of Sir Alexander Johnston, two Budhist priests, whom that gentleman, at their own request, brought over from Ceylon, that they might be instructed in the princijjles of Christianity. His earnest desire for the due instruction of his two pupils, caused him to compile his " Clavis Biblica," which was published in 1820. During 20 months the priests were carefully in- structed by him in the English language and in the evidences of our religion. In 1823, Dr. Clarke came to reside at Haydon-hall, in the parish of Ruslip, about 17 miles from London. In this abode he concluded his Commentary, on April 17, 1826; and he resided there till the time of his death, which took place August 26, 1832. CLARKE, Mr., murder of, by Housman and Eugene Arara, discovered after a lapse of 13 years, August, 1759. CLARKE, Hewson, the author of the " Saunterer," born 1787, died 1818. CLARKSON, Christopher, an English historian, born 1758, died 1833. CLARKSON, Thomas, commenced his exertions for the suppression of the slave trade, 1787 ; presided at the anti- slavery convention, June, 1840. See Slavery. CLASSICAL Book, the first pub- lished in Russia was " Cornelius Ne- pos," on April 29, 1762. CLAUDE, John, a French protestant divine, born in 1618. In 1645, he was ordained pastor of the church at La Treyne. In 1 661, he visited Paris, in order to obtain the remission of the prohibition issued by the council against the exercise of his ministry in the province of Languedoc ; but not meet- ing with success, he retired to Mont- auban. In 1766, he drew up his " Essay on the Composition of a Sermon," for the use of his only son, who was then entering the ministry. About 1680, he held a conference with Bossuet, then bishop of Condom, on the protestant religion. On the revocation of the edict of Nantz, he retired to Hol- land, where he met with a kind recep- tion, and was honoured with a pension by the prince of Orange. He died in 1 68 7 . CLAUDE Lorraine, an eminent painter. See Lorraine. CLAUDIAN, Claudius Claudi- ANUS, an eminent Latin poet, who flourished in the fourth century, under the emperor Theodosius, and under his sons Arcadius and Honorius. He came to Rome 395, when he was about 30 years old. Little is known of his sub- sequent history, and the time of his death is uncertain. CLAUDIUS I., emperor of Rome, his expedition into Britain, 43 ; died 54. CLAUDIUS II. defeated the tyrant Aureolus, 268; gained a great victory over the Goths, &c., 269 ; died of the plague, 270. CLEHANGER House, Hereford- shire, destroyed by fire, January 3, 1794. CLEMENS RoMANUs, one of the apostolical fathers, and first bishop of Rome of that name. He is said to have been born at Rome, and to have been fellow-labourer with St. Peter and St. Paul ; and he is supposed to be the Clement to whom St. Paul alludes in CLE 21)7 CLE Phil. iv. 3. Eusebius says, that in tlie beginning of Trajan's reign Clement still- governed the church of Rome, who was the third in that succession, after Paul and Peter, and that he died in the third year of Trajan (that is, 100), having been bishop nine years. The Epistle of Cle- ment, still extant, appears to have been written in the name of the whole church of Rome to the church of Corinth, and therefore it is called at one time the Epistle of Clement, and at another the Epistle of the Romans to the Corinthians. It appears, from expressions that occur in it, to have been written after some persecution, either that of Nero, about 64, or that of Domitian in 94, or 93. CLEiVIENTI, Muzio, the celebrated pianist, was born in 1752, at Rome. When little more than tweh^e years old he wrote, without the knowledge of his master, a mass for four voices. About 1764 he came to England, where he u'as soon after engaged to preside at the harpsichord in the orchestra of the King's Theatre. In 1780 he made a tour on the continent, whither his compositions and the fame of his talents had long preceded him. At Paris he remained till the sum- mer of 1781, when he proceeded, by the way of Strasburg and Munich, to Vienna, enjoying every where the patronage of sovereigns, the esteem and admiration of his brother musicians, and the enthusi- astic applauses of the public. At Vienna he became acquainted with Haydn, Mo- zart, Salieri, and many other celebrated musicians. 1783. J. B. Cramer, then about fourteen years old, became Clementi's pupil, and attended him almost daily. From 1784 to 1802 he continued in Lon- don, pursuing his professional career with increasing reputation as an instruc- tor, composer, and performer. About the year 1800, upon the failure of the house of Longman and Broderip, he was induced by the representations of some eminent mercantile men, to engage in the music publishing and piano-forte manu- facturing business. A new firm was quickly formed, at the head of v/hich was Mr. Clementi's name. Availing himself of the peace of 1802, he proceeded in the autumn of that year for the third time to the continent, where he remain- ed eight years. Attempting to return, he was interrupted by the war, by which all communication for some time was suspended. Atlength, in the summer of 1810, he landed in safety on the British shores. Subsequentl}', he adapted the twelve symphonies of Haydn for the piano-forte, flute, violin, and violoncello ; the " Sea- sons" of Haydn, for voices and piano- forte ; Mozart's overture to " Don Gio- vianni," and various select pieces from the vocal works of the same great mas- ter. In the years 1820 and 1821 he published several original works for the piano-forte, and an arrangement of the six symphonies of Mozart for the same instrument, with accompaniments. In the mean time he also gave the musical world two elementary books of the highest value : his " Practical Harmony," which Avas published in four volumes, between 1811 and 181.5; and his "Gradus ad Parnassum," in three volumes. He died April 16, 1832, at his cottage in Wor- cestershire. CLEMENT'S Inn, society of, founded 1471. CLEOBURY Castle, Shropshire, built 1160. CLEOMENES II., king of Lacede- mon, born A.c. 235 j his war with Ara- tus, 227 ; put the Ephori to death, 225 ; was defeated, and retired into Egypt, 222 • died 220. CLEOPATRA, queen of Egypt, the eldest daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, ascended the throne A. u.c. 703; a.c. 51. Poisoned her brother, A.c. 43; captivated Marc Anthony, but deserted him in the battle of Actium, 31, destroyed herself, 30. With her terminated the family of Ptolemy Lagus, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy, after it had ruled over Egypt, from the death of Alexander, 294 years ; or, as others affirm, 293 years and three months. From this time Egypt was reduced to a Roman province. CLERC, John De le, an eminent scholar and critic, was born at Geneva, in March, 1657. His first publication appeared anonymously at Saumur, in 1679, under the title of "Liberii de Sancto Amore Epistolse Theologicte." In 1685 he published his "Sentimens de quelques Theologiens de Hollande sur I'Histoire critique du Vieux Testament, composee par M.Rich Simon." In 1686, he commenced his " Bibliotheques," a series of papers comprising critical ana- lyses and reviews of the most remark- able publications of the time, inter- spersed with a variety of original essays and disquisitions on such topics as ex- 2 a CLE cited tlie cliief attention of literary men. Li' Clerc continued this laborious course of writing until the year 1728, when a paralytic attack suspended his pursuits, by materially impairing his intellectual powers. In 1732, a second attack de- prived him of speech, and reduced him to a state little better than idiocy, in which he continued to the time of his death, which took place in 1736, in the 79tli year of his age. CLblRGY, Bknefit OF,Privilegium Clcricale, an ancient privilege whereby one in orders might claim to be delivered to his ordinary to purge himself of felony. Originally the law was held that no man should be admitted to the benefit of clergy, but such as had the "habitum et tonsuram clericalem." But, in process of time, a much wider and more compre- hensive criterion was established ; every one that could read being accounted a clerk, or clericus, and allowed the bene- fit of clerkship, though neither initiated in clerkship, nor trimmed with the holy tonsure. But when learning began to be more generally disseminated than formerly, it was found that as many lay- men as divines were admitted to the priviiegium clericale ; and therefore by statute 4 Henry VII. c. 13, a distinction was once more drawn between mere lay- scholars and clerks that were really in orders. This distinction was aboUshed for a time by the statutes 28 Hen. VHI. c. 1 ; and 32 Hen. VHI. c. 3; but was held to have been virtually restored by statute 1 Edw. VI. c. 12. Afterwards it fell into disuse, and was formally abolished by 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 27, passed June 21, 1827, entitled "an Act for repealing various Statutes in England, relative to the Benefit of Clergy," &c. "Inorderthat the provisions contained in the various statutes now in force, in England, relative to the benefit of clergy, larceny, stealing, burglary, roljbery, and threats for the purpose oi robber}' or extortion, might be amended, and consolidated into one act, those sta- tutes are repealed; and also, with the same view, are repealed the various sta- tutes relative to malicious injuries to property, and to remedies against the hundred." CLERGY, excluded from seats with Irish parliament, Hen. VIII. 1536; voluntarily resigned the privilege ot ia.Y- ing themselves, 1664. E.vtreme distress of the clergy in Ireland by the resistance 293 CM to paying tithes, 1832. Bill passed for their relief, 1833. CLERGY OF Fr.\nce renounced their privileges. May 20, 1809. CLERGY, Sons of the, a benevo- lent institution, incorporated by charter July 1, 1678. CLERGYMEN'S Sons, &c., a so- ciety er^taldished in Scotland, Oct. 1794. CLERK, John, the author of the celebrated " Treatise on Naval Tactics," and the inventor of the system of naval tactics, (namely, piercing the enemy's line,) under which the British navy has acquired glory so unrivalled, died 1812. CLERKENWELL, monastery of, founded 1098; burncbyamob, 1381 ; new church, first stone of, laid Dec. 18, 1788. CLEVE Abbey, Somerset, foundeil in 1198. CLEVELAND, John, popular poet, born 1613, died 1658. CLEVES, town of Prussia, taken 1760 ; by the French, 1794. CLIEFDEN, house burnt down. May 14, 1795. CLIFF-WAGGON, for communi- cating with shipwrecked persons, at the bottom of high cliffs, to whom there is not access from the summit, or by Ijoats, on account of the heaviness of the .sea, and the rocky nature of the coast, in- vented I)y James Davison, in 1826. CLIFFORD, George, earl of Cum- berland, born 1558, died 1605. CLIFFORDS' Inn Society, esta- bhshed, 1345. CLINTON, George de Witt, gover- nor of New York, was the youngest son of Samuel Clinton, formerly British gover- nor there, and was born in 1740. He was educated for the bar, in which profession he con tinued till the commencement of the revolution in 1775. On the declaration of the independence of America, he took an active part in forming a constitution for the state of New York ; and in 1787, was elected governor, in which he con- tinued till 1795, when he retired on ac- count of ill-health, but was again elected in 1801 After that period he was also elected vice-president of the union. He died in 1828, aged 88. CLINTON, Sir Henry, a distin- guished British general, born in 1771. In 1786, he embarked as a midshipman, in the Salisbury, captain Erasmus Gore, carrying the broad pennant of commo- dore Elliott, and went to Newfoundland. In 1787, he resided at Maastricht, and CLI 299 CLI served temporarily in one of the Bruns- wick battalions there. In that service be continued from the autumn of 17SS, to the end of tlie summer of 1789 ; during which interval he passed through every duty, from the common soldier to that of the cor[)oral, sergeant, and sub-lieutenant, as is customary in the German service. He was appointed to an ensigncy in England, in the 1st regi- ment of foot guards, and joined that corps in the autumn of 1789; from which time, till the end of the campaign in 1815, his life was a series of active, and for the greater part of it, of very distinguished, military service. 1803, He embarked for the East Indies, having been appointed adjutant- general to the king's troops in that coun- try ; and in 1806, went out with the 3rd battalion of guards, part of the brigade then proceeding to Sicily, and served in that island till the latter end of 1807. He returned to England early in 1808, and in the spring of that year, he was appointed to the command of a brigade, forming part of the troops which pro- ceeded in the month of May, under Sir John Moore, to Sweden. 1811. He was appointed, (having then ol)tained the rank of major-general) to a brigade in Portugal. Lord Wellington appointed him to the command of the 6th division of the army ; at the head of which he continued, with the exception of two short leaves of aljsence on account of ill-health, till tlie evacuation of France by the British army in the summer of 1814. In the month of June, 1815, on the ever memorable day of Waterloo, Sir H. Clinton commanded a division of the corps under Lord Hill. Here Sir Henry's pubbc life may be considered as closed ; for although he was with liis division during a part of 1817, he was never entirely free from a malady with which he was attacked in the month of June, 1816. He died at Ashley, near Lymington, Hants, Dec. 11, 1829, in the 58th year of his age. CLITHEROE Castle, Lancashire, built in 1171. CLITHEROW, Mrs., in Crown-court, near Moorfields, with her family and lodgers, consisting of 11 persons, were blown up while making fireworks by candle light, November 3, 1791. CLIVE, Robert Lord, the cele- brated hero of India, born in 1725, at Styche, in Shropshire. When about 18 years of age, he was sent as a writer in the East India service to Madras ; but being of a military turn, he entered the army first as an ensign, but soon ob- tained the rank of lieutenant. He first distinguished himself at the siege of Pondicherry, in 1748; and afterwards performed many noble actions. He was acknowledged to be the first who roused his countrymen to spirited action, and raised their reputation in the east ; and on his return to England, in 1763, he was presented by the court of directors with a sword set with diamonds. He returned to India in 1755, as go- vernor of Fort St. David, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the king's troops; when in conjunction with Admiral Wat- son, he reduced Angria the pirate, and took Geria, his capital, with all his ac- cumulated treasure. On the loss of Cal- cutta, and the well known barbarity of Dowlah, they sailed to Bengal, where they took Fort William, in January, 1757 ; and Colonel Clive defeated Dow- lah's army at the famous battle of Plassey. See Plassey. He commanded in Ben- gal the two following years, and was honoured by the mogul with the dignity of an omrah of the empire. 1760. He returned to England, where he received the unanimous thanks of the company, was elected member of parlia- ment for Shrewsbury, and was raised to an Irish peerage by the title of baron of Plassey. In 1764, fresli disturbances arising in Bengal, Lord Clive undertook the presidency. On his arrival in India, he quickly restored tranquillity to the province, and having raised the highest ideas of British power in the minds o{ the natives, he returned home in 1767. In 1772, a motion was made in the House of Commons, purporting that he had abused the power entrusted to him in India, by using improper means in acquiring wealth ; and though he suc- ceeded in defending himself from this charge, and a resolution was passed that he had rendered his country essential ser- vice : he sank into a state of depression, which at lavt induced him to put an end to his life, m 1774, leaving a widow and five children. He bequeathed £70,000 to the sick in the company's service. " In the awful close of so much pros- perity and glory,'' says the Edinburgh reviewer of Sir John Malcolm's life, " some men so far forgot the maxims both of religion and of philosophy, as CLO 300 CLO coiifidenlly to ascribe the mournful event to the just vengeance of God, and the horrors of an evil conscience. It is with very different feelings that we contem- plate the spectacle of a great mind ruined by the weariness of satiety, by the pangs of wounded honour, by fatal diseases, and more fatal remedies. Clive com- mitted great faults ; and we haA'e not attempted to disguise them. But his faults when weighed against his merits, and viewed in connexion with his temp- tations, do not appear to deprive him of his right to an honourable place in the estimation of posterity." CLOCK-Makers, three from Delft, first settled in England, 1568. CLOCKS, called water-clocks, first used in Rome, ac. 158. Clocks and dials first set up in churches in the 14th century, one at Bologne, 1356; another at the palace of Charles V. 136-1 ; a striking clock in Westminster, 136s, made by three Dutchmen ; the first por- table one made, 1530; none in England that went tolerably till that dated 1540, now at Hampton-court palace ; clocks with pendulums, &c., invented by one Fromantil, a Dutchman, about 1656. The first made in England with a pen- dulum, was in the year 1662, about which time they became common there. Clocks in the parishes of St. Giles, St. Bride, &c., &c., London, lighted wdth gas, 1831. An ad valorem duty of 25 per cent, is laid on foreign clocks which pro- duced in 1 832, £6,024 8s. nett. It is prin- cipally derived from the wooden clocks brought from Holland and Germany. 1840. A new mode of illuminating clocks invented. The Horse Guards dock was illuminated for the first time, July 16, by means of the "Bude light," which falls on the face ; thus differing from the ordinary transparent clocks, to ■which it is much superior, both in clear- ness and beauty. It gives the clock face an appearance of being shone upon by a very powerful moonlight. See Budk Light. CLOCKS AND Watches taxed. 1797 ; tax repealed, 1798. CLODIUS the Roman tribune, with his friends and servants, assassinated by T. Aunius Milo, for having refused him the consulship, a.c. 52. CLONDALKIN, Ireland, powder mills at, blew up, and shattered the dwellings to a considerable distance around ; only two lives lost, April 1 5, 1 787 . CLOTH, coarse woollen, introdrced into England, 1191 ; first made at Ken- dal, 1390; medleys first made, 1614. 1839. A machine was invented, by an American, for the making of broad or narrow woollen cloths without spining or weaving. The machines are patented in this and every other manufacturing nation. Should this machine succeed to any thing near the expectation of the patentees, its abridgment of labour, as well manual as by machinery, will be very great. It is calculated that one set of machinery, not costing more than £600, will be capal)le of producing 600 yards of v.'oollen cloth, 36 inches in width, per day, of 12 hours. CLOTH OF Gold, festival of, held June 7, 1820. CLOUD, St., town m France, the fa- vourite residence of the monarchs of that nation. Here Henry III. was assassi- nated by Clement, August 2, 1589 ; and it is also celebrated for the order of the IStb Brumaire, 1799, which annihilated the Director)' and established the con- sular government. St. Cloud was be- sieged by the vanguard of the allies, March 31, 1814, who made this their head-quarters from April 7, to June 3, in that year. In 1815, Blucher had his head-quarters at this place, and the con- vention by which Paris was resigned to the allies was here concluded. CLOVES. Owing to the expulsion of the English from Amboyna, in 1623, the Dutch have, a few short intervals only excepted, enjoyed the exclusive pos- session of the Moluccas, or Clove Islands. In England the duty on cloves was con- siderably reduced in 1819, and there has, in consequence, been a decided increase in the consumption of the article. In 1819, it was 34,254lbs., and in 1832, 82,672lbs. CLOVIS I. the first christian king of France, and founder of the French monarchy. Succeeded his father Chil- deric at 14 years of age, in 481. About 486 he conquered the several provinces of Gaul, in the possession of the Romans and Goths. These he unit- ed to the dominions of France, and re- moved the seat of government from Soisons to Paris. He was baptized, and encouraged the spread of Christianity in his dominions in 496. He was the author of the Salic law, which debars a wife from any share of inheritance, and which gave rise to the exclusion of females from the throne of France. He COA 301 C OA died in 511, in the 4Gth year of his age, and 31st of his reign. CLOWES Wood, Ireland, took fire when 30 acres of furze and heath were consumed, Jan. 1, 1805. CLUM, Mrs., near Litchfield, died Jan. 23, 1772, aged 138, and had lived 103 years in one house. CLUN CASTLE,Shropshire,builtl 140. CLUNL Monastery of, founded 910. CLYNNOGVAWK Abbey, Carmar- thenshire, built 16 16 COACHES. It is certain that a spe- cies of coaches were used at Rome ; but whether they were hung on springs, like those now made use of, is not certain. After the subversion of the Roman power, horseback was almost the only mode of travelling. About the end of the 15 th century, however, covered car- riages began to be employed by persons of distinction on great occasions. 1550. There were at Paris only three coaches ; one of which belonged to the queen ; another to the celebrated Diana of Poictiers ; and the third to a corjiulent unwieldy nobleman, Rene de Laval, lord of Bois Daupliin. Coaches were seen for the first time, in Spain, in 1546. They began to be used in England about 1580. An act passed to prevent men riding in coaches as effeminate, in 1601 ; private coaches began to be common in London, 1625. Hackney Coaches, began in 1634, when Captain Baily set up four in num- ber; were prohibited in 1635 ; 50 hack- ney coachmen only were allowed in 1637; hmited to 200 in 1652; to 300 in 1654; to 400 in 1661; to 700 in 1694, when they were first licensed ; to 800 in 1710; to 1000 in 1771; to 1200 in 1799. Hackney chariots not to exceed 200, licensed in 1814. In the year 1736, the number of coaches made in this kingdom amounted to 40,000, one half of which, and up- wards, were e.\ported. By the duty on coaches it ap]>eared, in 1778, 23,000 were kept in England, when their duty amounted to £117,000. The duty on coaches in 1785, was £154,988. in Eng- land, and in Scotland only £9000. Down to 1825, a duty was laid on all carriages made for sale. In 1812, 1,531 four- wheeled carriages, 1,700 two-wheeled ditto, and 105 taxed carts fsmall car- riages without springs,) were made. 1839. A trial o{ Gray's patent safety coach, an ingenious improvement, was made in August, at the Hippodrome near Kensington. The coach is hung on springs which work longitudinally from the roof instead of laterally; from im- mediately above the perch, or under the coach itself. But the main point of the invention is, that these longitudinal springs work on. sliding blocks, by which a constantly levelling position is pro- duced. In the course of the experiment the wheels on the "off" side passed over a surface which was more than four feet higher than those which were on the " near " side, and yet the coach preserv- ed its perfect equilibrium. COACH-MAKERS, licensed, 1785. COAL. There are no mines of coal in either Greece or Italy; and no evi- dence has been produced to show that the ancients used coal. In England it does not seem to have been used pre- viously to the beginning of the 13th century ; for the first mention of it oc- curs in a charter of Henry III., granting licence to the burgesses of Newcastle to dig coal. In 1281, Newcastle is said to have had a considerable trade in this article. About the end of the 13th century, or the beginning of the 14th, coals began to be imported into London, being at first used only by smiths, brewers, dyers, soap-boilers, &c. This innovation was, however, loudly complained of, and, in 1316, parliament petitioned the king, Ed- ward I., to prohibit the burning of coal, on the ground of its being an intolera- ble nuisance. He issued a commission of oyer and terminer, 1280, with instruc- tions to inquire as to all who burned sea coal within the city, or parts adjoin- ing, to punish them for the first otiPence, by " pecuniary mulcts ;" and upon a second offence, to demolish their furna- ces ; and to provide for the strict obser- vance of the proclamation in all times to come. In the reign of Charles I., the use of coal became universal in London, where it has ever since been used to the exclusion of all other articles of fuel. At the restoration, the quantity import- ed was supposed to amount to about 200,000 chaldrons. In 1670, the imports had increased to 270,000 chaldrons. At the revolution, they amounted to about 300,000 chaldrons, and have since gone on increasing with the growing magni- tude and population of the city ; being, in 1750, aoout 500,000 chaldrons; in ISOO, about 900,000 chaklrons ; and COA 302 COA at present about 1,700,000 chaldrons. The coal trade of Great Britain has been for more than a century and a half subjected to the most oppressive regu- lations. From a very early period, the corporation had undertaken the task of weigiiing and rneasurintf the coal brought to Loudon. In 1613, the power to make this charge was confirmed to the city by royai charter. Besides the above, duties for civic pur- poses have been laid on tlie coal import- ed into London from the reign of Charles IL downwards. They were originally imposed in l6Gr, after the great fire, in order to assist in the rebuilding of churches and other public edifices ; and have ever since been continued, to ena- ble the corporation to execute improve- ments in the city. At present, a duty of lOd. per chaldron, denominated the or- phans' duty, is appropriated, until 1858, to defray the expenses of the approaches to London bridge. Exclusive of the corporation duties, a duty payable to go- vernment was laid on all sea-borne coal in the reign of William IIL, which was only repealed in 1830. The value of coals and culm exported from Great Britain to foreign parts in 1836, was £679,513; in 1837 £855,751; and in 1838 £1,051,061. Among the geological papers present- ed to the meeting of the British Asso- ciation in 1838,' was a communication " On the Newcastle coal-field," by Mr. John Buddie. This coal-field occupies a tract in the counties of Northumber- land and Durham, of about 700 square miles, the limits of which were accurately marked on a geological map of the dis- trict. Within this tract all the strata that compose the coal series may be traced continuously. The lowest bed in the series, that, namely, which lies next the millstone grit, is the Brockwell seam. There is, indeed, another seam of coal called the eight-inch seam, at a perpen- dicular depth of 97i fathoms below the Brockwell seam, but separated from it by the entire mass of the millstone grit, and the upper bed carboniferous limestone. Mr. W. Hawkes Smith, in a lecture recently delivered at Birmingham, offer- ed some calculation on the state of the mines of this field ; " inferring from the immense quantities consumed — jjrobably not less than the entire produce of an acre per week in the mining and iron works alone ; — from the separated posi- tion and inconsiderable thickness of the ' ten yard ' measures in certain situa- tions, and from the problematical result of the bold experiments now carrying on l)y Lord Dartmouth, at Westbromwich, that the coal-basin is in reality circum- scribed, and its contents not so inexhaus- tible as some writers have deemed it to be, or as, from the present unrestricted perhaps wasteful, consumption of an un- renewable store, would seem to be ex- pected." A valuable mine of fine sea- coal has been discovered at Glen Cros- sack, in the Isle of Man, and is now be- ing profitably worked. A seam of fine coal, more than six feet thick, has been found at a comparatively small distance from the surface, in the Foi-est of Dean. Accidents in Coal Mines. — Coal- pit, near Renfrew, took fire, and continued to burn for nearly two days ; six men lost, 1804. Coal-pit, near Wakefield, inundated by a sudden gush of water, by which nine men and a boy perished, June 30, 1809. Coal-pit at Felling, near Gateshead, took fire, by which 93 persons perished, June 25, 1812. Coal-pit at Swiney Row, Durham, took fire, by which one man and six boys were severely hurt, October 6, 1812. Coal-pit, Harrington Mill, near the preceding, took fire, by which four men and 19 boys were killed, October 10, 1812. Coal-pit, Collingvvood Main, took fire, by which eight men were killed, and two severely burnt, July 17, 1813. Coal-pit at Bradlej', fell in, by which eight persons were buried in the ruins, of whom seven were dug out alive after remaining seven days without food, Au- gust 10, 1813. Coal-pit at Felling took fire a second time, by which nine men, 13 boys, and 12 horses were destroyed, Dec. 1813. Coal-pit, Hepburn, took fire, by which 11 persons were burnt to death, Aug. 27, 1814 Coal-pit at Painshaw, Cumberland, three men killed by the choak damp in descending to examine the state of the air, March 15, 1815. Coal-pit belonging to Messrs. Ne- sham and Co., near Newbattle, Dur- ham, took fire, by which 7t> persons lost their lives, June 2, 1815. At the same colliery 57 persons were killed or wounded by the bursting of a steam-engine, July 31, following. CO B 303 COB Coal-pit, Heaton Main, near Newcas- tle, inundated by a sudden gush of water, by which thirty-three men, forty-two boys, and thirty-seven horses perished. May 3, 1815. It was afterwards (Febru- ary 19, 1816) ascertained that they all perished by starvation, having been en- closed in a cavity which the water did not penetrate. Coal-pit at Chirk, in Denbighshire, destroyed by an inundation occasioned by a stoppage in the river Ceriog, in con- sequence of the fall of an embankment, December 28, 1816. The collieries were so extensive, that the loss was considered as a pubhc calamity. Coal-pit near Chester-le- Street, Dur- ham, took file, by which nearly 40 persons lost their lives, July 1817 A dreadful explosion in Springwell coal mine, about five miles from New- castle, by which 47 persons, only nine or ten of whom were adults, were killed ; not one surviving to relate the cause of the accident, May 9, 1833, An explosion of fire damp took place in a coal-pit at Wallsend,where 104 men and boys were at work, of vrhom only three men and a boy escaped alive, the other hundred persons having been suf- focated on the spot, June 10, 1835. COALITION, first, against France, 1792 ; second ditto, 1799 ; third, 1805 ; fourth, 1806; fifth, 1809; sixth, 1813. COASTING Trade. It has been customary in most countries to exclude foreigners from all participation in the coasting trade. This policy began in England in the reign of Elizabeth (5 Eliz. c. 5), or, perhaps, at a more re- mote era, and was perfected by the acts of navigation passed in 1651 and 1660. A vast number of regulations have been since enacted at different periods. The existing rules with respect to it, which have been a good deal simplified, are embodied in the act 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 52. COBBETT, William, was the son of a farmerat Ash, near Farnham, Surrey, and was born in 1762. In 1782 he left home and went on board the Pegasus man-of- war; but both the captain and port-admiral suspecting him to be arun-away, declined his services, and persuaded him to re- turn home. In 1783 he went to London, and procured a situation as copying- clerk to Mr. Holland, of Gray's-inn, where he remained for nine months closely confined to the desk, except on Sundays. In 1784 he quitted London for Chatham, where he enlisted into a regiment, the service companies of which were in Nova Scotia. He was soon raised to the rank of corporal, and at length sailed from Gravesend. He staid but a few weeks in Nova Scotia, being ordered to New Brunswick, where the regiment remained till September, 1791, and was then relieved and sent home. 1792. He went again to America, and landed at New York in October. It was in America that Mr. Cobbett fir.st distinguished himself by his pen. Having proceeded from New York to Phila- delphia, he there opened a bookseller's shop, and commencing a periodical pa- per, or succession of pamjihlets, under the title of " Peter Porcupine," at once made a display of those extraordinary powers of style and expression which have rendered his name so celebrated. A Dr. Rush brought an action against him for a libel, and obtained 5,000 dollars' damages, which disgusted him with America so completely, that he quitted it, and came to England in 1800. In 1801 he settled in London, and esta- blished a morning paper under the title of " The Porcupine," in which he warmly supported Mr. Pitt. That paper, however, soon failed, and he afterwards set uj) " The Register," which was con- tinued to his death. 1805. From a hearty church and king man, Cobbett became as eager a radical. From this time he was, for some j^ears, a grievous thorn in the side of the ministry. At length, in 1810, an opportunity appeared to have arrived for putting him to silence. His remarks on some military flogging at Ely pro^'oked a government prosecution, upon which he was sentenced to two years' imprison- ment in Newgate, and to pay a fine of 1000^. In 1816 he changed his " Re- gister, into a two-penny pamphlet, when the sale is said to have risen to the unprecedented number of 100,000. He again set off to America in April 1817, but returned to England in 1819. bring- ing with him the bones of the infidel, Tom Paine. He took a farm at Barnes Elms, in Surrey, where he attempted to grow several plants and trees indigenous to America, and to introduce Indian corn as a staple article of English produce. The project, however, failed ; he resigned, after a few years, his farm at Barnes, and rented of Colonel Woodrooffe, the COB 304 COB farm of Normandy, consisting of not more than 120 acres, about seven miles from Farnham. Cobbett published, in 1825, "The History of the Protestant Reformation in England and Ireland ;" and, in 1829, "Advice to Young Men and Women." 1832. After the passing of the Re- form Act, he was returned to parliament for the new borough of Oldham, for which he was re-chosen at the next elec- tion, without opposition. On the voting of supplies on the 15th and 18th of May, 1835, he exerted himself so much, and sat so late, that he laid himself up. He determined, nevertheless, to attend the House again on the evening of the mar- quis of Chandos's motion on agricultural distress on the 25lh of May, and the exertion of speaking and remaining late to vote on that occasion, were too much for him. He died June 18, 1835, at his farm at Normandy, aged 73. Besides the works already mentioned, Cobbett published " The Emigrant's Guide, in Ten Letters ;" " Cobbett's Poor Man's Friend ;" " Cottage Econo- my ;" " An English Grammar," in letters to his Son ; " A Grammar to teach Frenchmen the English Language," which is the standard book in French schools; "A Translation of Marten's Law of Nations ;" "A Year's Residence in America;" " Parliamentary History of England to 1803," in twelve volumes ; and "Debates from 1803 to 1810," in 16 volumes, royid octavo. When to these are added Porcupine's Works in the United States, from 1793 to 1801, in twelve volumes, and the " Political Register" from 1802, a due estimate may be made of the extraordinary quantity of matter which he passed through the press. COBLENTZ, an important town of Prussia. In 860 a council of the church was held here. In 1249 the town was M'alled round, and during the thirty years' war fell successively into the pos- session of the Imperialists, Swedes, French, and German Protestants. In 1688 it was bombarded by the French ineffectually ; in 1792 it was the rendez- vous of the Prussian army; in 1794 it was taken by the French, and remained under their dominion until 1814, when it was restored to Prussia. COBURG, CoBouRG, or Saxe Co- BURG, a town and principality of Ger- many, which gives title to his royai liigh- ness Prince Albert, consort of her ma- | jesty. The house from which the name ' is descended is very ancient. In 1464 ( the territories of the house were divided I between two of the branches of the family, when the principality of Coburg fell to the share of the elector Ernest, an- cestor in the direct line of Prince Albert. ' ISOQ. Feudal privileges were abo- lished in the principality. In 1821 a representative l)ody was formed, who have a voice in the imposition of taxes ; and in 1826, the duke obtained an ac- cession of the duchy of Gotha, and se- veral minor states, to his dominions. Family of Prince Albert. The ancestors of the prince may be traced as far back as Wittekindl., duke of Saxony, who died in 807. But the greatness of the family may be said to have been founded and consolidated by Frederick, surnamed the Warlike, who became duke and elector of Saxony when the Ascanian line was extinct on the death of Albert III., in 1423. This prince was named by the emperor high marshal, and vicar of the empire; and, in addition to the mi- litary achievments which procured for him the surname above-mentioned, he was an enlightened patron of commerce, art, and literature. After the death of Frederick the se- cond, in 1464, when the territories were divided l)etween his two sons, Ernest and Albert, they became the founders of the two branches of the families that bore their respective names. The elector Ernest, the ancestor of Prince Albert, died in I486, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick III., surnamed Wise. It was he who founded the university of Wittenburg, where Luther was educated. When the imperial throne became vacant, in 1519, the electors offered him the crown. This, however, he declined, and afterwards gave his vote in favour of the grandson of the late emperor, afterwards celebrated as Charles V. 1521. When Luther was summoned by the emperor before the dietof Worms, Frederick concealed Luther in the for- tressof Wurtzburg, where he commenced and completed his celebrated translation of the Bible. At the diet held at Spiers in 1529, John, his successor, took the lead among the princes who published that " Protest" which afterwards gave the name of Protestants to the professors of the reformed religion, and led to the declaiation of their opinions called the coc 305 COC Augsburg Confession. Frederick, his successor placed himself at the head of the protestant league, called the Schmal- kalden Confederacy ; and, for a time, maintained a gallant contest with the attempts of Charles to extirpate the re- formed religion. But he was at length taken prisoner at the battle of Muhtberg, was declared an outlaw, and condemned to be beheaded before the imperial camp at Wittenberg. The sentence was re- voked, buthe was removed to Innspruck, where he remained a prisoner for five years, and formed the plan of the uni- versity of Jena, which he afterwards founded, and which was completed by his sons. This illustrious prince died in 1553. The late duke died in 1806, and was succeeded by Ernest, the pre- sent duke, father of the illustrious con- sort of her present majesty. Prince Albert, Francis Augustus Charles Emanuel, of Saxe CoburgGotha, was born August 26, 1819, and received the first rudiments of his education in the castle of Erenburg. When in his 11th year he became a visitor to the duchess of Kent at Kensington Palace, and received lessons in language, music, and the arts, in the comp?Riy of his illustrious cousin. He remained in England at that time for upwards of 15 months, and then returned to Ger- many. He studied at the university of Bonn, where he distinguished himself by diligence in literary pursuits, amiable manners, and propriety of conduct. Af- ter finishing his studies at Bonn he visited this country in 1838, and after- wards travelled in Italy, accompanied by the baron Stockmar, and in the month of October, 1839, again arrived in England, when the arrangements for this alliance were finally settled. The marriage took place Febraary 10, 1840, and was at- tested by the cordial congratulations of all classes of the community. COBURG Theatre, Surrey, opened in 1816; its name altered to Victoria, 1833. COCHIN, a province of Hindoostan, on the Malabar coast. The Cochin rajah maintained his independence much later than most of the other Hindoo princes, he was first compelled to pay a tribute to Tippoo, which is now received by the British. In 1791? by their assistance, he threw ofF the Mysore allegiance, and became tributary to them. In 1809, in consequence of an unprovoked rebellion. the tribute was increased, and, in 1810, the surrender of all the fortresses was stipulated for. In 1814, new distur- bances arose, in consequence of the chris- tians who paid tribute, having refused to acknowledge the authority of the rajah. COCHIN-CHINA, empire of, in India beyond the Ganges, extends along the sea of China, and, in its present form, includes all Cochin-China and Tonquin, a large portion of Cambodia, with the state of Siampa. Until a few cen- turies after the christian era, Cochin- China formed a part of the Chinese em- pire. Its ancient history is litlle known, but more accuracy exists in its records from 1774, when a revolt took place, and the reigning prince, Chaung Shaung, with his queen and family, were expelled from the capital Quinnong, by three brothers. In 1790, he ventured to re- turn, and succeeded in driving out the successors of the usurpers; he then, with the assistance of Adran, a French missionary, began many improvements in the state. European tactics were taught. He also undertook to reform the existing system of jurisprudence, declared his veneration for the christian religion, and tolerated all others in his dominions. Adran died in 1800. In 1821, the king's name was Mingming, who succeeded Kealung. Attempts were made in 1778, in 1804, and in 1822, by the East India Company, to open an intercourse with Cochin-China, all which have proved unsuccessful. COCHINEAL, an important article of commerce used as a dye. It is found in Mexico, Georgia, South Carolina, and some of the West India islands ; but it is in Mexico only that it is raised with care. The cochineal insect was intro- duced into India in 1795; but a very inferior sort only is produced. The imports of cochineal usually A'ary from 220,000 to 330,000lbs. In 1831, the quantity imported amounted to 224,37l]bs. ; of which 95,728lbs. were brought from Mexico, 69,824lbs. from the United States, 51,1461bs. from the British West Indies, and 4,370lbs. from Cuba and the foreign West Indies. The exports during the same year amounted to about 90,000lbs. The duty on foreign cochineal was reduced, in 1826, from Is. per lb. to &d. At an average of the three years ending with 1831, the entries for home consumption amounted to 148,1311bs. a-year. 2 R COD 306 COD COCHRANE, Admiral Sir Alex- ander, born 1759, died 1832. COCHRANE, Lord, now the earl of Dundonald, having joined the patriots of Peru and Chili, surprised and took Valdivia, 1820; returned from South America, August, 1825; was made com- mander of the Greek fleet, and appeared off the coast of Egypt, 1827- COCKERMOUTH Castle, Cum- berland, built 1069 COCKERSEND Abbey, Lancashire, built 1200. COCK-FIGHTING. This inhuman diversion, according to Mr. Pegge, in his Archaeologia, had its origin among the Greeks. Jacobus Palmerius, a writer cited by Mr. Pegge, pretends that the traces of this diversion may be dis- covered among the barbarians of Asia, as early as the reign of Croesus, king of Lydia, a.c. 558. The Romans, who were prone to imitate the Greeks, fol- lowed their e.xample in this mode of di- version, said to have been instituted by them, after a victory over the Persians, A.c. 476. It is unknown when it was first brought to England, but it was probably introduced by the Romans, and about the time of Henry II., was a sport of school-boys on Shrove Tuesday. It was still followed, though disapproved, and prohibited by 39 Edward III., also in the reign of Henry VIII., 1569. It has by some been called a royal diver- sion ; and the cock-pit at Whitehall was erected for the more magnificent cele- bration of it. Cock-fighting was pro- hibited, by one of Oliver Cromwell's acts, March 31, 1664. " Cock-fighting," says Mr. Pegge, " is a heathenish mode of diversion from the first; and, at this day, ought cer- tainly to be confined to those barbarous nations where it has been practised, the Chinese, Persians, Malayans, and the still more savage Americans, whose ir- rational and sanguinary practices ought, in no case, to be objects of imitation to more civilized Europeans." COCKLEPARK Tower, Northum- berland, built before 1 100. COCK-LANE GHOST, imposition practised and detected, 1762. COD-FISHERY. The French, Por- tuguese, and Spaniards, engaged in the fishery soon after the discovery of New- foundland in 1497. The English were later in coming into the field. In 1578, France had on the banks of Newfound- land 150 vessels, Spain 120 or 130, Por- tugal 50, and England from 30 to 50. During the first half of last century, the fishery was principally carried on by the English, including the Anglo-Americans, and the French ; but the capture of Cape-Breton, and of their other posses- sions in America, gave a severe blow to the fishery of the latter. At an average of the three years ending with 1789, the English had 402 ships, 1,911 boats, and 16,856 men, engaged in theAmerican fisheries. Duringlast war,the French being excluded from the fisheries, those of England attained to an extraor- dinary degree of prosperity; the total value of the produce of the Newfound- land fishery in 1814, having exceeded £2,800,000. But since the peace, the British fishery on the Newfoundland banks has rapidly declined. It is now carried on almost entirely by the French and the Americans. The average annual produce of the fisheries of all sorts, in- cluding seal, salmon, &c., exported from Newfoundland, during the three years, ending with 1832, was £516,417. COD-FISHERY, American, In 1795, the "Americans employed in the cod-fishery about 31,000 tons of ship- ping; in 1807, they are said to have employed 70,306 tons; but it subse- quently declined for several years, and was almost entirely suspended during the late war. According to the oflicial returns for 1831, laid before the Con- gress, February 15, 1833, the shipping engaged that year in the cod-fishery amounted to 60,977 tons. During the year ending September 30, 1832, the Americans exported 250,514 quintals of dried, and 102,770 barrels of pickled cod; their aggregate value being about 1,050,000 dollars. CODES, or collections of laws, &c. The Gregorian and Hermogenian pub- lished 290, the Theodosian published 435, and reformed by Anicn, chancellor to Alaric, 506 ; the Justinian pubhshed 529, the Napoleon published 1804. CODRINGTON, Christopher, a distinguished oflficer, born atBarbadoesin the year I6S8. He was sent to England, and, after some continuance at a private school at Enfield, was removed to Ox- ford, where he completed his studies, and justly obtained the character of an ac- complished gentleman and universal scholar. He afterwards joined the army, COF 307 cor and was instrumental in driving the French out of the island of St. Chris- topher's. He distinguished himself at the siege of Namur; and upon the peace at Ryswick, he was made captain- general and governor of the leward Caribbee Islands. For his conduct in this office he was charged with misdemeanors, and several articles of impeachment, were exhibited against him to the House of Commons in England , to which an answer was published, with attestations in his favour, from the lieutenant-gover- nor, members of the council, and the representatives of Nevis. In 1703, he showed the greatest courage in the at- tack upon Guadaloupe, though tho en- terprise failed. He died in 1710, at his seat in Barbadoes. In I7l6, his body was removed to England, and interred in the chapel of All-Souls College, Oxford. CODRINGTON, Admiral Sir Ed- ward, won the battle of Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827. CODRUS, the last Athenian king, voluntarily gave his life for the good of his country, after reigning 21 years, A.c. 1069 COFFEE. The first introduction of this beverage into Arabia is attributed to Megaleddin, mufti of Aden, about the middle of the 15th century. It rapidly extended to Mecca, Medina, and the other cities of Arabia Felix. The fame of this bewitching potation quickly reached Grand Cairo, and was received with equal avidity at Constantinople. At Grand Cairo it was opposed on religious grounds. In the year 1511, it was pro- hibited by Khaiae Beg, from a persuasion that it had an inebriating quality, and produced inclinations forbidden by the Koran. In 1523, Abdallah Ibrahim again denounced it in a sermon delivered in the mosque of Hassananie. The first mention of coffee in the west of Europe is by Rauwolff, a German traveller, who returned from Syria in 1573. The tree was particularly describ- ed in 1591, by Prosper Alpinus, in his " Medicina .^gyptiorum," and also in his " History of Egyptian Plants," printed at Venice in 1592. Its use, as a beverage, is noticed by two English travellers in the beginning of the 17th century; Biddulph about 1603, and William Finch in 1607. In France it was introduced first at Marseilles, in the year 1644. The earUest statute respecting coffee is dated 1660, (12 Car. II. cap. 24,) when a duty of fourpence was laid upon every gallon of coffee made and sold, to be paid by the maker. In 1663, it was ordered, by a particular statute, that all coffee-houses should be licensed at the general quarter sessions of peace for the county. And in 1675, Charles II. issued a proclamation to shut them up as semi- naries of sedition. The Dutch were the first who made a successful attempt to introduce the plant in their colonies. Nicholas Witsen, burgomaster of Amster- dam, and governor of the East India company, instructed Van Hoorn, gover- nor of Batavia, to procure from Mocha, in Arabia Felix, some berries of the coffee- tree, to be sown at Batavia. About 1690, many plants were raised from seeds, one of which was sent to the garden at Amsterdam. 1714. The magistrates of Amsterdam sent to Louis XIV. a fine tree about five feet high, in full foliage, with both green and ripefruit. In l7l 7, several plants were sent to Martinico, under the care of M de Clieux, who approved himself worthy of the trust. In 1718, the Dutch colony at Surinam, first began to plant coffee ; and, in 1722, the French governor of Cayenne, having business at Surinam, contrived by an artifice to bring away a plant, which, in the year 1725, had produced many thousands. In the year 1732, coffee was cultivated in Jamaica, and an act passed to encourage its growth in that island. The history of the coffee trade, affords examples of the superior productiveness of low duties. In 1807, the duty was Is. 8d. a pound ; and the quantity en- tered for home consumption amounted to l,l70,164lbs., yielding a revenue of £161,245 lis. 4d. In 1808, the duty was reduced from Is. 8d. to 7d; and in 1809, there were 9,251,8471bs. entered for home consumption, yielding a re- venue of £245,856 8s. 4d. The duty having been raised in 1819, from 7d. to Is. a pound, the quantity entered for home consumption, in 1824, was 7,993,0411bs., yielding a revenue of £407,544 4s. 3c?. In 1824, however, the duty being again reduced from Is. to 6d., the quantity entered for home consump- tion, in 1825, was 10,766,1 12lbs., and in 1831, it had increased to 22,740,627lbs., yielding a nett revenue of £583,751. The consumption of the United King- dom may, at present, be estimated at COF 308 COI about 23,000,000lbs., producing about £600,000 of revenue. The quantity of Coflfee imported into the United kinnis rn u-nlcfedirrp" the wreck at Pantg San. IheCaribbces attack the Spaniards LONDON: THOMAS KELLY, 1840. COL 315 COL COLUMBO. the modern capital of Ceylon. In 1656, the town and fortress were taken from the Portuguese by the Dutch, in wliose possession they remain- ed until 1796, when ihey were captured by the English, and subsequently ceded to them by tlie treaty of Amiens. COLUMBUS,"Christopher. the celebrated navigator, and discoverer of America, was a citizen of the republic of Genoa, born in 1447. Having attained with surprising quickness a competent knowledge of geometry, astronomy, and the theory of navigation, he went to sea at the age of 14. His first voyages were to those parts of the Mediteranean fre- quented by the Genoese, after which he took a voyage to Iceland, and proceeding further north, advanced several degrees within the polar circle. Having enter- tained the notion that, by sailing across the Atlantic ocean, directly towards the west, new countries, which he supposed formed a part of the vast continent of India, must infallibly be discovered, in 1474, he communicated his ideas on this Bubject to his contemporary Paul, a physician of Florence, a man eminent for his knowledge of cosmography and geometry, who encouraged him to secure the patronage of some of the European powers. Many years were spent in fruitless attempts "to accomplish this end, and Columbus was treated as a visionary, who would doubtless perish in making so desperate an attempt. At length,- he gamed the approbation of Isabella, queen of Portugal, and a treaty was signed with Columbus, April 17, 1492. The chief articles of it were, that Co- lumbus should be constituted admiral of all the seas, islands, and continents he should discover, with the same powers and prerogatives that belonged to the admiral of Castile, within the limits of his jurisdiction. 1492. Columbus sailed August 3, and after many difficulties, discovered San Salvadore, October 12, and after- wards most of the "Bahama or Lucayo group, with the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola. 1493. Columbus returned to Europe, and arrived at Palos, in Spain, March 15. As soon as his ship was discovered, the inhabitants ran eagerly to the shore, to welcome their relations and fellow- citizens, and to learn the tidings of their voyage. Columbus repaired to the court, then at Barcelona, where he was received with all the respect and honours due to his great achievements. He set off on his second voyage in September, in the course of which he discovered Dominica, Mariengalante, fiuadalonpe, Montserrat, Antigua, Porto Rico, and Jamaica. 1496. Columbus returned to Sjiaia disgraced, through the envious and mu- tinous temper of the colonists. The dignity of his conduct silenced his ene- mies, and, with the assistance of the gold and precious commodities which he had brought with him, he recovered the good opmion of his sovereigns. They resolved to make every exertion to render the new colony a permanent and com])lete establishment, i)y sending out such re- inforcements as Columbus thought neces- sary for the purpose. 1498. Columbus sailed a third time to the west, and discovered the Ameri- can continent, near the mouth of the river Oroonoko, August 1. During his absence, a rautiny.had been excited, and some of his people had seceded from tlie main body. New complaints were se- cretly transmitted to court against him and his brothers. Columbus was then recalled, and Francis de Bovadilla ap- pointed in his stead. On his arrival in Spain, he was instantly set at liberty, and treated with that civility and kind- ness from the king and queen which he had formerly experienced. 1502. He made a fourth voyage, and on arriving off St. Domingo, he found eighteen ships, richly laden, ready to depart for Europe. His own experience led him to perceive an approaching storm; he accordingly requested permission to enter the harbour, and at the same time warned the fleet of the dangers to which it would infallibly be exposed by sailing at that juncture. His request and his warning were equally disregarded. The hurricane came on, and though, by pro- per precautions, he saved his own vessel, it fell upon the fleet with so much vio- lence, that only two or three vessels es- caped ; and Bovadilla, with several others of his most inveterate enemies, perished with all their ill-gotten wealth. In jmr- suing his voyage, he traced the coast of Darien, in hopes of discovering a strait, which he imagined would open a new track to the East Indies. On his voyage, he was driven back by a violent tempest, from the coast of Cuba, his ships fell foul of one another, and_ COM 316 COM were so much shattered by the shock, that, with the utmost difficulty, they reached Jamaica. Here he endured the greatest calamities, as well from the mutinous dispositions of his own men, as from the suspicions of the natives, who refused to supply them with pro- visions, till by his skill in astronomy, he predicted the event of an approaching eclipse, a circumstance that gave him an irresistible authority over their minds. Columbus was at length delivered by a fleet sent from Hispaniola; and, after various difficulties, he arrived at St. Lucar, in Spain, in December, 1504. Isabella being dead, he applied to the king, who only amused him with pro- mises, and instead of granting his claims, insulted him with the proposal of re- nouncing them all for a pension. Ex- hausted with the calamities which he had endured, and broken with the infirmities which these brought upon him, he died at ValladoUd, May 20, 1506, in the 59th year of his age. He was buried in the cathedral at Seville, and on his tomb was engraven an epitaph, in memory of his renowned actions and discovery of a new world. COLUMBUS, Barthol., map and chart-maker, brother of the preceding, died 1514. COLUMELLA, Lucius Junius MoDERATUS, a Roman agricultural writer, was a native of Cadiz, and lived under the emperor Claudius, about 42. He is chiefly celebrated as the author of a work which has come down to our own times, entitled " De Re Rustica," and which contains, in 12 books, rules concerning the culture of various vege- tables, and the management of domestic animals. COLUMN of fire appeared in the air at Rome, 30 days, 390. COMBE Abbey, Warwickshire, built 1150. COMBE, William, author of " The Tour of Dr. Syntax in search of the Pic- turesque," " Devil on Two-Sticks, in England," and several other works, died 1823. COMBERMERE Abbey, Cheshire, built 1134. COMBINATIONS amongst journey- men forbidden by law, June 2, 1799. COMBUSTION, Spontaneous, of trees, grass, &c. in the church-yard of Plain Palais, Geneva; and of the roots of trees, at the village of Magland, Savoy, Aug. 1832. Of a fountain in Italy, May, 1833. Of turpentine in Mr. Mur- phy's turpentine distillery, Ireland, May 25, 1836, COMEDY, the first acted in Athens, on a scaffold, by Susarian and Dolon, A. c. 562 ; those of Terence first acted A.c. 154; the first in England, A. D. 1551. See Drama. COMENIUS, J. Amos, Moravian grammarian, died 1671. COMET, a heavenly body which re- volves about the sun, though in a far more eccentic orbit. Many of the ancient Chaldeans considered comets as lasting bodies, having stated revolutions like the planets. But the Greeks supposed that a comet was a vast assemblage of small stars meeting together, by reason of the inequality of their motions. Pythagoras about A.c. 512, believed them to be a kind of planets or wandering stars, dis- appearing in the superior parts of their orbits, and becoming visible only in the lower parts of them. Seneca, who lived in the first century, was the first who entertained just notions of comets. He foretold that at some future time, their nature would be known, their magnitude demonstrated, and their routes explained. Several ages elapsed before this pre- diction was fulfilled. Tycho Brahe was the first who attempted to restore the comets to their proper rank in the creation. Having diligently observed the comet of 1577, and finding that it 'had no sensible diurnal parallax, he very properly determined its true place to be among the other revolving bodies in the planetary regions, as appears by his book De Cometa, 1577- According to Hevehus, the diameter of the comet of 1652, was to that of the earth as 52 to 100. Flamsteed measured the comet of 1682, and found that the diameter of its atmosphere was 2' while that of the nucleus was no more than 11" or 12". The diameter of the comet of 1744, when at the distance of the sun from us, measured about l', consequently its diameter must have been about three times that of the earth. Comets traverse all parts of the hea- vens; their paths have every possible in- clination to the plane of the ecliptic. The identity of the elements is the only proof of the return of a comet to our system. Halley's comet. Halley comput- ed the elements of the orbit of a comet COM that appeared in the year 1682, which agreed so nearly with those of the comets of 1531 and 1607, that he con- cluded it to be the same body returning to the sun, at intervals of about 75 years. He consequently predicted its re-appear- ance in the year 1758, or in the begin- ning of 1759. Science was not suffi- ciently advanced in the time of Halley (who died in 1742,) to enable him to de- termine the perturbations, or irregulari- ties of motion, this comet might expe- rience ; but Ciairaut computed that it would be retarded in its motion a hun- dred days by the attraction of Saturn, and 518 by that of Jupiter, and conse- quentlj-^, that it would pass its perihelion about the middle of April, 1759, requir- ing 618 days more to arrive at that point in its preceding revolution. This, however, he considered only to be an ap- proximation, and that it might be 30 days Pontecoulant Long, perih. on the orbit.. 304° 31' 43" Long. asc. node 55 30 Inclination 17 44 24 Eccentricity '9675212 Semiaxis major 17"98705 Perihel. passage ; Paris mean time — from midnight. 1835, Nov. Besides Halley's comet, the following are now proved to form part of our system; that is to say, they return to the sun at intervals, one of 1207 days, and the other of six and three-quarter years, nearly. Encke's comet, or the comet of the short period, was first seen by M. M. Messier and Mechain in 1786, again by Miss Herschel in 1795, and its returns in the years 1805 and 1819, were ob- served by other astronomers, under the impression that all four were diflferent bodies. However, Professor Encke not only proved their identity, but deter- 317 COM more or less : the return of the comet, March 12, 1759, proved the truth of the prediction. M. M. Damolseau and Pon- tecoulent predicted that this comet would return in Nov. 1835. By observations made at the obser- vatory at Rome, we learn that a comet answering to the description, was visible there so early as the month of August, 1835, and it is well known that it was seen in England in September of the same year, and continued visible for several months. This is the first comet whose periodicity has been established ; it is also the first whose elements have been determined from observations made in Europe. The resulting sets of ele- ments by diflferent observers are here given in which the longitude of the peri^- helion is reckoned on the orbit instead of on the ecliptic. Damoiseau . 304° 27' 24" 55 nP 7 17 41 5 •9673055 17"9852 Lubbock 304° 23' 39" 55 3 59 17 42 50 967348 17-98355 7*2 1835, Nov. 4-32 1835,Oct. 301993 mined the circumstances of the comet's motion. Its re-appearance in the years 1825, 1828, and 1832, accorded with the orbit assigned by M. Encke, who thus established the length of its period to be 1207 days, nearly. Ephemeris of Encke's comet, near the time of its passing the perihelion, in the year 1832; computed from the follow- ing elements of its orbit, as corrected from the latest observations, and for the principal perturbations, up to Jan. 1832 :— Passage of the perihelion 1832, May 3, 98444. Longitude of the perihelion on the orbit. . Longitude of the ascending node 334 Inclination 13. Eccentricity sm. 57. Mean daily motion Log. of the semi-axis major Meantime at Greenwich. 157° 21' 2", 4 32. 5, 2 22. 12, 3 43. 6, 3 107r',09598 0,3467855 i sin.

y of every published book to the libraries of Sion College, the four universities of Scotland, and of the King's Inns, in Dublin. But compensation is to be granted by the treasury on an average of three years, to be applied in the purchase of books, &c. The act 2 Vic. c. 13, June 4, 1839, extends the protection afforded by the 27 Geo. III. c. 38, and the 34 Geo. III. 23, to copyright in designs for calico- printing, to all fabrics woven of wool, silk, or hair, and to mixed fabrics com- posed of any two or more ot the mate- rials, linen, cotton, wool, silk, or hair. It also extends the protection to Ire- land. 1839. 2 Vic. c. 17, June 14, secures to projmetors of designs, for articles of manufacture, the copyright of such de- signs for a limited time. It enacts that every proprietor of a new and original design, made for any of the following purposes, and not pubhshed before July 1, 1S39, shall have the sole right to use the same for any such purpose during 12 calendar months from its being re- gistered, according to this act. It di- rects the appointment, by the board of trade, of a registrar, deputy registrar, and clerks, who are to give certificates of registration, and be entitled to the fees to be paid by the treasury, and liable to a penalty of £50 for extortion. Sche- dule— 27 Geo. III. c. 38 ; 29 Geo. Ill, c. 19; 34 Geo. III. c. 23; 2 Vic. c. 15. CORAL was well known to the an- cients, but it M'as reserved for the mo- derns to discover its real nature. It is, in fact, the nidus or nest of a certain species of vermes, which has the same relation to coral, that a snail has to its shell. Coral is found in very great abundance in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, in various places in the Mediter- ranean, on the coast of Sumatra, &c. CORAL Isles. Mr Darwin, who accompanied Captain Fitzroy, as natu- ralist, in his recent expedition in H.M.S. Beagle, entertains the following new views respecting the history of the Coral Isles. Those vast tracts of the Pacific, contain, along with small portions of scattered land, innumerable long reefs and small circles of coral which have hitherto been full of problems, of which no satisfactory solution could be found. Mr. Darwin supposes that, " all these circumstances, the linear or annularfonn, their reference to the boundary of the land, the clusters of .'ittle islands occu- pying so small a portion of the sea, and. COR above all, the existence of the solid coral at the bottom of deep seas, point out to us that the bottom of the sea has de- scended slowly and graduallj', carrying with it both land and coral; while the animals of the latter are constantly em- ployed in building to the surface, and thus mark the shores of the sub- merged lands, of which the summits may or may not remain extant above the waters." Mr. Darwin explains " how corals, which, when the level is permanent, fringe the shore to the depth of 20 fa- thoms, as the land gradually sinks, be- come successively encircling reefs at a distance from the shore; or barrier reefs at a still greater distance and depth, or, when the circuit is small, lagoon islands: — how, again, the same corals, when the land rises are carried into elevated situa- tions, where they remain as evidences of the elevation." Mr. Darwin has, upon evidence of this kind, divided, in a map, the surface of the Southern Pacific and Indian Oceans, into vast bands of alter- nate elevation and depression. " We have seen the remarkable confirmation of his views in the observation that active volcanos occur only in the areas of elevation ;" and the author has pre- sented this subject under an aspect which cannot but have the most power- ful influence on the speculations con- cerning the history of our globe. — The Rev. Mr. WheweWs address to the Geo- logical Society, February, IS 38. CORAM, Captain Thomas, pro- jector and founder of the Foundling- hospital, died, March 29, 1751, aged 84. CORBET, Bishop of Norwich, English poet, died 1635. CORCYRA, (now Corfu,) one of the Gi-eek islands, situated in the Ionian sea. The Corinthians sent hither a nu- merous colony, A.c. 756. The Corcy- rians submitted to Alexander, and re- mained subject to the kings of Macedon, till they were delivered by the Romans, in the reign of Perses ; from which time they enjoyed their liberty, till the reign of Vespasian, when they underwent the common fate of the other Greek islands and states, both in Europe and Asia. See Corfu. CORDAGE. In 1839, Messrs. Lan- dauer, of Stuttgard, patented a new species of cordage, the threads of which are not twisted one over the other, but united in a parallel direction. A cord, 331 COR one inch and three quarters in circum- ference, has sustained a weight of l,300lbs., without breaking; and when, at last, an additional weight caused it to break, the fracture resembled a cut with scissors, which proves that each thread was of equal strength. A cord of 504 threads, three inches and three-six- teenths in circumference, 111 feet long, woven in this manner, only weighed IQlbs., whilst an ordinary cord of the same circumference and length, and as many threads, weighed 51 pounds and a half. CORDER, "William, tried at Bury St. Edmund's for the murder of Maria Marten, May 18, 1827, a young woman whom he had decoyed from her home to a barn, near Polstead, and there mur- dered. The prisoner was found guilt}'', and afterwards confessed the crime. He was executed August 11. An extraor- dinary excitement throughout the king- dom u-'as produced by this murder and trial. CORDOVA, a town of Spain, an- ciently called by the Romans Colonia Patricia, afterwards Corduba. The time of its foundation is not known.- In 572, it was conquered by the Goths, and in 692, by the Moorish chief Abderahman, who afterwards renounced his allegiance to the caliph of Damascus, and made Cordova his royal residence : taken by the French, November, 1809. CORDOVA, university of, founded 968. CORDWAINERS' Company, Lon- don, incorporated 1410. COREA, a country to the north east of China, which had always been sup- posed to be a peninsula till 1816, when the vessels which conveyed the British embassy to China exjolored its coast, and it was then found to consist of an im- mense number of islands. CORELLI, Arcangelo, a celebrated Italian musician, born in 1653, at Bo- logna. In 1680 he visited Germany, and met Mdth a reception suitable to his me- rit from most of the German princes, particularly the elector of Bavaria. His proficiency on his favourite instrument, the violin, was so great, that the fame of it spread throughout Europe. He died at Rome in 1713. CORELLI, SiGNORA, the learned Italian lady, received the triumph of a coronation at Rome, .July 31, 1755. CORENTIN, or Corkntyn, a river COR 332 COR of South America, first explored by Mr. Schomburgk, 1835-6. CORFE CASTLE, Dorset, built 970. Borough of, disfranchised 1832. CORFU, the ancient Corey ra. The present name of Corfu is said to be de- rived from the Greek verb, to overtop, alluding; to the hill, or turret-like rocks, on which the modern citadel is built; the name being given after the destruc- tion of the eastern empire. About the close of the 14th century it came into, the power of the Venetians ; it was afterwards taken by the French, and formally ceded to them by the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797. In March, 1799.. it was wrested from the French by the united powers of Russia and Turkey, associated with the neighbouring isles of Cephalonia and Zante, and erected into a republic under the denomination of "The Seven Islands." CORINTH was for some time the most illustrious of all the Greek cities, said to have been founded a.c. 1514, by Sisyphus, the son of iEolus, and then called Ephyre. Corinthus, the son of Pelops, afterwards rebuilt and beautified the city, and it has since been called by his name. The genius of the Corinthians led them to commerce rather than mar- tial exploits, and their city became the finest in all Greece. It was adorned with the most sumptuous temples, pa- laces, theatres, porticoes, &c., all of them enriched with beautiful columns, thence called Corinthian. The Heraclidse began to reign there A c. 1111. It became a republic under annual prytanes, 757- Cypselus be- came tyrant 659 ; recovered its liberty, 582 ; joined the Achaean league 243 ; was conquered by the Romans 146. The town lay desolate until Julius Caesar settled there a Roman colony. Strabo was at Corinth soon after its restoration by the Romans; and, about 200 years after it was visited by Pausanias. The Roman colony suffered the same calamity as the Greek city. It was be- sieged and taken, a.d. 1456, by Maho- met II. Corinth, with the Morea, was yielded to Venice in 1698 ; and again by Venice to the Turks in 1715 It gradually decayed under their infatuated government until the Greek revolution, after which it w&s included in the new kingdom of Greece. CORIOLANUS, Caius Marcius, a celebrated Roman general, derived his sur-name from Corioli, a town of tha Volci, which he had taken a.c. 493. About this time dissensions prevailed between the patricians and ])lebians. Coriolanus took part with the former, but disgusting the people by his haughtiness, he was banished Rome by the tribune Decius, A.c. 491. He went over to the Volci, and persuading them to take up arms against the Romans, they encamped within four miles of the city, a.c. 488. He would not listen to proposals of peace till he was prevailed upon by his wife and mother. Some historians say he lived to a great age ; others maintain that he was slain in a tumult excited against him for yielding to the prayers of his country. CORK, the thick and spongy bark of a species of oak (quercus suber Lin). The Greeks and Romans were both well acquainted with cork. They seem also to have occasionally used it as stoppers for vessels ; but it was not extensively employed for this purpose till the 17th century, when glass bottles, of which no mention is made before the 15th century, began to be generally intro- duced. CORK, city of, Ireland, founded pro- bably in the seventh century, walled in the ninth century, granted to Fitzstephen in 1177 by Henry II., besieged by the earl of Marlborough in 1690, when the duke of Grafton was killed. Monastic houses were founded here in 696, 1134, i214, 1229. CORN. Ceres has the credit of being the first that showed the use of corn, on which account she was placed among the gods. Others give the honour to Trip- tolemus ; others share it between the two — make Ceres the first discoverer, and Triptolemus the first planter and cul- tivator of corn. The Athenians pretend it was among them that the art began ; and the Cretans, or Candiots, Sicilians, and Egpytians, lay claim to the same. It is generally reckoned, however, that it was in Egy})t that the art of cultivating corn first began ; and it is certain there was corn in Egypt and the east long before the time of Ceres. See Agricul- ture. Egypt was anciently the most fertile of all countries in corn, as ap[)ears both from sacred and profane history. It furnished a good part of the people subject to the Roman empire, and was called the dry nurse of Rome and Italy, COR England, France, and Poland, seem now to have supplied the place of Egypt, and with their superfluities support a good part of Europe CORN Laws and Trade. From the circumstance of corn forming the principal part of the food of most coun- tries, the trade in it has for nearly seven centuries been the subject of legisla- tion. For a long time the legal regu- lations were principally intended to promote abundance and low prices. But, though the purpose was laudal)le, the means adopted for accomplishing it had, for the most part, a directly oppo- site effect. Directions are given m the statute en- titled Judicium Pillorie, supposed to be of the date of 51 Henry III. (1266-70 to ascertain the avei-age price of wheat and other grain. In 1351, when the statute of labourers was passed, wages were, under some circumstances, regu- lated by the market price of corn. In 1360 the exportation of corn was pro- hibited by statute 34 Edw. III. c. 20. In 1389, a statute was enacted which prohibited innkeepers and others taking more than one halfpenny per bushel for oats over the common price in the mar- ket. 13 Ric. II. s. 1. c. 18. In 1393, corn might be exported by king's sub- jects, " to \yhat parts that please them," except to the king's enemies. " Never- theless," it is added, " the king wills that his council may restrain the said passage when they shall think best for the profit of the realm. 17 Ri'c II. c. 7- Two statutes passed respectively in 1391, 15 Ric. II. c. 4. and in 1413, I. Hen. V. c. 10. notice the irregularity which existed throughout the country in buying and selling corn. 1436. The exportation of wheat was allowed by statutes, without the neces- sity of obtaining the king's license, when the price per quarter at the place of shipment was 6s. 8d. 15 Hen. VI. c. 2. In 1441, this statute was continued, and in 1444-5 it was rendered per- petual. About 20 years afterwards occurred the first symptoms of a protective corn-law from which we may conclude that the balance of prices had turned, in a sta- tute passed in 1463, (3 Edw. IV. c. 2.) in the preamble of which it is remarked that " whereas the labourers and occu- piers of husbandry within this realm be daily grievously endamaged by bringing 333 COR of corn out of other lands and parts into this realm, when corn of the growing of this realm is at a low price," in remedy of which it is enacted that wheat should not be imported, unless the price at the place of importation exceeded 65. 8d. per quarter. After a considerable period had elaps- ed, the foreign trade in wheat and other grain again became the object of new enactments. The corn dealers were looked upon with suspicion by every one. The agriculturists concluded that they would be able to sell their pro- duce at higher prices to the consumers, were the corn dealers out of the way : while the consumers concluded that the profits of the dealers were made at their e.xpense; and ascribed the dearths that were then very prevalent, entirely to the practices of the dealers, or to their buy- ing up corn and withholding it from market. These notions, which have still a considerable degree of influence, led to various enactments, particularly Stat. 5, 6 Ed. VI. 1551-2, by which the freedom of the internal corn trade was entirely suppressed. By this en- actment engrossers (persons buying corn to sell again,) were subjected to heavy penalties. For the third offence they were to be set in the pillory, to forfeit their personal effects, and to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. The acts of 1436 and 1463, before re- ferred to, regulating the prices when ex- portation was allowed and when impor- tation was to cease, continued nominally in force till 1562, when the prices at which exportation might take place were extended to 10s. for wheat and 6s. 8d. for barley. But a new principle — that of imposing duties on exportation — was soon after introduced ; and, in 1571, it was enacted, 13 Eliz. c. 13. that wheat might be exported, paying a duty of 2s. a quarter, and barley and other grain a duty of Is. 4c?., whenever the home price of wheat did not exceed 20s. a quarter, and barley and malt 12s. In 1592-3, the price at which exportation was permitted was raised to 20s. per quarter, and the customs duty was fixed at 2s. In 1603-4 the importation price was raised to 26s. 8d. per quarter ; and in 1623, to 32s. — having risen, in the course of 65 years, from 6s. 8d. By the 21 Jac. I. c. 28. no alteration was made in the unenhghtened restrictions imposed by the 5 and 6 Edward VI. c. COR 334 COR H. about 70 years before ; and, unless wheat was under 32s. per quarter, and other grain in proportion, buying corn and selling it again was not permitted. The king could restrain the liberty of exportation by proclamation. In 1G60, a new scale of duties was introduced. When the price of wheat per quarter was under 44s. the duty rose to 6s. 8d. Exportation was permitted free wlien- ever the price of wheat did not exceed 40s. per quarter. Up to the middle of the l7th century the object of legislating on food was professedly the welfare of the poor, who, in those times, always suffered severely when the supply was limited ; but, in 1663, a statute was passed 15 Car. II. c. 7, which was avowedly for the pro- tection of another interest in the com- munity. By this act the high duties on exportation were taken off, and an ad valorem duty imposed in their stead, at the same time that the hmit of exportation was extended. In 16/0, a still more de- cided step was taken in favour of agri- culture ; an act being then passed which extended the exportation ])rice to 53s. 4d. a quarter of wheat, and otlier grain in proportion, imposing at the same time prohibitory duties on the importation of wheat till the price rose to 53s. 4c/., and a duty of 8s. between that price and 80s. But the real effects of this act were not so great as might have been anticipated. The extension of the limit of exportation was rendered compara- tively nugatory, in consequence of the continuance oi the duties on exportation caused by the necessities of the crown, while the want of any jn-oper method for the determination of prices went far to nullify the prohibition of impor- tation. At the accession of William III., 1668, a new system was adopted. The interests of agriculture were then looked tipon as of paramount importance : and to promote them, not only were the duties on exportation totally abolished, but it was encouraged l)y the grant of a bounty of 5s. on every quarter of wheat exported while the price continued at or below 48s. ; of 2s. 6d. on every quarter of barley or malt, while their respective prices did not exceed 24s. ; and of 3s. 6(/. on every quarter of rye, when its price did not exceed 32s. (1 Will, and Mary, c. 12.) A bounty of 2s. 6d. a quarter was sul)sequently given upon the expor- tation of oats and oatmeal, when the price of the former did not exceed 15s. a qu 2 >> 4 6 11 1,165 I 59 1838 § 2 1 30 116 H In the first of the above periods, in 1818, the criminal proceedings are shown at the time of the greatest severity of the criminal code. In the next period, 1828, the criminal procedure is shown after the passing of Mr. Peel's acts before men- tioned. In 1838 the results produced by the abolition of capital punishments in the years 1832, 1833, 1834, 1835, and by the important changes effected by the acts of the 1st Victoria, just stated, are shown. The acts of the 1st Vic. have, also both directly and indirectly, caused a great reduction in theseverity of the secondary punishments. Of 13 oflfences subject to ti-ansportation for life, for six of which that punishment was a fixed term, the period has been -reduced to a term of transportation not exceeding 15 years at a maximum, or to imprisonment for any term. CRIMINALS, Remarkable. 1594. John Chastel, attempted to kill Henry IV., of France, December 27. He was executed two days afterwards. 1605. Gunpowder plot conspirators, executed at the west corner of St. Paul's church-yard. See Gunpowder Plot. 1671- Colonel Blood attempted to steal the crown from the Tower, May. He died 1680, and lies buriOT in the chapel at Tothill Fields. 1733. Sarah Malcolm, whose memory has been perpetuated by Hogarth, ex- ecuted for the murder of three women. The ordinary who attended her sold her confession for £20. She lies buried in St. Sepulchre's church-yard. 1 752. Mary Blandy, hanged at Oxford for poisoning her father, at the instiga- tion of her lover, Cranstoun. 1757. Damiens attempted to assassi- CRI 353 CRO nate Louis XV., king of France, and was executed March 29. 1759. Eugene Aram executed August 6, for the murder of Daniel Clarke, which crime was concealed 14 years. 1760 Lord Ferrers executed at Ty- burn for the murder of his steward. 1767. Mrs. Elizabeth Brownrigg ex- ecuted for the murder of one of her ap- prentices. Her skeleton is preserved in a glass case at Surgeons' Hall. 1772. Counts Struensee and Brandt, the minister and favourite of the king of Denmark, executed on the accusation that the former had had an intrigue with the queen of Denmark. 1777. Rev. Dr. William Dodd execut- ed at Tyburn for forgery. In 1773 he was the prosecutor of a highwayman, who suffered on the same spot on which Dr. Dodd expiated his crime four years afterwards. 1779. Rev. Mr. Hackman executed at Tyburn for the murder of Miss Ray, whom he shot through the head under Co- vent-garden Piazzas, He was tried, and suffered within a week after the murder. 1783. Ryland, the engraver, executed at Tyburn for forgery. He was appre- hended from having sent a pair of boots to be mended, inside of which was writ- ten his name. 1802. J. Wall, governor of Goree, for the murder of Sergeant Armstrong. 1803. Colonel Edward Marcus Des- pard, executed in the Borough for high treason. He lies buried in the cemetry belonging to St. Faith, in St. Paul's church-yard. 1811. Hon. Arthur Hodge, in Tor- tola, for the murder of his slave, 1812. John Bellingham, executed for the murder of Mr. Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer. May 18. I8I7. John Cashman, a sailor, one of the Spafields rioters, executed for steal- ing fire-arms from the shop of Mr. Beck- with, March 12. 1824. Henry Fauntleroy, executed for forgery, Nov. 30. 1831. Bishop andWiUiams.for the mur- der of the Italian boy, and other persons, for the purpose of disposing of their bodies to the surgeons, executed Dec. 5. 1836. Fieschi, Pepin, and Morey, executed in February, for attempting to assassinate the king of the French, July 28, 1835. 1836. Alibaud beheaded; July 11, for attempting the life of the French king June 25. 1840. Edward Oxford, for shooting at the Queen and Prince Albert, June 10. Confined during her majesty's pleasure, on the ground of insanity, Julv. CRIMP-HOUSES, in London, de- stroyed by the mob, Sept. 1794-5. CRIPPLEGATE, London, pulled down and sold for £91., July, 1760. CRISPUS, son of Constantine the Great, poisoned by order of his father, under a false accusation of his mother- in-law, 326. CROCKERY first manufactured, a. c. 1309. CRCESUS, king of Lydia, flourished A.c. 562. CROFT, William, musician, born 1677, died 1727, aged 70. CROIX. Saint, a Swedish island in the West Indies, taken by the English, March 31, 1801. CROMWELL, Thomas, earl of Es- sex, was the son of a blacksmith at Put- ney, born 1490. In 1510, he visited Rome. On his return he was patronised by Cardinal Wolsey,and assisted him in founding the two colleges of Christ- church, Oxford, and Ipswich, and in pro- curing, in 1525, the suppression of some monasteries for their endowment. He became, by degrees, the favourite and afterwards prime minister of Henry VIII., who rewarded his services by many honourable offices, and at length gave hira a seat in the house of peers, with the title of Lord Cromwell, of Oke- ham. He was appointed chief justice itinerant of the forests beyond Trent, and in 1 539 was advanced to the dignity of earl of Essex, and lord high cham- berlain of England, He advised the king to marry Anne, of Cleves, whose friends were Lutherans. Henry took a dislike to this lady, and determined to be revenged on Cromwell. He was ac- cordingly arrested on the charge of high treason, condemned without any oppor- tunity of defending himself, and was be- headed on Tower Hill, July 28, 1540. CROMWELL, Oliver, Protector of England, was born in the parish of St. John, Huntingdon, on April 35 or 26, 1599, and educated at a free-school in that town. From this school he was re- moved to Sidney College, Cambridge, where he was admitted in 1616. His father died when he had been two years at college, and Cromwell was called home; 2 z CRO 354 CRO but the irregularity of his life so much grieved his mother, that, by the advice of some friends, she sent him to Lon- don, and placed him in Lincoln's Inn. He was elected a member of the tliird parliament of Charles L, vi'hich met on Jan. 10, 1628, and was a member of the committee for^ considering matters of religion, where he distinguished himself by his zeal against popery. 1638. Cromwell first came into pub- lic notice through the recommendation of his friend and relation Mr. Hampden. He was elected member of the Long Par- liament, for Cambridge, in the year 1640. In 1642, he raised a troop of horse, of which he took the command by a commission from the earl of Essex. In 1643-4, made lieutenant-general of the horse in the army of the duke of Manchester, and in the battle of Marston- moor, July 3, 1644, his cavalry turned the fortune of the day, and gave the first severe blow to the royal party. On June 15, 1645, he distinguished himself by the most brilliant exploits in the battle of Naseby. He went out in 1649, in quality of lord lieutenant of Ireland, with ample powers. He reduced Ire- land to obedience, and returned to Lon- don in the following spring. Went to Scotland in 1658, where the battle of Dunbar, fought Sept. 3, terminated in a complete victory over the Scots, with great slaughter. Cromwell followed the king to England, and at Worcester on Sept. 3, 1651, he obcained over the royal army what he denominated his " crown- ing victory," attended with the total de- struction of his opponents. The Long Parliament had become ex- ceedingly unpopular in the country. Cromwell took advantage of the odium which attached to them, and resolved on their dissolution. Having prepared the way, on April 19, 1653, he called a council of officers, took a parcy of 300 soldiers, whom he placed about the ave- nues to the parliament-house, and en- tered himself as a spectator of their i)ro- ceedings. After some altercation," Come, come," said he, " I will put an end to your prating. You are no longer a par- liament; I say, you are not a parlia- ment." To conclude the scene, he seized the books and papers, turned the members out of the house, and locked the doors. He was made Protector of the Common- wealth of England, Scotlajid, and Ireland, Dec. 16, 1653, and he was solemnly in- vested with the trust in Westminster- hall. He applied himself to state aflTairs made peace with Holland, and entered into treaties with Denmark, Sweden, and Portugal. France and Spain appeared ambitious of his friendship, and the general state of Europe was such as to give to England a large share of conse- quence among surrounding nations. 1656. Cromwell had recourse to an- other parliament in order to obtain the necessary pecuniary supplies. Conspira- cies were discovered, and many suffered. From this time the health of the Pro- tector began visibly to decline ; the cares and the fears, connected with his great- ness, were doomed to bring him to a speedy end. A slow fever terminated his e.xistence, Sept. 3, 1658. See Britain. " Oliver Cromwell," says Mr. Gran- ger, " united in a very high degree, the characters of the politician and general ; and occasionally assumed those of the buffoon, and the preacher. He broke from his obscurity, at an age when others think themselves doomed to it for ever ; and when many begin to en- tertain thoughts of retiring from the world, he began to take the most con- spicuous part in it. He availed himself of the virtues and vices, the talents and weaknesses of mankind ; and such ob- stacles as would have been insurmount- able to an inferior genius, helped greatly to carry him on in his career. He has been regarded by foreigners, and of late, by many of his countrymen, as the greatest man this nation ever pro- duced. It has been disputed which he most deserved, a halter or a crown ; and there is no less disparity betwixt the characters drawn of him, and the reports propagated by his enemies and his friends." CROMWELL, Richard, eldest son of the protector, was born at Hunting- don, in 1626. Proclaimed protector, Sept. 1658; resigned. May, 1659; died, 1712. CROMWELL, Mrs. S., great-great- granddaughter of the protector, Oliver Cromwell, and last of the name, died at Cheshunt, Feb. 28, 1834, aged 90 years. CRONSTADT, near St. Petersburg, founded by Peter the Great, of Russia, 1704 ; considerably injured by fire 1741.. CROSS Street Hospital, Win- chester, built, 1132. CROSS, the sign of, first used by christians, 110. CroTnwell dissdviDg ibe Long Parb amen.l . Chafles V.' demancLs the Five MenibGr s . V) aLtle of Nasbey. The King dclivpreAup by the Scots. Kxcmijon CRO 355 CRO CROSSES, first set upon steeples and spires, 568. CROWE, William, author of the " Treatise on English Versification," and public orator of the university of Ox- ford ; born in 1766, died Feb. 9, 1829, aged 83. CROWN, the first Roman that wore one was Tarquin, a.c. 6l6. CROWN OF England, Succes- sion OF THE. Egbert was sole monarch of England, 82/. From Egbert the crown descended regularly, and with very little deviation. In the three suc- ceeding reigns, it was suspended by force, till the Saxon line was restored in Edward the Confessor, who, indeed, was not the next heir ; because Edmund II. had a son living, Edward, an outlaw, in Hungary. On Edward the Confessor's decease, Harold II. usurped the throne, though the right remained in Edgar Atheling, son of Edward, the outlaw, and grandson of Edmund II. At this time, William I., duke of Nor- mandy, claimed a right from a grant of Edward the Confessor, and by conquest transferred the crown to a new family. From him it descended to his second emd third sons, William II., and Henry I., his eldest son, Robert, being kept out of possession by his brothers. Henry I. was succeeded by Stephen, grandson of WiUiam I., by his daughter Adelicia; his eldest brother, Theobald, waving his claim ; and Maud, the daughter of Henry I., and grandson of Edward the outlaw, to whom the succession belong- ed, being excluded by force. However, her son, Henry II., as heir of William I., succeeded Stephen; though the pro- per heirs in the Saxon line were sons of Malcolm, king of Scotland, by Margaret, the daughter of Edward the outlaw. But Henry I. having married the daugh- ter of Edgar Atheling, by whom he had Maud, and her son, Henry II., coming to the crown, in some measure restored the Saxon line. From Henry II., the crown descended to his eldest son then living, Richard I., on whose death it was seized by his bro- ther, John, Henry's youngest son, in exclusion of his nephew, Arthur. On the death of Arthur, and his sister, Ele- anor, without issue, the crown properly descended to Henry III., in an hereditary line of six generations, to Richard II., and this right of succession was declared in parliament, by 25 Edwd. HI. Rich- ard II. resigned the crown, and the right resulted to the issue of his grandfather, Edward III., and should have fallen on the posterity of Lionel, duke of Clarence, the first son of Edward III. ; but Henry, duke of Lancaster, descended from the third son of Edward III., usurped it under the title of Henry IV., pretending to be the next heir. Parliament (7 Hen. IV.) settled it on him and his heirs. Henry IV. was regularly succeeded by his son, and grandson, Henry V. and VI. Under Henry VI. the house of York, descended from Lionel, duke of Clarence, by the mother's side, began to to claim their dormant right, and esta- blished it in Edward IV. by parliament. This king was succeeded by his eldest son, Edward V,, who was deposed and succeeded|by his unnatural uncle, Rich- ard III., his father's brother, on a pre- tence of bastardy. During this reign, Henry VII., earl of Richmond, and descendant of the house of Lancaster, assumed the throne; and his possession was established by parliament, 1485. By his marrying Eliza- beth of York, Edward IV.'s daughter, the undoubted heiress of William the Conqueror, the families of York and Lancaster were united in Henry VIII,, her eldest son, who transmitted the crown in succession to his three chil- dren, confirmed by parliament, 25 Henry VIII. c. 12. This statute was repealed by 28 Henry VIII. c. 7, by which, after the king's divorce from Anne Boleyn, Mary and Elizabeth were bas- tardized. They were again legitimated, and the succession was restored by 35 Henry VIII. c. 1. Parliament now asserted its right of directing the succession by 13 Elizabeth, c. 1. On the death of Elizabeth, suc- ceeded James VI. of Scotland, our James I., (the lineal descendant of Margaret, daughter of Henry VII., and his wife, Elizabeth of York, the wife of James IV. of Scotland,) and in him were united, not only the principal competitors since the conquest, but likewise the right of the Saxon monarchs, he being the direct lineal descendant of Malcolm, who mar ried Margaret, daughter of Edmund II„ From James I., the crown descended to his second son, Charles I., his eldest son, Arthur, being dead. After him, the succession was inter- rupted by the usurpation of Oliver Cromwell, and his son Richard, but re- ctiU 356 CRU 8tore(l in I660, in Charles II., eldest son of Charles I. He dying without legiti- mate issue, it passed to his brother James II., whom parliament excluded, and called in William of Orange, and his wife, Mary, the eldest daughter of James II., 1668, to the exclusion of her father and her brother. On the death of William III., Anne, second daughter of James II., reigned, and she leaving no issue, the crown de- scended, as settled by parliament, 12 and 13 William III., on the princess Sophia of Hanover, the youngest daughter of Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia, who was the daughter of James I., and her heirs, being protestants. She dying before Queen Anne, her son, George I., suc- ceeded, in which family the crown has regularly descended to the present time. See Britain. CROWN-LANDS, in England, va- lued at £120,626 14*. id. per annum, the leases of which were between three and 31 years unexpired, ordered by par- liament to be sold, 1786. CROWN-POINT, United States, taken by the English, 1759 ; by the pro- vincials. May 14, 1775. CROWN-ROYAL, order of knight- hood, instituted in France, 802. CROXTON-ABBEY, Staffordshire, built, 1180. CROYLAND-ABBEY, Lincolnshire, built, 7I8 ; destroyed by the Danes, 867; rebuilt, 945 ; destroyed by fire, 1091 ; again built, 1112, about 30 years after which it was again burnt down, and fi- nally rebuilt, 1170. CROYLAND, the monk of, murdered at Peterborough, 863. CRUCIFIXES, painted, in churches, and chambers, first introduced, 461. CRUDEN, Alexander, the author of a concordance, generally allowed to be the best in the English language, was born at Aberdeen, in May, 1701. In 1732, he settled in London, partly as a bookseller, and partly as a corrector of the press. About two years afterwards, he was appointed the queen's book- seller. In 1733, he began to compile his "Concordanceofthe Holy Scriptures." The first edition was published in 1737, and dedicated to Queen Caroline. The author's affairs were now embarrassed ; he had none to look to for assistance; and in a fit of despondency, he gave up his trade, and became a prey to melan- choly. Shortly after this, he assumed the title of *' Alexander the Corrector," maintained that he was divinely com- missioned to reform the manners of the age, and restore the due observance of the sabbath. In 1770, he took lod- gings at Islington, where he died Novem- ber 1. CRUSADES, or Croisades, aname given to the expeditions of the christians to deliver Judea from the power of the Saracens. In 1065, the Turks took Je- rusalem from the Saracens, and the pil- grims found they could no longer per- form their devotions with safety. Peter, the hermit, having made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem, returned in 1093 ; deeply affected with the dangers to which the pilgrimswere exposed,he formed the bold design of leading into Asia, armies suffi- cient to subdue those potent and war- like nations which at that time held the Holy Land in slavery. The first crusade, consisting of 800,000 men, in separate bodies, and under dif- ferent commanders, set out for Constan- tinople, in 1096. The first successful enterprise was the siege of Nice, the ca- pital of Bithynia, which was taken inl097. The conquest of Jerusalem, which, after a siege of five weeks, submitted to their arms, in 1099, seemed to crown the ex- pedition of the crusaders M'ith success. The famous Godfrey was saluted king of Jerusalem with an unanimous voice. The second, crusade, undertaken in 1 144,at the request of the christians at Je- rusalem,wa8 unsuccessful. It was headed by the emperor Conrad III., and Louis VII., king of France ; but Saladin, who had raised himself to the sovereignty of Persia, Arabia, Syria, and Egypt, turned his attention to the conquest of Judea, and in 1187, took the city of Jerusalem. The third crusade was undertaken in 1189, by Frederic I., surnamed Barba- rossa, emperor of Germany, whose ex- ample was followed, 1190, by Philip Augustus, king of France, and Richard Coeur- de-lion, king of England. These two monarch s arrived in Palestine in the year 1191, and succeeded in their first encounters with the infidels. Richard at length, deserted by the French and Italians, concluded, 1192, with Saladin, a truce of three years, three months, and three days, and soon evacuated Pales- tine with his whole army. The fourth crusade was undertaken in the year 1195. In this expedition the chiistians gained several battles CUB 357 CUL against the infidels, and took a great many towns. The fifth crusade was proclaimed by order of Pope Innocent III., in 1198. A certain number of French nobles entered into an alliance with the repub- lic of Venice, and set sail for the east, but instead of steering their course to- wards Palestine, sailed directly for Con- stantinople, which they took by storm, in 1203. It was several years after this that the Grecian emperor, Michael Pa- laeologus, became master of Constan- tinople, and forced the Latin emperor, Baldwin II., to abandon the city. The sixth crusade began in 1228 ; in which the christians took the town of Damietta, but were forced to surrender it again. About 1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry III., king of England, arrived in Palestine, at the head of the English crusaders, but being too late to accomplish any thing but the conclusion of a peace, he re- embarked and steered towards Italy. The seventh crusade was headed by Louis IX. of France, in 1249, who took the town of Damietta, but the plague breaking out in the army, the king en- deavoured to retreat ; in which l)eing pursued by the infidels, most of the army were slain, and himself and the nobility taken prisoners. The eighth crusade, in 1270, was headed by the same prince, who made himself master of the port and castle of Carthage in Africa ; but this first success was soon followed by a fatal change in his aflTairs. The monarch was carried off by a pestilential disease, on August 25. Louis was the last of the European princes that embarked in the holy war ; the dangers and diflficulties, the calami- ties and disorders, and the enormous expenses that accompanied each crusade, disgusted the most jealous, and discou- raged the most intrepid promoters of these fanatical expeditions. CTESIAS, the Greek philosopher and historian, flourished a.c. 398. CTESIBIUS, of Alexandria, the ma- thematician, flourished a.c. 186. CTESIBIUS, the historian, flourished A.c. 256. He died aged 104. CUBA, island in the West Indies, discovered in 1492, by Columbus, and subdued in 1511, by Don Diego Velas- quez, who took the native chief prisoner. In 1762, the island was taken by theEng- hsh, but restored in 1763 to the Spani- ards in exchange for the Floridas,and has remained ever since in their possession. Cuba was damaged by an earthquake and violent rain, June 21, 1791, when 3000 persons perished,and 11,700 cattle of va- rious kinds, amongst them 3700 horses. CUBIC EauATioNS, solution of, discovered by Leonardus Pisanus ; in 1202. Improved by Scipio Ferreus, professor of mathematics at Bononia, about the year 1505. First published by Cardan, in the 10th book of his Al- gebra, printed at Milan in 1545. CUDDALORE, a town of Hindoos- tan. The site of this town was pur- chased by the East India Company in 1686, and became, by degrees, a fortified place. It was taken by the French in 1758, but restored to the British at the peace. Reduced by the French in 1781 ; and in 1783 was retaken by the British, after a very severe contest. CUDWORTH, Rev. Ralph, meta- physical writer, born I6l7, died 1688. CUJACIUS, James, jurist, born 1520, died 1590. CUJAS, James, French writer, born 1520, died 1590. CULDEE, a term applied to the monks and priests of Scotland and Ire- land, in the early ages of Christianity. They were remarkable for the religious exercises of preaching and praying, and were called, by way of eminence, Cul- tores Dei; from whence is derived the word Culdees. The overthrow of the Culdean worship was finally effected by Pope Adrian, 1155, when he claimed the sovereignty of these islands. CULLEN, Dr. William, an emi- nent Scotch physician, born in Lanark- shire, Scotland, Dec. 11, I7l2. After serving an apprenticeship to a surgeon apothecary in Glasgow, he went several voyages to the West Indies as a surgeon, in a trading vessel from London. In 1746, having taken the degree of doctor of medicine, he was appointed a lecturer in chemistry at the university of Glasgow : and in October began his lectures in that science. In 1751, he was appointed professor of medicine in the university of Glasgow ; professor of chemistry at the university of Edinburgh, in 1756; and professor of medicine at Edinburgh in 1765. He died February 5, 1790, aged 77. According to the observation of one who was well acquainted with the cha- racter of Cullen, he was eminently dis- CUM 858 tinguished as a professor for three tilings. '• The energy of his mind, by which he viewed every subject with ardour, and combined it immediately with the whole of his knowledge ; the scientific ar- rangement which he gave to his subject; and the wonderful art of interesting the students in every thing which he taught, and of raising an emulative enthusiasm among them." CULLERNE, Wiltshire, six miles from Bath, burnt, and 32 families re- duced to destruction, April 1, 1774. CULLODEN, Battle of, fought April 16, 1746, in which the duke of Cumberland obtained a complete victory over the rebels. They lost 2,000 men on the field and in the pursuit; the royal forces captured 222 French, and 326 rebels prisoners. All their artillery and ammunition were captured, together with the Pretender's baggage; there were also 12 stands of colours taken. The battle did not last half an hour, during which time no quarter was given on either side, so that the conflict was most bloody. The greatest part of the rebel chiefs were killed or captured, and the young Pre- tender was wounded, who fled by Inver- ness, being pursued by the light horse. CULROSS Forest took fire acci- dentally, July 25, 1803. CULVERINS first made in England, 1534. CUMBERLAND, Richard, English dramatic writer born February 19, 1732, died May 7, 1811. CUMBERLAND,DuKE of, now king of Hanover, attempt to assassinate him, May, 1810; married thedowager princess of Salm, 1814, at New Strelitz, and Aug. 29, 1815 re-married at Carlton House; motion for settling £6,000 per annum additional on both duke and duchess negatived in the House of Commons by a majority of one, July 3, 1815. His conduct in connection with Orange lodges, brought before the House of Commons by Mr. Hume, 1835. 1837. The duke of Cumberland, by the death of his brother, and the acces- sion of Queen Victoria, having become king of Hanover, made a solemn entry into his kingdom. The crowns of the United Kingdom and Hanover had be- come separated by the accession of Queen Victoria, through the operation of the Salique Law, by which female^do not succeed in the Hanoverian kingdom. June 5. A proclamation of this date CUR was issued by the king of Hanover in- forming his subjects that he intended to abrogate the constitution granted by his brother, William IV., in 1833. CUMOONA, in the East Indies, sur- rendered to the British forces, Nov. 21, 1807. CUNNINGHAM, John, the poet, born 1729, died 1773. CUNNINGHAM, Alan, the colonial botanist, than whom few men of his time have d(me more for botany and geography, died 1839. CUP, Sacramental, restored to the laity, 1547. CURACOA, seized by Holland, 1634; taken by the English, September 14, 1800; and January 1, 1807; restored at the general peace, 1814. CURATES, Stipendiary, law for the better support and maintenance of, 181 3. CURFEW-BELL, established by Wil- liam theConqueror, 1068, abolished, 1 103. CURRAN, John, the Irish orator, born 1750, died 1817. CURRIE, Dr. James, a celebrated phj^sician, born at Kirkpatrick Fleming, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, in 1756. He left his native country in 1771, and dur- ing his voyage suflFered many hardships. Settled at Liverpool in October, 1780, and by his superior talents and persever- ing exertions, succeeded in securing an extensive practice. In 1790, he was admitted a member of the London Medi- cal Society ; and about two years after- wards a fellowship of the Royal Society was conferred on him. In October, 1797- Dr. Currie sent forth a work entitled " Medical Report on the Effects of Wa- ter, cold and warm, as a Remedy in Fever and Febrile Diseases," &c. ; to which he chiefly owes his great celebrity in the medical world. But he obtained the highest general reputation by publish- ing, in 1800, the works of his country- man, Robert Burns, with an account of his life, and criticisms on his writings. Early in 1804, Dr. Currie's health began to decline. He died August 31, 1805, in the 50th year of his age. CURRIERS' Company, London, in- corporated, 1605. CURTIS, William, naturalist, born 1746, at Alton, Hants. In March, 1786, he began the "Botanical Magazine," which has been regularly published monthly ; this work, his " Flora Lon- dinensis," and his "Lectures on Botany," excited a spirit of inquiry into botanical cus 359 CUS science, which has continued to spread with still increasing energy. He died July 7, 1799. CURT I US, M. rode into a gulf at Rome, A.c. 362. CURTIUS, auiNTUs,author of " His- tory of Alexander," flourished a.c. 64. CUSTOM House, Lower Thames- street, London, first built 1559; burnt down and rebuilt, 1718 ; burnt down again February 12, 1814 ; rebuilt and opened for business. May 12, 1817. Long room of, fell in Janiiary 26, 182JI^ Foundation gave way, February, 1825 ; opened for the first time after repairs, March 3, 1828. 1833. February 14, a valuable col- lection of diamonds was stolen from Hall's bonded v/arehouse. Custom-house Quay. They had formerly been the property of a distinguished Spanish countess, who, after the death of King Ferdinand, and when a civil war was threatened by the partisans of Don Car- los, sent them to this country for their better security ; they were valued at £6,000. December 1 , by the most sin- gular accident, a portion of the diamonds was discovered in such a manner as to leave no doubt whatever that they had been in the possession of William Jourdan, who, with his accomplices was brought to trial March, 1836, and convicted. CUSTOM House, at Dublin, aban- doned by the commissioners of excise and customs, the boards being dissolved, and all the revenue business (as also that of Scotland) being transferred to the board in London. January 6, 1830. CUSTOMS, or Duties, charged upon commodities on their being imported into, or exported from a country, seem to have existed from time immemorial in every commercial country- The Athe- nians laid a tax of a fifth on the corn and other merchandise imported from foreign countries, and also on several of the commodities exported from Attica. The portaria, or customs payable on the commodities imported into, and export ed from, the different ports in the Roman empire, formed a very ancient and im- portant part of the public revenue. Un- der the imperial governnjent, the amount of the portaria depended as much on the caprice of the prince, as on the real exigencies of the state. Though some- times diminished, they were never en- tirely remitted, and were much more frequently increased. Under the By- zantine emperors, they were as high as 12^ per cent. Customs existed in England before the conquest; but the king's claim to them was first established by stat. 3 Ewd. L, 1274. These duties were, at first, principally laid on wool, woolfels, (sheepskins) and leather, then exported. The duties of tonnage and poundage, of which mention is so frequently made in English history, were custom "duties ; the first being paid on wine by the tun, and the latter being an ad valorem duty of so much a pound on all other mer- chandise. The various custom duties were collected, for the first time, in a book of rates published in the reign of Charles H. ; a new book of rates being again published in the reign of George L But exclusive of the duties entered in these two books, many more had been imposed at diflferent times ; so that the accumulation of the duties, and the com- plicated regulations to which they gave rise, were productive of the greatest embarrassment. 1787. The Customs Consolidation Act, introduced by Mr. Pitt, did much to remedy these inconveniences. The method adopted was, to abolish the existing duties on all articles, and to substitute in their stead one single duty on each article, equivalent to the aggre- gate of the various duties by which it had previously been loaded. The reso- lutions on which the act was founded amounted to about 3,000 Revenue dekived from the Custom Duties. In 1590, in the reign of Elizabeth, it amounted to no more than £50,000. In 1613, it had increased to £148,075 ; of which no less than £109,572 were collected in Lon- don. In 1660, at the restoration, the customs produced £421,582; and and at the revolution, in 1688, they pro- duced £781,987- During the reigns of William III., and Anne, the customs revenue was considerably augmented, the nett payments of the exchequer, in 1712, being £1,315,423. During the war, terminated by the peace of Paris in 1763, the nett produce of the customs revenue of Great Britain amounted to nearly £2,000,000. In 1792, it amount- ed to £4,407,000. In 1815, at the close of the war, it amounted to £11,360,000; and in 1832, it amounted to about £17,000,000, and, including Ireland, to about £18,500,000, CUV 360 C U Z •<• Amount of Customs of the United Kingdom, for the years 1837 and 1838. Countries. Gross Receipts in 1837. Gross Receipts in 1838. £. £. England 19,321,324 19,585,250 Scotland 1,626,291 1,666,399 Ireland. 1,945,849 1,951,507 Grand total 22,893,464 23,203,156 CUTLERS' Company, London, in- philosophic chair for his lectures. The corporated, 1417. restoration of the Bourbons, in 1814, C UTT A C K, district, Hindoostan. made little change in his position. On This country was conquered by Solyman fne accession of Louis-Philippe, he was Kerang, governor of Bengal, in 1569, made a peer, his previous title of baron and then annexed to that province. It having been merely nominal. The was subdued by the British in 1803, and Cabinet of Comparative Anatomy, form- since that time, has remained in their ed wholly by him in the Jardin des possession. Plantes, is a monument of his genius, CUTTING Grass. On Nov. 20, and is at once the illustration and result 1838, was read to the Linnsean Society, of his splendid works on fossil remains an account of a new species of Leptos- and comparative anatomy. He died at permea, by Dr. John Lhotsky, who dis- his residence in the Jardin des Plantea covered it in Tasman's Peninsula, Van at Paris, May 13, 1832. Diemen's Land. It is nearly allied to CUVIER, Frkderick, the jcounger theLeptospermeaelatiorof Labillardiere, brother of the illustrious baron Cuvier, and is remarkable for the great length and recently Professor of Animal Physi- of its leaves, varying from ten to 20 feet, ology to the Museum of Natural His- The leaf of the specimen exhibited was tory at Paris,, and Inspector-General of upwards of 13 feet long. It is termed the University. His appointment as " cutting grass ;" the sharp edges of its keeper of the Menageries at the Jar- leaves inflicting wounds on the unwary din des Plantes, furnished him with the traveller who passes the plant hastily. mostfavourable opportunities of studying CUVIER, Baron, George Leo- the habits of animals, their physiology, FOLD, the celebrated comparative anato- and structure. The "Annales d' His- mist, was the son of an officer in the Swiss toire Naturelle," and the '* Memoires regiment of Waldner, and born in Aug. du Museum," contain a series of his 1769,. at Montbeliard. Having removed memoirs on zoological subjects of great to Normandy, and assumed the office of value and interest ; and his work, " Sur instructor to the children of the Comte les Dens des Mammiferes considerees D'Hericy, he found ample leisure for the comme Caracteres Zoologiques," has study of nature ; and tiirned his atten- always been considered as one of the tion to zoology. In this branch of pur- most valuable contributions which has suit, Cuvier made such discoveries as at been made to the science of zoology in once introduced him to the consideration latter times. The great work " Sur and friendship of the naturalists of Paris; I'Histoire des Mammiferes," of which and M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire oiFered to 70 numbers have been published, un- undertake a work in conjunction with dertaken in conjunction with GeoflTroy him. This connection called Cuvier to St.Hilaire, to which he contributed, is the Paris, where he established his reputa- most considerable and most extensive tion by an introductory Essay on Zoo- publication on zoology which has ap- logy. He was soon after appointed to peared since the time of Buffon. He the Professorship of Comparative Ana- died m 1838. tomy. Napoleon patronised his talents, CUZCO, a city of Peru, the ancient ca- and raised the professor into a minister, pital of the Peruvian empire, was founded Under successive grades and titles, according to the common tradition, in during the imperial reign, he performed 1043, by Manca Capac, the first Inca of the principal functions of Minister of Peru. The grandeur and magnificence Public Instruction, and in that office of the edifices, of the fortress, and of the became as famed for his reports as in the temple of the sun, struck the Spaniards CYP 361 CYR with astonishment, in 1534, when the city was taken possession of by Francis izarro. 1838. Mr. J. B. Pentland, her ma- jesty's consul in Bohvia, stated, that he had just returned from a two months' tour into the southern provinces of an- cient Peru, during which he had visited the capital, Cuzco, and the many inte- resting localities round that imperial city, following a route hitherto untrodden by scientific travellers. In the course of this journey, he had fixed the position of the city of Cuzco, whence it appears that the Temple of the Sun, now the church of San Domingo, is situated in latitude, south 13° 30'55", long, west of Greenwich, 72° 4' 10", and at an eleva- tion above the sea of 1 1,380 feet. CYCLOPiEDIA. See Encyclo- paedia. CYDONIA, a town which recently sprung up on the coast of Asia Minor, opposite the coast of Mitylene. Half a century ago it was a poor village, when a Greek native, of the name of Econo- mos, succeeded in obtaining from the Porte a firman, by which his countrymen on this spot enjoyed a protection, and even privileges, elsewhere denied. In 1820, Cydonia was estimated to contain 35,000 inhabitants. Next year, on oc- casion of the general rising of the Greek nation, the pacha of Brusa sent a body of troops to occupy the place. A gene- ral descent being soon after made by the Greek fleet, the Turkish garrison was driven out ; but in retreating, they set fire to the city in more than 20 places, and the native population had scarcely time to make their escape, when it was reduced to a heap of ashes. No ac- count has yet been received of its revival. CYMMER Abbky, Merionethshire, built 1200. CYPHERS, OR Ciphers, digits or figures in arithmetic, supposed to have been known in Hindoostan in the sixth century ; introduced among the Arabic Moors, 900. CYPRIANUS,Thascius C^cilius, commonly called St. Cyprian, was born at Carthage about the close of the second century. His conversion is fixed by Pearson, in the year 246, and is attribut- ed to the instructions of Csecilius, a priest of the church of Carthage, whose name Cyprian afterwards assumed. The bishop of Carthage ordained him a priest, and on the death of the bishop, in the year 248, Cyprian was appointed to suc- ceed him. When the persecutions were begun under Decius, Cyprian became an obnoxious person ; and in the beginning of the year 250, the heathens in the circus and amphitheatre, insisted loudly upon his being thrown to the lions. Cy- prian, however, contrived to conceal him- self ; and he wrote, in the place of his retreat, instructive letters to those who had been his hearers. At length he died a martyr in the persecution of Valerian and Gallienus, Sept. 14, 258. Cyprian wrote 81 letters, and several treatises. The best edition of his works are those of Pamelius in 1568, and of Oxford in 1682. CYPRUS, island in the Mediterra- nean Sea, was first discovered by the Phenicians, about A.c. 1045. It was divided among several petty kings till the time of Cyrus, who subdued them all. In the reign of Darius Hystaspes, they attempted to shake off the yoke, but with bad success. They made ano- ther more successful attempt about a.c. 357. Alexander the Great subdued the island, and at his death the dominion of Cyprus was disputed by Antigonus and Ptolemy the son of Lagus. After a long and severe contest Antigonus prevailed, and the whole island submitted to him, about A.c. 304. It was recovered by Ptolemy, and quietly possessed by him and his descendants till a.c. 58. A.D. 648. It was conquered by the Saracens ; but recovered by the Romans in 957. It was reduced by the crusaders, and Richard I. of England, gave it to the princes of the Lusignan family, who held it till the year 1570, when it was taken by the Turks, and has since con- tinued a part of the Ottoman empire. CYRENE, formerly a celebrated town in northern Africa, now an interesting group of ruins in Barca. The town was founded about a.c. 628, when, accord- ing to Herodotus, a colony of Greeks from the Egean isles, under Battus, were conducted by the Libyan nomades to this delightful spot, then called Irasa. In the time of Aristotle, Cyrene was a republic, and continued to be governed by their own laws till the reduction of Egypt by the Macedonians. After the death of Alexander, it was comprised, with Egypt and Lybia, in the vice-royalty of Ptolemy Lagus, and continued to form part of the empire of the Ptolemies till it was made over by Ptolemy Physcoii 3 A DAC 362 DAG to his illegitimate eon, Apion, who, on his death, bequeathed the Cyrenaica to the Romans. The ruins of Cyrene, which may be said to be a recent dis- covery, are finely situated on a high table plain, descending abruptly towards the sea by successive stages, along each of which is a smooth rocky path, still marked by the wheels of the ancient chariots, CYRIL, bishop of Jerusalem, was born about 315, ordained presbyter in 344 or 345, and bishop in 350 or 351, and died 386. Whilst Cyril was bishop of Jerusalem, the emperor Julian is said to have proposed to the Jews the re- building of their temple, but the bishop considering the prophecies of Daniel, and the words of our Lord recorded in the gospels, confidently asserted, that it could not be, that the Jews should be able to lay there, one stone upon another. CYRIL, bishop of Alexandria, was a native of that city, and succeeded Theo- philus as bishop of it in 412. Cyril owed his chief fame to his dispute with Nestorius, against whom he maintained, that the virgin Mary ought to be called the mother of God. This dispute ter- minated in a severe contest, and a general council was summoned at Ephesus in order to decide it. Cyril distingushed himself by a defence of the christian religion against the emperor Julian, con- sisting of 10 books, and dedicated to Theodosius the younger. He died in 444. CYRUS THE Great, king of Persia, supposed to have been bom about a.c. 590. When he was 16 years of age, he accompanied Astyages, his grandfather, in an attack upon the Assyrians, who had made inroads upon the Persian terri- tories j his behaviour on this occasion was such, that the victory obtained was imputed to his energy and superior prow- ess. He was appointed generalissimo of the Medes and Persians, which led to the establishment of that vast empire, of which he was the founder. He complet- ed the reduction of Lesser Asia, and invested Babylon, a.c. 538, which he took after a siege of two years, and thus put an end to that great and powerful monarchy. In a.c. 536, he issued an edict, which has given celebrity to his name, permitting such of the Jews as were remaining from the Babylonish captivity, to return to Jerusalem and re- build their temple. According to Xeno- phon Cyrus died in peace after a long and prosperous reign, aged 70. D. DAC I A, an ancient city of Europe, situated between the Danube and the Capathian mountains, first mentioned by historians when Darius marched his army against the Daci, a.c. 508. They frequentlyinsucceedingages armed them- selves and invaded the Roman domi- nions, and were not completely subdued till the time of Trajan. Dacia was reduced to the state of a Roman pro- vince, A.D. 103 ; abandoned to the Bar- barians, by Aurelian, 274 ; is now includ- ed in the kingdom of Hungary. DACIER, Andrew, philologist, born 1651, died 1722. DACIER, Mad. translator of Ana- creon Sappho, Plautus, Terence, Homer, &c., and one of the editors of the Del- phin classics, born 1651, died August 6, 1720. DiEDALUS, the ancient architect, flourished a.c. 987- DiEDALUS, British frigate, struck on a shoal and was lost, the crew saved, July 16, 1813. DAGENHAM, Essex, breach made by an irruption of the Thames in 1703, which overwhelmed 5000 acres ; it was repaired by the efforts of captain John Perry, in 1715, when the whole was again rescued from the waters. DAGON, one of the most celebrated of the deities of the Phihstines, whose image and temple were at Ashdod, about A.c. 1141, 1 Sam. v. He is commonly represented as a monster, half man and half fish ; continued to have a temple at Ashdod during all the ages of idola- try, to the time of the Maccabees ; for the author of the first book of Maccabees . DAG 363 DAG S;iys, " Jonathan, one of the Maccabees burnt the temple of Dagon and all those who had fled into it." DAGUERREOTYPE, or Daguero- TYPE, the name of a recent invention which M. Arago has announced to the French academy of Sciences, as " one of the most important discoveries in the fine arts, that has distinguished the present century; the author being M.Daguerre, the celebrated painter of the Diorama." The report of its merits was first sub- mitted to the French academy, Jan. 7, 1839. In this invention, advantage is taken of the property of chlorate of silver changing colour by the mere con- tact of light ; by which means M. Da- guerre fixes upon prepared metal plates, the rays that ai-e directed on the table of a camera obscura, and renders the op- tical tableau permanent. In this man- ner, an exact representation of objects, in hght and shade, is obtained with the greatest accuracy, and with the beautiful soft eflFect of fine aquatint engraving. M. Daguerre made his discovery some years ago, but did not then succeed in making the alterations of colour perma- nent on the chemical substances. The invention is chiefly applicable to archi- tectural subjects, and its advantages to travellers are incalculable ; since it will enable them under the most perilous circumstances of position or temperature to obtain a fac- simile of any desired scene or monument. From a paper read before the Royal Society Jan. 31, 1839, it seems that M. Daguerre's invention is almost identical with a discovery made nearly five years ago by Mr. H. F. Talbot, which he names " Photogenic drawing." Mr. Tal- bot also refers to a prior attempt of this kind recorded in the journal of the Royal Institution, for 1802, by which the idea appears to have been originally suggest- ed by Mr. Wedgwood, and afterwards experimented on by Sir Humphry Davy ; although Mr. Talbot adds that his experiments were begun without his being aware of these previous at- tempts. During the year 1839, every scientific journal in England teemed with contri- butions to the history of "the New Art," and to its practical details. M. Daguerre's own account of his discovery was published in Paris ; and, within a few days, a translation of the same in England, entitled " History and Practice of Photogenic Drawing on the tru® Principles of the Daguerreotype." A bill passed the chamber of deputies, for re- warding the inventors, granting to M. Daguerre an annual pension for life of 6,000 francs, (£250 sterling ;) and to M. Niepce, jun. who assisted him, a similar pension of 4,000 francs, (£166 13*. id.) The commission appointed to examine the discovery were the following mem- bers of the chamber : M. M.' Arago, Etienne, Carl, Vatout, de Beaumont, Tournouer, Delessert (Frangois,) Com- barel de Leyval, and Vitet, all names dis- tinguished in science. The following is a brief description of this new art. The designs are executed upon thin plates of silver, plated on copper. The silver must be the purest that can be procured. The thickness of the two metals united ought not to ex- ceed that of a stout card. The process is divided into five operations : The first consists in polishing and cleaning the plate, in order to prepare it for receiving the sensitive coating, upon which the light traces the design. The second is to apply this coating. The third is the placing the prepared plate properly in the camera obscura to the action of light, for the purpose of receiving the image of nature. The fourth brings out this image, which at first is not visible on the plate being withdrawn from the camera obscura. The fifth and last operation has for its object, to remove the sensitive coating on which the de- sign is first impressed, because this coat- ing would continue to be affected by the rays of light, a property which would necessarily and quickly destroy the pic- ture. In M. Daguerre's work the operations are minutely described and illustrated by six outline diagrams of the requisite ap- paratus. Plate I. shows the wire frame for supporting the plate while heating ; the "plate of plated silver," on which the design is made, the board upon which the plate is laid, the spirit-lamp, and the muslin bag, with the puramice powder for polishing. Plate II. shows the box for iodine, used in the second operation ; and a grooved case for pre- serving the plates from injury. Plate III. represents four different positions of the frame inta which the plate with its wooden tablet is put, on removal from the iodine process. Plate IV. shows the ca- mera obscura, as adapted to photogenic DAL 364 DAM delineation. Plate V. represents three views of the apparatus tor submitting the plate to the vapour of mercury; a kind of case, provided with a spirit-lamp and a thermometer on one side to de- note the rate of the process. Plate VI. shows various apparatus for the last operation of washing the plate ; as three troughs, with the plate placed therein ; the funnel for filtering the saline wash; a little hook for shaking the plate while in the wash ; and a wide-mouthed ves- sel for warming the distilled water. The first experiment made in this country with the daguerreotype, was ex- hibited by M. St. Croix, in London, Sept. 13, 1839; and the picture pro- duced was a beautifvd minature repre- sentation of the houses, pathway, sky, &c., representing an exquisite mezzo- tint. 1840. The processes of the art are in course of successive improvement. Dr. Donne' is stated to have applied, with success, the ordinary process of engrav- ing directly to the proofs taken with the daguerreotype ; a discovery almost as important as the invention of the appara- tus itself. M. Arago has since stated that instead of placing the iodine in the box with the plate, the latter is first impregnated with the vapour, and this is placed in a flat box, within half an inch of the plate on which the drawing is to be taken. The box is then to be shut, and in two mi- nutes the silver plate will have acquired the proper tint. Dr. Schaf hentl of Munich, has exhibit- ed a new process of photogenic drawings, combining Daguerre's minuteness, with the light and shadow of an original draw- ing, by means of Indian ink. The prepara- tion of these new photogenic plates is, however, as yet too complicated for popu- lar practice. DAHOMEY, a kingdom of Africa, founded by Tacoodonou, about the year 1625, but very little is known of the history of this country till it was much enlarged by Trudo in 1727. Since that period, its kings have been remarkable chiefly for their cruelty and love of war. DAICLES was the first person crowned at the Olympic games, a. c. 752. D'ALEMBERT. SeeALEMBERxD'. DALLAWAY, James, traveller and antiquarian, born 1763. On Jan. 1, 1797, he was appointed secretary to the earl-marshal, an office which he retained for some years. His works arc nu- merous. He died June 6, 1834, at Lea- therhead, Surrey, aged 71. DALMATIA, formerly an indepen- dent kingdom, was subjected by the Romans, in the time of Augustus ; after the fall of the western empire, it was under the dominion of the Goths, then of the eastern emperors ; was conquered by the Sclavonians in the seventh cen- tury, and erected by them into a king- dom, which lasted till 1030, when it was in part united with Hungary, and part received under the protection of the Ve- netians, the enemies of the Turks. By the peace of Campo Formio, in l797>the Venetian part of Dalmatia, with Venice itself, was ceded to Austria ; it was trans- ferred to the French in 1805 ; and united first with the kingdom of Italy ; next in 1810, with lUyria, and governed by a general proveditor. At the general re- storation in 1814 and 1815, it was at- tached to Austria. DALRYMPLE, Sir David, lawyer and historian, born 1726, died 1792. DALTON, Richard, an English artist, patronised by the Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.,) and by the earl of Charlemont, born 1720, died 1791. D A M A S, in Barbary, nearly anni- hilated by an earthquake, when 60,000 souls perished, Dec. 3, 1759. DAMASCUS, city of Syria, men- tioned in scripture as the place where Abraham defeated Chederlaomer, king of Elam (Persia) and rescued Lot, a.c. 1917. It subsequently became the capi- tal of an independent kingdom. The Romans conquered it a.c. 70; at the fall of the western empire, it became the residence of the grand caliph of the Sa- racens, who ceded it to the Turks in 1515. It has continued to be the capi- tal of a Turkish pachalic ever since that period. In 1799, Buonaparte was on his march to this city, but was foiled in his attempt by the siege of Acre. In 1811, it was menaced by the Wahabees, and the inhabitants prepared to leave the city with their property, but the pacha marched out with 6OOO men, and the Wahabees were forced to retire. DAMER, Hon. Mrs., celebrated for her works insculpture,diedMay28, 1828. DAMERHAM, Wilts, sustained £3000 worth of damage by a fire, July 14, 1755. D AMI ENS attempted to assassinate the king of France, Jan. 5, 1757. DAN 365 DAN DAMIETTA, city of Lower Eprypt, during the crusades, was frequently the sceneof bloody contests; it was besieged and taken by the crusaders in 1218, and again by St. Louis in 1249. It was subsequently burnt by the Arabs, but soon revived ; it was surrendered to the French in 1798; in 1801, it submitted to the British ; at the peace of Amiens, it was restored to the Ottomans, but, together with the other parts of Egypt, may now be considered as under an in- dependent prince. DAMM, Thomas, of Leighton, near Minchnal, Cheshire, a remarkable in- stance of longevity, died 1608, aged 154. DAMPIER, William, eminent na- vigator, born, 1652. In 1673, he served in the Dutch war, under Sir Edward Sprague, and was in two engagements. In 1679, he sailed for the West Indies, and joined some pirates of different nations. In this predatory course, Dampier con- tinued till 1688, when he persuaded his captain to leave him at Nicobar, with seven others, where they suffered in- credible hardships. In 1691, he return- ed home, having completed the circum- navigation of the globe. In 1699, he was appointed to the command of the Roebuck, a sloop of 12 guns. He sailed first for the Brazils, and thence he made to the western coast of New Holland. He next sailed to Timor, and thence to the coast of New Guinea. This he found terminated by an island, which he sailed round, and named New Britain. He returned to Timor in May, and proceeded to the Cape of Good Hope; arrived off the isle of Ascension, in February, 1701. He afterwards accompanied Captain Woodes Rogers in a voyage round the world. The time of Dampier's death is not known. DANBURY, town. North America, was taken and burnt by the British, in 1777. DANCE, Captain, commander of the China jfleet of merchantmen, whose cargoes were worth eight millions ster- ling, repulsed the French squadron, con- sistmg of an eighty-gun ship and several frigates, commanded by Admiral Linois, being one of the most brilliant examples of courage and skill in nautical tactics ever exhibited by the seamen of mer- chant vessels in any period of history, 1804. DANCE, George, a British painter and architect, born 1741, died 1825. DANCHET, Anthony, a French poet, born 1671, died 1748. DANCOURT, F. E., a French actor and comic poet, born 1661, died 1726. DANDINI, CESARE.a celebrated Flo- rentine painter, born 1595, died 1658. DANDINI, ViNCENzio, a Florentine painter of history, born 1607. DANEGELT, a land tax, first esta- bhshed by Ethelred II., 991; abolished by Stephen, 1136. DANES, their first descent upon England, at Portland, 787. 794. Their second, in Northumber- land, when they were repelled, and pe- rished by shipwreck. 832. Landed on Sheppy Island. 836. Again, in Cornwall, and were de- feated by Egbert. 840. Again, at Charmouth, and de- feated Ethelwolf 851. Landed at the mouth of the Thames, from 350 ships, and took Can- terbury and London. 853. Subdued by Ethelwolf, at Okely, in Surrey. 867. Invaded Northumberland, and seized York. 871. Defeated king Ethelred and his brother Alfred at Basing and Merton. 876. Surprised Warham castle, and took Exeter. 877- Took Chippenham. 878. 1,205 of them killed by Odun, ea-rl of Devonshire. 882. Alfred entered into treaty with them. 894. Their fleet totally destroyed at Appledore, by King Alfred. 895. Under RoUa, made their first de- scent on France. 900. Invaded Anglesea. 905. Made a settlement in Neustra, now Normandy. 921, Submitted to Edward the elder. 982. Invaded Dorsetshire. 991. Landed again in Essex, and were bribed to depart the kingdom. 992. Their fleet defeated. 1002. Numbers of them massacred by order of Ethelred II., November 13. 1007. Made England tributary to them. 1010. Continued their ravages, and defeated the English at Ipswich. 1011. Took Canterbury, and put nine out of 10 of the inhabitants to death. 1017- Under Canute, conquered Eng- land. 1020. Settled in Scotland. 1041. Expelled England. DAN 366 DAN 1047DaneslantJe(]aq;ain at Sandwich, and carried oft' much plunder to Flanders. 1069. Joined the Northumbrians, burnt York, and slew 3000 Normans. 1074. Invaded England again, but were bribed by William to depart. DANGER, Isle of, discovered by Byron, 1765. DANIEL, the prophet, sent captive to Babylon, a c. 606. Interpreted Nebu- chadnezzar's dream, a.c. 603. Cast into the lions* den, a.c. 538. He predicted the fall of the Persian empire, a.c. 534. DANIEL, the French historian, born 1649, died 1723. DANIEL, Samuel, poet and histo- rian, born 1562, died 1619. DANNECHER, J. H. Von, of Stutt- gurd, an eminent sculptor, born 1758. DANTE, Aligheri, a celebrated Italian poet, born at Florence in 1265. In 1300 he was one of the chief magis- trates of that city, an honour which proved the source of many of his mis- fortunes. He was afterwards banished, and sentence of death passed upon him, should he again fall into the power of the Florentine state. When Henry, of Luxembourg, was elected emperor, Dante paid his court to him in hopes of being restored to his country ; but the death of Henry, in 1313, cut off all his hopes. About this period he went to Paris, where he engaged in the studies of the university. He was afterwards employed in some political negotiations, and was sent to Venice, in order to compromise a quarrel which had arisen between him and the republic. The Venetians, however, refused to admit him to an audience, by which he was so much affected, that soon after his return to Ravenna he died, on September 14, 1321. His principal work, " Di- vina Commedia," has given him an un- fading and immortal reputation. In 1373 a professorship was established at Florence, for the express purpose of ex- plaining Dante to the public. The first person who filled the chair was Boccacio. The best edition of his works is that of Venice, in three vols, quarto, published in 1737. A sumptuous monument was erected to his memory in 1780 by the legate, cardinal Gonzaga. DANTZIC, a city of Polish Pmssia, called by the ancients Godanum, famous in history on account of its being for- merly at the head of the Hanseatic asso- ciation. See Hanse Towns. Dantzic was early an object of contest ; the Danes, Swedes, Pomeranians, and Teu- tonic knights strove for its possession. In 1310 it fell into the possession of the latter. In 1454 it declared itself inde- pendent, and was acknowledged as such by the Poles, who conferred upon the inhabitants several valuable privileges. 1772. The city was almost surround- ed by the Prussian dominions, and aban- doned by the Poles. In 1793 the Prus- sians took possession of the outworks. At the breaking out of the war between France and Prussia, in 1807, it surren- dered to the French, and was subject to a heavy military contribution. In 180S the code Napoleon was introduced,which cut off its valuable trade with England. It was besieged by, and capitulated to the Russians in 1814. During the siege 309 houses were burnt, 1115 damaged, and 90 persons died of hunger. Since the calamities of war have been sus- pended or removed, its population and trade have rapidly increased. The ex- ports of wheat from Dantzic are greater than from any other port in the world. Next to grain, timber is the most im- portant article of export from Dantzic. In 1833 there were 747 ships entered, and 758 cleared at this port. DANTZIC, 300 persons at, killed and wounded, and 600 houses damaged by an explosion of gunpowder, December 16, 1815. DANUBE, anciently supposed to have been the northern boundary of the Ro- man empire in Europe; towards its mouth the ancients called it the Ister. In 1805, it overflowed its banks, with a violence which had been unparalled since the time of Louis XIV., particularly in the night that preceded the disgraceful capitulation of General Mack. About 1830, a regular line of steam boats, for the transportation of passengers and merchandise, was established on the Danube from Presburg (Hungary) to Galacz, by an Austrian company, en- titled " First Company for Navigation by Steam on the Danube." Three boats were running on this line, viz., the Pan- nonia, (36-horse power,) from Presburg to Pesth ; the Francis First, (60-horse power,) from Pesth to Moldavia; the Argo, (50-horse power,) from Orsova to Galacz. 1835. The government of Bavaria began to be occupied with the considera- tion of a plan for uniting the Rhine with the Danube, near Kelheim. Its course DAR will follow the valley of the small river D'Altmuhl and the Sulz, as far as Neu- markt, from thence the canal will pass in the direction of Nuremberg, by Furth and Bamberg, Its length to be 592,534 Bavarian feet, or 23 German miles. Its breadth will be 54 Bavarian feet, and its depth 34. The highest elevation of the canal is 273 feet above the surface of the Danube, near Kelheim, and 630 feet above the surface of the Regnitz, near Bamberg. This elevation to be attained by means of 94 locks. It appears, from an official calculation, that the convey- ance of a quintal of goods throughout the whole length of the canal will not cost above a kreutzer and a half, includ- ing the expenses of navigation. D'ANVILLE, John Baptiste BouRGUiGNON, a celebrated geographer, author of " Ancient Geography." was born at Paris. July 11, 1697- At the age of 22, he obtained a commission as geo- grapher, and published, with universal approbation, several of those maps which have immortalized his name. He died January 28, 1782, aged 85. D'ARCON I., inventor of the floating batteries, born 1733, died 1800. D'ARCY, Count, the philosopher, born 1725, died 1779. DARDANELLES, Strait of, be- tween the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora, separating Europe and Asia. Three leagues from its mouth, were built in 1658, by Mahomed IV., the two cas- tles called the Dardanelles ; the cannon of each of which commanded the op- posite shore. These were for a long time, the only barrier to secure Con- stantinople. Near this are two pro- montories 750 yards distant from each other, which form the strait, rendered famous by Leander's nightly visit to Hero, by Xerxes' transit, by Solyman's passage upon a bare raft, and by the exploit of the poet Byron, who swam across. The Turks have always been too indolent to keep these fortifications in repair; in 1770, the Russian admiral, Elphinstone, pursued two Turkish ships up the strait, and passed the batteries, having received but a single shot; on February 19, 1807, Admiral Duckworth, an Englishman, effected a passage through the Dardanelles. Oct. 1828, blockade of the Dardanelles by the Rus- sians, officially announced by the secre- tary of state for foreign affairs, to the committee of Lloyd's. 367 DAR . DARDANUS built the city afterwards called Troy, a.c. 1480. DARIUS, THE Mede, king of As- syria, flourished a.c. 538. DARIUS I., King of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes. Raised to the empire of Persia, a.c. 521. He is cele- brated in history for the permission which he gave to the Jews to resume the rebuilding of their temple; The Babylonians revolted, a.c. 517, but he took the city. He died A.c. 485. DARIUS II , surnamed Ochus, as- cended the Persian throne a.c. 423. He died in the 20th year of his reign. DARIUS III., named Codomannus, born about a.c. 380. He died a.c. 330. DARKNESS, (an unaccountable,) at noon day, in England, so that no person could see to read, January 12, 1679. A similar darkness at Quebec, in North America, September 16, 1785. DARLINGTON, Worsted Mills at, belonging to Messrs. Peace, burnt down, damage estimated at £35,000, February 19, 1817- DARLINGTON Temple, Devon, built 1123. DARNLEY Lord, married to Mary, queen of Scots, 1561, killed by an ex- plosion, February 10, 1567. DARNLEY, Late Earl of, died at his seat, Cobham Hall, from the effect of an accident, Feb. 11, 1835, aged 40. DARTFORD Priory, Kent, built 1372. DARTFORD Cotton Mills, da- maged by fire to the amount of £10,000,, December 21, 1795. Dreadful explosion of six powder mills at Dartford, January 21, 1833; 2,500lbs. of powder exploded,, and three men, four women, and a lad were killed. The shock was felt a€ Greenwich, a distance of 10 miles. DARTMOUTH, seaport, Devon. Richard Coeur de Lion made this place the rendezvous for his expedition to Palestine, in 1190, and it furnished 31 ships and 757 men towards the arma- ment against Calais, under Edward III. It was burnt by the French, 1337- Ta- ken in the civil wars in 1643, by Prince Maurice, but re-taken by the parliamen- tarians in 1646. DARWIN, Erasmus, physician and philosopher, born at Elston, in Notting- hamshire, December 12, 1731. Removed to Edinburgh in 1753, where he studied medicine, and obtained his degree of bachelor of medicine, in 1755. He died DAV 3G8 DA V April 18, 1802, aged 71. His principal works were his " Botanic Garden," a poem, 1781 ; his "Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life," 1796; " Pliyto- logia, or the Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening," 1800. D A U B E N T O N, the coadjutor of Buffon in the compilation of the " Na- tural History," died 1800. D'AUBIGNE, a French writer, born 1550, died 1630. DAUPHIN OF FRANCE, the title which the eldest sons of the kings of France, and heirs presumptive to the crown bore for nearly 450 years. It took its rise about 1120 in Guigues IV., son of Guy, or Guigues, the Fat. The title was first borne by the eldest sons of the royal family about 1345, by Philip, a younger son of Philip de Valois, to whom Humbert III., dauphin of the Valois, had ceded his dominions, ' con- sisting chiefly of the Dauphine. After Charles V., surnamed the Wise, the kings of France never conferred the ap- pellation of dauphin on any one but their eldest sons, and presumptive heirs of the crown. In 1/91 the national assembly decreed its suppression, and substituted the appellation of prince royal. Charles Louis, the last dauphin, was the son of Louis XVI. and Maria An- toinette of Austria, born March 27, 1785, was first named duke of Norman- dy, and took the title of dauphin only after the death of his eldest brother, Louis Joseph Xavier Francis, in 1790. On the 11th August, 1792, he was imprisoned at Paris with his royal parents in the Temple. He expired June 9, 1795, at the age of 10 years, two months, and 13 days. DAUPHINY, annexed to the crown of France 1349- DAVENANT, Sir William, a poet in the reign of Charles I. and II., was the son of a tavern-keeper at 0.\- ford, in which city he was born in 1606. In 1637 he was elected poet-laureate, and his attachment to the king involved him in the troubles of that period. On account of some services done for the king, he was made a knight in 1643, and was afterwards committed a close pri- soner to Cowes castle, in the Isle of Wight. In 1650 he was removed to London for trial by a high-commission court. He escaped with his life, but was kept two years a prisoner in the Tower. Upon his release he had re- course to a public exhibition of enter- tainments, as a mean of extricating him- self from the indigence into which he had fallen. From this period he con- tinued to write plays till his death.which happened April 7, 1668. The complete works of Sir William were published by his widow in 1675. DAVENANT, Charles, eldest son of Sir William, and also a poet, waa born 1656, died, 1714. DAVID, king of Israel, born at Beth- lehem, A.c. 1085; succeeded Saul in Israel, 1055 ; died 1015. DAVID, king of Scotland, taken pri- soner by the English, 1346; ransomed for 100,000 marks, 1357; died at Lon- don, February, 22, 1371. DAVID, St. a city of Pembroke, in South Wales. St. Patrick first founded a church here, and was succeeded by St. David, the son of a Welsh prince, 'llie metropolitan see of Wales was trans- ferred to this place in 519, but in the year 930, under Edward 1., the arch- bishop (the 47th) was compelled to sub- mit to the province of Canterbury. DAVID, St., cathedral of, built 1180 ; palace built, 1335. DAVID,James Louis, restorer of the French school of painting, born 1750, died 1825. DAVIES, Sir John, lawyer and poet, born 1570, died 1626. DAVILA, author of the " History of the Civil Wars of France," died 1641. DAVINGTON Nunnery, Kent, built 1153. DAVIS, John, an English navigator, who discovered the strait which bears his name, died 1605. DAVIS'S STRAITS, a narrow sea between Baffin's Bay and the Atlantic, discovered in 1585, by the navigator whose name it bears, in an unsuccessful attempt to establish a north west passage. DAVY, John, an eminent musical composer, died in poverty, February 22, 1824. DAVY, Rev. William, who printed, with his own hands, his " Compilation of a System of Divinity," 26 vols. 8vo., died 1826. DAVY, Sir Humphry, the most celebrated chemical philosopher of his day, was born at Penzance in Corn- wall, in 1779. Having received the rudi- ments of a classical education under Dr. Cardew, of Truro, he was placed with a professional gentleman at Pen- Sum MurMFHmT mA.inr. DAY 369 DAV zance, that he might acquire a knowledge oi the profession of a surgeon and apo- thecary. His master, however, soon be- came dissatisfied with his new pupil; instead of attending to the duties of the surgery, Humphry was experimenting in the garret, and upon one occasion he produced an explosion that put the doc- tor and all his phials in jeopardy. He continued to direct his mind to the study of mineralogy and chemistry. The first original experiment performed by him at Penzance was for the purpose of as- certaining the nature of the air contained in the bladders of sea-weed. His instru- ments, however, were of the rudest de- scription, manufactured by himself. A prominent circumstance in Davy's life was his introduction to Mr. Gilbert, in 1792, the distinguished president of the Royal Society, who kindly lent him the use of his library, or any other as- sistance that he might require for the pursuit of his studies. Here he was also introduced to Mr. Watt and Dr. Bed- does. The latter had just established his Pneumatic Institution at Bristol, and required an assistant in his laboratory. The situation was offered to Davy, who eagerly accepted it. He was now en- gaged in the prosecution of new experi- ments ; in the course of which the re- spirability and singularly intoxicating ef- fects of nitrous oxide were first discovered, which led to a new train of research. His inquiries were also extended to the different substances connected with ni- trous oxide, such as nitrous gas, nitrous acid, ammonia, &c- ; and he was enabled to present a clear and satisfactory history of the combinations of oxygen and nitro- gen. These interesting results were published in a separate volume, entitled, " Researches, Chemical and Philosophi- cal, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide and its Respiration." About 1801, Count Romford having made enquiry for some rising philoso- pher who might fill the chemical chair in the newly established institution of Great Britain, Davy was proposed, and immediately elected. In this new scene he still pursued his studies with ardour. 1802. Having been elected profes- sor of chemistry to the board of agri- culture, Davy commenced a series of lectures before its members ; and which he continued to deliver every successive session for 10 years. These discourses were pubhshed in the year 1813, at the request of the president and members of the board ; and they form the only complete work we possess on the sub- ject of agricultural chemistry. In 1803, Davy was elected a fellow of the Royal Society; he subsequently became its sec- retary, and, lastly, its president. Dur- ing a period of 25 years, he constantly supplied its transactions with papers. The first memoir presented by him to the Royal Society, was read June 18, 1801; and is entitled, "An Account of some Galvanic combinations, formed by the arrangement of Single Metallic Plates and Fluids, analogous to the new Galvanic Apparatus of Volta." After an interval of nearly five years, in which he had been engaged in ex- periments of the most arduous and com- plicated description, he unfolded the mysteries of volcanic action, and as far as its theory goes, might almost be said to have perfected our knowledge of the galvanic pile. The memoir in which these discoveries were announced consti- tuted the first Bakerian lecture ; and was read before the Royal Society Nov. 20, 1806. In 1807, this lecture was crown- ed by the Institute of France, with the prize of Napoleon. The discovery of the composition of the fixed alkalies, was announced in Davy's second Bakerian lecture, read before the Royal Society in I8O7. This was followed up by an investigation into the nature of the earths ; and the results were communicated in a paper read before the Royal Society June 30, in the same year. The third, lecture of 1808 was en- titled, "An Account of some new Analytical Researches on the Nature of certain Bodies, particularly the Alkalies, Phosphorus, Sulphur, Carbonaceous Matter, and the Acids hitherto unde- composed ; with some general Observa- tions on Chemical Theory." The frequency of accidents, arising from the explosion of the fire-damp, oc- casioned the formation of a committee at Sunderland, in 1815, for the purpose of investigating the causes of these calamities, and of endeavouring to dis- cover and apply a preventive. Sir Hum- phry was invited to the north of Eng- land, and soon convinced himself that no improvement could be made without a new method of lighting the min^, free from danger, which led to the inven- tion of the safety lamp. The coal-owners 3 B DAV 370 DEA of the Tyne and Wear evinced their sense of the benefits resulting from this invention, by presenting Sir Hunniphry with a handsome service of plate, worth nearly £2000, at a public dinner at New- castle, Oct. 11, 1817. M. Oersted, secretary to the Royal Society of Copenhagen, published in 1819 an account of some experiments exhibited in his lecture before the Uni- versity, by which it was demonstrated that the magnetic needle was moved from its positon by the action of the galvanic apparatus. No sooner had this extraordinary discovery been announced in this country, than Sir Humphry Davy proceeded to repeat the experiments, and with his characteristic talent, to vary and extend them. He particularly in- vestigated the magnetising powers of the conjunctive wires, and the circumstances under which they became effective. Sir H. Davy's method for preventing the corrosion of the copper sheathing of ships by sea-water, being founded upon voltaic principle, was presented in a paper which was read before the Royal Society, January 22, 1824, and which was continued in another communication dated June 17, 1824, and concluded in a third, read June 9. 1825. Much of the latter period of Sir Hum- phry Davy's life was spent in visit- ing different parts of Europe for scien- tific purposes. In the course of a few years, most of the learned bodies in Eu- rope enrolled him among their members. In 1805, he was elected a member of the Royal Irish Academy ; and in 1810, he delivered a course of lectures before the Dublin Society, and received from Tri- nity College, Dublin, the honorary de- gree of LL.D. In 1813, he was elected a corresponding member of the Institute of France, and vice-president of the Royal Institution. He was created a baronet, Oct. 20, 1818. In 1820, he was elected a foreign associate of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, in the room of his countryman. Watt. Sir Humphry returned to England in 1820, and in the same year. Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society, dying, he was elected president in his room. He retained his seat as president till 1827, when, in consequence of procrastinated ill health, he was in- 4(iced, by medical advice, to retire to the Continent. He accordingly resigned his seat as president of the Royal So- ciety. Having spent nearly the whole of the summer of 1828 in the neighbour- hood of Laybach, in expectation of re- turning health, this great philosopher closed his mortal career at Geneva, May 30, 1829. The following is a list of the works of which Sir Humphry Davy was the author : — " Chemical and Philosophical Researches, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide, and its Respiration," 1800, 8vo. ; " A Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on Chemistry, at the Royal Institution," 1802, 8vo. ; "A Discourse, introductory to a Course of Lectures on Chemistry," 1802, 8vo. ; "Electro-Chemical Re- searches on the Decomposition of the Earths, with Observations on the Metals obtained from the Alkaline Earths and an Amalgam procured from Ammonia;" " Lecture ,on a plan for improving the Royal Institution, and making it perma- nent," 1810, 8vo. ; "Elements of Che- mical Philosophy," 1812, 8vo. ; "Ele- ments of Agricultural Chemistry, in a Course of Lectures before the Board of Agriculture,'' 1813, 4to. and 8vo. ; " Practical Hints on the Application of Wire Gauze to Lamps, for preventing Explosions in Coal Mines," 1816, 8vo. ; " Six Discourses delivered before the Royal Society, at their Anniversary Meetings, on the Award of the Royal and Copley Medals ; preceded by an Address to the Society, delivered in 1800, on the Progress and Prospects of Science," 4to. He also contributed many valuable articles to the " Phi- losophical Transactions," to "Nichol- son's Journal," and to the " Philoso- phical Magazine." DAY, John, printer, who first intro- duced the Greek and Saxon characters into England, died 1584. DAY, Thomas, the author of " Sandford and Merton," &c., died 1789, aged 41. DAY, Edward, a promising British painter, who fell by his own hand, 1804. DEAF AND Dumb, the instruction of, first attempted by Penro de Ponce, a Spanish Benedictine monk, as early as the beginning of the l6th century. A Spanish priest, named Bonet, was also occupied for many years in the education of the deaf and dumb, and his system was published at Madrid, in 1620. About 30 years afterwards, a work DEA 371 DEB was published in England, by Dr, Wallis, the investigation of which di- rected his attention to the education of the deaf and dumb, and he pursued the occupation for many years with great success. The first person who established an academy for the education of the deaf and dumb, in Great Britain, was Mr. Braidwood, who conducted the seminary with distinguished reputation and suc- cess for many years. He began his labours at Edinburgh, where he was visited by Dr. Johnson, in 1773. Soon after, the French Abbe de TEpee, having turned his attention to this object, insti- tuted an academy ; he received about 60 pupils, and supported them at his own expense, besides training several persons for teachers. De I'Epee pub- lished an account of his system at Paris in 1784. The Abbe Sicard, who followed him, instructed his pupils in the meaning of words, and taught them to compose for themselves, but none of the preced- ing attempted to teach them the art of speaking. This has been accomplished, however, in the London Asylum, Kent Road, which was first established in 1792. It originated in the benevolent exer- tions of the Rev. J. Townsend, and was indebted for much of its prosperity to his unwearied exertions in its support. Since its commencement, the London Asylum has received for instruction hundreds of children, who are taught the trades of printer, tailor, and shoe- maker, in the manufactory belonging to the institution. " The majority of those who have left the asylum," says Dr. Watson, the teacher of the institution, " have done so in a state of improve- ment, intelligence, and usefulness, that rendered them individually happier be- yond all comparison, by enabling them to participate, through the medium of the mother tongue, in the advantages which society and Christianity confer on men." There was also a similar in- stitution at Edinburgh, established in 1810. DEAFNESS. The alleviation of deaf- ness has occupied the attention of a por- tion of the scientific world during the the year 1838. The British Association appointed a committee for reporting on the instruments best adapted for assisting the hearing in cases of deafness, and invited eo-operation, by suggestions, or the loan of instruments or apparatus in the ex- planation of special view.s. DEAL Castle, Kent, built 1539. DEAN Bridge, Edinburgh, com- pleted in 1832. This stupendous bridge, which forms one of the most splendid ornaments of the nothern capital, was erected almost at the sole expense of John Learmouth, Esq., (Lord Provost,) from a design by Mr. Telford. It con- sists of four lower arches, each 90 feet span, and 30 feet rise, springing from pillars at the height of 70 feet above the bed of the water of Leith. The road- way is at the enormous height of about 120 feet above the level of the river be- low. DEAN, Forest of, affords the prin- cipal supply of oak and beach to the British navy. There are here very ex- tensive coal and iron mines, marble quarries, &c., and the miners and col- liers claim the right of being supplied with timber from the forest for their mine works. 1831. June 8, riot among- the in- habitants of the forest and its neigh- bourhood, for the purpose of throwing down the inclosures therein. Upwards of 3000 men assembled, and no suffi- cient force being on the spot to oppose them, they succeeded in destroying 50 miles of wall and fence, and throwing open 10,000 acres of plantation. DEAN, Hugh, a British artist of great merit, but greater eccentricity, died 1784. DEARTH, so great a one in England and France, that a quarter of wheat was sold for 20*., alqaost as much as £6 now, followed by a pestilential fever, 1193, 1194, 1195. Another 1222; another with a murrain, when wheat sold for 40*. a quarter, as much as £8 now, 1315; wheat sold for £3 a bushel, 1316 ; another great one, with a murrain, 1335; two others, 1348 and 1353 ; again, when bread was made in many places of fern roots and ivy berries, 1438 ; £2,000,000 was paid for corn imported in a dearth, 1565 ; and £1,200,000 in 1748. DEBENHAM, Suffolk, 38 houses at, destroyed by fire, March 1, 1743-4. DEBORAH, the prophetess, and third judge of Israel, who with Barak, general of the Israelites, defeated the Canaanites under Sisera, at the waters of Megiddo ; Sisera was killed by Jael, the wife of Heber, a.c. 1285; upon this battle was composed the beautiful song^ DEC 372 DEE of Victory, in Judges, chapter V. ; the land of Israel had rest in the 40th year after the rest given by Ehud. DEBTORS. The number of debtors in confinement on July 1, 1839, in Eng- land and Wales, was 1,805; in Scotland, 77 ; and in Ireland, 924 ; total, 2,806. Of these 48 were in confinement pre- vious to the year 1830, One has been confined since 1811, two since 1812, and three since I8I6. DECAMERON of Boccaccio, a copy of this work, small folio, printed in 1471, was knocked down to the marquis of Blandford, at the duke of Roxburgh's sale, for £2,260, June 17, 1812. DECCAN Territory, Hindoostan, in its most ancient acceptation compre- hended all the peninsular, or triangular region of India, soiUh of Nerbudda river, but now only includes the dis- tricts Candeish, Poona, Ahmednuggur, and Darwar. The Deccan was formerly subject to the Hindoo princes, but con- quered by the Mahommedans in 1293. The Sultan Allah ud Deen Hossein Kan- goh Bhamanee threw off the Mahom- medan yoke in 1337, and established an independent sovereignty, which con- tinued until 1518. On the breaking up of this kingdom it was divided into several states. During the latter half of the 17th century, these were again sub- dued and annexed to the kingdom of Delhi. In 1739, this kingdom was weakened by an invasion of the Persians, the nizam threw off his allegiance, de- clared himself independent, and fixed his court at Hyderabad. Deccan con- tinued subject to the nizam and Mah- rattas until the British ascendancy in 1803, and the establishment of their paramount sovereignty in 1818, at which period direct possession was obtained of the territory now designated "British Deccan." In 1821, the natives volun- tarily commenced the removal of fortifi- cations from around their villages, de- claring that their attachment to the British should be permanent. DECEMVIRI, an order of annual magistrates among the Romans, created A.u.c. 302, when the consuls Appius Claudius Crassinius, and T. Genucius Augurinus were obliged to abdicate, A.u.c. 304 ; another set was to have been chosen, but the people rose, made them lay down their authority, and re- sumed that of the consuls. DECIMALS were first employed by Regiomontanus, about 1460 ; but Ste- vinvis was the first who treated expressly on the subject, namely, in 1 585. Circu- lating decimals were first treated of by Dr. Wallis, towai'ds the close of the 17th century. DEC I US, the Roman general, who had been sent on an expedition into Moesia, having previoiisly usurped the imperial title, was defeated by the Goths in Moesia, and with his two sons slain in battle, in 251. DECLARATION of Rights, bill passed, 1689- DE COURCY, had the privilege of standing covered before the kings of England, granted by King John, 1203. DECRETAL, a rescript, or letter of a pope, whereby some point or question in the ecclesiastical law is solved. The decretals compose the second part of the canon law. AH the decretals attributed to the popes before Siricius, in 318, are evidently suppositious. They are sup- posed by some to be the spurious off- spring of Isidore, archbishop of Seville, because the collection bears the name of Isidore Peccator, or Mercator. They were first published by Riculph, bishop of Mentz, in the ninth century. Pope Gregory IX. in the 13th century, pro- cured a compilation to be made of all the decretals or pontifical constitutions of his predecessors, in five books, by Friar Raimond. "These decretals," says Mr. Hume, " are a collection of forge- ries favourable to the court of Rome, and consisting of the supposed decrees of popes m the first centuries, but the forgeries are so gross, and confound so palpably all language, history, chrono- logy, and antiquities, that even that church, has been obliged to abandon them to the critics." DEE, John, astrologer, who, pre- tending to hold converse with spirits and angels, which he pretended he saw in a black stone, still preserved in the British Museum, had great credit with Elizabeth, James I. and their contem- porary crowned heads ; born 1527, died 1608. DEEG, town and fortress of Hindoo- stan, city of Agra,belonging to tbeBhurt- poor rajah. It was taken from the Jauts in 1776 by Nujuff Khan. Lord Lake defeated Holkar here, and took the for- tress in 1805. DEER, parish, Scotland. Edward DEF 373 DEL Bruce pitched his camp, after the battle of Inverary, in 1308, on Bruce hill in this parish, and marched hence against the Earl of Buchan, at Aiky Brae. Two miles north from the church are the ruins of Feddart castle, from which the soldiers of William III. expelled a party of James's followers who had found an asylum there, after the battle of Killy- crankie. DEERING, Sir Cholmley, killed in a duel, May 9, 1711. DEFENCE, British 74 gun ship, stranded on the coast of North Jutland, when all the crew except five seamen and one marine perished, December 24, 1811. DEFENDER of the Faith, title conferred by Leo X, on King Henry VIIL for writing against Martin Lu- ther ; and the bull for it bears date qviinto idus October, 1521. It was after- wards confirmed by Clement VII. But the pope, on Henry's suppressing the houses of religion at the time of the re- formation, not only deprived him of his title, but deposed him from his crown also : though in the 35th year of his reign, his title, &c. was confirmed by parliament ; and has continued to be used by all succeeding kings to this day. DEFENDERS, a people who created disturbances in Ireland, 1793. . DEFOE, Daniel, the well-known author of Robinson Crusoe, was born about the year 1663. In 1701, he pub- lished " the True-Born Englishman," a satire which excited a considerable share of attention. In 1702, when the high church party was inclined to persecute the dissenters, De Foe published " The Shortest Way with the Dissenters, or Proposals for the Establishment of the Church." For this he was sentenced to fine, imprisonment, and the pillory. Soon after his liberation he published, by subscription, his " Jure Divino," in 12 books, the object of which was to expose the doctrine of the divine right of kings, and to decry tyranny. About 1715, he commenced a new style of writ- ing, and published "The Family Instruc- tor," which has been highly regarded for its excellent moral tendency. But the most distinguished of his works is, "The Life and Adventures of Robinson Cru- so," which was first published in 1719. It has passed through as many editions as almost any book in our language of the same standing, and must long con- tinue to be the favourite book in the juvenile library. Defoe died April 26, 1731. DEGREE OF Latitude and Lon- gitude. See Latitude and Longi- tude. DEGREES, academical, first intro- duced at Paris, previous to 1213. DEISM, the doctrine or belief of the deists. The name seems to have been first assumed as the denomination of a party about the middle the l6th century. They are mentioned by Viret, an emi- nent reformer, in his Instruction Chre- tienne, published in 1563. The first destical writer of any note, that appear- ed in this country was Herbert, Baron of Cherbury, who lived in the I7th cen- tury. His book, De Veritate, was first published at Paris in 1624. His cele- brated work, De Religione Gentilium, was published at Amsterdam in 1 663, in 4to. and in 1700 in 8vo. and an English translation of it was published at Lon- don in 1705. DE LA FOSSE, a French artist, who painted the interior of the British Mu- seum, born 1640, died 17 16. DEL AGO A Bay, on the eastern coast of Africa, discovered by Lorenzo Mar- ques, a Portuguese. His countrymen settled here in 1545, but soon abandoned their discovery. The Dutch next attempted to locate tliemselves here but were cut oflf in 1727- In 1777 the Austrian East India company placed a few settlers here, who shared a fate simi- lar to that of their predecessors. It was at last resigned to the primitive inhabi- tants. The bay was visited in 1823 by Captain Owen, in the Leven, in his sur- vey of the African coast, and the native tribes in the neighbourhood have recently excited an unusual degree of interest. See ZooLAS. The rivers which fall into Delagoa Bay were surveyed by Captain Owen. The principal of these are the Mapoota, EngHsh river, and Manice or King George's river. The Portuguese factory is situated on the northern shore of the English river. DELAMBRE, the French astronomer died 1822. DELANY, Dr., a clergyman and writer of considerable celebrity in Ire- land ; was born about the year 1686, died at Bath, May, 1768, aged 83. DELAWARE, one of the United States, was settled by the Swedes and Finns in 1627, and named Nova Suecia; Hoar- DEL 374 DEL kill, now Lewistown, was founded in 1630, but the Dutch obtained possession of this country in 1655. The colony on the Delaware fell with other parts of New Amsterdam into the hands of the English in 1664. James, duke of York, in 1682 conveyed it as far as Cape Hen- lope to William Penn ; and from that time until the United States became in- dependent, it formed part of the state of Pennsylvania. In 1704, a separate house of assembly was established. This was one of the first states to declare its independence which was established in 1776. In 1792, a constitution was adopt- ed similar to that of the other states. DELFT, South Holland, city founded 1072 ; nearly destroyed by a fire in 1536. The old church here contains the monuments of admirals Van Tromp and Peter Heyn, and the house in which William I. of Orange was murdered in 1584 is still standing. In the new church is a monument to the memory of Hugo Grotius,who was born here inl583, DELFT earthenware, invented at Ti- renza, 1450. DELHI, city of Hindoostan, capital of the province of Delhi. The ancient town was captured in 1193 by the Ma- hommedans, under Cuttubad deen Khan, who fixed his residence here. It then became the capital of Hindoostan. In 1398 it was taken, pillaged, and reduced to a heap of ruins by Tamerlane. To- wards the end of the 1 6th century the seat of royalty was transferred to Agra. 1631. Shah Jehan founded the new city on the west bank of the Jumna. During the reign of his third son, the revenue of the city amounted to £3,813,594, and its population to 2,000,000 souls. It continued to pros- per until 1739, when Nadir Shah invaded it, massacred 100,000 inhabitants, and collected £62,000,000 sterling of plunder. It was again pillaged and depopulated in 1756, 1759, and 1760, by Ahmed Abdallah, and in 1788 Gholaum Kaudir and Rohilla made themselves masters of this city, starved and tortured many of the nobles, and put out the eyes of the king to compel a disclosure of supposed concealed treasures. 1803. This city came into the pos- session of the British by the victories of Lord Lake, and since that period has been gradually recovering from its cala- mities. At that time a portion of the territories near Delhi, on the right bank of the Jumna, was "assigned" for the maintenance of the emperor, or " great mogul," who is now dependent on the British. DELILLE, Abbe', a French poet, and author of " Les Jardins," dieil 1813. DELISLE, Joseph Nicholas, as- tronomer, born 1688, died 1768. DELISLE, William, geographer, • born 1675, died 1726. DELOLME, Lewis, the author of "Essays on the Constitution of Eng- land," &c., died December 1807. DELOS, an island of the ^'Egean Sea, known to the ancients by the names of Cynethos, or Cynthos, Asteria, Pelasgia, &c. The native deities, Apollo and Diana, had three very magnificent tem- ples erected for them in this island. That of Apollo was begun by Erysiap- thus, the son of Cecrops, who is said to have possessed this island a.c. 1558. The oracle of Apollo, in Delos, was one of the most famous in the world, not only for its antiquity, but for the rich- ness of the sacred presents dedicated to the god. Delos, the capital of the island, was the richest city in the Archipelago, but is now called Deli, and is little more than a desert rock, covered with ruins, and uninhabited. DELPHI, or Delphos, now called Castri, the capital of Phocis, in Greece. The temple of Apollo here, occupied, according to Pausanias, a large space, and was treated with singular veneration. This edifice was destroyed by fire in the 58tli Olympiad, a.c. 548. The riches of this temple e.xposed it to various de- predations. At length the Gauls, under the conduct of Brennus, came hither for the same purpose, about a.c. 278, but they were repulsed with great slaughter. Last of all, Nero robbed it of 500 of the most precious statues. Castri, the pre- sent town, does not consist of above 200 houses, and those very ill built. DE LUC, J. A, a French philosopher, born 1726, died 1817. DELUGE, THE Universal, or Noah's flood, makes one of the most considerable epochs in chronology. Its history is given by Moses, Gen. ch. vi. and vii.. Its time is fi.x.ed by the best chronologers to the year from the crea- tion 1656, answering to a.c. 2348. On the 10th day of the second month, which was on Sunday, November 30, God commanded Noah to enter into the ark with his family, &c. ; and on Sunday, DEM srs DEM December 7, it began to rain, and rained 40 days, and the deluge continued 150 days. On Wednesday, May 6, a.c. 2348, the ark rested on Mount Ararat. The tops of the mountains became visi- ble on Sunday, July 19, and on Friday, December 18, Noah came forth out of the ark with all that were with him. He built an altar, and sacrificed to God for his deliverance. Deluge of Deucalion, called Di- luvium Deucalioneum, overflowed Thes- saly A.c. 1529, being the third year be- fore the Israelites came out of Egypt. Deluge of Ogyges happened about 269 years before that of Deucalion, 1020 years before the first Olympiad, and A.c. 1796. The above two deluges have been thought to be the same with that of Noah. The following are also remarkable. The deluge of Syria, which, in 1095, drowned a prodigious number of people ; a de- luge in Friezland, which, in 1164, co- vered the whole environs of the coasts, and drowned several thousands of the inhabitants ; another inundation in 1218, which destroyed 100,000 men ; the in- undations in the Netherlands, which, in 1421, overwhelmed and covered with sea all that part between Brabant and Holland ; and in 1727, all that now called the Gulf of DoUart. DELWYDDELAN Castle, Caer- narvonshire, built, 500. DEM AY END Peak, Persia, first as- cended by an European, 1837, or 1838, when its height was ascertained, baro- metrically, to be 15,000 feet above the sea, and 11,000 feet above the plain of Tehran. DEMERARA, settlement. South America. This settlement was originally made by the Dutch, in 1745 ; it came into the possession of the British in 1796: restored to the Dutch at the peace of Amiens in 1802 ; re-taken by the British, in the following year, and retained until 1814, when it was formally confirmed to them. 1823. InsuiTection of the slaves took place on the east coast of the Demerara river, which was finally suppressed, and Mr. Smith, a missionary of the London Society, condemned to death on the charge of inciting the negroes to rebel- lion. In 1831, the colonies of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, were united into one government, and called British Guyana. See Guyana. DEMETRIUS, Prince of Macedon, being treacherously and falsely accused by his brother Perseus, was put to death by King Phillip, a.c. 180, DEMETRIUS Phalereus seized Athens a.c. 317, was banished 307. DEMETRIUS Poliorcetes changed the oligarchy of Athens, a.c. 307 ; de- feated the army of Ptolemy, 306 ; took Athens, 296 ; assassinated Alexander, son of Cassander, 294 ; the Athenians revolted from him, 287 ; died in capti- vity, 286. DEMETRIUS Soter, escaped from Rome, and recovered the throne of Syria, a.c. 162, was defeated and killed, 150. DEMISE OF THE Crown. A bill was brought in, August, 1840, vesting the full powers of sovereignty in Prince Albert as sole regent, in the event of the death of the queen in child-birth, except with certain limitations. These are the cases of the " succession to the throne, and the preservation of the church, as estabhshed by law, by the act of Uniformity of Charles the Second, in England, and afterwards in Ireland, by the act of Union, as fully as it was in England, and likewise the church of Scotland, as established by the law re- lating to the church of Scotland." There is also a limitation in case of the mar- riage of the regent. DEMOCRITUS, the laughing philo- sopher, died A.c. 361, aged 109. DEMOIVRE, celebrated mathemati- cian, born 1667, died 1754. DEMOSTHENES,'the celebrated ora- tor of Athens, was born in that city, a.c 381. At the age of 17, he gave a proof of his eloquence in pleading his own cause against his guardians, from whom he obtained the retribution of the great- est part of his estate. Being convicted of having received a bribe from Harpo- tus, a discarded bfficer of Alexander, he was sentenced by the areopagus to pay a fine of £50, and banished. He was re- called from banishment, a.c. 322; poi- soned himself, a.c. 313. Demosthenes has been deservedly called the prince of orators. In his Olynthiacs and Phihppics, his object is to excite the indignation of his country- men against Philip of Macedon, the enemy of the liberties of Greece ; and he boldly accuses them of venality, indo- lence, and indifference to the public good ; while, at the same time, he re- DEN 376 D E N minds them of their former glory, and nearly 200 years after this period the of their present resources. His orations Danes were a terror to all the northern | are animated, and full of the impetuosity nations of Europe, and having often of public spirit. His composition is not landed on the coasts of England, at distinguished by ornament and splen- length conquered the whole island. See dour. It is the energy of thought Danes. peculiarly his own, which forms his cha- The three sons of Lodbrog at the racter, and raises him above his rivals. death of their father divided the king- DEMPSTER, Thomas, historian and doms of Denmark, Sweden, and Nor- comraentator, died 1625. way, among them ; and Denmark had DENBIGH, called by the Britons, again a separate king. Surm, or Surmo, Cledfryn, yn Rhos, was given by Edwd. who reigned in 920, was succeeded in I. to David ap GrufFydd, brother to 945, by his son Harold Blaataud, who Llewelyn, the last prince of North made war on England and France, and Wales. He being afterwards beheaded attacked Germany. The next sovereign I for high treason, it was given to Lacy, was Sweine Otho, who invaded England : earl of Lincoln, who fortified the town Canute the Great succeeded him in with a strong wall, and either built or 1017, and filled the thrones of Den- enlarged the castle, 1280. Here Charles mark, England, and Norway. , L found an asylum in his retreat from Valdemar L obtained the throne in Chester; and the resistance which the 1157, and died in 1182. In 1195, Ca- governor made, under William Salisbury, nute VI., Valdemar's successor, caused to the parliamentarians, was equal to a muster to be made of all the men fit that of the most faithful loyalists in any to bear arms in his dominions. In his other part of the kingdom. reign the Danish dominions were en- DENBIGH Abbey, built 1330; larged by the entire conquest of Stro- castle built, 1280. mar, and the districts of Lubec and D'ENGHIEN, Duke, the heir pre- Hamburgh. He died in 1202, and was suraptive of the house of Bourbon, who succeeded by Valdemar II., who also had been taken at Ettenheim, on the proved a very great and warlike prince, territory of the elector of Baden, and In 1218, he undertook an expedition carried to Paris, was shot at midnight, against the Esthonians, to convert them in the wood of Vincennes, by order of to Christianity. Buonaparte, March 9, 1804. From 1252 to 1333, the kingdom of DENHAM, Lieutenant-Colonel, Denmark gradually declined. But in the African traveller died, 1828. See 1387, Margaret, who was advanced to Africa. the throne, raised the kingdom to its DENHAM, Sir John, author of highest pitch of glory, and by her ad- " Cooper's Hill," &c., born 1615, died dress, succeeded in effecting the election 1668. of Eric, her adopted son, to be her suc- DENHAM, Thomas, M.D., died cessor to the crowns of Sweden, Den- Nov. 26, 1815. mark, and Norway in 1412. DENINA, Abbe', author of the "His- About 1448, the crown of Denmark lories of the Revolutions of Italy and fell to Christian, count of Oldenburg, Germany," died 1813. from whom the present royal family of DENMARK, one of the most ancient Denmark is descended. John, the son monarchies in Europe ; 'the word sup- of Christian, succeeded him in 1481. posed to signify the land or country of Christian II. ascended the throne in Dan, a king who is believed to have 1513. In his reign Sweden threw off lived about A. c. 1038. The inhabitants the yoke in 1521, and Gustavus Vasa were called Danes, as early as the sixth was proclaimed king. In 1523, the century, a.c, but the chronology of this Danes also revolted, and called Frederic, period is doubtful. duke of Holstein, to the throne. The The earliest authentic records are the following is a list of the kings from this Danish chronicles, which state, that time : Schiold, their first king, reigned about Frederick I. began 1523 A.c. 60. They then mention 18 kings Christian III 1554 to the time of the famous Ragner Lod- Frederick II 1559 brog, A. D. 750, who was taken and killed Christian IV 1558 in an attemjjt to invade England. For Frederick III 1648 DEN 377 DER Christian V.. 1670 chosen by their fellow- subjects, should Frederick IV 1699 assemble at stated periods, in order to Christian VI 1730 deliberate on the interests of the country, Frederick V 1746 preparatory to the framing of royal de- Christian VII 1766 crees respecting those interests. Frederick VI 1808 DENMARK, Great Festival at, 1801. Denmark joined the confede- in 1826, to commemorate the introduc- racy formed by Russia and S\veden tion of Christianity, which happened a against Great Britain. In consequence thousand years previous, of this step, the latter sent a formidable DENNIS, John, celebrated , critic, fleet into the Baltic. The defeat of the born 1657, died 1733. Danes, and the death of the Emperor DENON, Baron Dom. Vivante, a Paul, dissolved the confederacy, and French painter, one of the literary com- Denmark resolved, in the subsequent panions of Buonaparte in Egypt, and war between France and England, to author of the "Travels;" born 1747, continue neutral. In 1807, a formidable died 1825. expedition was sent out by Great Britain, DEPTFORD was only a village until which ended in the taking of Copenha- the erection of docks and of the Trinity gen, and the seizure of the Danish fleet. House here by Henry VIII. The docks 1808. Christian VII. died, and the suflfered from fire in 1652, and from an crown prince was proclaimed king, by inundation in 1671. The Trinity House, the name of Frederick VI. Hostilities in 1787, was removed to Tower Hill, between Denmark and Great Britain London. were carried on with great animosity, Charles I., at his own expense, replaced and the isles of Heligoland and Anholt the old wooden bridge over the Ravens- taken by the EngUsh in 1811. bourne in 1623 with one of stone. Dept- 1813. A war between Denmark and ford has frequently suflFered from fires. Sweden, which, after various success. There was a destructive one which de- was at length terminated by Denmark's stroyed the Victualling Office, and two acceding to the terms of peace proposed lighters in the river, January 16, 1749; by the crown prince of Sweden and the the Store House, September 2, 1758 ; British government. The principal terms the Red House, February 26, 1761; and of this peace, which was signed at Keil, the King's Mill, December 1775. January 14, 1814, were, 1. That Den- DERBEND, a town in Asiatic Russia, mark should cede Norway to Sweden, government Circassia, supposed to have 2. That Sweden should give up Swedish been built by Alexander the Great. It Pomerania to Denmark. 3. That Stral- is defended by numerous towers, and sund should be a depot for British goods, enclosed by lofty walls. It was taken 4. That Great Britain should restore all by the Russians in 1722, in defiance of she had conquered from Denmark, ex- 230 pieces of cannon that were then cept Heligoland. 5. That the Danish mounted on the walls, and retained until government should abolish the slave 1735. It subsequently was taken and trade. And lastly, That Sweden and retaken by the Russians and Persians up Great Britain should use their endea- to 1806, when the former finally esta- vours to bring about a peace between biished themselves here. Denmark and the rest of the allied powers. DERBY was founded by the Anglo- 1831. Frederick, king of Denmark, Saxons, and was a royal borough, with issued a proclamation promising a new peculiar privileges, in the reign of Ed- constitution to his kingdom and the ward the confessor. It obtained its first duchies of Sleswick and Holstein, in- charter from Henry I. The Danes set- eluding a provision for a system of re- tied here, and were driven out by Etliel- presentative local councils. freda, daughter of Alfred the Great. In 1835. In the course of this year, the December, 1745, Charles Edward Stuart king voluntarily created a representative having reached this place, thought it body, under the name of the royal coun- advisable here also to commence that cil, which assembled for the first time at retreat which terminated in the battle of Copenhagen, October 1. The electoral CuUoden. system was explained in the opening DEREHAM, East, Norfolk. The address of the royal commissioner. His church, made parochial in 798, belonged majesty ordained that certain men, freely to a nunnery founded by Withburga, 3c DES natural daughter of Anna, king of East Anglia, and destroyed by the Danes. Bonner, bishop of London, was one of the rectors of this parish. Covvper, the poet, was interred here in 1800. DERG, Lough, Ireland, contains se- veral small islands, in one of which stands St. Patrick's purgatory, still visit- ed annually by Roman catholic pilgrims. A religious establishment was founded here about 492, and the purgatory was constructed in the 11th century by the canons regular of St. Augustine. Amongst the most eminent of the pil- grims to this shrine were Maletsta Ungavs, a foreign knight, in 1358 ; Nicholas de Beccario, a nobleman of Ferrara, in the same year; and in 1397> Raymond, Viscount de PeriUeux and knight of Rhodes. Pope Alexander VL ordered the purgatory to be demolished upon St. Patrick's day, 1497, and in 1630, the Irish government directed that the building sliould be razed. It has, however, been restored in a rude manner, and stations continue to be performed here on the patron's day. DERHAM, Dr. William, a divine of the church of England, born in 1657. In 1711 and 1712 he was appointed preacher at Mr. Boyle's lectures, and in the following year he published the sermons he had delivered, under the title of " Physico-Theology, or Demon- stration of the Being and Attributes of God from his works of Creation ;" and "Astro-Theology, or a Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God from a Survey of the Heavens." He died in 1735. DERMODY, Thomas, a youthful poet, but whose extraordinary attain- ments and genius protected him from want and poverty no more than those of Otway, Chatterton, Boyse, and others. He died in 1802. DERMOT, king of Leinster, called in the assistance of the English against the other Irish princes, which led to the conquest of Ireland by Henry II., 1171. DERRICK, Samuel, master of the ceremonies at Bath, died 1769- DERWENTWATER, Earl of. and Lord Kenmuir, beheaded on Tower-hill, February 24, I7l6. DESAGULIERS, John Theophi- Lus, a divine, and experimental philoso- pher, was born at Rochelle, in France, 1683. On account of the revocation of the edict of Nantz in 1685, he was early 378 DES brought to England. In 1712 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in I7l6 was made chaplain to the duke of Chandos, who presented him to the living of Edgware. From this period he was indefatigable in his experiments in natural philosophy. He took his de- gree of doctor of laws at Oxford in 1718 ; and in 1734, published, in two volumes, quarto, '* A Course of Experimental Phi- losophy." After this he edited Dr. Gre- gory's " Elements of Catoptrics and Di- optrics." In 1742 he published a Dis- sertation on Electricity, which contained every thing that was known on the sub- ject at that time. He died in 1749. DESAULT, J. P., a celebrated sur- geon, born 1744, died 1795. DESBARRES, Bonaventure, a French privateer, born 1700, died 1729. DESCARTES, Rene', an eminent French mathematician and philosopher, was born at La Haye, in Touraine, in 1596. In I6l6 he engaged as a volun- teer among the prince of Orange's troops. During the encampment of the army at Breda, he solved a problem in mathe- matics. In 1628 he returned to Paris, and at an assembly of men of learning explained his sentiments with regard to philosophy, Avhich he afterwards pub- hshed in a systematic form. He made a short tour to England, and not far from London made some observations concern- ing the declination of the magnet. His works excited much attention both in France and Holland, and Voetius being chosen rector of the university of Utrecht, procured his philosophy to be prohibited. In 1647 he took a journey to France, where the king settled a pension of 3000 livres upon him. Christina, queen of Sweden, having invited him into that kingdom, proposed to allow him a revenue, and to form an academy, of which he was to be the director. But these designs were broken off by his death, in 1650. His philosophy, though no better than an ingenious romance, prevailed for more than a century, but has now given way to the more accurate discoveries and de- monstrations of the Newtonian system. DESEADA, Isle of. West Indies. It was the first of the Caribbean islands seen by Columbus on his second voyage in 1494. DESHOULIERES, Anthony, a French writer, born 1638, died 1694. DESMARES, Anselme Galtans, professor of Zoology at the Royal Vete- DEV 379 DEW rinary College of Alfort ; author of seve- ral works on Fossil Zoology and Bo- tany, died 1839. DESMOND, Thomas, Earl of, be- headed in Ireland, 1468. DESOLATION, Island of, the first land south of India, discovered by Ker- guelen, 1772, and called by his name. Subsequently called Desolation by Cap- tain Cook. DESPARD, Colonel, and six asso- ciates, executed in Southwark, for high treason, Feb. 21, 1803. DESS ALINES, the negro chief of St. Domingo, massacred the white inhabi- tants of that island, 1803, was crowned king of Hayti, Oct. 8, 1804. His go- vernment was marked by arrogance and folly, as well as by treachery and cruelty. At length, after a miserable reign, his officers, convinced of his inability, dis- gusted at his follies, and wearied with his cruelties, resolved on cutting him off, and electing another chief in his stead : this was effected in Oct. 1806, DETROIT, city. North America. The settlement was made by the French, in 1683. The town was destroyed by fire in 1805, but rebuilt and improved im- mediately. It was taken by the En- glish in 1812, but restored to the Ameri- cans,in whose possessionit remains. DETTINGEN, town, in the south of Germany. George II. of England, in person, gained a victory over the French at this place, in 1743. DEUCALION, reigned at Thermo- pylae, A.c. 1548 ; his deluge 1503. DEVEREUX, Robert, earl of Essex, the favorite of Queen Elizabeth, was born at Nethervvood, in Herefordshire in 1567- In his l7th year he was introduced at court, and in 1588, accompanied the queen to Tilbury, to resist the Spanish invasion. In 1596, he was appointed joint commander with Lord Howard in an expedition to the coast of Spain. In this expedition, which makes a consi- rable figure in English history. Lord Essex distinguished himself and acquired much popularity. Aconspiracy was form- ed against the pei'son of the sovereign, which being discovered. Lord Essex and others were apprehended under a charge of high treason, and he was executed, Feb. 25, 1601. The memory of Lord Essex has been always popular, and his untimely end has been the subject of four different tragedies. The queen, after the_ unfor- tunate death of her favorite, gave her- self up to melancholy. She had given him a ring during the height of his fa- vour, as a pledge, on the return of which she promised to pardon any offence he might commit. This ring, it is believed, the unhappy man entrusted to his rela- tion the countess of Nottingham, who was not suffered by her husband, the capital enemy of Essex, to deliver it. DEVEREUX, Robert, son of the preceding, born 1592, died 1646. D E V I S, Arthur William, an English landscape painter (one of the Antelope crew, wrecked on the Pelew Islands,) born 1762, died 1822. DEVIZES. A charter was granted to this town by the Empress Maud, con- firmed by Henry II. and several of his successors, and renewed by Charles I. In 1643, the parliamentary army was de- feated at Boundway Hill near this town, by King Charles's forces. DEVIZES Castle, built 1136. DEVON, county, England. Before the Roman conquest it was inhabited by a tribe called the Damonii ; under the Romans it was included in the province of Britannia Prima. It was frequently the scene of bitter contests between the ancient Britons and the Saxons. At the Norman conquest, Exeter withstood a regular siege before it submitted to the conqueror. During the war of Charles I.'s reign, this county was most devoted to the royal cause, and was the theatre of several military transactions. In 1688, William prince of Orange, landed at Torbay in this county. D E V O N P O R T, OR Plymouth Dock, received its origin from the dock- yard, the foundation of which was laid by WiHiam III. Devonport is compara- tively of recent date, and derived its present name from George IV. to whom the inhabitants applied, inl824, for anew and appropriate appellation for their town. Erected into a borough in 1832. DEVONSHIRE House, Piccadilly, destroyed by fire, 1733. DEW, (Gory.) Mr. Burnet, in his " Outlines of Botany," says, that during 1831, and 1832, at Oxford, he frequently found this phenomenon (a phenomenon of no unfrequent occurrence in many other places) in damp situations, form- ing on the ground or stones, broad in- determinate patches of a deep rich pur- ple colour, with a shining surface, as if blood or red wine had been poured over DIA 380 DIA the stone or ground. During dry wea- ther it contracts, grows dull, and disap- pears ; but after rain, it spreads anew, and resumes its sanguine colour. It is produced by the red snow plant, and its history aflfords an easy explanation of a phenomenon considered supernatural by monkish chronicles. DE WITT, John and Cornelius, two Dutch statesmen and patriots, who, after spending their lives in the service of their country, were torn to pieces by an Orange mob, in 1672. DEWSBURY, a town in York- shire. On the top of the parish church there is a cross bearing this inscrip- tion, "Hie Paulinus praedicavit et cele- bravit, a.d. 627." — a memorial of the preaching of the missionary Pauli- nus, the first archbishop of York, by whose means Dewsbury became the common centre of Christianity, which spread over an extensive district to the west, and was the mother church of several parishes, which still acknowledge their dependence. DIAL, Sun. The earliest upon re- cord is that of Ahaz, a.c. 740, mention- ed in Isaiah xxxviii. 8. Anaximenes and Thales made dials; and Vitruvius informs us that Berosus the Chaldean constructed one on a reclining plane, nearly parallel to the equator. The first sun-dial in Rome was set up by Papyrius Cursor, near the temple of Quirinus, A.c. 293 ; this proving inaccurate, ano- ther was brought from Sicily, about A.c. 263, by M. Valerius Messala, and placed on a pillar near the Rostrum ; this not being adapted to the latitude, was likewise found to be defective ; at length, about a.c. 163, Martius Philip- pus erected one which pointed out the divisions of time with more exactness. DIALLING. Although dials were constructed during the eighth century before Christ, there was no treatise written by the ancients on the art. The first work of this kind was that by Clavius the Jesuit, composed towards the end of the l6th century. M. Picard gave a new method of making large dials, by calculating the hour-lines; and M. dela Hire, in 1680, effected the same thing geometrically, from certain points found by observation. Before this, Eber- hardus Welperus had laid down a me- thod of drawing the primary dials on an easy foundation ; but liis method had been anticipated for more than 70 years, by Sebastian Munster. A new edition of Welperus's Dialling was published by Sturmius in 1672, with the addition of a second part, on inclining and declin- ing dials ; which work, together with the improvements of Sturmius, and the methods of Picard and Dela Hire, above mentioned, was republished in 1709- Other writers on the subject, of more recent date, are Gauppeu, Leyburn, Bion, Wells, Deparceux, Ferguson, Em- erson, Jones, &c, DIAMOND. From the remotest an- tiquity this has been considered as the most costly substance in nature. The diamond was first found in Asia, where it is still collected, although not in such quantities as formerly. The art of cut- ting and polishing diamonds was pro- bably known to the artists of Hindoo- stan and China, at a very early period, European artists, until the 15th century, were of opinion that it was impossible to cut the diamond. In 1456, a young man named Louis Berghen, a native of Bruges, endeavoured to polish two dia- monds, by rubbing them against each other. He found that, by this means, a facet was produced on the surface of the diamond; and in consequence of this hint, constructed a polishing wheel, on which, by means of diamond powder, he was enabled to cut and polish this substance, in the same way as other gems are wrought by emery. 1730. The Rio Janeiro fleet brought to Europe 1146 ounces of diamonds, the produce of Brazil ; in consequence of which the price of this article immediately fell three-fourths. The following are some of the most remarkable diamonds hitherto discover- ed: — one weighing 1680 carats, in the possession of the royal family of Portu- gal, which was found in Brazil, This is now, however, generally believed, to be a fine white- coloured topaz. The largest of the undoubted diamonds is, that mentioned by Tavernier, as in pos- session of the great mogul ; its weight is 279t6 carats : its form and size are equal to about half a hen's egg. It was found in the mine of Coulour, to the east of Gol- conda, about the year 1550. The mag- nificent diamond on the top of the scep- tre of the emperor of Russia, is perfectly pure; weighs 195 carats; and is the size of a pigeon's egg. It was one of the eyes of a Brahminical idol, and was stolen by a French grenadier ; it was pur- Die 381 DIG chased by the Empress Catharine of Russia, for about £90,000 ready money, and an annuity of about £4000 more. The Pit or regent diamond is cut in the brilhant form, and is said to be the most beautiful diamond hitherto found ; it weighs 1361 carats, and was purchased for £130,000, although it is now valued at double that sum. It was brought from India by an English gentleman of the name of Pit, and was sold by him to the regent, duke of Orleans, by whom it was placed among the crown jewels of France. DIAMOND Mines have been found in the East Indies, principally in the kingdoms of Golconda, Visapour, Ben- gal, and the island of Borneo. That of Sumbulpour, a large town in the king- dom of Bengal, is the most ancient ; that at Golconda was discovered in 1584; that at Coulour in 1640. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1730, and let to a company at Rio Janeiro in 1740. DIAMONDS, Nine of, called the curse of Scotland, from a Scotch mem- ber of parliament, part of whose family aiTns is the nine of diamonds, voting for the introduction for the malt tax into Scotland. DIAZ, Bartholomew, a distinguish- ed Portuguese navigator, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope, was employed by King John II. of Portugal, in prosecut- ing discoveries on the coast of Africa. In 1486, after tracing nearly a thou- sand miles of new country, he came in sight of that cape, which, on account of the trouble which he had undergone in the voyage, he named Stormy Cape. He returned to Lisbon in December, 1487, died 1512. DIBDIN, Charles, celebrated writer of humorous songs, died July 25, 1814. DIBDIN, Charles, son of the pre- ceding, for many years author and ma- nager of several London theatres ; died Jan. 12, 1833. The printed works of the younger Charles are, " Claudine," a burletta, 8vo., 1801; "The Great Devil," a spectacle, 8vo. 1801; "The Song-smith ; or. Rigmarole Repository," 18mo. 1802; "Mirth and Metre," poems, 8vo. 1807; also, without date, "Goody Two Shoes," a pantomime, ; " Barbara Allan ;" and the " Old Man of the Mountains." DICE, invented a. c. 1500; 3000 pair stamped in England a.d. 1775. DICKSON, Sir Alexandek, a dis- tinguished military officer, and the com- panion in arms of the duke of Welling- ton. He received his education at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and obtained his first commission in the royal artillery, in the year 1794 ; first lieutenant, March 6, 1795 ; captain, Oct. 14, 1801 ; brevet major, February 6, 1812; regimental major, June 26, 1823 ; brevet heutenant-colonel, April 27, 1824; regimental lieutenant-colonel, April 2, 1825 ; brevet colonel, May 27, 1825; regimental colonel, July 1, 1836; major-general, Jan. 10, 1837 ; deputy adjutant-general, April 10, 1837. Sir Alexander commenced his active services at the capture of Minorca, in 1798. He was at the blockade of Malta, and surrender of LaValetta,1800; capture of Montevideo and attack on Buenos Ayres, 1807 ; served throughout the campaigns of the Peninsula, France, and Flanders, including, in 1809, the cap- ture of Oporto, and expulsion of Marshal SoultfromPortugal: inl801,atthe battle of Busaco and lines of Lisbon; in 1811, affair at Campo Mayor ; siege and cap- ture of Olivenca ; first and second siege of Badajoz, and battle of Albuera : in 1812, siege and capture of Ciudad Rod- rigo ; siege and capture of Badajoz ; at- tack and capture of the foi-ts of Almarez; siege and capture of the forts, and battle of Salamanca ; capture of the Retiro, Madrid, and siege of Burgos: in 1813, battle of Vittoria ; siege and capture of St. Sebastian ; passage of the Bidassoa ; battles of the Nivelle and Nive : in 1814, passage of the Adour, and battle of Tou- louse ; served in the last American war, including the attack on New Orleans, and siege and capture of Fort Bowyer, Mobile ; present in the battles of Qua- trebras and Waterloo ; commanded the battering train in aid of the Prussian army, in the siege of Mauberg, Lan- drecies, Philippeville, Marienberg, and Rocroy : he also received six clasps in addition to his hard-earned honours for nearly 17 years' constant employ be- fore an enemy. He died in April, 1840. "Amid the host of heroes distinguish- ed in the late wars, few have stood more conspicuous for that noble, dar- ing, cool and determined courage which marks the warrior and the man ; and we may venture to affirm, if actions bespeak desert. Sir Alexander Dickson had nobly won the decorations which nearly covered his breast, for having been DID 382 DIM 33 times engaged with the enemies of his country in various quarters of the globe." The funeral took place with unusual military honours, April 28, at Plum- sted, in Kent. It was attended by an immense concourse of visitors, from all parts of the metropolis. The burial service having been gone through, the corpse was carried from the church on the shoulders of privates of the artillery corps, who had supported the deceased in many a hard-fought field, to its last resting place. The whole of the troops forming the Woolwich garrison, includ- ing the horse and foot artillery, the royal marines, the royal regiment of sappers and miners, and the 29th regiment of light infantry, the cadets of the royal military college, and all the staff, civil, military, and medical, were drawn up in line, in front of the Royal Artillery Barracks. DICTATOR, a Roman magistrate, chosen by the senate, invested for the term of six, and sometimes twelve months, with supreme authority. This officer was first chosen during the Roman wars against the Latins, but was afterwards resorted to on any emergency. The dictatorship was originally confined to the patricians ; but the plebians were afterwards allowed to share it. Titus Lartius Flavus was the first patrician dic- tator, A.c. 498. The first dictator, cho- sen from among the people, was C. Marcus Rutihus, a. c. 355. After the battle of Thrasymenus, A. c. 217, which was the third defeat of the Romans, by Hannibal, Q. Fabius Maximus, was elected prodictator. He was the only one whose greatness of soul correspond- ed to the dignity of the office. Sylla was appointed perpetual dictator a.c. 84, who exercised the office in a most tyrannical manner. Caesar was the last dictator ; for Antony, in a.c. 44, abolished this office, and in doing it, he reserved the honour of this action entirely to himself. DIDEROT, Denys, an eminent French writer and philosopher, was born at Langres, in 1713. In 1745, in con- junction with D'Alembert, he laid the foundation of the "Dictionaire Encyclo- pedique." The first edition was com- pleted between the years 1751 and 1767- During this time he composed several other works; "Thoughts on the Inter- pretation of Nature," 1754; "The Code of Nature," 1755; " Le Fils Naturel," 1757 ; and " Le Pere de Famille," 1758. At the conclusion of the " Dictionary," he sold his library to the empress of Russia, for 50,000 livres; and he was to have the use of it during his life. He died suddenly, as he rose from table, on July 31, 1784. D I E B ITS C H, the Russian general, commander of the forces againstthePoles, crossed the Balkan, June 19, 1830 ; died of the cholera morbus, June 10, 1831. He was succeeded in his command by General Paskewitch, DIEPPE, a town of France, was bom- barded by the British in 1694, and in 1794. DIERNSTEIN, a town in the Aus- trian empire. Richard I. of England, returning from the Holy Land, was dis- covered and basely arrested and impri- soned at this place in 1194, by Leopold, duke of Austria. An engagement took place here, in 1805, between the French on one side, and the Russians with the Austrians on the other, in which victory was claimed by both sides. DIEU ET MON DROIT, God and my right, the motto of the royal arms of England, first assumed by King Richard I. after a victory over the French in 1194. It was afterwards taken up by Edward III., and was continued without interruption to the time of King William III., who used the motto "Je main- tiendray." After him Queen Anne used the motto " Semper eadem," which had been used before by Queen Elizabeth ; but ever since Queen Anne, " Dieu et mon droit" continues to be the royal motto. DIGBY, Sir Edward, born 1581. Hanged with other conspirators in the gunpowder plot, January 30, I606. DIGEST of Justinian, published, De- cember 30, 533. See Civil Law. DIGGES, Sir Dudley, statesman, born 1583, died 1639. DIGNUM, Charles, popular singer, was born at Rotherhithe, 1765. In 1784, he made his debut in the character of Young Meadows. His histrionic talents were not great ; yet, from his vocal powers, he for many years held a re- spectable situation at the theatre. He died March 29, 1827. DILLENIUS, John James, pro- fessor of botany at Oxford, born 1687; published his " Hortus Elthamensis," 1732; died 1747- DIMORPHISM. Among the impor- tant labours of the British Association DIN 383 in 1837, find printed in the society's volume of reports, is a paper by Pro- fessor Johnston, on this new and curious subject of chemical inquiry. The dis- covery that there exist definite chemical substances, which ai'e capable of assum- ing more than one crystaline form, not deducible from, nor referable to, each other, accompanied with different physi- cal properties ; and, that there are sub- stances which are capable (independently of any change of composition,) of under- going some internal transmutation suffi- cient to vary even their chemical affini- ties : these are discoveries which peculi- arly deserve to be verified and extended. The report on Dimorphism, printed in this volume, gives a fuller statement on this subject than was before possessed. DINARCHUS, the Athenian orator, flourished A.c. 313. DINDIGUL, town and district, Hin- doostan, in the Carnatic, was subdued by the Mysore government in 1757; DIO seized on by the British in 1783, and, finally ceded to them byTippoo, in 1792. DINOCRATES, the mathematician, flourished A.c. 332. DIOCESE, OR DiocESS, the circuit, or extent, of the jurisdiction of a bishop. The first arrangement of the empire into dioceses is ordinarily ascribed to Con- stantine, who first divided the whole Roman state into four ; afterwards into 13 dioceses, or prefectures. CXn this civil constitution the ecclesiastical one was regulated. England, with regard to its ecclesiastical state, is divided into two provinces, viz. — Canterbury and York. The former province contained 21 dio- ceses, and the latter three. See Bishop- ricks. In 1836 some changes were effected in the dioceses. The following table shows the condi- tion of the several dioceses in England and Wales, with reference to the number of benefices and to the population, be- fore the alteration :— PROVINCE OF CANTERBURY. Dioceses. Number of Benefices. Population. 343 402,885 131 197,392 124 153,344 441 403,908 254 263,328 267 236,950 407 372,685 149 126,316 611 773,251 281 275,806 256 207.451 606 983,783 1,234 855,039 192 183,990 635 1,688,899 1,021 692,163 209 139,581 290 186,193 94 196,716 386 320,547 416 780,214 212 357,548 891 1,463,503 127 127,701 554 1,902,354 146 452,637 Canterbury St. Asaph Bangor Bath and Wells Bristol Chichester St. David's Ely Exeter Gloucester Hereford Lichfield and Coventry , Lincoln Llandaff London Norwich Oxford Peterborough Rochester Salisbury Winchester Worcester PROVINCE OF YORK. York... Carlisle . Chester . Durham DIO 384 The following is the present conaition of the several dioceses, with reference to the number of benefices, and to popula- DIO tion, accorumg to the alterations settled by parliament, 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 7T, August, 1836. See Church. PROVINCE OF CANTERBURY. Dioceses. Canterbury St. Asaph and Bangor Bath and Wells Chichester St. David's Ely Exeter Glocester Hereford. Lichfield Lincoln LlandaiF and Bristol . . London iVorwirh Oxford Peterborough Rochester Salisbury Winchester Worcester No. of Bene- fices 381 253 441 267 391 554 611 363 264 459 780 233 244 809 523 498 536 398 391 355 Population. PROVINCE OF YORK. York Carlisle Chester Durham . . . Manchester. Ripon 595 285 246 152 205 153 423,069 339,450 493,908 unaltered 236,950 unaltered 365,646 393,347 773,251 unaltered 324,198 218,392 612,555 506,745 303,875 1,746,504 568,285 388,043 394,567 471,813 315,405 495,846 573,020 583,132 435,432 462,506 459,964 1,208,533 739,748 DIOCLETIAN, the Roman emperor, born of an obscure family in Dalmatia, 245. At the death of Numerian in 284, he was invested with 'imperial power. He was bold and resolute, active and di- ligent ; but his cruelty against the fol- lowers of Christianity has been deserv- edly branded with infamy. After he had reigned 22 years, he publicly abdicated the crown at Nicomedia in 305, and re- tired to a private station at Salona. He died in 314, in the 68th year of his age. His bloody persecution of the christians forms a chronological era called the era of Diocletian, or of the martyrs. It commenced Aug. 29, 284. DIODORUS, the Peripatetic philoso- pher, flourished A.C. 141. DIODORUS SicuLus, the historian, was a native of Agyrium in Sicily, and flourished a.c. 44. DIOGENES, the Cynic, born at Si- nope in Pontus a. c. 414. He is said to have lodged in a tub ; and had no other moveables besides his staflp, and wooden bowl. The time and manner of his death are not satisfactorily ascertain- ed. It is most probable that he died at Corinth, of mere decay, in the 90th year of his age, in the first year of the 114th Olympiad, a.c. 324. DIOGENES, surnamed the Baby- lonian, from the vicinity of Seleucia, his native place, to Babylon, was a stoic philosopher, who flourished in the second century, a.c. DIO 385 D I O DIOGENES, Laertius, so nimed from the place of his birth ; he is sup- posed by some to have flourished a. c. 147, about the time of the Antonines. Others have thought that he lived under Severus and his successors, and that his book of the "Lives of the Philosophers," &c., was written about a.c. 210. DIOGENES, Apolloniates, a na- tive of Crete, and a philosopher of the Ionic sect, flourished about the l7th Olympiad, or 500 years A.c. DION Cassius, author of the " History of Rome," flourished a. c. 229. DIONYSIUS I., called the tyrant of Syracuse, from a private secretary be- came a general, and afterwards assumed the title of king of Syracuse, a.c. 404. His reign was one continued act of ty- ranny. He was likewise a poet ; and having, by bribes, gained the tragedy prize at Athens, he indulged himself so immoderately at table from excess of joy, that he died of the debauch, a.c. 368. DIONYSIUS II., son and successor of the preceding, was also a great tyrant. During his reign he so grievously op- pressed his subjects, that they applied to the Corinthians for succour; and Timoleon, their general, having con- quered the tyrant, he retired to Corinth, a . c. 357 ; but reascended the throne, A.c. 350. He died a.c. 343. DIONYSIUS Halicarnassen- sis, a celebrated historian, was born at Halicarnassus ; and went to Rome after the battle of Actiura, a.c. 39, where he stayed' 22 years, under the reign of Augustus. He there composed, in Greek, his " History of the Roman An- tiquities," in 20 books, of which the first 11 only are now extant. The best edi- tion of his work is that of Oxford, 1704. DIONYSIUS, surnamed Exiguus, or the Little, on account of his short sta- ture, was a native of Scythia, flourished under Justinian towards the beginning of the sixth century, and died, according to Cave, before the year 556, or, accord- ing to Blair's Tables, in the year 540. He is said to have been the author of the vulgar christian epocha, and to have invented the Cycle of Easter, ascribed by others, to Victor, or Victorinus. DIONYSIUS Priory, Hants, built, 1124. DIOPHANTUS, a celebrated mathe- matician of Alexandria, and inventor of the Diophantine problem, flourished at a period which has not been precisely ascertained. According to Abulphara- gius, it was under the emperor Julian, or towards the year 366. His work in six books, was first published at Basil, by Xylander, in 1575, in a Latin version. The same books were afterwards published in Greek and Latin, at Paris, in 1621. DIOPTRIC Light, at Kirculdy Har- bour. This consists of an annular lens, on a new principle, recently invented by Edward Sang, Esq., engineer. On April 25, 1838, was read before the Edinburgh Society of Arts, the Report of a Committee, on the newly-erected light, which states as follows : — " Mr. Sang's invention of grinding annular surfaces of any form by means of cutters attached to a moveable arm, whose end is guided by a spring uncoiling itself from the evolute of the curve surface which the lens requires, is novel and ingenious, and if equally applicable to the construction of instruments requiring great accuracy of form, promises to be extensively useful. The mode of giving any required direction to the scratches, or small indentations made in the process of grinding is very simple, and consists partly in reversing the motion of the cutter, or of the chuck on which the lens is placed, and partly in altering the ratio of the velocities of the surfaces in contact. Any degree of obliquity in the direction of the scratches may, in this way, be produced, both from right to left, and from left to right, and thus every possible variety in their direction must be the result ; so that the whole effect ordinarily produced by crossing the motions in the usual grinding pro- cess may be obtained." DIORAMA. This well-known exhi- bition, which is a modification of the pa- norama, was first opened in London in 1822, in a building appropriated to that purpose near the Regent's Park, and has continued to present a series of the most interesting illusions.. The two which were first exhibited were, the Valley of Samen, and part of Canterbury Cathe- dral. Next followed the Cathedral of Chartres, and Brest Harbour. Among others which followed were, Holyrood Chapel by moonhght, Roslyn Chapel, the city of Rouen, St. Cloud, and the environs of Paris. The British diorama, in Oxford Street, 3 D D IS 386 D IV another exhibition on a similar plan, opened about 1830, has presented some good views painted by Messrs. Stanfield and Roberts. This building was de- stroyed by fire. May 27, 1829, which broke out in the afternoon while attend- ed by company. The damage estimated at £50,000. DIPLOMATICS, the science of diplo- mas, or of ancient literary monuments, public documents, &c., is chiefly confined to the middle ages, and the first centu- ries of modern times. It owes its ori- gin to a Jesuit of Antwerp, named Pape- broch, who applied himself to the re- search and exposition of old diplomas, about the year 1675. DIPPING Needle, or Inclinatory Needle, a magnetical needle invented by Robert Norman, a nautical instru- ment maker, about 1570. Its peculiar property is, that when properly suspend- ed, instead of vibrating horizontally, the north point dechnes downwards below the horizon, and consequently the south point is elevated as many degrees aboA^e it. In 1576, Mr. Norman found the dip at London to be 71° 50 ; but in 1723, Mr Graham made it between 74° and 75° ; however, Mr. Nairne, in 1772, found it somewhat above 72" ; and the Royal Society, by taking the mean of a number of observations made since that time, have fixed it at 72g:° DIRLETON, a viUage of Scotland. The castle, built in the 13th century, be- longed to the family De Vallibus ; on the invasion of Scotland by Edward I. it submitted to Beck, bishop of Durham, and in 1650 was taken by Lambert. DISAPPOINTMENT Isles, Polyne- sia first seen by Commodore Byron, 1765. DISIER, OR DiziER, St. a town of France. In 1544, this place was besieg- ed by the emperor Charles V. A battle was fought here between the French and allied armies in 1814. DISPENSARY, benevolent insti- tutions for the relief of the sick poor, which had their origin at the close of the last century. They are too nume- rous to name in the limits of our work. DISPENSATION, first granted by the pope 1200. DISSOLUTION OF Monasteries, by acts passed in the reign of Henry VIIL, to the value of £273,000 per annum, equal now to nearly £3,000,000. See Monasteries. DISTAFF Spinning, first introduced into England by Bonavera, an Italian, 1505. D I S T I L L A T I O N of spirituous liquors first brought into Europe by the Moors of Spain, about 1550 : they learn- ed it of the African Moors, who had it from the Egyptians ; and the Egyptians are said to have practised it in the reign of the emperor Dioclesian, though it was unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans. See Spirits. D'ISTRIA See Capo D'IsTRiA. DISTURBANCE OF the Soil. Feb. 2, 1838, a remarkable phenomenon took place near Sassarie, island of Sar- dinia, in the valley called Baddi Partusu, in a space of about 500 square paces. Some hundreds of olive, and other trees were torn up by the roots, broken, and thrown to a great distance. New rocks appeared which had not been before seen, and the whole rocks presented wide and deep clefts. An enormous piece of rock, nearly 100 feet long, and 50 in Avidth and thickness, was displaced, and the whole of the ground appeared to have been lifted up and torn. The inhabi- tants say it was accompanied by a great noise, but no cause has as yet been discovered for this disturbance. DITf EAH, a town of Hindoostan. In the reign of Aurungzebe, was the capi- tal of a Bondelah chief; in 1804, the rajah of Ditteah was admitted under British protection, and in 1818, the Chourassy district was added to his ter- ritory by the British. DIVING Bell. There have been various machines contrived, to render diving safe and easy. In the time of Aristotle divers used a kind of kettle, which enabled them to continue longer under water ; but the manner in which it was employed is not clearly described. The oldest information ol the use of the diving-bell in Europe is that of John Taisnier, who was born at Hainault in 1509. He relates that at Toledo, in the presence of the emperor Charles V. and several thousand spectators, he saw two Greeks let themselves down under water in a large inverted kettle, with a burning light, and rise up again without being wet. This art was then new to the em- peror and the Spaniards, but after this period the use of the diving-bell seems to have become better known. In the l6th century, the diving-bell was sometiipes employed in great under- DOB 387 DOC takings. When the English in 1588, dispersed the armada of Spain, some of the ships were wrecked on the western coast of Scotland, and several attempts were made to procure part of of the lost treasure. In 1665, a person brought up some cannon. In 1683, William Phipps a native of America formed a project for searching a rich Spanish ship sunk on the coast of Hispaniola, but this failed. In 1687, he tried his fortune once more in a ship of 200 tons burden. After many unavailing attempts, he at length succeeded in bringing up, from the depth of six or seven fathoms, treasure amounting to £200,000 sterling. In England several companies were formed, and obtained exclusive privi- leges of fishing up goods on certain coasts, by means of divers. The most considerable of these was that in 1688, at the head of which was the earl of Argyle. Many important improvements have been since made in this machine by Halley, Spalding, &c., about the begin- ning of the 18th century. In 1774, an ingenious mechanic, named Day, invent- ed a machine for continuing under water a considerable time, and made his first attempt in the Broads, near Yarmouth. He fitted a Norwich market boat for this purpose, and sunk himself 30 feet under water, where he continued during the space of 24 hours. Afterwards, on June. 28, he went down 100 feet in a small ship, but not making allowance for the increased pressure of the water at that depth he perished. 1840. Several further improvements have been recently made in the diving machine. The most complete in prin- ciple is that now exhibiting at the Poly- technic Institution, Regent Street. It is constructed of cast-iron, and weighs three tons ; is about one-third open at the bottom, and has a seat around for the divers : it is lit by 12 openings, of thick plate glass, secured by brass frames screwed to the bell ; six of these lights being triangular, and in the crown, and six square, in the side. The bell is " suspended by a massive chain to a large swing crane with a powerful crab, the windlass of which is grooved spi- rally ; the chain passes over four times into a well beneath, and to it are sus- pended the compensation weights," which by acting upon the spiral shaft, accurately counterpoise the bell at all depths. It is supplied, by two powerful pumps of eight- inch cylinder, with air, conveyed by a leather hose to any depth. The bell is constructed with all the improve- ments which modern science has sug- gested : the engineers being Messrs. Cottam and Hallan. The bell is put into action several times daily : it will contain four or five persons seated ; each pays one shilling for a descent ; and so universal is the public curiosity, that ladies and children are frequently occu- piers of the seats. D O B S O N, William, an eminent English portrait painter, born 1610, died 1646. DOCKS, or artificial basins for the reception of ships, are of two sorts, wet and dry. Wet docks are of modern in- vention, generally constructed with gates to retain the water. Their construction has done much to facilitate and promote navigation. Liverpool Docks. These were the earliest wet docks in the British empire. The first was constructed in pursuance of an act of parliament obtained in 1708. A second was opened there about the middle of the last century; and since that period many more have been con- structed, some of them on a very magni- ficent scale, and furnished with aU sorts of conveniences. Hull Docks. These are considerable, occupying, inclusive of their basins, an area of 26 acres. The earliest is situated on the Humber, and was formed under the authority of an act passed in 1774. It is about 480 yards long, and 88 yards wide, containing nearly 10 acres, and will accommodate about 130 vessels at a time. In 1832, there belonged to this port 557 registered vessels, of the aggre- gate burden of 68,892 tons. The port of Goole has latterly drawn off some portion of the trade of Hull. It has two wet docks, and a basin, constructed about 1830, Docks on the Thames. The West India Docks were the first, and continue to be the most extensive of the great warehousing establishments formed in the port of London. The act for esta- blishing the West India Dock Company was passed July 12, 1799. Their ori- ginal capital was £500,000, which they were impowered to increase to £600,000. The construction of the docks commenced in Feb., 1800, and they were partially opened in August, 1802. They origi- nally consisted of an import and export DOC 38S DOC dock, each communicating, by means of locks, with a basin of five or six acres in extent, at the end next Blackwall, and with another of more than two acres at the end next Limehouse ; both of these basins communicate with the Thames. To these works the "West India Dock Company have recently added the South Dock, formerly the city canal, which runs parallel to the export dock. All West India ships fre- quenting the Thames, were obliged to use them for a period of 20 years from their completion. The dividend on the company's stock was limited to 10 per cent. ; and, after making dividends to the full amount, with the exception of the first half year, they had, in 1819, an accumulated fund of near £400,000. But they then diminished their charges, at the suggestion of the committee of the House of Commons, on the foreign trade of this country, so as to give the trade using the docks, the benefit of the sur- plus fund, which was to be reduced to £100,000 before January 30, 1826. Lat- terly the company have been obliged in consequence of the competition of the other companies, to make further reduc- tions of dividend. London Docks were established by an act passed June 20, 1800. They are situated in Wapping, and were prin- cipally intended for the reception of ships laden with wine, brandy, tobacco and rice. These docks were opened in 1805. All ships bound for the Thames, laden with wine, brandy, tobacco, and rice, (except ships from the East and West Indies,) were obliged to unload in them for the space of 21 years ; but this monopoly expired in January, 182G, and the use of the docks is now optional. The capital of the company amounts to £3,238,310 5s. lOd. A considerable por- tion of this vast sum, and of a further sum of £700,000 borrowed, was required for the purchase of the houses, about 1,300 in number, that occupied the site of the docks. A great improvement has been made in these docks, by the erection of a mag- nificent jetty, completed in 1839, sup- ported on massive piles, extending from the south-west quay, 800 feet across the large basin, aflFording a quay-frontage on both sides, for the loading of outward bound ships of 1,600 feet. The jetty is 62 feet ir width ; and three lofty sheds, each 208 feet long, by 48 feet wide, have also been erected. The erection of the jetty is said to have cost the London Dock Company £60,000. One million sterling has been expended during the last 12 years, in enlarging and improv- ing, including the excavation of the eastern basin and entrance. East India Docks, established by act July 27, 1803, are situated at Blackwall, and were principally intended for the accommodation of the ships employed by the East India Company. There are two docks ; one for ships unloading in- wards, and one for those loading out- wards. The wharf was rebuilt in 1833, but since the expiration of the charter, they have been converted to general pur- poses. St. Katharine's Docks. The company for the construction of these docks was incorporated by the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 105, (local,) and they were partially opened October 25, 1828. They are situated immediately below the Tower, and are consequently the most contiguous of any to the city and the custom-house. The capital raised by shares amounts to £1,352,800; but an additional sum of £800,000 has been borrowed, on the security of the rates, for the completion of the works. Commercial Docks, on the south side of the river, opposite to the west end of the West India Docks. These docks are of large extent, the space included within the outer wall being about 49 acres, of which nearly 38 acres are wa- ter. They are principally intended for the reception of vessels with timber, corn, and other bulky commodities. Bristol Docks were formed in pur- suance of the act 43 George III. c. 142, 1803, by changing the course of the rivers Avon and Frome, and placing gates or locks at each extremity of the old channel. The accommodation thus obtained is very extensive. The ware- houses at Bristol, as at Liverpool, are notjin any way connected with the docks ; they all belong to private individuals. The custova duties collected in Bristol amounted, in 1831, to £1,161,976. In 1832 there belonged to the port 269 re- gistered vessels, of the burden of 46, 567 tons. Leith Docks. Leith has two, con- structed in the best manner, containing more than ten acres of water room, and capable of accommodating 150 such ships as frequent the port. There are DOC 389 DOD also three dry docks contiguous to the wet docks. The total expense of these docks seems to have amounted to£285,108 sterling. The customs duty collected at Leith, in 1831, amounted to £431,821. The number of registered vessels belong- ing to the port is 246, and their burden 25,(i29 tons. BuT» Docks, Cardiff. These splendid docks, undertaken and com- pleted by the marquis of Bute at the cost already of £300,000 were opened on Oc- tober 9, 1839. The river Taff, which falls into the sea at the port of CardiflF, forms a principal outlet for the mining districts, with , which Glamorganshire abounds. The produce of these mines has hitherto found its way to market through the Glamorganshire canal ; but its sea lock, constructed about 40 years ago, has long been found inadequate to the demands for increased accommoda- tion consequent upon the extraordinary increase of trade since the canal was opened. Some idea of this may be formed from the fact that, according to the canal company's report, 123,134 tons of iron, and 226,6/1 tons of coal passed down in 1837 ; making a total of 349,905 tons, or about 1,100 tons per day. The principal advantages of the under- taking are as follow :—astraightopen chan- nel N. N. E. and S. S. W. about three- quarters of a mile in length from Cardiflt" Roads to the new sea-gates, which are 4 5 feet wide, with a depth of 17 feet water at neap, and 32 feet at spring tide. On passing the sea-gate, vessels enter a ca- pacious basin, having an area of about an acre and a half, called the outer basin, calculated to accommodate vessels of great burden and steamers ; the main entrance lock is situated at the north end of this outer ])asin, 152 feet long, and 36 feet wide, sufficient for ships of 600 tons. The inner basin, which constitutes the grand feature of this work, extends in a continuous line from the lock to near the town of CardiflP, 1,450 yards long, and 200 feet wide, an area of nearly 20 acres of water, capable of accommodating in perfect safety from 300 to 400 ships of all classes. Quays are built on each side for more than two thirds of its length, finished with strong granite coping, com- prising nearly 6,000 feet, or more than a mile of wharfs, with ample space for warehouses, exclusive of the wharfs at the outer basin. To keep the channel free of deposit, a feeder from the river TafF supplies a reservoir 15 acres in ex- tent, adjoining the basin. This reservoir can be discharged at low water by means of powerful sluices with cast-iron pipes five feet in diameter, and by ten sluices at the sea-gates, so as to deliver at the rate of 100,000 tons of water per hour. The feeder was commenced in 1834, the first stone of the docks laid March l6th, 1837, and the last coping-stone was laid May 25, 1839. DOCTOR'S DEGREES. The title of doctor was first created towards the middle of the twelfth century. Spelman states it to have been about the year 1140, and aflfirms that such as explained that work to their scholars were the first that had the appellation of doctors. The first mention of academical degrees con- ferred by the university of Paris, from which the other universities are supposed to have borrowed most of their customs and institutions, occurs in 1215 : and they were completely established in 1231. Some have supposed that regular doctors' degrees were not granted in England till 1607- To pass doctor of divinity at Oxford, it is necessary that the candidate shall have been four years bachelor of divinity. For doctor of laws he mixst have been seven years in the university; to commence ba- chelor of law five years; after whichhe may be admitted doctor of laws. Othervifise,in three years after taking the degree of master of arts, he may take the degree of bachelor in law ; and in four years more that of LL.D., which same method and time are likewise required to pass the de- gree of doctor in physic. At Cambridge, to take the degree of doctor in divinitj'-, it is required that the candidate shall have been seven years bachelorof divinity. DODD, REV.DR,,bornMay 29,1729, executed for forgery, June 27, 1777- DODD, Ralph, a civil engineer, and writer on canals, docks, &c., born 1756, died April 11, 1822. He was the pro- jector of Vauxhall Bridge, the South London Water Works, the Tunnel at Gravesend, the Surrey Canal, and vari- ous other works. DODD, George, son of the pi'eced- ing, the original designer of Water- loo bridge, died September 28, 1827, in Giltspur- street Compter, aged 44. DODDRIDGE, Dr., was born in London, June 26, 1702. He was, in 1719, placed under the tuition of the Rev. John Jennings, who kept an aca- DOL 390 DOM demy at Kibworth in Leicestershire. In 1736, he sent out his "Ten Sermons on the Power and Grace of Christ," and " Evidences of his glorious Gospel," and the same year he received his diploma from the college of Aberdeen. In 1739, he published the first volun^f of his " Family Expositor," and lived to pub- lish three volumes, and finish the short- hand copy of the whole. In 1745 ap- peared his " Rise and Progress of Re- ligion in the Soul," and in 1747, his " Life of Colonel Gardiner." He died while at Lisbon for his health, October 26, 1751. DODSLEY, Robert, author of the " Preceptor," the " Economy of Human Life," &c., born 1703,. died 1764. DOG-DAYS. See Canicular Days. DOG-STEALERS' act, passed 1770; tax on dogs, 1796 and 1808. DOGGER-BANK. On August 5, 1781, an obstinate engagement took place immediately off this bank, between the English and Dutch fleets. DOGGETT, Thomas, the actor, died 1721. DOLCI, Carlo, an eminent painter of history and portrait, was born at Flo- rence in 1616, and was a disciple of Jacopo VignaU. His first attempt in a whole figure of St. John, when he was only 1 1 years of age, was much approved ; and this was succeeded by the portrait of his mother, which placed him in the highest rank of merit. He died in I686, aged 70. DOLGELLY, a town and parish in North- Wales. Owen Glendwr assembled his parhament here in 1404, and the townsmen held out loyally for Charles I. TheVia Occidentalis of the Romans may be traced towards Bala, and the moimtain of Cader Idris rises over the town to an elevation of 2900 feet above sea level. DOLLARS, bank of England, issued at 5s. value, 1804 ; their value raised to 5s. Gd. 1811. DOLLART or Dollort, sea between Groningen and East Friseland, formed by an inundation, 1277- DOLLOND, John, an eminent opti- cian, who, from a hint previously given, may be termed the inventor of achro- matic glasses. He was born in Spital- fields, London, June 10, 1706. In his attempts at the improvement of the tele- scope, he was persevering and indefati- gable ; and after a course of well-con- ducted experiments, continued from the year 1757 to June 1758, he discovered " the difference in the dispersion of the colours of light, when the mean rays are equally refracted by different mediums ;" and from this principle he inferred, that the object glasses of refracting telescopes were capable of being made without the images formed by them being affected by the different refrangibility of the rays of light. See Achromatic Glasses. In 1761, Mr. DoUond was elected fellow of the Royal Society ; and he was also appointed optician to his majesty. He died Nov. 30, in the same year. DOLLOND, Peter, son of the pre- ceding, and also an eminent optician, who effected further improvements in the telescope, born 1731, died 1820. DOLON, the first comic actor, flou- rished A. c. 562. DOLPHIN convict hulk, with 200 convicts on board, sunk suddenly in the Thames, Oct. 16, 1829, but only three lives were lost. DOLWYDDELLAN Castle, Caer- narvonshire, North Wales, built 500. DOMENICHINO, Zampieri, a Bolognese painter of history and por- traits, born 1581, supposed to have been poisoned, 1641. DOMESDAY Book, or Dooms-day Book, the judicial book, or book of the survey of England : a most ancient re- cord made in the time of William the Conqueror, by his order and with the advice of his parliament. Sir H. Spel- man calls it, " if not the most ancient, yet mthout controversy, the most vene- rable monument of Great Britain." It was begun in 1081, but not completed till 1087. This book is still remaining, fair and legible; consisting of two volumes. DOMINGO, St., Isle of. See Hayti. DOxMINICA, island. West Indies; so named by Columbus, having been dis- covered on Sunday, Nov. 3, 1493. Its right of occupancy was claimed by Eng- land, France, and Spain, and it M'as con- sidered a neutral island by the three crowns till 1759, when, by conquest, it fell under the dominion of Great Britain ; was afterwards confirmed to England by the treaty of Paris, February, 1763. It 1 was taken by a large French force from I Martinique, under the Marquis de ' Bouille, in 1778, after a gallant resist- ance on the part of the British colonists ; restored to England, at the peace of DON 391 DOR 1783. During the war of 1805, a de- vastating descent was made on the island by a formidable French squadron, but the colony was preserved by the skill of Sir George Prevost, and the gallant be- haviour of the colonists. The island has ever since remained under the do- minion of Great Britain. DOMINICANS, an order of religious, take their name from their founder, Dominic de Guzman, a Spanish gentle- man, born in 1170. He laid the foun- dation of his order, and it was approved of in 1215, by Innocent III., and con- firmed in 1216 by a bull of Honorius III., under the title of St. Augustine. They founded their first monastery in England, at Oxford in 1221, and soon after, another at London. In 1276 the mayor and aldermen of the city of Lon- don gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they erected a con- vent, whence that place is still called Blackfriars. Their influence began to decline towards the beginning of the l6th century. D OMIT I AN, the Roman emperor, the last of the Twelve Caesars, was > born at Rome in 51 ; proclaimed em- peror in 8 1 . His character was marked by lust and cruelty. He was assas- sinated September 18, 96, in the 45th year of his age, and the l6th of his reign. DOMITIAN'S Palace, at Rome, built 80. DOMUS DEI House, at Dover, built 1240. DON, a title first adopted by the king of Spain, 759- DON CARLOS. See Carlos. DON PEDRO. See Pedko. DON, river, European Russia, for- merly considered the southern boundary of Europe, a line now removed to the river Kuban, and the lake Balschai. The river Don overflowed its banks, and caused serious injury, August 10, 1750. DON, river, Scotland, Aberdeen- shire. Its source is five miles from Cur- garf, at an elevation of 1650 feet above sea level. After a course of 60 miles it falls into the sea, a few miles north from the town of Old Aberdeen. The new bridge over the Don,completed in 1830, is about 520 feet in length, and consists of five arches, each of 75 feet span, and 25 feet rise, constructed entirely of cut granite, from a design by Mr. Telford. This magnificent structure has been ob- tained wit hout costing the public a single shilling, the expense having been wholly defrayed from the accumulated savings of an annual sum of only " two pounds five shillings and eight pence sterling !" in fen duties, left in trust to the magis- trates and council of Aberdeen, in the year 1605, by Sir Alexander Kay, then one of the clerks of Session, for the pur- pose of maintaining the old bridge of Don, founded by King Robert Bruce. D ON ATI ST S, an ancient sect of schismatics in Africa, which arose in 311, so denominated from their leader Donatus. They were condemned, in a council at Milan, before Constantine the Great, in 316, who deprived them of their churches, sent their seditious bishops into punishment, and even punished some of them with death. DONCASTER was on the ancient Roman line of road, and was occupied by the Anglo-Saxons, who founded a rehgious house here. It was pillaged and nearly razed by the Danes in 794 ; in 833 the Danes were totally defeated here by King Egbert. Richard I. granted the town a charter, under which it pros- pered until an accidental fire in 1204, which completely impoverished the in- habitants. Other charters were after- wards granted by Edward IV., Charles II., audi James II. Doncaster races, to which this place owes all its modern ce- lebrity, established in 1703, were en- dowed with St. Leger stakes in 1776, further enriched by the transfer of a king's plate, value 100 guineas, from Burford in 1803, and in 1826, a beautiful stand-house was erected on the racing ground. DONNA Maria, proclaimed queen of Portugal at Lisbon, July 23, 1833, recognized by the British government, Aug. 15, through Lord William Russell, who, at the same time, presented to the Regent his credentials as English minis- ter at the court of Lisbon. DONNE, John, satirist, born 1573, died 1631. DONNINGTON Castle, Berks built, 1260. DORCHESTER, Oxfordshire, was a bishop's see under the Anglo- Saxon dynasty, removed to Lincoln after the Norman conquest. The old cathe- dral founded in 1140, is now the parish church. DORCHESTER, Dorsetshire, was anciently a Roman station. King Athelstan estabhshed a mint here, and DOU 392 DOV the Danes and Normans erected strong castles at this place. At Dorchester seven Roman catholic clergymen were executed in Elizabeth's reign, and here the infamous judge Jefferies employed himself in the condemnation of the cap- tive insurgents after the duke of Mon- mouth's rebellion. In 1595, a plague depopulated the town, and in 16 13, pro- perty valued at £200,000 was destroyed by fire. 1834. April 17, six agricultural la- bourers were sentenced to seven years' transportation at the assizes, for a felony in being members of an illegal society, (trades union,) and administering unlaw- ful oaths. DORIA Andrew, a gallant Genoese officer, born 1466. He subdued the African pirates, 1513; died 1560, aged 94. DORPT, OR DoRPAT, town of Euro- pean Russia, was burned by the Rus- sians in 1704, and almost destroyed by an accidental conflagration in 1775. The university, celebrated for its recent astronomical discoveries, was founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632. Re-established by the emperor Alexan- der, in 1802. DORSET, Thomas, Earl of, a poet, born 1537, died 1608. DORSET, County of, was included in the Roman province Britannia Prima and contained two Roman stations, seve- ral camps, and an amphitheatre ; and through it the Via Iceniana, or Icknield way, passed. It formed part of the kingdom of Wessex, under the Saxons. The Danes and other invaders frequently landed on its shores ; the latest hostile descent was made at Lyme, in 1685, by the duke of Monmouth. DORSINGTON, in Warwickshire greatly injured by fire, August 3rd, 1759. D O R T, town of Holland, formerly the residence of the counts of Holland, and the birth-place of De Witt and other distinguished pesrons. The island on which it stands was formed in 1421 by an inundation, which destroyed 72 villages, and 100,000 persons. In 1618 and 1619, an assembly was held here called the Synod of Dort. DOU AY, a town of France, was taken by the duke of Marlborough in 1710, and retaken by the French in 1712. A number of Roman catholic youths are sent here for education from Eng- land and Ireland, and the standard Roman catholic edition of the scriptures, called ^the Douay Bible, was published here. DOUCE, Francis, antiquary, and author of " The Illustrations of Shakes- peare and] his Times," died 1834, aged 73. DOUG H NOM ORE, John Hely Hutchinson, Earl of. Baron Alex- andria, a distinguished British officer, born 1757, died 1832. DOUGHTY, W., an English portrait painter and engraver, flourished 1780. DOUGLAS, Bishop Gawin, the translator of " Virgil," born 1474, died 1522. DOUGLAS, Dr. John, vindicator of Milton against Lander's charge of pla- giarism, born 1719, died 1807. DOUGLAS Castle, near Edinburgh, destroyed by fire, Dec. 11, 1758. D O U R O, river of Spain, its banks were the scene of various movements of the hostile armies in 1812, previous to the battle of Salamanca; and in the fol- lowing year, previous to the battle of Vittoria. DOVE OF Castile, order of knight- hood, instituted 1379. D O V O R, OR Dover, one of the Cinque Ports, said to have been the first to receive a charter ; was formerly con- sidered the key to England ; it was oc- cupied by the Romans, who called it Dubrse. In the beginning of the 13th cen- tury it was successfully defended against the Dauphin of France, who came to England to oppose King John. In the reign of Edward I. the town was burnt by the French ; it was captured by the Parliamentary army in 1642. The for- tifications were for more than a century neglected, and suffered to fall to decay, but during the last war were again re- paired. Since 1803, the Heights on the western side of Dovor have been de- fended by strong works. There are also immense excavavations, in which a large army may lodge in security. 1838. Lieut. Worthington, R. N., published a plan for the improvement of Dovor harbour, in which he pro- posed to run out the south head as a breakwater to 250 feet into the sea, in a S.S.E. direction ; to take down part of the north head, and make a large ad- dition to the harbour in front of Am- herst battery. This plan has been sub- mitted to the commissioners of Dovor harbour. DOW 393 DRA DOVOR Castle, said to have been built by Julius Caesar ; the tower built 47. This castle is now an assemblage of all the kinds of fortification which the art of war has invented to render a for- tress- impregnable. It occupies about 35 acres of ground ; being nearly the whole summit of the hill on which it stands. The lower court is surrounded by an irregular wall, excepting on the side next the sea, where a considerable part of the cliff, with the remainder of the wall, was thrown down by an earth- quake on April 6, I68O. Near the edge of the cliff stands a piece of brass ord- nance, 24 feet long, cast at Utrecht in 1544, and called "Queen ElizabetMlp; pocket-pistol," it having been a preseat. from the states of Holland to that queen. DOVOR-CLIFF, part of, fell down, near Guildford battery, by which Mrs. Poole and her five young children and her niece were killed, Dec. 14, 1810. DOVOR, Lord, G. J. W. A. Ellis, an accomplished and learned British statesman and writer, was born Jan. 14, 1797. In 1818, he was returned for the borough of Heytesbury ; and, at the age of 21, took his seat in the imperial parliament. In 1831, he was created a British peer. His principal works are, "The True History of the State Prisoner, commonly called the Iron Mask ;" " His- torical Inquiries respecting the Character of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, lord chancellor of England ;" " The Ellis Correspondence," in two octavo volumes ; " Life of Frederick the Great, king of Prussia ;" and the " Corre- spondence of Horace Walpole with Sir Horace Mann." He died July 10, 1833, aged 36. DOWLATABAD, a town and fort of Hindoostan. In the 1 4th century Maho- med III., king of Delhi, made an attempt to transfer the seat of his government to this town, then called Deogher. It is still an important place, subject to the nizam of the Deccan. In 1595, it sur- rendered to Ahmed Nizam Shah, of Ah- mednuggur, and afterwards fell into the possession of Mallik Amber, an Abyssi- nian slave ; his descendants retained it until 1634, when it was seized by the Moguls ; it came with the rest of the Mogul Deccan in I7l7, into the hands of Nizam ul Mulk, whose successors, the nizams of Hyderabad, still retain it. DOWNPATRICK, race-course, riot at, in quelling which, several persons were killed by the military, and many wounded, July 16, 1814. DOYLE, Dr., a celebrated Irish Roman Catholic bishop, was educated in the university of Coimbra, in Portu- gal. In 1819 he was appointed bishop of the Catholic diocese of Kildareand Leigh- lin. He died at his house near Carlow, June 15, 1834. His funeral was at- tended by about 20,000 persons. DRACO, a celebrated legislator of Athens, lived about a.c. 624. DRAKE, Sir Francis, an eminent English navigator, was born near Tavis- tock in Devonshire, in 1545. In 1570, he made his first expedition against the ^aniards, with two ships ; and the next jyear with one only, in which he returned safely, but not with the advantages he expected. He made another expedition in 1572, in which he gained considerable booty, and returned to England, where he arrived in August, 1573. He undertook a voyage into the South Sea through the straits of Magellan ; which was what no Englishman had ever attempted. He sailed on Dec. 13, 1577- On Sept. 25, 1578, he passed the straits, andon Sept. 29, 1579,sailed for the Moluc- cas. After touching at Ternate, he return- ed to England, and entered the harbour of Plymouth, on Nov. 3, 1580, having per- formed his voyage round the world in two years and ten months. Shortly after his arrival, the queen going to Deptford, went on board his ship ; where, after dinner, she conferred on him the order of knighthood. 1585. He was sent with a fleet to the West Indies, where he took the cities of St. Jago, St. Domingo, Carthagena, and St. Augustine. In 1587, he went to Lisbon with a fleet of 30 sail ; but re- ceiving intelligence of a great fleet as- sembled in the bay of Cadiz, which was to have made part of the Armada, he with great courage entered that port, and burnt upwards of 10,000 tons of shipping. He died on board his own ship, near the town of Nombre de Dios in the West Indies, on Jan. 28, 1595-6. A modern biographer says of him, " He was emi- nently skilled in all the branches of his profession ; and with so much courage and ability did he conduct his enter- prises, that scarcely any name among naval adventurers stood so high, not only in his own country, but throughout Europe, as that of Sir Francis Drake." DRAKE, Dr. Nathan, author of 3 E DRA 394 DRE " Literary Hours," &c. ; born at York, Jan. 15, 1766, died at Hadleigh, Suffolk, June 7, 1836, aged 70. DRAKENBORCH, Arnold, profes- sor of rhetoric and history in the uni- versity of Utrecht, was born in that city, Jan. 1, 1684. In 1706, took his degree of doctor of laws at Utrecht. In 1716, he succeeded Burmann, one of his own tutors, as professor in that university. He published many original works, and undertook the duties of an editor in others. Among these was an edition of *' C. Silii Italici Punicorum," libri xvii. 4to., which he laboured to render as perfect as possible. He also gave an edition of Livy in seven vols. 4to., togf ther with a life of the historian. He er riched his edition by reference to more than 30 MSS. which had never before been employed for the purpose. He died at Utrecht in 1748. DRAMA. The earliest specimens of dramatic composition are those of the Greeks. They took their rise from the songs which were composed by the poets for the festivals of Bacchus. It was pro- bably about 400 years after the time of Homer that Thespis first introduced a new person, who relieved the chorus, by repeating some well known fables, or some wonderful adventures, called the episode. Nothing more is known of this species of poetry till the days of jEschylus, who flourished in Athens at the time of the battles of Marathon and Platea, about a.c. 490. The period when comedy flourished at Rome was during the Punic wars, when Licinus, Plautus, and Turpilius flourished. A blank of several ages occurs, from the time of the Roman writers to the revival of learning among the moderns. Mr. Warton supposes modern drama to have originated in the rude attempts of the minstrels and buffoons, who were employed at the fairs established in all the chief towns of France and England, by Charlemagne and Wilham the Con- queror. The priests perceiving that they drew away the people from the churches, became actors themselves, and presented stories from the bible, or their legends. Little else was heard of in the 11th century, and it is difficult to ascer- tain how the transition was first made from these to the regular drama. Vol- taire affirms that the Sophonisba of Trissino, which was acted at Rome in 1515, was the first regular tragedy Eu- rope witnessed after many ages of bar- barism. After this period the Italian drama flourished, till the 17th century, when it sunk to its former state. In the 18th century, it was again revived by the genius of Goldoni, Metastasio, and Al- fieri. In England the earliest dramatic en- tertainments were of a religious kind, and were called mysteries ; they were succeeded by the moralities, which con- tained some attempts at plot, as well as the delineation ofcharacters and manners. As early as the reign of Henry VIII., some dramatic pieces were published, der the names of comedy and tragedy, the reign of Elizabeth, the drama r^sisumed a more distinct form. 1591. Shakspeare, the brightest orna- ment of dramatic poetry, appeared, who in a few years enriched the theatre of his country, by his numerous and un- rivalled productions. The reigns of Elizabeth and James, were the periods in which the drama flourished in Eng- land. Though its honour was princi- pally supported by Shakspeare, there were several minor writers, such as Ford, Shirley, and Chapman, and the name of Otway distinguished the reign of Charles II. British drama was culti- vated with success from the close of the I7th to thatofthe 18th century, by Cibber, Congreve, &c., and during the 19th, by the Colmans, Sheridan, &c. The per- formance of the dramatic exhibitions of this period has been sustained by the unrivalled powers of Kemble, Siddons, Cooke, Young, Kean, Macready, &c. DRAMATIC Authors' Bill, pass- ed June 10, 1833. This act, 3 Will. IV. c. 15, was designed to amend the laws relative to dramatic literary property, and to secure to the authors sole liberty of publishing, or of having their works reprinted, for their own benefit. DRANCE, river in Switzerland. In 1818, the current having been stopped by an avalanche, the water accumulated for several days ; at length the ice bar- rier gave way, and the current swept away houses, human beings, and cattle, down the whole valley, as far as the river Rhone. DRAPERS' Company, London, in- corporated 1469. DRAWING. See Painting. DRAYTON, Michael, English poet, born about 1573, died 1631. DRELINCOURT, Charles, a DRE 395 DRU French protestant divine, born at Sedan, in 1593; best known in England by a translation of his work entitled, " A Defence against the Fear of Death." He died in 1660. DRESDEN obtained its town privi- leges in 1216. In 1429, 1491, andl6l4, it suffered greatly by fire ; it also en- dured many hardships in the 30 years' war. From 1631 to 1635, the plague raged with the greatest fury, destroying 14 out of 15 persons, and causing, in the year 1632, the death of 6892 individuals. Dresden is strongly fortified ; it was taken by the king of Prussia in 1745, and again in 1756; but recovered in 1759; the same monarch besieged it in 1760, and bombarded it for nine days, but was obliged ultimately to abandon his purpose. It was the centre of mili- tary operations during the contest in 1813, when almost all Europe was ar- rayed against France ; from this, as from a fortified camp. Napoleon poured out his columns upon Prague, Breslau, and Berlin. In August it was attacked by the allied aimy, under Prince Schvvart- zenberg 120,000 strong, but relieved by Napoleon. In October following, again attacked, and taken soon after. Nov. 11, articles of capitulation were agreed to, and the garrison were made prisoners of war. DRESS restrained by act of parlia- ment, 1455, 1574, and 1580. DREUX,town of France, was burnt by Henry II. 1186,taken by HenryV.of Eng- land, 1421. In 1562, a celebrated battle was fought in this neighbourhood, be- tween Charles IX. king of France, com- manding an army of Roman catholics, and the French protestants, under the prince of Conde, in which the latter were defeated and their general taken prisoner. In 1593, it surrendered to Henry IV. of France. DREW, Samuel, a metaphysical wri- ter, was the son of a common labourer, at St. Austell, in Cornwall, and born, 1765, In 1784-5, he was first intro- duced to the late Dr. Adam Clarke, who was appointed to the East Cornwall me- thodist circuit. In 1798, he first laid the foundation of his " Essay on the Hu- man Soul," and it was while this essay was in its infant state, that a young gentleman put into his hands, the first part of Paine's " Age of Reason," think- ing to bring him over lo the principles of infidelity. The sophistry of Paine's book, Mr. Drew readily detected ; and committing his thoughts to writing, he published them in his " Remarks on Paine," in 1799. He pubhshed the " Essay on the Immateriality and Im- mortality of the Soul," in 1802, which brought him into honourable notice be- yond his native country. In 1805, ap- peared, "The Evidences of a General Resurrection;" and in 1820, in 2 vols., 8vo., his "Treatise on the Being and Attributes of God." About the same time he was engaged as editor to the " Imperial Magazine." This led to his removal from St. Austell to London ; where he continued to discharge the duties of that situation until his death, which took place, March 29, 1833. DRILL Husbandry, introduced by Jethro TuU, in his theory which appear- ed in 1733, and attracted universal ad- miration ^ especiallyhis "Essay on Horse- Hoeing Husbandry," which was trans- lated into the French language by M. Duhamel. DROITWICH, England, long famous for its salt springs. The ancient Britons appear to have made salt here. In 816, Kenulph, king of Mercia, bestowed Ha- milton and 10 houses in Wick, (Droit- wich,) and salt furnaces on the church of Worcester. King John bestowed great privileges on the inhabitants of this town, which were confirmed by Henry III., and finally a charter was granted by James I. The depth of the salt pits, before 1725, was 35 feet ;_ since that period they have been sunk to 100 and 150 feet. DROWNING. The first society for the recovery of di-owning persons was instituted in Holland, in 1767, where, from the great abundance of water con- veyances, the inhabitants are exposed to accidents. The example of the Dutch was followed, in 1768, by the magistrates of health in Milan and Venice ; after- wards by those of Hamburgh, in 1771 ; by those of Paris in 1772; and by the institution of the Humane Society of London in 1774. See Humane So- ciety. DRUIDS, the priests and philosophers of the ancient Britons, and other Celtic nations. Mr. Pinkerton says, " they were not known beyond present North Wales on the north, and the river Ga- ronne, the bounds of the Celtae in Gaul, on the south. A line drawn by the Se- vern in Britain, and the Seine in Gaul, forms the eastern bound, while the ocean DRU 396 DUB forms the western." They were divided, according to Caesar, into several ranks, over all which there was one chief, or arch-druid. The Romans used every means in their power to effect their de- struction ; decrees were issued against them by several of the Roman emperors, and they were finally attacked in the Isle of Anglesea, and extirpated by Suetonius Paulinas, in 61. DRUMMOND, William, the poet, born 1586, died 1649. DRUMMOND, Sir William, of Logie Almond, North Britain, knight of the crescent, a privy councillor, and fel- low of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh ; formerly his Britannic majesty's envoy extraordinary and mi- nister plenipotentiary to the king of the two Sicihes. Sir William was well known as an author, and a profound and elegant scholar. In 1798, he pub- lished his most important work, in 8vo., " The Satires of Persius," translated. He died March 29, 1828. DRUNKENNESS in the clergy re- strained by canon law, 741 ; in the laity restrained by law, 975. DRURY-LANE Theatre, built 1662; destroyed by fire 1672; rebuilt 1674 ; pulled down 1791 ; rebuilt 1794; burnt 1809 ; rebuilt and opened to the public November 10, 1812. The receipts of the first year of the new theatre were £79,925 14s.; of the second, £68,389 35.; of the third, £61,585 8s. 5d. ; of the fourth, £49,586 l7s. DRURY-LANE and St. Giles's first paved according to act of parlia- ment, 1605. DRURY-LANE theatrical fund, in- stituted 1777. DRUSES, a people in Syria, who inhabit the Castravan, Lebanon, and Anti-Lebanon mountains, and derive their origin from a sect of Mahomme- dans, about the commencement of the 11th century. Being persecuted by the existing government, they fled to the mountains, and formed an independent community, and at different times oppos- ed the crusaders, the sultans of Aleppo, the Mamelukes, and the Ottomans. At length, in 1588, they were subdued and made tributary, by Amurath III., who set one emir, or chief, over them, and made him responsible for the payment of the tribute. This arrangement con- centrated the strength of the Druses, who became more formidable, and fre- quently attacked the Turks with success. 4bout the middle of the I7th century, they attained the height of their power, under their celebrated emir, Fakr-El-din, or Fakardin, but after a series of suc- cesses, he was finally betrayed into the hands of his enemies, in 1631, and strangled at Constantinople. Since his death the emirs have held this country as vassals to the Turks, maintaining but a nominal independence. The Druses still exist, however, as a separate people, and are considered throughout the Levant as restless, en- terprising, hardy, and brave, even to temerity. But they have been recently subdued by Mahommed Ali, viceroy of Egypt. In 1838, the Druses of Harbeja and Racheja submitted themselves to Ibrahim Pacha, and delivered up their arms, July 16. In 1840, a partial in- surrection of the Druses, in Syria, took place against Mahommed Ali, which waa suppressed in June. DRUSIUS, John, a learned Flemish protestant divine, born at Oudenarde, in 1550; took refuge in England, 1567, died 1616. DRYDEN, JoifN, the poet, was bom at Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire, in 1631, and educated at Westminster school under Dr. Busby. From thence he was removed to Cambridge, in 1650, being elected scholar of Trinity college. In 1676, he obtained the ofl5ces of royal historiographer and poet laureate, with a salary of £200 per annum. In 1682 came out his " Religio Laici," designed as a defence of revealed religion, against deists, papists, &c. Soon after the ac- cession of James II., he embraced the religion of the church of Rome, and wrote two pieces in vindication of the Romish tenets. By this step, being dis- qualified from bearing any oflSce under the government, he became dependent on his pen for support. In 1693 came out a translation of " Juvenal and Per- sius ;" and, in 1697, he published his translation of Virgil's works. His last work called his " Fables," consists of many of the most interesting stories in Homer, Ovid, Boccacio, and Chaucer, translated or modernised in the most elegant and poetical manner. He died May 1, 1701, and his remains were in- terred in Westminster abbey. DUBITZA, a town of Turkey in Europe ; remarkable for the obstinate defence made against the Austrians, to DUB 397 DUD whom it surrendered by capitulation in 1788. DUBLIN was known to the Danes, and was visited by St. Patrick about the year 450. It was fortified in the ninth century by the Danes or Ostmen. In 1000, the walls were strengthened, and resisted a powerful army under King Melaghlin, but the original ramparts did not exceed one mile in length ; some re- mains of them are still visible. Henry II., of England, visited Dubhn in 1 172-3, and received the homage of a few Irish princes and chieftains ; he granted it to a company of Bristol merchants, with privileges and free customs similar to those enjoyed by the city of Bristol. This was the foundation of the liberties of Dublin, which were augmented by King John. Henry III. extended the benefit of magna charta to Dublin, and granted the city to the citizens in fee for 200 marks per annum. The title of the chief magistrate was changed from that of mayor to lord mayor, by Charles II. The city of Dublin is one of the most elegant in Europe ; its streets are regu- larly built, well lighted, and paved. The public buildings are of the first class, both as to design, material, and execu- tion; they include the castle, the resi- dence of the lord-lieutenant, and officers of his court, built in 1220, besides nu- merous elegant structures of later date. The custom-house was begun in 1730, the royal exchange, situated on Cork- hill in 1769, and opened for business in 1779- There are several hospitals ; the principal of which is that for lying-in women, opened in 1757. There are also many other public in- stitutions ; the Roj'^al College of Physi- cians, established in 1679, for promot- ing medical knowledge ; the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons, instituted in 1785 ; the Royal Irish Academy, for the ad- vancement of science, polite literature, and antiquities, incorporated Jan. 28, 1786. The Royal Hibernian Academy for the encouragement of arts incorpo- rated 1823, &c. DUBLIN University, the only one in Ireland, consists of one college ; but the charter provides for the erection of a second. It was founded by Queen Ehzabeth in 1591, and is governed by a provost, fellows, and scholars. The num- ber of students is generally about 2000. Usher, Swift, Burke, Berkeley, Grattan, Young, Cur ran. Lord Plunkett, and other eminent men were educated here. Tlie school of anatomy, belonging to the uni- versity, is much frequented by students from England and Wales. The college, situated on the east side of College-green, built in 1591, is a most beautiful struc- ture, consisting of two spacious squares, the first of which, called Parliament- square, contains the refectory, the old hall and chapel, and the new theatres for lectures and examinations. DUBLIN Society, established in 1731, for some years supported only by voluntary subscriptions, and at length incorporated riiM74.9, by the title of the Dublin Society, fol* promoting husbandry and other useful arts in Ireland. DUBLIN, Archbishopric of, one of the four provinces into which Ireland is divided, first mentioned in the seventh century. In the year 1 1 52, it was erected into an archbishopric. In 1214, the bishopric of Glandelough, which had been founded in the sixth century, was incorporated with it. There are two ca- thedrals, Christ-church, or the church of the blessed trinity, first built by the Ostmen of Dublin about 1038, was con- verted into a collegiate for a dean and chapter by Henry VIII. in 1514. The other cathedral, that of St. Patrick, was erected about 1 190 by John Comyn, then archbishop of Dublin. In 1370, Arch- bishop Minot added to it a high steeple of squared stone; and in 1750 Dr. Sterne, bishop of Clogher, on this steeple erected a lofty and beautiful spire, little inferior to that of Sahsbury, and which is seen at a considerable distance, DUBOIS, Edward, a Dutch land- scape and portrait painter, born 1622, died 1699. DUBOIS, Simon, a Dutch painter of battle pieces and portraits, died 1708. DUCAREL, Dr. Andrew Coltee, the antiquarian, born in Normandy, 1713, came to England in infancy, died aged 72, May 29, 1785. DUCHESNE, "Father of French history," born 1534, died 1640. DUCKWORTH, an EngUsh admiral, born 1748, died 1817. D ' U D I N E, reviver of stucco work, born 1494, died 1564. DUDLEY Castle, Staffordshire, founded in 760 by Dudo, a Saxon chief; it was the scene of an awful strife between King Stephen and the Empress Maud. It was also besieged during the civil wars in 1644, and again in 1646. Here are DUE 39s DUL the remains of a priory formerly occupied by Cluniac monks, built in II60. DUDLEY, Edmund, an eminent lawyer and statesman in the reign of Henry VII., beheaded, August, 1510, aged 48. DUDLEY, Duke of Northum- berland (whose son married Lady Jane Grey), beheaded on Tower- hill, August 22, 1553. DUDLEY, Robert, Earl of Lei- cester, the favourite of Queen Ehza- beth, born 1532, died 1588. DUDLEY, Late Earl of, an high- ly-gifted but eccentric •obleman, Ijorn Aug. 9, 1781, the only»>child of William, the third viscount Dudley and Ward. He was, at the general election of 1802, elected M.P. for Downton ; and soon distinguished himself in the house of commons. On the formation of Mr. Can- ning's administration, Lord Dudley and Ward was appointed secretary of state for foreign aflFairs, and sworn a member of the privy council, April 30, 1827. Sept. 24, in the same year, he was raised to the rank of earl, by the titles of earl of Dudley and Viscount Ednam. In May, 1828, he resigned the secretaryship. The earl of Dudley was a man of powerful talents, varied accomplish- ments, and a most generous disposition; but his manners had always been mark- ed by eccentricities. Of his extraordi- nary absence of mind, and his unfortu- nate habit of " thinking aloud," many amusing anecdotes have been in circula- tion. It is said that when he was in the foreign office, he directed a letter in- tended for the French, to the Russian ambassador, shortly before the affair of Navarino : Prince Lieven set this down as one of the cleverest ruses ever at- tempted to be played off, and gave him- self immense credit for not falling into the trap laid for him by the sinister in- genuity of the English secretary. He returned the letter with a most polite note, in which he vowed, of course, that he had not read a line of it, after he had ascertained that it was for Prince Pohg- nac. The earl of Dudley died at Nor- wood, Surrey, March 6, 1833, aged 52. DUELLING, the first public one 1096 ; in civil matters, forbidden in France, 1305 ; with small swords introduced into England, 1587. Latterly deliberate duelling is by the law of England con- sidered a species of murder, and accor- dingly, it charges both the crime and punishment of murder on the principals and on their seconds also, (Blackst. Com. vol. iv. p. 199.) D U G D A L E, Sir William, anti- quary, born 1605, died 1685. DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, was, under the late emperors given to the governors of provinces, in war time. In England, during the Saxons' time, the officers and commanders of armies were called dukes or duces, after the ancient Roman manner. After the conqueror came in, the title lay dormant, till the reign of Edward III. who created his son Edward, first called the Black Prince, duke of Cornwall, March 17, 1337. The title was first created in Scotland, 1393. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in 1572, the whole order became ex- tinct; but it was revived about 50 3'ears afterwards, by her successor, in the per- son of George Villiers, duke of Buck- ingham. The dukes of the present day are created by patent, cincture of the sword, mantle of state, imposition of a cap, and coronet of gold on the head, and a verge of gold in their hand. DUKE OF Clarence, ship, lost in the gulf of St. Lawrence, 1803. DUKE, Grand, the title first given to the dukes of Tuscany, by Pius V. 1570. DUKE OF York, Frederick, charges preferred against him, in the house of commons by colonel Wardle, mem- ber for Oakhampton, Jan. 28, 1809 ; re- signed his situation as commander-in- chief, March 18, 1809; re-appointed May 25, 1811, Died Jan. 5, 1827. DUKE OF York's Island, dis- covered by Byron, 1765. DULONG, Pierre Louis, one of the most profound chemical philosophers of the present age, and almost equally distinguished for his knowledge of che- mistry and of physical philosophy. His " Researches on the mutual decomposi- tion of the soluble and insoluble salts," form a most important contribution to our knowledge of chemical statistics. He was the discoverer of the hypophos- phorous acid, and also of the chloruret of azote, the most dangerous of chemical compounds, and his experiments upon it were prosecuted with a courage nearly allied to rashness which twice exposed his life to serious danger. But, it is on hiy researches on the " Law of the con- duction of heat," " on the specific heat of the gases," and " on the elastic force D UM 399 DUN of steam at high temperatures," that his permanent fame as a philosopher will rest more securely : the first of these inquiries, which were undertaken in con- junction with the late M. Petit, was pub- lished in 1817. His recent experiments on the elastic force of steam at high temperatures, and which were full of danger and difficulty, were vmdertaken at the request of the French Institute. Scarcely had they been published, when his death was an- nounced in 1838, with the inteUigence that he was cut off in the midst of re- searches upon this very subject. He left no instructions as to their progress, but among the cinders in the fire-place of his library was found a piece of paper containing figures, expressive of the two following : " 1, Compound gases, formed of the simple gases, which do not con- dense in the act of union, have the same specific heat as the simple gases. 2, Compound gases, in the formation of which there has been the same condensa- tion of the constituent gases, have the specific heats equal, although very diffe- rent from that of the simple gases." DULWICH College, called "The College of God's Gift," founded in 1640, by Edward AUeyn, a dramatic performer. It was richly endowed for a master, war- den, four fellows, six poor brethren, six poor sisters, 12 scholars, six assistants, and 30 out-members. There is here also a noble collection of paintings, the gift of Sir Francis Bourgeois, open to the public. DUMBARTON, royal burgh and sea- port, Scotland. The Roman fleet was stationed here under the command of Agricola, and the coast resisted all his attempts. In 756, it fell by famine into the hands of Egbert, king of Northum- bria; and in 1571, was taken by a coup de main from Lord Fleming, who held it for Mary, queen of Scots. DUMFRIES, royal burgh, Scotland, is of great antiquity, and gives the title of earl to the Crichtons. It was for- merly a place of considerable strength, but much exposed to the inroads of the Enghsh borderers. The ruins of a cas- tle built by Edward I., in 1300, still re- main, and near are some druidical re- mains. Red John Gumming, lord of Badenoch, was slain in this town, be- fore the old collegiate church, in 1305, by Bruce and his associates, for reveal- ing some of their designs to Edward I. DUNBAR, town and fortress, of Scot- land. The fort, built before 858, was long considered one of the keys of Scot- land; it afforded refuge to Edward II.,. after the battle of Bannockburn, and to Marj--, after the death of Rizzio ; and again to her and Both well, when driven from the capital : it was demolished in 1567- DUNBLANE, battle of, fought on Sheriff Muir, north-east from this town, in 1715, between the insurgents under the earl of Marr, and the royal army under the duke of Argyll. DUNCAN, king of Scotland, mur- dered by Macbeth, 1054. DUNCAN, Admiral Lord, born July 1, 1731, died May 4, 1804. DUNDAS, Henry, Viscount Mel- ville, born 1740, died 1811. DUNDEE, a town of Scotland, an- ciently called Alectum, but named Dun- dee (Donum Dei) in commemoration of the miraculous escape of the earl of Huntingdon from shipwreck on his re- turn from the crusades in 1189. It was twice taken by Edwand I. of England, but recovered by Bruce and Wallace, who demolished the old castle. Richard II. burnt the town; it was also con- sumed during the reign of Edward VI. It suffered also from Cromwell but in 1651, was taken by storm, and pillaged by General Monk. DUNFERMLINE, market town,Scot- land, early a royal residence ; traces of the castle of Malcolm Canmore are still visible, as well as a palace rebuilt by Anne of Denmark, and in which it is said Charles I. was born. The church occupies the site of a Benedictine abbey, founded by Malcolm Canmore, and de- stroyed by Edward I. of England. It was the burying-place of the founder, his queen, and of succeeding monarchs, in- cluding Robert Bruce, whose tomb and remains were discovered here in 1818. DUNHAM Bridge, over the Trent; act of parliament obtained 1830; bridge completed, 1832. This was formerly a tedious and difficult and oftentimes im- passable ferry. Dunham Bridge unite?, for the first time,, the countries of Lin- coln and Nottingham ; and a straight line drawn from Sheffield to Lincoln would almost pass directly over it. Its distance from the city of Lincoln is al- most ] 1 miles and a half west, and from Gunford about five miles and a half east. The bridge was designed by Mr. George DUN 400 DUN Leather, and was executed under his di- rection. It is of cast iron, of four arches. The span of each arch, including six feet on the two piers, is 118 feet; and the total length of the bridge is 536 feet. The total cost was £14,945. DUNKELD, a town of Perth, in Scotland, the capital of ancient Caledo- nia. About the dawn of Christianity, a Pictish king made it the seat of religion, by erecting a monastery of Culdees there ; which King David I. in 1130, con- verted into a cathedral, and it ranked as the first in Scotland. DUNKIRK, maritime town of France, originally a mean hamlet, consisting only of a few fishermen's huts ; but a church being built there by St. Eloi, the town increased, and took its name from the situation of its church upon a hill. In 1332, Robert of Flanders built a castle for its defence ; which was afterwards demolished by the revolters of Flanders. The emperor Charles V. who held it as part of Flanders, built another castle to defend the harbour ; but this was also demohshed. In 1558, the French, under Marshal de Thermes, took it by storm. The Spaniards recovered it again in about a fortnight, and put all the French to the sword. In 1652, it was besieged and taken by the Archduke Leopold, then governor of the Netherlands. France entering into a treaty with Eng- land in 1655, the inhabitants fitted out privateers against both these powers : the consequence of which was, that the French, assisted by Cromwell, attacked and took it, and it was put into the hands of the English. In 1662, Charles II. sold it to France for the sum of £500,000. In consequence of this the town was taken possession of for the French king Louis XIV., Nov. 29, 1662, who spared no pains or expense to render it an impregnable fortress. In all the wars between England and France, freebooters from this port have done great damage to the English and Dutch traders. These losses induced the British cabinet, at the peace of Utrecht in 1713, to stipulate that the fortifications should be demolished and the basin filled up ; conditions, however, never fully complied with. The condi- tions were repeated in 1763, but again evaded. In 1783, Great Britain having lost the power of dictating to France, the works were restored, and the next year the port declared free. In 1793, Fre- derick, duke of York, son of George III . of England, made an attempt to take this town by siege, but the approach of General Houchard with a superior force, compelled his royal highness to abandon the enterprise. D U N M O W, LiTTLK, a parish in Essex, remarkable for the ancient custom of bestowing a flitch of bacon on any married couple that could swear solemnly they had not repented wedlock for a year and a day. The first grant of this de- scription took place in the reign of Henry VI., and the last in 1751. D U N M O W Priory, Essex, built 1110. DUNNBERG taken by storm by the French, July 30, 1812. DUNOON Castle, Scotland, built before 1334. DUNS, John, commonly called Duns Scotus, a Franciscan friar, who flourished towards the beginning of the 14th century, according to Leland, Bale, and others, born at Dunstone, near Alnwick, in Nor- thumberland. He was sent by his su- periors to Paris in 1304, where he was honoured first with the degree of bache- lor, then of doctor of divinity, and in 1307, was appointed regent of the divi- nity school. In this situation he acquired singular reputation by his skill in dis- putation. He was denominated "the most subtle doctor," He died in 1308, in the 34th year of his age. DUNSTABLE Priory, Bedfordshire, founded 1132, by Henry I. DUNSTAFFNAGE Castle, Scot- land, built 1307. DUNSTAN, St. was descended from a noble family in Wessex, and educated in the abbey of Glastonbury. King Athelstan, charmed with his person and accomplishments, retained him in his court, and employed him in his affairs. Some envious courtiers having persuaded the king that he was a magician, Dun- stan retired from court. He was recalled by King Edmund in 941, who bestowed upon him the rich abbey of Glastonbury. But Edwi, in 955, deprived him of all his preferments, and drove him into exile. Edgar having raised a rebellion against his brother, and usurped his dominions, recalled Dunstan, and gave him the bi- shopric of Worcester in 957- From this moment he was the chief confidant and prime minister of King Edgar, who be- came sole monarch of England in 959. In the following year Dunstan was raised DUP 401 DUR to he archbishop of Canterbury. Being thus possessed of the primacy, he put into execution the design which he had long meditated of compelling the secular canons to put away their wives and be- come monks. He died 988, aged 64. DUN STAN'S, St., church of, Fleet- street, demolished 1830, to widen the street. New church completed 1833. DUNSTANBURGH Priory, Nor- thumberland, built 1280. DUOMO, or cathedral at Pisa, built 1061. DUOMO, or cathedral at Florence, began 1296, finished 1444. DUPIN, Louis Ellis, ecclesiastical historian, born at Paris in 1657. In 1680 he was licensed to officiate as a priest, and in 1684 he received the bonnet of doctor of the Sarbonne, and then em- ployed his time and talents on his great work, entitled " History of Ecclesiastical Writers, containing an Account of the Authors of the several Books of the Old and New Testament, and the Lives and Writings of the primitive Fathers," &c. He next published " An Account of the Writers of the first Three Centuries." This work appeared in 1686, and was followed by a succession of volumes, published at different periods, from that time till his death, which took place in 17'19, at Paris, aged 62. DUPONT, a French general, surren- dered, with his army, to the Spanish pa- triots, July 19, 1808. D U PPA, Richard, author of the " Lives of Michael Angelo and Raffaelle," died 1831. DUPRE, M. His villa, near Beacons- field, the residence of Edmund Burke, destroyed by fire, Aprir21, 1813. DUPUYTREN, Guillaume, a cele- brated French surgeon, and professor of surgery at the Hotel Dieu, born at Pierre Buffere, in the department of La Haute Vienne, October 5, 1778. In 1790 he commenced his career, and was admitted a surgeon of the second class on the 26th Fructidor of the year 10; doctor in 1803 ; assistant surgeon-in-chief in 1808; and in 1812 he obtained, in a contest with a host of talented competitors, the chair of the professor of surgery. In 1815 he was appointed surgeon- in- chief of the Hotel Dieu, and in 1818 a mem- ber of the Institute. M. Dupuytren's works are numerous on anatomy, physi- ology, and pathology. He was first at- tacked in November 1833, by a slight fit of apoplexy, for which he quitted France for Rome and Naples. In March, 1834, he returned to Paris, apparently recovered, when he immediately renewed his lectures at the Hotel Dieu; but he was shortly after attacked with pleurisy. In Jul)'-, he resolved to try sea bathing ; but at the end of a month he returned to Paris worse than he set out. He died at Paris, February 8, 1835. He left his daughter. Madam de Beaumont, a fortune of nearly 7,000,000 francs, 200,000 francs to found a professorship of medico-chirurgical pathology, and 300,000 francs for a house of retirement for 12 superannuated medical men. DUREL, John, an English divine, born 1626, died 1683, aged 58. DURER, Albert, an eminent painter and engraver, born at Nuremberg, 1471. His engravings of "The Passion of Christ," bear the dates of 1507, 1508, and 1512. The last date found on any of his works is that of 1 526, on the por- trait of Melancthon. His works are at present very numerous throughout Italy and Germany; and in fame he ranks with the highest artists of his time. He died in 1528. D'URFEY, Thomas, English satirist and ballad writer, born about 1630, died Feb. 1724. DURHAM, city and county, of England. The county constituted part of the terri- tories of the Brigantes ; under the Ro- mans it belonged to the province of Maxima Csesariensis ; under the Anglo- Saxons it was included first in the king- dom of Berenecia, and subsequently in that of Northumbria ; and under Alfred and his successors it was called Doorham i. e. Forest Land, whence its modern appellation. Christianity was introduced into Durham previous to the seventh century. The city derives its origin from the monks of Lindisfarne, who flying from the Danes with the bones of their foun- der St. Cuthbert, in 995, fixed their re- sidence on the hill then called Dunholme, where they erected a monastery and ca- thedral, around which the city grew up. After the Norman conquest, the northern counties seized Durham in opposition to the king, but the leaders were compelled to retreat into Scotland ; WilHam I. then founded the castle. Durham has been the scene of many contests. It was repeatedly besieged by the Scots ; near the city stands Neville's- 3 F DUR 402 DUR cross, erected by Lord Neville, to com- memorate a signal defeat of the Scots in 1 346, when David Bruce, their king was taken prisoner. "When the Scots invad- ed England, in 1640, they seized Dur- ham, and retained it until the following year. The first charter is said to have been granted to the city by Bishop Hugh Pudsey, in the reign of Richard 1. The bishopric of Durham, situated in the province of York, esteemed one of the richest in the kingdom, includes the counties of Durham, and Northumber- land. The cathedral, a magnificent building, was erected towards the close of the 11th century; it occupies an emi- nence 80 feet above the level of the river which runs at its base. The extreme length of the building, exclusive of the great western porch or chapel called the Gallilee,is 411 feet, the length of the nave 200 feet ; its breadth, including the isles, is 74 feet. On the same eminence \vith the cathedral, stands the castle, the resi- dence of the bishop, built 1069. DURHAM University. During the time of the commonwealth, an at- tempt was made to estabhsh a university at Durham : the plan was strenuously promoted by Cromwell, and advanced so far as to excite the jealousy and opposi- tion of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge ; when the changes which took place at the restoration caused the plan to be abandoned. Recently a plan of this nature has been revived. An act of parliament for the establishment of a university at Durham passed in 1S32, incorporating the university by the title of " The Warden, Masters, and Scholars of the University of Durham," and au- thorising it to enjoy all the property, rights, and privileges which are assured by the said act, or are incident to a uni- versity established by royal charter. This charter, which received the Great Seal June 1, 1837, fully recognises and con- firms the constitution of the university, as established by the Dean and Chapter. At a convocation holden on Thursday, June 8, the Royal Charter granted to the university was formally received, and a grace passed for the adoption of a uni- versity seal. DURHAM, John George Lamb- ton, Earl of. Viscount Lambton, and Baron Durham, of the city of Durham, in the peerage of the United Kingdom, was born April 12, 1792, and married, first, Jan. 1, 1812, Miss Harriet Cholmondeley, Nvho died in May, 1815 ; and, secondly. Lady Louisa Elizabeth Grey, eldest daugh- ter of the Earl and Countess Grey. He was the son of the late William Henry Lambton, Esq. and Lady Ann Villiers, daughter of the fourth earl of Jersey. He entered parliament in 1814. His most prominent services to the cause of good government were — his opposition to Lord Rippon's corn bill in 1815, and to the bill of indemnity in 1818, his de- nunciation of ministers in the county of Durham meeting subsequent to the Manchester massacre in 1819, and his parliamentary services at the same pe- riod; the introduction of his Reform Bill in 1821, his share in the formation of Earl Grey's Reform Bill, and his bold and strenuous advocacy of the metro- politan boroughs in the house of lords. He was lord privy seal from 1830 to 1833 ; a privy councillor, a G. C. B. and knight of the foreign orders of St. Andrew, St. Alexander Newsky, St. Anne, and the White Eagle, of Russia ; Leopold, of Belgium ; and the Saviour, of Greece. In addition to the above, he was high steward of Hull. He set out as ambassador extraordinary on a special mission to St. Petersburgh, July 5, 1832. 1838. The earl of Durham was ap- pointed governor-general, &c., of her majesty's provinces within and adjacent to the continent of North America, and also " high com.missioner for the adjust- ment of certain important affairs affect- ing the provinces of Lower and Upper Canada," Jan. 16. He issued a document on the occasion of proclaiming the in- demnity act passed during the previous session, in which he justified the policy pursued by him since his arrival in Ca- nada, and announced his determination to resign his government, Oct. 8. His lordship arrived in England, Nov. 26, the same year. After suffering some time from indisposition he died at Cowes, July 28, 1840. " Lord Durham had long been acting among the reformers of England. The introduction of his Reform Bill, and his active participation in the framing and carrying of Lord Grey's, show that he was not a mere repeater of party catch- words, nor a mere indulger in a vague liberality of sentiment. The deep interest which he took in the progress of the various commercial missions instituted of late years, and in the establishment of the new principles of colonization, D Y I 403 show him to have had wide and clear in- sight into what constitutes the physical health and power of a nation. And, lastly, his too brief trial as preparatory legislator in Canada, shows that he pos- sessed the essentials of high adminis- trative talent, contempt for mere routine, with a due appreciation of necessary forms, and the tact for discovering men possessed of official aptitude, for alkvting them their appropriate spheres, and en- couraging them in their labours." DURLACH, town, Germany, an- ciently the capital of the margraviate of Baden-Durlach, but was burned down in 1689, and not rebuilt until the court had been transferred to Carlsruhe. D URN FORD, Great. In this pa- rish church. Bishop Jewell's book, ir defence of his " Apology for the Church of England," still remains ; it was or- dered by Queen Elizabeth, King James I., and Charles I., to be read and chained in all churches throughout England. DUSSELDORP surrendered to the French, Sept. 6, 1795. Was ceded to Prussia in 1815, and is now the capital of a circle. DYER, John, poet, author of "The Fleece," &c., born 1700 ; educated at Westminster-school. He died in 1758, and, in I76l, his works were collected and published in one volume octavo, DYERS' Company, London, incor- porated 1469- DYING. The Hebrew patriarchs, or some of their neighbours, must have been acquainted with the art of dying as early as A.c. 1930; but whether they were the inventors, and possessed the art ex- clusively, or borrowed it from the inha- bitants of other countries, it is now impossible to determine. In the time of Moses, A.c. 1491, the artificial preparation of colours, and the art of dying, must have made consider- able progress ; for in Exodus xxv. 4, 5, where the Hebrews are commanded to bring oflFerings for the formation of the sanctuary, are specified blue, and purple, and scarlet, and rams' skins dyed red. When Alexander visited India, in the fourth century before Christ, it was found that the art of dying had risen to great perfection in that country ; hence some have concluded that the Indians were the inventors. The Greeks were ac- quainted with the art of dying purple as early as Homer's time, A.c. 910; but their practice itseemswas confined to wool. DYI No commodity could be more cele- brated among the ancients than theTyrian purple. This was extracted from two kinds of shell- fish, of which the larger was named purpura, and the other kind was a species of the whelk. When the Greeks, under Alexander, plundered the treasury of the king of Persia, a.c. 331, they found in it a considerable quantity of purple, which was 190 years old, and yet had lost none of its beauty or bril- liancy. The ancients set so high a value on this colour, that in the reign of Au- gustus, that is, about the commencement of the christian era, a pound of wool of the Tyrian dye could not be obtained for a sum equivalent to £36 sterhng. Shell- fish of similar kinds have been found also in modem times, and in various jiarts of the world; indeed it is supposed that they are now as plentiful as for- merly. The shell-fish which yields the purple colour was found on the coast of England in 1683, by Mr. Cole. During the time of the crusades, the arts were transmitted from Greece into Italy, and were consequently soon esta- blished. A merchant of Florence, in 1300, accidentally discovered the colour- ing matter called archil or argol, and in 1338, that city contained 200 manufac- turers who fabricated 80,000lbs. of cloth. The art of dying was cultivated with great success at Venice, where, in 1429, an account of all the necessary processes was published, under the title of " Ma- riegola del' Arte de i Tentori." Giovanni Ventura Rosetti, succeeded in collecting a considerable stock of useful informa- tion, relating to the practices adopted by different dyers. The result of his inqui- ries was published in ]548, under the title of "Phctho." Cochineal and indigo were probably not known in Italy till after this period, for neither of them is mentioned in Rosetti's works. Soon after the conquest of Mexico by Cortez in 1518, the properties of the co- chineal insect became known to the Spa- niards, who brought the discovery into Europe. Kuster, a German chemist, discovered the process for dying a scarlet by means of a solution of tin, and in 1643, carried the secret to London, About this time the use of indigo was also introduced ; and, by degrees, the improvements thus made in the art of dying, gradually became kno\vn through- out Europe. On the revival of the arts in France EAG 404 EAR under the celebrated Colbert, that of dy- ing received a proper share of encourage- ment : by the order of this patriotic minister, a table of instructions for dying was published in 1672. The art conti- nued to receive liberal encouragement in France, where Dufay, Hellot, Mac- quer, and Berthollet, have been succes- sively charged with the care of this de- partment. Under the direction of Du- fay, a new table of instructions, which superseded thatof Colbert, was published in 1737. Hellot, who succeeded him, published, in 1740, a methodical descrip- tion of the processes for dying wool. Macquer, in 1763, published a treatise on dying silk. The astonishing improvements which, within the last 60 or 70 years, have been made in chemistry, have developed the theory of dying, and given a new and advantageous turn to the art. Its prin- ciples are now scientifically deduced from experiments and facts by means of ac- curate philosophical investigations, and new substances are continuciUy being discovered. The following are some of the most recent. 1839. A method of extracting the colouring matter from wood was em- ployed by a M. Besseyre with much success. He first reduced the woods to very small divisions, and then immedi- ately placed them in a closed vessel ex- posed to a current of steam. When the whole had attained 80 degrees of heat, it was uncovered, and watered with seve- ral pints of cold water. By means of a tap below, the condensed liquid was drawn off, and thrown back upon the chips, and this operation was repeated until the dye had acquired sufficient strength ; it was then subjected to evapo- ration over an open fire, and subsequently in a sand bath, till the extract became a mass, which was soluble in warm water. June 1, Mr. Solly read to the Royal Asiatic Society a report on some lichens received from India, with a view to as- certain their importance as dye substan- ces. The specimens from Ceylon con- tained good colouring matter, and some of them, by comparative experiments with the lichens of commerce, yielded as good a dye as kinds worth more than £250 a ton. E E AC HARD, Dr. John, an acute writer, and vice-chancellor of the uni- versity of Cambridge, born 1636, died 1697. EACHARD, Rev. Laurence, au- author of the " History of England," born 1671, died 1730. EAGLE has been borne, by way of ensign, or standard, by several nations. The first who assumed it were the Per- sians, according to the testimony of Xenophon. Afterwards, it was taken by the Romans ; who, after a great va- riety of standards, at length fixed on the eagle, in the second year of the consulate of C. Marius. The eagle was introduced as a standard in the French army under Napoleon. Eagles and colours taken at Ciudad Rodrigo, and Badajos, were placed in the chapel royal, Whitehall, with great ceremony, Sept. 30, 1812. Those taken at the battle of Waterloo, were deposited Jan. 18, 1816. EAR-OF-CORN, order, began in Brit- tany, 1050. Earl, a British title of nobility, next below a marquis, was a considerable title among the Saxons. Alfred the Great was invested with the dignity and title in 886, by Ethelred I., grandson of Egbert. WiUiam the Conqueror first made it hereditary ; giving it in fee to his nobles, and annexing it to shires and counties. But earls are now created by patent, without any authority over, or particular relation to counties. EARL-MARSHAL, thefirst appointed in England, 1383. EARTHENWARE Vessels, first made by the Romans, a.c, 715; the first made in modern Italy, 1710 ; the present improved kind began to be made in 1763, by Wedgwood, in England. See Pottery. EARTHQUAKE, a sudden concus- sion of the earth, productive of various EAR 405 EAR effects, such as the emission of flames, water, &c.; the overthrow of buildings, towns, and sometimes of rocks or moun- tains. Several ancient authors, as Se- neca, Strabo, Callisthenes, Pausanias, Pliny, Thucydides, &c., mention a va- riety of stupendous effects produced by earthquakes, as the separation of moun- tains, the appearance and disappearance of islands, the destruction of cities, some of which were swallowed up, together with their inhabitants, so effectually as not to leave even a vestige of their former existence. There are, comparatively, few authentic or particular accounts of these phenomena, before the christian era. The following is a chronological list of the most remarkable earthquakes. A.c. 466. Earthquake at Sparta de- stroyed 20,000 persons. A.c. 461. At Rome, attended by pro- digies. A.c. ^84. In the Hellespont and Cher- sonese. A.c. 31. In Judea. A. D. 17- Under the reign of the em- peror Tiberius, twelve cities of Asia Minor were destroyed in one night, the memory of which is attested by a medal, still extant. 79. Herculaneum buried. See Her- CULANEUM. 107. Four cities in Asia Minor, two in Greece, and three in Galatia, over- turned. 115. Antioch destroyed. 120. One that swallowed up Nicome- dia and several cities. 357. One in^ Macedonia, swallowed up 150 cities. 370. Nice destroyed. 394. One from September to Novem- ber, swallowed up several cities in Europe. 458. One that destroyed Antioch, Sept. 14. 480. One at Constantinople, that lasted 40 days. 526. One at Antioch, that destroyed that and other cities. 528. Another at Antioch, that swal- lowed up 4,800 inhabitants. 541. Pompeiopolis, in Mysia, swal- lowed up. 543. One felt over the whole world, Sept. 6. 550. In Palestine, Syria, &e. 552. At Constantinople. 557. At Rome and Constantinople. 580. Antioch destroyed. 740. At Constantinople. 749. Many cities of Syria destroyed. 790. At Constantinople. 801. In France, Germany, and Italy, that threw down St. Paul's at Rome, 867. At Mecca, where 1,500 houses and 90 towers were thrown down. 986. Constantinople overthrown, and Greece shaken. 1076. One in England, April 8. 1081 and 1089. Again in England. 1090. One throughout England, fol- lowed by a scarcity. 1110. One in Shropshire. 1112. One which overwhelmed Liege and Rottenburg. 1114. One in December at Antiochia, which destroyed several cities and towns, and overturned the cities of Trialeth, and the cities of Mariseum and Mamistria. 1117- In Lombardy for 40 days. 1134. In England, just as Henry I. was about to embark for Normandy, flames of fire bursting out of certain rifts of the earth, August 2. 1137. One that swallowed up Catania and 15,000 souls. 1150. Antioch, Tripoli, and Damas- cus destroyed. 1178. At Oxenhall, near Darlington, in Durham. 1179. In Hungary and England. 1185. One that overthrew the church of Lincoln, and others. 1186. At Calabria, in Sicily, a city, with its inhabitants, lost in the Adriatic Sea. 1222. At Brisa, in Lombardy, where 2,000 lives were lost. 1247. In England, general one, that threw down St. Michael's on the Hill, without Glastonbuiy, 1318. The greatest ever known in England, Nov. 14. 1456. One in Naples, when 40,000 persons perished. 1531. At Lisbon, for eight days, which destroyed several churches, upwards of 1500 houses, and buried 30,000 persons in their ruins ; several of the neighbour- ing towns were suddenly ingulfed with their inhabitants, and the river Tagiis overflowed and ruined half Portugal, Feb. 1556. In China, a whole province swallowed up, with its towns, inhabi- tants, cattle, &c., and an immense lake of water filled its former site, which stiU remains. 1580. In London and Westminster, EAR 406 EAR when part of St. Paul's and the Temple churches fell ; it was felt at Sandwich and Dovor, in Kent, April 6. 1586. In the vicinity of Lima, which ran 170 leagues along the coast, and .50 leagues across the mountains, July 9. 1638. In Naples and Sicily, that swal- lowed up many towns, and upwards of 30,000 persons, March 27- 1682. In Catania, attended with an eruption of ^Etna, which destroyed that city, and 60,000 inhabitants. 1683. In several parts of England. 1687. Lima destroyed, not more than 20 houses left standing, Oct, 20. 1688. At Naples, when a third part of that city and much shipping were de- stroyed, June 6, and 7. Smyrna destroy- ed, June 10. 1689. Lyme in Dorsetshire, nearly de- stroyed. 1692. Fort Royal in Jamaica destroy- ed, and 3,000 people lost. 1704. A dreadful one in the Isle of TenerifFe, Dec. 24. 1726. Palermo, in Sicily, nearly swal- lowed up, Sept. 1727. At Boston, in New England, Oct. 29. 1730. The whole kingdom of Chili swallowed up, with St. Jago. 1731. At Aynho, in Northamptonshire Oct. 10. 1731. At Foggia, in Naples, when more than half the houses were over- thrown, and above 2,000 persons buried in the ruins, April 20. 1732. In the city of Avelino, which it destroyed, and Oriana in great part, Nov. 29. 1733. In Calabria, where the territory of Nova Casa sunk 29 feet without de- stroying a building, April 18. 1734. At Arundel and Shoreham, Oct. 25. 1734. In Ireland, which destroyed five churches and above 100 houses, August. 1736. In Hungary, which turned round a mountain, Oct. 23. 1739-40. At Salemi, near Palermo, which swallowed up a convent, but the monks escaped, Feb. 4. 1744. In Merionethshire, in Wales, several shocks, Feb. 5. 1746. A terrible one at Lima, which destroyed that city, and 5,000 persons lost their lives ; there were 74 churches 14 monasteries, and 15 hospitals thrown down, and the loss in eflFects reckoned immense ; it extended itself to Callao, which was destroyed, with about 5,000 of its inhabitants, Oct. 27, to Nov. 20. 1750. In London, February 8, and^ March 8. 1750. At London, Chester, and Man- chester, April 2, and in the same year, the city of Conception, in Chili, over- thrown. 1751. At Fiume, in the gulph of Venice, Feb. 5. 1752. The greatest part of the city of Adrianople destroj'ed, Aug. 22. 1754. Grand Cairo had two-thirds of the houses and 40,000 inhabitants swal- lowed up, Sept. 2. 1755. ITie city of Quito in Peru de- stroyed, April 24. 1755. In the island of Mitylene, in the Archipelago, when 2,000 houses were overthrown; considerable damage was done at Oporto, in Portugal, and at Seville, in Spain ; but more particularly at Lisbon, where, in about eight minutes most of the houses and 50,000 inhabi- tants were destroyed, and whole streets swallowed up. The cities of Coimbra and Bruga also suffered, and St. Ubes was swallowed up ; at Faro, 3,000 in- habitants were buried ; great part of Ma- laga was destroj'ed ; one half of Fez, in Morocco, and 12,000 Arabs were swal- lowed up, and above half of the island of Madeira destroyed : it extended 5,000 miles. 1757. At the Azore isles, where 10,000 persons were buried in the ruins, and the island divided in two, July 9. 1758. At Bordeaux, in France Aug. 11. 1759. At Tripoli, in Syria, which ex- tended nearly 10,000 miles, when Damas lost 6,000 inhabitants, and several other cities, with the remains of Balbeck, were destroyed, Oct. and Dec. 1759. Truxillo, in Peru, was swallow- ed up, Nov. 1761. Shocks of earthquakes were felt all over Europe. 1766. One at Constantinople, that buried 880 persons. 1767. At Martinico, where 1,600 per- sons lost their lives, Aug. A tremendous one also experienced at Cephalonia, Oct. 14. 1770. In the Archipelago; 700 houses and 100 inhabitants were lost, Dec. 1773. Guatimala, in New Spain, en- tirely swallowed up, and many thousand inhabitants lost, Dec. 15. 1778. At Smyrna, which destroyed great part of that city, June 25. EAR 407 EAR 1780. At Tauris, in Persia, where 15,000 houses were thrown down, and great part of the inhabitants perished, March 3. 1784. At Archindschan, when it de- stroyed the town, and 12,000 inhabi- tants, July 18. 1784. At Iceland, and some parts of Germany, Nov. 1785. Arequipo destroyed. 1786. In Scotland, and different parts of the north of England, August 11. 1787. In Mexico, and other parts of New Spain, April 18. 1789. The town of Castello, in Italy, and Borgo, had 150 houses destroyed, and 30 houses, &c., swallowed up by an opening of the earth, Sept. 30. 1792. In the counties of Bedford, Leicester, Lincoln, and Nottingham, &c., March 2. 1794. In Turkey, when towns, con- taining 10,000 inhabitants were lost, July 3. 1794. Near Naples, when the city of Torre del Greco was nearly destroyed, June 13. 1795. In different parts of the north of England, Nov. 18. 1797. At Sumatra, in the East Indies; great damage was done, and above 300 persons perished, Feb. 20. 1797. The whole of the country be- tween Santa Fe and Panama, destroyed by an earthquake, including the cities of Cuzco and Quito, with 40,000 inhabi- tants, Feb. 7. There were several vio- lent shocks in the West India islands in the same month. 1800. At Constantinople, which de- stroyed the royal palace, and a great number of buildings : it extended into Romania and Wallachia, to Buchorest and Adrianople, Oct. 26. 1 802. Minguin was entirely swallowed up in a lake ; Brescia had three churches and 12 houses destroyed, June 12. 1804. So violent a shock in Holland as to cause the chandeliers in Maasling church to vibrate two or three feet, January. 1808. The church of La Tour, and most of the houses in Lucerne, partly de- stroyed by an earthquake, April. 1809. In several parts of Italy, sup- posed to have caused some very extra- ordinary tides in the gulph of Spezzia, the same having continued irregular for eight days after. 1810. In the province of Vellore, in the East Indies, when 6000 persons perished. 1812. Caraccas, in Columbia, when 12,000 persons perished. 1813. In Norway, when 5000 persons perished. 1819. Kutch, near Bombay, the whole district and territory destroyed, includ- ing several towns and villages, and the entire cityof Bhorg,the capital, which be- came a heap of ruins, under which were buried 2000 of the inhabitants, June 16. 1819. The following were also felt at different periods of the year, in various parts of the world. At Palermo, Jan. 8 ; and Feb. 24, when many houses were overthrown. On the 28th, at Tefflis, in Georgia ; March 28, at Craw and Maz- zera. April 3, 4, and 11, at Capiago, in Chili, three severe shocks occurred, which totally destroyed that city, only 3000 persons escaping. On the 8th, at Temeswar, in Hungary, three shocks took place ; and at Landshut, in Ger- many, on the 10th. On May 26, at Cor- neto, in Italy, when many houses and persons were destroyed. The 27th, at Sicily, accompanied by violent shocks and eruptions of Etna. 1822. Aleppo destroyed. 1824. At Murcia, in Spain, when four towns and several villages were de- stroyed, March 21. 1825. Belida, near Algiers, destroyed and 600 persons buried beneath the ruins, Aug. 2. 1826. Nearly one-half of St. Jago de Cuba, destroyed. 1829. At Murcia, Spain, where there was not one of the churches, nor a single edifice which had not been considerably damaged. 1832. In Calabria ami Central Italy. See Calabria. 1833. At Portsmouth, Chichester, and other places along the channel, July 6, Sept. 18, Nov. 14; and 1834, Jan. 22, 23. 1834. At Pasto, Columbia, January 20 ; February 27. 1834. An earthquake felt nearly throughout the entire duchy of Parma. No less than 40 shocks were experienced at Borgotaro ; and at Pontremoli, many houses were thrown down, and not a chimney was left standing, February 14. 1834. At Katmandoo, (the capital of Nepaul) and its vicinity, 10,000 houses EAR 408 overthrown by an earthquake, and from 600 to 800 persons destroyed in the several towns of the valle)', March 30. 1834. Several partial shocks in Eng- land, July 24, and Sep. 22. 1835. Castiglione destroyed; earth- quake at Amboyna ; at Cape Town ; in Andalusia; and in Chili, when the island of Santa Maria, which is situated south- ward of the bay of Conception, was raised at least 10 feet above its former elevation. See Conception. 1837. Earthquake in Palestine, Sun- day Jan. 1, destroyed the whole of Saf- fet, Tiberias, and many of the surround- ing villages. It was five days after the earthquake, before a few survivors of SafFet recovered from their stupor ; the whole number of victims was about 3000. Nov. 7, an earthquake occurred at Valdivia, said to have been more severe than any hitherto felt in that town. The first shock took place at five minutes past eight in the morning, and lasted till a quarter past eight. Repeated shocks continued at intervals till three- quarters past twelve. The only two churches that existed in the town, as well as all the public buildings, were com- pletely destroyed. 1839. A violent earthquake at Mar- tinique, Jan. 11, consisting of two shocks of unexampled violence, lasting thirty seconds ; including a short inter- val between. Fort Royal was entirely destroyed, and it was believed that the earthquake proceeded from the long ex- tinct volcanoes of the island. Jan 27, the shock of an earthquake was felt in St. Mary's, one of the Scilly islands. 1839. A tremendous earthquake oc- curred at Amerapoora, Ava, between two and three o'clock, on the morning of March 23, and extended with equal vio- lence northward as far as Toungnor, and south to Prome. Pagodas, monasteries, brick dwelling-houses, all within the city, and on the neighbouring hills, were de- stroyed, and from 200 to 300 lives lost. The towns and villages near the capital were in ruins, and the old city of Ava was stated to be destroyed. 1839. A series of earthquakes shook the city of Messina during the 27th, 28th, and 31st of August. 1839. September 8, about half-past one o'clock the shock of an earthquake was felt generally throughoutMonmouthshire and the rest of England. Several shocks were also felt at Edinburgh, in Perth- shire, and in the Highlands of Scotland. E AS 1839. On October 1, at two, a.m., a strong shock was felt at San Salvador ; and at three, a. m., a concussion nearly destroyed the town. EAST ANGLIA, Saxon kingdom of, founded 575, ended 792. EAST GREENLAND discovered by Sir Hugh Willoughby, 1553. EAST GRINSTEAD Tower fell down, November 12, 1785. EAST INDIA COMPANY derived its origin from the attempts of the En- glish to rival the commerce of the Por- tuguese. An association was formed at London, in 1599, for prosecuting the trade to India. The adventurers ap- plied to Queen Elizabeth for a charter of incorporation, and also for power to ex- clude all other English subjects, who had not obtained a license from them, from carrying on any species of traffic beyond the Cape of Good Hope or the Straits of Magellan. They obtained the charter, which was dated December 31, 1600. The corporation was entitled, "The Go- vernor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies." The first governor (Thomas Smythe, Esq.), and 24 directors, were nominated in the charter, but power was given to the company to elect a deputy governor, and, in future, to elect their governors and directors, and such other office bear- ers as they might think fit to appoint. The first expedition to India, entrusted to Captain James Lancaster, set sail on the 13th February, 1601. Lancaster entered into commercial treaty with the kings of Acheen aad Bantam, and having taken on board a valuable cargo of pep- per and other produce, returned to the Downs on the 11th of September, 1603. I6l2. Captain Best obtained from the court of Delhi several considerable privileges ; and, among others, that of establishing a factory at Surat ; which city was henceforth looked upon as the principal British station in the west of India, till the acquisition of Bombay. 1621. The quantity of Indian com- modities imported into Europe amounted to £511,548 5s. 8d.; being £954,542 13^. 4:d. less than if bought at Aleppo and Alexandria. 1640. Permission to build Fort George was obtained from the native authorities. In 1658 Madras was raised to the station of a presidency. In 1645 the company began to establish factories in Bengal, the principal of which was at Hooghly. EAS 409 The charter being merely a grant from the crown, and not ratified by any act of parliament, was understood to be at an end when Charles I. was deposed. The company succeeded in obtaining a renewal of their charter from Cromwell, in 1657. Charles II. confirmed this char- ter in 1661 ; and, at the same time, con- ferred on them the power of making peace or war with any power or people not of the christian religion ; of esta- blishing fortifications, garrisons, and colonies ; of exporting ammunition and stores to their settlements duty free ; of seizing and sending to England such British subjects as should be found trading to India without their leave ; and of exercising civil and criminal jurisdic- tion in their settlements according to the laws of England. 1668. The company obtained a very valuable acquisition in the island of Bombay. Charles II. acquired this island as a part of the marriage portion of his wife, Catherine of Portugal. The same reign is memorable also in the com- pany's annals from its being the era of the commencement of the tea trade. 1677. The company obtained a re- newal of their charter, receiving at the same time an indemnity for all past mis- use of their privileges, and authority to establish a mint at Bombay. During the latter part of the reign of Charles II., and that of his successor, the number of private adventurers, or interlopers, in the Indian trade, increased in an unusual degree. The company vigorously exerted themselves in defence of what they considered to be their rights, by a prosecution carried on against Mr. Thomas Sandys, for trading to the East Indies without their license. Judgment was given in favour of the company in 1685. The company obtained a fresh chaiter from the crown in 1693, but in the fol- lowing year the trade was virtually laid open by a vote of the house of com- mons, " that all the subjects of England had an equal right to trade to the East Indies, unless prohibited by act of parliament." 1698. A proposal was made by a num- ber of merchants to parliament for ad- vancing the sum of £2,000,000 to go- vernment, on condition of erecting the subscribers into a new East India Com- pany with exclusive privileges. The old company endeavoured to prevent the EAS appearance of such a formidable rival ; notwithstanding which, there were two companies. In 1702 the two were united by an indenture tripartite, to which the queen was the third party; and in 1708 they were perfectly consoli- dated into one company by their pre- sent name of " The United Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies." The authority of parliament was- soon after interposed, and government agreed to ratify the terms of their agreement, and to extend the charter to the 25th of March, 1726, with three years' notice. For some years the company conti- nued to consolidate and extend its com- merce. But the unsettled state of the Mogul empire exposed their aflTairs to perpetual vicissitudes, and they fell into disorder; insomuch that in 1772, their debts were augmented to the amount of more than £1,200,000, and they were obliged to apply to government for as- sistance. In this crisis government in- terposed, and a considerable change was made in the constitution of the company. 1781. The exclusive privileges of the company were extended to 1791, with three years' notice ; the dividend on the company's stock was fixed at eight per cent. ; three-fourths of their surplus re- venues, after paying the dividend, and the sum of £400,000 payable to govern- ment, was to be applied to the public service, and the remaining fourth to the company's own use. 1793. The company's charter was prolonged till March 1, 1814. In the act for the purpose, a species of provi- sion was made for opening the trade to India to private individuals. All his majesty's subjects, residing in any part of his European dominions, were allowed to export to India any article of the pro- duce or manufacture of the British do- minions, except military stores, ammu- nition, masts, spars, cordage, &c. For some years previous to the termi- nation of the company's charter, the conviction had been gaining ground, that the trade to the East was capable of being very greatly extended. Very great efforts were consequently made by the manufacturing and commercial in- terests to have the monopoly set aside, and the trade to the East thrown open. The company vigorously resisted these pretensions ; and had interest enough to procure a prolongation of the privi- lege of carrying on an extensive trade to 3 o EAS 410 EAS China, to April 10, 1831, with three years' notice ; the government of India being continued in their hands for the same period ; but the same year the trade of India was opened, under cer- tain conditions, to the public. The prin- cipal of these conditions were, that pri- vate individuals should trade, directly only, with the presidencies of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and the port of Penang ; that the vessels fitted out by them should not be under 350 tons bur- den, &c. The question as to the renewal of the charter was again discussed in 1832 and 1833, and the company having no rea- sonable objection to urge against their being deprived of the privilege of trad- ing, the act 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 85, 1833, for continuing the charter till 1854, ter- minated the company's commercial cha- racter ; by enacting that the company's trade to China should cease April 22, 1834, and that the company should, as soon as possible after that date, dispose of their stock on hand, and close their commercial business. Under this act, the functions of the East India Company are wholly political. Thatbody is to con- tinue to govern India, with the concur- rence and under the supervision of the board of control, till April 30, 1854. All the real and personal property be- longing to the company April 22, 1834, was vested in the crown, and is to be held or managed by the company in trust for the same, subject, of course, to all claims, debts, contracts, &c., already in existence, or that may hereafter be brought into existence by competent authority. EAST India Company at Embden, established 1750. EAST India Company of France, formed in 1664, laid the foundation of their settlements at Pondecherry, 1674; abolished by the national assembly, and the trade laid open, January 26, 1791. EAST India Company of Holland, incorporated l604. EAST India Company of Sweden, founded March, 1731. EAST India Docks. See Docks, EAST India House, Leadenhall- street, London, built 1726 ; enlarged 1799. EAST Indies, a general term sig- nifying the continent? and islands to the east and south of the river Indus, as far as the borders of China, including Timor and the Moluccas, Hindoostan, Birman Empire, &c. See India. EAST Saxons, kingdom of, began 527, ended 746. EASTBURY Priory, Sussex, built 1270. EASTBY Abbey, Yorkshire, built 1152. EASTER, a feast of the church, held in memory of our Saviour's resurrec- tion. The christians of the second cen- tury celebrated anniversary festivals in commemoration of that event. The day was called the paschal day, because it was considered as the same with that on which the Jews celebrated their pass- over. Towards the close of the second century, a dispute commenced about the particular time in which this feast was to be kept. The Asiatic churches kept it on the 14th day of the first Jewish month, and three days after commemo- rated the resurrection of the Redeemer. The western churches celebrated their paschal feast on the night that preceded the anniversary of Christ's resurrection, and thus connected the commemoration of his death with that of his resurrec- tion. The disputants retained their own customs till the fourth century, when the council of Nice abolished that of the Asiatics, and rendered the time of the celebration of Easter the same through all the christian churches. Easter is one of the most considerable festivals in the christian calendar ; being that which re- gulates and determines the time of all the other movable feasts. The rule for the celebration of Easter, fixed by the council of Nice, in the year 325, is that it be held on the Sunday which falls next after the full moon following March 21, i. e. the Sunday which falls next after the first full moon after the vernal equinox. EASTER Island, island in the south Pacific Ocean, discovered by Davis, in 1686, visited by Roggewien on Easter- day 1722, and by Cook in 1774. Also by Captain Beechey, in the Blossom in 1825, in his voyage to co-operate with the polar expedition. It is 2,000 miles from the coast of Chili, and 1 500 from the nearest inhabited land, Pitcairn's Island excepted, which has been peopled by Europeans. The population. Captain Beechy estimated at about 1,200. EASTERN Empire began, under Arcadius, 395 ; usurped by Bardas for 10 years, 976 ; by John Cautacuzenes, for ECC 411 ECC 17 years, 1341 ; ended, by the Turks taking Constantinople, May 29> 1453. EASTLAND Company, incorpo- rated 1579. EASLEY Abbey, Yorkshire, built 1152. EBER, the grandson of Shem, born A.c. 2281. ECBATANA, a celebrated city of Asia, the capital of Media, and the resi- dence of the Median and Persian kings, was built A.c. 708, by Dejoces I. who reigned in Media, after the inhabitants had shaken off the Assyrian yoke. ECCALEOBION. An exhibition has been recently opened in Pall Mall, bear- ing tliis classical denomination, the ob- ject of which, is, the hatching of chickens by heat. This art has long been prac- tised in China, Egypt, &c. In the latter country the process is carried on chiefly by the inhabitants of a single village, named Berme, and those that live at a small distance from it. The ovens are contained in large rectangular build- ings of brick or clay, called mamals, each of which are said to contain about 40 or 50 ovens. It has been supposed that the ovens of Egypt annually give life to about 92,640,000 chickens. By some such means, in this exhibition- room. Pall Mall, it is possible to bring into existence, through winter as well as summer, a hundred birds a-day, or nearly 40,000 in a year. The exhibition is, however, chiefly to be prized as the means of investigating the process of nature in advancing an organic substance to vitaUty. Eggs may be broken daily, as they proceed in their developement. and examined by the aid of the micro- scope ; thus exposing to view the actual commencement of hfe, and the gradual formation of those members which life is to animate. Day after day, similar microscopic inspection will show how the work advances — fibres, brain, intes- tines, muscles, bones, beak, feathers, are all formed in this wonderful sphere — the yolk, the white, and the shell, contribut- ing their various functions till about the 14th or 15th day, when the birds are so far matured in the shell as to be hatched by keeping them moderately warm ; the warmth of the human body, or 98° of Fahrenheit, being the standard. Th« machine is capable of containing above 2,000 eggs at a time. Year Book of Facts, 1840. ECCLESIASTICAL Courts, These courts are held by the king's authority, as supreme head of the church, for matters which, chiefly regard religion. In the time of our Saxon ancestors there was no distinction between the lay and ecclesiastical jurisdiction, but William I. under the influence of the monasteries and foreign clergy was induced to sepa- rate the ecclesiastical court from the civil. King Henry I. among other re- storations of the laws of King Edward the Confessor, revived the union of the civil and ecclesiastical courts, but Ste- phen proposed an oath, that ecclesiasti- cal persons and ecclesiastical causes should be subject only to the bishop's jurisdiction. The laws and constitutions by which the church of England is go- verned, are immennorial customs ; our own provincial constitutions ; the statutes concerning religion ; and the canon law, where all others fail. The proceedings in the ecclesiastical courts are according to the civil and canon law. These courts having contributed to the exercise of grie- vous oppression on persons charged with trivial otFences within their spiritual ju- risdiction, the statute 27 Geo. III. c. 44. limits the time of commencing suits for defamatory words to six months ; and for incontinence and beating in the churchyard to eight months. 1840. A bill was brought in by Lord John Russell, in August, for remedying some of the defects in the ecclesiastical courts. This bill arose out of the case of John Thorogood, who having been proceeded against in these courts for the recovery of certain church rates, and committed to prison for contempt, it was held that the court had no power to dis- charge the prisoner. The bill provided that, after a person who had been com- mitted for contempt, had been in pri- son a considerable time, if it should ap- pear to the judge that there were sufficient grounds for his discharge, and the other party should consent to it, he should be discharged at once. The hill was read a third time, Aug. 5, when an amendment was moved to prevent the possibility of the defend- ant's being detained in prison by the plaintiff's refusal to consent to his release. Before the bill passed. Lord John Rus- sell proposed, in order to meet the ob- jections, that thefollowing proviso should be added, — " Provided always, that in cases of subtraction of church-rates, in amount not exceeding £5, where the ECL 412 EDI party in contempt has suflfered imprison- ment for twelve months or upwards, the consent of the other party to the suit shall not be necessary to enable the judge to discharge the said party." ECLIPSE. An eclipse of the sun is an occultation of the sun's body, occa- sioned by the moon's passing in the right line between the earth and sun. An echpse of the moon is occa- sioned by the interposition of the earth directly between the sun and moon. Catalogues of eclipses have been calcu- lated by astronomers for many thou- sand years, by a reference to which any chronological point connected with these phenomena may be at once determined. The following are some of the most re- markable eclipses. A.c. 585. One of the sun observed at Sardis, predicted by Thales. 424. At Athens. A.D. 291. One at Rome, caused a total darkness at noon-day. 968. At Constantinople. 1033. In France, dark at noon-day, June 29. 1140. In England, 5 Stephen, occa- sioned a total darkness, March 21. 1191. Another, June 22 ; entire dark- ness, and the stars very visible at ten in the morning : in the same year, the true sun, and the appearance of another, so that astronomers alone could distinguish the difference by glasses. 1715. A total eclipse of the sun in England, when the darkness was so great that the stars faintly appeared, and the birds went to roost in the morn- ing about ten, April 22. ] 748. A remarkable one July 14 ; the quantity eclipsed was ten digits, and, during the time of the eclipse, Venus made a beautifully brilliant appearance. 1836. Great annular eclipse, visible in England. The darkness, probably, owing to the extraordinary clearness of the atmosphere, was not so great as had been anticipated, and consequently, to ordinary telescopes, the stars, that had been marked out in the diagrams as visible, were not to be seen. 1838. Eclipse of the sun, September 18, visible in America, observed by the professor of Yale College, accompanied by Messrs. H. L. Smith, and E. P. Ma- son, the former having a Gregorian of three feet focus, and the latter a New- tonian of seven feet. The average of the three observers' notes gave the fol- lowing results, expressed in mean time. Beginning of the eclipse 3h. 21min. 14.47s. End 5h. 52m. I7s. The following are the principal eclipses to be visible in Europe the remainder of the present century. 1841. Of the sun, Feb. 21, at 11 in the morning, visible in Greenland, Europe, small at south. Of the sun, July 18, at two in the afternoon, visible in Europe, and west of Asia, small at south. 1843. Of the moon, Dec. 6, at mid- night, 2i dig., visible, London. 1844. Of the moon. May 31, at 11, in the afternoon, 15^ dig., Germany. Moon, Nov. 24, at midnight, total, 18i dig., London. 1845. Of the sun, May 6, 10^ in the morning, visible in Canada, all Europe, except S. E. 1863. Of the moon, June 1, at mid- night, 14^ dig., London. 1866. Of the sun, Oct. 8, at five in the afternoon, visible north of America, N. W. of Europe. 1877. Of the moon, Aug. 23, 11^ in the afternoon, total, central France. 1878. Of the moon, Aug. 12, at mid- night, 64 dig., London. 1884. Of the sun, March 27, six in the morning, visible, N. E. of Europe, north of Asia, small at east. 1891. Of the moon, Nov. 16, half- past 12, morning, I7i dig., Ireland. 1895. Of the sun, March 26, 10 morn- ing, visible, in the Atlantic, Europe, north of Asia. 1898. Of the moon, Jan. 7, midnight, ij dig., London. Of the moon, Dec 27, midnight, total, 16 dig., London. EDDYSTONE Lighthouse. See Lighthouse. EDGAR, Anglo-Saxon king of Eng- land, was crowned at Kingston-upon- Thames, 959, died July 1, 975, and was buried at Glastonbury. EDGAR'S Tower, Worcester, built 975. EDGECOTT, Northamptonshire. In 1499, a battle was fought here between the adherents of Edward IV., and a body of insurgents, in which the former were EDGEWORTH, James Richard LovELL, author of "Practical and Pro- fessional Education," and father of the celebrated Maria Edgeworth, died Nov. 1817. EDICT, an order or instrument, signed and sealed by a prince, to serve EDI as a law to his subjects, as the follow- ing : Perpetual edict, compiled by Sal- vius Julianus, under Adrian, 132. Edict of pacification in France, which gave rise to the league, 1576. Edict of Nantes, published by Henry IV., 1598. EDINBURGH, probably, owes its name to Edwin, the Anglo-Saxon king of Northumberland, who, in the seventh century, built the castle called from him Edwyne's burgh or Edinburgh. The name occurs in a charter granted by Da- vid I., to the abbey of Holyrood in 1128. The Scots obtained permanent posses- sion of it about 960. A parliament was heldhere inl215,underAlexanderII.,and regular assemblies after 1456, when the Scottish sovereigns removed from Scone, and made this the residence of the court and seat of government. In 1544, the city was taken and burnt by an English army Tinder the earl of Hertford. It suffered also frequently during the sub- sequent religious contests, which termi- nated in the establishment of Presbyte- rianism in Scotland in 1592. Under Charles I. the peace of the city was dis- turbed by the attempts of Archbishop Laud to restore episcopacy. Sept. 1650, the castle of Edinburgh surrendered to the English, and remained in their pos- session until the restoration of Charles II. At the revolution, this fortress was garrisoned by the partisans of James II. ; but in June, 1689, was surrendered to the forces of William III. In 1736, Edinburgh was the scene of an insurrec- tion which terminated in the lawless execution of Captain Porteus. In 1745, this city was the head- quarters of Charles Edward Stuart, commonly called the Pretender. The castle was, however, held by the troops of George II. After the final defeat of Charles Edward at the battle of CuUoden, the provost was tried on a charge of not having properly de- fended the city, but was acquitted. It has now for nearly a century, enjoyed tranquillity, and has, in consequence, greatly increased in size, wealth, civiliza- tion, and importance. The foundation of a new college was laid, 1789; new Bridewell built 1791; bank of, foundation laid, June 3, 1801, A fire at Edinburgh, 1544 ; great fire also in the Lawn market, 1771 ; another 1795 ; 100 houses destroyed by fire, the Tron church greatly damaged, and the lead on the roof, melting with the heat. 413 EDW poured down in a stream, and injured many, November, 1824. EDMONSBURY, St., monastery, SuflFolk, built, 663 ; enlarged, 1031 ; the arches, near the east gate, built 1148. EDMUND I., Anglo-Saxon king, fifth son of Edward the elder, crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames, 940. He received a wound, of which he bled to death. May 26, 947. EDMUND Ironside, was crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames, April, 1016. Murdered at Oxford, Nov. 30, 1016. ED RED, brother of Edmund I., crowned at Kingston - upon - Thames, Aug. 17, 947. He died in 955. EDSON, Calvin, the living skeleton, died of " tabes mesenterica," or tape- worm, 14 feet long, 1833. EDUCATION, general, in England. In 1818, a select committee of the house of commons was appointed to inquire into the education of the poor, and a circular letter was addressed to the mi- nisters of the respective parishes of Great Britain, requiring returns of the number of schools, endowed and unendowed, and of scholars, both in day and Sunday- schools. Of the children, chiefly of the working-classes in England, that year, 644,282 received daily instruction. Since the date of these returns, the most extraordinary exertions have been used to promote the education of the people. In the great work of teaching the chil- dren of the poor the principles of reli- gion, and the elements of useful know- ledge, all parties and persuasions have united with the most charitable zeal. See Schools. EDWARD THE Confessor, crowned at Winchester, 1042 ; died, Jan. 5, 1066, aged 65. EDWARD THE Elder, was crown- ed at Kingston-upon-Thames, in 901 ; died at Farringdon, in Berkshire, in 924. EDWARD THE Martyr, was crowned by Dunstan, at Kingston-upon- Thames, in 975. Was stabbed, by the instructions of his mother-in-law, as he was drinking in Corfe-castle, in the isle of Pur beck, in Dorsetshire, March 18, 979. EDWARD I. of England, born June 16, 1239 ; succeeded to the crown, Nov. 16, 1272; died at Burgh-upon-the- Sands, in Cumberland, July 7, 1307- EDWARD II. born at Caernarvon. in Wales, April 25, 1284; was the first EDW 414 EGI king of England's eldest son that had the title of prince of Wales, with which he was invested the same year. He as- cended the throne, July 7, 1307; was crowned with his queen, at Westminster, Feb. 26, 1308 ; murdered at Berkeley- castle, Sept. 21. EDWARD III., born at Windsor, Nov. 15, 1312 ; succeeded to the crown, Jan. 13, 1327; crowned at Westminster, Feb. 1, following ; died at Richmond, June 21, 1377. EDWARD IV., born at Rouen, Apl. 29, 1443; was crowned at Westminster, June 28, 1461 ; died of an ague, at Westminster, April 9, 1483. EDWARD v., born Nov. 4, 1470; proclaimed king, at London, April 9, 1483 ; deposed, June 20, following, and with the duke of York, his brother, smothered soon after, by their uncle, who succeeded him. EDWARD VI., born Oct. 12, 1537; crowned Sunday, Feb. 20, 1547; died of a consumption, at Greenwich, July 6, 1553. EDWARDS, Bryan, author of the " History of the West Indies," died 1800. EDWARDS, George, the father of ornithologists, died 1773, aged 81. EDWARDS, Jonathan, a celebrat- ed American divine, born at Windsor, in Connecticut, in 1703, and educated at Yale College, where he took his degree of bachelor of arts, before he was 17. In 1723, he was admitted to the degree of master of arts ; and in the following year, was chosen tutor of the college. In 1726, he resigned his situation, and was ordained pastor of a congregation at Northampton, which he continued to serve with much success, till 1744. His endeavours to check the dissemination of licentious publications, excited such violent disputes and dislikes, as termi- nated his usefulness at Northampton. In 1751, he became Indian missionary, at the town of Stockbridge, in Massa- chusetts, and in 1757, was elected to the presidency of the college of New Jersey. He died of the small-pox, March 23, 1758, in the 55th year of his age. The most important of his works, and that by which he is most known, is his " Careful Inquiry into the modern pre- vailing Notion of that Freedom of Will which is supposed to be essential to Moral Agency," published in 1754. EDWARDS, William, the self- taught architect,, who erected the bridge called Pont-y-Prydd, over the Tave, and which, for the time, with few exceptions, was the largest arch in Europe, died 1789. EDWARDS, WiLLiAM,a remarkable instance of longevity, died at Caereu, near Cardiff, Glamorganshire, in 1668, aged 168. EDWIN THE Great, king of Nor- thumberland, succeeded as eighth mo- narch of England, in 624. He lost his life in a battle, at Hatfield, October 3, 633. EDWY, son of Edward I., was crown- ed at Kingston-upon-Thames, in 955. He died of grief, 959. EEL, Living Electric, (gymnotus electricus,) brought to this country from the Amazon river, 1838; and exhibited at the Gallery of Practical Science, Ade- laide-street, Strand. On Oct. 22, Pro- fessor Faraday, in the presence q( Pro- fessors Daniell, Owen, WheatstoTO, and others, succeeded in obtaining from it the electric spark. The electricity ap- peared to be of the most intense charac- ter, being communicated by simply im- mersing the hands in the vessel of water containing the eel. By oneshock.notonly was the needle of a galvanometer deflected, but chemical action and magnetic induc- tion obtained. Dr. Faraday has sincere- ported to the Royal Society his examina- tion of this gymnotus, and has come to the opinion that its electric power is indentical with common electricity, though more readily developed. EGA LITE', Philip, duke of Orleans, guillotined, 1793. EGBERT. 17th king of the West Saxons, and first sole monarch of the English ; was crowned at Winchester, when, by his edict, he ordered all the south of the island to be called England, 827 ; he died Feb. 4, 837, and was buried at Winchester. See England. EGFRYD, 12th king of the Mercians, became I7th Saxon monarch, July 13, 794; died Dec. 17, following. EGGS. The trade in eggs forms a considerable branch of our commerce with France. The number imported in in 1832 was, 55,651,243. The total number in 1838, from different countries was, 83,745,723. EGGS, hatching by heat. See Ec- caleobion. EGINHART, the most ancient Ger- man historian, flourished in the ninth EGY 415 EGY century; became secretary and son-in- law to Charlemagne, who sent him to Rome in 806, as his agent with Pope Leo III. ; he died in 839, leaving behind him a life of Charlemagne, written in the Latin language, and Annals of France, from the year 741 to 829 : these were inserted by Bouquet, in his collection of French historians. EGINTON, Francis, a British ar- tist, the restorer of painting on glass ; born 1737, died 1805. EGREMONT Castle, Cumberland, built 1070. EGYPT, an ancient kingdom of Africa, said to have commenced about A. c. 2018, under Misraim, the son of Ham. For nearly four centuries, it was govern- ed by petty sovereigns termed hycsos, or shepherd kings, of whom Amases el Thetmoses first gained an ascendency, about A.c. 1600. It first attained pre- eminence under Sesostris, about a. c. 1720. His descendants were ruling in Egypt at the time Jacob and his family settled in the valley of Gessen or Go- shen, east of the Nile. To these the Pharaohs (or kings,) succeeded, 'who ruled for 12 centuries, until Carabyses, king of Persia, subdued the country, A.c. 525. Egypt continued under the Persian yoke until the time of Alexan- der of Macedon, who having conquer- ed Persia, A.c. 322, built the city of of Alexandria. He was succeeded by Ptolemy, the son of Lagos ; 10 kings of that name succeeded each other, till Cleopatra, the sister of the last Ptole- my, ascended the throne about A.c. 51. See Cleopatra. Egypt then became a Roman province, and continued so until the reign of Omar, the second caliph of the suc- cessors of Mahomet, who drove out the Romans, a. d. 640, after it had been 700 years a province : the power of the cahphs declined in the 13th century, and in 1250, the Mamelukes became masters of the government ; and under these despots, the last shadow of great- ness and civilization disappeared. Se- lim, sultan of the Turks, eventually in the years 1516 and 1517, conquered the last Mameluke sultan, Tumanbai, and Egypt became a Turkish province, go- verned by a pacha ; since that time it has been the theatre of frequent wars between the Mamelukes and Turks. 1798. A French expedition under Na- poleon, landed in Egypt, July 2 ; on the 5th, Alexandria was taken, and Rosetta surrendered on the same day. The French, then 30,000 strong, marched towards Cairo ; a decisive engagement was fought on the 23rd, between the French and the Mamelukes, in which the former were victorious ; and Buona- parte entered Cairo, on the 24th. But the battle of Aboukir, in which the French fleet was defeated by the British) under Admiral Nelson, having threatened to cut off the communication with France, and the Porte having declared war against France, the inhabitants of Cairo re- belled, and Napoleon's supplies were cut off. The insurrection, however, was subdued, and Napoleon marched into Syria, took El Arish, Jaffa, and under- took the siege of St. Jean d'Acre, which Sir Sidney Smith, a British officer, com- pelled him to raise. Napoleon sailed from Egypt, Aug. 23, 1799, leaving the army under Gen.Kleber, who was afterwards murdered at Cairo. The French, then under Gen. Belliard, sustained many disasters, but were at last compelled to capitulate, on condition of being transported to France at the ex- pense of England, and reached their na- tive country just three years and six months from the time they had left Tou- lon. From this period perpetual jealousies arose between the Porte and the beys, or Mamelukes ; and the power of the for- mer was not sufficiently strong to subdue the more turbulent of them. Buonaparte found means to influence the grand seignior's councillors, who finally pre- vailed on him to declare his hostility to the British. In consequence of this, an expedition was sent out by the British government ; and in an attack upon Rosetta, a large portion of the British were surrounded and cut off, with the loss of 1000 men, killed, wounded, and prisoners. Mohammed or Mehemet Ali, the cele- brated pacha or viceroy of Egypt, soon af- terwards rose from the obscurity in which he had hitherto been concealed, and under his vigorous, but despotic government, the affairs of Egypt began again to resume a degree of political importance. In 1811, he invited the Mamelukes to Cai- ro, receiving them with great ceremony, and apparent friendship, in the citadel, and at the same moment making dis- positions for intercepting and basely assassinating them on leaving his pre- EGY 416 ELB sence. The same treacherous measures v/ere pursued in the provinces, by order of the pacha, where most of the Mame- lukes were put to death. 1824. Mehemet Ali completed his long projected army, trained after European fashion. These troops composed that formidable expedition to the Morea, in 1825, which was destined for a con- siderable time, to give a new feature to the affairs of Greece. 1832. A quarrel took place between the viceroy of Egypt and the grand seig- nior, which caused an attack on Syria ; the former directed his son, Ibrahim, to press the siege of Acre, which capi- tulated to him. Ibrahim marched against Damascus, defeated the army sent against him, obtained another signal vic- tory over the Turks, and established himself in Caramania. 1833. Terms of peace were proposed on the part of Turkey, which were re- jected by the pacha, Mehemet Ali having in 1834, consolidated his authority in Syria. His Egyptian dominions suffer- ed greatly in 1835, from the ravages of the plague. By the end of February, the deaths in Ale.xandria amounted to 180 or 200 daily. The disease then extended to Cairo, and stretched up the valley of the Nile, sweeping off a great part of the population. In the month of March, the daily deaths in Cairo amounted to between 300 and 400 ; in May, they had increased to nearly 2C00. The town of Fua, situated on the banks of the Nile, and containing a population of 2500 inhabitants, was stated to have lost 1800 of them. The distemper dis- appeared as the year advanced, but its ravages, joined to the long-continued military exertions of the pacha, had left Egypt almost depopulated. 1838. Early in the summer, Mehemet Ali intimated his resolution to pay no more tribute to the Porte, an announce- ment which, as it amounted to an ex- press renunciation of his allegiance, was followed by great military and naval preparations on both sides. The diplo- matic agents of the European powers were, in the meantime, using all their endeavours to prevail upon Mehemet Ali to withdraw his refusal of tribute. 1839. Hostilities were renewed in June, Hafiz Pacha, the Turkish vizier, having, on the night of the 23rd and 24th, fired on the camp of the Egyptians, Ibrahim, on the 25tb, attacked the Turkish army commanded by Hafiz, near Nesby, between Aintab and El-Bir, and totally defeated it, making 10,000 pri- soners, and taking 15,000 guns and 120 cannon. He pursued them on the fol- lowing day beyond the Euphrates. July 16, Mehemet Ali sent a letter to the grand vizier, acknowledging the receipt of a communication informing him of the sultan's death, and of the new sultan's grant of pardon, and stating, that in consequence of the withdrawing of the Turkish army he had recalled his son Ibrahim from the Euphrates ; but, announcing, in reply to the offer of the hereditary possession of Egypt made by the sultan, that he would not be content with anything short of the grant of all the provinces under his government, for himself and heirs, in perpetuity. 1840. The representatives of the four powers, England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, signed with the Turkish envoy a convention, of which the following are the principal dispositions; — The sultan shall offer to the pacha of Egypt the he- reditary possession of Egypt and the pachalick of St. Jean d'Acre for life. If Mehemet Ali does not consent in ten days, the sultan shall offer him Egypt alone. If he still refuses, the four powers engage to force Mehemet into submission. EHRENBREITSTEIN, a fortress in Germany, was taken by the French in 1632, and again in 1688. It was block- aded by the same enemy in 1799, and surrendered after a siege of 20 months. EHRET, George Dion., of Baden- Durlach, a celebrated botanical painter, born 1710, died 1770. EHUD, the Benjamite, judge of Israel, killed Eglon, and so relieved the Israel- ites from their second bondage, in the 80th year of their rest under Othniel, A.c. 1325. EICHORN, Gottfried, author of "A Course of General History," died 1827. ELBA, Isle of, near Leghorn, taken possession of by the English, July 6, 1796. Conferred on Buonaparte as his place of retreat on his relinquishing the throne of France, April 5, 1814. After having been quitted by Buonaparte, taken possession of by the grand duke of Florence, July 30, 1815. ELBURGH, town of Holland, taken possession of by the French, April 1812 ; by the Russians, January 12, 1813. ELD 417 ELE ELD ON, John Scott, Earl of, was born June 4, 1751. In 1766 he was matriculated and admitted a commoner of University College, Oxford, under the tuition of his brother, the late Lord Stowell, then an eminent scholar in that society. He was elected fellow of the University, July 11, 1767 ; proceeded to the degree of bachelor of arts February 20, 1770; and gained the chancellor's prize, " On the Advantages and Disad- vantages of Foreign Travel," in 1771- He proceeded to the degree of M. A., February 1773. 1776. He was called to the bar, and quitted Oxford for the metropolis ; and, in 1781, in the case of the Clithero elec- tion petition, for which he was retained, he laid the foundation of that reputation as a sound lawyer which he maintained to the latest period of his life. In 1783 he was introduced into parliament, upon Lord Weymouth's interest, for the bo- rough of Weobly, for which he continued to sit until 1796. In June 1788 he was appointed solicitor- general, and was knighted — an honour which it appears he was desirous of declining ; but it was insisted upon by his majesty. On the 13th of February, 1793, he was appointed attorney-general, which office he held for six years. During that period his labours were unremitting. Among the most painful duties of his high office may be mentioned the prosecution, in the year 1794, of Thomas Hardy and Mr. Home Tooke, and other defendants, for high treason. 1796. Sir John Scott was returned for Boroughbridge, as the colleague of Sir Francis Burdett. On the death of Sir James Eyre he succeeded him as lord chief justice of the Common Pleas, and on the 18th of July, 1799, was raised to the peerage as Baron Eldon, of Eldon, in the county of Durham. In 1801 he be- came lord high chancellor of England. In the same year he was nominated high steward of the university of Oxford by the duke of Portland, then chancellor of the university. In the year 1830 a law scholarship was founded at Oxford by subscription of many distinguished per- sons, in honour of the earl of Eldon. Lord Eldon resigned the great seal on the 7th of February, I8O6. He was re- appointed April 1, 1807, from which pe- riod he continued in office until 1827, being altogether a period of nearly 25 years. At the coronation of King George IV. the lord chancellor was promoted to the dignities of Viscount Encombe and earl of Eldon, by patent dated July 7, 1821," in which it was expressly stated, by his majesty's special desire, that the said titles were conferred " in consideration of his profound knowledge of the laws of his country, and the distinguished ability and integrity which he had invariably evinced in administering them " in his said office of chancellor, during a period of nineteen years." His lordship finally resigned the seal April 30, 1827, having then kept it for a longer period than any of his predecessors. He died January 13, 1838, in his 87th year. His remains were removed on Monday, January 22, for interment to Kingston, county of Dorset, the parish in which his estates of Encombe is situated, and attended out of town by a train of more than 80 car- riages, including those of two members of the royal family, and other distin- guished personages. ELECTION, the first, of burgesses to sit in parliament, 1265, in the reign of Henry III. ELECTION PETITIONS, an act to amend the jurisdiction for the trial of, 2 and 3 Victoria, c. 38, l7th August, 1839. This act also remodels the system of trial of petitions, and minutely details the proceedings to be adopted in such cases. ELECTIONS, Bribery at. See Bribery. ELECTORS OF Germany, first began 1298. ELECTRICITY, like other branches of science, has arisen from very small beginnings. Thales of ^(Uletus, who flourished a.c. 600, was acquainted with the property which amber possesses of attracting light substances. Theophras- tus, A.c. 300, notices the electrical power of the lincurium or tourmalin. Pliny, who was suffocated in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, A . d .79. also occasionally mentions the attractive property of am- ber ; but all seem to have confined this property to amber, jet, and, perhaps, agate, till the year I6OO, when Dr. Wil- liam Gilbert, a physician of London, pubhshed his treatise " De Magnete," in which a considerable accession was made to the list of electrics. Otto Guericke, the inventor of the air-pump, who died in I666, was the first who constructed any thing like an 3h ELE 418 ELE electrical machine. He poured melted sulphur into a hollow glass globe, and thus, having formed a globe of sulphur, he broke the glass away from it as use- less or detrimental ; little suspecting that the glass itself would have answered his purpose much better than the sulphur. Mr. Hawksbee, in 1709, observed that light is emitted by glass ; he likewise noticed the noise it occasions ; besides a variety of phenomena connected with electrical attraction and repulsion. The discovery that silk and paper are elec- trics, was made in 1729. Mr. Grey, in 1734, suspended pieces of metal on silken lines, and on electri- fying them found that they yielded lu- minous sparks ; this furnished the first hint which afterwards led to the con- struction of metallic conductors. He also discovered on this occasion the cone or pencil of light, such as is now known to issue from an electrified point. Dr. Desaguliers made a number of ex- periments between the years 1738 and 1743; by means of these he discovered, that pure air is an electric. In 1744, the possibility of setting fire to inflam- mable substances by electricity, was evinced by the experiments of Dr. Ludolf. The invention of the Leyden phial took place towards the close of 1745, and the discovery is ascribed by some to M. Cu- r8eus,of Leyden, and by others to M.Von Kleist, dean of the cathedral at Cammin. Lastly, the electrical star and bells were invented in Germany, but by whom we are not informed. Electrical experiments were made by I'Abbe Nollet to determine the effects of electricity on the evaporation of fluids, on solids, and on organised bodies in general. Dr. Franklin prosecuted the same subject in America ; he verified the similarity or rather the identity of elec- tricity and lightning, which had long before been suspected by electricians ; for this purpose, in 1752, he raised a kite, which he had prepared for the pur- pose, and succeeded by means of it in extracting the electrical fire from a thun- der cloud. To Dr. Priestly we are indebted for many original experiments and disco- veries, about 1800. He ascertained the conducting power of charcoal, and of hot glass ; the electricity of fixed and in- flammable air, and of oil ; the diflference between new and old glass, with respect to the diflfusion of electricity over its surface ; the lateral explosion in electrical discharges ; a new method of fixing cir- cular coloured spots on the surfaces of metals; and the most probable diflference between electrics and conductors, &c. During the present century the exten- sive relations which connect electricity with other branches of physical science were discovered, and their importance appreciated. Already have we seen the rise of a new science founded on that peculiar modification of electricity known by the name of galvanism or electro- chemistry, which has arisen as one of the connecting branches between remote divisions of the philosophy of nature. See Galvanism. Still more recently there has been opened to us, in the sub- ject of electro-magnetism, another new province of science, which establishes a natural connexion between two powers hitherto regarded as distinct. See Elec- tro-Ma gnetism. The transactions of the Royal Society, and of the Electrical Society recently established, are full of new and valuable communications. In 1837-1838, Profes- sor Faraday continued his valuable re- searches in electricity. During the Royal Society's season for 1838, on January 11, the reading of the 11th series was concluded. The object of this paper is to establish two general principles relating to the theory of electricity, which appear to be of great importance, first, — that induction is, in all cases, the result of the action of contiguous particles ; and, se- condly, that different insulators have diflferent inductive capacities. The council of the Royal Society awarded the Copley medal of 1837 to M. Becquerel, for his various memoirs on electricity, published in the " Me- moires de I'Academie Royal des Sciences de rinstitute de France;" and particu- larly for those on the production of crys- tals of metallic sulphurets, and of sulphur by the long- continued action of electri- city of very low tension. June 19, 1838, was read before the Electrical Society, by Mr. Crosse, " An account of a series of daily observa- tions made by him, with a sustaining battery, to ascertain the increase or di- minution of the temperature of the at- mosphere, during a part of last winter, and commenced previously to a very severe frost which afterwards took place; also, remarks on the agency of heat in electro-crystallization. The most singu- i ELE 419 ELE lar fact connected with this enquiry is the increase of the power of the battery unrier a diminution of temperature. Mr. Harris, in 1839, communicated to the " Pliilosophical Magazine" a memoir on Lightning Conductors, in which he states his confirmed opinion, after a long and severe examination of the laws of electrical action, and of cases of ships and buildings struck by lightning, that a lightning rod is purely passive ; that it operates simply in carrying off the lightning which falls on it, without any lateral explosion whatever : this opinion Mr. Harris is prepared to sub- stantiate by numerous cases in which ships have been struck by lightning. ELECTKO-MAGNETISM. This new science, sometimes called thermo- electricity, has arisen out of recent che- mical experiments, which establish the intimate connexion subsisting between chemistry and electricity, as developed in the science of galvanism; and also opens to us another new province of science which establishes a natural connexion between electricity and magnetism. The first experiments by Professor Oersted, of Copenhagen, to determine some ana- logies between*magnetism and electri- city, which relations had previously been imperfectly detected by Ritter, were made 1807. The principle was moie completely established by Oersted in 1820. The discovery was followed by subsequent experiments in England, France, and Germany. It 'was afterwards ascertained, both by Sir H. Davy, and M. Arago, that mag- netism may be developed, in steel not previously possessing it, by being placed in the electric current, and may even be excited in the uniting wire itself. Both philosophers ascertained, independently of each other, that the uniting wire, be- coming a magnet, attracts iron filings, and collects sufficient to acquire the di- ameter of a common quill. Various other important facts respecting the com- munication of magnetism are described in the paper of Sir H. Davy, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1821, all tending to establish the con- clusion that magnetism is produced whenever concentrated electricity is passed through space. The electricity of a common machine, it was afterwards ascertained by the Chev. Yelin, when passed along a helix, either in simple electrical sparks, or discharged from a battery, has the effect of rendering an inclined needle magnetic. 1822. Professor Seebeck, of Berlin, discovered that electric currents may be produced by the partial application of heat to a circuit formed of two solid con- ductors. For example, when a semi- circle of bismuth, joined to a semi- circle of antimony, so as to form a ring, is heated at one of the junctions by a lamp, a current of electricity flows through the circuit from the antimony to the bismuth, and such thermo-electric currents produce all the electro-magnetic effects. 1823 to 1833. The science of electro- magnetism relates to the reciprocal ac- tion of electrical and magnetic currents ; but there are other branches of science arising out of this. M. Ampfere, by dis- covering the mutual action of electrical currents on one another, added, a new branch to the subject, to which he gave the name of Electro-dynamics. He es- tablished a theory of electro-magnetism, suggested by the analogy between elec- tro-dynamic cylinders and magnets, founded upon the reciprocal attraction of electric currents, to which all the phe- nomena of magnetism and electro-mag- netism may be reduced, by assuming that the magnetic properties which bodies possess, derive these properties from currents of electricity circulating about every part in one uniform direction. From the law of action and reaction, being equal and contrary, it might be expected that, as electricity powerfully affects magnets so, conversely, magnet- ism ought to produce electrical pheno- mena. By proving this very important fact, from a series of highly interesting and ingenious experiments. Dr. Faraday has added another branch to the science, which he has named Magneto-electricity. The emperor of Russia lately appoint- ed a commission to inquire into the ap- plicability of electro-magnetism as a moving power ; and from an official re- port by this commission, the substance of which is given in the " United Service Journal," 1839, it appeared that Profes- sor Jacobi had succeeded in impelling a vessel by electro-magnetic power. The vessel was of that species of galley which is well known in the Russian navy ; its measurement, 26 feet in length, and 8i in width. On smooth water, it was im- pelled at the rate of more than three feet per second of time, or somewhat above ELL 420 ELL two miles per hour; and the average of a number of experiments was from two to three feet per second. It performed a distance of rather less than five miles along the Neva and the town canals in about two hours and a half. The expe- riments developed much that was un- known on the subject, both of electricity and magnetism, with regard to their practical bearings, and suggested the in- troduction of very considerable improve- ments in the construction of machinery upon a larger scale. An American gentleman, ('Capt. Taylor,) states that he had been equally successful in applying electro-magnetism, as a driving power to machinery on shore. ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. See Galvanism. ELEPHANT, order of knighthood, began in Denmark, 1478. ELEUSINIAN, Mysterioes, insti- tuted by Triptolemus, a. c. 1383; brought to Athens by Eumolpus, 1356. ELEVATION of the Host intro- duced, 1222. ELGIN Marbles, purchased by go- vernment at £35,000, and added to the British Museum, 1815. ELI, the 11th judge of Israel, died at Shiloh, A.c. 1116, aged 98. ELIJAH, prophesied, a.c. 911 ; sup- ported by the widow of Sarepta, 910; taken up into heaven, 896. ELISHA, died a.c. 830, having pro- phesied 60 years. ELIZABETH Castle, Jersey, built 1586. ELIZABETH, queen of England, born Sept. 7, 1533 ; sent prisoner to the Tower, 1554; began to reign, Nov. 17, 1558 ; crowned at Westminster, Jan. 15, 1559; relieved the protestants in the Netherlands with about 200,000 crowns, besides stores, 1569 ; a marriage pro- posed to the queen by the duke of Alen^on, 1571 ; but finally rejected, 1581 ; the Spanish armada destroyed, 1588 ; Essex, the queen's favourite, be- headed, Feb. 25, 1602 ; the queen died at Richmond, March 24, 1603; was buried at Westminster, and was succeeded by the son of Mary, queen of Scots, then, James VI. of Scotland, ELLA, second Saxon monarch, land- ed at Shoreham, in Sussex, in 477. As- sumed the title of king of the south Saxons, in 491, died 499. ELLENBOROUGH, Lord, a distin- guished lawyer, was the son of Dr. Ed- 1 ) of T mund Law, archdeacon and bishop of Carlisle, and was born at Great S;ilkeld, in Cumberland, Nov. 16, 1750. At the age of 12, he had already begun to ex- hibit the promise of early talents, and was removed to the Charter-house, where his father had obtained him a place on the foundation. In 1768, he removed to Peter-house, Cambridge, of which college his father had been appointed master in 1754. At college he distin- guished himself more by his talents than his assiduity. Upon being called to the bar, his success was not brilliant. He, however, obtained some business on the northern circuit, where it is said he ex- ercised an unbounded influence over the juries. In Westminster Hall, be made no very conspicuous figure at the onset of his career, but his advancement was afterwards considerably promoted by Mr. Justice Buller. The most impor- tant business in which Mr. Law was en- gaged, was the trial of Warren Hastings, and in this instance he acquitted himself, as is well known, with great skill, firm- ness, and talent. After the trial his business increased rapidly, and he ob- tained a great access of reputation. At the commencement of tHte French revo- lution, state prosecutions were instituted, and he was in general retained for the crown. In February, 1801, he was ap- pointed to the office of attorney-genersJ ; the late Mr. Perceval being made solici- tor-general at the same time. On March 1, following, he took his seat for the first time in the house of commons ; and in April, 1802, under the influence of the Addington administration, he was raised to the chief-justiceship of the king's bench and to the peerage. 1805. When Lord Grenville present- ed a petition from the Irish catholics, he strenuously opposed the concession of any fresh privileges. Lord Ellenljorough was nominated one of the commissioners to enquire into the conduct of the Prin- cess of Wales, in 1813, and March 22, rose in his place in the house of lords, and complained of slanderous publica- tions lately circulated against the con- duct of individuals employed in situa- tions of the highest trust. In the trials for libel which so particularly distin- guished this period of the administration, a degree of unpopularity attached to the character of his lordship, which when we consider the turbulent spirit of the times, and the arduous duties connected IL(D)]BB IElLILIEMB@m(DU^M, (xn/rr2.6mj/i_ I,oii.don,Tublish.ed byiiioTiiasK-ell/.l/'.'Pacem-or.LpjIiow (&IEIfF.mAIL lEILKSTT. London ^i^JJhshed by Thomas KeHy. 17. Eiternoster B.ow ELL 421 ELY with his office, was almost inevitable. He was at all times subject to those hasty ebullitions of feeling which de- clared the sincerity of his professions, but frequently exposed him to the shafts of calumny or the malevolence of dema- gogues. The advancement of Lord El- lenborough, on the score of rapidity, was unexampled ; and in this particular he proved far more fortunate than either Mansfield, Kenyon, Thurlow, or Eldon. The attorney-generalship, the chief-jus- ticeship, and patent of nobility, were all granted to him in the course of a single year, and by means of his profession he realised an ample fortune. Lord Ellen- borough died in 1818, and was interred Dec. 22, in the Charter-house, by the remains of the founder, Mr. Sutton, who was interred in the reign of Queen Eliza- beth. ELLICHPOOR, city of Hindoostan, was conquered by the Mohamedans, under Allah-ud-Deen, in 1294, after va- rious fortunes, and continued to decay for a lapse of years ; it was at last ad- mitted to the benefit of British protec- tion. In 1820, Futteh Jung Khan, usurped the government, but was obliged ultimately, by the interposition of the British authority, to retire into Aurun- gabad, where he soon after died. ELLIOT, George Augustus, Lord Heathfield, the gallant defender of Gibraltar, was born about 1718. About 1759, he was appointed to the command of the cavalry in the expedition on the coasts of France, with the rank of bri- gadier-general. In 1775, he was ap- pointed to succeed General A'Court as commander-in-chief of the forces in Ire- land. He was appointed to the com- mand of Gibraltar, which was invested in 1779- By a cool and temperate de- meanour, he maintained his situation in the garrison for three years, in which all the powers of Spain were employed against it in vain. [SeeGiBRALTAR.] On his return to England on June 14, 1787, his majesty advanced him to the peer- age, by the title of Lord Heathfield, Baron Gibraltar. His lordship died on July 6, 1790, aged 73. ELLIS, George, author of " Speci- mens of Early English Poetry," died April 10, 1815, ELLISTON, Robert William, the eminent actor, was born April 7, 1774, in Orange Street, Bloomsbury. First appeared at Bath, in the humble part of Tressel, in Richard III., April 21, 1791. In 1793, he appeared a second time at Bath, in the character of Romeo. In 1796, he carried off from that city Miss Rundall, a teacher of dan- cing, and soon after their marriage in London, made his first appearance to a London audience at the Haymarket, June 24. In 1804, when John Kenible quitted Drury Lane, Mr. EUiston was engaged to supply his place ; after the theatre was burnt, when the company performed at the Lyceum, he left it in consequence of some quarrel with Thomas Sheridan. He then took the Circus, and having given it the name of the Surry Theatre, commenced performing some of the best plays of Shakspeare, and some operas. In 1805, he pubhshed "The Venetian Outlaw," a drama in three acts," which he had himself adapted from the French "Abelino, le grand ban- dit." When Drury Lane Theatre was let out on a lease in 1819, he became the lessee, at a yearly rent of £10,200. and so continued until declared a bankrupt in 1826. He died June 7, 1831. ELMINA, or St. George del Mina, town, west Africa, Gold Coast, founded by the Portuguese in 1481. In 1637 it was taken by the Dutch, to whom it was formally ceded by treaty, in 1641. In 1781, the English were repulsed from before the fortress. In 1808, an insur- rection of the inhabitants took place, which did not subsidebeforethe governoi" and many others were slain. During the memorable invasion of the Ashan- tees, the people of Elmina took part with that savage horde. ELMO, St. Malta, surrendered to the royal troops of Naples, July 12, 1799. E L S T R E E, Cambridgeshire, almost entirely destroyed by fire April 3, 1774. ELTHAM, Kent. A royal palace was erected here before 1270, for at this period Henry III. kept his Christmas festivals at Eltham. John of Eltham, younger son of Edward II. was born here. Henry VII. made some improve- ments and James I. paid it the last royal visit in 1612. ELWES, John, the notorious miser, died Nov. 26, 1789. ELY, city, England. A nunnery was founded here by Etheldreda, daughter of Anna, king of the East Angles ; she died abbess,679. In870, the town and nunnery EMI 422 EMP were pillaged by the Danes ; in 970, a benedictine monastery was erected upon the site of the nunnery by Ethelwold, bishop of Winchester, to which Canute the Great became a benefactor. Edward the Confessor was educated here, and Hereward the Saxon found an asylum here from the vengeance of William I. 1109. Ely was erected into a bishop's see, and in 1541, endowed with the fee of the dissolved monastery and other possessions. The cathedral is a venera- ble edifice, the choir was built in 1234. In 1322, the great tower suddenly fell, and to it succeeded the present beautiful octagonal building, completed in 1342. EMANCIPATION of the Catho- lics. See Catholics. EMANUEL College, Cambridge, founded 1584 ; sustained damage by fire estimated at £20,000, Oct. 1811. . EMANUEL Hosi'iTAL, Westmins- ter, instituted 1534. EMBANKMENT of considerable ex- tent, (motion of) at a short distance from Crewkerne, on the road leading to Ilches- ter, carrying vnlh it a number of bushes and several trees of ordinary dimensions, in an erect position, the whole mass moving from the summit of Fairhill to its base, and passing over the hedge which divides the road from the hill, to a distance of about 50 yards, Jan. 4, 1828 E M B D E N, subdued by Hamburg, 1438, made a free port in 1751, and an East India trade with this port was first established, 1769. EMBROIDERERS' Company, Lon- don, incorporated 1591. EMERSON, William, a celebrated mathematician, was born June, 1701, at Hurworth, Durham. His works are very numerous, but are now chiefly su- perseded by other and more popular writers. He died May 20, 1782. EMIGRANTS, French, resident in <3reat Britain, during the troubles occa- sioned by the French revolution, by a list so made from the registers of the Alien Office, February 28, 1800 ; laity 4,153 ; clergy 5,621 : total, 9,774. Law passed for restoring to them such por- tions of their confiscated property as remained in the hands of the govern- ment, or were unsold, September, 1814. EMIGRATION. In 1823, parliament voted £50,000 for the purpose of ena- bling a certain number of men, women, and children, to emigrate to our North American colonies. The number of per- sons who availed themselves, on that occasion, of the encouragement held out by government, amounted in all to 268, and the expense incurred by the country for each person was £22. These per- sons, from being in a state of extreme misery, are now comfortably and pros- perously settled. This first experiment having been successful, it was followed up, in 1825, by the emigration of 2,024 persons, men, women, and children. The general misery which prevailed during the year 1826, increased the claims of emigration upon public notice as a means of relief. March 14, Mr.Wil- mot Horton moved for the appointment of a select committee to inquire into the expediency of encouraging emigration. 1827. This year the committee en- tered on their lal)ours, which have been the means of laying much important in- formation before the public. Full infor- mation has been afforded respect- ing the demand for labour, and the ad- vantages which are offered to the emi- grants in the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, at Prince Edward's Island, at the Cape of Good Hope, in New South Wales, and in Van Diemen's Land. Government invited settlers to the new colony at the Swan River, on the wes- tern coast of New Holland, under cer- tain regulations, as issued from the colo- nial office during 1829. It appears from parliamentary papers that, during 1833, 1834, and 1835, 183,237 voluntary emi- grants left the United Kingdom ; 173.344 being destined for America, and 9,893 for the Australian colonies and the Cape of Good Hope. EMMA, mother of Edward the Con- fessor, accused of incontinency, 1034. Stripped of her possessions, 1043. Sent to Whervvell nunnery, 1051. EMPEDOCLES, a celebrated philo- soj)her, flourished about A.c. 440. His principal work is a poem on the " Na- ture, and Principles of Things." The time and manner of his death was never certainly known. EMPEROR, among the ancient Ro- mans, in its complete sense, was first borne by Julius Csesar ; the title de- scended with the dignity to Octavius Augustus, Tiberius, and Caligula ; and afterwards it became elective. After the fall of the Roman empire, the first that bore it was Charlemagne, who had the ENF 423 ENG title of emperor conferred upon him by Pope Leo III. in 800. In 1723, the czar of Muscovy assumed the title of em- peror of all the Russians, and procured himself to be recognized as such by most of the princes and states of Eu- rope, During the imperial dynasty of France, the power of the emperor of Germany was very much reduced ; at one period it was nearly ej(tinct. Since the peace it has been somewhat restored, under the title of emperor of Austria, but is still so limited as to be httle more than the name. ENAMELLING was practised by the Egyptians. From them it passed to the Greeks, and afterwards to the Romans. The Britons received the art from their conquerors. That the Saxons practised it is certain, from the jewel found at Athelney, in Somersetshire, and now preserved at Oxford. The tomb of Ed- ward the Confessor, in Westminster abbey, constructed in the reign of Henry III., was also ornamented with enamels. During the present century an imitative enamel has been used, and, through the scarcity of real enamel, is now in much demand for clock plates. ENCAUSTIC Painting, was known to the ancients, and is mentioned par- ticularly by Pliny. After having been long lost, it was revived in 1753, by Count Caylus, a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in France. ENCKES' Comet. See Comet. ENCYCLOPEDIA, a term nearly synonymous with Cyclopedia, deno- ting the circle or compass of the arts and sciences. The earliest was published by Mr. Chambers. The first edition of his Cyclopaedia appeared in 1728. See Chambers. About 30 years after, ap- peared the celebrated French Encyclo- paedia, (Dictionnaire Encyclopedique,) by D'Alembert, Diderot, and others. The Encyclopsedia Britannica, and Dr. Rees's Cyclopsedia were commenced in the last century. The Edinburgh En- cyclopaedia, the Encyclopaedia Metro- politana, and various others have been commenced during the present century. The most useful and recent publication of this kind is the " Penny Cyclopsedia," now in the course of publication by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. ENEAS, the Trojan general, died a.c. 1177. ENFIELD. Edward VI. held his court at Enfield manor-house, and Eliza- beth resided there before her accession to the throne. ENFIELD, Rev. William, L.L.D., the author of "Institutes of Natural Philosophy," born 1741, died 1797. ENGLAND. The early part of the history of England is attended by some obscurity. For a chronological account of it in the time of the Britons, see Britain, Ancient. From the date of the Saxon heptarchy, when the. seven kingdoms were united by Egbert, prince of Wessex, in the beginning of the ninth centuiy, the chronology is more to be depended on. 455. The first of the seven kingdoms erected by the Saxons, was Kent, of which Hengist was the first monarch, and contained the county of Kent. This kingdom began 455, ended 823, having continued 368 years. Its first christian king was Ethelbert. 491. The second kingdom they erected was that of the South Saxons, of which Ella was the first king, and contained the counties of Sussex and Surrey. This kingdom began 491, ended 754, having continued 263 years. Its first christian king was Ethelwolf. 519. The third was that of the West Saxons, of which Cerdic was the first king ; he reigned 23 years. It contained the counties of Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wilts, Hants, and Berks. This kingdom began 519, ended 800, having continued 281 years. Its first christian king was Cinigisil. 527. The fourth was that of the East Saxons, of whom Erchewin was the first king. It contained Middlesex, Essex, and part of Hertfordshire. This king- dom began 527, ended 746, having con- tinued 219 years. Its first christian king was Sebert. 547. The fifth was that of Northum- berland. It contained Yorkshire, Dur- ham, Lancashire, Westmoreland, Cum- berland, and Northumberland. This kingdom began 547, ended 810, having continued 263 years. Its first christian king was Edwin. 571. The sixth was that of the East Angles. It contained the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, part of Cambridge, and the Isle of Ely. This kingdom began 571, ended 792, having continued 221 years. Its first christian king was Red- wald. 584. The seventh was the kingdom of ENG 424 ENG Mercia. It contained the counties of Hun- tingdon, Rutland, Lincoln, Northamp- ton, Leicester, Derby, Nottingham, Ox- ford, Chester, Salop, Gloucester, Wor- cester, Stafford, Warwick, Buckingham, Bedford, and Hertford. This kingdom began 584, ended 828, having continued 244 years. Its first christian king was Peada. The Saxons, though they were divided into seven kingdoms, were for the most part subject to one only, who, by way of distinction, was styled the king of the English nation ; those who were more powerful than the rest, giving law to the others, in their several turns. Hengist, first Saxon monarch, landed in the Isle of Thanet, 449 ; and after having surprised Vortigern, and put to death a great number of the Britons, took possession of the best part of his dominions, and laid the foundation of the monarchy. He was born at Augria, in Westphalia, and left behind him two sons and a daughter, having reigned 33 years, died in 488, and was succeeded by Ella. Ella, the second monarch, landed at Shoreham, in Sussex, in 477. He con- tinued five years harassing the natives, before he assumed the title of king of the South Saxons, in 491 ; he governed for six years before the death of Hen- gist, after whom he succeeded as second monarch. He died, 499. Cerdic, the third monarch, overcame the British sovereign, Arthur, near the spot now called Chard, in Hampshire, in the seventh year of the reign of Ella's monarchy, and in 519, began the king- dom of the West Saxons, where he reigned 13 years, when he assumed the monarchy, which he continued the space of 21 years, and dying in 534, left two eons. See Arthur. Kenric, second king of the West Saxons, fourth monarch,"* thel eldest son of Cerdic, immediately after the death of his father, succeeded in his whole dominions. He twice defeated the Britons in the 32nd year of his age. He reigned 26 years, and died, 560. Ceaulin, or Cheveline, the third king of the West Saxons, and fifth mo- narch, succeeded his father in both his dignities, and enlarged his kingdom of the West Saxons ; but treating his sub- jects with contempt, he was by them compelled to abdicate his throne in the 33rd year of his reign, and died in ba- nishment, in 593. Eth ELBERT, fifth king of Kent, and sixth monarch of Britain, began to reign 593. St. Augustin first arrived in his dominions, in 596 ; with his followers were entertained by the king at Canter- bury. This king was the first that caused the laws of the land to be col- lected and tj-anslated into Saxon. He died February 24, 617, the 21st of his Christianity, the 23rd of his monarchy, and the 56th of his reign over Kent, and was buried at Canterbury. Redwald, third king of the East Angles, became the seventh monarch of Britain, 6l6, and in the 24th year of his reign over the East Angles ; who in the second year of his reign had established Edwin on the throne of Northumberland. He died in 624, in the eighth year of his monarchy, and the 31st of his reign over the East Angles. Edwin the GREAT,kingof Northum- berland, succeeded Redwald his father, as eighth monarch of Britain, 624; he was the first christian, and the ninth king of Northumberland. He received baptism April 12, 627, in the 11th year of his reign. He lost his life in a battle, October 4, 633, the sixth of his Chris- tianity, the ninth of his monarchy, and the 47th year of his age. His body was buried at Whitby, in Yorkshire. Oswald, the 10th king of Northum- berland, and the ninth monarch of Bri- tain, succeeded in 634. He was slain at Maserfield, in Shropshire, Aug. 1, 642, in the ninth year of his monarchy, and the 38th of his age. OswY, the 11th king of Northumber- land, became the 10th monarch of Bri- tain, October 13, 643. He totally de- feated Peada, the Mercian, and Ethelred, king of the East Angles, November 6, 655, and reigned in great glory for 33 years. He it was that decided the long controversy for the celebration of Easter. He died February 15, 670. WoLFHERE, sixth king of the Mer- cians, became 11th monarch of Britain in 671; he began to reign in Mercia In 659, and reigned over them 17 years, and was monarch of England four years. He died in 675, and was buried at Peter- borough. Ethelred, the seventh king of Mercia, and the 12th monarch of Bri- tain, succeeded his brother Wolfhere in both dignities in 673. In the beginning ENG 425 ENG of his reign, he desolated great part of Kent, and in 677, destroyed Rochester, and many religious foundations; to atone for which he became a monk in 706, and died abbot of Bradney, in the 30th year of his reign, in 7l6. Kenred, or Cenred, his nephew, the eighth king of Mercia, and 13th monarch, succeeded his uncle in his do- minions in 705, and reigned in peace for four years, and then, following his uncle's example, became a monk. In his reign. Pope Constantine ordained the adoration of images to commeinorate saints. Ceolreo, son of Athelred, ninth king of the Mercians, and the 14th mo- narch, succeeded in 709. He was killed in battle with Ina, king of the West Saxons, in 7l6. Ethelbald I., 10th king of the Mercians, became 15th monarch of Bri- tain in 7 16. 'riie beginning of his reign was debauched, but he reformed on being admonished by Cuthbert, archbishop of Canterbury ; and by way of an atone- ment, built Croyland Abbey, in Lincoln- shire. In the 30th year of his reign, it was enacted that the scriptures should be read in monasteries, and the Lord's prayer and creed taught in the Saxon tongue. In the 40th year of his reign, he was slain by his own subjects, when he was leading his troops against Cuth- red, the West Saxon, at Secondine, three miles from Tamworth, in Warwickshire, and was buried at Repton, in Derbyshire, in 757. Offa, the 11th king of the Mercians, and l6th monarch. He was born lame, deaf, and blind, which continued till he arrived at manhood, when the Mercian nobles received him for their king. He took up arms against Kent, slew their king at Otteford, and conquered that kingdom. He made great havock be- yond the Humber, whence returning triumphant, he went against the West Saxons. He caused a great trench to be dug, from Bristol to Basingwerk in Flintshire, as the boundary of the Bri- tons who harboured in Wales in 774 ; which they endeavoured to destroy, but were repulsed with great loss. He re- pulsed the Danes, and procured the canonization of St. Alban. He died at Offley, June 29, 794. Egfryd, the 12th king of the Mer- cians, and 17th monarch of Britain, suc- ceeded his father, in both dignities. July 13, 794; died Dec. 17, following, and was buried in the abbey church of St. Alban's. Cenole, or Renwolfb, 13th king of of the Mercians, and 18th monarch, suc- ceeded Egfryd in 795. He was an ex- ample of piety, and impartially adminis- tered justice. He conquered Kent, gave that kingdom to Cuthred, and kept their king, Pren, captive in Mercia. He built Winchcomb monastery in Glou- cestershire. He died in 819, in the 22nd year of his reign, and was buried at Winchcomb. Egbert, the I7th king of the West Saxons, and 19th, but first sole monarch of the English, began his reign over the West Saxons in 800. The Cornish and Welsh associated against him, which provoked him to enact a law, command- ing no Briton to presume to pass Otfa's ditch, and immediate death to his ene- mies that durst set foot upon English ground. He took Chester, and caused their -broken image of Cadwallo to be thrown down from the western gate of London. He conquered Mercia, and laid the foundation of the sole monarchy. His success was so great, in a war under- taken in 809, that in one campaign he reduced all Cornwall to his obedience. He changed the name of Britain to that of England. The Danes landed several times during the early part of the history of England, for an account of which see Danes. 827. About this year, Egbert brought most of the other Saxon princes under his government, and became the first sole monarch of this kingdom. In 833, the Danes landed Avith great force, at Charmouth, in Dorset, about this year, and maintained their ground against king Egbert. In 835, Egbert engaged themin a second battle, and forced them to quit the island. 838. Egbert having reigned kingof the West Saxons 36 years and upwards, 10 of which he was sole monarch of Eng- land, died, and was buried at Winches- ter, February 4. He left two sons and a daughter. Elthelwolf, the eldest son of Eg- bert, succeeded his father. He is said to have been a monk and bishop of Win* Chester, and absolved from his vows by Pope Gregory IV. 840. This year is remarkable for the entire destruction of the Picts, by the Scots, their neighbours ; and it was 3 I ENG 426 ENG chiefly owing to this event that the Scots look upon Keneth II. as one of the founders of that kingdom. 841. Ethelwolf resigned to his natural son, Atlielstan, the kingdom of Kent, Essex, Sussex, and Surry, with the title of king of Kent ; reserving to him- self the sovereignty of all England, with the kingdom of Wessex. Ethelred, who ruled in Northumberland , was expelled, but three years afterwards was rein- stated. 853. Ethelwolf, with the consent of the tributary kings and his great council, granted the tithes of all England to the church ; and carried his son, Alfred, along with him to Rome (854) where he rebuilt the Enghsh college, extending the gift of Peterpence over all his dominions, for the better support of the students there. He obliged himself also to send to Rome annually 300 marks, 200 of which were to purchase wax tapers for the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul, and the remaining hundred to be at the pope's disposal. 857. Ethelwolf died Jan. 13, and was buried at Steining in Sussex, having reigned 20 years. Eth ELBALD succccded his father. He reigned about two years and a half, and left his whole kingdom to his brother Ethelbert. He died Dec. 20, 860, and was buried first at Sherborne in Dorset- shire, but removed to Salisbury. Ethelbert succeeded his brother in 860, both by his father's and his bro- ther's appointment. He was crowned Jan. 861. In this reign the Danes re- newed their invasions, and as they had so long kept from hence, there were no preparations to repulse their attacks. Ethelbert died in 866, having reigned six years ; he was buried at Sherborne. Elhej.red I., third son of Ethelwolf, succeeded to the crown, in whose reign the Danes committed great ravages through the whole kingdom. He had nine set battles with the Danes in one year, and was wounded between Abing- don and Wallingford, in Berkshire, which occasioned his death, April 27,872. Alfred, fourth son of Ethelwolf, succeeded his brother in the 22nd year of his age, 872, was crowned at Win- chester, and is distinguished by the title of Alfred the Great. He died at Far- ringdon, in Berkshire, Oct. 28, 900, in the 24th year of his reign, and was buried at Winchester. See Alfred. Edv^tard the Elder, eldest son of King Alfred, succeeded his father, 900, and was crowned at Kingston upon Thames. In the beginning of his reign Ethelwold, the son of Ethelred, his father's eldest brother, laid claim to the crown ; but being overpowered he fled to the Danes, who acknowledged him for king of England, and fought several battles with Edward on his behalf. 925. Edward died in the 24th year of his reign, at Farringdon, in Berkshire, and was buried near his father. He built and repaired several castles and towns, viz. in 918 he built two castles at Buckingham, one on each side the Ouse ; in 919 he built one at Bedford on the south of the river ; in 920, he re- paired and fortified Maiden in Essex ; in 921, he did the same to Towcester, in Northamptonshire, Wigmore, in Here- fordshire, Colchester, in Essex, and Hun- tingdon; in 922, he built a castle at Stamford in Lincolnshire ; in 923, he re- paired Thelwall, in Cheshire, and Man- chester ; in 924, he built the town of Nottingham, on the north side of the Trent, and also a castle near Bakewell in Derbyshire. Athelstan succeeded, being Ed- ward's eldest son, and was crowned at Kingston upon Thames, in 925, by Athelm, archbishop of Canterbury. He defeated the united forces of Danes and Scots, and made the princes of Wales tributary to him. Soon after, on their making submission, he restored them to their estates. He died at Gloucester, without issue, Oct. 17, 941, and was buried at Malmsbury. See Athel- stan. Edmund I. the fifth son of Edward, and brother and heir to Athelstan, suc- ceeded to the crown, 941, being about 18 years of age, and was crowned at' Kingston. In 945, he gave Cumberland and Westmoreland to Malcolm, king of the Scots, for his assistance against the Danes. In 946, Edmund made the first law, that whoever robbed or stole any- thing, should be put to death. He was killed in 948, in the seventh year of his reign, by one Leolf,agreat robber,May 26, whom he had banished. He was buried at Glastonbury, where Dunstan was abbot. Edred, the sixth son of Edward, succeeded his brother Edmund, and was crowned at Kingston, 948, although Ed- mund left two sons, Edwin and Edgar, infants. In 949, he founded the bishop's ENG see at St. Germain's, afterwards removed to Crediton, and from thence to Exeter. In 951, Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury, gained high credit with the king, who submitted even to receive discipline from his hands. Edred rebuilt Glastonbury abbey, on which he laid out vast sums. He permitted Dunstan to introduce the monks into the benefices, and they proclaimed Dunstan's sanctity. He was the first who was styled king of Great Britain: he died of a quinsy, Nov. 23. 955, in the seventh year of his reign, and was buried in the old monastery at Winchester, He had issue two sons named Edfrid and Bedfrid. Edwy, the eldest son of King Ed- mund, succeeded his uncle in 955, being about 14 years of age. He banished Dunstan, and was very severe with the monks. He was excommunicated by Archbishop Odo, and his queen used in a most barbarous manner by the clergy. In 956, the monks excited a rebellion, and the king's brother Edgar headed the malecontents. In 955 Prince Edgar seized on Northumberland and Mercia, which Edwy resigned to him, and he was crowned king. He reigned about four years, died with grief, and was buried in the new monastery at Winches- ter. Edgar, surnamed the Peaceable, bro- ther and heir of Edwy, succeeded to the crown, 959, being about 16 years of age ; he was crowned at Kingston, and again at Bath, in 973. He increased the royal navy to 360 ships, maintained the domi- nion of the narrow seas, and reigned in greater splendour than any of his prede- cessors : he Huilt Ramsey abbey, and 47 other monasteries in different parts of the kingdom. In 960 he made severe laws to punish corrupt magistrates, but his attachment to the monks contributed to his great fame. Soon after he came to the crown, he recalled Dunstan, whom he made archbishop of Canterbury, and bishop of Worcester. In 969 Edgar or- dered the isle of Thanet to be laid waste for insulting his laws. In 975 he died in the 32nd year of his age, and the I7th of his reign, and was buried in the abbey of Glastonbury. Edward, surnamed the Martyr, eldest son of King Edgar, succeeded his fatlTer, 975, being but 12 years of age; he was crowned by Dunstan at Kingston upon Thames. In this reign the con- troversies between the regular and the 427 ENG secular clergy ran high ; the laity took part with the seculars (976), dispossess- ed the monks, and brought in the secu- lar priests and their wives, by force of arms. In 979 King Edward was murder- ed (May 18,) near Corfe Castle, by his step-mother, Queen Elfrida, to make room for her son. Tliis prince had little more than the name of king for about three years and a half. For his inno- cence and supposed miracles, after his death, he obtained the surname of Mar- tyr. He was buried first at Warham, and afterwards removed to Shaftsbuiy. Ethelbed II., half l)rother to Ed- ward, succeeded, and was crowned at Kingston, April 14th, 979, by thefamous. Dunstan, then archbishop of Canterbury. In 993 the Danes invaded the kingdom, but were restrained from further mischief by Ethelred paying them £10,000 to desist and depart ; notwithstanding they then departed, so great an emolu- ment excited them to commence hostili- ties soon after, and they made frequent invasions in 993, 995, 996, 998, and 999, receiving at one payment, about £30,000, raised by a land-tax called Danegelt, es- tablished in 991. The Danes grew so imperious as to acquire the title of Lord Danes, which induced Ethelred to order a general massacre of them, Nov. 13, 1002, which began at Welwin in Hert- fordshire. This act exasperated the Danes, and excited them to revenge ; for which pur- pose Sweyn landed on the coast of De- von, in 1003, and on the coast of Nor- folk the year following, whenhe destroyed the cityof Norwich, and the town of Thet- ford; nor did he quit the kingdom till Ethelred had paid him £36,000, which he, the year following, demanded as an an- nual tribute. In the spring of 1008, they subdued great part of the kingdom, pillaging wherever they went. To stop their progress, it was agreed, in 1012, to pay them £48,000 to quit the kingdom. Soon after, under Sweyn, they entered the Humber, threatening desolation to the whole kingdom, which so intimidated- the unhappy Ethelred, that he retired to the. isle of Wight, and sent his sons, with their mother, Emma, into Norman- dy, to her brother, and Sweyn took pos- session, in 1013, of the whole kingdom. Sweyn was proclaimed king of Eng- land, and no person disputed his title. The first act of sovereignty he exercised was laying on the people an insupport- ENG 428 ENG able tax; whicJ^ however, he did not see enforced, as he died a few weeks after. Sweyn was killed at Thetford in Norfolk, in 1014, and was buried at York. Canute, son of Sweyn, was pro- claimed in March, and endeavovxred by several acts of munificence, to gain the affections of his English subjects, but without success. 103 4. Ethelred II., returned at the invitation of his subjects, and Canute left England. Ethelred's avarice and cruelty soon began to show itself, by his exacting large sums from his subjects, and two Danish lords were sacrificed for their estates. Canute returned with a fleet of 200 sail, and landed at Sandwich, which occasioned Ethelred to retire to the north ; but by evading a battle with the Danes, he lost the affections of his subjects, and retiring to London, expired, after a troublesome reign of 37 years, and was buried at St. Paul's, April 24, 1016. Edmund II., surnamed Ironside, the third, but eldest son living, of Ethel- red, was, upon the death of his father, recognised as king, 1016, by the city of London, and one part of the nation, while the other part acknowledged Ca- nute for their king. Edmund was crown- ed at Kingston. Several battles were fought between Edmund and Canute, with various success ; at last they agreed to divide the kingdom between them ; and after reigning nine months, Edmund was barbarously murdered by Duke Edrick, and buried at Glastonbury. "With him fell the glory of the English Saxons. Canute, upon the death of Edmund, was recognised as king of all England, and crowned at London, 1017. See Ca- nute. After his death, Nov. 12, 1036, a con- tention arose about the succession, be- tween his three sons. At length Sweyn succeeded his father in Norway, Harold ascended the throne of England, and Hardicanute reigned in Denmark. Harold I , surnamed Barefoot, was proclaimed king of Mercia, 1036, by one party, and his brother, Hardicanute, who was then in Denmark, was by his friends, elected and proclaimed king of Wessex ; but his absence gave Harold an opportunity to have that part deliver- ed up to him, and he was afterwards crowned at Oxford as king of England. Parold died at Oxford, May 18, 1039, and was buried at AVinchester, having no wife or child. Hardicanute, the third son of Ca- nute, and king of Denmark, succeeded his brother, Harold, 1039, being invited by the English to take possession of the throne. He arrived at Sandwich, June 13, and was crowned at London. 1 040. An insurrection and open rebel- lion in Wales, but suppressed, and a law enacted, by which every Welshman who passed Offa's dyke, without permission, was to lose his right hand. Hardicanute died suddenly at Lambeth, June 8, 1041, at the nuptial feast of a Danish lord, which he honoured with his pre- sence, having reigned but two years, and was buried at Winchester. Edward the Confessor, seventh son of Ethelred, succeeded to the crown, by the donation of Hardicanute, and the interest of Earl Godwin and others. In 1051, William the Bastard, duke of Normandy, visited Edward, who showed him every mark of esteem, in grateful return for the favours he had received from him and the duke, his father, in Normandy, during his residence there, and at the same time Edward gave him a promise, that the crown of England should descend to him. An invasion of the Irish and Welsh, who defeated the troops sent against them. Edward caused the Saxon laws and customs to be written in Latin, and collected them into a body, which, from thence, were called the laws of Edward the Confessor, and caused the original Doomsday Book to be made. Having been educated in Normandy, he prefer- red the Normans to the highest posts in church and state, introducing the French language and customs. The king, a little before his death, declared the duke of Normandy, his cousin by the mother's side, his successor ; and this was said to have been done with the consent of the English nobility. King Edward died Jan. 5, 1066, and was buried at West- minster. Harold II., second son of Godwin, earl of Kent, a powerful and popular nobleman, by the assistance of the clergy his friends, seized the crown, and was crowned at Oxford, 1066. September 25, an invasion of England in different pajts; by Tosti, Harold's brother, in* the southern parts ; and by Harfager, of Nor- way, in Yorkshire. Harold met them near Stanford-bridge, since called Bat- ENG 429 ENG tie-bridge, where the forces of Harold were victorious, which is one of the greatest victories recorded in history. William, duke of Normandy, made a descent upon the coast of Sussex, Sep- tember 29, with a very fine army, in order to make good his claim to the crown. He came to an engagement with Harold, October 14, who was killed upon the spot, and his army entirely defeated at Hastings. He was buried at Wal- tham abbey, Essex. William I., usually termed the Con- queror, seventh duke of Normandy, na- tural son of Robert, the sixth duke of Normandy, claimed the crown of Eng- land, as tixe gift of the late king Edward, surnamed the Confessor, 1066. After the battle of Hastings, William retired to Romney, October 15, and then to Dover, which he besieged and took, and strengthened the fortifications ; after which he marched to London, and in his way was met by the deputies from Kent, who came to make their submis- sion and demand the preservation of their ancient privileges. He arrived near London, but found the inhabitants in- clined to resist him, which obliged him to post himself at Wallingford, and from thence he sent out detachments to cut off all supplies of provisions from the country to London, and his forces wasted the counties of Sussex, Kent, Surrey, Hapipshire, Middlesex, and Hertford- shire, quite to Berkhamstead, which obliged the Londoners to submit to him. 1067. William committed the care of England to his half-brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and William Fitz Osborne, lately created earl of Hereford, and re- turned to Normandy. In the mean time England was oppressed by his lieutenants, which occasioned several rebellions. De- cember 6, William returned to England and prevented a revolt. He re-esta- blished the tax of Danegelt, September 3, 1068. 1069. King William distributed the lands of England among the Normans ; several insurrections occasioned by it in the north of England this year, when 7,000 of William's forces were slain. The Scots, in behalf of Edgar Athehng, advanced as far as York, where they slew 3,000 Normans, but were defeated by King William. 1072. King William marched against Scotland; Malcolm king of Scotland, came to a treaty with him, and consented to take an oath of fealty, and do homage to King William; and all offenders on both sides were pardoned. 1075. From this time the English enjoyed scarcely any lands or houses, but what they held of the Norman lords upon their own terms. 1080. The king began his general survey of England, called Doomsday- book, in imitation of the Roll of Winton, made by order of King Alfred. He died Sept 9, 1087, in the 6 1st year of his age, and the 21st year of his reign, at Her- mentrude, near Rouen, and was buried at Caen, in Normandy, in a monastery of which he was the founder. William H., surnamed Rufus, the second surviving son of William L, suc- ceeded to the crown of England, by the appointment of his father, 1087. In 1088, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and earl of Kent, and several of the nobility, rose in arms against him, in favour of his eldest brother Robert, but they were subdued. 1092. Malcolm, king of Scotland, repaired to William, in person, to require a redress of grievances, and was treated by William with contempt, which made him return to Scotland in indignation, and induced him to raise an army. He was killed at the siege of Alnwick, by a spear being thrust into his eye by the earl of Northumberland, who acquired the surname of Percy. At the same time fell Malcolm's sons, and, three days after, his queen Margaret died of grief. 1093. William passed over to Nor- mandy with a powerful army ; he soon after sent to England for a reinforcement, and was furnished with £10,000, a con- siderable sum in those days, with which he bribed the king of France to his interest, and soon after returned to England to suppress an insurrection in Wales. 1100. The king, hunting in New Forest, was killed by an arrow shot at a stfig by his bow-bearer. Sir Walter Tyr- rel, a Norman knight, in the 44th year of his age, and the 13th of his reign. He was buried in St. Swithin's at Win- chester, and left neither wife or issue. Henry L, surnamed Beauclerk, youngest son of William L, upon the death of his brother Rufus, repaired to Winchester, seized the royal treasure, and procured himself to be recognised king of England, in 1100. August 5, he was crowned at Westminster, by E N G 430 Maurice, bishop of London. November 11, he married Matilda, the daughter of Malcolm, king of Scots, by Margaret his wife, sister to Edgar Atheling, and daughter of Edward, son of Edward Ironside. 1101. Rol)ert, duke of Normandy, landed at Portsmouth, and hid claim to the crown. It was afterwards agreed by treaty that Henry should hold the crown for life, paying Robert 3,000 marks an- nually; that Robert should reign in Nor- mandy, and that the survivor should succeed to both kingdom and duchy. In 1103, Robert visited England, and gave up his pension, of which he soon re- pented, and retired to Normandy in dis- gust. In 1105, King Henry made war upon his brother Robert, and went in person against him. In 1106, he took him prisoner, and reduced all Normandy to his obedience. In 1114, Henry sup- pressed a disturbance on the borders of Wales, and soon after went again into Normandy, and got his son William re- cognised as his successor in his Norman dominions. 1134. Duke Robert, the king's eldest brother, died at Cardiff castle, in Wales, having being a prisoner 28 years, and was buried at Gloucester. In 1135, the Welsh made incursions and committed ravages. December 2, the king having nominated his only daughter Matilda or Maude, his successor, died in Normandy, of a surfeit with lampreys, in the 68th year of his age, and 36th of his reign. He was buried at Reading. His rightful heir was Matilda, above mentioned, first married to the emperor, Henry IV. Stephen, earl of Bologne and Mor- taign, the third son of Stephen, earl of Blois, by Adela, the fourth daughter of William I., taking advantage of the Empress Matilda's absence, usurped the crown, by the assistance of his brother Henry, then bishop of Winchester. He was crowned at Westminster, Dec. 26, by the archbishop of Canterbury, and and received the homage and oaths of the nobiUty. In 1138, a conspiracy was formed against the king in behalf of the Empress Matilda. The king of Scotland invaded England, obliged Stephen to re- turn to England, and the battle of the Standard was fought at Northallerton, where the Scots were defeated, August 22 ; soon after which Stephen was at- tacked with a lethargy, which threatened his life. The Empress Matilda arrived ENG in England in 1139; she landed at Arundel, in September. A general revolt in favour of Matilda; the earl of Glou- cester headed the revolters. 1141. February 1, a battle was fought between the forces of Stephen and Ma- tilda, when Stephen's were worsted at Lincoln, and himself taken prisoner, de- livered to Matilda, who committed him to Gloucester gaol. April 7, Matilda was declared queen, in a national synod, and they took oaths of allegiance to her. In 1142, the empress was besieged in Oxford, and made her escape from thence in disguise to Abingdon. In 1149, Henry, son of the empress, arrived in England, and endeavoured to reco^'er his right. In 1153, a peace was con- cluded between Stephen and Henry, wherein it was agreed, that Stephen should enjoy the crown during his life, and Henry should succeed him ; and that the castles built by Stephen's per- mission, should be all demolished, to the amount of 1100. Stephen died at Dover, October 25, 1154, in the 50th year of his age, and the 19th of his reign, and was buried at Feversham abbey, in Kent. Henry II., surnamed Plantagenet, eldest son and heir of Matilda, the em- press, the only surviving legitimate issue of Henry I., succeeded to the crown without opposition, 1154. December 17, King Henry was crowned at Westmin- ster, by Theobald, archbishop of Canter- bury. He resumed the grants of the crown lands and rents made by King Stephen. He made resumptions likewise in Normandy. He demolished the cas- tles built by the nobles. In 1156, the king called an assembly (or parliament) of the great men at Wallingford, and made them swear to the succession of his sons WiUiam and Henr}^ and con- firmed the great charter. Thomas k Becket, archdeacon of Canterbury, was made lord chancellor, and governor to the prince. 1164. Several statutes made at Cla- rendon, to retrench the power of the church, which were subscribed by the archbishops and bishops. The pope re- fused to confirm the laws made at Cla- rendon by his bull ; Becket took part with the pope against the king, was im- peached, tried, convicted, and fined. See Becket. 1 170. The king caused his son Henry to be crowned, and William, king of Scots, and his nobility to swear allegiance ENG 431 ENG and fealty to him. The young king's coronation, without his princess, who was daughter of the French kinfg, gave disgust to the French court, and occa- sioned a short war. In 1181, Henry debauched his son Richard's intended princess, which gave great umbrage to his son ; to avoid whose resentment, he endeavoured to embroil him in a quarrel with his brother Henry, but it proved ineffectual, and cemented them the stronger ; they formed a design of re- venge, but were prevented by young Henry's death, 1183. 1185. The king's son Richard re- belled against him again, and was en- couraged by the king of France. In 1186, Henry threatened to disinherit his his son Richard for his turbulent con- duct, which occasioned his submission. In 1187, Richard and John, the king's sons, in conjunction with the king of France, harassed Henry. In 1189, Henry, deserted by his French subjects, was every where defeated, and obliged to submit to hard terms. July 6, King Henry died in Normandj"-, with grief, uttering imprecations against his sons, which the bishops present could not persuade him to revoke, in the 56th year of his age, and the 35th of his reign, and was Ijuried at Fonteverard, in France. Richard I., sumamed CoeurdeLion, the third, but eldest surviving son of Henry II., ascended the throne, 1 ISO- He did homage to the king of France, and was crowned duke of Normandy at Rouen, July 20. Richard returned to England, and landed at Portsmouth, August 12, and from thence went to Winchester, August 15, where he took account of his father's treasures, from whence he returned to Westminster. Sept. 3, he was crowned at Westmins- ter. The same year. King Richard and Philip the French king, engaged in the holy war ; to defray the expenses of which, Richard sold almost all the crown lands. He appointed Archbishop Long- champ, and the bishop of Durham, regents of the kingdom, and made an alliance with the king of Scotland. 1190. December 11, Richard era- harked from Dover for Calais with all his troops, and joined Philip of France at Vezelai; they marched to Lyons, their army consisting of above 100,000 men, and there separated. Richard went to Marseilles. August 7, he sailed from thence with a large fleet to Messina, but was dispersed by a storm. Richard seized a castle near Messina, but was repulsed. 1191. The regents in England disa- greed, and Longchamp assumed the whole management, which occasioned his being tried, condemned, and impri- soned by Prince John, who also ejected him out of his regency. The pppe es- pousing Longchamp's cause, as he was archbishop of Canterbury, ordered John to be excommunicated, but the English clergy refused to obey the orders. Sept. 3. Richard obtained a great victory over Saladin, and repaired the cities that had been dismantled, viz. Ascalon, Joppa, and Csesarea. The kings of England and France look the city of Acre. 1192. June, — the two kings fell out, on which the French king returned home. Sept. 25. King Richard made a truce with Saladin, and left the holy land. On Oct. 8, he embarked for England, and was shipwrecked near Aquiieia, but taking the road to Vienna, he was seized by the duke of Austria ; who sent him prisoner to the emperor. 1 1 94 Richardwas released Feb . 4.her'e turned to England March 29, and landed at Sandwich, after an absence of four years. Soon after his arrival, he reduc- ed his brother's party, and was crowned again at Westminster ; the king of Scot- land assisted at the ceremony, and car- ried the sword of state before, the king. Richard embarked for France in com- pany with the queen's mother. May 12, with a fleet of 100 ships, 1197. King Richard obtained a great victory over the French. In 1198 he was wounded with a poisoned arrow, at the siege of Chalons, of which wound he died, April 6, 1199, in the 41st year of his age, and 10th year of his reign. John, the sixth and youngest son of Henry II. succeeded to the crown, April 6, 1199, by the appointment of his brother Richard, (though Arthur, the son of Jeff'ery, King Henry's fourth son was then living) and was crowned at Westminster in great state. May 2/. In 1200, the French king set up Prince Arthur, against King John, but a treaty of peace was concluded between them. Oct. 8 King John was crowned a second time, with his Queen Isabella, at West- minster. In 1201, March 25, the kingwas crowned a third time at Canterbury. The barons refused to attend the king ENG 432 ENG in the wars abroad. A war commenced against France. 1202. April 14. King John was crown- ed a four til time at Canterbury. Aug. 1, King John obtained a great victory, and took his nephew. Prince Arthur, prisoner and his sister Eleanor. Prince Arthur soon after died in prison, said to have been stabbed by the king's own hand. 1205. King John levied a heavy tax upon the English barons, for deserting his service in Normandy. Upon the death of Archbishop Hubert, the monks of Canterbury elected without the king's leave, Reginald, their sub-prior, for their bishop, bat afterwards at the instance of the king, chose John Gray, bishop of Norwich, for their archbishop. In 1207, the pope rejected both archbishops and obliged the monks to choose Cardinal Stephen Langton ; whereupon King John drove the monks of Canterbury out of England, and confiscated their goods. 1208. The pope placed the kingdom under an interdict. The king confiscat- ed the lands and goods of all the clergy that obeyed the interdict, and banished the bishops. In 1209, the pope excom- municated the king. In 1211, absolved the king's subjects from their allegiance to him. In 1212, the pope proceeded to depose King John, and gave his king- dom to the French king. In 1213, the French king preparing to invade Eng- land, King John was compelled to sub- mit to the pope's terms. The king re- signed his dominions to the pope, and submitted to hold his kingdom as tribu- tary to him, at the yearly rent of 1000 marks, with absolution. The bishops and barons entered into a confederacy against the king. In 1214, July 2, the interdict released, after it had continued above six years. 1215. The barons made war upon the king. He marched against the barons, and laid siege to Rochester, which he subdued. The city of London, and all concerned against the king, were excom- municated by the pope's second bull. The barons became masters of London, and besieged the king in the Tower, who was obliged to yield to them, and con- firm their charter of privileges called Magna Charta, and the charter of forests, in Runnemede, between Staines and Windsor. See Magna Charta. The king procured the pope to make the great charter void, aud to join with him in his wars against the barons ; when the pope interdicted the barons and their adherents. John, in dusgust, retired to the Isle of Wight, and his troops ravag- ed the kingdom. In 1216, the barons in- vited over Louis, the Dauphin of France, to their assistance who had great suc- cess against the king's troops. The ba- rons did homage, and swore fealty to Louis, as king of England. Oct. 19, King John died (some say poisoned by a monk) at the abbey of Swineshead, in Lincolnshire, in the 51st year of his age, and the 18th year of his reign, and was buried at Worcester. Henry III. the eldest son of King John and Queen Isabel, at nine years of age, succeeded his father on the throne, in 1216. He did homage to the pope for the kingdoms of England and Ireland, and swore to pay the annual tribute of 1000 marks to the Roman see. WiUiam Marshal, earl of Pembroke, summoned the nobility to attend him at Gloucester, and presented the young king to them, who was crowned there, Oct. 28. In 1217, Henry made his pubhc entry into Lon don, where he swore to maintain the peo- ple in their ancient privileges. In 1227, King Henry declared himself of age, and cancelled the great charter, and the charter of the forest, which he had for- merly confirmed ; which occasioned a conspiracy against him. 1242. An unsuccessful war carried on in France. In 1243, a five years' truce agreed on between England and France. The king returned to England. In 1253, the king departed for France with a fine army, and appointed the queen and his brother Richard co-regents. The charges of his expedition amounted to £2,700,000. In the war he recovered what he had previously lost. Dec. 29, Henry arrived in England at Dover, and the next day made his entry into Lon- don, and extorted a large sum of money from the city. In May, 1254, he mar- ried his son. Prince Edward, to Eleanor, the king of Castile's sister, and settled Ireland, Gascony, and Wales upon them. 1258. The barons conspired against the king, and compelled him at a parlia- ment at Oxford, to delegate his royal power to 24 persons, 12 to be chosen by himself, and the rest by the peers, re- serving only to the king the chief place in all public assemblies, and to swear the expulsion of foreigners from the kingdom. This was the first meeting ENG 433 ENG where representatives of the commons were present. In 1259, the king resigned his right in Normandy and Anjouto the French king for £3000. 1262. The war hegan between the king and his barons. The cinque ports declared in favour of the barons, which caused the king to promise compliance. Aug. 5, Henry, during this calm, went to Bourdeaux, where he fell ill of a quartan ague. The barons again imited, and the king returned to England, to whom they j)resented an address, re- quiring him to conform to his agreement, which he resented, and returned a haughty answer. Sept. 7, the earl of Lei- cester, was chosen general of the barons' forces, who determined to force the king to a compliance. The barons became possessed of Gloucester, Hereford, Bridgenorth, Worcester, &c., and the Londoners declared against the king. A truce was agreed upon, and peace con- cluded between the king and the barons, but it did not restore tranquillity to the nation ; for, as the king was forced to it, he soon broke it, by endeavouring to surprise Dover castle. 1264. Jan. 23. The case between the king and his barons was referred to the French king, who determined in favour of the king, Feb. 3, but the barons re- fused to obey his award, upon which the war was renewed. April 3, the king seized Northampton. Henry, attended by Prince Edward, having left England, to meet Louis, king of France, at Amiens, returned to England, and called a parliament at Oxford ; but the barons recommenced hostilities the same day, when the king gained several advantages, and marched to London, but was re- fused any assistance. Hence he went to Lewes in Sussex, where Montford, earl of Leicester, presented him a respectful petition, which he rejected with con- tempt, and the barons renounced their fealty, May 12. May 14, the earl of Leicester, and the barons, defeated the king's forces, and took Henry, the king of the Romans, and Prince Edward, af- terwards Edward L, prisoners; 5000 men were slain. 1264. Earl Montford called a parlia- ment at Winchester, in the king's name, which was the first, wherein two knights for each county, and two burgesses for each borough, were summoned, and was the origin of the house of commons. In 1265, Jan. 28, a parliament was summoned to consider of the releasing of Prince Edward, when the })rince was ordered to be delivered to the king, who continued still a prisoner. The earl of Gloucester declared openly against Montford, earl of Leicester. Prince Edward made his escape, and joined the earl of Glouces- ter's party, which defeated Montford at Evesham, in Worcestershire, August 4, who was killed with his eldest son upon the spot, and King Henry was released. The confederate barons were greatly per- secuted, and their estates confiscated; and London was severely chastised, and obliged to pay 20,000 marks. 1266. The barons rose again, but were reduced. In 1267', Jan. 25, the discon- tented barons seized the isle of Ely, and Henry besieged Kenilworth Castle, during which time he held a parliament there, Aug. 24, and the decrees there made were published in the camp, Oct. 31. Dec. 10, Kenilworth Castle sur- rendered ; Henry went from Kenilworth to Windsor, where he kept his Christ- mas, and from thence to London, Feb. 10, 1268, where he held a parliament, which granted him a subsidy, but refused the demands of the pope's legate 1270. May, Prince Edward embarked at Portsmouth, on a crusade to the Holy Land. King Henry died Nov. 26, 1272, in the 26th year of his age, and the 57th of his reign, and was buried at Westminster Abbey. Edward L, surnamed Longshanks, eldest son of Henry III., by Eleanor, his queen, was proclaimed king, on the death of his father, 1272. Walter GifFard, archbishop of York, Edmund Planta- genet, son of Richard Plantagenet, bro- ther of Henry III., earl of Cornwall, and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, by the consent of the nobility, took upon them the administration of the govern- ment, the king being absent in the Holy Land. July 12, Edward came to France, and did homage to the French king, for the lands which he held under him. In 1274, July 25, he arrived in England, and was crowned, with his queen, Elea- nor, at Westminster. In 1277, Edward relinquished his right to Normandy. 1282, Dec. 11., Llewellen, prince of Wales, was killed, the country reduced, and after preserving its liberty 800 years against the efforts of the English monarchy, was made subject to the laws of England. In 1284, April 25, his son, afterwards Edward II., was born at 3^ ENG 434 ENG Caernarvon, and styled prince of Wales, being the first that had that title. 1286. The king visited his dominions in France, where he resided three years, and appointed Edmund, earl of Pem- broke, guardian of the realm during his absence. In 1295, the Scots entered into a war with the French, which was carriedonwithvarioussuccesses. In 1296, Baliol revolted, and a war was com- menced against Scotland, wherein King Edward obtained a signal victory, took possession of Edinburgh, and made the king of Scots prisoner. The king of Scotland made a resignation of his crown to King Edward, who called a parliament at Berwick, and received the homage of the nobility, and at that time brought the chair out of Scotland which is now in Westminster Aljbey (in which our kings are crowned), with the crown, sceptre, &c. 1297. From the 22nd year of this reign, there has been an uninterrupted series of parliaments down to the present time ; and by a law made (August 1) as an addition to Magna Charta, it was en- acted that no tax should be levied with- out consent of the knights, citizens, and burgesses, assembled in parliament. November 11. Edward formed a league against France, and embarked with an army of J ,500 horse, and 50,000 foot, among whom were many Scots and Welch. In 1298, there being a new in- surrection in Scotland (March 14) under Wallace, the king returned, having made a two years' iruce with the French. July 22, the king obtained another victory over the Scots at Falkirk, killing 40,000 of them upon the spot, among whom was John Stuart, the third seneschal, or high steward of Scotland, of that name. A confirmed peace between England and France. 1300. King Edward marched against Scotland a third time ; they put them- selves under the protection of the pope. 1301. The parliament declared that Scot- land was subject to the crown of Eng- land, and that the pope had nothing to do with it. 1305. Sir Wilham Wallace, the principal promoter of the insurrec- tion in Scotland (August 15), tried by the laws of England, and executed as a traitor, August 23. In 1306, the Scots rebelled again, and crowned Robert Bruce king of Scotland. King Edward sent an army into Scotland, defeated the Scots near St. John's Town, and took several of their great men prisoners ; among them the brothers of RobertBruce, who were condemned and executed in En- gland as traitors. In 1307, Robert Bruce defeated the king's general, the earl of Pembroke. Edward, .surprised at Brace's success, summoned his vassals to meet him at Carlisle, and intended to destroy the Scotch kingdom from sea to sea, as he had drawn together the finest army ever seen in England, but he was taken ill at Carlisle. July 7- King Edward died of a dysentery, at Burgh upon the Sands, on his inarch to Scotland, in the 6Sth year of his age, and the 35th of his reign, and was buried in Westminster Abl)ey, October 8. Edward II., surnamed of Caernar- von, the fourth, but only surviving son of Edward I., by Queen Eleanor, suc- ceeded his father, 1307. January 23, 1 308, the king married the lady Isabel, daughter of Philip, king of France, at Bologne, and left in his absence Piers Gaveston, an unworthy favourite of the king, guardian of the realm, with unli- mited power. On the 24th of February, the king and queen were crowned at Westminster. In 1310, Piers Gaveston being banished by one of the constitu- tions, the king recalled him, and the lords entered into a confederacy against the king. In 1312, June 19, they took Piers Gaveston in Scarborough Castle, and beheaded him at Blacklow in War- wickshire. 1313. The war was renewed against the Scots. Edward marched against them, but returned without doing any thing. In 13 14, the king sustained a great defeat by the Scots, commanded byRobert Bruce, at Bannockburn. June 25, Ed- ward levied an army of 100,000 men, to raise which he borrowed money from all the bishops and monasteries in England. In 1320, the two Spencers, father and son, engrossed the king's favour. The no- bility compelled the king to banish them. In 1321, the queen was insulted by one of the confederate barons at LeedsCastle, in her journey on a pilgrimage to Can- terbury, and she stirred up the king to a revenge, who levied troops and took the castle. A war commenced between the king and the lords, and the king reversed the banishment of the Spencers. In 1324, the queen being disobliged by the Spen- cers, took part with the lords against the king, and went into France with her son, prince Edward, In 1325, the queen. ENG 435 ENG ^nd all her adherents, were declared enemies to the kingdom. The queen removed into Hainault with her son, 13 years of age, whom she married to Phi- lippa, the earl of Hainault's daughter, and raised an army of 2,000 men against the king. September 22, she landed in Essex, and drove the king into Wales. The elder Spencer was taken by her at Bristol, and hanged. King Edward concealing himself with the younger Spencer in Wales, Prince Edward was declared custos, or guardian of the kingdom. The king and the younger Spencer were taken at Caer- philly, in Glamorganshire. The king was imprisoned at Kenihvorth. In 1327 Spen- cer was hanged and quartered. In Janu- ary, the queen and prince called a par- liament in the king's name, where six articles were drawn up against him for maladministration. The nobility sent these articles to the king, and by their deputies renounced all homage and fealty to him. They judged him unfit to rule, and deposed him ; but the prince refused to accept the crown unless his father would resign it, upon which a formal re- signation was extorted from him in the 19th year of his reign, and the 43rd of his age ; and Edwanl, his son, was de- clared king, January 20. Edward III., surnaraed Windsor, eldest son of Edward II. and Queen Isabel, succeeded to the crown, Jan. 20, 1327, in his father's lifetime. Januai*y 26, the king was crowned at Westmin- ster, and February 2, received the order of knighthood from the earl of Lancaster. The archbishop and 11 others of the nobility, were appointed guardians to the young king ; but the queen and Ro- ger Mortimer took upon them the admi- nistration of the government. April 14, the deposed king, who had for some time been confined at Kenihvorth Castle, was removed to Berkeley Castle, to be treated with greater severity than his late keeper chose to exercise towards him. On his removal he was carried first to Corfe Castle, and thence to Bristol, under the conduct of Sir John Maltravers and Sir Thomas Gurney. September 22, Edward's keepers laid a pillow on his face, and thrust a horn pipe up his body, through which they ran a red-hot iron, and burnt his bowels. His body was privately buried in the cathedral of Gloucester, where soon after his son caused a stately tomb to be erected. 1328. Edward III. restored to Scot- land all that Edward I. had taken from them, and renoimced all pre- tensions of superiority over that king- dom. The lady Joan, sister to King Ed- ward, was married to David Bruce, the son of Robert, king of Scotland, being but seven years of age. The earl of Lancaster was attacked by the queen- mother, who stirred up the young king against him, which induced prepara- tions for his defence against the court. In 1329, June 6, Edward sailed from Dover for France, (having appointed his bro- ther, John of Eltham, regent in his ab- sence) with a retinue of 1000 horse, and arrived at Amiens, where he did homage to Philip in the presence of the kings of Navarre, Majorca, and Bohemia, and promised to ratify the homage under the great seal on his return to England, which he did not comply with. 1331. Edward formed the project of conquering Scotland, and made use of Baliol to accomplish his end. In 1333, July 29, Edward defeated the Scots at Halidonhill in Berwickshire; seven Scotch earls were slain on the spot, with 900 knights, 4000 gentlemen, besides 1 5,000 common soldiers ; which defeat was fol- lowed by the surrender of Berwick which King Edward annexed for ever to the crown of England. In 1335, Edward in the spring attacked Scotland by sea and land, and advanced as far as the north- ern ocean, and in the mean time, his brother the earl of Cornwall ravaged the western counties of the kingdom. TheearlofMurray.regent of Scotland, was taken prisoner by the English. In 1336, the English troops left in Scotland were defeated, and their leader, the earl of Athol, slain, which revived the courage of the Scots. In 1337, Jan. Edward re- turned to Scotland, and ravaged the country v/ith great fury ; he burnt the town of Aberdeen, and some other places of less note, and leaving a small army with Baliol, returned to England. The king's success in Scotland made him form a design on France, pretending the salic law, in excluding females from the succession to that crown, did not exclude their male issue. Edward formed several alliances with foreign princes, viz., the emperor Louis of Bavaria, the duke of Brabant, the earls of Gueldre, and Hai- nault, the archbishop of Cologne, &c. Edward wrote to the pope and cardi- nals to justify his claim on France, and ENG 436 ENG demanded the crown of Philip, by the duke of Brabant, whom he made lieu- tenant-genei-al for that kingdom, with orders to the French, whom he called his subjects to pay him obedience. 1338. Edward set sail from Orwell in Suffolk, with a fleet of 500 ships, for Antwerp, where he arrived July 22. He was made vicar of the empire, and had an interview with the emperor at Cologne, where two thrones were erect- ed in the public market place for their reception. In 1339,Sept. 21, Edward put himself at the head of 40,000 men, and (Oct. 22.) offered battle to Philip king of France, who retired. 1340. Edward took on him the title of king of France, and quartered with his own arms the Fleur de lis of France; he at the same time used the motto, " Dieu et mon droit." Edward in person obtained a victory over the French at sea. He took and sunk all their ships, being 400 sail, and killed 30,000 men. The king entered France with an army of 150,000 men, but a truce for a year was agreed on. As soon as the truce was signed, Edward, with his queen, Philippa, who had lived three years in the Low Countries, returned to England. She had been delivered there of two princes, the last of whom was John of Gaunt. She landed at the Tower, Nov. 30. In 1344, King Edward ordered tour- naments to be pubhshed, and gave ho- nourable invitation and reception to all persons of distinction, whether natives or foreigners. Philip of France pub- lished a like tournament, and by that means got into his power several of the noblemen of Bretagne, who had sided with Edward, and beheaded some of them, who provoked Edward to send Pliilij) a defiance, and made great pre- paration for renewing the war with France. 1346. Edward embarked for France, July 4, but was driven back to Cornwall by a storm. He re-embarked with his army, which consisted of 1600 ships, great and small, containing 4000 men at arms, 10,000 archers, 12,000 Welsh foot- men, and 6,000 Irish, besides a great number of the chief nobility, and the young prince of Wales, then 15 years and one month old, all of whom landed in Normandy. With his army he ravag- ed the country, burning and plundering whatever came in his way. Edward ad- vanced to Poissi, where Philip endea- voured to enclose him between the Seine and Oyse, but he took shelter in Pon- theiu. Edward encamped at Cressy when the celebrated battle took place, Aug. 24. See Cressy. 1347. Calais surrendered to Edward on the terms of life to the inhabitants and soldiers, e.\cept six of the burghers, who were to be the victims of Edward's revenge, Aug. 4. A few days afterwards Edward made his entry into Calais ; he turned out all the native inhabitants and peopled it with English, then returned in triumph to England, where he arrived Oct. 2. In 1355, July, the Prince of Wales, called the Black Prince, made great ravages in Languedoc, Perigord and Limousin, with an army of 12,000 men and besieged Bourges, but the French king approaching at the head of 40,000 men, he withdrew from thence and intrenched himself. Sept. 29, Ed- ward the Black Prince obtained a great victory over the French at Poictiers, where John the French king, and his son Philip were taken prisoners. See Poictiers. 1357. April. A truce concluded for two years with France. InMay, the prince made his triumphant entry into London, with King John his prisoner, and was met by the lord mayor and aldermen in all their formalities. In 1359, Edward re- solved to carry the war into France, and confined John in the Tower. March. King Edward marched to the walls of Paris, which holding out against him, he ravaged the whole kingdom, till 6,000 of his men and horses, if we may credit our historians, were killed by a storm of thunder and lightning, which induced him, it is said, to hearken to terms of peace ; and the treaty was concluded. May 8, 1360, when the king returned to England. In 1377, June21,KingEdward die(l at his manor house at Sheen, (now Richm.ond) in the 65th year of his age, and the 5 1st of his reign, and was buried in Westminster abbbey. Richard II., the only surviving child of Edward, prince of Wales, (called the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III., by Joan his wife, daughter of Edmund, earl of Kent,) succeeded to the crown, 1377, on the death of his grandfather, being about 11 years old. July 16, the young king was crowned at W^estminster, The king's uncles governed the state. November 2, 1381, a parliament met at Northampton, when the king having a Deaih of Wat Tyler WatlT^er kiUs the CoHeaor. John Ball preaches to The Rebels. 'ebeTs seize the Town ATjehead the Arclihisliop Conference of the King & Tyler lONDOK. THOMAS KL'LLT, 18 W. ENG 437 ENG pressing occasion for money, and the treasuries of the rich having supphed the last grant, this was levied by way of poll tax, from which no person was ex- empted ; all above 15 years old were to pay 12 pence each. 1381. This imposition produced serious consequences. One John Ball, a seditious preacher, who affected low popularity, went about the country, and inculcated on his audience the principles of the first origin of mankind from one common stock, their equal right to liberty, and to all the goods of nature, the tyranny of artificial distinctions, &c. These doc- trines were greedily received by the mul- titude, and connected with the severity with which the tax gatherers collected the money, occasioned a rebellion. One of the collectors having demanded of a tyler at Deptford, whose name was Wal- ter, (from thence called Wat Tyler,) 12 pence for one of his daughters, the father refused to pay it, alleging that she was under the age mentioned in the act. The insolent collector refused to depart, and Wat took up a hammer and knocked out his brains. The people took his part, and promised to stand by him. This was the signal for insurrection, for the people immediately rose in Kent, and chose Wat Tyler for their leader; and this example was soon followed by those of Essex. The rebels soon cleared the gaols of all the prisoners, and then proceeded to London, where at first they met with resistance ; but forcing their passage over the bridge, they plun- dered the city and seized on the Tower, wherein were 600 warlike men, and 6,000 archers. They there found the archbishop of Canterbury, and the lord treasurer, with many other noblemen, who were immediately beheaded by the rebels; then they proceeded to the pa- lace of the duke of Lancaster, at the Savoy, which they burnt, with the arch- bishop of Canterbury's palace, and the magnificent priory of St. John's, Cler- kenwell. May 24. This done, they di- vided themselves into three bodies: Wat Tyler remained about the Tower with 30,000 men; Jack Straw, another of their leaders, advanced into the city with the rebels of Essex, to the number of 60,000 ; the rest, under tthe conduct of another leader, lodged themselves upon Mile-end Green. 'The king published a general pardon, which the Essex men embraced, and returned home. Wat Tyler rejected the offer, and the king proposed a conference with him in Smith- field, where Wat behaved with great in- solence. He took hold of the bridle of the king's horse, and threatened the king with his sword, which so exasperated William Walworth, lord mayor of Lon- don, who attended the king, that he struck him dead with his mace. The rebels were preparing to revenge his death, which the king prevented by cry- ing out in a resolute and courageous voice, "Will you kill your king; who will then redress your wrongs ?" This staggered their resolution, they threw down their arms, and the rebellion was suppressed. 1386. The parliament obliged the king to discharge his favourites, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, and Robert de Vere, duke of Ireland ; but they were restored to favour on the close of the session. In 1387, the king's favourites endeavoured to make him absolute, and the king communicated his design to the sheriffs, who refused to engage in the plot ; this brought on disputes between the king and his nobles. The duke of Gloucester, the king's uncle, and the lords of his party, defeated the king's forces commanded by the duke of Ire- land ; whereupon, the duke went to Flanders. 1388. The king took refuge in the Tower ; when it was discovered, he in- tended to sell Calais and Cherburg to Charles of France. The confederate lords took possession of London, seized upon the judges, and compelled the king to discard his ministers, and call a par- liament, where they attainted the arch- bishop of York, the duke of Ireland, the- earl of Suffolk, Chief Justice Tressilian, and others; and afterwards hung Tres- silian, and several other persons of qua- lity, and banished the other judges. The confederate lords at a conference with the king, reproached him with his con- duct, which Richard answered with tears. They made him consent to the banish- ment of his favourites ; and the judges, who had favoured his designs, were taken off the benches in Westminster- hall, and sent to the Tower. They also compelled the king to renew his corona- tion oath, and pass an act of general pardon. 1392. As the king's revenues were not suflicient to support his expenses, he at- tempted to borrow £1,000 of the citizens ENG 438 ENG of London, but was refused ; which he resented, and under colour of punishing a tumult, of little consequence, he strip- ped the city of her privileges, May 25, took away the charter, and removed the courts of justice to York; nor would he restore them till the Londoners had pre- sented him with £10,000 and two gold crowns. By this he entirely forfeited the affections of the citizens, who made him sensible afterwards, how dangerous it was for a king of England to have London for his enemy. 1399. Large sums were extorted from the subjects, by way of loan, and their provisions seized for the use of the army without paying for them. The earl of Northumberland was declared a traitor by the king, who also banished him, and confiscated his estates. The duke of York, being appointed guardian of the kingdom, the king embarked for Ireland, where he arrived. May 31, at Waterford, whence he marched to Dublin. He was attended by the sons of the duke of Lancaster, by his third wife, and by those of the late duke of Gloucester, whom he carried like hostages, and took with him the best part of his jewels, as if he had foreseen he should never more return to his palace. July 4, in his absence, Henry, late duke of Hereford, now duke of Lancaster, landed in York- shire, and was joined by the nobility and gentry. The duke marched to London, and was received with joy. From thence he went to Bristol, which surrendered to him immediately. The earl of Wilt- shire and his companions he beheaded. When Richard heard of these trans- actions, he imprisoned the duke's bro- thers, with the duke of Gloucester's sons, but was detained by contrary winds, which occasioned the dispersion of some troops raised in Cheshire and Wales for his assistance. Richard landed at Milford Haven, and in the midst of his distress retired to Conway Castle, and proposed an accommodation with the duke of Lancaster, when he offered to the duke of Northumberland to resign his crown, provided that life was pro- mised him and eight others, and desired an interview with the duke of Lan- caster. September 29. Richard made a public resignation of his crown, by delivering it up, with the sceptre, and other ensigns of royalty, and by an instrument signed with his own hand, confessed himself un- worthy and unfit any longer to govern. This was the next day laid before the parliament, who ordered articles of ac- cusation, and reasons for the deposition to be exhibited, when the duke of Lan- caster claimed the crown. Henry IV., surnamed of Boling- broke, only son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and fourth son of Edward III. by Blanch, his wife, ascend- ed the throne in 1399- He was crowned October 13, with all the usual formali- ties, being then 33 years old. Prince Henry, son of Henry IV., 13 years old, was created prince of Wales, and the succession of the crown limited to him and his issue. 1400. King Richard was murdered in Pontefract Castle, being attacked by eight persons, of whom he slew four. He was buried at Langley, and, 14 years after, re- moved by King Henry V., and honourably interred inWestminster Abbey. He lived 32 years, and reigned 22 years and three months. He died without issue. 1401 Owen Glendower taking advan- tage of Henry's negligence, revolted; on which Henry published a pardon for the Welsh, provided they submitted by a cer- tain time, which they neglected. Octo- ber 2, Henry marched against them, but they retiring to the mountains, Henry could only ravage the country, and re- turn to London. The earl of Northum- berland, at the battle of Halidon, took many prisoners of great quality, which Henry demanded of him, and oljhgedhim to resign. This gave the earl great dis- gust, and he determined to resent it by forming a conspiracy in favour of Mor- timer, earl of March, then a prisoner in Wales, whom Henry refused to release. The conspiracy was formed by the duke of Surrey, the earls of Northumberland and Salisbury, Owen Glendower, and others. July 22. They were defeated by King Henry at Shrewsbury, and young Percy, surnamed Hotspur, killed. 1405. August 7. The French landed in Wales, with 140 sail and 12,000 men, but Lord Berkley took 14, and destroyed 15 of their ships in Milford Haven. The king marched against them, but being retarded by severe weather, the French re-embarked. In 1408, February 19, the earl of Northumberland raised another insurrection in the north, at York, but was killed before he could assemble hia forces. 2U, 1413. King Henry died March ENG 439 ENG in the 47th year of his age, and the 14th of his reign, and was buried at Canterbury. Henry V., surnamed of Monmouth, eldest son of Henry IV. and Mary de Bohun (eldest daughter of the earl of Hereford, Sec), succeeded his father, in 1413. April 9, he was crowned at West- minster, and the same day granted a general pardon for all crimes, except murder and rape. He chose for his council persons of the greatest gravity, ability, and repute among his subjects. He removed some of the judges, and ad- vanced others in their room, which, to the knowledge of the law, added a per- fect integrity. H« did the same with regard to inferior magistrates, and took particular care to fill the vacant benefices with persons of sound principles and known merit. July 14, Disputes with France ; Henry sent an embassy to Paris to adjust all diflferences. 1414. March, Henry demanded the re-establishment of the treaty of Bre- tagne; the ambassadors offered Cathe- rine, the youngest daughter of Charles IV., in marriage. This Henry did not reject, but prolonged the truce to Febru- ary in next year. The French king sent ambassadors to England to treat with Henry upon a truce and the marriage. King Henry renewed the claim of the kings of England to the crown of France. The commons approved of the king's claim, and granted him a subsidy of 300,000 marks. 1414. September, the king assembled bis troops at Southampton. In 1415, he embarked with 50,000 men for France, having appointed his brother, the duke of Bedford, regent. August 21, landed with his troops at Havre-de- Grace. September 22, he took Har- fleur, and made it an English colony, appointing his uncle, Thomas Beaufort, earl of Dorset, governor. The constable of France besieged Harfleur, and a fleet of French ships blocked up Portsmouth and Southampton, and made an attempt upon, the Isle of Wight, but were re- pulsed. Henry was much harassed in his retreat to Calais. He passed the Somme October 19. He met the French army, who offered him battle by a herald October 22, which he accepted, and he presented the herald with a robe of 200 crowns value. This was followed by the famous battle of Agincourt, fought October 24. See Agincourt. Nov. 16, Henry returned to England, taking with him the principal prisoners; he »met in his passage a great storm, which destroyed several of his ships. Nov. 23, the king made his entry into London, and was met by the mayor and aldermen, who presented him with a £1000 in gold, in two gold basons, each valued at £500. 1417. March and April, Henry-made himself master of St. Loo, Carentum, St. Sauver le Vicomte, and many other places in Normandy, and laid siege to Cherbourg, which lasted three months. July 2S, King Henry's second expedi- tion to France, with an army of 26,000 men, on board a fleet of 1500 sail: he took Caen, Calais, and several other places. In 1418, the English took Cher- bourg, and several other towns in France, and laid siege to Rouen, the ca- pital of Normandy, which surrendered, Jan. 19, following. 1419. Feb. 12, a conference was held with the Dauphin at Louviers, and Henry granted him a truce till Easter, for all the country between the Loire and and the Seine, Normandy excepted. Dec. 24, a second treaty of peace be- tween the French king and the king of England, wherein it was stipulated, that King Henry should marry the Princess Catherine, the French king's daughter, that he should have the regency of France during the French king's life, and succeed him in his throne after his death. The French nobility swore fealty to him. 1420. April 18, Henry took the title of king of France, on a new coin. May 21, the agreement between the kings of England and France was ratified by the French parliament, at Paris, and sent to England to be recorded in the court of Exchequer at Westminster. June 2, Henry married Catherine, the daughter of Charles VI. of France, at Troyes. In 1421, Feb. 9, King Henry having arrived in England with his queen, she was crowned at Westminster. June 10, King Henry went to France again, and took several towns from the Dauphin. The king carried over a newly raised army with him of 28,000 men, for the payment of which, he borrowed money of the most noted men of property. 1422. April, Queen Catherine arrived in France, attended by the duke of Bed- ford, who had left the regency to his brother, the duke of Gloucester. The ENG 440 ENG two courts of England and France were held at Paris, and on Whitsunday, the two kings *and queens dined togeth* in public. Aug. 31, the king died in France, in the 34th year of his age, and the 10th of his reign, and was buried at Westminster, leaving the duke of Bedford regent in France, and the duke of Glouces- ter regent of England, during his son's minority. The queen, in honour of the king's memory, caused a statue of silver, gilt, to be laid on his tomb, as large as life, which, in the latter end of the reign of Henry VIII., was conveyed away. He was buried at the feet of Edward the Confessor. Henry VI., the only child of Henry v., by his queen, Catherine, of Valois, succeeded his father in the throne, in 1422, being but nine months old. He was proclaimed heir to the crown of France. Oct. 21, Charles, king of France, sur- vived King Henry but 53 days. The dauphin took upon him the title of king of France, by the name of Charles VII. and fomred several alliances with foreign princes, to support his preten- sions to his father's throne. November, the parliament nominated the members of the council, filled the offices of the crown, and gave the great seal to the bi- shop of Durham ; the duke of Glouces- ter was appointed chamberlain and high- constable of England, and protector of the kingdom, in the absence of the duke of Bedford, who was nominated protec- tor of England, defender of the church, and first councillor to the king, with a salary of 8000 marks a year. 1423, 1424. The war still carried on in France. In 1428, the earl of Salis- bury raised 6000 men, and went to France. Oct., the English took Jan- ville, Mehun, Bangenci, Gergeau. Clery, Sully, and some other towns. The En- glish besieged Orleans, and raised l)at- teries round the town to prevent suc- cours going in. In 1429, the siege was continued by the earl of Suffolk and Lord Talbot. Feb. 12, the siege having been carried on four months, the regent sent a convoy of artillery, ammunition, and pro- visions, being salt-fish from Paris, under General Fastolfe ; the earl of Clermont intercepted him ; the English routed him, and slew between 500 and 600 of the French ; this was called the battle of " Herrings." May 12, the famous Joan of Arc pretended to be sent from God to save the kingdom of France ; she re- lieved Orleans, and obliged the English to raise the siege. See Joan of Arc. Nov. 6, King Henry was crowned at Westminster, and the protectorship sup- pressed, 1430. The king embarked for France, the duke of York being appointed regent; for want of money, the king was obliged to pawn his crown and jewels. In 1433, France was perpetually ravaged and harassed by the contending parties, and England extremely impoverished by taxes to support the war. In 1434, May 13, many skirmishes happened with the enemy, and the earl of Arundel was killed in a battle near Beauvais. In 1435, Aug. 6, a congress was held at Arras, to treat of peace, from which the English withdrew with indignation. 1437- All this year the war was carried on with vigour on both sides ; Charles headed his own army. In 1444, May 28, a truce was concluded for 18 months, be- tween the English and French. In 1445, April 18, King Henry married Margaret of Valois, the daughter of Reyner, duke of Anjou, titular king of Sicily, Naples, and Jerusalem. May 30, the queen arrived in England and was crowned. The truce with France was prolonged till Nov. 1, 1446 j again pro- longed to April, 1, 1447. 1448. Richard, duke of York, lineally descended from Edward III., first began to assert his title to the crown of Eng- land. In May, the duke of York clan- destinely fomented the insurrection of Jack Cade, in Kent, who assumed the name of Mortimer. The king assem- bled 15,000 men, and marched against the rebels near Sevenoaks. Cade de- feated the king's forces ; upon which the king retired to Warwick, and Cade entered London. Cade caused the Lord Say, high treasurer, to be taken and be- headed ; they hanged his body up and quartered it in Southwark. Cade's sol- diers committing great riots, were refused entrance into London; and a pardon being proclaimed by the king. Cade was abandoned by many of his followers. In June, Cade was killed, and his fol- lowers dispersed. In August, the French became masters of all Normandy, upon which the duke of Somerset returned to England, and was blamed by the people for the loss of Normandy, and sent to the Tower, when the people plundered his palace. Joaa of Arc takex! rrisoner. Joano£/\rc's interview with the Governor of Vaiicouleurs . Joan marches mlh a convoy" to Qrlea . Chacles enters Beims. Joan -wounded in the attack of S : J-OXDON: THOM/iS ltELLV.1841. ENG 441 1451. The duke of York came over from his government of Ireland, and had recourse to arms, upon pretence of mal- administration. He retired into Wales, and wrote to the king to reform the government, and displace some of the ministers ; when the king returned him a mild answer. The whole province of Guienne fell under the dominion of Charles, after its being united 300 years to the crown of England, which was dis- possessed of every town but Calais and its dependencies. In 1452, the duke of York marched towards London, but afterwards came to a treaty with the king, and dismissed his army. In October, 1453, Henry was seized with a dangerous illness at Clarendon, in Wiltshire, and was removed to London. 1454. February 14, the parliament met and granted the king a subsidy, and tonnage and poundage during life. The duke of York was made protector of the realm by the parliament, and go- vernor of Calais. In 1455, the king recoi'ered from his illness, and resumed his authority. The duke retired to Wales in disgust with the court. March 4, he raised an army in Wales, and marched towards London. March 23, he gave battle to the king's forces near St. Alban's, and routed them, killing the duke of Somerset, the earls of Northum- berland and Stafford, and Lord Clifford, upon the spot, and made the king his prisoner, who lost 5000 men, and the duke of York only 600. July 9, the parliament met, and the king having relapsed, the duke of York held the government in the king's name. The parliament petitioned the king to name a protector, who appointed the duke of York, with a salary of 4000 marks per annum, 1460. July 9, the Yorkists followed the king to Northampton, where a bat- tle was fought ; the king's army was routed, the duke of Buckingham and the earl of Salisbury killed, and the king made prisoner. August 16, the king was carried to London, and the queen, with the prince, her son, fled to Scotland. In October, the earls of March and Salisbury advanced to London, and call- ed a parliament, and the duke of York arriving from Ireland, claimed the crown. The duke of York was proclaimed, by the sound of trumpet, heir-apparent to the crown, and protector of the realm. November 8, it was agreed in parliament ENG that King Henry shoulrl enjoy the crown during his life, and that the duke of York should succeed him. Henry's let- ters patent passed, appointing the duke of York protector of the realm and heir- apparent to the crown. December 2, the duke of York marched against the queen with 5000 men only, leaving the king to the care of the duke of Norfolk and Lord Clifford. The duke shut him- self up in his castle of Sandall, where the queen provoked him to come out and give battle, when 2800 of his men were slain, and himself killed in the engage- ment, December 31. 1461. February 2, Edward, earl of March, son and successor of the duke of York, engaged the king's forces, under the earl of Pembroke, and. routed them at Mortimer's cross, near Ludlow. Feb- ruary 17, the queen defeated the duke of Norfolk and the earl of Warwick at Bernard's-heath, near St. Alban's, and set the king at liberty ; but the earl of March, now duke of York, advancing towards London, with a superior force, she retired northwards. March 2, the duke of York was proclaimed king in the camp. This was reckoned the last day of King Henry's reign. Edw^ard IV., eldest son of Richard, duke of York, (son of Richard earl of Cambridge, and Anne his wife, who was daughter of Roger, earl of March, the son of Edmund Mortimer, and Phillippa his wife, who was daughter of Lionel, duke of Clarence, the third son of Ed- ward III.) succeeded to the crown. He was elected by the chief men, March 3, 1461. Henry's arrriy consisted of 60,000 men, and Edward's of 48,000. March 29, King Edward obtained a great vic- tory over King Henry's forces at Tow- ton, in Yorkshire, where were slain 36,000 men ; upon which King Henry, with his queen and son, retired into Scotland, and delivered up Berwick to the Scots. The king was crowned at Westminster, June 28. 1463. Queen Margaret landed in the north of England, and went to Berwick. Richard Nevill, earl of Warwick, was sent upon an embassy to propose a mar- riage between Edward and the lady Bona, daughter to the duke of Savoy. In February, 1465, King Edward mar- ried the Lady Elizabeth Grey, the widow of Sir John Grey, while the earl of War- wick was upon his embassy, which pro- voked the earl to desert the king's in» 3fc ENG 442 ENG terest. May 26, the queen was crowned at Westminster. 1466. February 11, King Edward's queen was delivered of a daughter, named Ehzabeth, afterwards married to King Henry VII., whereby the famihes of York and Lancaster were united. Sept, 13, the earl of Warwick arrived at Dart- mouth with 60,000 men, caused Henry VI. to be proclaimed, and published an order in his name for his subjects to take arms and expel Edward. Edward retired into Lincolnshire and was pur- sued, where he embarked and went to Holland, to the duke of Burgundy, his brother-in-law, by whom he was well received. November 6, a parliament was called, by which King Henry, after three years' imprisonment, was released from the Tower, reinstated in the government, the succession settled in his family, and King Edward was attainted as a traitor and usurper. 1471. March 12, King Edward, being assisted by the duke of Burgundj', with 2000 Dutch troops, landed in Yorkshire, seized York, and marched to Nottingham; and the duke of Clarence came over to him on the 29th. April 11, King Edward took possession of London again, being about six months after his leaving it, and imprisoned King Henry. June 20, King Henry was murdered in the Tower, by the duke of Gloucester, as it is said, in the 50th year of his age. He was buried first at Chertsey Abbey, thence removed, and solemnly interred at Wmd- sor. He was reckoned to have reigned 38 years; he left no issue behind him, his only son, Edward, being killed. 1473. The King Edward IV. entered into a treaty with the duke of Burgundy to invade France ; the duke was to as- sist him with an army of 20,000 men. In 1475, Edward ordered his troops to assemble. May 26, at Portsmouth, to the number of 30,000, all Englishmen. But the king gave himself up to pleasures, and raised money by illegal methods. A treaty was concluded between Edward and Louis, wherein the latter was to pay England 50,000 crowns yearly. 1483, April 6, King Edward died of a surfeit at Westminster, in the 23d year of his reign, and the 42d of his age, and was nobly interred at Windsor, in the new chapel, the foundation of which he himself had laid. Edward V., eldest son of King Ed- ward IV., succeeded his father, 14S3, at the age of 1 1 years, but was never crowned. At Edward's accession to the crown, there were two parties formed at court, the old and new nobility ; the king protected the latter. Richard, duke of Gloucester, seized upon Earl Rivers, the queen's brother, and got the young king into his power, upon which the queen, with her other son, Richard, duke of York, and five daughters, took sanctuary at Westminster. April, a tumult arose in London which was ap- peased by Lord Hastings. May 4, the king was brought to London, and lodged in the bishop's palace. The duke of Gloucester caused a grand council to be called, and moved them to take the duke of York from the queen. The archbishop of Canterbury was sent to the queen, but he was against violating the sanctu- ary. May 27, the duke prevailed upon the council to appoint him protector of the king and kingdom ; and upon the queen to deliver up her son, Richard, duke of York ; upon which lie secured him, with the king, his brother, in the Tower. In June, the protector held a covm- cil in the Tower, and caused Lord Hast- ings to be arrested. June 13, he cutoff the heads of Lord Hastings, Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers, the queen's bro- ther, and of her son, Lord Richard Grey. June 17, he declared his brothers. King Edward, and the duke of Clarence, as well as the issue of Edward IV., bastards ; and by the assistance of the duke of Buckingham, usurped the throne, when his nephew, Edward V., had reigned but two months and 18 da5's. Richard III., the eighth and young- est son of Richard duke of York, and last of the line of Plantagenet, usurped the throne, 1483. June 19, he married Lady Anne, youngest daughter of Rich- ard Nevill, the great earl of Warwick, and relict of Prince Edward, son of Ed- ward IV. The king caused his two nephews, Edward V., and Richard, to be murder- ed. The two children were in the Tower, the government of which he had given to Sir Robert Brackenburj% one of his creatures, to whom he sent express orderu to put the two young princes to death. Brackenbury, being more consci- entious than Richard imagined, humbly desired to be excused ; upon which he sent him a written order, by Sir James Tyrrel, requiring him to deliver up to the said Tyrrel the keys and government ill, uf :_dvrarfl 5? and the Dute of York s>aecu takes 3a;nctn arr in Wrsiinmsi rTT.tnent of the Towci- for ' ENG 443 ENG of the Tower for one night only. Brack- enbuiy obeyed, and Tyrrel brought in two ruffians. Miles Forest and John Dighton, whom he had hired to perpe- trate the horrid act. In the dead of the night, when the princes were asleep, they entered their chamber, and rushing upon them, stifled them both in their bed, and then buried them under a little staircase. In 1674, some bones were found there, supposed to be theirs, which Charles II. caused to be put in a marble urn, and removed to Westminster Abbey. July 6, Richard was crowned at Westminster, with Anne, his queen. In August, he was crowned a second time at York. The duke of Buckingham, and bishop of Ely, with the countess of Richmond, consulted in what manner they might dethrone Richard. The marquis of Dorset, Sir Richard Wood- ville, the bishop of Exeter, and Sir Richard Courtney, joined in the plot, and raised forces for the earl of Rich- mond. September, the earl was informed by express, of the proceedings in his fa- vour. The duke of Buckingham took up arms, and was joined by numbers in Wales ; but his army was dispersed, and he obliged to conceal himself in the house of Bannister, one of his domestics, who betrayed him for a reward that had been published by Richard. Oct. 12, the earl of Richmond, with 40 ships, and 5000 men, furnished by the duke of Bretagne, sailed from St. Maloes, but was dispersed by a storm ; the earl arrived at Pool, and had like to have been surprised by a stratagem of Rich- ard's, but he escaped, and sailed back to Bretagne. Richard put several of the conspirators to death, and appointed Sir Ralph Ashton, vice-constable, to try, condemn, and execute such as he should think suspicious. 1485. France resolved to aid the earl of Richmond, and the earl repaired to Rouen, to assemble his troops. Aug. 6, he landed, at Milford Haven, with 2000 men. Aug. 8, marched to Shrewsbury, where he was received and joined by great numbers. Aug.22. Theearlof Richmond engaged King Richard in Bosworth field, near Leicester, where Richard was killed and his army routed. The king's army con- sisted of 12,000 men, and Richmond's of not above 5000. Almost at the decision of the battle. Lord Stanley declared for Richmond, and placed the crown on his head after the battle. Richard reigned two years and two months. He was buried in the Grey Friars church, Leices- ter, and left no issue. Henry VII., son of Edmund of Had- ham, earl of Richmond (eldest son of Owen Tudor and Queen Catherine, relict of Henry V.) by Margaret his wife, sole daughter of John duke of Somerset, the son of John earl of Somerset, who was son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancas- ter, by Katharine Swinford, his third wife, was, the same day he obtained the victory over King Richard at Bosworth, proclaimed king by his army, 1485. Oct. 30, King Henry was crowned a(i Westminster, on which day he first in- stituted the yeomen of the guard. Jan. 18, 1486, King Henry married the prin- cess Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Ed- ward IV., by which marriage he united the houses of York and Lancaster. 1491. The king entered into a war with France. In October, he assembled his troops, to the number of 27,000 men, embarked and went to Calais, appoint- ing his son Arthur guardian of the realm. Nov. 3, a peace was concluded with France, and a truce with Scotland. In 1493, the duchess of Burgundy, Edward IV.'s sister, set up Perkin Warbeck, to counterfeit Richard duke of York, second son of King Edward. In 1495, Perkin appeared upon the coast of Kent, where several of his followers were taken and hanged. 1497. An insurrection happened in Cornwall, on account of the taxes. In September, the Cornish men invited Perkin to join them. He marched at the head of them, and besieged Exeter; but not being able to take the town, he took sanctuary, and his followers submitted themselves. In 1499, Perkin made his escape, but was taken again and sent to the Tower ; but attempting with the earl of Warwick to make their escape, he was hanged at Tyburn (Nov. 16,J and the earl (the last of the male line of the Plantagenets) was beheaded on Tower- hill, on the 28th. In 1507, Henry raised money by extortion, from his subjects, and is said to have amassed £1,800,000, chiefly by his instruments Empson and Dudley. 1509. The king being ill, published a general pardon to all his subjects, re- leased all debtors out of prison, who did not owe more than forty shillings to any one man, paying their creditors out of ENG 444 ENG his own purse ; and by his will com- manded his successor to make resti- tution to all men he had wronged by his extortions. April 22, King Henry died at Richmond, in the 53d year of his age and the 24th of his reign ; and was mag- nificently buried in the chapel built by him at Westminster. Henry VHI., the second but only sur- viving son of Henry VH. by Lady Eliza- beth, eldest daughter of Edward IV., succeeded to the crown, 1509. April 22, he confirmed the general pardon his father had granted, and published a pro- clamation, declaring, that if any of his subjects had been wrongfully deprived of their goods, under colour of commis- sions for levying forfeitures in the last reign, they should receive satisfaction. The inferior agents Empson and Dudley being set in the pillory, were killed by the rabble. June 3, The king solem- nized his n)arriage with the Princess Ca- therine, his brother Arthur's widow, and they were crowned at Westminster on the 24th. 1513. Wolsey, bishop of Winchester was introduced at court, and became a privy councillor ; in 1515, he became prime minister of state. He held at once the bishoprics of York, Winchester, and Durham, and the abbeys of St. Alban and Lincoln. See Wolsey. 1519. Henry, to show an extraordi- nary zeal against the doctrines of Lu- ther, on the reformation, caused six men and one woman to be burnt at Coventry, for teaching their children the Lord's prayer, the ten commandments, and the apostles' creed in the vulgar tongue. 1528. The king entertained scruples as to the lawfulness of his marriage with the infanta Catherine, his brother Ar- thur's widow, and endeavoured to obtain a divorce by a dispensation from the pope. In 1529, the proceedings before Wolsey and Cardinal Campeius, the pope's legate, concerning the divorce. Queen Cathe- rine appealed to Rome. In 1531, July 14, the king separated himself from Queen Catherine, and never saw her more. She retired to East Hampstead, and after- wards to Ampthill. 1532. Sept. 1, Anne Bullen, or Boleyn, second daughter of Sir Thomas Bullen, earl of Wiltshire and Ormond, was made marchioness of Pembroke, with a pension of £1000 a year. Nov. 14, the king mar- ried her. In 1536, all monasteries under £200 per annum were given to the king by act of parliament, whereby S^S were suppressed. Jan. 8. King Henry was jealous of Queen Anne, whom he caused to be condemned by her peers, for high treason. May 19, Queen Anne was ex- ecuted in the Tower. May 20, the king married Jane Seymour. June 8, the new parliament met, and passed an act of attainder against Anne Bullen, and enacted that both her divorce and that of Queen Catharine were legal, and the is- sues of both marriages illegitimate, and incapable of inheriting the crown. 1539. Six articles of religion were es- tablished by act of parliament, called the bloody statute. July 29, a statute was made confirming the seizures and sur- renders of the abbeys ; they amounted to the number of 645. See Articles. 1540. January 6, the king married Anne, sister to the duke of Cleves, by proxy ; but being disgusted with her person, on her arrival, never consum- mated the marriage. July 24, Arch- bishop Cranmer and the convocation divorced the king from Anne of Cleves ; the parliament passed an act confirming the judgment of the convocation. She was allotted an estate of £3000 per an- num. August 8, the king married the Lady Catherine Howard, who was de- clared queen of England. In 1542, Queen Catherine Howard was accused by Archbishop Cranmer of incontinence, by the information of one Lascelles. She was attainted of high treason by act of parliament, without being brought to a trial, and beheaded on Tower-hill, Feb. 13. Henry revived his pretensions to the sovereignty of Scotland, and gave the command of his forces against Scotland to the duke of Norfolk, who routed the Scotch army and took many prisoners, also 24 pieces of ordnance. December 14, the king entered Scotland, and de- feated the Scots at Solway Moss. Henry was proclaimed king of Ireland. 1543. July 12, the king married Lady Catherine Parr, widow of Lord Latimer. In 1544, an act was made, limiting the succession (on failure of issue of Prince Edward) to the princesses Mary and Elizabeth, and, in default of issue of either of them, to such persons as the king should appoint by his letters pa- tent, or last will. The king's title was settled by parliament, as king of Eng- land, France, and Ireland, defender of the faith, and supreme head of the ENG 445 ENG churches of England and Ireland. Sep- tember 8, Henry invaded Scotland by sea ; he entered into a war with France, and took Boulogne in person. 1545. France attempted an invasion, and fitted 210 sail of ships j they met the English fleet of 100 sail, in the chan- nel, and engaged ; the French lost many of their ships. In 1546, June 7, Arch- bishop Cranmer and the queen were ac- cused of heresy, but the king protected them. In 1547, in a convocation this year, all canons, laws, and usages against the marriage of priests were annulled, and likewise all a'^ows of celibacy ; and it was resolved to administer the commu- nion in both kinds, which the parliament confirmed. January 28, King Henry died in the 56th year of his age, and the 38th of his reign, and was buried at Windsor. The king being empowered to limit the succession of the crown by act of parliament, settled it on the issue of his sister Mary, by Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, in case his two daugh- ters, Mary and Elizabeth, died without issue, to the exclusion of Margaret his eldest sister, who had married James V, of Scots. Edvs^ard VI., the only son of Henry VIII., by Jane Seymour, his third wife, succeeded his father, January 31, 1547, being about nine years of age. Henry had nominated a council to govern till the king should attain the age of 18 years. February 6, Edward Seymour, earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somerset, was made protector. Feb- ruary '20, King Edward was crowned at Westminster ; at the coronation 40 knights of the bath were made, and a general pardon issued at the same time, out of which the duke of Norfolk, Cardi- nal Pole, and the Lord Courtney were excepted. The king greatly promoted the reformation ; orders were issued for keeping a Bible in every church, with Erasmus's jiaraphrase on the New Tes- tament. The chief opposers of the reformation were the Princess Mary, Wriothesle)'', earl of Soiithampton, the bishop of Durham, Bonner, bishop of London, Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, with other bishops and inferior clergy. In September, the protector marched with an army of 18,000 men into Scot- land, and defeated the Scots at Pinkney- field, near Musselborough, December 10; 13,000 of the Scots were slain. He re- turned to London, and was met by the mayor and aldermen. This war with Scotland cost England near £1,433,000. 1549. Several rebellions happened about inclosures, but were suppressed ; the greatest in Norfolk, headed by Kett, a tanner, against whom Dudley earl of Warwick went with an army, August 27, slew about 2000 of his followers, and hanged him in chains on the top of Norwich castle, November 20. October 24, the privy council and the city of London entered into measures to depose the protector; upon which he carried the king with him to Windsor, and stood upon his defence, but was obliged to submit ; upon which they charged him with usurping sovereign power, and sent him to the Tower, and six lords were ap- pointed to be the king's governors, but the administration was lodged chiefly in Dudley earl of Warwick. 1550. 4 Edward VI., an act was passed against the late protector, whereby he was deprived of all his places, his goods confiscated, and his lands to the value of £2,000 per annum, forfeited to the crown ; but he was released from the Tower, on giving £10,000 security for his good behaviour, and, February 16, he received his pardon, and was admitted to the council board again. April 25, a peace was concluded with France, and Boulogne delivered up. The French king stipulated to pay the king of Eng- land, in consideration thereof, and of the tribute in arrear from France, 400,000 crowns : and it was agreed that this treaty should not prejudice the claim of England either to France or Scotland. 1552. The duke of Somerset having^ opposed the ambitious views of Dudley, now duke of Northumberland, his ruin was resolved. He was sent to the Tower, under pretence of consulting and inciting others to imprison Northumberland, and two other lords of the council, and con- victed of felony for this offence by his peers, for which he was beheaded, Jan. 22, two months afterwards. The duke of Northumberland now made himself abso- lute, and charged Lord Paget with several misdemeanors, had him fined £6000, and the order of the garter taken from him, which he procured for his eldest son. Sir Arthur Dudley, earl of Warwick. 1553. The duke of Northumberland married his son Guilford Dudley, to Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter to Mary, queen of France, sister to Henry VIII., and prevailed on the young king to settle ENG 446 ENG the crown on her, to the exclusion of the Princesses Mary and Elizabeth. June 15, when the judges were called in to draw an assignment of the crown to Jane Grey, they refused, until threatened by the duke, who had a pardon passed the great seal, exempting them from punish- ment. July 6, King Edward died at Greenwich, in the l6th year of his age, and the seventh of his reign, and was buried at Westminster, near the body of King Henry VII. his grandfather, with great funeral pomp, and the unfeigned mournings of an affectionate people. At the death of Edward, the duke of Northumberland endeavoured to get the princesses Mary and Elizabeth into his possession, but they retired into Nor- folk. Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed queen by Northumberland ; but Queen Mary finally prevailing, lady Jane re- signed those ensigns of royalty they had loaded her with, and which she had pos- sessed only ten days. Mary, only daughter of King Henry Vni., by Catherine of Arragon, succeed- ed her brother Edward, 1553. The duke of Northumberland marched against Queen Mary, but his forces deserted to her. Tiie duke was sent to the Tower, with three of his sons, and Dr. Ridley, bishop of London. The popish bishops were restored, and protestant bishops (particularly Coverdale, bishop of Exeter, and Hooper, bishop of Gloucester) com- mitted to prison for exercising their functions. Archbishop Cranmer, bishop Latimer, and several more of the pro- testant clergy were committed to prison for treason, in opposing the queen's accession, and several fled beyond sea. October 1, the queen was crowned at "Westminster, and was obliged to borrow £20,000 of the city of London. 1554. A treaty of marriage being set on foot between Queen Mary and Prince Philip, the emperor's son, heir to the crown of Spain, the parliament addressed the queen requesting her not to marry a foreigner; uponwhich they were dissolved. Articles were agreed on withtheemperor's ministers January 12, 1553-4, whereby Philip was to have the title of King of England. April 23, the Princess Eliza- beth was imprisoned in the Tower. 12,000 protestant clergy were deprived of their preferments, and the popish ser- vice restored. July 19, Prince Phihp arrived in England, and was married to the queen at Winchester on the 25th. - ^1556. Archbishop Cranmer was burnt at Oxford, March 24, (See Ckanmer), and the same day Cardinal Pole was made archbishop of Canterbury. A very severe persecution followed, in which about 300 protestants were burnt, and great numbers perished in prison, and by other hardships. Among those who suffered by fire were five bishops, 21 clergymen, eight laymen, 84 husband- men, servants, and labourers, 45 women, and four children. 1558. January 7, Calais suiTendered to the French, after it had been in the possession of the English 210 years. November 17, the queen died without issue, in the 43d year of her age, and the sixth of her reign, and was buried December 13, in Henry VH.'s chapel, with great pomp. Elizabeth, the only daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Bullen, succeeded her half-sister, Queen Mary, as well by the appointment of htr father's will as !)y the right of inheritance, and accord- ing to the act of succession of the 35th of that king; and November 19, 1558, v/as proclaimed at Hatfield. Dr. Mat- thew Parker was entrusted with the care of revising the Liturgy of Edward VI. Elizabeth was rigid with the papists ; many were fined, others m office replaced, and one Maine, a priest, was executed for importing popish trinkets. 1559. Jan. 15, the queen was crowned at Westminster, by the bishop of Carlisle, who was the only bishop that could be persuaded to do that oflSce. The queen erected a high commission court, who exercised the same power which had been formerly lodged by Henry VIII. in a single person. Out of 9400 beneficed clergymen in the kingdom, only 14 bishops, 12 archdeacons, 15 heads of colleges, 50 canons, and 80 parochial priests, quitted their preferments rather than their religion. Mary queen of Scots, having been married to the dau- phin of France, April 24, 1558 (after- wards king, by the name of Francis II.), they were this year crowned king and queen of France and Scotland. 1560. Aug. 21. Mary, queen of Scots, arrived in Scotland from France, and pro- posed to Queen Elizabeth the declaring her presumptive heir to the crown ; but Queen Elizabeth insisted on her renounc- ing all pretensions to England. In 1565, July 27, Francis II. of France being dead, the queen of Scots married ENG 447 ENG Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, and the next day he was publicly proclaimed king. This marriage occasioned an in- surrection in Scotland, and several lords took up arms, but were obliged to fly into England. February 9, the king of Scots was murdered by the contri- vance of Murray, Bothwell, &e. ; and Murray, to throw the odium of it upon the queen, persuaded her to marry Both- well. August and September, Queen Ehzabeth went to Oxford, was present at their public disputations, and held her court at Woodstock. November 1, the parliament met and addressed the queen to marry, and to settle the succession. In a message to the house, by Sir Fran- cis Knolles, she expressly commanded them to meddle no further in the matter of succession, but be contented with her promise to marry. The earl of Murray, brother to the queen of Scots, raised a party of no- bility against her. The rebel lords took the queen prisoner, and compelled her to resign her crown to her son. In 1568, the queen of Scots made her escape, and raised an army, but was defeated by Murray (May 17), upon which she fled into England, upon large promises of favour and assistance from Queen Eliza- beth, but was detained prisoner by her. In 1577, Queen Elizabeth assisted the Dutch against the king of Spain with the loan of £100,000 for eight months, and entered into an alliance of mutual assistance. 1585. Queen Elizabeth at the inter- cession of the Dutch, sent the earl of Leicester, and 6000 men, to their assist- ance, and had the Brill and Flushing delivered into her hands, as security for her charges. They agreed that the En- glish general, and two more of her ma- jesty's subjects, were to be admitted into the council of the states general, and no treaty to be entered into but by mutual consent, in consideration of the assist- ance she gave the Dutch against Spain. 1586. In July, a new treaty was made between England and Scotland. It was agreed that if England was attacked, James should assist, with 17,000 forces, and if James was invaded, Elizabeth should aid with 9000, the auxiliaries to be maintained by the prince so aided. Sept. 20, Anthony Babington, and others were convicted of conspiring against Queen Elizabeth, and executed with very great barbarity, in St. Giles's Fields. October 11, the queen of Scots was charged with being the promoter of the conspiracy, and commissioners were ordered to try her at Fotheringay castle, in Northamptonshire; but not acknowledging their jurisdiction, they proceeded to pass sentence of death upon her. After the sentence was pass- ed upon Mary, the judges declared it did nothing derogate from the king of Scotland, his title to the crown of Eng- land still remained entire. In 1587, a new plot was discovered against Queen Elizabeth, upon which she signed a war- rant for the execution of the queen of Scots, and she was beheaded accordingly at Fotheringay castle, aged 46, and in the 18th year of her imprisonment. 1588. The king of Spain this year finished his grand naval armament for the conquest of England, called the Ar- mada, which was almost annihilated by the English fleet. See Armada. The queen sung Te Deum at St. Paul's for the defeat of the Spaniards, created her admiral. Lord Charles Howard, earl of Nottingham, and settled a considerable annual pension upon him. In 1593, many conspiracies were formed, by the influ- ence of the Spaniards over the popish subjects, to assassinate the queen, which were all defeated, and the persons con- cerned therein executed. 1594. In 36 Eliz. Patrick Cullen, an Irish fencing-master, was engaged by the Spaniards to kill the queen, for which he was executed. Edmund York and others, about the same time, were employed to kill the queen, and fire the royal navy. Upon which the queen ex- postulated with the king of Spain, re- proaching him with the baseness of em- ploying assassins every day to take away her life, and insisted upon his delivering up Throgmorton, Holt, and the rest of the Jesuits and priests who managed these conspiracies, but to no purpose. 1595. Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins, with a fleet of men of war, and land forces, made an attempt to surprise the Spanish settlements on the Isthmus of Darien, and landed a body of forces under the command of Sir Thomas Baskerville, with a design to attack the city of Panama, where the treasures of Peru were lodged, but their design was discovered, as the Spa- niards were all well fortified and their towns garrisoned. The English also were so sickly when they came to lie on ENG 448 Ex\G shore, that they performed nothing of consequence, and those two brave offi- cers, Drake and Hawkins, both died in this expedition. 1598. The French king, Henry IV., made a separate peace with Spain, without the queen's knowledge ; upon which she reproached him with ingrati- tude and breach of faith. A formidable insurrection happened in Ireland, headed by the earl of Tyrone. This year died the lord treasurer Cecil, (Baron Bur- leigh) in the 78th year of his age. He had a large share in the administration, and his councils contributed greatly to the prosperity of this reign. See Bur- leigh. 1599. Tyrone, the Irish rebel, de- feated the English forces, coqimanded by Sir Henry Bagnal, who was killed in the battle, upon which the whole province of Munster revolted to him, and he invited the Spaniards to make a descent in that kingdom, and join him. The earl of Essex, lord lieutenant of that kingdom, made a truce with Tyrone, but in 1600 Tyrone broke the truce, overran all the country, and acted as sovereign of Ireland ; upon which Lord Mountjoy was made deputy of Ireland, and, with the assistance of Sir Edward Blaney, re- stored the English affairs in the north. 1601. Sept. The rebels in Ireland re- ceived an aid from Spain. The Spa- niards landed 4000 men near Kinsale in Ireland, Sept. 23, and took possession of that town, and, were followed by a rein- forcement of 2000 more. They joined Tyrone, the general of the Irish rebels, but the lord-deputy Mountjoy surprised their army in the night-time, and en- tirely defeated them ; he afterwards com- pelled the garrison of Kinsale to sur- render. 1603. The queen being taken ill the beginning of January, intimated her de- sire that the king of Scots should suc- ceed her, in which the whole nation seemed to concur. She expired March 24, 1603, and was buried in Westmins- ter abbey, April 28, with great magnifi- cence. James VI. of Scotland, succeeded to the throne by the title of James I. Under him the two kingdoms were united by the title of Great Britain. For a con- tinuation of the history of the kingdom since the union, see Britain. The following table shows the year of the reign of the sovereigns of England, corresponding with the year of Christ, from 1066 : — Will. Conq. Oct. 14. 1 1066 22 1087 Richard I. Aug. 13. 1 1189 11 1199 Edward III. Jan. 20. 1 1327 51 1377 Edward IV. March 3. 1 1461 24 1483 Edward VI. Jan. 28. 1 1547 8 1553 Wm. Rufus. Sept. 9. 1 1087 14 1100 John. April 6. 1 1199 18 1216 Richard II. June 21. 1 1377 23 1399 Edward V. Aprils. 1 1483 Queen Mary Julys. 1 1553 6 1558 Henry I. Aug. 1. 1 1100 36 1135 Henry III. Oct. 19. 1 1216 57 1272 Henry IV. Sept. 29. 1 1399 14 1413 Richard III. June 22. 1 1483 3 1485 Elizabeth. Nov. 17. 1 1558 45 1603 Stephen. Dec. 2. 1 1135 20 1154 Edward I. Nov. 26. 1 1272 36 1307 Henry V. March 29. 1 1413 10 1422 Henry VII. Aug. 22. 1 1485 25 1509 James I. March 24. 1 1603 23 1625 Henry II. Oct. 25. 1 1154 36 1189 Edward II. July 7. 1 1307 20 1327 Henry VI. Aug. 31. 1 1422 39 1461 Henry VIII. April 22. 1 1509 38 1547 Charles I, March 27. 1 1625 24 1648 ENG 449 E NG Charles II. James II, Wm. & Mary. Anne. George I. Jan. 30. Feb. 6. Feb. 13. March 8. Aug. 1. 1 1648 1 1685 1 1688 1 1702 1 1714 38 1685 4 1688 15 1702 13 1714 14 1727 George II. George III. George IV. William IV. Victoria I. June 10. Oct. 25. Jan. 29. June 26. June- 20. 1 1727 1 1760 1 1820 1 1830 1 1837 34 1760 61 1820 11 1830 7 1837 4 1840 N.B. Every sovereign's reign begins at the death of his or her predecessor. For example, Victoria I. began to reign June 20, 1837. The first year of her reign is complete June 19, 1838. Progressive population of England and Wales from the year 1700. Year. Pop. 1700 5,134,516 1710 5,066,337 1720 5,345,351 1730 5,687,993 1740 5,829,705 17.50 6,039,684 1760 6,479,730 1770 7,227,586 1780 7,814,827 1790 8,540,738 1800 9,187,176 1810 10,407,556 1820 11,957,565 1830 13,840,750 For an account of the principles on which the population is taken. See Census. ENGLAND, New, a district of the United States of America, which com- prehends the northern and eastern states ; so called, because the inhabitants are chiefly of English descent. It was settled at the beginning of the I7th century, and comprehends the states of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. See these several Articles. ENGLISH residing in France. From an official return dated August 25, 1836, the number was as follows : — Paris, Versailles, St. Cloud, &c., about 20,C00 ; Boulogne and Calais, from|l 5000 to 20000 ; other parts of France from 10,000 to ] 2,000. The entire number of residents (which does not include continental tou- rists who pass annually through France) was estimated at upwards of 50,000. ENGLISH College at Rome, built 854. ENGLISH Copper-office, incor- porated, 1691. ENGRAVERS' BenevolentFund, established, 1826. ENGRAVING. This art had its origin about the same time with the art of paint- ing, in the 15th century. The first en- gravings worthy of notice, printed with the rolling press, were those which ac- companied an edition of Vesalius's Ana- tomy, printed in England in the year 1545. Archbishop Parker, in the reign of Elizabeth, was the most conspicuous patron of the art. He employed, in his palace at Lambeth, a painter and two or three engravers. English copperplate engraving retained, for more than a cen- tury, much of its original coarseness and imperfection. The style of Reginald Els- bracke, who lived at the close of the l6th and beginning of the 17th centuries, is occasionally neater than that of his pre- decessors, but still destitute of taste. The earliest English engravings on wood are those of Christopher Switzer, who lived at the close of the l6th cen- tury. Charlesl. wasthe firstEnglishmonarch who was sufficiently sensible of the beauty of engraving on copper, to ap- point an engraver royal, and Voerst was the first on whom that honour was con- ferred. Etching was introduced into England about the 1 7th century. Wen- ceslaus Hollar, a native of Prague in Bohemia, was the first who particularly distinguished himself in etching land- scape, shipping, antiquities, and natural history. In 1641, which was the year of Vandyke's decease. Hollar engraved some portraits, including those of King Charles I. and his queen, from the pic- tures of that celebrated painter. The invention of mezzotinto is gene- rally attributed to Prince Rupert, in the l7th century, who engraved in this way a print of an executioner, holding in one hand a sword, and in the other a head, 3 m E N G 450 after Spagnoletto, dated 1658. From this period the English school abounds with artists inevery department. Hogarth was born in 1697. His Marriage a la Mode was finished in 1745. The series of six plates comprehends master-pieces of art in their kind, and places Hogarth's fame on the broadest and most durable basis. Since the time of Hogarth we have not to notice a genius of a like order, but the art has continued to make considerable progress. Till within the last few years all works of art were en- graved on plates of copper, but about 1820, steel was substituted with great effect, for all subjects which require a great number of impressions. Some of the finest and most delicate subjects en- graven on steel will produce 10,000 im- pressions, while the same on copper would not exceed 1,500, or 2000. Lithography is of comparatively recent invention. This art consists in taking impressions from a drawing e.xecuted on stone and not bit in or engraved like the former. It was first discovered in 1 800. See Lithography. Medallic Engraving. This in- vention was first practised in 1817; a die-sinker of the name of Christian Go- brecht, then living at Philadelphia, pro- duced by a machine, an engraving upon copper of a medallic head of the Empe- ror Alexander of Russia, several impres- sions of which were distributed in that city. In 1819, it was first introduced into London by a Mr. Spencer. In 1829, Mr. Joseph Saxton, an American, born at Huntingdon, in Pennsylvania, who had known Gobrecht, and seen the en- graving from the Russian medal, con- trived a machine somewhat similar in principle to the one brought to England by Mr. Spencer. 1830. Mons. A. Collas, an able me- chanician at Paris, having been com- missioned by an engraver at Ghent, to make a ruling machine for him, also con- structed one for himself on a similar principle. It was not till six months' labour and thought had been bestowed upon it that M. Collas brought his in- vention to a certain degree of perfection ; he produced his first engravings in the spring of 1831. Of the attempts of a similar instrument, made in the United States, he had seen nor heard nothing. Mr. Lacy, connected with the esta- blishment of Messrs. Perkins, Bacon, and Petch, bank-note engravers in Fleet- ENT street, was employed, in 1832, to execute the engraving from a medal representing the bust of WilHam IV., in the frontis- piece of the " Keepsake" for 1833. To- wards the close of the year 1832, M. Col- las sold his patent to a few gentlemen, who, with the aid and under the direction of some of the first French painters, scidp- tors, and engravers, united themselves into a company, under the firm of La- chevardiere and Co. It is to the enterpris- ing spirit of these gentlemen that we are indebted for the "Tresor Numismatique et de Glyptique," which has now reached the extent of 600 plates of medals, bas- reliefs, &c., representing upwards of 5,000 subjects. The work has been widely circulated in France and through- out the continent : most of its plates, for beauty of effect and artist-Uke exe- cution, leave the eye nothing to de- sire. 1839. M. le Page, of Pimlico, has discovered an improved means of en- graving on marble, by covering the sur- face with a coat of cement before the chisel is used. The cement effectually prevents the marble from chipping, and when the coating is removed the letters remain as perfect as if cut in copper. ENNIUS, QuiNTUs, an eminent Ro- man poet, born a.c. 239, flourished during the first Punic war, died aged 70. ENOCH, translated into heaven, a.c. 987, aged 365. ENTERTAINMENT, Places of, about London, first licensed, 1752. ENTOMOLOGY, that part of zoology which treats of the construction and properties of insects. Hippocrates, who flourished in the fifth century before the christian era, seems to have been the first who wrote on insects. Aristotle in his history of animals, under insects comprehended all small animals whose bodies were divided into segments. This definition of insects was followed by all natural historians to the time of Lin- naeus, ^lian, in his work on animals, appropriates several chapters to particu- lar kinds of insects, without entering in a methodical manner into the history of the tribe. Among the Greek writers who imme- diately, or within a few centuries, fol- lowed Aristotle in treating upon insects, were Democritus, Neoptolemus, Aristo- machus, Nicander, Empedocles, Calli- machus, Euphronius of Athens, and Theophrastus. The Latin writers, during ENT 551 EPH the same period, were M. Varro, Celsus Cornelius, Virgil, Columella, Fabianus, and Miinilius. The cultivation of bees was much attended to in those times, and their history detailed by many emi- nent writers. The culture of silkworms was another favourite object with the ancients, as we are assured by Pliny, who has given us an account of all that was known in natural history down to his own times. From the time of Pliny, till the over- throw of the Roman empire, a period of several centuries, the science of insects seems to have made some progress, though to what extent it is impossible to ascertain. Albertus Magnus who wrote a work entitled "De Animalibus," &c., part of which relates to insects, died in 1280, but his work, which was printed at Venice, did not appear till 1519. A- gricola, in a work entitled " De Animali- bus Subterraneis," published in 1549, has given a methodical arrangement of insects; he divided them into, 1. creep- ing insects ; 2. flying insects ; and 3. swimming insects; and gives an account of numerous species. The discovery of the microscope in the I7th century, tended greatly to the ad- vancement of entomology, as by means of it the most minute parts of insects could be viewed, and the organization examined. Naturalists were much en- gaged in making microscopic discoveries, particularly Borel, Rhadi, Swammerdam, Bonanni, Bonomo, Leeuwenhoeck, and Joblot. John Swammerdam, in his " Bibha Naturae," published in 1669, has divided insects into four classes. His work added something important to the knowledge of entomology. No ma- terial work on the subject appeared after the first edition of that of Swammerdam, till 1678 and 1679, in which Lister pub- lished his valuable history of English Spiders, and Madam Merian her exten- sive work on the Metamorphoses of Lepidopterous Insects. Ray pubhshed his " Historia Insectorum," in 1710. Albin published a Natural History of English Insects in 1720, and a Natural History of Spiders in 1736. Reaumur published the first volume of his " Me- moires pour servir a 1' Histoire des In- sectes," at Paris, in the year 1734. Linnaeus, in his first edition of the "Systema Naturae," published in 1735, divided insects into four orders, from the number and different appearances of their wings; 1. Coleoptsra ; 2. Angiop- tera ; 3. Hemiptera ; and, 4. Aptera. In the subsequent editions of the " System of Nature," which he published, he com- pleted the arrangement of insects into seven orders. This is still followed in part, though it must be allowed that great improvements have been made by more recent entomologists. M.^Geoft'roy, a celebrated entomologist, in his " His- toire Abrege des Insectes," published at Paris, in 1762, divided insects into six orders. J. C. SchoefFer made great improvements in the science, and pub- lished in 1766, " Elementa Entomolo- gica, 135 tabliae aera excussae ;" he fol- lows in many points the method of Lin- naeus. During the remainder of last century, the writers on the science chiefly employed themselves in illustrating the Linnean system. The most important modern work on the science is an " Introduction to En- tomology," which appeared in England, the joint labour of Messrs. Kirby and Spence, 2 vols. ; the first in 1815, and the second in 1817. This work pro- fesses to bestow particular attention to the more popular and engaging parts of the science, and must be considered as a philosophical and physiological treatise upon insects, rather than as a guide to their different orders, genera, and species. By the great modern improvements of the microscope, particularly the oxy- hydrogen microscope, exhibited at the Adelaide Gallery, many of the vital func- tions, as well as the organs of motion, habits, &c., of insects, may be accurately observed. By this means a nearer ap- proximation to a correct classical ar- rangement has been obtained. In 1838, the Rev. Mr. Hope read to the British Association a communication on this subject. In the class insecta, great pro- gress had been made, and by the labours of Miiller, Ehrenberg, Grant, and Neu- port, they were making rapid strides towards establishing a classification of insects, on a knowledge of their nervous c fr V 1 1 /> f 1 1 |*p EPAMINONDAS, the celebrated Theban general, slain a.c. 363. EPHESUS, an ancient city, formerly the capital of Ionia, in Asia Minor, built according to Strabo, by Androchus, the son of Codrus. Though repeatedly de- stroyed by war and by earthquakes, it was uniformly rebuilt, and with little delay. Its chief reputation was derived EPI 452 EPI from its temple dedicated to Diana. The nations of all Asia Minor were employed on this edifice for 220 years. Before the time of Pliny it had been injured or destroyed seven or eight times, particu- larly by the notorious Erostratus, a.c. 365, whose only object in the destruction of the temple was, the perpetuating of His name by insuring himself a place in history. It was rebuilt by the Ephesians with greater splendour than before, the Ephesian women contributing their jewels to the fund raised for its restoration. Its ruins now afford shelter to a few shep- herds and their flocks, and the little vil- lage ofyEiasoluh has been built from the scattered fragments of its walls and friezes. In the time of the apostle Paul, the city retained most of its ancient grandeur, and became the seat of the most flourish- ing of the christian churches. Under the emperor Alexis, it fell under the power of the Saracens ; was retaken by the Greeks in 1206; again lost in 1283, and from the commencement of the 14th century has belonged to Turkey. EPHORI, a class of magistrates in ancient Sparta, as a check to the regal power and authority. According to the generality of authors, the ephori Avere first established by Lycurgus, though this is denied by others, who date their origin 130 years after the time of that legislator. Plutarch as- cribes their institution to Theopompus, king of Sparta, a.c. 760. EPHORUS, of Cumae, the historian, flourished a.c. 352. EPHRAIM, one of the tril)es of Pales- tine, so denominated from Ephraira, the son of Joseph by Aseneth, the daughter of Potiphera, priest of On, who was born in Egypt about a.m. 2294. EP'ICTETUS, a distinguished Stoic philosopher, born at Hierapolis, in Phry- gia, in the first century, and was very early in life sold as a slave to Epa- phroditus, a freedman of Nero's guard. Arrian, his disciple, wrote an account of his life and death, which is lost ; and preserved four books of his discourses, and his Enchiridion. In 1758, a trans- lation of them into English was pub- lished by the learned and ingenious Miss Carter. EPICURUS, author of the philosophy which bears his name, was born at Gar- gettium, in Attica, a.c. 342. Having acquired great reputation for natural genius and e.xtensive learning, when about 30 years of age he instituted a new philosophical school at Athens. He died A.c. 270, aged 72. EPI MEN IDES, the first builder of temples in Greece, flourished A. c. 596. E P I M E T H I U S, the inventor of earthen vessels, lied a.c. 171. EPIPHANIUS, an ancient father of the church, was born at a small village in Palestine, about 332. He went into Egypt, where he inclined to the sect of the Gnostics. In his 20th year he re- turned to his own country, where he founded a monastery near the place of his birth, and presided over it. He was afterwards elected bishop of Salamis, where his piety and scanctity were held in high estimation. He was engaged in inveterate opposition to the opinions of Origen. He died at sea on his way to Cyprus, in 403. EPIRUS, district of ancient Greece. Here was the oracle of Dodona, the oldest in Greece, in a temple of Jupiter, but no traces of the ancient city remain. Pyrrhus II., the great enemy of the Ro- mans, was king of this country, and landed in Italy about a.c. 280. Paulus ^milius afterwards subdued the Epirots, and gave up the country to pillage ; 70 towns were destroyed-, and 150,000 men sold into slavery. In a.d. 1432, the Turks, under Amurath II., conquered Epirus ; Castriot, the last of the royal family of Epirus, rejected the Turkish yoke, but after his death Mahomet II., in 1466, established his authority in the fullest manner. See Albania. EPISCOPACY abolished in Scotland, 1689. EPISCOPAL Floating Church Society, incorporated 1828. EPISCOPIUS, Simon, a learned di- vine, born at Amsterdam, in 1583. In. 16C0, he entered on his academical studies at Leyden ; and, in 1612, he was chosen divinity professor at that uni- versity. On account of the Arminian controversy, Episcopius and his friends were objects of enmity and persecution to the deluded populace. They retired to Antwerp; but the times growing more favourable, he returned to Holland in 1626, and was made minister of the church of the Remonstrants at Rotter- dam. In 1634, he was chosen rector of the college founded by the sect at Ams- terdam, where he spent the remainder of his days, in the discharge of the duties ERA 453 ERA of this office till his death, which hap- pened in 1643. EPOCH, in chronology. The terms epoch and era are often confounded ; by epoch is understood, a fixed point in time; and by era, the continual increas- ing space of time which begins with an epoch, and is reckoned from it. The christian epoch is the year of the incar- nation of Jesus Christ ; the epoch of the Jews was either the year of the creation, or of the general deluge, or of the build- ing of the temple, &c.; that of the Greeks was the first of the Olympiads ; that of the Romans, when their city was founded; the ancient Persian and Assyrian epoch was that of Nabonassar ; and the Ma- hometan epoch was fixed to the year of the Hegira, or flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, which happened on Friday, July IG, a.d. 622. The epoch adopted throughout Christendom is that of Christ, commencing at the supposed time of his nativity, December 25, or rather, according to the usual account, from his circumcision, or January 1. This epoch began to be used in the year 507, or, according to some, 527; and the author of it was Dionysius Exiguus, a native of Scythia, and at that time an abbot of the church of Rome. He be- gan his account from the annunciation, or lady-day, and this method prevailed in Britain till 1752, when the Gregorian calendar was adopted, which fixed the commencement of the date to January 1. See Era. The following are the most remarkable epochs. Julian Year of Years period. the world. before Christ. 706 4004 2362 1656 2351 2537 1813 2176 3157 2451 1556 3529 2823 1184 3701 2995 1012 3776 3070 937 3938 3232 77Q 3961 3255 753 3967 3261 747 4282 3576 431 4390 3684 323 4713 4007 A.D. 4783 4077 70 4997 4291 284 5038 4332 325 5335 4629 622 5344 4638 631 6295 5589 1582 The creation of the world The general deluge Assyrian monarchy founded by Nimrod. . . . Kingdom of Athens founded by Cecrops . . Destruction of Troy Solomon's temple founded The expedition of the Argonauts Olympiads began (Grecian epoch) Building of Rome (Roman epoch) Epoch of Nabonassar (Chaldean or Egyptian "1 epoch) J Peloponnesian war began Alexander's death Christian epoch (birth of Christ) Jerusalem destroyed Dioclesian epoch (epoch of the martyrs) .... Council of Nice ' The Hegira (Mahometan epoch) . . . , , The Yesdegird (Persian epoch) Correction of the calendar by Pope Gregory. EPPING Hunt. The Easter hunt at Epping commenced in 1226, when Henry HI. confirmed to the citizens of London free warren, or liberty to hunt a circuit about this city, in the warren of Staines, Hainault Forest, &c. EPSOM, a town in Surrey, seated near to Banstead Downs, and having in the vicinity a celebrated medicinal spring, discovered in 1618. EQUATOR, OR Uruguay, one of the three republics into which Columbia is divided. See Uruguay. ERA, in chronology. See Epoch. As the eras of the nations of antiquity have become obsolete, and as the principal events in their histories have been re- duced to the respective years of the christian era, either before or after the birth of our Saviour, those eras are now seldom used except by those who read the writings of antiquity. The following are the principal eras, now occasionally in use. Creation of the World. There have been as many as 140 opinions on the distance of time between this event and the birth of our Saviour. Some make it as small as 3616 years, and some as great as 6484. The chronology which ERA 454 ERA is usually given with the authorised ver- sion of the Bible, places the event in the 4004th year before the commencement of the common era. The Olympiads. The first year of the first olympiad begins in the summer of the 776lh year before the common era; the first year of the second Olym- piad, in the summer of the 772nd year, and so on. See Olympiad. The Foundation of Rome. The 753rd year before the commencement of the common era, according to the calcu- lation usually adopted. The Christian Era, used by almost all christian nations, dates from January 1, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, in the 753rd of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very gene- rally employed for some centuries after. The Abyssinian Era. TheAbyssi- nians reckon their years from the crea- tion, which they place in the 5493rd year before our era, August 29, old style ; and their dates will consequently exceed ours by 5492 years and 125 days. They have 12 months of 30 days each, and five days added at the end. The Jewish Era. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucides, until the 15th century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. Some insist strongly on the antiquity of their present era ; but it is generally believed not to be more ancient than the century above named. They date from the crea- tion, which they consider to have been 3760 years and three months before the commencement of our era. The Era of Nabonassar received its name from that of a prince of Baby- lon, under whose reign astronomical studies were much advanced in Chaldaea. The years are vague, containing 365 days each, without intercalation. The first day of the era was Wednesday, February 26, a.c. 747. The Egyptian Era. The old Egyp- tian year was /identical with the era of Nabonassar, beginning Feb. 26, a.c. 747, and consisting of 365 days only. It was reformed 30 years before Christ, at which period the commencement of theyear had arrived, by continually reced- ing, to August 29, which was determined to be in future the first day of the year. Their years and months coincide exactly with those of the era of Dioclesian. The Julian Period is a term of years produced by the multiplication of the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle, 28, and Roman indiction 15. It consists of 7980 years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in computing time to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period ante- cedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mundane eras used at different times. The Grecian Era, or Era of the Seleucides, dates from the reign of Seleu- cus Nicator, 311 years and four months before Christ. It was used in Syria for many years, and frequently by the Jews, until the 15th century, and by some Arabians to this day. It is used in the book of Maccabees, and appears to have begun with Nisan. The Hegira, commencing on July 16, in the 622nd year after the common era. See Hegira. ERASMUS or Desiderius, a cele- brated writer, was born at Rotterdam, in 1467. His father and mother died when he was about 13 years of age; and his guardians forced him into the church, with a view of embezzling his property. He entered among the regular canons in the monastery of Stein, near Tergou. He afterwards went to Paris, and studied in the college of Montaigne, supporting himself by giving private lectures. Some of his pupils were the sons of English- men, at whose request he visited this countr)', in the year 1497, and contracted many valuable fiiendships. He removed to Flanders, in 1514, and was soon afterwards made councillor to prince Charles of Austria. He after- wards paid a visit to Basil, where he published his New Testament in Greek and Latin. In 1516, his edition of St. Jerome made its appearance ; and in the following year a work entitled " Querela Pacis," occasioned by the failure of a plan for a congress of princes at Cam- bray, who should enter into mutual en- gagements for the preservation of peace. The celebrated Colloquies of Erasmus, published in 1522, were so evidently of a reforming tendency, that they were denominated by the Faculty of Theology at Paris, as "a wicked book," the perusal of which should be forbidden to all. In the first year of the reformation, he was highly regarded by Luther ; but owing to some unadvised attacks made upon him, about 1520, by the reformers. ERI 455 ERS he was driven to enlist among the de- fenders of the church of Rome. 1524. Erasmus pubhshed his treatise " De Libero Arbitrio," which was an avowed attack upon Lujiher's opinions concerning predestination. In 1529, he left Basil for Friburg, and seemed now more than ever, fearful of being thouglit friendly to the reformation. Jn 1535, he returned to Basil; and so highly was he esteemed by the church of Rome, that preparations were made to give him a place in the college of cardinals. But his health rapidly declined ; and on July 12, 1536, he died of a dysentery, aged 69. He was buried with great funeral pomp, in the cathedral church of Basil. He had assumed the name of Erasmus in conformity with the pedantic taste then prevailing among men of letters of taking names of Greek or Latin etymology ; he translated his name of Gerard, signifying Amiable, into the equivalent ones of Desiderius in Latin, and Erasmus in Greek, making use of both, butthe latter was his common appellation. The best and most elegant edition of his works is that published in Holland, by Le Clerc, in 11 volumes folio, 1703. ERATOSTHENES, the Greek philo- sopher, flourished a.c. 300. ERFURT or Erfurth, formerly Erpis, an ancient town of Germany, in Upper Saxony, the capital of Thuringia. The university was established in 1392, and the professors' chairs were allowed to be filled half with Roman catholic, and half with protestant teachers. In 1754, an academy of sciences was formed, to which were added, a botanical garden, an anatomical theatre, an astronomical observatory, a riding school, and a so- ciety of natural history. In ISO6, 14,000 Prussians, who had escaped from the battle of Jena, took refuge in this town, but were compelled to surrender to the French on the following day. In 1808, it was the scene of an interview between the emperor of Russia and Napoleon ; and in 1813, served as an asylum for the French army, after the battle of Leipsic. ERIE, Fort, taken by the American General Brown, July 3, 1814. Attacked successfully by the British, with the loss of 962 men, Aug. 15, 1814. Sortie from, repulsed by the British, but with great loss, Sept. 17, 1814. Evacuated by the Americans, Nov. 5, 1814. ERIE Canal, commences at the city of Albany, and terminates at Buffalo, in the country of Erie ; connects the waters of the Hudson River with those of Lake Erie. It is 363 miles in length, has 83 locks, each 90 feet long in the clear, and 15 feet wide, of 689 feet rise and fall, and 18 aqueducts; the longest at Roch- ester, 804 feet, across the Gennessee river ; the canal is 40 feet wide at the surface, 28 feet at the bottom, and four deep. It was commenced in 1817, and finished in 1825. ERIE, Lake, North America, sepa- rates the United States from British A- merica ; it is 280 miles long from south- west to north-east ; varying in breadth from 10 to 63 miles, and 658 miles in circuit, covering 12,000 square miles in surface. This lake is navigable for ves- sels of any burden, but dangerous on ac- count of numerous rocks which project from the northern shore. An engage- ment took place on this lake, Sep. 10, 1813, between an American and an En- glish squadron, the former commanded by Admiral Perry. ERI VAN, or Persian Arm enia, town and province of Persia. In 1724, this town was besieged by the pacha of Algezira, and capitulated after a vigorous resist- ance. . It had been in the possession of the Persians since 1748. The Russians blockaded it in 1808, and after a pro- tracted siege, endeavoured to take it by storm, but were repulsed with great slaughter. It was taken by the Russians in the Persian war, October, 1827. ERMINE, order of knighthood, be^an in France, 1450 ; in Naples, 1463. ERSKINE, Thomas, Lord, was the third son of the earl of Buchan, and born in Scotland in 1750. He was educated for the naval service, and went to sea at a very early age. On quitting the sea- service in 1768, he entered into the army as an ensign, and accompanied his re- giment to Minorca. On his return to England in 1772, he appears to have ac- quired considerable reputation for the acuteness and versatility of his conversa- tional talents. At length, encouraged by the appro- bation of his mother, the countess of Buchan, he entered upon the study of the law in 1777, and registered his name as a fellow-commoner of Trinity College, Cambridge, and a student of Lincoln's Inn. One of his college declamations still extant, was the Revolution of I688, which gained the first prize. Mr. Erskine was called to the bar in ERZ 456 ESS 1778; and was very shortly afterwards presented with an opportunity of dis- playing his shining oratorical powers, in favour of Captain Baillie, who had been deprived of the directorship of Green- wich Hospital by the late earl of Sand- wich, then first lord of the admiralty. His defence of Admiral Keppel, for which he received 1000 guineas, com- pletely established his fame as an advo- cate ; and, from that time, business be- gan to press upon him to an extraordi- nary extent, and he was looked upon as one of the most able counsellers in the court of King's Bench. In 1783, he was nominated to a seat in the House of Commons as a representative of the borough of Portsmouth. His defence of Paine is said to have cost Mr. Erskine the situation of attorney-general to the prince of Wales. In 1802, however, he was restored to his situation, and also made keeper of the seals, to the duchy of Cornwall. The most brilliant event in his professional life was the part he undertook, in conjunction with Sir Vi- cary Gibbs, in the state-trials in 1794. The trials lasted several days, and ended in the acquittal of the prisoners. 1806. On the accession of Mr. Fox and his party to power, Mr. Erskine was sworn a member of the privy council, created a baron (Feb. 7 , 1806) by the title of Lord Erskine, of Restonnel-castle, in Cornwall, and entrusted with the great seal as lord high chancellor of Eng- land, in which latter capacity he pre- sided at the trial of Lord Melville. On the dissolution of the Whig administra- tion. Lord Erskine retired ripon a pen- sion of £4000 a-year. Although his lordship was in opposition to the measures of government, the Prince Regent, in 1815, invested him with the order of the thistle. He died at Almonde, six miles from Edinburgh, in 1823. ERZERUM, or Erzerom, city, Asi- atic Turkey, capital of Armenia ; taken by the Russians, 1829- Count Paske- witch appeared before it on July 2, stormed the intrenchments, and put the Turks to flight; they lost 1,500 pri- soners, with the greatest part of their artillery, ammunition, and provisions. On the 5th, the Russian columns ad- vanced against the town, and it was given up, with 150 cannon, and large maga- zines of ammunition and provisions. The Seraskier himself, and four of his principal pachas, were made prisoners. ESAU born, a.c. 1836. E S C O T House, near Honiton, de- stroyed by fire, Dec. 27, 1808. ESCURIAL, a village of Spain, cele- brated for the superb palace of the Es- curial, or St. Lorenzo, one of the finest in Europe. It was built in commemo- ration of a victory which Philip II. ob- tained over the French at St. Quintin, on St. Lorenzo's or St. Laurence's day, in 1557. The burial-place of the royal fa- mily, called the Pantheon, was begun by Philip III, and completed by Philip IV. ESOP, a native of Phrygia, who lived at the time of Solon, about the 51st Olympiad, a.c. 572, during the reign of Croesus, the last king of Lydia. His condition was that of a slave, and his person was so deformed, that one of his masters found great difficulty in dispos- ing of him, as every one who saw him was shocked at the unsightliness of his figure. Having obtained his liberty, Esop acquired very distinguished repu- tation, and was much esteemed by Croe- sus. Eusebius and Suidas refer his death to the 54th Olympiad ; but this date is not consistent \\dth the occasion to which Phfedrus ascribes the fable of the frogs. In Blair's Tables, his death is fixed at about a.c. 5G1. ESOPUS, now Kingston, on North River, in North America, totally destroyed, with great quantities of stores, October 15, 1777. ESQUIMAUX, a people of North- America, inhabiting the coasts of La- brador and Hudson's Bay. They were visited by the Moravian brethren in 1764. In 1826, both Captain Frank- lin's and Dr. Richardson's parties were attacked on the same day by great num- bers of these people, who had stationed themselves in the eastern and western outlets of the Mackenzie. ESSEQUIBO, colony, South Ameri- ca, in British Guiana, on a river of the same name, originally settled by the Dutch ; taken, and finally ceded in 1814 to the British. Mr. Schomburgk, in his expedition, under the direction of the Geographical Society, into the interior of Guiana, in the years 1835 and 1836, undertook to explore the course of the river Essequibo and several of its tribu- taries. He pursued his course, under unexampled difficulties, to the grand ca- taract, which put a stop to their further proceedings, and which had never been visited by any European. ETH 457 ETR ESSEX, Thomas Cromwell, Eakl OF, See Cromwell. ESSEX, Robert Devereux, Earl OF. See Devereux. ESTADO LuD Peruano, new inde- pendent state of South America, includ- ing the four provinces of Cuzco, Aya- ciicho, Puno, and Arequipa. In conse- quence of the defeat of the Peruvian chief, Salaberry, in February, 1836, by the united armies of Bolivia and Peru, the representatives of the four southern provinces assembled at Sicuani, March 17, 1837, declared their separation from the republic of Peru and their incorpo- ration into an independent state. ESTCOURT, Richard, dramatic au- thor, died 1713, aged 48. ESTHONIA government, European Russia, was anciently subject to Russia, but, in 1385, sold to the Teutonic knights, and made part of Livonia. It was an object of fierce contention for many years between the Russians, Poles, and Swedes, but was ceded to the last mentioned, in 1660, by the peace of Oliva ; it was sub- dued by Peter the Great, of Russia, in 1710, and finally confirmed to that power in 1721. ETHELBALD I., tenth king of the Mercians, 15th monarch of England, in 716, was slain by his own subjects when he was leading his troops against Cuthred, the west Saxon, in 756. ETHELBALD IL, king of England, eldest son of Ethel wolf, succeeded in 857. Died Dec. 20, 860. ETHELBERT I., fifth king of Kent, and sixth monarch of England, in 592. St. Augustine first arrived in his domi- nions, to whose doctrine Ethelbert be- came a convert. He died Feb. 24, 61 7, and was buried at Canterbury. ETHELBERT II., second son of Ethehvolf, succeeded in 860. He died in 856, and was buried at Sherborne. ETHELBERT'S Tower, in Canter- bury, built 1047. ETHELRED I., king of England, succeeded to the throne in 866. In a battle with the Danes he was wounded at Wittingham, Berkshire, which occa- sioned his death, April 27, 872, and he was buried at Winborne, in Dorset- shire. ETHELRED 11. succeeded, and was crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames, on April 14, 979. During his reign, Eng. land was ravaged by the Danes. Ethel red died, April 24, 1016, ETHELWOLF, eldest son of Egbert succeeded his father, notwithstanding, at the time of Egbert's death, he was bishop of Winchester. His son Ethel- bald obliged him to divide the sovereignty with him, 356, He died Jan. 13, 857, and was buried at Winchester. ETNA, or Gibello, a celebrated vol- canic mountain of Sicily, at the east end in the Val di Demona. The first record- ed eruption of this volcano was in the time of Pythagoras. In the reign of Dionysius the younger, the sixth took place. It threw up flames of lava nearly a hundred times between that period and the battle of Pharsalia. It was particu- larly furious while Sextus Pompeius was adding the ravages of war to its devastations. Charlemagne was at Ca- tania during one of its eruptions ; and from his reign the Sicilian chronicles mention fifteen, down to that of I669, the most terrible of them all. The most considerable eruptions of modern times, happened in the years 1535, 1554, 1566, 1579, 1669, 1692, 1755, 1766, 1787, and I8O9. The eruption of 1669 com- menced March 8, near Nicolosi ; on the lOth, a chasm several miles in length opened in the sides of the mountains; several others were afterwards opened : -the stream of lava was two miles broad, ami continued its course for some months. In the eruption of 1809, no fewer than 12 new openings appeared half way down the mountain, and continued during several weeks. Another appeared May 26, 1830, when seven new craters were opened, and eight villages with the in- haitants destroyed. The last was in 1832. ETON owes its importance to its college, or school, founded by Henry VI. in 1440, under the title of "The King's College of our Lady at Eton by syde Windsore." There are at pre- sent a provost, vice-provost, six fel- lows, 70 scholars, two masters, having each four assistants, two conductors or priests, an organist, eight lay clerks, two choristers, with subordinate offi- cers. ETRURIA, kingdom of, created, out of the grand duchy of Tuscany, by the rench, 1801 ; annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1807. ETRURIANS, conquered by the Romans, a.c, 567; submitted to Ca- millus, 3S6 ; privileges of citizens con- ferred on them, 381. 3 N EUG 458 EUL EUCLID, the" mathematician, was born at Alexandria, and flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus, about A.c. 277- We have no certain informa- tion as to the precise period, either of his birth or death. The most celebrated of his works is his Elements of Geome- try. The elements have been translated into the language of every country where learning has been introduced ; and a multiplicity of commentaries have at different times, and by various authors, been written on them. Among the Arabic translations of Euclid, that of Honain Ebn Ishak al Ebadi has been particularized ; he was a learned physi- cian, and flourished in the reign of the Caliph al Motawakkel, a.d. 847- Ade- lard, a monk of Bath, who lived in the 12th century, appears to be the first who made a Latin translation, which he did from the Arabic, as no Greek copy had then been discovered. The editions of Euclid now mostly used in this coun- try are those of Simson, Playfair, and Ingram ; that of Dr. Simpson was pub- lished in 1756. But the most perfect edition of the works of Euclid which has hitherto appeared in this country, is that by Dr. David Gregory, in Greek and Latin, published at Oxford in 1703. EUGENE, Francis, prince of Savoy, commonly known by the name of Prince Eugene, was descended from Carignan, one of the three branches of the house of Savoy, and born at Paris in 1663. His father, Eugene Maurice, was general of the Swiss and Grisons. His mother, Olympia Marcini, niece of Car- dinal Mazarin, was a woman of an in- triguing disposition, and once the chief favourite of Louis XIV. Thinking that his merits were slighted by the French court, he quitted France in 1683, full of enmity against its sovereign, and vowing that he would liever re-enter his terri- tories, except with arms in his hands. He arrived at Vienna at the moment when it was closely besieged by the Turkish army, and having greatly signa- lised himself both in the defeat and pur- suit of the enemy, he was appointed, in the course of a few months, to a colo- nelcy of dragoons. From this time his reputation increased, with every action in which he engaged, till, in the year 1697, he was appointed to the command of the imperial army. In the autumn of this year, he entirely defeated the Turks at the battle of Zeuta, in which the grand vizier, and more than 20,000 men were left on the field. When the war of the Spanish succes- sion broke out, in 1701, Prince Eugene was appointed to the command of the Austrian army in Italy, which consisted of 30,000 veteran troops. At the cele- brated battle of Blenheim, he command- ed the imperial part of the army, and in the battle of Malplaquet, in 1709, he received a wound behind his ear. At length, all parties being worn out with perpetual war, Eugene was appointed to negotiate with Villars, at Rastadt ; and, in the course of the year 1714, concluded a general peace between the empire and France. But he was soon after called out to contend again with the Turks, whom he signally defeated in the year 1716. 1717. He undertook the siege of Bel- grade, which surrendered, and an ad- vantageous peace was the result of this victor)'. In the year 1733, when it was proposed to resist, by force of arms, the intention of the French court to replace Stanislaus on the throne of Poland, Prince Eugene strongly dissuaded the emperor from a war in which he foresaw so little support, and so formidable an enemy ; but his counsel was overruled, and he accepted the command of the army at the age of 70. Though greatly inferior in numbers, he prevented the duke of Berwick from penetrating into the heart of the country ; and in the fol- lowing campaign, he finished his mili- tary career, by taking Trarbach, and deli- vering the electorate of Treves. He spent the remaining years of his life in complete retirement, and died tranquilly at Vienna, April 10, 1736, in the 73d year of his age. EULER, Leonard, an eminent ma- thematician of the 18th century, was born at Basil in 1707- He was after- wards sent to the university of Basil, and in 1723, took his degree as master of arts. In 1725, an academy of sciences being instituted at Petersburgh, he was made joint professor with his coun- trymen, Messrs. Hermann, and Daniel Bernouilli. It was at this time that he carried to new degrees of perfection the integral calculus, invented the calcu- lation of sinuses, reduced analytical ope- rations to a greater simplicity, and thus was enabled to throw new light on all the parts of mathematical science. In EUP 459 EUP 1730, he was promoted to tlis professor- ship of natural philosophy ; and in 1733, he succeeded his friend Daniel Bernouilli in the mathematical chair. 1735. A problem was proposed by the academy which required expedition, and for the solution of which several eminent mathematicians had demanded the space of some months. The problem was sol- ved by Euler in three days, to the great astonishment of the academy. In 1742, he obtained a pension from the academy at Petersburgh, and in 1766, by permis- sion of the king of Prussia, returned to Petersburgh. Soon after his return, having lost his sight, he dictated to his servant, a youth entirely ignorant of the first principles of mathematics, his Ele- ments of Algebra. About this time he became a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and, after this, the aca- demical prize was adjudged to three of his memoirs, on the Inequalities in the Mo- tions of Planets. At length his life was terminated by a fit of apoplexy, Sept. 7, 1783, at the age of 76. EUPHRATES, one of the most con- siderable rivers of Asia, the source of which is in the mountains of Armenia. According to Ptolemy, above Babylon it divided itself into two branches, one running to Babylon, and the other to Seleucia, where it fell into the Tigris. Between these two branches a canal was cut from the Euphrates, above Babylon, to the Tigris at Apamea, 60 miles below Seleucia. At the distance of 800 furlongs from Babylon, to the south, was another canal, called by Arrian Pallacopes, on which Alexander sailed from the Eu- phrates to certain lakes or marshes in Chaldea. The canal of Pallacopes, dug by the Babylonian kings, had fallen into decay, and was partially cleaned out in 1793, by the nabob of Oude. The navigation of this river is at pre- sent a matter of peculiar interest to the British public, in consequence of the pro- ject for opening a communication be- tween England and the East Indies, by the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf. It is stated that the Euphrates is navigable for steam-boats from Bassora to Hit, lat. 33«42'N.,long. 42°30'E., at all sea- sons of the year; but from Hit, upwards, it becomes more difficult. The greatest objection to the route to India, by the Euphrates, arises from the character of the Arabs, whose naturally wandering and plundering habits are strengthened by an unsettled government. The Tigris is more easily navigated than the Euphrates as far as Bagdad, because the depth of water is more equal. Captain (now Colonel) Chesney, in a report on the navigation of this river a few years ago, stated his reasons for be- lieving this undertaking to be practi- cable. With a view to substantiate his plan he minutely examined the river be- tween Anna and Babylon, and for the rest of the course between Bir and Bas- sora, collected information for the pur- pose of enabling those interested to judge of the propriety of establishing this line of communication. The only information we formerly had of that part of the course of the river was from Ran- wolf, a German traveller, who, in 1575, undertook a similar voyage down the Euphrates. The point on the river which Captain Chesney proposed as the station of the steam-boats is Bir, on the left bank. The position of this town is fixed at about lat. 36° 59' N.; long. 38° 7' E. From Bir to Bassora, follow- ing the windings of the river, the distance was calculated by Captain Chesney at 1143 miles. If to the 1143 miles between Bas- sora and Bir we add 600 miles more, following the river to its source along the Morad, this will make 1743 miles. The distance from Bassora to the gulf in- creases the whole to about 1800 miles. Captain Chesney afterwards made pro- posals for a second expedition to explore the other part of the river, preparatory to carrying into eflfect his original plan of establishingsteam navigation on the Eu- phrates. In 1834, the last difficulties of preparation were removed, and this perse- vering navigator set out in order to reap the reward of his labours and exertions, by being allowed to make his experiment in his own way. The expedition sailed in the George Canning, of Liverpool; which was chartered to convey it to Scan- deroon, whence it was planned that the iron boats, and other materials, should be transported across the desert. Preparatory to this principal expedi- tion in August, 1835, Lieutenant Mur- phy commenced the grand line of levels from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates with reference to canals and other objects of deep interest connected with science. In the early part of January, 1836, Colonel Chesney, who had suffered much from indisposition, left his bed, and was actually put upon his horse to prosecute a scientific journey to Mount Taurus and part of Asia Minor ; he was accompanied EUP 460 EUR 1)y Lieutenant Murphy, Mr. Ainsworth, and Mr. Staunton. In March, having reached the river, the expedition was put in motion, consisting of the Euphrates and Tigris steam-vessels. On June 9, the Euphrates steamer arrived oflf Bas- sora, and celebrated its safe descent of the great river whose name it bore, gra- tifying, at the same time, the feelings of loyalty excited by the remembrance of the monarch under whose patronage this enterprise was carried on, by firing a number of guns equivalent to the age of that late regretted monarch, William IV. At a subsequent period two different as- cents were made of the Karun and two descents of the Bahamishir, while tlie country, intervening between the Je- rahi and the Euphrates, the great delta of Susiana, concerning which so much that is incorrect is laid down in our most modern maps, was examined. 1836. Orders came in September to proceed up the Tigris river. This was accordingly done, although the difficul- ties presented themselves of a current considerably stronger at this season of the year, and of the numerous sandbanks and shoals, such as do not characterize the sister stream, and which rendered the navigation at the low season much more formidable. The Arabs were found peaceable ; wood was met with in abun- dance on the banks of the river ; and the Euphrates succeeded in ascending to Bagdad, in a period of 1 04^^ hours ; being a distance, from the mouth of the river, of 543 miles. A second time, in the month of December, 1836, was the river Tigris ascended to upwards of 400 miles beyond its junction with the Euphrates. 1837. In March Colonel Chesney ac- complished his last arduous and dan- gerous task of taking a mail from the Persian gulf of Zoobei'r, across the great desert to Bairut, which he did, unaccom- panied by any European. At a late meeting of the British Asso- ciation, was read a letter from Lieutenant Lynch, Ind. Navy, dated Hit, June 1, 1838, describing the facility with which his steamer had ascended the Euphrates from Bassora to that place. Between Hillahand Hit the Euphrates is a broad, deep, and beautiful stream, in some of its bends nearly a mile wide ; the country extremely fertile; the crops of corn abun- dant, and just reaped ; the population of Arabs along the banks extensive, and apparently happy, welcoming the ap- proach of the steamer with shouting and dancing, and supplying its wants of fuel with great readiness and cordiality. ITie productions of the country, as wool, naphtha, bitumen, ghi or butter, tallow, corn in abundance, and horses of the finest breed, are mentioned as easy to be obtained, and in large quantities. The letter concludes with an expression of the writer's conviction that a profitable trade might easily be established ; and, after the experience he has had of the river, that there are no physical obstacles to its free navigation with properly constructed vessels. An explanation was then given of maps which were exhibited, and par- ticularly of that showing the line of levels carried between the Mediterranean at Iskandertim and the river Euphrates at Birehjik ; whence we learn that the city of Antioch is situated 300 feet above the sea, the town of Birehjik, 628 feet; and the highest point between the sea and the river rises 1720 feet above the Mediterranean. On May 14, the royal gold medal of the Geographical Society was presented to Colonel Chesney, for his distinguished services to Geography; as " opening the road into a large range of country hitherto very imperfectly known ; navigating, for the first time in modern history, two of the most cele- brated rivers of the ancient world, the Euphrates and the Tigris ; adding largely to our knowledge of Syria and Mesopo- tamia, Assyria, and Susiana; carrying on a line of levels from Iskanderiim to Bir, and thence, along the whole course of the Euphrates, to the Persian gulf ; and laying down the course of the Orontes from its mouth to Jisr Hadid." EURIPIDES, one of the most cele- brated tragic poets of Greece, was born about A.c. 468, in the isle of Salamis. He used to shut himself up in a cave to compose his tragedies, which were so highly esteemed in his own time, that when the Athenian army, commanded by Nicias, was defeated in Sicily, the sol- diers purchased their lives and liberties by reciting the verses of Euripides. He died when he was about 75 years of age. Of the 92 tragedies which he composed, only 19 are remaining; the most valu- able editions of which are those of Aldus, in 1503, 8 vo. ; of Plautin, in 15/0, l6mo. ; of Comelin, in 1597. 8vo.; of Paul Ste- vens, in 1604. 4to. ; and of Joshua Barnes, I694, folio. EUROPE, the smallest of the great EUR 461 EUS .divisions of our globe, but distinguished above the rest by the flourishing condi- tion of arts, sciences, industry, and com- merce. It is probable that the first in- habitants emigrated from Asia. Greece was first peopled by these emigrants, about A.c. 1400. The most flourishing period of the Greeks was about a.c. 300. The Romans, who appeared at an ear- lier period, made no figure in history till they had become masters of Italy, and had proved victorious in their struggle with the Carthaginians, a.c. 146. From that period their power began to extend over all Europe. By the progress of the Roman arms, Spain, Portugal, France, the coast of England, Belgium, Helvetia, the part of Germany between the Da- nube and the Alps, the Hungarian pro- vinces (then called Pannonia, lUyria, and Dacia), became known, and received the Roman manners, language, and refine- ment. With the fall of the Roman empire, occasioned chiefly by its separation into the eastern and western empires, a great change in the political constitution of Europe was produced by the universal emigration of the northern nations, who poured down upon the beautiful and cul- tivated countries of the Roman empire. The Ostrogoths and Lombards settled in Italy about 493 ; the Franks in France about 508 ; the Visigoths in Spain about 585 ; and the Anglo-Saxons in South Britain about 685. The empire of the Franks was enlarged, under Charle- magne, to such an extent, that the king- dom of France, Germany, Italy, Bur- gundy, Lorraine, and Navarre, were afterwards formed out of it. About this time the northern and eastern nations of Europe began to exert an influence in the aflfairs of the world. The Slavi, or Sclavonians, founded kingdoms in Bohe- mia, Poland, Russia, and the north of Germany ; the Magyarians appeared in Hungary, and the Normans agitated all Europe. The revival of letters, by the Greeks fleeing from Constantinople, gave an entirely new impulse to Europe. Out of the chaos of the middle ages arose the states of Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, England, Scotland, Switzer- land, the Italian powers, Hungary, Bohemia, Poland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Russia. By the capture of Constantinople (1453), the Turks became a European power. Austria, Holland, Prussia, and Sardinia were also added to the number of European states ; and Russia, from the time of Peter I. 1682, was changed from an Asiatic into a European empire. The attempts of Charles V. and Louis XIV. to become masters of Europe failed; but, in our own times. Napoleon conceived jthe project of forming, from the European states, a universal monarchy, and pur- sued it for 10 years. Since the formation of the states of Europe, the following have disappeared from the list of independent powers : Hungary, Poland, the German empire, Scotland, Bohemia, Venice, Genoa, and and Milan. The following have been added : the states of the Germanic con- federacy, the Italian states, the republic of the Ionian islands, and the kingdom of Greece. STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL, EUROPEAN STATES FOR 1830. Areain German European States, square miles of Poxmlation. about 21 J English. Austria . 12,151 32,500,000 Bavaria 1,477 4,037,017 British Empire . 5,556 22,297,621 Denmark 2,465 2,057,531 France . 10,086 32,052,545 Hanover 695 1,582,574 Netherlands 1,196 6,977,500 Ottoman Empin } 9,602 9,393,000 Portugal 1,722 3,782,550 Prussia 5,054 12,778,403 Russia 66,718 41,990,000 Sardinia 1,363 4,167,377 Saxony 271 1,400,100 Sicilies (The Tw( 3) 1,947 7,414,7ir Church States 811 2,483,940 Sweden 13,734 3,878,700 Switzerland 696 2,037,030 Spain 8,446 13,651,172 Tuscany 395 1,300,530 Wirtemberg 359 1,535,403 Minor Provinces 29,304 43,694,175 Total 174,048 251,011,885 For further particulars see the names of the diflFerent countries, Austria, Ba- varia, &c. EUSEBIUS, surnamed Pamphilus, the celebrated bishop of Csesarea, was born in Palestine about 270. In the per- secution of Dioclesian he removed to Tyre, and thence travelled into Egypt ; but the same persecution was carried on in that country, and Eusebius was im- EUS 462 EXA prisoned. When the persecution abated, he returned to Palestine, and was elected bishop of Caesarea, as is generally sup- pose(), in the year 315. At the council of Nice, in 325, he was, by the command of Constantine, placed on the right hand of the throne, and commenced the business of the day by an elegant address to the emperor. He was also present at the council of An- tioch, in which Eustathius, bishop of that city, was deposed. In 335, he as- sisted at the council of Tyre, held against Athanasius ; and at the assembly of bishops at Jerusalem, at the time of the dedication of the church there. By these bishops he was sent to the Emperor Constantine to defend what they had done against Athanasius. Eusebius died in 339. ManyofEusebius's most valuable works are entirely lost, and of others only translations of some parts of the original remain. The Evangelical or Ecclesias- tical History, in 10 books, which con- tains the history of the church from the birth of Christ, to the death of the elder Licinus, a period of 324 years, is ac- counted the most valuable, as it furnishes the principal information which we pos- sess concerning the first ages of Chris- tianity. EUSTATHIANS, a name given to the catholics of Antioch, in the fourth cen- tury, on occasion of their refusal to ac- knowledge any other bishop besides St. Eustathius, deposed by the Arians. EUSTATHIANS were also a sect of heretics in the fourth century, denomi- nated from their founder Eustathius, a monk so foolishly fond of his own pro- fession, that he condemned all other con- ditions of life. EUSTATIA, orEusTATius, island. West Indies, one of the Leeward or Caribbee islands. The Dutch made the first settlement here about 1600. In 1665, it was taken by the British; but in 1667, the French expelled the English, and restored the island to the Dutch. In 1689, the English retook it, but re- signed it at the termination of the war in 1697- In 1781, a large naval and military British force seized the island, and confiscated all the property on it, but, in the same year, were themselves driven out by the French. In 1809, they retook it, but ceded it finally to the Dutch in 1814, with whom it still re- mains. EUTROPIUS, the Roman historian, flourished 428. EUTYCHIANS, ancient heretics, who denied the union of two natures in Christ ; thus denominated from Euty- ches, the archimandrite, or abbot of a monastery at Constantinople, who began to propagate his opinion in 448. This heresy was first condemned in a synod held at Constantinople by Flavian, in 448, approved by the council of Ephesus in 449, and re-examined and fulminated, in the general council of Chalcedon, in 451. EUTYCHIUS, patriarch of Constan- tinople, was born in 512. He was brought up to the ecclesiastical profession, and obtained in early life the episcopal dig- nity in a town of Pontus, which he after- wards relinquished, and entered into a monastery in the city of Amasaea. In 552, he was deputed by the bishop of that city to Constantinople, as his re- presentative, in the approaching general council that was to be held there. Be- fore the meeting of the council he ob- tained the favour of Justinian, who raised him to the patriarchate in 553. He died in 585, aged 73. EVELYN, John, a learned writer and natural philosopher, was bom at Wooton, in Surrey, in 1620. After mak-' ing the tour of Europe, he returned to England about 1651. He was one of the first promoters of the Royal Society, and a patron of the ingenious and indi- gent. In 1662, he published " Sculp- tura, or the History and Art of Chalco- graphy, or Engraving on Copper." In the reign of James II., during the ab- sence of the earl of Clarendon in Ireland, he was made one of the commissioners for executing the office of privy seal, and after the revolution he was appointed treasurer of Greenwich Hospital. Mr. Evelyn died in 1706, aged 86. He is best known as an author by his "Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees." EXALTATION of the Cross, in- stituted 629- EXAMINATION of Witnesses. A recent and important act, 1 Will, IV. c 22, March 30, 1831, to enable courts of law to order the examination of wit- nesses upon interrogatories and other- wise ; enacts that aU the power, provi- sions, and matters contained in the 13 Geo. III. c. 63, relating to the examina- tion of witnesses in India, shall be ex- tended to all colonies, islands, planta- EXC tions, and places tinder the dominion of his majesty in foreign parts, and to the judges of the several courts therein, and to all actions depending in any of his ma- jesty's courts of law at Westminster. EXARCH, an appellation given by the emperors of the east to certain officers sent into Italy, in the quality of vicars, or prefects, to defend that part of Italy which was yet under their obedience. The Exarchs of Ravenna began under Longinus, 569, were conquered by the Lombards, 752. EXCHANGE, Royal. See Royal Exchange. EXCHEQUER Bills, bills of credit, first issued by authority of parliament in 1696, as a more convenient kind of se- curity than the tallies or orders for re- payment then in use. They were then taken at the exchequer for all payments of the revenue, and, when re-issued, they were allowed £7 12«. per cent, interest. The Bank of England, ever since the year 1706, have been the contractors for the circulation of exchequer bills, at a certain premium. The commissioners of the Treasury are empowered, by vari- ous statutes, to borrow money, within a specific sum, limited by those statutes, by issuing exchequer bills on the credit of certain duties; which bills, by 12 Anne, cap. 11, and 12 Geo I. cap. 11, bear an interest of 2d. a day per cent., payable to the bearers. But the interest payable on them has diflfered according to the current rate of interest at the time when they have been issued. 1717. The first funding of exchequer bills was eflfected by the conversion of their amount into perpetual five per cent, annuities : 2,000,000, then held by the Bank of England, were converted in this manner, by a private arrangement, with the directors. The interest payable upon these securities was formerly, and for a long period, as high as Z\d. per centum per diem ; this rate was after- wards reduced successively to 3c?., 2^d., Id., and, in May, 1824, to ihd., at which it now remains. EXCHEQUER, Court of, an ancient court of record, in which all causes concerning the revenues and rights of the crown are heard and determined, and where the crown revenues are received ; said to have been erected by William the Conqueror in 1079, its model being taken from a like court established in Nor- mandy, long before that time. 46a EXE EXCHEQUER Chambkr, Court of, erected by Edward HI. 1359; im- proved by Elizabeth 1584. EXCISE, duties or taxes laid on such articles as are produced and consumed at home. They were introduced into England by the Long Parliament in 1643; being then laid on the, makers and venders of ale, beer, cider, and perry. The royalists followed the example, both sides declaring that the excise should be continued no longer than the war. When the nation had been accustomed to it for a few years, the parliament declared, in 1649, that the " impost of excise was the most easy and indifferent levy that could be laid upon the people," The excise was placed on a new foot- ing at the Restoration, and has continued progressively to gain ground. At the time of the peace of Amiens, in 1801, the gross amount of it for England was £12,507,800. After that, for some time, the amount nearly doubled ; the gross produce, in 1807, being about £24,000,000. In 1820, the gross produce was £29,675,988 ; in 1830, £19,990,092 ; andiin 1838, £14,750,521. EXCISE Office, the first established in England, 1643 ; its officers, deprived of their votes for members of parlia- ment, 1782. EXCISE Office, Broad-street, Lon- don, built 1774. EXCLUSION Bill, first moved in parHament, Sunday, April 27, 1679. EXCOMMUNICATION by the pope, first instance of, 730. EXETER, the capital of Devonshire, and a bishopric, supposed to be identical with Isca-Daumoniorum, a Roman sta- tion, mentioned by Ptolemy, in the middle of the second century : it was called by the Saxons, Monkton, from its numerous religious houses. In 914, Athelstan expelled the Cornish Britons, and changed the name to Exonceaster, from which its present appellation is derived. It suffered repeated attacks during the incursions of the Danes, especially in the beginning of the 11th century. After the Norman conquest, Exeter was besieged and taken by William I., and it was subsequently exposed %& hostilities in the reigns of Stephen and Edward IV. Under Henry VII. it was besieged by Perkin Warbeck. In 1544, the insurgents from Cornwall, against Edward VI., made an unsuccessful as- EXM 4€4 EXT eault upon this place. In the beginning of the civil war, in the reign of Charles I., this city was in the hands of the parliament, but was taken for the king by Prince Maurice, Sept. 4, 1643. It then became the royal residence and head quarters of the roj^alists. Tlie duchess of Orleans, daughter of Charles, was born here. In April, 1646, it surren- dered to the parliament. The cathedral, founded as a conventual church, about a.d. 932, by, King Aihel- stan, has' been re-edified, at different times, and therefore exhibits several va- rieties of architecture; it extends 408 feet from east to west without the walls. The height of the vaulted roof is 69 feet, and that of the Norman towers which form the transepts, 130 feet to the top of the battlements. EXETER Castle, built 680. EXETER Change, taken down to make an opening in the Strand, 1829- The new Exeter Change opened with much ceremony, March 29, 1831. EXETER College, Oxford, built 1316. EXETER Conduit constructed 1486. EXMOUTH, Hon. Edward Pel- lew, Viscount, born April 19, 1757> at Dover. He entered the navy before he was 14, and had the opportunity of distinguishing himself in the battle on Lake ChamplaiUj October 11, 1776. On his return to England after the con- vention of Saratoga, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. In 1782 he ob- tained his commission as post-captain ; and, from the Dictator, his first ship in the Medway, was transferred to the Sa- lisbury, 50 guns, in which he was flag- captain to vice-admiral Milbank, off the coast of Newfoundland. In 1793 he was appointed to the command of la Nymphe, 36 guns. On the 18th of June he fell in with the French frigate, la Cleopatra, 36 guns, and after a most gallant and determineai action, the enemy struck her colours. Soon after this Captain Pellew was appointed to the Arethusa. In this ship he was engaged in many encounters, both with batteries on shore, and the enemy's vessels at sea. In 1796, while in command of the Indefatigable, 49 guns, he displayed the greatest bravery and humanity in saving the crew of the Dutton East Indiaman, which had been driven on shore in a heavy gale of wind on the rocks near the garrison at Ply- mouth. For this heroic conduct he was presented with the freedom of Plymouth, and, on the 5th of March, created a baronet. 1799- Sir Edward Pellew was ap- pointed to the command of I'lmpetueux, 78 guns, and was constantly and actively employed in various services on the French coast ; he was also attached to the squadron under Sir J. B. Warren in the expedition against Ferrol, where he bore a conspicuous part. In 1802 he was nominated colonel of marines. In the same year he was returned as a member of parliament for Barnstaple. He distinguished himself in the house by a warm and manly defence of Earl St. Vincent; but retired by accepting the Chiltern Hundreds, July 26, 1804, when he was appointed to the East India sta- tion. On the 23d April, 1804, he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral, and appointed commander-in-chief in the East Indies. May 14, 1814, he was raised to the dignity of the peerage by the title of Baron Exmouth,with a pension of £2000 per annum, as a reward for his eminent and long services. On the 4th of the following month he was further promoted to the rank of full admiral ; he was no- minated a K.C.B. January 2, 1815, and a G.C.B. March 16, 1816. On the re- turn of Napoleon from Elba, his lordship proceeded to his command in the Medi- terranean, and concluded treaties with Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, for the abo- lition of christian slavery. On his re- turn to England, the Algerines having violated the treat)', his lordship embark- ed on board the Queen Charlotte for Algiers. The records of the memorable battle of Algiers are well known, and the honourable result of the action is duly appreciated. See Algiers. He was raised to the rank of viscount by patent, dated December 10, 1816. After Sir Thomas Duckworth's demise he was ap- pointed to the chief command at Ply- mouth ; but after the year 1821 he re- tired from public service. He died Fe- bruary 6, 1833, at his house at Teign- mouth, in his 76th year. EXPORTS. See Imports and Ex- PORTS. EXTINGUISHER, Self-acting. This ingenious contrivance was invented by Mr. Jones in 1839, who has named it "The Photoiyphon, or Self-acting FAB 465 FAC Extinguisher." Being slid on to a can- dle at any distance beyond which the candle is required not to burn, it snuffs it out as soon as the upper part is con- sumed. EYCK, Hub. Van, founder of the Flemish school of painting, born 1366, died 1426. EYCK, John Van, the supposed inventor of oil painting, born at Maa- seyk, 1370, died 1441. EYEMOUTH, sea-port, Scotland, shire of Berwick. On a promontory here are the ruins of a fort built by the earl of Hertford during the minority of Edward VI., but demolished by treaty with Mary, his successor, EYRE, justices in, the office instituted by Henry II., 1184; the last instance of their holding a court in any of the forests is believed to have been during the reign of Charles II. EZEKIEL, the prophet, flourished A.C- 593. EZERGHAN, on the confines of Armenia, destroyed by an earthquake, when 6300 inhabitants perished, July 28, 1784. EZRA arrived at Jerusalem, and began his reform a.c. 458. F, FABIAN, Robert, an English his- torian, born at London in the 15th cen- tury. He was chosen sheriff of the city in 1493. He employed himself in com- piling a chronicle, which was printed after his death, entitled " A Concordance of Stories." He is copious in the affairs of London, for which the work is chiefly valuable, and on that account it is called by Stow " a painful labour, to the great honour of the city and the whole realm." FABIUS, Maximus Q., a celebrated Roman general, attained the honour of the consulship, for the first time, a.c. 233, when he obtained a victory over the Ligurians ; and the fatal battle of Thrasymenus, a.c. 217, occasioned his election to the dictatorship. In this im- portant office he opposed Hannibal. He continually harassed his army by coun- termarches and ambuscades, from which he received the surname of Cunctator or Delayer. He died about a.c. 203, in the 100th year of his age, after he had been five times consul, and twice ho- noured with a triumph. FABRICIUS, Caius, a celebrated Ro- man general, who in his first consulship, A.c. 282, obtained several victories over the Samnites and Lucanians, and was ho- noured with a triumph. In 275,he served the office of censor, and displayed that rigour against luxury which had been customary amongst the ancient Romans. He contemned riches' during the whole of his life, and died so poor that a dowry was given to his dax^ghters out of the public treasury. FABRICIUS, John Albert, cele- brated for his great erudition, was born at Leipsicin 1668. In 1686, he entered vigorously upon the study of theology, and began to conceive the project of his Bibliotheca. Duringthenext several suc- cessive years he distinguished himself as a preacher, a writer, and an able disputant in theology. In 1699, he was elected to the chair of eloquence at Hamburgh. He died in 1736, in his 68th year. His principal works are, "Bibliotheca Graeca," in 14 vols. 4to. ; "Bibliotheca Latina," in two vols. 4to, FABRQNI, Angiolo, Italian biogra- pher, born 1732, died Sept. 22, 1803. FACTORIES Bill. This important statute, 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 103, August 29, 1833, is designed to regulate the la- bour of children and young persons in the mills and factories of the United Kingdom. The following are the most important provisions. No person under 18 years of age shall be allowed to work in the night (that is to say) between lialf-past eight o'clock in the evening and half-past five o'clock in the morning, except in certain cases, in any cotton, woollen, worsted, hemp, flax, tow, linen, or silk mill or factory, in scutching, carding, roving, spinning, &c., making thread, dressing or weaving of cotton, wool, worsted, hemp, flax, tow, or silk, either separately or mixed, in any such mill, &c., in any part of the United King- dom ; but this act is not to extend to that part of the process commonly called fulling, roughing, or boiling of woollens. Persons under 18 years, not to work more than 12 hours in one day, or 69 3 o FAH 466 FAI hours in one week. There shall be al- lowed not less than one hour and a half for meals. Employment of children under nine years prohibited, except in silk mills. Employment of children under eleven, twelve, and thirteen years of age, for more than nine hours a day, prohi- bited after the respective periods therein mentioned. Holidays to be allowed, viz., Christmas-day, and Good-Friday, the entire day, and not fewer than eight half-days besides in every year. Chil- dren employed in any one mill less than nine hours, not to be employed in any other. Children not to be employed without a certificate from a surgeon or physician as to their being of ordinary strength and appearance. Empowers her majesty to appoint four inspectors of factories, &c., when such children are employed, to visit them by day or by night, when at work. Parents liable to a penalty of 20s. for the employment of children beyond the legal hours, &c. Employers offending against this act, or any order of aay inspector, shall for- feit not exceeding £20, nor less than £l, at the discretion of the inspector or justice; but if not wilful nor grossly negligent, it may be mitigated. The subject was again brought before parliament in 183S, by Lord Ashley and others, and the sixth report on mills and factories, 1840, contains minutes of evidence before parliament which show that the factory laws require revision. FAENZA, a town of Italy, States of the Church, famous for pottery. In 1796, it was taken by the French, and re-taken by the army of the pope. In 1797, the papal forces were again defeated, and driven out; restored in 1814. FAGIUS, Paul, a learned protestant divine, was born at Rheinzabem, in Ger- many, in 1504. He came over to Eng- land with Bucer in 1549, at the invitation of Archbishop Cranmer, to perfect a new translation of the Scriptures. Fagius undertook the Old Testament, but the design was frustrated by his sudden death in 1550. FAHRENHEIT, Gabriel Daniel, a native of Hamburgh, known for the thermometer, chiefly used in England, which is graduated according to a stan- dard invented by himself; born about 1686. In 1724, he pubhshed "A Dis- sertation on Thermometers." He died in 1736. FAIRFAX, Edward, an English poet. chiefly known by his translation of "Tasso's Godfrey of Bouillon," which was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, in the year l600. He died about 1632. FAIRFAX, Thomas, Lord, general of the parliamentary forces during the civil wars in the reign of Charles I., was born in l6ll. In 1645, he gained a complete victory over the royal army at Naseby. He was among the first of those nominated for king's judges, but he refused to act. He was afterwards appointed general-in-chief of the forces in England and Ireland. At the restora- tion he was at the head of the committee appointed by the house of commons to attend King Charles II. at the Hague. He died in 1671, aged 60. FAIRS AND Markets first instituted in England, by Alfred, 886. The first fairs originated in wakes, when the num- ber of people assembled brought toge- ther a variety of traders annually on these days. In England no fair can be held without grant from the crown, or a pre- scri{)tion which supposes such grant. The times of holding fairs and markets are either determined by the letters patent appointing the fair or market, or by usage. The statute 2 Edw. 3. c. 1 5, enacts, that the duration of the fair shall be de- clared at its commencement, and that it shall not be continued beyond the spe- cified time. By statute 5 Edw. 3. c. 5, any merchant selling goods after the stipulated time is to forfeit double the value of the goods sold. The following are the principal British fairs : — Exeter Dec. fair for cattle, horses, and most sorts of commodities. Wey- hill fair in Hampshire (October 10), has, probably, the greatest display of sheep of any fair in the kingdom. Bartholomew fair, in London, used to be of consider- able importance, but is now appropriated only to shows of wild beasts, and such like exhibitions, and might be suppressed with advantage. St. Faith's, near Nor- wich (October 17), is the principal En- glish fair for Scotch cattle. Ipswich has two considerable fairs : one in August, for lambs ; and one in September, for butter and cheese : it is reckoned that above 100,000 lambs are annually sold at the former. Woodborough-hill, in Dorset, for west country manufactures, as kerseys, druggets, &c. Northampton and Nottingham have each several large fairs, for horses, cattle, cheese, &c. The August fair of Horncastle, in Lincoln- FAI 4C7 FAL shire, is the largest horse fair in the kingdom, many thousand horses being exhibited for sale during its continuance, Falkirk fair, or tryst, is one of the most important in Scotland, for the sale of cattle and sheep. The Oct. fair of Ballina- sloe, in the county Galvvay, Ireland, is famous for the display of cattleand sheep ; by far the largest proportion of these ani- mals raised for sale in Connaught being disposed of at it. The following are the principal foreign fairs : — In France, the fairs of St. Ger- main's, Lyons, Rheims,Chartres, Rouen, Bordeaux, Troyes, and Bayonne. At Beaucaire, in the department of the Gard, in July, 1833, it is said that there were from 70,000 to 80,000 persons at the fair, and that the business done ex- ceeded 160,000,000 fr., or £6,400,000. The German, or rather European, fairs, are those of Frankfort on the Maine, Frankfort on the Oder, and Leipsic. The fairs at Frankfort on the Maine should begin, the first on Easter Tuesday, and the second on the Monday nearest to Sept. 8. Their duration is limited to three weeks, but they usually begin from eight to 15 days before their legal commencement. The fairs of Frankfort on the Oder are three in number : viz., Ramieiscere, in February or March; St. Margaret, in July; and St. Martin, in November. The fairs of Leipsic are held thrice a- year, on January 1, at Easter, and at Michael- mas. The first is the least important. About 20,000 dealers are said to have been present at the fair at Easter in 1832, and above 13,000 at that of Mi- chaelmas. The Easter and Michaelmas fairs are famous, particularly the former, for the vast number of new publications usually offered for sale. Of the Italian fair the most celebrated is that of Sinigalgia in the papal domi- nions, on the Misa, near its confluence with the Adriatic. The fair commences on July 14, and should terminate on the last day of that month, but it usually continues five or six days longer. Russian fairs are numerous, and, many of them, well attended. The most im- portant is held at Nishnei-Novogorod, the great emporium of the internal trade of Russia; communicating by an inland navigation with the Baltic, the Black Sea, and the Caspian. It generally lasts from six weeks to two months, and is well known all over the east of Europe. The ))azaars erected for the accommoda- tion of those who attend this fair, form, according to Dr. Lyell, the finest esta- blishment of the kind in the world. The sale of iron, and iron articles, is said, usually, to amount to above 10,000,000 roubles ; the furs lo 36,000,000 ; the images to 1,300,000. Captain Cochrane is of opinion that " the fair, in point of value, is second to none in Eurdpe ; the business done being estimated at nearly 200,000,000 roubles." Another cele- brated Russian fair is held, in the month of December, at Kiachta, in Mongolia, on the Chinese frontier, in lat. 50° 20' north. The total value of the exports by way of Kiachta, in 1831, amounted to 4,655,536 roubles, and that of the imports to 6,775,858 roubles. The most important fair in the eastern world is that held at Mecca, during the resort of pilgrims in the month of Dhal- hajja. It used to be frequented by many thousands of individuals of all ranks and orders, brought together from the remotest corners of the Mohamme- dan world ; and though the numbers attending it have declined of late years, the concourse is still very great. Hurdwar, in Hindoostan, 117 miles north-east from Delhi, is famous from its being one of the principal places of Hindoo pilgrimage, and the greatest fair in India. The pilgrimage and fair are held together at the vernal equinox. Every 12th year is reckoned peculiarly holy ; and then it is supposed that from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000, and even 2,000,000 pilgrims and dealers are con- gregated together from all parts of India and the countries to the north. In 1819, which happened to be a 12th year, the rush was so tremendous that 430 persons were either trampled to death under foot, or drowned in the river. FALCONER, William, English poet, author of the " Shipwreck," was born at a village in Fifeshire, Scotland. He was brought up a sailor, and in that capacity he spent the greater part of his life, in a very low station. In 1769, he published " The Marine Dictionary," a work of considerable merit. In the same year he embarked on board the Aurora, bound to the East Indies. The vessel was never heard of after. FALEZI, town of European Turkey, Moldavia. The peace of Falezi was C(mcluded between Russia and Turkey, in 1711. The Russians g'ave up Azoph and all their possessions on the Black FAL 4G8 FAM Sea to the Turks ; in the following year the war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of Constantinople, April 16. 1712. FALKIRK, a town of Stirling, Scot- land, situated on an eminence near the river Carron, on the high road from Edinburgh to Glasgow, and commanding an extensive prospect of the adjacent country ; celebrated for a battle fought in its vicinity, July 22, 1298, when the Scots, under Sir William Wallace, were defeated by the English under Edward I. The town was again distinguished by an engagement between the royal and rebel forces, Jan. 18, 1746. FALKLAND, or Malvina Isles, Atlantic Ocean, chiefly valuable on ac- count of the seal fishery, which is here very productive. They were discovered by Davis, in 1592, visited by Sir Richard Hawkins, in 1594. The French made a settlement here in 1764, but in 1766 surrendered it to the Spaniards. In 1765, the English took possession of these islands, under the name of the Falkland Islands ; in 1770, the Spaniards forcibly dispossessed the English, but in 1771, restored them; from 1774, Spain was the exclusive mistress of all these re- gions. From the year 1810 up to 1820, no permanent establishment was fixed here; in 1820, the government of Buenos Ayres took formal possession of them. In 1821, the republic granted these islands, with some reservations, to two individuals of their own nation, but Eng- land still lays claim to them. InDec. 1832, Commander Onslow, in his majesty's ship Clio, proceeded to Port Egmont, West Falkland Island, and found on Saun- ders' Island the ruins of a former British establishment. Not finding any inhabi- tants, an inscription was left there, at- tached to a signal stalF, on a spot which appeared to be Fort George, stating, " that these islands had been visited by his Britannic majesty's ship Clio, for the purpose of exercising the rights of sovereignty, Dec. 23, 1832." FALLOPIAN Tubes, in anatomy, derive their distinguishing appellation from Gabriel Fallopius, a celebrated physician and anatomist, who was born at Modena, in Italy, in the year 1523. He was made professor of anatomy at Pisa in the year 1548, and at Padua in the year 1551,'where he died in 1562. FALMOUTH, Cornwall, owes its origin to a woman, who built a small hut here, and sold beer to the sailors coming on shore. In 1613, a regular plan was laid down, and a town built, which received its present name by proclamation of Charles II. in 1660. Previous to the year 1664, Falmouth was part of the chapelry of Budock, and parish of Glu- vius ; but was, by an act passed in that year, separated and made a distinct parish. The Falmouth tramroad, constructed in 1806, at the expense of Messrs. Fox, and Co., connects with this harbour at Restonguet and at Pile. FALMOUTH, in New England, de- stroyed by the British forces, Oct. 18, 1775. FAMILY Compact, between the different branches of the House of Bour- bon, signed at Paris, 1761. FAMINES. The following are the most remarkable : A.c. 1708. Which lasted seven years in Egypt, &c. A. c. 440. At Rome, when many persons threw themselves into the Tiber. A.D. 272. In Britain, so that the in- habitants ate the bark of trees. 306. One in Scotland, where thousands were starved. 310. In England and Wales, where 40,000 were starved. 325. All over Britain. 446. At Constantinople. 450. In Italy, where parents ate their children. 576. In Scotland. 739. AH over England, Wales, and Scotland. 747. Another in Wales. 792. In Wales and Scotland. 803. Again in Scotland. 823. Again in Scotland, when thou- sands were starved. 836. A severe one in Wales. 954. In Scotland, which lasted four years. 864, 974, 976, 1005. Famines in Eng- land. 1047- In Scotland, which lasted two years. 1050. 1087. In England. 1193 to 1195. In England and France. 1251,1315,1318,1335,1348. In Eng- land. 1358. In England and France, called the dear summer. 1389 and 1438. In England, so great that bread was made of fern roots. FAR 469 FAT ] 565. Two millions were expended on the importation of corn. 1771- A shocking one occurred in the East Indies. 177'2. In Moravia and Bohemia. 1775. A dreadful one at the Cape de Verd islands : carried off above 16,000 persons. 1810. In the province of Vellore, India, by which 8,000 persons perished. 1813. At the diocese of Drontheim, in Norway, in consequence of the inter- cepting of supplies by Sweden, when 5000 persons perished. 1833. In India, so dreadful, that in one or two cases parents actually boiled and ate their children. FANCOURT, Samuel, the first pro- moter of circulating libraries, born 1678, died 1768. FAN-MAKERS' Company, London, incorporated 1709. FANNY, sloop from St. Malo, wreck- ed in the Jersey Road, with the loss of 2 of the crew and 1 1 passengers, among whom was Lord Harley, Jan. 1, 1828. FANS, muffs, masks, and false hair, first devised in Italy, and brought into England from France, 1572. FANSHAWE, Sir Rich ard, was born at Ware Park, Herts, in 1608. In the civil wars he adhered to the royal party, and attended the court at Oxford. He was secretary of war to Prince Charles, and afterwards treasurer of the navy under Prince Rupert. He was created a baronet in 1650. He acted as secretary of state for Scotland, and accompanied Charles II. on his expedition to England, and was taken prisoner at the battle of Wor- cester. The year before the restoration he repaired to the king at Breda, by whom he was knighted. In 1661, he was elected one of the representatives in parliament for the university of Cam- bridge. He died at Madrid, 1666. FARLEY Castle, Somersetshire, built 1342. FARNHAM, Surrey, chiefly remark- able for its castle, seated on a hill north from the town, built by Henry de Blois, brother of King Stephen, and bishop of Winchester. This fortress was seized by Louis the Dauphin, and the rebellious barons, in 1216, and afterwards demo- lished by Henry III. ; it was, however, soon after rebuilt. During the civil war it was garrisoned for the king, but in December, 1642, was taken by the par- liamentary general, after an obstinate siege. It was then demolished, but re- built after the restoration. FAROE, or Feroe Islands, a group situated in the Northern Ocean, formerly subject to Denmark. Christianity was introduced about 1000, and protestantism in the 16th century. About the year 1809, a German baron landed at Thors- havn, and plundered the inhabitants of every thing, till the British humanely interfered, and put a stop to these out- rages, and took them under their pro- tection, 1810. FARQUHAR, George, dramatic writer, was born at Londonderry about 1677. In 1696, he came to London, ob- tained a lieutenant's commission through Lord Orrery, and sustained the military character a considerable time. His first effort as a writer was in 1698, a play, entitled " Love and a Bottle." The " Constant Couple, or a Trip to the Ju- bilee," was his next play, which was act- ed with great applause, and which has maintained its reputation' to the present day. In 1703, he produced the " Incon- stant, or the Way to Win Him ;" and in 1706, the "Recruiting Oflficer." His last piece was entitled " The Beaux' Stra- tagem," which, though composed in six weeks, is reckoned the author's master- piece. He died in 1707, aged 30. FARRIERS' Company, London, in- corporated, 1673. FARTHINGS coined in silver by Henry VIII., 1522 ; in copper by Charles II. FASTING, or abstinence on religious- accounts, has. been practised by most nations from the remotest antiquity. It was early introduced into the christian; church, though in the most ancient times we find no mention of any public and solemn fasts, except upon the anniver- sary of Christ's crucifixion, about 138. FASTOLFF, Sir John, a renowned general, during the English conquests in France under Henrys IV., V., and VI., born about the year 1377- In 1413, he had the castle and dominion of Veires, in Gascony, committed to his custody and defence. He was afterwards engaged in the famous battle of Agincourt. He died in 1459 or 1460. So highly was he venerated, that John Beauchamp, lord of Powyke, appointed by his will a chaunt especially for the soul of Sir John Fas- tolff. FATIMITES, the descendants of Ma- homet by Fatima, his daughter. This dynasty commenced in Africa, 908, ended FEL 470 FEN in Egypt, 1171> when Saladin became master of that country, assumed the title of Sultan, and caused the spiritual autho- rity of the caliphs of Bagdad to be re- cognised by his subjects. FAUNTLEROY, Henry, a London banker, hanged for forgery, November 30, 1824. FAUST, or Faustus, John, a gold- smith at Mentz, celebrated on account of the share which he had in the inven- tion of printing. The first work printed by him was entitled "Durandi Rationale divinorum officiorum," 1459. He died of the plague in 1466. FAUX, GuiDO, vulgarly called Guy Faux, e.xecuted in Parliament- yard, for attempting to set the houses of parlia- ment on fire, January 31, 1606. FAVERSHAM, or Feversham, Kent, a place of high antiquity, was de- nominated the king's town, in 811, and the Saxon kings had a place here. King Stephen founded an abbey of Cluniac monks here in 1147i with considerable endownjents. At the siege of Calais, in the time of Edward HI., this town furnished two ships and 53 mariners. Henry VHI. granted it a charter in 1545. A manufacture of gunpowder was established here prior to the reign of Elizabeth, about 1760; the works were purchased by government. The most dreadful explosion that has occur- red took place in April, 1781, by the blowing up of 7000 pounds of powder. FAWKES, Francis, translator of Anacreon, Sappho, Bion,» Moschus, and Theocritus, died 1777- FEJEE ISLANDS, South Pacific Ocean, were discovered by Tasman in 1643, when the most northern was called •Prince William's Island. They were visited in 1794, by Captain Barber, and frequently since that time; particularly by Mr. Williams, the late missionary, about 1832, and described in his " Nar- rative," recently pulilished. FELONY comprises every species of crime which occasions at common law the forfeiture of lands or goods. In 1836, an Act passed (6 and 7 William IV. c. 114. August 20) for enabling persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel or attorney. In all cases of summary conviction persons accused shall be admitted to make their full answer and defence, and to have all wit- nesses examined and cross-examined by counsel or attorney. See Criminal Law. FELT-MAKERS' Company, Lon- don, incorporated 1604. FENELON, Francis de Salignac DE LA MoTTE, the Celebrated archbishop of Cambray, was born in 1651, at Peri- gord, in France. He soon distinguished himself so much by his attainments, that he was permitted to preach in public at the age of 15 ; and, at the age of 24, en- tered into holy orders. He was recom- mended by Bossuet to Louis XIV., as a proper person to be employed in eon- verting the sectaries of Poitou and Sain- tonage. His friend, the Duke de Beau- villers, having been in 1689 appointed by Louis XIV. governor to his grandson, the duke of Burgundy, nominated the Abbe de Fenelon preceptor to the young prince. His services were rewarded in 1695 with the splendid preferment of the archbishopric of Cambray, which includ- ed a dukedom. Soon after, he wrote his " Maxims of the Saints," which was denounced as heretical immediately on its publication in 1697> and was the origin of a long series of persecutions against him, sup- ported chiefly by Bossuet. About the same time appeared his " Teleraachus," which was denounced to the jealous monarch, Louis XIV., as a satire on his reign. This work was written only for his i)upil, the duke of Burgundy ; but through the infidelity of a servant it be- came public, and he was dismissed from court. His banishment afforded an op- portunity of displaying the virtues of his character as a christian pastor. In 1715 he was seized with an inflammation in his lungs, accompanied with continued fev^er, and he died January 7, aged 64. Besides his works already mentioned, the following are the principal : — "Trea- tise on the Education of a Daughter," in 1687; "Treatise on the Ministry of Pastors,"l688; "Pastoral Letters against the Jansenists," 1704 ; " Dialogues of the Dead," 17 12; "Demonstration of the being of a God," 1713. FENNING, Eliza, whose case ex- cited much curiosity from the supposition of her innocence, was executed before Newgate for poisoning the family with whom she lived servant, July 26, 1815. FENTON, Elijah, an English poet, born at Shelton, near Newcastle, in Staffordshire. His tragedy of Mariamne was performed in 1723, with very great applause, and produced him £1000. He died in 1730. FER 471 FER FERDINAND V., king of Spain, called the Catholic. He married Isabella of Castile, by which that kingdom was united to the Spanish crown. This illustrious couple laid the foundation of the future glory and power of Spain. During their reign the Inquisition, that horrible engine of torture, was introduced into Spain. The conquest of Granada, and the discoveries of Christopher Co- lumbus, make this reign a celebrated era in the Spanish history. Ferdinand died in 1516, aged 63. FERDINAND VII., late king of Spain, born at San Lorenzo, October 14, 1784. At the age of six he was proclaimed prince of Asturias, The insurrection of Aranjuez, in which the prince took a share, forced Charles IV. to abdicate in his favour, when he was proclaimed king March 29, 1808. When Napoleon de- clared that the family of Bourbon had ceased to reign, and that the crown of Spain must adorn the brow of his bro- ther Joseph, Ferdinand was exiled to Valengay, in Berri, about 1809, where he remained five years, leading an idle country gentleman's life. In March, 1814, he left France again to return to the kingdom of his ancestors. Immediately after his entry into the ca- pital he dissolved the Cortes, and annul- led by various decrees all that they had done. At the same time he re-established the Inquisition, ordered the monks to return to their convents, proscribed all who had taken the oath of allegiance to Buonaparte or Joseph, and condemned to prison or to exile a great number of persons, many of whom had been depu- ties to the Cortes. The liberal feeling in Spain, however, was not totally suppressed, and after much hesitation, he, on March 7, 1820, accepted the constitution of 18 12,which a part of the troops destined for America had proclaimed in Cadiz at the beginning of January. In consequence of this change of politics, all persons who had been confined for political opinions were set at liberty, the Inquisition was abo- lished, the liberty of the press re-esta- blished, all the emigrants and partisans of Joseph permitted to return to Spain, the national militia organised, &c. &c. Again the opposite party predominated in his councils; and, assisted by the Bourbons of France, he dissolved the Cortes, and returned to his former des- potism; yet as compared with the church. and with his brother Carlos, affecting a sort of moderate policy. He was taken ill in July 1833, and died September 29 following. Ferdinand married first, in 1802, his cousin Maria An toinetta Theresa, daugh- ter of Ferdinand IV,, king of the Two Sicilies; she died childless. May 21, 1806, suddenly, and not without suspi- cion of poison. He married a" second time, September 29, 1816, Isabella Maria Francesca, daughter of John VI., king of Portugal ; she died December 26, 1818. He married thirdly, October 20, 1819, Maria Josepha Amelia, daughter of Prince Maximilian of Saxony, and niece to the king of Saxony. This queen died without issue. May 17, 1829. Fer- dinand married fourthly, November 5, 1829, Maria Christina, daughter of Fran- cis, late king of the Two Sicilies, by his own sister, Maria Isabella. By the last, who, in pursuance of his will became the Queen Regent of Spain, he left two daughters : — 1. Maria Isabella Louisa, born October 10, 1830, proclaimed queen of Spain by the style of Isabella the Se- cond. 2. Maria Louisa Ferdinanda, born January 30, 1832. FERDUSI, the author of the Persian epic poem, " Shah Nameh^" born 932, died 1020. FERG, or Fergue, Paul Francis, of Vienna, an eminent landscape painter, born 1639, died of want, 1740. FERGUSON, Adam, professor of moral philosophy in the university of Edinburgh, died Feb. 22, 1816. FERGUSON, Robert, the Scottish poet, born 1730, died 1774. FERGUSON, James, a celebrated philosopher and astronomer, was born at Keith in Scotland, in 1710. He soon, discovered a peculiar taste for mechanics, which first arose on seeing his father use a lever. Whilst he was servant to a farmer, who employed him to watch his sheep, he frequently contemplated the stars, and began the study of astronomy, by laying down, from his own observa- tion only, a celestial globe. In 1754, he published, " A brief Description of the Solar System." In 1756, he published a larger work, entitled, *' Astronomy ex- plained upon Sir Isaac Newton's Prin- ciples, and made easy to those who have not studied Mathematics," In 1760, he published his "Lectures on Subjects in Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, and Optics, with the Use of the Globes, FER 472 FES the Art of Dialling, and the mean Times of new and full Moons and Eclipses." His " Plain Method of determining the Parallax of Venus by her Transit over the Sun, and thence, by Analogy, the Pa- rallax and Distance of the Sun and all the rest of the Planets," first published in 1761, was annexed to the fourth edi- tion of his Astronomy. In 1763, Mr. Ferguson was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. His "Young Gentleman and Lady's Astronomy, fa- miliarly explained in Ten Dialogues," was pubhshed in 1768. In 1775, ap- peared his last work, entitled, "The Art of Drawing in Perspective, made easy to those who have no previous Knowledge of the Mathematics." Having long struggled with the infirmities of a weak constitution, he died in 1776. FERGUSSON, Robert Cutlar, her majesty's judge-advocate-general, and M.P. for the Stewartry of Kirkcud- bright, born 1760, died Nov. 16, 1838, aged 70. FERMOY, Ireland, encounter at, between the populace and military, July 20, 1828, where great numbers had as- sembled to celebrate the election of Mr. O'Connell. The armed police fired on the mob : four persons were wounded, one mortally. FERNANDEZ. See Juan Fer- NANDEZ. FERNANDO PO, island, Western Africa, off the coast of Biafra, in the Bight of Benin, derived its name from a navigator in the service of Alphonso V., of Portugal, named Fernoo do Po, who discovered it in 1472, and called it For- mosa, or Beautiful Island. Portugal, after having previously abandoned it, ceded it, in 1778, to Spain; but the Spanish settlers nearly all perished. An attempt was made by a Mr. Robertson, in 1819, to colonize it, but, owing to untoward circumstances, the design mis- carried. Till lately it was occupied only by a lawless race, composed of slaves or malefactors escaped from the neighbour- ing coast ; but the British government, upon the disappointment experienced in regard to Sierra Leone, formed, in 1827, a settlement on this island. Lander, the African traveller, died at this place, of a wound he had received, in 1834. FERNS, Ireland. A diocesan school was founded here in the 12th of Ehza- beth. The see is supposed to have been founded in 599, by Maidoc, the friend of St. David ; it included all the county of Wexford and part of the county of Wick- low, and has lately been united with the diocese of Ossory,as it was formerly with that of Leighlin. Ferns was at one time the residence of the kings of Leinster, and the ruins of the palace of M'Mur- chard, who, in 1166, fired the town, are still visible. FEROE ISLES. See Faroe Isles. FERRAR, bishop of St. David's, burnt to death at Caermarthen, 1555. FERRARA, city and legation, south of Italy, States of the Church, formerly a duchy under the ancient house of D'Este, having a population of 80,000 inhabitants, and the most splendid and refined court of Italy. It is now, com- paratively, forsaken. Ferrara was taken by the French in 1796, and retaken by the Austrians in 1799, but shortly after- wards again surrendered to the French. The French army, under Murat, was de- feated here, in April, 1815, by the Aus- trians, under General Mohr and Count Neipperg. FERRARS, George, English poet and historian, born 1510, died 1579- FERRERS, Law^rence, Earl of, committed to the Tower for murdering his steward, Feb. 13, 1760; tried and condemned, April 18; hanged at Tyburn, May 5. FERRI, CiRo, an eminent painter, born at Rome 1634, died 1689. FERRIARS, Dr., critic and medical writer, author of " The Theory of Ap- paritions," born 1764, died 1815. FERROL, town of Spain, the great rendezvous of the Spanish navy, surren- dered to the French, Jan. 26, 1809. FERRY-BOAT upset in attempting to cross the Menai Strait, between An- glesea and Caernarvon, when 50 persons perished, Dec. 4, 1785. FERSEN, Count, murdered by the Swedish populace, June 20, 1810. FESCH, Joseph, senior Priest Car- dinal of the Sacred College, and arch- bishop of Lyons, brother, by his mo- ther's side, of Letitia Ramolini, the mother of the Emperor Napoleon, born at Ajaccio, in Corsica, Jan. 3, 1763. He was educated as a priest, but becoming a zealous partisan of the French revolu- tion, he threw off the clerical dress, and in 1796, he was commissary general in the army of Italy, commanded by his nephew Napoleon Buonaparte. He after- wards resumed the clerical profession FEU 473 FIE and was appointed archbishop of Lyons ; he received, in 1803, a cardinal's hat, and was soon afterwards sent ambassador from France to Rome. In 1805, he was appointed grand almoner of France and principal officer of the legion of honour ; but by opposing the schemes of Buona- parte, he afterwards fell into disgrace at court, and retired to his see in Lyons, where he. lived in great splendour. When Buonaparte made his escape from Elba, the cardinal followed him to Paris ; but his abode there was short. He again re- turned toRome, where he afterwards resid- ed in the enjoyment of immense wealth, and one of the finest galleries of pictures in that citJ^ He died May 13, 1839. His funeral was attended by many cardinals, and upwards of 100 archbishops and bishops. FESTIVAL OF THE Jews. The prin- cipal, being the feast of the Tabernacles, is celebrated by the Jews to this day : it was instituted by Moses in the wilderness, A.c. 1490 , but was celebrated with the greatest magnificence for 14 days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solomon, A.c. 1005. They carried boughs loaded with fruit in the procession. FESTIVALS OF the Christian Church. Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide, intro- duced during the first and second centu- ries. Rogation days appointed, 469. Ju- bilees in the Romish church, instituted by Pope Boniface VIII., 1300. At first they were observed every hundred years ; but future popes reduced them to fifty, and then to every period of twenty-five years. FEUDAL System, which about 12 centuries ago was universally received in Europe, derived its origin from the military policy of the Goths, Vandals, Franks, Huns, and Lombards, which overran all the European countries, on the declension of the Roman empire. The victorious general allotted consider- able tracts of land to his principal offi- cers, named feoda, fiefs, fees, or feuds, on condition that the possessors should faithfully serve the person from whom they were received, both at home and abroad, in the military way. This system was introduced into England by the Saxons about 600. The slavery of this tenure increased under William I., 1070, This was owing to dividing the kingdom into baronies, giving them to certain persons, and requiring those persons to furnish the king with money, and a stated number of soldiers. It was dis- countenanced in France by Louis XL about 1470; restored and limited in England by Henry VII., 1495 ; abohsh- ed by statute, 12 Charles II., 1662. FEZ, city. North Africa, capital of Fez, composed of three towns called Beleyde, Old Fez, and New Fez. Old Fez was founded in 793, by Sidy Edris, a descen- dant of Mahomet, and Ali, whose father fled from Medina, to avoid the proscrip- tions of the caliph Abdallah. It soon became a large city, and was esteemed sa- cred, so that when the road to Mecca was shut up in the fourth century of the Hegira, the western Mahommedans made pilgrimage to Fez, and the eastern to Jerusalem. It was also famous as a school of learning when knowledge was almost exclusively possessed by the Saracens. FIELDING, Henry, a celebrated dramatic writer and novelist, was born at Sharpham, near Glastonbury, Somerset- shire, April 22, 1707. His first drama- tic piece, " Love in several Masques," appeared in 1727, and was well received; and all his plays and farces, to the amount of 18, were written before the year 1737. Being reduced to poverty soon after the rebellion in 1745, he accepted the office of acting justice for Middlesex, an employment much more profitable than honourable in the pub- lic esteem. He died in 1754, in his 48th year. He wrote many fugitive pamphlets, and was the editor of several papers, particularly the True Patriot, and the Jacobite Journal ; but he is chiefly admired for his " Joseph An- drews," published in 1742 ; and his " Tom Jones," about 1749. FIELDING, Sir John, an eminent London magistrate, died Sept. 6th, 1780. FIESCHI, an assassin, fired an in- strument called " an infernal machine," at Louis-Phillipe, the French king, July 28, 1835, as he was riding along the lines of the national guard, on the Boulevard du Temple. The king and his sons es- caped ; but Marshal Mortier (duke of Treviso) was shot dead. The trial of Fieschi and his accomplices commenced before the chamber of peers, at Paris, Jan, 30; it lasted two weeks ; the prisoners re- ceived their sentence Feb, 15. Three of them were guillotined on the 19th; a fourth was condemned to 20 years' im- prisonment. FIGUERAS, a town of Spain. Ap. 3P F 1 N impregnable castle at this place was put into the hands of the French in 1 808 ; surprised by the Spaniards in 1811, but again given up to the French in the same year, and remained in their pos- session until 1814. FILANGIERI, Gaetau. author of "The Science of Legislation," &c., born at Naples 1751, died 1799. FILE.CUTTING, Ericusson's Ma- chine FOR, patented about 1836 ; but then deemed impracticable. Improved in 1839 ; turned out files of a superior and more regular cut than the average of those made by hand, and in much greater number in the same time. The principal beauty of the machine consists in the simplicity of its movements, and the skilful application of the principles of mechanics in modifiying the stroke according to the varying thickness of the steel ; striking lightly at the point, and increasing in strength as the thicker parts of the file come under its action. FINALE, a town of Sardinia, formerly the capital of a marquisate, and annexed to the duchy of Milan in 1602, but sold to the Genoese in 1713. It was taken by the Sardinians, but restored in 1748. It has been repeatedly the scene of mi- litary operations, especially in April, 1796, and at the time of the temporary success of the Austrian arms in 1800. FINCH-DALE, township in England, was a place of importance in the Saxon era : a synod was held here, according to Leland, in 792, and again in 810. FINES AND Recoveries. The fri- volous and absurd formalities of fines and recoveries for barring entails, abolished, 1833. FINET, Sir John, English wit, bom 1571, died 1641. FIN GAL, the celebrated hero of the poems of Ossian, was king of Morven, in ancient Caledonia. He is supposed to have flourished in the third century, and, according to the Irish histories, died in 283. He was the son of Comhal, the ■grandson of Truthal, and the great grandson of Trenmor, all Caledonian princes of great military reputation, during the severe struggles the Celtic tribes held with the invaders of Britain. See Ossian. FINLAND, principality, Russian em- pire, formerly belonged to Sweden, but by the peace of Abo, in 1743, Sweden was compelled to cede apart; in 1721 ano- ther portion was yielded ; and, finally. 474 F I R the remainder in 1809. The grand ])rin. cipality of Finland was erected August 6, in the same year. Since 1826, the affairs of Finland have been managed at St. Petersburgh by a separate department of FINSBURY District, London, erected into a borough, 1832. FIREBARS, Miller's Patent, in- troduced 1 839, suitednot only to the com- mon steam-engine furnaces, but can with equal facility be applied to the furnaces of marine engines, and the locomotive en- gines of railways, &c. The principle of the invention consists in moving each alter- nate bar longitudinally in one direction, whilst the intermediate bars are moved in the opposite one. This movement, aided by the channelled surface of the bars, breaks up the clinkers the instant they are formed, or prevents their formation, and thus keeps the air-way perfectly free. FIRE-DAMP, an explosion of a very dangerous nature to which coal-mines are subject. See Coal-Mine Accidents. 1839- It is well known that fire-damp explodes on ignition by an electric spark; and on this principle it has been recently proposed, that an experiment be made with apparatus, consisting of Professor Daniell's voltaic battery and electrical wires, for the purpose of firing the gal- lery of a mine charged with an explosive mixture. By means of this ingenious and scientific contrivance, an explosion of fire-damp can, at all times, be effected with perfect safety. This formidable and treacherous enemy will thus be effectu- ally and instantaneously annihilated, that otherwise could be but slowly, partially, and progressively consumed ; combined with the advantage, that the health of the miners will cease to be impaired from respiration in a foul atmosphere. FIRE-ENGINES invented, 1663 ; im- proved as now used, or nearly so, 1752. 1839. Mr. Merryweather construct- ed for the Liverpool fire-police a large engine, which is equal in power to the combined force of two London en- gines, each having two working barrels seven inches in diameter, with an eight- inch stroke. In an experiment in Hyde- park, with nose-pipes, one 1-8 inch, and one 1-16 inch in diameter, two jets of water have been thrown to a nearly per- pendicular height of 80 feet. FIRESHIP, in naval warfare, a vessel charged with combustible materials of various kinds, for the purpose of setting FIR 475 FIR fire to the ships of the enemy. Livy in- forms us, that vessels of this kind were employed by the Rhodians as early as A. c. 190. In England the use of fire- ships originated in the Spanish invasion, in the time of Elizabeth, in 1588 ; when the English, under Sir F. Drake, sent a number of ships, charged with burning combustibles, into the midst of the Spa- nish armada, FIRES. In 1838, Mr. Rawson read to the British Association an interesting report on these calamities, whence the following facts are extracted : — The total number of alarms attended by the Lon- don fire engine establishments, during the five years, from 1833 to the end of 1837, was 3359, or 672 on the yearly average : of these, 343, or 68 per annum, were false alarms, and 540 or 108 per annum, were fires in chimneys. Thus, the number of alarms was 13 per week, and of actual fires four in every three days. Of the 2476 fires, the premises were wholly consumed in 145 instances ; seriously damaged in 632 ; and slightly damaged in 1699. It was observed, that the number of fatal fires had greatly in- creased. The winter months do not ex- hibit so large a preponderance of fires as might be expected. December presents the largest average, but the next in order is May. The number of wilful fires in the five years was 31, or six per annum, which is as one in 64 to the number of fires of which the causes were discovered. The total number of fires in the metro- polis, in the year 1837, was 501 ; alarms from fires in chimneys, 127 ; false alarms, 89; making the number of calls, 717. The great excess of fires in the southern counties of England over the midland counties, was attributed by Sir Charles Lemon and Mr. Felkin to the use of thatched roofs. Newcastle, notwithstand- ing the vast consumption of coal in the town, is remarkably free from fires of dangerous magnitude : and it was sug- gested whether, as the greater number of fires occurred m London about 11 o'clock at night, the practice of raking out the fire at bed-time, which is not done at Newcastle where coals are cheap, might not have some connection with these conflagrations. The following are the most remarkable fires on record in the world, exclusive of London : — A.D. 80. At Rome, which destroyed the Capitol, Pantheon, &c. 182. At Alexandria, which destroy- ed the temple of Serapis. 191. At Rome : great part of the city, with the palace, the temple of Vesta, &c., destroyed. 247. Another, which destroyed Pom- pey's theatre. 260. At Ephesus, the temple of Diana destroyed. 307.The greater partof Rome consumed. 362. The temple of Apollo, at Delphi destroyed. 433, 461, 476,509. At Constanti- nople : great part of the city consumed. 525. The city of Antioch consumed. 588. Paris destroyed. 1613. At Osnabruck, Magdeburgh, and Gnesna. 1729, and following years, at Con- stantinople. See Constantinople. 1808. At Dantzic and Port Espagne. 1810. Near Paris, during the Austrian ambassador's fete. A forest burnt' in India. 1824. A great one at Edinburgh, No- vember 15 and 16. 1827. Abo, the capital of Finland, destroyed. ] 834. Incendiary fires in various parts of the kingdom, particularly in the eastern counties. 1834. One at Forfarshire in Scotland, Jan. 31. 1835. At Constantinople, Sept. 6. 1835. At Canton, which destroyed above 3000 houses, Nov. 22. 1835. At New York, United States, which raged over 54 acres of ground, destroyed 674 houses, and property to the amount of 20,000,000 of dollars, Dec. 17. 1836. Glynnllivon, the noble mansion of Lord Newborough, Wales, destroyed. By an early hour in the morning, the stately pile was completely gutted, and nothing left but the bare and blackened walls, Feb. 10. 1837. Dreadful conflagration in India, July 17, which destroyed three-fourths of Surat, (comprising from 5000 to 6000 houses) above 500 lives, and an immense quantity of property. It raged with ter- rific fierceness till midnight.when it burn- ed itself out, and left Surat one vast ex- tended heap of ruins. 1837- At the imperial winter palace of St. Petersburgh. It first appeared in the hall of Peter the Great. I'his vast palace, one of the largest in Europe, which accommodated 12,000 persons F I R 476 F I R within its walls, was almost totally de- stroyed, Dec. 29. 1838. At Paris, the Italian opera- house burnt down. M. Severini.the act- ing manager, and five firemen perished. 1840. At Devonport dock-yard, Sep- tember 27. The Talavera, 72 guns, and the Imogene, 28, which were in dock — the Adelaide gallery, and sheds contain- ing prepared timber — 800 deck deals, a considerable quantity of the most valu- able compass timber — and nearly all the timber of the Malta 74, a ship lately broken up, were destroyed. The amount of damage was estimated at £150,000. October 3 following, an attempt to .fire the dock-yard at Sheerness, gave countenance to the suspicion that the iire at Devonport was not accidental. It broke out on board the Camperdown, in one of the lockers of the midshipmen's berth. It was extinguished without much damage ; but there was resin and other combustible materials immediately over the locker between the beams, which proved it to be the work of an in- cendiary. 1840. At Manchester, of premises in Peter-street, and property to a consi- derable amount consumed, October 15. Another, near the Exchange, so ex- tensive as has not taken place before, within the memory of the living inhabit- ants, October 17- The following are the most remarkable fires in London on record : — 982. One which destroyed great part of the city. 1212. On London Bridge, which de- stroyed 2000 persons, July 10. 1484. One at Leadenhall. 1540. Westminster palace burnt. 1666. " The Great Fire," that burnt down 13,200 houses, the city gates, Guildhall, &c., 89 churches, amongst which was St, Paul's cathedral, and 400 streets ; the ruins of the city extended over 436 acres, reaching from the Tower to the Temple church, and from the north-east gate to Holborn-bridge, and Fleet ditch ; it broke out near the Monu- ment, at the house of the king's baker, (Faryners) Pudding-lane, and stopped at Pye corner, near the Temple, burning four days and nights. Sept, 2. 1671. Drury-lane play-house, and 60 houses were burnt in January. 1676. In Southwark, 600 houses. 1 690, Whitehall palace burnt in part, April. 1698, Whitehall palace totally con- sumed, Jan. 5. 1716. 150 houses were burnt down in Nightingale-lane, Wapping, Dec. 4. 17I8. Custom-house burnt. 1776. The Savoy burnt to its founda- tion, March 2, 1779- Greenwich Hospital, Jan. 2. 1779. London-bridge water-works, Oct. 31. 1789. The Opera-house in the Hay- market, June 17. 1791. The Albion mills destroyed, March 2. 1791- From Cherry-garden- stairs to West-lane, Rotherhithe, destroyed, and several vessels.with 60 houses, Sept. 14. 1791. At a sugar-house, Wellclose- square, &c., where £30,000 damage was done, Dec. 12. 1792. The Pantheon, in Oxford-street, burnt, Jan 14. 1794, At Wapping, where upwards of 630 houses were destroyed, together with an East India warehouse, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre were destroyed: the whole loss was estimated at above £1,000,000 sterling; there was £40,000 worth of sugar in one sugar-house : the whole was said to have been the most dreadful accident of the kindsince the fire of London in I666. Sept. 22 and 23. 1794. At Astley's theatre, near West- minster-bridge, which destroyed to the value of near £30,000, together with 19 other houses, 1795, The elegant church of St. Paul's Covent-garden, was burnt down by the carelessness of workmen employ- ed in its repairs, Sept. 17- 1797. The water-works at Shadwell, which conveyed water from the Tower to Limehouse, and raised 903 gallons in a minute, were burnt down in one hour and a half, Dec. 12. 1799. The King's-bench prison had 50 apartments destroyed by an accidental fire, July 14. 1800. Near the Custom-house, three large warehouses of West India goods, valued at £300,000 destroyed, Feb. 11. 1800. At Wapping, where 30 houses, besides warehouses, value £80,000 were burnt, and many lives lost ; it extended from New-stairs to Execution-dock, Oct. 6. 1803. The great tower over the choir of Westminster-abbey destroyed, July 9. 1808, Covent-garden theatre totally destroyed by fire, Sept. 20. FIR 477 FIS 1809. The south-east wing of St. James's palace burnt down, Jan. 21. 1809. Drury-lane theatre completely destroyed, Feb. 24. 1813. At the Commercial-hall, Skin- ner-street, which was entirely consum- ed, April 4. 1814. At the Custom-house, Thames- street, by which the whole range of buildings and many other houses were destroyed, Feb. 12. 1815. Part of the works belonging to the Gas Company, in Dorset- street, de- stroyed. May 24. 1815. At the Mint, by which the eastern and southern wings of the build- ing were unroofed, and the interior, con- taining the machinery, destroyed,Oct.31. 1816. At the Stock Exchange Coffee- house, which was entirely destroyed, as were several adjoining counting-houses, April 23. 1829. Royal Bazaar, and Diorama, O.vford-street, consumed. May 27- 1834. The two houses of Parliament burnt down. See Parliament, Houses OF. 1835. Mill-bank Penitentiary partly burnt October 2. 1836. Destructive one in Bond-street, and Burlington Arcade, extending to Western Exchange. The loss of pro- perty was immense. Scarcely any of the valuable articles belonging to the un- fortunate individuals occupying the stands in the Western Exchange was saved. April 26. 1837- Most destructive fire at Davis's Wharf, on the Thames, nearly opposite the Tower. Destroyed three vessels ; the damage estimated at from £120,000 to £150,000. Dec. 28. 1838. The Royal Exchange burnt down January 10. See Royal Ex- change. 1840. Fire in Wapping, which broke out at St. Andrew's Wharf, High-street, on Tuesday morning, June l6, attended with more destructive consequences than any conflagration in the metropolis, since the burning of the Royal Exchange, The property destroyed was immense, and consisted of sails, ship stores, masts, provisions, and merchandize of various descriptions. Besides the Globe Tavern, there were five wharfs, and nine houses adjoining, and the opposite side of the street destroyed. The loss was estimated at £40,000. FIRES IN Chimneys prevented. The principle of Davy's safety-lamp has been successfully applied to prevent fires in chimneys, by M. Maratueh, in France, 1839. He found by experiments, that, if three frames of wire-work are placed near the base of the chimney, one above the other, about one foot apart, no flame will pass through them, whilst the draught of the chimney will not be impaired, and consequently, no fire can ever happen in the chimney. As most of the soot lodges on the uppermost wire, but little on the second, and none on the third, he suggests that with a brush ap- plied once a day, to the lowest, or two lowermost, the chimney will never want sweeping. FIRMIN, Thomas, the patriotic citi- zen of London, died in 1697. FIRST Fruits, the profits of a bene- fice for the first year after avoidance. The first fruits were formerly estimated according to a rate made under the di- rection of pope Innocent I"V., in 38 Hen, III., and afterwards advanced in value by commission from Pope Nicholas III., 1292, 20 Edward I. These usurpations were first introduced during the reigns of kings John and Henry III., in the see of Norwich, and afterwards at- tempted to be made universal, by the popes Clement V. and John XXII. about the beginning of the 14th century. This revenue was annexed to the crown by 26 Henry VIII. c. 3; confirmed by 1 Eliz, c. 4. Queen Anne granted her royal charter, confirmed by statute 2 Anne c. 11, whereby the whole revenue of first fruits and tenths was vested in trustees for ever, to form a perpetual fund for the augmentation of poor livings, usually called Queen Anne's bounty. 1838. 1 Vict. c. 20. April 11, abolishes the office of remembrancer, collectors, &c., and places the first fruits under the management of the governors and trea- surer of Queen Anne's bounty. 1840. In March, a bill was brought into the House of Commons to the effect, " That it is expedient to abolish the first fruits and tenths of the clergy, after the next avoidance ; and in lieu thereof, to levy an assessment of one-tenth part of the clear annual value upon all bishop- rics, benifices, &c., above the clear yearly value of £300." It was lost by a majority of eight. FISCHET, William, the restorer off the purity of the Latin tongue in Europe died 1646, FIS 478 FIT FISH, Shower of, happened on May 17, 1834, in the neighbourhood of Allahabad. About noon.a blast of wind which changed the atmosphere to a red- dish yellow hue, came on. When the storm had passed over, the ground, south of the village, to the extent of two bigahs, was strewed with fish, in number no less than 3000 or 4000, of the Chalvva spe- cies, a span or less in length. When found they were all dead and dry. Chalwa fish are found in the tanks and rivers in the neighbourhood. The nearest tank in which there was water, was about half a mile south of the village. FISHER, John, bishop of Rochester, was born at Beverley, in Yorkshire, in 1459. In 1474 he was sent to Cam- bridge, and was appointed one of the proctors of the university in 1495. In 1501, he took the degree of doctor of divinity, the same year was elected chancellor of the university, and in 1504, consecrated bishop of Rochester. On the promulgation of Martin Luther's doctrine, the bishop was the first to enter the lists against him. On this occasion he exerted all his influence, and is gene- rally supposed to have written the book by which Henry VIII. obtained the title of Defender of the Faith. 1534. The parliament found him guilty of misprision of treason, for con- cealing certain prophetic speeches of a fanatical impostor, called the Holy Maid of Kent. He was, on this ground, at- tainted by the parliament, and commit- ted to the Tower, where he was cruelly treated. The king sent Rich, the so- licitor-general, to obtain from him his opinion with regard to the supremacy. The bishop gave an unreserved decision on the subject, which the solicitor carried to his master ; the consequence was, that a special commission was immediately issued for trying him for high treason. He was condemned by the court, and be- headed on Tower-hill, June 22, 1534, in his 76th year. FISHERMEN'S Company, London, incorporated 1709. FISHERIES. The situation of the British coasts is the most advantageous in the world for catching fish. Gr^at en- couragement was given to the establish- ment of fisheries by James I. and Charles I., particularly in the Hebrides, but the hopes of the adventurers were frustrated by the civil wars. In 1661, Charles II., the duke of York, and others, resumed the business of the fisheries, a company was formed, and the king embarked con- siderable sums in the undertaking. In 1677, a new royal company was esta- blished in England, at the head of which was the duke of York, the earl of Derby, &c. ; but an unforeseen event ruined the whole design. In 1750, an incorporated society was formed for 21 years. But the Dutch, who had hitherto monopo- lized the British markets, still main- tained their ground. Since this period, various acts of parliament have been passed, and diflferent societies formed; but notwithstanding the advantages which our island possesses, our fisheries (except that for whales, which has been carried on exclusively by this country) have continued on the decline for several years past. See Whale Fisheries. There has been, latterly, a growing complaint of a scarcity of such fish as breed in the Channel ; and it is affirmed, in the report of the commons' committee of 1833, on the Channel fish- eries, that the fact of such scarcity ex- isting has been completely established. FISHGUARD, town of Pembroke- shire, South Wales. A detachment of French troops that made a descent at this place, in 1797, were taken prisoners by Lord Cawdor. FISHING Towns, legally regulated, 1542. FISHMONGERS' Company, Lon- don, incorporated, 1536. FISHMONGERS' Hall, pulled down at the building of new London- bridge, 1831, new building completed, 1836. It occupies one of the finest situ- ations in the city, standing at the south- west angle of the north approach to the new London-bridge, towards which it presents an elevation upwards of 160 feet in length- The great banqueting- hall occupies the centre of the east-front of the building, and is 73 feet in length ; 38 feet in width, and 33 feet in height. The arms of the city and of the 12 prin- cipal companies, are emblazoned on the front of the Music Gallery. FITZGERALD, William Thomas, one of the vice-presidents of the literary fund, author of " Nelson's Triumph, or the Battle of the Nile," &c., died July 9, 1829. FITZGERALD, Lord EDWARD,exe- cuted as a rebel under martial law, in Dublin, May, 1798. FITZHERBERT, Sir Anthony, FIT an eminent English judge, and au- thorof a work on husbandry, died in 1538. FITZHERBERT, Mrs.Maria Anne, born July 26, 1756, the youngest daugh- ter of Walter Smythe, of Bambridge in Hampshire : first married in 1775, to Edward Weld, esq., of Lulworth-castle, Dorset, who died without issue the same year ; secondly, to Thomas Fitzherbert, Esq., of Norbury, Derby, who also died without issue at Nice, May 7, 1781. Shortly after, her beauty and fascinating manners attracted the particular admi- ration of the prince of Wales ; and after having, for some time, received his assi- duous attentions, she consented to a nuptial union with his royal highness, according to the forms of her own (.the Roman Catholic) church. This fact has been disputed, but it was alluded to during a debate which took place in the house of commons in 1787, relative to the prince's pecuniary difficulties. She died at her house at Brighton, March 27, 1837, aged 80. In disposition, Mrs. Fitzherbert was frank, generous, indul- gent, and hospitable, and she retained in advanced age, the warmth, the enthusi- asm, the freshness, and disinterested feelings of youth. FITZPATRICK, Richard, a general in the army, and writer of several hu- moroiis political poems, died April 25, 1813. FITZWILLIAM, William Went- woRTH, Earl, a privy councillor, high steward of Hull, custos rotulorum of the soke of Peterborough, recorder of Higham Ferrers, &c., was born May 30, 1748, and was the elder son of John, the second earl, by lady Anne Wentworth, eldest daughter of Thomas, first marquis of Rockingham. He was only in his ninth year at the death of his father, Au- gust 10, 1756. At an early age he was sent to Eton; removed to King's College, Cambridge ; and he afterwards travelled abroad. The degree of D.C.L. was con- ferred upon him at Oxford, July 3, 1793. In 1769 betook his seat in the house of peers. Having enrolled himself among the opponents of Lord North's adminis- tration, he persevered throughout the American war in resistingthe continuance of that contest. On the recovery of King George III., in 1789, the royal family paid a visit to him at Went- worth House. A very magnificent fete was celebrated on this occasion, Sep- tember 2, at which it was supposed that 479 FLA 40,000 persons were entertained. In 1794 Earl Fitzwilliam accepted the office of president of the council. In 1795 he was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, in consequence of the countenance given by him to the claims of the catholics. When the death of Mr. Pitt occasioned a new ministerial change in 1806, Earl Fitzwilliam returned to the seat of pre- sident of the council, which he retained until the fall of the Grenville adminis- tration in the following year. He after- wards gradually retired from public life, and in 1819 he was removed from the lieutenancy of the West Riding of York- shire, in consequence of the part he took at a public meeting where resolu- tions were passed condemning the con- duct of the yeomanry in dispersing the celebrated Manchester meeting. He died February 8, 1833, at Milton House, near Peterborongh, in his 85th year. His funeral took place at Masholm church, Northamptonshire, on Sunday Feb. 24. FIUME, capital of the Hungarian Li- torale. From 1809 until 1813 Fiume was in the possession of France, and formed part of the lUyrian provinces, but was recovered at the latter period by an Austrian and British force. FIVE-MILE-ACT passed October 4, 1665. This act obliged nonconformist teachers, who refused to take the non- resistance oath, not to come within five miles of any corporation where they had preached since the act of oblivion, unless they were travelling, under the penalty of £50. FLAMMEL, Nicholas, an impu- dent alchemist of the 14th century, who, by pretending to convert mercury into gold and silver, and to be in possession of the art of prolonging life, contrived to amass so large a sum of money, that he expended between £200,000 and £300,000 in building three churches, and endow- ing 14 hospitals. FLAMSTEAD, or Flamsteed, John, a celebrated British astronomer, was born at Derby in 1646, and educated at the free school of Derby, where he was head scholar at 14 years of age. In 1669 he calculated an eclipse of the sun, which had been omitted in the Epheme- ris for the following year, and sent it to the Royal Society. In 1670 he went to London, where he was introduced to Sir Jonas Moore, who afterwards became his warm friend and patron. In 1673 he composed a tieatise on the true and FLA 480 FLE apparent diameters of the planets when at their greatest and least distance from the earth, which Newton made use of in his Principia in 1685. He pubhshed an Ephemeris in 1674, in which he exposed the folly and absurdity of astrology. In 1675 the foundation stone of the royal observatory at Greenwich was laid, which received the name of Flamstead House, in honour of him as the first as- tronomer royal. Several years after- wards his " Doctrine of the Sphere" was published by Sir Jonas Moore in his "System of the Mathematics." He spent the remainder of his life in prosecuting his labours in the improvement of astro- nomy with unwearied exertion and ac- tivity, and died in 1719, at the age of 73. His most celebrated work is his " His- toria Coelestis Britannica," in three vo- lumes, folio. FLANDERS, an ancient country of Europe, formerly divided into French, Austrian, and Dutch Flanders. This whole district was overrun by the French in the early part of the war which com- menced in 1793, and confirmed to them by the peace of Campo Formio in 1797. Dutch and Austrian Flanders were, at the general peace in 1814, ceded to the kingdom of the Netherlands, and are now comprised in the kingdom of Hol- land, under the names of East and West Flanders, FLAVEL, John, an eminent non- conformist divine, was born in Worces- tershire about 1627, and educated at University College, Oxford. .In 1656 he became minister of a very populous parish at Dartmouth. In 1662 he was among the number of ejected ministers for re- fusing the terms proposed by act of par- liament. At the passing of the Oxford act in 1665, he was obliged to retire to Slapton, a village five miles from Dart- mouth. After various wanderings, in 1685 he came to London to avoid falling into the hands of the mob. He died at Exeter in 1691, in the 64th year of his age. Among his works the most famous are his " Navigation Spiritualized," and his " Husbandry Spiritualized," printed after his death. FLAX.NewAmericanMachinery FOR Dressing, recently invented in the United States for the preparation of flax for spinning, after the manner in which cotton is now spun. A large company, in Delaware, is now engaged in the manufacture of the " short staple" produced by the new invention. Tlie advantages alleged are these : — 1, That there is no loss of fibre, as no tow is to be taken out, all the lint being used up ; whereas, by the old plan of hackling, finger-spinning, &c., there was a loss of perhaps half the original weight. 2. That the expense of labour on the whole process of cloth making is reduced to one-tenth of what it was. 3. That the expense of bleaching on the flax, as now, is much less than in the old plan, and the process less injurious to the texture. — Athenaeum, 1840. FLAXLEY Abbey, built in the reign of Henry I., 1110; totally destroyed by fire, damage estimated at £7000, April 1, 1777. FLAXMAN, John, an eminent En- glish sculptor, born at York, 1755, died 1826. FLAXMAN, Anne, wife of the sculptor, and an accomplished classical scholar, died February 6, 1820. FLECHIER, Esprit, a French pre- late, one of the most celebrated preach- ers of his age, was born at Perne, in Avignon, in 1632. He was chosen one of the 40 members of the French Academy in 1673; and, in 1679, published his History of the Emperor Theodosius the Great. In 1685 Flechier was nominated by Louis XIV. to the bishopric of Lor- raine. He died in 1710. He was author of many valuable works, which, in the year 1782, were collected and published at Nismes, in 10 volumes octavo. FLECKNOE, Richard, an English dramatist, flourished 1664. FLEET Market, Old, opened Sep- tember 30, 1737; obelisk erected 1775 ; a new market opened June 7, 1780. The corporation of London were autho- rised by an act of parliament, passed in 1824, to remove the late market, and to provide for a new one at a short distance, which was opened for the commencement of business November 20, 1829- FLEET Prison burnt by the rioters, June 7, 1780. FLEETWOOD, William, bishop of St. Asaph, antiquarian, died 1723. FLETCHER, James, author of the History of Poland, died February 2, 1832, aged 21. FLETCHER, John, dramatic writer, born 1576, died 1625. FLETCHERS' Company, London, incorporated 1526. FLEURIEU, Charles Pikre?, FLO 481 FLU Claret de, born July 2, 1738, died August 13, 1810. FLEURY, Cardinal, prime minis- ter of France in the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV., was born in 1653, made bishop of Frejus in 1698, died 1743, aged 90. FLEURY, Claude, a French writer, born 1640, died 1723. FLINT CASTLE, north Wales, begun in 1185, by Henry II. ; perfected by Edward I. ; granted by Richard II. to Percy, earl of Northumberland, and within its walls King Richard was betrayed by Percy into the hands of Bolingbroke. During Cromwell's usurpation it was garrisoned by King Charles, but sur- rendered to the parliamentary forces. The ruins are still considerable. FLODDEN FIELD, Northumber- land. In September 1513 a sanguinary battle was fought near this place between the Scotch and the English, in which the former were routed, James IV., their king, slain, with many of his nobles, and 10,000 men. FLOGGING, Military. This sub- ject has been several times brought before parliament by Mr. Hume. Among others on March 25, 1824, in 1827, and in 1833. On the latter occasion Mr. Hume re- minded ministers that many of them- selves and their adherents were bound, by previous votes, to support him. After the usual arguments on both sides his motion was lost by only 1 1 votes ; there being 140 for it, and 151 against it. 1835. An inquest was held at the ma- rine barracks, Woolwich, on the body of Thomas Ramsby, a private in the royal marines, who died after being flog- ged. The sentence was 150 lashes, part only of which was executed. The jury returned the following verdict : " That Thomas Ramsby came by his death in consequence of a locked jaw, arising from the punishment he received in pur- suance of the sentence of a court martial upon him." See Army Punishments. FLOOD, Sir Frederick, the dis- tinguished Irish orator, died 1834. FLOODS. See Inundations. FLOOR of an apartment at Clermont Farrand, France, gave way during a the- atrical entertainment, when 36 persons were killed, and 57 had their limbs bro- ken, or were severely wounded, Decem- ber, 1791. FLORENCE, the capital of the grand duchy of Tuscany, was founded by the soldiers of Sylla about A.c. 80 ; enlarged and embellished by the triumvirate ; de- stroyed by Totila ; and rebuilt by Char- lemagne, in the 9th century. In the middle ages Florence rose to a degree of wealth and power which placed her far above all the neighbouring states, and which, principally through the influence of the Medici family in the 1 5th century, enabled her to render them her tributa- ries. The most celebrated buildings are the Palazzo Pitti, purchased by the fa- mily of the Medici, containing the Venus de Medici, the two wrestlers, the young Apollo, Amor and Psyche, &c. These treasures were plundered by the French in 1800, and carried to Paris; but many were restored at thegenereilpeacein 1815. FLORIDA, territory in the United States. The name was given to this re- gion by Juan Ponce de Leon, the Spanish discoverer, from Pasqua Florida, or Palm Sunday, in 1512, and for a long time the name was general for the Atlantic coast of North America, Carolina was for- merly included in it. This colony was almost extirpated by the Spaniards in 1564; after many vicissitudes it remained in the hands of the Spaniards until 1763, when it was ceded to the British, who divided it into the east and west provinces. In 1781, the Spanish governor, DonGalvez conquered West Florida, and by the treaty of Paris, 1783, the whole of both Floridas was re- stored by Great Britain to Spain. In 1810, a revolution took place in West Florida, and it continued to be an object of contention for some time be- tween Spain and America. In 1819, negotiations were commenced for the cession of it to the Union ; this treaty was ratified by Spain in October, 1820, and by America in February, 1821, and in July it was finally taken possession of by General Jackson. ' FLORUS, the Roman historian, flou- rished in the second century of the christian era. FLUORIC Acid. The existence of this acid asaconstituent of human teeth, bones, and urine, has been admitted by chemists generally, since the year 1802 ; when Morichini declared that he had de- tected it in the teeth, and that he had been led to this examination by the dis- covery of fluoride in fossil ivory. 1839. Dr. G. O. Rees has repeated the experiments upon which the above belief was based by several continental che- 3 a FON 482 FOR mists, but with reversed results, save in the case of fossil ivory, wherein he de- tected the fluoride ; but he regards this as an extraneous matter introduced by the partial mineralization of the animal substance : he is convinced that no such constituent exists in recent ivory, the enamel of teeth, human bone, or urine ; in fact, that fluoride of calcium should be expunged from the list of the consti- tuents of animal substances. Dr. Rees attributes the fallacy of the continental chemists to their experiments being made in apparatus of bad glass, the peculiar action on which has been erroneously con- sidered to denote the presence of the acid. FLUSHING, town in Holland, on the island of Walcheren, has long been noted as the resort of English smugglers both in peace and war, and sustained a siege from the British in 1809, when it was taken by them. The island was afterwards annexed by Buonaparte to France, and continued so until 1814, when it was restored to the king of the Netherlands, and since the dismember- ment of that kingdom, forms part of the kingdom of Holland. FLUXIONS, invented by Newton in 1669. Differential calculus, by Leibnitz, in 1684. The finest applications of the calculus have been made by Newton, Eu- ler, Lagrange, and Laplace. Maclaurin's Fluxions, the most complete work on this science that has appeared, was pub- lished in 1742. FOGS, remarkable, in London, Jan. 1, 1720, when several chairmen fell with their fares into the canal in St. James's Park, others into Fleet-ditch, and much damage was done on the Thames. A fog equally dense occurred Jan. 10, 1812, and a third Dec. 20, 1813. FOLEY, Admiral Sir Thomas, one of the heroes of St. Vincent, the Nile, and Copenhagen, born 1758, died January 3, 1833. FOLKES, Martin, antiquarian, died in 1754, aged 64. FONTAINE, John, a French poet, was born at Chateau-Thierri, in Cham- pagne, in 1621. He died at Paris in 1695, at the age of 74. His most cele- brated work is his Fables, which has passed through a great number of edi- tions. FONTAINEBLEAU, town of France, celebrated for its palace, which is of great antiquity, founded previous to the 13th century, but enlarged and improved by Francis I., Henry IV,, and Louis XIV., and XV. In this palace, Christiana, queen of Sweden, caused her equerry. Count Monaldeschi, to be executed in 1654. The preliminaries of peace be- tween France, England, Spain, and Por- tugal, were signed here, Nov. 5, 1762. Pope Pius VII., with his cardinals, lived here in exile from June 19, 1812, to Jan. 24, 1814. A concordat was signed here in 1813. Here also Napoleon signed his first abdication, April 11, 1814. FONTAINE-NOTRE-DAME, village of, nearlydestroyed byfire,April25, I8I6. FONTARABIA, town of Spain, con- sidered one of the keys of the kingdom, on the frontiers of France, taken by the French in 1794. FONTENAY, village in France ; re- markable for having been the scene of a bloody battle between the sons of Louis le Debonnaire, in the year 841, in conse- quence of which the Frankish empire, founded by Charlemagne, was dissolved. Lothaire I. received Italy ; Louis, Ger- many ; and Charles the Bald, France. FONTENELLE, author of "The Plurality of Worlds," died Jan. 9, 1757, aged 100. FONTHILL, near Salisbury, burnt down, valued at £30,000., Feb. 12, 1765. FOOLS, festival of, at Paris, held Jan. 1, 1 198, and continued for 240 years, in which all sorts of absurdities and in- decencies were committed. FOOTE, Samuel, dramatic writer and actor, was born at Truro, in Cornwall, 1717. In 1747, he opened the little theatre in the Haymarket, taking upon himself the character of author and per- former; and appeared in a dramatic piece of his own composing, called " The Diversions of the Morning." In 1766, being on a party of pleasure with the duke of York, he broke his leg, and was compelled to suffer amputation. This accident so much affected the duke, that he obtained for him a patent for life, by which he was allowed to perform at the theatre, Haymarket, from May 15, to September 15, every year. He died at Dover on his way to Paris, on October 21, 1777, in the 56th year of his age, and was interred in Westminster-abbey. FORBISHER. See Frobisher. FORD, Northumberland. Its castle was built in 1287, several times besieged, and in 1385, nearly demolished by the Scots under the earls of Fife, Marsh, and Douglas. It was also taken by King FOR 483 FOR James's troops previous to the battle of Flodden. FORDYCE, David, professor of philosophy, died in 1751, aged 40. FORDYCE, James, Scotch divine, born at Aberdeen in 1720, died October I, 1796, in the 76th year of his age. FORESTER, John Rain hold, na- vigator, died Jan. 9, 1799, aged 70. FORGERY, by various statutes, was formerly made capital; as, altering, or uttering as true, when forged, of any bank bills or notes, or other securities, by Stat. 8 and 9 Will. III. c. 20. 36; 1 1 Geo. I. c. 9 ; 12 Geo. I. c. 32 ; 25 Geo. II. c. 13 ; 13 Geo. III. c. 79. Stock, or dividends by 8 Geo. I. c. 22 ; 9 Geo. I. c. 12; 31 Geo. II. c. 22, 11, &c. There was formerly hardly a case wherein for- gery, that tended to defraud, whether in the name of a real or fictitious person, was not made a capital crime. But va- rious alterations have been recently made. 1830. 1 Will. IV. c. 66, July 23. After reciting all the different kinds of forgery heretofore liable to the punishment of death, declares that any person so offend- ing, shall not suffer death for the same, unless in either cases specified. 1832. 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 123, Aug. 16. Further abolishes the punish- ment of death in cases of forgery, except for forging or altering wills and powers of attorney, to transfer stock, &c. 1837. Lastly. 1 Vic. c, 84, July 17. Reciting various acts, 1 Will. IV. c. 66. 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 59, the 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 123, by which the forging of the different instruments was made pu- nishable by death, enacts that persons convicted of any forgery should, in fu- ture, be liable to be transported for life, or for not less than seven years, or to be imprisoned for not exceeding four years, nor less than two years. FORMOSA, or Taiouan, an island in the Chinese Sea, subject to the Chi- nese, discovered by them in the year 1430. The Dutch built the fort of Zea- land in its western division in 1643, but were driven out in 1661 by a Chinese pirate, who then made himself master of all the western part. In 1682, the emperor of China obtained possession of the whole island. FORT BALAGUER, taken by the French, Jan. 9, 1811. FORT ST. DAVID, fortress in Hin- doostan, Carnatic. A British factory was first established here in 1688 and 1746, when Madras was taken, it was besieged afterwards by the French ; taken by them in 1785, and the fortifications destroyed. FORT- GEORGE, taken by the Ame- ricans, May 27, 1813. FORT ST. GEORGE, in the East Indies, seized by the French, 1746. Re- stored, 1748. FORT MICHILIMACHINACK. ta- ken by the British, Canadians and sa- vages, July 17, 1812. FORT WILLIAM, Calcutta, com- menced by Lord Clive after the battle of Plassie, in 1757. FORTESCUE, Sir John, author of the " Laws of England," died in 1465. FORTIFICATION, practised in very early times, though in a rude manner. In the land of Canaan, A. c. 1490, " the cities were walled and very great." One of the first improvements in the ancient walls for defence was the perforating them with loop-holes ; through these the enemy was constantly annoyed, by the arrows and other missile weapons of the besieged. To the walls square towers were added at proper distances along the top, and projecting a little way beyond them. Fortifications of this kind, still without moats or ditches, continued for many centuries to be the chief or only artificial means of defence. The invention of gunpowder in the 14th century changed the mode of attack; and this consequently imposed the ne- cessity of changing altogether the system of defence. About the year 1500, the walls were strengthened by thick ram- parts of earth, and the two sides of the towers within the walls were removed as useless, leaving only the two e?;terior sides, which were afterwards altered into bastions ; and the walls were universally surrounded by wet or dry ditches. But it was soon found that all the parts of the defence were not equally strong ; this gave rise to the invention of ravelins, te- nailles, counter-guards, bonnets, horn- works, crown-works, lunettes, the covert way, and other outworks ; all of which are designed to make the body of the place equally inaccessible in every part. Towards the end of the l6th century, the art received some important improve- ments, and at length began to assume the form of a regular system. To this effect none more contributed than Count de Pagan, a French nobleman, born in the year 1604. M. deVauban also made FOU 484 FOX many improvements about 1690. His method of ricochet firing was first em- ployed in 1697 at the siege of Ath, a town in Austrian Hainault. He died in 1707, after having, by his inventions and im- provements, brought fortification to a very high degree of perfection. FOSSIL organic remains of an ic- thyosaurus, from 12 to 14 feet in length dug up near Bedford, in 1832; of a plesiosaurus, the length of which is com- puted to have been between 17 and 18 feet, dug up, Jan. 17, 1833. FOSTER, Captain Henry, one of the companions of Captain Parry, drowned in the river Chagres, in Darien, Feb. 6, 1831. FOSTER, Dr. James, a celebrated nonconformist preacher, was born at E.xeter in I697. In 1 728, he commenced a Sunday evening lecture in the Old Jewry, which he continued till within a short time of his death, with almost un- exampled popularity. He died Nov. 5, 1752, aged 55. FOTHERGILL, John, an eminent physician and botanist, was born at Car- rend, near York, March 8, 1712. In 1754, he was elected a fellow of the col- lege of physicians at Edinburgh, and in 1763, a member of the Royal Society, He instituted the seminary at Ackworth, in Yorkshire, 1778, to which he was a liberal benefactor. He died December 26, 1780. His understanding was com- prehensive and quick, and there was a charm in his conversation, that concili- ated the regard and confidence of all who employed him. By his uniform and steady temperance, he preserved his mind vigorous and active, and his consti- tution equal to all his engagements. FOTHERING AY, Northamptonshire, remarkable for its castle, founded by Simon St. Liz, second earl of Northamp- ton, in the time of William the Con- queror, and rebuilt by Edmund, duke of York, second son of Edward III. By marriage-settlement this castle became the property of the Scottish kings, but, during the reign of John David, king of Scotland, it was compelled to surrender to the king of England. In it Richard III , of England, was bom. Mary, queen of Scots, in 1586, having previ- ously suffered a long imprisonment, was here tried and condemned in the hall, and shortly afterwards executed. FOUNDERS' Company, London, incorporated 1614. FOUNDLING Hospital, London, was founded in 1736; incorporated 1739 ; building began, 1742; began to receive children, 1756; let part of their estate in 1797, which yields £2000 a year addition to their income. FOUNTAIN, Hero's, received its name from the inventor. Hero, of Alex- andria, who lived about a.c. 250. In this fountain, the air is compressed by a concealed fall of water ; and the jet pro- duced by this pressure induces those who are ignorant of the device to ima- gine, that the same water which fell from the jet rises again, and constitutes a per- petual motion. FOUNTAIN in the Piazza Norlua, at Rome, built 1682. FOUNTAIN DE Trevi, in Rome, built, 1751. FOUNTAINE, Sir Andrew, En- glish antiquary, died 1759. FOUNTAIN'S Abbey, Yorkshire, built, 1132. FOURCROY, Anthony Francis, chemist, author of the new nomenclature, born June 15, 1755, died Dec. 16, 1809, FOURNIER, P. S., the Parisian let- ter-founder, died, 1758. FOWEY, Cornwall, was famous for the piracies of its inhabitants in the reign of Edward I., but afterwards became mercantile. In the reign of Edward III. it furnished 47 vessels to assist the king in his wars. During the same reign it obtained the name of the gallants of Fowey, in consequence of a successful attack on the ships of Rye and Win- chelsea, which refused to strike their colours. FOX, Charles James, one of our most distinguished statesmen, was born January 13, 1749. He was third son of Henry Fox, afterwards Lord Holland, by Lady Georgiana Carolina Lennox, eldest daughter to Charles, second duke of Richmond. At the early period of nine years of age, the dawn appeared of that genius which has since proved the admiration of the world. At Eton he formed his early friendships with many of the most eminent characters of the age. 1768. When he was but 19 years old, his father procured him the return for the borough of Midhurst. It was on occasion of the unhappy disputes which led to the American war, that his splendid talents and truly patriotic sentiments first displayed themselves to public view. In CMAIEILIS^ JAMIiS F©X. t/ J.cindon Published ly H-iomas Ifelly, J7, Patej-jmstex J and by Boyle about the same time ; hydrostatical press (since brought into use by Braraah) discovered by Pas- cal 1664. In 1697, theory and pheno- mena of rivers, by Guglielmini; in 1714, correct theory of fluids, and oscillation of waves by Newton; 1734, equilibrium of fluids, D'Alembert. 1738. Scientific form given to Hy- drodynamics by Daniel Bernouili. In the course of the year he published a new and improved theory of the motion of fluids, in a treatise entitled " Hydro- dynamica, seu de viribus et motibus Fluidorum Commentarii ;" a work ex- tolled by Bossut, as one of the finest productions of mathematical genius ; but as it had never been demonstrated in a general manner, the results were ac- companied with a degree of uncertainty. 1742. A more direct solution was given by Mr. Maclaurin in his " System of Fluxions," published at Edinburgh. In 1743 M. D'Alembert discovered a principle of dynamics, so simple and general, that it reduced the laws of the motion of bodies to that of their equili- brium. A specimen of his successful apphcation of this principle to the motion, of fluids was given in his Dynamics. The method of expressing by equations the motion of a particle of fluid in any given direction, was attained about the year 1751, by the skill and address of M. D'Alembert. His Method was first pubhshed in his " Essai sur la Resist- ICH 576 ICH ances des Fluides " in 1752, and after- wards in a more complete state, in his " Opuscules Matheraatiques." The la- bours of M. Bossut in this branch of science, though performed on a smaller scale, afford in all similar cases the same results. 1786. A satisfactory theory of the motion of fluids, founded solely on experiments, is given in a work en- titled "Principes d'Hydraulique," by Le Chevalier de Buat, who was engineer to Louis XVI. The discoveries since that time are of a minor kind, and chiefly respect hydraulic machines. HYDROGEN Lamp discovered by Lieutenant Drummond, which produces a light of so dazzling a brightness as to cause any object to cast a shadow on a dark-coloured wall at the distance of ten miles. 1832. HYDROSTATIC Bed, invented by Dr. Arnott 1827. HYRCANUS I., John, high priest and prince of the Jews, was the son of Simon Maccabeus. On the invasion of Judea by the Syrian governor a.c. 139, he and his brother Judas led a body of troops, who entirely defeated the in- vaders. He died a.c. 107. HYRCANUS II., high-priest and king of the Jews, was eldest son of Alex- ander JannEeus ; being of a quiet and un- enterprising disposition, he was quickly dispossessed of his dignities, and re- duced to a private station, a.c. 63, he was restored to his pontifical office with the title of prince, but he was di- vested of royalty, and made tributary to Pompey. He was beheaded in the 80th year of his age. I. IAMBIC Verse, invented by Antio- lochus, who flourished a.c. 686. lAMBLICUS, author of Rhodes and Sinonides, flourished a.c. 100. ICELAND, island, Atlantic Ocean, subject to Denmark. About 860, Nad- dodr, a Norwegian pirate, was driven on the coast; Gordar, a Swede, circumna- vigated it in 864 ; Floke, a Norwegian, remained here for two years, and gave it the name it still bears. The first Nor- wegian colony arrived here in 874. Christianity was introduced in 981, and finally adopted in 1000. In 1261 the Icelanders submitted to the king of Nor- way ; in 1387, it was transferred, with Norway, to Denmark. In 1530 the re- formed religion was introduced, and in 1813 it was placed at the disposal of the British ; it is again, however, a depen- dency of Denmark. ICH DIEN, the Bohemian motto, meaning, " I serve," firet adopted by the prince of Wales after the battle of Cressy, 1346. ICHTHOLOGY, that part of natural history which treats of the classification, anatomy, &c., of fishes. Pierre Belon, a French physician, born in 1518, was the earliest systematic writer on ichtho- logy. He laid the foundation of many natural families or genera. His coun- tryman, Rondelet, three years afterwards exhibited more accurate descriptions and figures. The next work worthy of no- tice, is " Willoughby's De Historia Pis- cium," 1686. Ray published in 1707 his " Synopsis Methodica Piscium," which may be regarded as a corrected view of Willoughby's work. Artedi, the coun- tryman and friend of Linnaeus, adopted bis principles. Linnaeus published his papers, under the title of " Bibliotheca Ichthyologia," and " Philosophia Ich. thyologia ;" Walbaum, a physician at Lubeck, re-published them in four vo- lumes, in 1792. To Artedi belongs the merit of having first traced the outlines of that classification of fishes which has now become so popular in Europe. In his first edition of the " System of Na- ture," Linnaeus adopted the Artedian method. La Cepede, the friend of Buf- fon, produced an elaborate and exten- sive work on the " Natural History of Fishes." The British fishes found an able and entertaining expositor in Mr. Pennant, in the third volume of his British Zo- ology, 1777- From the time of Pennant considerable improvements have been made in the arrangement of fishes, par- IGN 577 ILL ticularly within the last few years, which may be found in the recent communica- tions to the Zoological Society, British Association, &c. On May 26, 1838, Dr. Cantor read to the Asiatic Society some notes on the fishes from the estuaries of the Ganges ; in which he stated that not more than one- half of the species, he had seen between Calcutta, and 21° N. lat., had been described by previous ich- thyologists. ICOLMKILL, anciently lona, island, county of Argyll, Scotland. St. Colum- bia, in the middle of the sixth century, landed here, and converted the inhabit- ants to Christianity. He founded a magnificent monastery called Columb- kill, famed during the dark ages as the only seat of learning and piety in western Europe : it was first occupied by canons regular, who vi^ere in 807 dis- lodged by the Danes. This island is celebrated as the burial place of 48 Scot- tish, four Irish, one French, and eight Norwegian kings. ICTHYOSAURUS. See Fossil Remains. ICY Cape, western coast of North America, discovered by Captain 'Cook, in April 1778 ; examined about 1826, by Captain Beechey in the Blossom. The farthest tongue of land which was reach- ed in the Blossom's barge was named Point Barrow. IDES, in the the Roman calendar, a denomination anciently given to eight days in each month ; the first of which fell on the 15th March, May, July, and October; and on the 13th day of the other months. The Ides came between the calends and the nones, and were reckoned backwards. See Calends. This method of reckoning time is still retained in the chancery of Rome. IDRIA, town, Austrian empire, king- dom lUyria, celebrated for its mines of quicksilver, in which 900 persons are constantly engaged, exclusively of 300 labourers. In 1803 the wood work in the galleries took fire, and the flames were not extinguished until the river Idrizza was made to discharge itself into the mines. IFFLAND, Augustus William, German actor and dramatic writer, died at Berlin, Sept. 22, 1814. IGNATIUS, St., one of the earliest fathers of the church, was born in Syria, and is said to have been acquainted with several of the apostles, especially Peter and Paul, and to have been made, about 67, Bishop of Antioch. In this city he continued more than 40 years, the honour and safeguard of the Christian religion, till Trajan, the emperor, commenced a persecution against the Christians. He was cast into prison, and condemned to be carried, bound, by soldiers to Rome, and there thrown as a prey to wild- beasts. The time of his martyrdom has been placed by Eusebius in the tenth year of Trajan, a.d. 107- His epistles are ex- tant in Greek, and in an ancient Latin version, which latter was pubhshed by Archbishop Usher, in 1 664. IGNATIUS Loyala. See Loyala. ILANZ, or Ilantz, town, Switzer- land, sufferered severely in 1799, on the retreat of Suwarrow before Massena, and subsequently, in 1801, from fire. ILCHESTER, Somersetshire, was an important place at the time of the Nor- man conquest, and had then fl07 bur- gesses. In the reign of William Rufus, it was besieged by and successfully de- fended against Robert de Mowbray, the leader of an insurrection. An hospital, dedicated to the Holy Trinity, was founded here about 1220. ILFRACOMBE, Devonshire, much frequented on account of its convenience for sea-bathing. It contributed six ships and 82 mariners towards the ex- pedition fitted out against Calais in 1346. During the civil wars it was garrisoned by the parliament, but taken in 1644 by the royalists. The parish church was built by government in memory of Captain Richard Bowen, who fell in July, 1797, in the attack on Teneriffe, under Lord Nelson. ILLINOIS, a state of North America, United States, first colonized by a few families, who emigrated from Canada about 1720, and settled at Kaskaskia and Cohakia, where their descendants still remain. In 1810 the territory which now forms the state contained only a population of 12,282. The popu- lation having increased to 35,220, was formed into a state, and admitted into the union in 1818. At Galena on Fever river, near the north-west corner of the state, are very rich and productive lead mines ; in 1830, these mines yielded 8,323,998 lbs. ILLUMINATI, a sect of heretics, who sprung up in Spain about the year 1575 ; were revived in France in 1634, but they were so hotly pursued by 4e INC 578 INC Louis XIII.. that they were soon de- stroyed. ILLUMINATI, a secret society which existed in Germany previous to the French revolution. Its real views were to subvert every established government and religion ; about the year 1787 it was entirely suppressed. ILLYRIA, a kingdom of the Austrian empire. The inhabitants were subdued by the Acmans, a.c. 228. At the di- vision of the empire Illyria fell to the empire of the west ; but in 476 was transferred to that of the east. In the sixth century, the kingdoms of Dal- matia and Croatia established their in- dependence. During the 11th and 1 2th centuries, the Hungarians and Venetians obtained the mastery over part of this country ; and subsequently the Turks deprived these of the greater part of their possessions. In the 18th century, Austria regained considerable part of those provinces which she had lost. In 1809 the emperor of the French decreed that the circles of Villach, Carinthia, Austrian Istria, Fiume, and Trieste, the Littorale, &c., should bear the name of the Illyrian provinces. In 1815 Illyria was assigned to Austria, and is the chief support of the Austrian navy. IMPALEMENT, in heraldry, intro- duced 1206. IMPEACHMENT, the first of a chan- cellor, and the first by the commons 1386. IMPORTS AND Exports. During the first half of the last century, and previously, woollen goods formed the principal article of native produce ex- ported from Great Britain ; and next to it were hardware, cutlery, leather ma- nufactures, linen, tin, and lead, copper and brass manufactures, coal, earthen- ware, provisions, slops, &c. Corn formed a considerable article in the list of exports down to 1770; since which period the balance of the corn trade has been, with a few exceptions, very de- cidedly on the side of importation. Cotton first became of importance as an article of export about 177*' ; since then the extension and improvement of the manufacture have been so astonish- ingly great, that the exports of cotton stuffs and yarn amount to about a half of the entire exports of British produce and manufactures. The exports of woollen goods hasV)een comparatively stationary. The principal articles of import during the last half century have consisted of sugar,tea, corn, timber, and naval stores, cotton-wool, woods and drugs for dying, wines and spirits, tobacco, silk, tailow, hides-and skins, coffee, spices, bullion, &c. Of the colonial and other foreign products imported into England, con- siderable quantities have always been re- exported. The following table exhibits the im- ports and exports of Great Britan for the three years ending 1840 : — , V.-ilue of Im- ports into the United King-- dom calculat- ed at Official Rates of Va- luation. Value of Exports from the Uiiitcrl Kingdom calculated at tht Official Kates uf Valuation. Value of the Produce of Manufactures of the United Kingdom theiefroDi, according totlie real or declared Value thereof. Years ending .Van. Produce and Manufactures of the United Kingdom. Foreign and Colonirl Merchandise. Total Exports. 1838 1839 1840 £54,737,301 61,268,320 62,004,000 £72,548,047 92,459,231 97,402,726 £13,233,622 12,711,318 12,795,990 £85,781,669 105,170,549 110,198,716 £42,069,245 50,060,970 53,233,580 INA, king of Wessex, published the INCHCOLM, island, Scotland, re- Sa^on code of laws, 709. nowned for the remains of a magnificent INACHUS began the kingdom of Ar- Augustinian monastery,founded in 1123 gos, A c. 1856. by Alexander I., and dedicated to St. INCHBALD, Mrs., the (^ramatic Columba. Itwas plundered by a British writer, died 1821. fleet in the reign of Edward III. IND 579 IND INCH-KEITH, island, Scotland, was taken by the English, in 1549, but re- covered b)' the Scots. LNCOMBUSTIBLE Fire-Dress, or armour, consisting of vvii-e gauze, lined with asbestos cloth, which will enable the wearer to traverse a sheet of tlame during 15 or 20 seconds without injury, invented by Aldini, of Bologna, 1830. INCOME Tax, laid on, 1799; re- pealed, 1802; renewed, 1803; increased 1806; renewed for a year, April, 1815 ; repealed, March 18, 1816. INCREMENTS, Method of, in- vented by Dr. Booke Taylor, secretary to the Royal Society. His " Methodus Incrementorum " appeared in 1715. Emerson's Method of Increments, was published in 1763. INDIA has usually been divided into Hindoostan, or India within the Ganges; and India beyond the Ganges, including the Birman Empire,and Pegu,Siam, Cam- bodia, Cochin China, Tonquin, Malacca, &c. See these articles respectively. The following is a chronological list of the principal events in the general his- tory of India, in its connexion with Eng- land : — 1528. Attempts made by England to reach India by the north-east and north- west passages. 1599 A society of 101 adventurers petitioned Queen Elizabeth for a trading Charter to India, the origin of the East India Company. See East India Com- pany. 1612. Jan. 11, a firman granted by the Mogul, allowing the English to es- tablish factories at Surat, Ahmedabad, Cambaya, and Goga. 1613. English established a factory at Firando, in Japan. 1614. The Portuguese who were at war with the Mogul, defeated by the English on the Bombay coast ; the En- glish in consequence obtained a firman, grantingthem perpetual liberty of trading. 1746. War being declared between England and France, a French fleet was dispatched to attack Madras, which ca- pitulated, but was restored to the Enghsh, in pursuance of the peace of Aix-la-Cha- pelle. 1749. A deposed rajah of Tanjore obtained the aid of the English, by a promise of the territory of Devicottah. The English took Tanjore, but abandoned the cause of the deposed rajah, on con- dition of receiving the territory of Devi- cottah from the reigning prince. This was the beginning of the Enghsh mili- tary power in India. War in the Car- natic for the succession of the nabob- ship of the province, occasioned by the death of the subahdar of the Deccan ; French and English engaged on different sides. 1751. French party triumphant. The protege of the English, Mohammed Ali, took refuge in Trinchino poly, where hewas besieged by the French, and defended by the English. Captain Clive (afterwards Lord Clive) besieged Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, reduced it, and defended it with success against very superior forces. 1752 — 1753. Hostilities continued, the advantage being generally on the English side. 1754. Aug. 2. Commissioners arrived from France and England to put an end to the war. Dec. 26, treaty of peace signed at Pondichevy. Both nations to withdraw from interference in the affairs of the native princes. 1756. June 18. Calcutta attacked by Sxiraja Dowla. See Calcutta. 1757. June 23. Battle of Plassy, in which Colonel Clive, with about 3000 men, vanquished the subahdar at the head of nearly 70,000, and laid the foun- dation of the British permanent dominion in India. 1759. April 6. English took Masuli- patam, and concluded a treaty with the subahdar of the Deccan, by which that prince ceded much territory, and engaged to suffer no French settlement in his dominions. The French forts fell suc- cessively into the power of the English j Nov. 29, Wandewash ; Dec. 10, Caran- goly; Feb. 9, 1760, Arcot fell; Jan. 14,1761, Pondichery surrendered; and by the middle of April not a vestige of the power of the French remained in the Peninsula. 1765. May 3. Lord Clive arrived at Calcutta, with the titles of governor and commander-in-chief. 1766. Important treaty with Nizam Ali, sovereign of the Deccan, by which the Northern Circars were granted to the English. March 11. Warren Hastings accused by Rajah Nundcomar, the Fouj- dar of Hooghly, of receiving bribes to a vast amount. See Hastings. 1780. June. InteUigence received at Madras, of the warlike preparations of Hyder Ali, who, exasperated at the de* I ND 580 IND molition of Mahe (a post in possession of the French, within his dominions, taken March 19, 1779) had made an alhance with the Mahrattas, and assem- bled a large army.officered by Frenchmen, and provided with arms from Europe. 1782. Feb. Successes of Hyder Ali's army under his son Tippoo Saib. Death of Hyder Ali, Dec. Tippoo Saib, estab- lished himself on the throne of Mysore, evacuated Arcot, and retired from the Carnatic, to settle the affairs of his king- dom, and to resist an invasion of the Malabar coast by General Matthews. 1784. March 11. Treaty of peace signed with Tippoo, stipulating a restitu- tion of conquests on both sides. ] 792. Peace with Tippoo in which he agreed to cede one half of Mysore, to pay 33,000,000 rupees, and to give up two of his eldest sons as hostages. 1799- May 4. War renewed with Tip- poo. Seringapatarn stormed by Major- General Baird ; Tippoo killed. June 22, partition treaty of Mysore, between the Ni- zam of the Deccan and the English. Mysore divided. The English took the southern portion, and the city of Seringapatam, by which accession their territory reached from sea to sea. The Nizam took an equal portion on the north-east. Some districts on the north-west, equal in value to more than half of each of their own por- tionswere offered by theAlliesto the Mah- rattas, and the remainder was given to Kistna Raj Oudawar, a descendant of the ancient Rajahs of Mysore, under whom it formed a little kingdom, depen- dent on the English. 1801. July 15. On the death of the nabob of Arcot, the English resolved to take the functions of government into their own hands. The English, in con- sequence, raised Azim ad Dowla, the nephew of the deceased nabob, to the nominal throne, on condition of his re- nouncing the powers of government in their favour. In 1801, the English were involved in disputes between Jeswunt Rao Holkar and Dowlut Rao Scindia, two powerful Mahratta chiefs. Holkar defeated. 1803. Augusts. After many fruitless negotiations with Dowlut Rao Scindia, the British resident quitted Scindia's camp, and war commenced against him, and his ally, the rajah of Berar. The Bame year, the army, under General Ar- thur Wellesley, entered the Mahratta states on the south, took the fort of Ahmednuggur, August 12. Defeated Scindia and the rajah of Berar at Assye, on the river Kaitna, Sept. 23. Boorhan- pore taken on October 15, and Asseer- ghuron the 21st. Scindia again defeated at Argaum, Nov. 28. Gawilghur taken Dec. 15. Dec. 29, treaty of peace with Scindia, who agreed to give up Baroach, Ahmednuggur, and his forts on the Dooab, and to exclude all Europeans except the British. 1805. Sept. Holkar ravaged the British territories ; the commander-in-chief pro- ceeded against him, and put him to flight. 1817. Dec. 21. Battle of Mehudpore, in which Holkar was beaten by Sir T. Hislop. Jan. 6, 1818, peace with Holkar. 1824. Breaking out of , war with Burmah. See Burman Empire. 1826. Feb. 24. Treaty of Yandaboo finally signed ; the British to retain Ar- racan, Tavoy, Mergui, and Tenasserim ; the Burmese to pay one crore of rupees. 1829- Dec. Decrees issued for the abolition of suttees, or the burning of Hindoo widows. See Suttee. 1837. A dreadful famine spread itself through the various parts of the British territories, especially in the upper pro- vinces. The number of deaths from exposure and starvation, which had come under the cognisance ,of the Cawnpoor Relief Society, in five months, at that station only, was upwards of 1200. 1838 — 1840. War in India, in conse- quence of the disputed sovereignty of Cabool. SeeCABOOL. November,^1840. Further successes in China and Cabool. Defeat of Dort Mahomet near Bamean. Capture of Chusan. 1838. The benefits of overland com- munication with India were experienced early in the past year : one mail having arrived in 49 and the other in 50 days. The former left Bombay on March 2, and brought answers to letters from Lon- don, date Jan. 6 ; thus completing the time out and home in three months, 12 days. In the year 1838, 300 Euro- peans croesed the Desert. INDIA-RUBBER. See.CAouTCHouc. INDIANA, one of the United States. The first settlement was peopled about the beginning of the last century by the French emigrants from Canada. In 1801, Indiana was erected into a terri- torial government, and in 1816 into a state. INDIGO drug obtained from legu- minous plants of the genus Indigofera. INK 581 INQ The culture of the plant, and the prepa- ration of the drug have been practised in India from a very remote epoch. It was imported into modern Europe, by- way of Alexandria, previously to the dis- covery of the route to India, by the Cape of Good Hope. In Germany, an impe- rial edict was published in 1654, prohi- biting the use of indigo ; and it was not till 1737, that the dyers of France were left at liberty to dye with such articles. In 1783 the attention of the English began to be directed to this business, and the preparation of indigo has become the most important employment. During the nine years which preceded the open- ing of the trade with India, in 1814, the annual average produce of indigo in Bengal, for exportation, was nearly 5,600,000 lbs.; but it is much increased since that period. INDULGENCES, in the Romish church, first invented in the 11th cen- tury, by Urban II., as a recompense for those who went in person upon the en- terprise of conquering the Holy Land. See Crusade. INDUS, river, Asia, rises in the^moun- tains of Tartary, about lat. 39° N., takes a south-west course, passes the Hindoo Koosh, mountains of Hindoo- stan, and enters that territory about lat. 35° N. The navigation of this river has, for some time, become the subject of inquiry ; and the attempt attended by many discouragements; it has, however, been effected. The Asiatic Journal for 1838 states, that the navigation has already given an impulse to the trade, and promises to open new markets for British goods in Candahar, Cabul, and Bokhara, as well as Sinde. INFERNAL Machine. SeeFiESCHi. INFLUENZA, an epiden3.ic disease which has, at different times, spread more rapidly and extensively than any other. Very little was known of it till it made its appearance in England in 1782, when it excited great alarm. It again prevailed in England in 1833 and 1837. INGOLSTADT, Bavaria, university of, founded in 1573. INGULPHUS, the historian, Uved in 1100, INK-FILTER, invented in 1839, by Mr. Perry, the steel- pen manufacturer. It is an inkstand, in which is a strainer of very fine material, for purifying the ink, which is propelled into a receiving funnel by means of an air-pump. The whole occupies little more space than a common ink-glass. It also possesses the advan- tage, from being air-tight, of preserving ink for almost any period of time. INN-HOLDERS' Company, Lon- don, incorporated in 1515. INOCULATION, the art of trans- ferring certain infectious diseases from one subject to another. The first ac- counts of it as a science appeared in the . " Philosophical Transactions," about *1701. In 1717 Lady Mary Wortley Montague, having experienced the bene- ficial effects of it on her son, at Pera, near Constantinople, on her return to England, in 1722, had a daughter of six years old inoculated. The art was intro- duced by Mr. Maitland into Scotland in 1726. Mr. Daniel Sutton, of Ingate- stone, in Essex, in 1763, made several improvements in the methods of inocu- lation, which were so popular that he received, during the first year, 2000 gui- neas, and above 6OOO the second. The practice of inoculation made a similar progress in France. Sweden soon fol- lowed the example of the British; Russia engaged one of our principal promoters and improvers of this art; and there* were few countries which did not more or less continue, from this period, to practise it till the introduction of the vac- cine inoculation. See Vaccination. INQUISITION first established by Pope Innocent III. in Toulouse, in 1229. Afterwards, under the patronage of In- nocent IV,, it was extended to all Italy, with the exception of Naples, where its introduction was always resisted. From the south of France, where it existed in its greatest activity and vigour, the in- quisition extended itself during the 13th century to the northern provincesof Spain. Inquisition in Spain first estab- lished by the influence of Ferdinand V,, and the celebrated Torquemada was made inquisitor-general. In 1484 the first code of regulations was drawn up. The total of his victims, during the 18 years of his administration, is estimated as follows: more than 10,000 committed to the flames; nearly 7000 burnt in effigy ; and upwards of 97,000 sentenced to confiscation, perpetual imprisonment, or infamy. Deza, the successor of Torquemada, in 1498, kindled a warm persecution against the Moors. His reign lasted eight years, during which terra he caused 2592 in- INS 582 INS dividuals to be burnt; 896 to be exe- cuted in effigy; and sentenced 34,952 to penance, more or less severe. In 1507 the celebrated Ximenes de Cisneros was appointed the third inqui- sitor-general. His authority lasted 11 years, during which 3564 individuals were burnt in person, 1232 in effigy, and nearly 50,000 persons visited with different degrees of punishment. In 1539, Juan Pardo de Tabera, arch- bishop of Toledo, was nominated to the < office, and he proved a resolute main- tainer of the power and privileges of his tribunal. The reign of Philip II. was the most flourishing period of inquisitorial domination. The principal event in the reign of Philip III. was the expulsion of the Moriscoes, in which the chiefs of the Inquisition took an active share, and succeeded in depriving Spain of not less than a million of her most useful and in- dustrious inhabitants. On Feb. 22, 1813, the decree was is- sued by the Cortes, that "The tribu- nal of the Inquisition is incompatible with the constitution. " Nevertheless, no sooner had Ferdinand VIII. re- sumed the reins of government, than he dispersed the Cortes, annulled their acts, and by a decree, dated July 23, 1814, re-established the Inquisition in full powers. In 1820 a revolution was effected in Spain, through the influence of the more enlightened of his subjects ; in consequence of which a free constitu- tion was established, and the Inquisition with all its horrors finally abolished. INSECTS. See Entomology. INSOLVENCY. Under the bank- rupt laws, the creditors have a compul- sory authority to sequestrate the entire possessions of their debtor ; under the insolvent laws, the debtor himself may make a voluntary surrender of his pro- perty for the benefit of all his cteditors. See Bankrupts. 1813. A special tribunal, called the " Court for Relief of Insolvent Debtors," was appointed for the purpose of receiv- ing the surrender of property and effects for the benefit of the creditors of in- solvents. The court sits twice a week in Portugal Street ; and no fees are taken except those established by the court. The Commissioners also make circuits, and attend at the towns and places ap- pointed for insolvents in the country to appear. 1838. 1 and 2 Victoria, c. 110, Aug.l6, s. 23 to 34, continues the present court for the relief of insolvent debtors; and directs the circuit of the commissioners, &c. INSTITUTE, National, of France; or, as it is now called, the Institute of France, was founded by a decree of the new constitution, in 1795. In the time of Buonaparte it consisted of four classes, viz. 1. Class of physical and mathema- tical sciences. 2. Class of French lan- guage and literature. 3. Class of his- tory and foreign literature. 4. Class of the fine arts. It was ordained that every year the classes should distribute prizes. INSURANCE, a contract of indem- nity, by which one party engages, for a stipulated sum, to insure another against the risk to which he is exposed. Marine Insurance, from the ex- traordinary hazard to which property at sea is exposed, seems to have long pre- ceded insurances against fire and upon lives. Suetonius ascribes the first intro- duction of insurance to the emperor Claudius, who in a period of scarcity at Rome, A.D. 43, to encourage the impor- tation of corn, took upon himself all the loss or damage it might sustain in the voyage thither by storms and tempests. With the exception of the above insu- rance, nothing bearing the remotest re- semblance is to be met with till a compa- ratively recent period. It is supposed to have had its origin in modern times, at Barcelona, in the 15th century, and was early brought into England. It is men- tioned in the statute 43 Eliz. c. 12, a sta- tute, in which its utility is very clearly set forth. Insurance from Fire, and upon Lives, is of much later origin than in- surance against the perils of the sea. The former, however, has been known and carried on amongst us, to some extent at least, for nearly a century and a half. The oldest office upon record is that of the Hand -in-Hand, established I696; since which, however, there have been numerous offices established in London, as well as in various parts of Great Bri- tain. An alphabetical List of London As- surance Companies, with the dates when they were established : — 1805. Albion, New Bridge-street. 1824. Alliance, Bartholomew Lane. 1706. Amicable, Serjeant's Inn. 1833. Argus, Throgmorton-street. 1824. Asylum, 70, Cornhill. 1808. Atlas, Cheapside. INT '583- INU 1837- Britannia, Princes-street. 1820. British Commercial, Cornhill, 1825. Clerical, Great Russell-street. 1806. County, Regent-street. 1824. Crown, New Bridge-street, (fire only). 1807. Eagle, New Bridge-street. 1823. Economic, New Bridge-street. 1762. Equitable, Chatham Place. 1819. European, Chatham Place. 1803. Globe, Cornhill. 1821. Guardian, Lombard-street. 1696. Hand-in-Hand, New Bridge- street. 1807- Hope, New Bridge-street. 1820. Imperial, Sun Court. 1823. Law Life, Fleet-street. 1837. Legal and General, Fleet-street. 1838. Licensed Victuallers, London Bridge. 1721. London Assurance, 19, Birchin Lane. I8O6. London Life, 81, King Wil- liam Street. 1835. Metropolitan, Princes-street. 1834. Mutual, 37, Old Jewry. 1830. National, King WiUiam-street. 1836. National Loan Fund, Cornhill. 1809. North British, Bank Build- ings. 1808. Norwich Union, Bridge-street. 1797. Palladium, Waterloo Place. 1797. Pelican, Lombard-street. 1827. Promoter, Chatham Place. 1838. Protector, Old Jewry. 1806. Provident, Regent- street. 1807. Rock, 14, New Bridge-street. 1722. Royal Exchange, Lombard- street. 1824. Scottish Union, Strand. 1714. Union, Cornhill. 1834. United Kingdom, Waterloo Place. 1834. Universal, King William-street. 1825. Universit)'', Suffolk-street. 1838. Victoria, King William-street. I8O7. West of England, New Bridge- street. 1792. Westminster, Strand. INSURRECTIONS. See Conspi- racies. INTERDICT, an ecclesiastical cen- sure, by which the church of Rome for- bids the performance of divine service in any country or city. This censure has been frequently executed in France, Italy, and Germany ; and in 1170, Pope Alex- ander III. put all England under an in- terdict. INTEREST of money first mentioned as legal at 10 per cent. 1199. It was 2(?. per week for 20s. in 1260; 45 per cent. 1307. First law m England establishing at 10 per cent, 1546. The subjects of Edward VI. repealed this as unlawful and most impious ; but it was restored in Queen Elizabeth's time. In those days the monarchs could not borrow without the collateral security ^of the metropolis. In 1624 the legal rate wa8 reduced to 8 per cent. ; and in the reign , of Queen Anne it was further reduced to 5 per cent., at which it continues, with some modifications in regard to bills of exchange. See Usury. INTERIM, a name given to a formu- lary, or kind of confession of the articles of faith, obtruded upon the protestants of Germany after Luther's death by the emperor ChaJJtes V., May 15, 1548. It was abolished by the diet at Augsburg in 1555. INUNDATIONS. The following are the principal on record : — A.D. 8. The Thames destroyed a great number of the inhabitants of its banks. 80. The Severn overflowed, and de- stroyed vast quantities of cattle. S7- The Med way overflowed its banks and dro^vned the country. 95. The Humber overflowed and laid the adjacent country, for 50 miles, under water. 115. The Severn overflowed and drowned 5000 head of cattle, and people in their beds. 214. The Trent overflowed above 20 miles on each side of its banks, and drowned many people. 218. The Tweed had a sudden inun- dation, and destroyed a considerable number of the inhabitants on its banks. 245. An inundation of the sea in Lin- colnshire, which laid under water many thousand acres, that have not been re- covered to this time. 250. The Ouse, in Bedfordshire, over- flowed, and drowned numbers of people and cattle. 323. Another inundation which de- stroyed all the inhabitants in Feme Island, seven miles soulh-west from Holy Island. 353. Above 5000 people lost in Che- shire by an irruj)tion. 415. One of the Dee, which drowned 40 families. 738. An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned above 400 families. INU 584 INU 1100. The sea overflowed 4000 acres of Earl Godwin's land, in Kent, since called Godwin Sands. 1108. A great part of Flanders over- flowed by the sea, 1243. An inundation of the Thames for above six miles at Lambeth, &c. 1280. AtWinchelsea, above 300 houses were overthrown by the sea. 1339. 120 laymen, and several priests, besides women, were drowned by an in- undation at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 1400. At the Texel, which first raised the commerce of Amsterdam. 1421. The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, and 100,000 people, and formed the Zuyder sea. 1717. In Holland and Zealand, when 1300 inhabitants were drowned, and also one at Holstein in the same year. 1722. May 18, in Yorkshire, called Rippon flood. 1730. In Chili, which overflowed the city of Conception. 1735. At Dagenham, and upon the coast of Essex, which carried away the sea-walls, and drowned several thousand sheep and black cattle. 1762. One in Spain, in April, which did 3,000,000 livres' damage at Bilboa. May following in France, which did great damage. 1770. November, at Coventry, 70 per- sons were drowned, and much damage done, as well as in Cambridgeshire, Glou- cestershire, &c. 1771- In the north of England, when Newcastle-bridge, &c., was carried away. 1773. November 10, at Venice, and at Naples, where it carried away a whole village, and drowned 200 of the inl'abi- tants. One also at Calcutta, in the East Indies. 1785. In diff"erent parts of Germany, when some thousands had their houses and property destroyed. September and October, in different parts of England. 1787- September, at Navarre, in Spain, where 2000 lost their lives, and all the buildings of several villages were carried away by the currents from themountains. 1787. November 12, a terrible inun- dation by the Liffey, in Ireland, which did very considerable damage in Dublin and its environs. 1 788. October 4, at Kirkwald, in Scot- land, by breaking the dam-dykes, which nearly destroyed the town. 1791. November 20, of the river Don, near Doncaster, and the Derwent and Trent, and one of great extent at Pla- centia in Italy. 1795. February, almost throughout England, by the melting of the snow, and the greatest part of the bridges were either destroyed or damaged. 1800. October 4, at St. Domingo, which destroyed 1400 persons. 1811. April, at Pest, near Prestburg, by the overflow of the Danube, by which 24 villages with their inhabitants were swept away. 1811. October, by the overflowing of the Elbe, the village of Wurgen, in the duchy of Luneburg, was swept away. 1813. September 14, by the overflow of the Danube, a Turkish corps of 2000 men, on a small island, near Widden, were surprised and met with instant death, and the island itself sunk and disappeared. 1813. August, by the overflowing of the Drave, near Orsatch, six villages and the suburbs of a town were swept away, and a congregation of 240 persons buried beneath the ruins of a church. 1813. June and July, in Silesia, six thousand inhabitants were destroyed, and the ruin of the French army, under Macdonald, accelerated by the floods : and in Poland 4000 lives are supposed to have been lost. By the overflow of the Mississippi, the country on the west side was inundated to the distance of 65 miles, by which 22,000 head of neat cat- tle were destroyed. 1814. February, by the overflow of the Nerbudda river, in the province of Bengal, which swept away 15 villages, with the houses, inhabitants, and cattle. I8I6. January 12, at Strabane, in Ireland, by the melting of the snow on the surrounding mountains, the most destructive flood that had been witnessed for 20 years. 1 8 1 6. February, the greatest flood ever remembered in Northumberland and Durham. 1816. March, 53 villages in the great Werder, 49 in the districts of Segenhofi^i and 17 Elbing villages, were under water. 1816. June and July, at Thiel, Arn- heim, Zutphen, and numerous other places on the continent, the harvest was nearly destroyed by inundations from continued rain. 1829. In Moray, Scotland, when above 5000 square miles were flooded. 1833. August 29, 10,000 houses de- stroyed at Canton. ION 585 ION 1833, October, 18,000 houses carried away in the city of Chienchow, besides much other damage done throughout China. 1834. January 15, whole villages swept away, and many thousands of inhabi- tants, in the country around Canton. 1837. December 27, in the north of England. The roads, and many towns and villages were inundated, some lives lost, and much property destroyed. 1840. Dreadful inundation in Italy and France. In Sardinia it broke sud- denly on the town of Verres, a,nd nearly destroyed it. In France the sudden rise of theRhone carried every thing before it. INVASIONS of England and Great Britain : — A.c. 55. By the Romans under Julius Caesar, a.d. 43. Again under Plautius. In 447, by the Saxons. Invasions by the Danes. See Danes. From the death of Edward the Con- fessor, there have been 21 unsuccessful attempts at invasion. The following were the only successful ones : — In Sept. 29, 1066, by WilliamofNormandy. In Sept. 23, 1326, by Isabel, queen of Edward II. In July, 1399, by the duke of Lancaster. In 1470, by the earl of Warwick. In 1471, by Edward IV. In Aug. 6, 1485, by the earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII. In Oct. 19, 1688, by the prince of Orange, afterwardsWilliamlll. INVOCATION of the Virgin and and Saints began to be practised 593. lONA. See Icolmkill. IONIAN Islands, a republic, com- posed of the islands, Corfu, Paxo, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo, Zante,and Cepha- lonia, situate west from the Gulf of Le- panto. Previous to the French Revolu- tion, these islands were subject to Venice, but ceded to the French by the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797; the French were shortly afterwards driven out; and in 1799, the Russians and Turks con- quered them. The emperor Paul, of Russia, in 1800, declared them a state under the protection of Turkey. In 1807, they were again relinquished to France by the Treaty of Tilsit ; but all except Corfu, fell subsequently into the possession of the British, Nov. 5, 1815. The Ionian islands were finally placed under the protection of the British, from whom they received a constitution in 1 8 1 7. There is a British high commissioner re- sident at Corfu, the capital of the state, and Great Britain has a right to occupy the fortresses and keep up garrisons. In 1819, on the cession of the city of Parga to the Porte, by Great Britain, the greater part of the inhabitants, in despair, emigrated to the Ionian islands. See Parga. Since the British occu- pation the trade has greatly increased. In 1835 a steam engine, with hydraulic presses for the squeezing of the olives, and with four pairs of stones attached for the grinding of corn, was sent to Corfu. IPSWICH, Suffolk, was anciently for- tified, and encompassed with a ditch and rampart. The Danes pillaged the town, and demolished part of its defences in 991 and 1000. William the Conqueror erected a castle here, which Stephen caused to be taken down. King John restored all the mural protections, and built four town gates. Previous to 1477, a free grammar-school existed here ; Car- dinal Wolsey converted it into a colle- giate institution, which becoming extinct with the termination of his greatness, Henry VIII. restored it to its original form, and Queen Elizabeth confirmed and enlarged the foundation, in 1565. Some remains of Wolsey's college still survive the waste of years. IRELAND, the most w'esterly of the British isles. There is no evidence that the Irish had the use of letters before the middle of the fifth century, when Chris- tianity and christian literature were in- troduced by St. Patrick. In the eighth and ninth centuries, the scholars of Ire- land were amongst the most distin- guished at the courts of the Saxon kings, arid of Charlemagne. Ireland had been for nearly two cen- turies, torn by internal wars, and ravaged by the Danes ; when, in the beginning of the ] 1th century, Brian Borrhoimi, or Boroihm (the conqueror), united the greater part of the kingdom under his sceptre. 1156. Dermot Mc Murrogh, king of Leinster, having provoked the vengeance of O'Rourke, prince of Breflhy, or Lei- trim, by the abduction of his wife, fled for aid against the wrath of his enraged enemy, to Henry II., king of England, whom in return he promised to acknow- ledge as his sovereign lord. Henry ac- cepted the conditions, and gave permis- sion to all his subjects to assist him. In 1170, Richard, earl of Chepstow, accom- panied by Fitzstephen and Fitzgerald, with a ismall body of troops, landed in 4 F IRE 586 I RE Ireland, and soon made themselves mas- ters of a considerable part of the island, which was totallj' subdued in 1210. 1310. Edward Bruce, brother of the king of Scotland, landed in Ireland at the head of a Scottish force, and caused him- self to be crowned king of the island, but was defeated, and obliged to return without accomplishing any thing sub- stantial. 1361, The duke of Clarence, son of Edward III., married the daughter and heiress of the king of Ulster, the only independent prince that then remained. A parliament held at Kilkenny, in 1367, forbade intermarriages with the Irish, the use of their language, &c. In the reign of Henry VII., the law of Sir Henry Poynings was enacted, which ordained that Irish parliaments should not assem- ble or pass any laws without the leave and approbation of England. The reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth were tur- bulent; the latter was disturbed by O'Neil, earl of Tyrone, aided by the Spaniards. 1613. The first national parliament was held in Ireland. James I. expelled great numbers of the natives from the counties of Donegal, Tyrone, Derry, Fer- managh, Ca^an, and Armagh, and co- lonized them with English undertakers, and Scotch servitors. In this reign the University of Dul)lin, founded by Eliza- beth, was enriched by many of the largest benefices in the province. On the accession of Charles I., Wentvvorth, afterwards earl of Strafford, was ap- pointed lieutenant, and estabUshed the linen manufacture : his measures, though frequently arbitrary, were beneficial to the country. 1641. A rebellion broke out, when many English Protestants were mur- dered in cold blood. After the death of Charles I., Cromwell was appointed lieu- tenant, and with his usual promptitude, soon reduced the whole country. The dependence of the Irish parlia- ment on the English became a subject of controversy; and, in 1719, was passed an act, declaring that the British parlia- ment had full power to make laws, bind- ing the people of Ireland. The Irish trade and industry were also subject to every kind of restriction and discourage- ment. Factions now broke out under the various names of Whiteboys, Oak- boys, &c. Ireland was attempted to be invaded by the French, in 1760, by Thurot ; and in Jan. 1789, at Bantry Bay, where their forces were dispersed in a storm. It was put under martial law, May 19, 1797. The French landed, at Killala Bay, 1500 men, Aug. 22, 1798, who sur- rendered prisoners, Sept. 7, following. The suppression of the civil war was fol- lowed, in 1800, by the legislative union of the two kingdoms ; from this period the history of Ireland belongs to that of Great Britain. The following is a list of the lords lieutenant of Ireland, from the Union : Earl of Hardwicke, Feb. 23, 1801. Duke of Bedford, Feb. 12, 1806. Duke of Rich- mond, April, 1807. Viscount VVhitworth, June, 1813. Earl Talbot, Sept., 1817- Marquis Wellesley, Dec. 1821. Marquis of Anglesey, 1826. Duke of Northum- berland, 1827. Marquis of Anglesey, Dec. 1830. Marquis Wellesley, again, 1833. Lord Mulgrave, 1835. Marquis of Normanby, 1838. Viscount Ebrington, 1839. The following are the principal facta in the domestic history of Ireland, since the Union : — 1801. A select committee reported, that a secret and extensive conspiracy existed throughout the country, without definite objects, against the government; and in 1803 a rebellion broke out. In 1806 appeared the combination of the " Threshers," a most extensive associa- tion, for regulating tithes, priests' dues, &c. ISll — 1814, the greater part of Ire- land was a prey to the most frightful ex- cesses. In 1817 the Insurrection Act was deemed by government to be indis- pensable. In 1821 nearly the whole of Munster, and a considerable portion of Leinster and Connaught, were in a state of insurrection ; many districts were pro- claimed, and the law executed upon the offenders with the utmost severity. Large bodies of troops were dispersed over the disturbed districts, but with little avail ; a spirit of outrage which led to daring and systematic violations of the law, still prevailed. This was the precursor of a renewal of the Insurrection Act, in 1823 and 1824. 1829- The memorable year in which Catholic Emancipation was carried, was attended by some disturbances, which partially continued during two fol- lowing years. In 1833 the country was proclaimed under the Coercion Act; IRU 587 IRV since then a gradual amendment has taken place. 1830 — 1839. The improvement was most decided ; some murders had heen committed in the country, but they were chiefly confined to one district. 1840. The Irish Corporation Bill passed, Aug. 6. See Municipal Cor- porations. IRELAND, Samuel, notorious for the forgery of the Shakspeare papers, died 1835. IRENE, empress of Constantinople, born in 752 ; deposed and banished to Lesbos, 802 ; died 803. IREN^EUS, an ancient Christian writer, and bishop of Lyons, was born in Greece about the close of the first cen- tury. He was the disciple of Pappias and Polycarp, by whom he was sent into Gaul, about 157. In 178 he was sent to Rome, where he disputed with Valen- tinus, and his two disciples, Florinus and Blastus. At his return to Lyons, he succeeded Photinus, as bishop of that city. It has been commonly supposed that he died a martyr, in 202. The best editions of his works are those of Eras- mus, in 1526 : of Grabe, in 1702 ; and of Father Massuett, in 1710. His writings aflford express teotimony to the four Gos- pels, the Acts of the Apostles, and twelve of Paul's Epistles. IRETON, Gen. H., commander of the Parliamentary army, and son-in-law to Cromwell, born 1610, died 1651. IRISH Hospitals. See Hospitals. IRISH Working School Society, incorporated Oct. 1773. IRON, the most difficult of all the metals to obtain in a state fit for use. It was prepared in ancient Egypt, and some other countries, at a very remote period; but it was very little used in- Greece till after the Trojan war. Iron mines have been wrought in Eng- land from a very early period ; those of the Forest of Dean, in Gloucestershire, are known to have existed in the year 1066. In consequence of the great con- sumption of timber which they occa- sioned, they were restrained by act of parliament, in 1581. Soon after this, Edward Lord Dudley invented the pro- cess of smelting iron ore with pit-coal in- stead of wood fuel, for which he obtained a patent, in 1619, but it did not then come into use. In the early part of last century, com- plaints being made of the waste and destruction of woods caused by the smelting of iron, this led, about 1740, to the general adoption of Lord Dudley's process for using pit coal. From this period the progress of the manufacture has exceeded the most sanguine expec- tations. In ] 740 the quantity of pig iron manufactured in England and Wales, amounted to about 17,000 tons, pro- duced by 59 furnaces, and this has gone on increasing in quantities varying to 1830, when 678,417 tons were produced by 367 furnaces. The quantity of iron and steel, wrought and unwrought, ex- ported from Great Britain in 1838 was 256,017 tons, at the declared value of £2,535,692. 1839. The council of the Institution of Civil Engineers awarded a Telford premium to Mr. Bramah, for his series of experiments on the strength of cast iron. These experiments, undertaken with the view of verifying the principles assumed in the work of Tredgold on Iron, exceeded any previous ones, since two specimens of each beam were sub- jected to trial. The principles sought to be established are that, within the elastic limit, the forces of compression and extension are equal; and that, conse- quently, a triangular beam, provided it be not loaded beyond that limit, v/ill have the same amount of deflection, whether the base or apex be uppermost; and a flanged beam the same deflection whether the flange be at top or bottom, IRON MAsauE, or Man with the Iron Masque, died in the Bastile at Paris, 1703. The identity of this un- fortunate person is an historical problem. By some he is said to have been the twin- brother of Louis XIV. ; by others, the son of Cardinal Mazarin, by Louis'* mother, Anne of Austria. By some he is said to have been Foucquet, a states- man, in the time of Louis ; by others Count Matthioli, secretary of state to Charles HI. duke of Mantua. IRONMONGERS' Company, Lon- don, incorporated 1464. IRVING, Rev. Edward, M.A., the celebrated preacher, was born at Annan in Dumfries-shire, and educated at the University of Edinburgh. In 1811 he was appointed to superintend the mathe- matical school at Haddington, whence he was removed, in 1812, to instruct the higher classes at Kirkaldy. On being afteiwards engaged by Dr. Chalmers as his assistant, in St. John's Parish, ISL 588 1ST Glasgow, he gained so much reputation, that on a vacancy occurring in the mi- nistry of the Caledonian church, in Cross street, Hatton Garden, he was invited to London, and took possession of the pulpit in August, 1822. Here he soon attracted very large congregations, by the force and eloquence of his dis- courses, and, also, by the singularity of his appearance and gesticulation. A handsome church, erected forhimby Subscription, in Sidmouth-street, Regent Square, was completed in 1829. He was scarcely established in his new pulpit, when his thirst for notoriety urged him to the adoption of more dangerous ec- centricities, and he became the founder of a sect which still bears his name. He was charged with heresy, at a meeting of the presbytery of London, Nov. 29, 1830. At length the trustees of the church in Regent Square completed his ejection May 3, 1832. The latter years of his life were marked by an increase of those eccentricities for which he had been long distinguished. He died at Glasgow, Dec. G, 1834, aged 43. "The constitutional basis and ground-work of his character," says Dr. Chalmers, " was virtue alone, and notwithstanding all his errors and extravagances, which both injured him in the estimation of the world, and threw discredit upon much that was good and useful in his writings, I believe him to have been a man of deep and devoted piety." ISAAC, Abraham's son, died a c. 1717, aged 180. IS^EUS, the Greek orator, flourished A.C. 400. ISAIAH began to prophesy, a.c. 786. Put to death a.c. 696. ISHMAEL, son of Abraham, born A.c. 1910, died 1773. ISLEWORTH, Middlesex. In 1263 the barons, in an insurrection against Henry III., encamped in Isleworth park. The property having subsequently be- come vested in the crown, Henry V. founded on it a convent of Bndgetine nuns, called the monastery of Sion. Ed- ward VI. granted the estates to his uncle the duke of Somerset; on his attainder it fell to the crown, and was regranted, in 1604, to Henry, duke of Northum- berland, whose descendants still retain possession. ISLE OF Man. See Man. ISLINGTON, Middlesex, was an- ciently a favourite place of recreation for the citizens of London, and in 1514, when the commons were enclosed, they levelled the fences, and attempted to con- tinue their amusements by force. Fox says, that four persons were burned here for heresy, in 1557. Ramparts were thrown up at Islington for the defence of the capital, at the commencement of the war between Charles I. and the par- liament. ISLINGTON Church, Middlesex, rebuilt Aug. 28, 1751. ISLIP, Oxfordshire. Near the cen- tre anciently stood a palace belonoing to Ethelred II.,whose son, Edward the Con- fessor, was born here. The manor was given by the confessor to the abbot and monks of Westminster, and in the manor- house Isabel of France resided for a short time in 1326, whilst concerting measures for the dethronement of her husband Edward II. In 1644 and 1645, there were repeated skirmishes in this village, and its vicinity, between the forces of Charles and the parliament. ISMAIL, or IsMAiLov, town, Euro- pean Russia, was, in December 1790, stormed by the Russians under Suwar- row : they were several times repulsed by the Turks, and lost in the siege 10,000 men, but at length succeeded: 30,000 prisoners were afterwards put to death in cold blood by the conquerors. The booty was immense in horses and military stores, valued at 10,000,000 piastres. ISOCRATES. Athenian orator, died A.c. 338, aged 89- ISPAHAN, Persia. Under the calijjhs of Bagdad it became the capital of the province of Irak. In 1337 it was taken Ijy Timour Bee, and 70,000 of the in- habitants are said to have perished in an indiscriminate slaughter. Shah Abbas afterwards greatly embellished it. In 1722 it was taken by the AfFghans, but in 1727 was retaken by Nadir Shah. ISRAELITES. See Bible, p. 104. For an account of their subsequent his- tory, see Jews. ISTHMIAN Games instituted by Sysiphus, king of Corinth, in honour of Neptune, a.c. 1326 ; revived by Theseus, 1234 ; restored, and ordered to be cele- brated every fifth year, 582. ISTRIA, district, Austria, part of an- cient Illyria. Two thirds of this terri- tory formerly belonged to the Venetians ; but the whole was ceded to Austria in 1805. It became subject to France in JAC 589 JAC 1809, but was conquered by Austria in 1814, and confirmed to that power at the general pacification of Europe. ITALY was anciently known by a va- riety of names. It was called Latium, from the Latini ; Ansonia, from the An- sones ; and Hesperia, from its western situation in respect of Greece. From a colony of the Latins proceeded the Ro- mans, who subdued the other nations, one after another, and held them in sub- jection for more than 700 years. See Rome. After the decline of this empire, to- wards the close of the fifth century, when the empire of the west was every day deprived, by the conquests of neighbour- ing tribes of barbarians, of some valuable province or territory, Italy alone for some time preserved the appearance and name of the Roman empire. Odoacer established the kingdom of Italy, and declared the Roman empire in the west abolished, 476 ; the empire of the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, ex- tended from 493 — 553. Italy was re- conquered in Ipart by Belisarius and Narses, for the empire of the east, 535 — 554 ; thesubpatriarchateof Italy extend- ed from 554 — 568 ; success of the Lom- bards, and division of Italy into Lom- bardy (under the Lombards), and the sub-patriarchate of Ravenna, or Gre- cian Italy (under the emperor of the east), 568 : the dukes at Rome expelled, 728, and the pope (Gregory II.) placed at the head of the Roman republic. Quarrels of the popes with the sub- patriarch and the Lombardian kings ; destruction of the sub-patriarchate by Astolphus, a Lombard, 752 ; Pepin reigned in Italy, 754 — 755 ; conquest of Lombardy by Karl (Charlemagne), 774, who was named emperor of the west, 800. Dismemberment of the new empire; Berenger I. made king of Italy, 888 ; wars with the emperors; perpetual de- feats ; independence of the principal cities ; elevation of Genoa (where there was a consulate), 888 ; and of Venice (of which the first magistrate was a doge), 697 ; augmentation of the papal power; exploits and conquests of the Normans, 1005 — 1 114, &c., who formed the kingdom of Naples. Wars of the Guelphs and Gibelins (WelphandHohenstauffen),1138— 1268, &c. See Gibelins. Quarrels of the popes with the French, 1295 — 1303. Grand division of the vvest, 1378 — 1449; Tuscany divided into numerous repubhc provinces, Florence, Pisa, Lucca, &c. In Lombardy, the Visconti, dukes of Milan, 1395; counts of Piedmont, 1382; dukes of Savoy, 1419; the Este at Fer- rara (another branch at Modena and Reggio), 1452 ; the Carraras at Padua, 1337 — 1405 ; the Gonzagvies, marquises of Mantua, 1433, &c. &c. Power of the Medici family, 1430, &c. usurpation of the duchy of Milan by Sforza, 1450; the long wars of the French kings (representing the house of Visconti) in Italy, 1450 — 1540; new in- vasion, 1629 — 1689 ; treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle resolved that Naples shall be an independent kingdom ; Lombardy, Aus- tria, and Tuscany, governed by a prince of this house. Conquest by the French, 1796— 18G0; Cisalpine republic, 1801 ; afterwards called the Italian republic, then kingdom of Italy, 1805 (Milan the capital) : this state was succeeded by the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, which comprises part of the same country. Naples has only changfed its sovereigns ; the states of the Church, which had been divided be- tween the kingdom of It.ly and the French empire, were re-established on their ancient footing in 1815. See Na- ples ; Sardinia ; Church, States OF, &c. ITHACA, island of, Mediterranean, celebrated as the island of Ulysses, and some of the places mentioned by Homer can still be traced here. United to the republic of the Ionian islands in 1817. ITURBIDE, emperor of Mexico, ex- pelled, but returned, when he was tried, condemned, and shot, Oct. 19, 1824. IVES, John, English antiquarian and writer, died 1776. J. JACATRA, district island of Java, subject to the Dutch, who obtained it by conquest in 1619. JACOB stole the blessing from Esau, A.c. 1776; went into Egypt a.c. 1723 ; died A.c. 1689, aged 147. JAM 5go JAM JACOB, Edward, English antiquary and naturalist, died 1788. JACOB, Giles, English law writer, particularly of the " Law Dictionary," born 1686, died 1744. JACQUEMONT, M.Victor, a cele- brated Frenchnatuialist, died Dec.7, 1833. JAFFA, the ancient Joppa, town of Palestine, was the only seaport possessed by the Jews, and hence became the seat of an extensive trade ; it is frequently men- tioned in scripture. In 1799 this town was taken by Napoleon Buonaparte, and here a massacre of prisoners is said to have taken place ; but ail posthumous histories of that extraordinary person contradict the narration. JAFFNA, a town of Ceylon. The Dutch took it from the Portuguese in 1658, but it fell into the hands of the Bri- tish in 1795, with whom it still remains. JAGO, St., a Sj)anish register ship, taken May 1793, valued at £1,500,000. JAMAICA, island of. West Indies, was discovered by Columbus in 1494; and in 1503 he was wrecked upon its coast. In 1509 it was colonized by the Spaniards ; but in 1555 these intruders abandoned every place in the island ex- cept St. Jago de la Vega. Diego, the son of Columbus, appointed Esquivel, a Castilian, his deputy, and this nobleman founded Sevilla Nueva, near to the spot where Columl)us suffered shipwreck. 1596. Jamaicawas invaded and pillaged by the English, under Sir Anthony Shir- ley ; and again, in 1636, by Colonel Jackson. In 1655 Penn and Venables, who had been dispatched by OUver Cromwell to take Hispaniola, possessed themselves of Jamaica, which was soon taken, and settled by 3000 disbanded soldiers of Cromwell's army, followed by 1500 royalists The Maroons (the slaves of the first Spanish settlers), who fled to the moun- tains upon the above invasion, after hav- ing suffered very severely, obtained fa- vourable terms, and agrant of land in 1 738, which had the effect of pacifying them until the year 1795, when their temerity subjected them to a repetition of the chastisement they had before experienced. Blood-hounds were employed in discover- ing their haunts in the mountains, and a war of extermination was pursued. A mere remnant, which surrendered at dis- cretion, was spared, and 600 were tran- sported to Nova Scotia. For several years the peace of the island was undisturbed, and the efforts for the extension of religion were consider- able. The Baptist mission commenced its labours in 1815, and has ever since been very successful. The bishopric of Jamaica was established in 1824. The see extends over the Bahamas and Hon- duras. There are 21 rectors, and alto- gether of clergymen of the established church 57- 1826. The local Slave Act, designed as a counteraction to missionary exertion, was first passed in the house of assembly, and afterwards several times disallowed by the British government. This act prohibited meetings for worship between sunrise and sunset. 1832. In consequence of this and other oppressive acts, a most unfavourable sensation was excited among the ne- groes, which, this year, broke out into open rebellion. Under the pretence of counteracting these evils, a society was formed, called the Colonial Church Union, the object of which was the overthrow of the whole system of missionary labour. 1833. Mr.Knibb, one of theBaptistmis- sionaries from Jamaica, visited England, to lay the wrongs of the negro before the British public and government The result was, that an act was passed for the abolition of slavery in the colonies, and the substitution of the apprenticeship system. By the provisions of the bill the non-praedial apprentices would have received their complete emancipation on August 1, 1838, and the praedial la- bourers on Aug. 1, 1840. Subsequently, a bill was brought forward in the legis- lativeassembly of Jamaicaby the planters, in June, giving perfect liberation to all the apprentices on Aug. 1, 1838 ; and this example was followed by most of the other colonies. JAMES'S, St., built 1530, converted to a palace, and a park made, 1536. One of the wings destroyed by fire 1809. Repaired in 1821 and 1823. James, St., the Less, bishop of Jerusalem, martyred 62. JAMES, Dr. Robert, inventor of the fever- powder, born 1703, died Feb. 28, 1776. JAMES I. of England, born at Edin- burgh, June 19, 1566, crowned king of Scotland, July 22, 1567- Succeeded to the crown of England, March 24, 1603. First stj'led king of Great Britain, 1604. Died of an ague, March 27, 1625. Was buried at Westminster. JAN JAMES II. of England, born Oct. 14, 1633. Succeeded to the throne Feb. 6, 1685. Crowned April 23, 1685. Abdi- cated the throne of England 1688, but survived till Sept. 16, 1701, when he died JAMIESON, John, D.D., F.R.S., &c., was for a considerable time, minis- ter of a congregation of seceders at For- far, Scotland ; but for the last 43 years of his life he officiated at Edinburgh. His great work is, " Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language," 2 vols. 4to. 1808-9; and a "Supplement to the Etymological Dictionary," 2 vols. 4to., 1825. He died at Edinburgh July 12, 1838, aged 80. JANEIRO, Rio De, important city of Brazil, vvas founded by the Portuguese in 1565, and, in 1763, was made the capital. In 1808, in consequence of the occupation of Portugal by the French, King JohnVI. abandoned his throne, and took up his residence at this city.. It con- tinued to be the abode of the Portuguese court until 1821, and in 1822 became the capital of the independent empire of Brazil. On April 7, 1831, it was the theatre of a revolution, in consequence of which Don Pedro abdicated the throne in favour of his son, Pedro II. See Brazil. JANISSARIES, an order of infantry in theTurkish armies. The name was first given by Amurath I. in 1361. They were, for some years, the terror of the natives, and sometimes of the sultans themselves, whom they, by their insur- rections and rebellions, occasionally de- throned and murdered. They were ex- terminated, and the order abolished by the late sultan Mahmoud, June, 1826. JANSENISTS, a sect of Roman ca- tholics in France, who followed the opinions of Jansen, bishop of Ypres, in relation to grace and predestination, commenced in 1638, when his executors published his liook, entitled Augustinus. In 1642 the Jesuits obtained of Pope Urban VIII. a condemnation of the treatise. Bulls were issued against the Jansenists in 1652, 1653, and 1656. At length Clement XI. put an end to the dis- pute by his constitution of July 17, 1705. JANUS, Temple of, at Rome, con- taining a statue of Janus five feet high, with brazen gates on each side, which were always kept open in time of war, and shut in time of peace. First shut in the reign of Numa, who instituted this S91 JAV ceremony. The last time of its being shut was underGordian, about a. u.c. 994. JAPAN, empire of, consists of three great islands, Niphon, Kiusiu, and Sikokf, surrounded by a multitude of smaller isles. The sacred era of the Japanese goes back to the establishment of the hereditary succession of the dai- ris, or ecclesiastical emperors, a. c. 660, This dynasty continued until a.d. 1585, when a military chief (Kubo) deprived the dairi of the last semblance of political power. From the year 1 549 the Jesuit missionaries had laboured to promul- gate their faith ; but in 1590, by order of the emperor, all the christians of the empire, 20,000 in number, were inhu- manly massacred. Little is known of the internal state or subsequent history of Japan. JASSY, city, Moldavia, was taken by the Russians in 1739 and 1769, but on both occasions restored to the Turks at the conclusion of peace. In 1788 it fell into the power of the Austrians, and Jan. 9, 1792, the peace between Russia and Turkey was signed here. JAVA, island. East Indies, was first visited by the Portuguese in 1511. Until 1612 they chiefly traded with the king- dom of Bantam, but, removing to Jo- catra, they quarrelled with the prince of that country, put the inhabifants to the sword, and built Batavia in 16 19. In 1629-30 they defeated a powerful army, sent against them by the sultan of Ma- taram. In 1636 Anthony Van Diemen (after whom Van Diemen's land was named) was governor-general of the Dutch Indies. Until 1675 their trans- actions were purely mercantile. In 1 722 a conspiracy was formed for the mas- sacre of all the christians in the island, headed by Peter Erberfield, a Westpha- lian ; but being discovered, the conspira- tors were put to death. In 1740 up- wards of 10,000 Chinese were butchered in the streets of Batavia. In 1810 the Dutch advanced to Yugyacarta, deposed the sultan of Java, and placed his eldest son upon the throne. In 1811 the Bri- tish took possession of Java, the Dutch colonies having fallen under the domi- nion of France. In 1813 a liberal po- licy was adopted by the government ; but in 1816 Java was restored to the Dutch 1826. The Javanese were in almost a general state of insurrection, particularly in the southern and middle districts of the island. The insurgents under Djupo JER 592 JER Magoro, a man of some enterprise and talent, completely defeated the Dutch in the autumn. An expedition was fitted out in the end of the year, from Java, where the power of the insurgents was most alarming, but it was dispersed by a violent storm. 1827. In the beginning of the year, several vessels were despatched from Holland with troops; Magoro entered into negotiations with the Dutch autho- rities, and the military operations were suspended. JEAUNIN, P., a French statesman, born 1540, died 1622. JEBB, Dr., bishop of Limerick, a di- vinity writer, died 1834. JEFFRIES, George, the inhuman lord chief-justice in the reign of James II., sent to the Tower by the lord mayor of London, December 12, 1688, where he destroyed himself, from the united effects of terror and drunkenness, April 18, 1689. JEFFERSON, Thomas, author of "Notes on Virginia," and president of America, born 1743, died 1826. JEFFERY, Robert, put on the de- solate island of Saraburo, Dec. 13, 1807, by Capt. W. Lake, who was tried for cruelty by a court martial, and dismissed his majesty's service, Feb. 1810. JEKYLL, Sir Joseph, an English lawyer, born 1663, died 1738. JENA, a town of the duchy of Saxe Weimer ; its universitj', founded by Charles V. in 1558, in 1829 contained 600 students. Remarkable as having been the scene of a general engagement, fought between the French and Prus- sian armies October 14, ISOO, in whicli the former, commanded by Napoleon Buonaparte, were completely victorious, and tlie latter suffered prodigious loss. JENGHIZ Khan. See Genghis Khan. JENITE, a new mineral, discovered in the island of Elba, 1808. JENKINS, Sir Leoline, an En- glish civilian, born 1623, died 1685. JENNER, Dr., the institutor of vac- cine inoculation, born 1749, died 1823. JENYNS, SoAME, author of the " In- ternal Evidence of the Christian Re- ligion," died 1781. "JEPHSON, Robert, a dramatic writer, born 1736, died 1803. JEREMIAH began to prophesy a.c. 629; foretold the Jewish captivity 607, and died 577. JERICHO, a town of Palestine, now called by the Arabs Herubi, and con- taining only a few wretched huts, was formerly a considerable city, famous, especially in Solomon's reign, for its balsam gardens. It was considered the key of Palestine, was plundered by Ves- pasian, about A. D. 70 ; restored by Adrian, about 133; but ruined by the Moslems in the ] 2th century. JERNINGHAM, Edward, a poet, born 1727, died 1806. JEROME, one of the most learned of the Latin fathers, born about 340. He settled in a desert of Syria, where he entered upon a strict monastic life, in the Slstj^earof hisage. He died Sept. 30, 420. JEROME of Prague embraced the opinions of John Huss, and began to propagate them in 1400. In consequence of this be was delivered to the secular arm, and brought to the stake in 1416. JERSEY, an island in the English Channel. When the Normans invaded France, in the ninth century, they ra- vaged this island. After the French had rescued Normandy from the English under John, many attempts were made by them to recover Jersey : the most remarkable was in 1781, when a detach- ment under baron de Rullecourt made a descent, and were for a time successful; but were ultimately repelled. JERUSALEM, the capital of Judea, now included in the Turkish pachalic of Damascus. It was taken from the Je- busites by King David, a.c. 1048 ; who made it the capital of his kingdom ; cap- tured by Hazael, king of Syria, in the daysof Joash ; Nebuchadnezzar destroy- ed it, A.c. 587, and led the inhabitants into captivity. Seventy years after it was rebuilt, by permission of Cyrus, and continued to be the capital of Judea until the reign of Vespasian the Roman emperor, by whose son Titus it was totally destroyed a.d. 70. It was rebuilt by Adrian 130. The emperors remained masters of Jerusalem till the reign of the caliph Omar, who reduced it under his dominion 637- In 1099 the crusaders wrested the oc- cupancy from the Saracens, and founded a kingdom, over which they placed Godfrey of Bouillon. This christian kingdom continued for 88 years, under nine kings, when it was taken by Sultan Saladin inll87. In 1217 the Turks ex- pelled the Saracens, and have retained the possession to the present time. JEW 593 JOD JESUITS, a celebrated religious order, founded by Ignatius Loyola, an officer in the Spanish army, in 1540. When their order was confirmed by the bull of Paul III., they only amounted to 10. In 1543 they were not more than 24; in 1545 they had only 10 houses : but in 1549 they had two provinces, and 22 houses ; and at the death of Ignatius in 1556 they had 12 large provinces. In 1608 they had 29 provinces, and two vice-provinces ; in 1629, 35 provinces, two vice-provinces, 33 houses of profession, 578 colleges, 48 houses of probation, 88 seminaries, I60 residences, I06 missions, and in all 17,655 Jesuits, of whom 7870 were priests. The emperor Charles V. saw it ex- pedient to check their progress in his do- minions : they were expelled England, by proclamation of James I., in 1604 ; Ve- nice, in 1606 ; Portugal, in 1759 ; France in 1764; Spain and Sicily, in 1767 ; and suppressed and abolished by Pope Cle- ment XIV. in 1773. About I8I6 this order was attempted to be revived by the influence of the holy see. This measure excited some alarm in the minds of the friends to civil and religious liberty, but the order was nevertheless partially re- stored at Rome and other states. All monks of the order were banished from St. Petersburg, Jan. 2, 18 16. 1829- A clause was introduced into the Catholic Relief Bill, which required that all Jesuits, or other persons belong- ing to religious orders, already within the United Kingdom, should register themselves, and that no others should be admitted into the kingdom, after the passing of the bill, except by special li- cence from the secretary of state, with power to revoke such licence; and if such foreign Jesuit or other person did not depart within 20 days after the li- cence had been revoked, he should be banished for life from the United King- dom. JESUITS' Bark, introduced into France 1650; in general use 1680. JESUS Christ, order of knight- hood, began in France, 1206 ; in Rome 1320. JEWEL, John, a British prelate, dis- tinguished by his learning and piety, was born in 1522. In 1544 he was ad- mitted, to the degree of master of arts, and upon the accession of Edward VI., in 15 46, he openly avowed himself a protestant. In 1550 he took the degree of bachelor of divinity, and frequently preached before the university with great applause. Upon the accession of Queen Mary to the crowm in 1553, he was ex- pelled from college by the fellows, and retired to Frankfort. He returned to England in 1558 after Queen Mary's death ; and in the following year was consecrated bishop of Salisbury. He died at Monkton Farley, in 1571, aged 50. JEWELS first worn in England in 1434. The royal jewels of England pawned by Charles I. to Holland, and redeemed by the sale of iron ordnance, 1629 ; those of France were seized by the national convention 1794. JEWS. For an account of their early history, see Bible. Their first arrival in England was about 1079. AH the Jews in England were apprehended in one daj"-, their goods and chattels confiscated to the king, and they, to the number of 15,000, banished the realm, having only sustenance money allowed, 1286. They were restored by Oliver Cromwell; an act passed, that no Jew should enjoy a freehold, 1296 ; they were driven out of Spain, to the number of 150,000, 1492 ; retired to Africa, Portugal, and France. There was not a Jew in this island from 1610 to 1624. Naturalization act passed 1753; repealed the following year. Bill to remove the civil disabilities affecting the Jews passed the commons August 15, 1836, but was abandoned in the lords. 1840. A most cruel persecution of the Jews at Damascus, supposed to be at the instigation of the French consul there. The pacha of Damascus under his in- fluence, imprisoned and tortured a great number of them. JOAN OF Arc condemned for witch- craft, and burnt at Orleans, May 30, 1431, aged 24. See England. JOANNINA, capital of Albania, was founded in the 15th century, but is prin- cipally remarkable during the 19th cen- tury as the capital of Ali Pacha, a very powerful Turkish chief who shook off his allegiance to the Porte, but was ulti- mately subdued. It is now included in the boundaries of the new kingdom of Greece. See Albania. JOB died a.c. 1553, aged 189. JODRELL, Richard Paul, dra- matic writer, deputy lieutenant and jus- tice of the peace for the counties of Ox- ford, Derby, Norfolk, and Middlesex, 4 G JOH 594 JON was born Nov. 13, 1745. Elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 177'2, and of the Society of Antiquaries in 1784. He died Jan. 26, 1831, aged 85. JOEL prophesied 800 years before Christ. JOHN, king of England, born at Oxford, Dec. 24, 1166, was crowned May 27, 1199 Died at Newark, Oct. 19, 1216. Was buried at Worcester, where his corpse was discovered nearly entire in 1797, having been buried 580 years. JOHN OF Gaunt, fourth son of Ed- ward ni. was born 1339. Created duke of Lancaster 1362. Appointed regent to Richard H. 1377- Supported Wick- liffe against his opposers 1378. He had liis palace at the Savoy destroyed by Wat Tyler's mob 1381. Ravaged Scotland to the gates of Edinburgh 1384. Assumed the title of king of Cas- tile and Leon, having married the daugh- ter of Peter the Cruel, 1385. Died Feb. 1399. JOHN, St., the Baptist, was beheaded about 32. JOHN, St., the Evangelist, composed his Gospel, about the year 96, and died at Ephesus, in the reign of Trajan, in 100. JOHNES, Thomas, translator of " Froissart and Monstrelet," died April 24, 1816. JOHNSON, Dr. Samuel, one of the most celebrated English writers, was born at Lichfield, in Staffordshire, Sept. IS, 1709. When in his 19th year, he was entered a commoner of Pembroke college, Oxford. In 1731 he was ob- liged by poverty to leave the university without a degree. In March, 1732, he became under master of a free school at Market Bosworth, in Leicestershire ; but he relinquished it in a few months. In 1735 he opened an academy, and one of his pupils was the celebrated David Gar- rick. He set out, in 1737, accompanied by Garrick, to try his fortune in the metropolis. The literary piece which brought him into public notice, was en- titled " London," a poem, written in imitation of "Juvenal's Third Satire." His arduous and important work, the Dictionary of the English Language, employed him nearly seven years, and was completed in 1754. During the period of its publication, he began and finished " The Rambler," a periodical paper, published twice a week» from March 20, 1750, to March 14, 1/52. In 1758 he began "The Idler," published every Saturday in a weekly newspaper, called "The Universal Chronicle, or Weekly Gazette," Hitherto Johnson had not possessed any certain income, but having been represented to the king as a very learned and good man, his ma- jesty granted him a pension of £300 per annum. In 1755 the University of Ox- ford conferred upon him the degree of Doctor of Civil Laws. In 1779 Johnson undertook his literary work, " The Lives of the Poets." He died Dec. 13, 1785, in his 75th year. JOHNSTON, Cochrane, convicted of a conspiracy to raise the public funds, was expelled the house of commons, July 5, 1814. JOHNSTON, Francis, an eminent Irish architect, built at his own expense, and was the first president of, the Royal Hibernian Academy; died 1826. JOINERS' Company, London, in- corporated 1564. JOINVILLE, Jean De, author of the " History of Louis IX.," died 1318. JONES, Capt. George Matthew, R. N., author of " Travels in Russia, and the North-eastern Countries of Europe," received his first commission in 1802, died at Malta, May, 1831. JONES, Inigo, an eminent English architect, was born in London in 1572. He died at Somerset House, July 21, 1651. Among his works are, the Ban- queting House, Whitehall, began 1619; the new buildings fronting the gardens, at Somerset House ; the Queen's house, at Greenwich, and the elegant portico of the Physic Garden, Oxford. J ONES, Sir Willi AM, the celebrated orientalist, born in London, 1746. He determined to devote himself to the study and practice of the law ; and with this view he was admitted into the Temple, Sept. 19, 1770. He was chosen one of the judges in the British territories of India, in March, 1783, and on this oc- casion the honour of knighthood was conferred upon him. The publication of the Asiatic Researches occupied much of his attention, from 1785 to 1788. He died April 27, 1794. After his death, his lady pubUshed his whole finished works in six quarto volumes, in 1799. JONES, Rev. William, of Nay- land, a writer on divinity and natural history, died Jan. 6, 1800. JONES, John Ga lb, president of a JUA 595 JUR debating society, called "The British Forum," committed to Newgate by the house of commons, for a breach of its privileges, Feb. 21, 1810. JONSON, Ben, a dramatic poet, born at Westminster, in 1574. The first piece which he printed was, "Every Man in his Humour," acted in 1598, with great success. In 1609 he pro- duced his " Epicen, or Silent Women," which is considered the most perfect of his comedies. His "Alchemist," pub- lished in the following year, gained him such reputation, that in 1619 he was ap- pointed poet laureate. The " Tale of a Tub" was his last comedy that was sub- mitted to the public. He died in Aug., 1637, aged 63, and was buried in West- minster Abbey. JORDAN, Mrs., English actress, died at St. Cloud, July 5, 1816. JORTIN, Dr. John, theological writer, born 1701, died 1790. JOSEPH, sold to the Egyptians, A.c. 1728 ; made governor of Egypt, 1715 ; died in Egypt, 1685, aged 110. JOSEPHINE, the repudiated wife of Napoleon, died at Paris, May 30, 1814. JOSEPHUS, Flavius, author of the Jewish Antiquities, born 37, died 93. JOUDPOOR,intheprovinceofAjmere, Hindoostan. The rajah was one of Au- rungzebe's best generals in 1678. In 1806 Scindia, Holkar, and Ameer Khan, harassed the country till 1818, when en- gagements entered into with the British, stopped further effusion of blood. 1839. Disputes again arose, and the British interposed. The fortress of Joud- poor was taken by the British, Sept. 28, it having been supposed that the nu- waub, or chief of the territory of Kur- noul, was hostile to the British rule in India. JOURDON, Jean Baptiste, one of Napoleon's marshals, born at Li- moges, April 29, 1762. In 1806 he governed Naples under Joseph Buona- parte; and in 1808 he accompanied him into Spain. He died Nov. 23, 1833, so poor that after holding his rank of mar- shal for 30 years, and filling some of the most important offices, he left scarcely 15,000 francs in the funds. JOURNAL DES S9AVANS, the first literary periodical published in Europe, 1660. JUAN Fernandez, island. South Pacific Ocean, takes its name from its first visitor, who introduced goats here. and formed a settlement. After his de- cease it was abandoned until 1750, when the Spaniards again settled here. This was the solitary residence of Alexander Selkirk, the original of De Foe's " Ro- binson Crusoe." JUANES, Juan Battista, the Spa- nish Raffaelle, born 1523, died 1579. JUGGERNAUTH (the lord of the world,) celebrated place of Hindoo wor- ship, in Orissa. The temple was com- pleted in 119s. The British succeeded to the Mahratta sovereign's rights upon the conquest of Cuttack, and took pos- session of the temple Sept. 18, 1803. About 70,000 pilgrims annually visit this shrine. JULIAN, the Roman emperor, called the Apostate, was saluted emperor, 360 ; abjured Christianity, 361; endeavoured in vain to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem ; was mortally wounded, near Ctesiphon, and died June 26, 363. JULIAN Period. See Era, page 454. JULIAN, Pierre, a French sculptor, author of the " Dying Gladiator," born 1731, died 1804. JULIERS, duchy, Prussia, formerly belonged to the reigning princes of Cleves. On the extinction of that family in 1609, the succession was disputed; but in 1648 it was allotted to the pala- tinate of Neuburg, and continued in the elector palatine's family to the peace of Luneville, when it was ceded to France. It was annexed to Prussia, in 1815, by the congress of Vienna. JULIUS C^SAR, born a.c. 100; di- vided the republic with Pompey and Crassus, 60 ; attacked the Helvetii, 58 ; defeated the Germans, and made his first expedition into Britain, 55 ; made a second expedition to Britain, 54 ; civil war between him and Pompey, 50; de- feated Ptolemy, who was drowned, 46 ; Julius Caesar was killed in the senate house by Brutus, 44. See Brutus. JUNKCEYLON, Siamese empire. The French attempted to estabhsh a settlement here in 1688, but the district with little interruption, has always be- longed to Siam. The Malays seized this territory after 1785, and offered it to the British, but the Siamese recovered pos- session in 1810. JUNO, the planet, discovered Sept. 1, 1804. JURIEU, Peter, French divine, born 1627, died 1677. KAT 596 KEH JURIN, Dr. James, phj-^sician and mathematician, born 1684, died 1750. JURY, trial by, traces of it have been found for many ages among the northern nations. Reginer, a Dane, ordered 12 to be impannelled, 820. It was first estab- lished in England by Ethelred, 979 ; the ])laintiflf and defendant, in those times, nsed to feed them, whence the common- law of denying sustenance to a jury after hearing evidence. Regulated by various statutes in the reign of George II. and George III. In Scotland, trial by jury in civil cases passed into a law, 1815. JUSSIEU, Ant., physician and bota- nist, born 1686, died 1758. JUSTICES OF THE Peace first ap- pointed 1079. Itinerant justices ap- pointed 1176. JUSTICIARY Court of Scotland, established 1672. JUSTIN, the Roman historian, lived in the 2d century of the Christian era. JUVENAL, the Roman satirist, bom 45, died 127. K. KiEMPFER, Englebert, a physi- cian and traveller, born in Westphaha, 1651, died 1716. KAIMES, Lord, author of " Ele- ments of Criticism," born 1696, died 1770. KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical in- strument invented by Dr. Brewster, in 1814, for the purpose of exhibiting a beautiful variety of symmetrical forms. KALISCH, European Russia, was in 1835 the scene of a splendid review, held by the emperor of Russia in person, at which the king of Prussia and many of the chief nobility of Europe were present. KALMUCS. See Calmucs. KAMTSCHATKA, peninsula, Asia, belonging to Russia. In 1690 the Rus- sians had some knoivleiige of this country. In 1696 they sent thither a detachment of Cossacks, under Moros- koo ; and in the following year, part of the country was rendered tributary ; but it was not until 1706 that all Kamt- schatka was surveyed and occupied by the Russians. KANGAROO Island, South Pacific Ocean, discovered by Captain Flinders about 1800, who named it from the number of kangaroos found there. It is included in the newly-estabhshed set- tlement of the South Australian Com- pany. See Australia, South. KANT, Immanuel, a metaphysical systematizer, born in Prussia 1724, died 1805, KATER, Captain Henry, dis- tinguished for his scientific discoveries, wa^ born at Bristol, April 16, 1777. His trigonometrical operations, his experiments for determining the length of a pendulum beating seconds, and his labours for constructing standards of weights and measures, are well known. Most of the learned societies in Great Britain and on the Continent testified their sense of thevalue of Captain Kater's services, by enrolling him amongst their members. He died April 26, 1835, aged 58. KEAN, Edmund, the most accom- plished actor of the present century, was born November 4, 1787, in Castle- street, Leicester-square. After acting at several provincial theatres, he came out at Drury Lane January 26, 1814, in Shylock ; his triumph was complete, and the committee presented him with 50 guineas. During his first season he used to play Othello and lago alternately. The receipts of his benefit amounted to £1150. From this period till within a few weeks of his death, he continued to perform in London and the chief towns of the United Kingdom, with extraordi- nary success. He died May 15, 1833, aged 45. KEATS, John, juvenile poet, died 1816. KEBLE, Joseph, Enghsh law author, died 1710. KEHL, town, grand duchy Baden. In 1697 it was ceded to the margrave of Baden, In the middle of the 18th cen- tury it was demolished, but during the revolutionary war was rebuilt ; sustained several sieges ; was alternately in French and German hands, and was three times burnt down. In 1814 it was restored to KEN Baden, and in 1815 the works were again demolished. KEILL, John,. the astronomer, born 1671, died 1721. KELLY, Hugh, dramatic author, born 1739, died 1777. KELLY, Michael, author of "Re- miniscences," died 1826. KELLY, Miss, shot at while acting at Drury-lane, by George Barnett, Feb. 17, 1816; he was tried and acquitted, as insane, April 8, 1816. KEMBLE, John Philip, the cele- brated actor, was born in 1757, at Pres- cot, in Lancashire. He received the first part of his education at the university of Douay, where he soon became dis- tinguished for that talent for elocution which afterwards raised him to such eminence. He returned to England, and performed at Liverpool, York, Edin- burgh, and Dublin. He made his first appearance in London, at Drury-lane Theatre, in the character of Hamlet, September 30, 1783. His reception was most encouraging; but he had not an op- portunity of fully developing his powers till the retirement of Mr. Smith in 1788. On the secession of Mr. King, Mr. Kemble became manager of Drury-lane Theatre, which office he filled till 1796. Shortly afterwards he resumed the ma- nagement, and held it till the conclusion of the season 1801. In 1802 Mr. Kem- ble visited the Continent for the purpose of introducing to the British stage what- ever he might find worthy of adoption in foreign theatres. On his return he purchased a sixth part of the property of Covent Garden patent, and became manager, which situation he filled till a season or two before his retirement. He died February 26, 1823, aged 66. KEMPIS, Thomas a', a pious and learned divine of the Romish church, author of the "Imitation of Jesus Christ," was bom at Kempen, in the diocese of Cologne, Prussia, in 1380. In 1399 he entered the monastery of the regular canons of Mount St. Agnes, near Swol. He died July 25, 1471. KEN, Thomas, bishop, author of " Devotional Poetry," born 1637, died 1710. KENILWORTH, Warwickshire, re- markable for its castle, near to the town, founded by Geoffrey de Clinton, cham- berlain and treasurer of Henry I. ; a fortress was afterwards added to the original building by John of Gaunt, 597 KEP whose son, Henry IV., coming to the throne, the castle was vested in the crown. Queen Elizabeth gave it to Ro- bert Dudley, earl of Leicester, who, in July, 1575, celebrated a festival here in honour of his mistress, which is described by Sir Walter Scott in his romance of Kenilworth. The castle was demolished during the civil wars ; the site belongs to the earl of Clarendon. KENNICOTT,DR.BENJAMiN,English divine and oriental scholar, well known for his elaborate edition of the Hebrew Bible, was born at Totness, in Devon- shire, in 1718. During the progress of his great work he was appointed keeper of the Radcliffe Library, Oxford ; admitted to the degree of doctor of divinity ; pre- sented to a living in Cornwall ; and re- warded by a canonry of Christchurch,Ox- ford. In 1776 the first volume of his He- brew Bible was Ipublished, and in 1780 the whole was completed. He died at Oxford, September 18, 1783. KENRICK, Dr. William, dramatic writer, &c., died June 9, 1777. KENSINGTON, Middlesex, chiefly re- markable for its palace. It was the seat of SirHeneage Finch, afterwards lord chan- cellor, whose son sold it to William III. in 1691 ; it then became a favourite royal residence, and continued so until the death of George II., who died there. Itwas the principal residence of our present sovereign till her accession to the throne. Kensington Gardens were enlarged by Queen Anne, and much more exten- sively by Caroline, queen of George II. KENT, County of. Julius Caesar landed on the east coast, when he first invaded Britain, A.c. 54. In this county, the Saxons under Hengist and Horsa, obtained their earliest settlements in the island. Hengist assumed the title of king of Kent about A. D. 455. William of Normandy established the Cinque Ports, and conferred other advantages on the county. KENT, East Indiaman, burned in the Bay of Biscay, and 85 lives lost, March 13, 1825. KENT, Duke of, brother of George IV., and father of our present queen, born 1767, died January 23, 1820. KENYON, Lord, a learned judge, born 1733, died 1802. KEPLER, John, an eminent astro- nomer, born at Weil in Wirtemberg in 1571. He studied at the university of KIN 598 KIN Tubingen, where he obtained the degree of bachelor in the year 1588, and that of master of philosophy in 1591. In 1594 he filled the mathematical chair in the university of Gratz. On the death Tycho Brahe in 1601, Kepler was em- ployed to complete the Rodolphine Tables, which that great man had begun. These were published in 1627- He died November 1630, in the 59th year of his age. KETTERINn, Northamptonshire, destroyed by a fire, 1767. KEYSLER, J, G., a German antiqua- rian, died 1630. KIEL, a city in Denmark, contains a university called Christiana Alber- tina, founded in 1665. The treaty of Kiel between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, took place January 14, 1815, when Norway was ceded to Sweden. KIESEWETTER, C. G.. the cele- brated violinist, was born at Anspach, and first introduced to a British audience in the winter of 1821, at the Philharmo- nic Concert. He was the first who in- troduced the compositions of the cele- brated Mayabeer into this country. He died October 28, 1827, aged 50. KILLALA, a town in Ireland, pro- vince of Connaught. A body of French under General Humbert effected a land- ing here in the year 1798, and joined the rebel army at that time wasting the kingdom. KILLARNEY steamer was wrecked off Cork harbour, when 29 persons pe- Kished January 26, 1738. KILLMORE, a village in Ireland. St. Columb built an abbey here in the 6th cen- tury ; and St. Ferdinand converted the abbey into a bishopric in the 13th. This latter saint removed the see, for a time, to Tiburna, where it continued until 1454, when Bishop Macbready restored the primitive church, and called it Kill- more. The see was united to the see of Elphin, in conformity with an act of parliament passed in 1834. KILMARNOCK, Lord, and Lord Balmerino, beheaded Aug. 18, 1746. See Balmerino. KILWARDEN, Lord, murdered by the rebels in Dublin, July 23, 1803. KIMCHI, David, a learned Jewish rabbi, died 1240. KING, archbishop of Dublin, born 1650, died 1729. KING OF England, the title of. first used 829; of Ireland added 1542 ; of Great Britain 1603. KING OF France, the title of, as- sumed by the king of England, an(l his arms quartered with those of England, with the motto " Dieu et mon droit," first used, Feb. 21, 1340; relinquished Jan. 1, 1801. KING OF THE French began 1791; abolished 1792 ; restored August 9, 1830. KING, Capt., the companion of Cap- tain Cook, died Nov. 1784. KING, Edward, the subject of Mil- ton's " Lycidas," drowned 1637- KING, Henry, a bishop and theolo- gian, born 1591, died 1669. KING, John Glen, an English topographer, died 1787, aged 55. KING, Peter, Lord, the biographer of Locke, born August 31, 1775, died June 4, 1833. KING, Peter, lord chancellor, born 1669, died 1733. KING'S Bench Prison, St. George's Fields, South wark, built 1751 ; enlarged 1776 ; burnt by rioters, June 7, 1780; rebuilt 1781 ; 100 apartments burnt, July 13, 1799. KING'SCoLLEGE, Cambridge, found- ed 1541. KING'S College, London. At a meeting of the subscribers and donors held at the Freemasons' Tavern, May 16, 1829, Lord Bexley announced that the government had given the ground ori- ginally intended for the east wing of Somerset House, for the purposes of the institution, free of expense for 1000 years, on condition that the new erection cor- responded with the rest of the edifice. The building was completed in 1831, and the institution opened the same year; about 400 pupils had been admitted, to whom lectures were daily given on various subjects. The fagade consists of a central building, forming the front of the vestibule and grand staircase. It is decorated with four columns of the Corinthian order, in antis, upon a base- ment of piers, supporting arches, which run along the whole length of the build- ing. The whole is surmounted by a ba- lustrading above its entablature. KING'S College, Aberdeen, was founded in 1500. KING'S College, in Nova Scotia, founded 1798 ; charter granted May 12, 1802. KING'S-EVIL, first touched for the KIR cure of Edward the Confessor, 1058 ; discontinued by George I. KINGSTON, Jamaica, founded in 1693, after the destruction of Port Royal in the preceding year by an earthquake, and was constituted a city in 1703. KINGSTON-UPON-THAMES, in Surrey, under the Anglo-Saxons was a place of importance and a royal resi- dence, and several monarchs were crowned here ; whence its present appel- lation. A council was held at Kingston by Egbert in 838. KINSALE, a boroxigh town of Ire- land, in the province of Munster. It was anciently a place of great importance, was inclosed with walls and regularly fortified. Edward III. granted the town a charter of incorporation, which was renewed, confirmed, and enlarged by Edward IV. In I6OO the Spaniards made a successful landing at this place. In 1649 the town surrendered to Crom- well. In the reign of Charles II., the fort commanding the harbour was built, and called Charles Fort. James II. landed at this port from France. In 1690 the earl of Marlborough compelled the town to surrender. KIPPIS, Dr. Andrew, an eminent nonconformist divine, was born at Not- tingham, March, 1725. He received the degree of doctor of divinity from the university of Edinburgh, in 1767 ; in 1778 he was made a member of the Antiqua- rian, and in 1779 a fellow of the Royal Society. He died Oct. 5, 1795, aged 71. His works are numerous and valuable; the principal one is the " Biographia Bri- tannica," which he did not live to finish. KIRBY, William, mathematician, died 1771. KIRCH, Chris. Frederick, Prus- sian astronomer, died 1740. KIRCHER, a celebrated philosopher and mathematician, born at Fulda in 1601. In I6I8 he entered into the so- ciety of the Jesuits, and, after completing his studies, taught philosophy, mathe- matics, the Hebrew and Syriac languages, in the university of Witzburg, till 1631. In 1646 he published at Rome his "Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae," containing an account of his attempts to imitate the burning mirrors of Archimedes, and a descnption, of the magic lantern of which he was the undoubted inventor. He died at Rome in I68O. KIRKALDY, burgh, Scotland, shire of Fife, said to have been anciently the 599 K L O seat of a society of Culdees. In 1334 it belonged to the abbot of Dunfermline, as a burgh of regality, and continued so till 1450, when it passed into the pos- session of the Bailies and their succes- sors for ever. It was shortly afterwards erected into a royal burgh by a charter, which Charles I. confirmed in 1644, and made it a free port. In 1828 an accident occurred at the church of Kirkaldy, by the falling of a gallery, during the as- sembly of a large concourse of persons to hear an evening discourse by the Rev. Edward Irving. Between 30 and 40 per- sons were killed. KIRKDALE, village. Yorkshire, re- markable for its cave discovered in 1821, in one of the calcareous hills in this parish. Its floor was strewn with dilu- vial loam, thickly interspersed with or- ganic remains of bones of various ani- mals, which were submitted to Professor Buckland, M. 'Cuvier, and other natu- ralists, and pronounced by them to be the bones of hyenas mixed with those of the elephant and rhinoceros, hippopota- mus, and other animals ; several be- longed to species diflferent from any at present existing. KIRWAN, Richard, mineralogist, died August, 1812. KITCHENER, William, M.D., au- thor of "The Cook's Oracle," died 1827, aged 50. KITT'S, St. See Christopher's. KLAPROTH, M. H., chemist, died at Berlin 1817- KLEBER, French general in Egypt, born 1750, assassinated 1800. KLEIST, Christian Ewald Von, German poet, and an officer in the Prus- sian army, was born at Zeblin, in Pome- rania, in 1715. After rendering himself distinguished on many occasions both for bravery and humanity, Kleist lost his life in the bloody battle of Kimnersdorf,l749. KLOPSTOCK, Frederick Theo- PHiLus, a celebrated German poet, was born at Quedlinburg in 1724. He com- menced the study of theology at the uni- versity of Jena in 1745. By his removal to Leipsic in ] 746, he became acquainted with a number of young men who pub- lished their essays in a paper called the " Bremen Contributions." In this pub- lication appeared the first three cantos of Klopstock's " Messiah." Tlie publica- tion of the ten books afterwards made him known and admired ail over Ger- many. Baron Bernstorff invited him to KNO 600 KOR Copenhagen, where he lived till 1771, after which he resided at Hamburgh in the capacity of royal Danish legate. He died at Hamburgii, in March, 1803, aged 79. His odes and lyric poems are much admired by his countrymen, and his dramatic works display great dignity and force, but are better adapted for reading than for exhibition. He was an e.xcel- lent prose writer, as is evinced by his " Grammatical Dialogues." KNELLER, Sir Godfrey, an emi- nent painter, was born at Lubec in 1648. He received his first instruc- tions in the school of Rembrandt, but be- came afterwards a disciple of Ferdinand Bol. He came to England in 1674, where he gained the favour of the duke of Monmouth. He was state-painter to Charles H., James II., William III., Queen Anne, and George I., equally esteemed and respected hj them all : the emperor Leopold made him a knight of the Roman empire, and King George I. created him a baronet. His works were celebrated by the best poets in his time. He died in 1726 at Whitton, near Hamp- ton-court. KNIGHT, Matthew, cashier of the South Sea Company, absconded with £100,000, 1720. Compounded with go- vernment for £10,000, and returned to England, 1743. KNIGHTHOOD had its origin in England in the time of the crus^ades. See Crusades. From these wars it followed, that new fraternities of knight- hood were invented : hence, the knights of the Holy Sepulchre, the hospital- lers, templars, &c. Various other or- ders were at length instituted by sove- reign princes : the Garter, by Edward III., of England; the Golden Fleece, by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy ; and St. Michael, by Louis XI. of France, &c. In 1430 every person with £40 per annum was required to take tlie order of knighthood. All orders of knighthood were abolished in France by the National Assembly, July 30, 1791- KNIGHTS-TEMPLARS. See Tem- plars. KNITTING stockings, invented in Spain, 1550. KNOCKTOPHER, village in Ireland. In 1536 James, the second earl of Or- mond, founded a priory here. Dec. 14, 1832, an officer, and a party of police, while proceeding to execute a tithe pro- cess, \yere attacked, near Knocktopher, by a large assemblage' of the peasantry, and the officer and 11 of his party were killed. KNOLLES, Richard, an English historian, died I6l0. KNOX, Dr. Vicessimus, author of " The Spirit of Despotism," &c., born 1752, died 1821. KNOX, John, well known as an eminent Scottish reformer, was born at Giffiard near Haddington. Being ap- pointed tutor to the sons of the lairds of Ormiston and Langniddrie, he began about 1542 to instruct them in the principles of the protestant religion, and was so violently persecuted as to be compelled to take shelter in the castle of St. Andrew's with his pupils. The castle was afterwards besieged and taken by the French ; and Knox being taken prisoner, was closely confined till the latter end of 1549, when, being set at liberty, he repaired immediately to England. In 1552 he was appointed chaplain to Edward VI. After the ac- cession of Queen Mary, he was obliged to seek safety by flight. In 1555 re- ceiving information that the reformation had made considerable progress, he returned to his native country. The English Calvinists at Geneva invited Knoxto become their pastor. Heaccept- ed their invitation, and continued abroad till 1559. In 1561 Mary queen of Scots arrived from France, and Knox not only declaimed against her in the pulpit, but hehaved to her with the most unjustifi- able freedom. In 1571 he was obliged to leave Edinburgh, on account of the confusion and danger from the opposi- tion of the earl of Lenox, then regent ; but he returned the following year, and resumed his pastoral functions. He died at Edinburgh in November, 1572, and was buried in the churchyard of St. Giles's in that city. KNUTZEN,MATTHiAS,theprofessed German atheist, lived in 1674. KOLBEN, Peter, a traveller, born 1674, died 1726. KONIGSBERG, city, Prussia. The university was founded in 1544; the town was taken by the Russians in 1758 ; and in June, 1807, fell into the hands of the French ; but since the peace in 1814, has remained under the dominion of Prussia. KORAN, the Mahometan scriptures, commonly called the Alcoran ; but the first syllable of the word is only an LAB 601 LAB article signifying the. The Koran, while Mahomet lived, was only kept in loose sheets, and was not published till after his death in 631. Othman, successor of Abubeker, a.h. 30, })rocured a great number of copies to be taken, suppress- ing all the others not conformable to the original. There are seven principal editions of the Koran ; two at Medina, one at Mecca, oneatCufa,one atBassora, one in Syria, and the common or vulgate edition. The first contains 6000 verses; the second and fifth 6214 ; the third 6219; the fourth 6236 ; the sixth 6226; and the last 6225 : but the number of words and letters is the same in all, viz., 77,639 words, and 323,015 letters. The Koran has been often published in Europe, in Arabic and in other languages. Maracci published it in Arabic and Latin at Padua in 1698. The English translation of Sale was printed at Lon- don in 1734; the German of Boysen at Halle in 1773 ; the French of Savary at Paris in 1782. KOSCIOSCO, the patriotic Polish general, died 1798. KOTZEBUE, Augustus Von, a Ger- man dramatist, was assassinated at Man- heim by Sandt, a Wurtzburg student, April 2, 1819. KOULI-KHAN, Thamas, or Nadir ScHAH, a Persian conqueror, was born in the province of Khorassan. His father was chief of a branch of the tribe of Afghans. He joined a banditti of robbers, who committed great ravages.. In 1729 the Afghans having made them- selves masters of Ispahan, and the Turks and Muscovites ravaging other parts of Persia, they applied to Nadir Schah for assistance, and made him general of Persia. In 1736 he fomented a revolt against his master. In 1739 he con- quered the Mogul empire, making him- self master of Delhi, where he acquired immense riches, and assumed the title of Emperor of the Indies; but his reign was of short duration. He was assassmated in 1747, aged 60. KNUCKELL, John, an eminent che- mist, died 1702. KURILE Isles, occupied by theRus- sians 1711. The people of these islands, which are 21 in number, still pay tribute to Russia ; they are principally volcanic. KUSTER, LuDOLPH, a critic, born 1670, died 1716. KUTCHUK Kainarji, peace of, between Russia and Turkey. Crimea declared independent ; Azoph ceded to Russia, and freedom of commerce and navigation of the Black Sea granted July 21, 1774. KUTUSOFF, the Russian general, died June 21, 1813. KUYP, Old, Jacob Gerritze, of Dort, a landscape painter, founder of the Academy of St. Luke, born 1578, died 1649. KYRIE Eleison, first introduced into the Litany 590. KYRLE, J., " the benevolent man of Ross," died 1724, aged 90. L. LABOUR, Price op. In 1352, 25 Edw. III. wages paid to hay-makers were but \d. & day ; a mower of meadows 5c?. per day, or bd, an acre ; reapers of corn, in the first week of Augiist, 2d., in the second 3o(. per day, and so till the end of August, without meat, drink, or other allowance, finding their own tools. For thrashing a quarter of wheat or rye 2f c^.; a quarter of barley, beans, peas, and oats, ij. A master carpenter "id. a day, other carpenters 2c?. per day. A master mason 4d. per day, other masons 3c?. per day, and their servants \\d. per day. Tilers 3c?., and their knaves \^d. Thatchers Zd. per day, their knaves l|c?. Plasterers and other workers of mud- walls, and their knaves, in the like man- ner, without meat or drink, and this from Easter to Michaelmas ; and from that time less, according to the direction of the justices. 1361. By the 34 Edw. III. chief masters of carpenters and masons 4c?. a day, and the others 3c?. or 2c?. " as they are worth." 1389. 13 Richard II., the wages of a bailiff of husbandry 13*. 4c/. per year, and his clothing once a year at most ; the master hind 105., the carter 10s., shepherd 10s., oxherd 6s. Qd., cowherd 6s. 8d., swineherd 6s., a woman labourer Qs., a day ditto 6s., adriver of plough 7*. From this time to the time of 23 of Henry VI. the price of labour was fixed by the justices by proclamation. 1445. 23 Henry VI., the wages of a baihflF of husbandry was 23s. 4c?. per 4 H LAC 602 LAC annum, and clothing of the price of 5s., with meat and drink ; chief hind, carter, or shepherd 20s., clothing 4s.; common servant of husbandry 1 5s., clothing 40d. ; M'oman servant 10s., clothing 4s.; infant under 14 years 6s , clothing 3s. Free- mason or master carpenter 4d. per day; without meat or drink 55c?. Master tiler or slater, mason or mean carpenter, and other artificers concerned in building 3d., per day ; without meat or drink 4|f/. ; every other labourer 2d. a day ; without meat or drink Sfrf., after Michaelmas to abate in proportion. In time of harvest a mower 4^d. a day; without meat and drink 6d. ; reaper or carter 3d. a day; without meat and drink 5d. ; woman labourer, and other labourers 2c?. a day ; without meat and drink 4^d. per day. 1496. By the 11 Henry VIL, there was a like rate of wages, only with a little advance ; as, for instance, a free- mason, master carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, master tiler, plumber, glazier, carver, joiner, was allowed from Eas- ter to Michaelmas to take 6c/. a day without meat and drink, or with meat and drink 4rf. ; from Michaelmas to Easter to abate Id. A master having under him six men, was allowed id. per day extra. 1515. By the 6 Henry VIII., the wages of shipwrights were fi.xed as fol- lows '. — a master ship-carpenter, taking the charge of work, having men under him 5c?. a day in the summer season, with meat and drink; other ship-carjjen- ter, called an hewer, 4c?. ; an able clincher 3c?., holder 2d., master calker 4c?., a mean calker 3c?., a day labourer by the tide 4c?. LABRADOR, British North America, discovered by Cortercal, who sailed from Lisbon on a voyage of discovery for the Portuguese, 1501. Afterwards visited by a French engineer, Alphonze, 1541 ; but this country has never been fully explored ; the severity of the climate, and the barrenness of the soil, having confined the visits of travellers princi- pally to the coasts. LA CRUSCA, Academy of, founded at Florence 1282. LACCADIVES. a group of small islands, Indian Ocean, discovered by Vasco de Gama in 1499, and are nomi- nally dependant on Cannanore. LACE, a delicate and beautiful fabric. Mary de Medici was the first who brought it into France, from Venice. In England so early as 1483, "laces of thread, and laces of gold, and silk and gold," were enumerated among the articles prohi- bited to be imported. In I626, Sir Henry Borlase founded and endowed the free school at Great Marlow, for 24 girls, to knit, spin, and make bone lace. In 1640 the lace trade was flourishing in Buckinghamshire; and so greatly had it advanced in England, that by a royal ordinance in France, passed in I66O, a mark was established upon the thread lace imported from this country and from Flanders, and upon the point lace from Genoa, Venice, and other foreign countries, in order to secure payment of the customs duties. The first lace made in this country was Brussels point. About a century since, the grounds in use were the old Mechlin, and what the trade termed the wire ground. An improvement took place about the year 1770, when the ground, which is probably the most an- cient known, was re-introduced. From the first appearance of the point ground may be dated the origin of the modern pillow lace trade ; but it was not until the beginning of the present century that the most striking improvements were made. Soon after the year 1 800, a freer and bolder style was adopted ; and from that time to 1812, the im- provement and consequent success were astonishing and unprecedented. The effects of the competition of ma- chinery, which had been begun in 1768, and the correct principle latterly intro- duced began to be felt, however, about this time, and in 1815, the broad laces began to be superseded by the new ma- nufacture. The pillow lace trade gra- dually dwindled into insignificance, and has only within the last few years in a measure revived. Mr. Heathcoat of Tiverton obtained a patent for his invention of the bobbin net frame in IS09. Steam power was first introduced by Mr. John Lindley in 1815, but did not come into active operation till 1820. It became general in 1822 ; and a great stimulus was at this period given to the trade, owing to the expira- tion of Mr. Heaihcoat's patent, the increased application of power, and the perfection to which the different hand- frames had been brought. In 1831 the annual produce at Nottingham was estimated at 23,400,000 square yards, worth £1,891,875. It is now estimated LAF 603 LAL at 30,771,000 square yards, worth £1,850,650. LACEDiEMON, or Sparta, city of Peloponnesus, the capital of Laconia, founded by Lelex, about a.c. 1516, and his subjects were called Leleges. About 80 years after the fall of Troy, the de- scendants of Hercules took Lacedaemon from Tisamenus, the grandson of Aga- memnon. In A.c. 1102, upon the divi- sion of the Peloponnesus by the Hera- clidse, the kingdom of Lacedaemon or Sparta properly commenced under Pro- cles and Eurysthenes, the two sons of Aristodemus, the chief of the Heraclidae. The successors of Procles were Ivas A. c. 1060; Eurypon 1028; Prytanis 1021; Eunomus 986; and Polydec- tes 907. The celebrated Lycurgus suc- ceeded his brother Polydectes. See Lycurgus. The Messenian war began A.c. 752, and after a conflict of several years, ended in the total reduction of the Messenian territory. This conquest gave Lacedeemon the superiority o?er all the Grecian states, excepting that of Athens. The Lacedaemonians were de* feated by the Athenians a. c. 377 ; reconciled to them 372 ; joined the Achaean league, 182. The country made a Roman province, 71. LA CEPEDE, the French naturalist, died 1825, aged 68. LACKINGTON, George, an ex- tensive dealer in second-hand books, born at "Wellington, Somerset, Aug. 31, 1746, died Nov, 22, 1815, LACTANTIUS, Fermianus, one of the Christian fathers, and author of the "Defence of Christianity," died 325. LAD RONE Isles, a group of islands, in the North Pacific Ocean, discovered by Magalhean, who called them Islas des Ladrones, (Islands of Thieves), be- cause the natives stole every article of iron that they could find within their reach. Towards the end of the 17th century, they received the name of Ma- riana, or Marianne islands, from the queen of Spain, Mary Anne of Austria, the mother of Charles II. LAFAYETTE, Gilbert Mortier, Marquis De, was born at Chavaniac in Auvergne, September 6, 1757. At the age of 1 9 he espoused the cause of American independence, and arrived at Charlestown in the beginning of 1777. In 1787 he was a member of the assem- bly of the "Notables" at Paris, in which he denounced various abuses. When de- I)uted to the states general, he ])ropo8ed, on the 11 til of July, 1789, his famous de- claration of rights, which was made the basis of that of the constituent assembly. On the I5th of the same month, he was ])roclaimed commandant-general of the l)urgher guard, and the next morning published the order for destroying the Bastille. On the l6th of June, 1792, he wrote a letter to the national assem- bly, denouncing the Jacobin clubs In the revolutionary struggles he attempted a retreat into some neutral territory, when he was intercepted by an Austrian corps at Liege, and imprisoned by the coalition. He continued to suffer the miseries of a rigorous confinement for four years ; and after his release, and return to France, he retired to his coun- try residence at Lagrange. The various changes after the fall of Napoleon again brought him forward in the chamber of deputies ; and he made several proposi- tions, in accordance with his principles of liberty, but with only partial success. He witnessed with gratulation the events of July, 1830, and again placed himself at the head of the movement, by calling out his favourite national guard. He died at Paris, Mav 20, 1834, aged 76. LA FONTAINE, Augustus, one of the mostfraitfulGermanromance writers, was born at Brunswick. He studied di- vinity in the first instance, then under- took the education of general Thadden's children, and in 1789 he became chaplain to a Prussian regiment, which he accom- panied in 1792 in the campaign against France. After the peace of Basle, he retired to Halle, where he lived on a pension granted to him by the king of Prussia. He died April 20, 1831, aged 70. LAGRANGE, J. L., mathematician^ born 1786, died 1813. LAING Malcolm, historian, born 1762, died 1819- LALANDE, Joseph Jerome Le Francois, an eminent French astrono- mer, was born at Bourg, in the depart- ment of the Ain, on the 11th of July, 1732. He made observations at the ob- servatory of Berlin in 1751 and 1752, to determine the moon's paralla.x and its distance from the earth, and he published an account of them in three papers, which appeared in the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1751, 1752, and 1753. Lalande was a member of almost LAN 604 LAN ail the distinguished academies and socie- ties in Europe, and corresponded with all the principal astronomers of the age. He published no fewer than 150 papers in the memoirs of the French academy. He rendered inestimable service to sci- ence during his life, and consulted its interests after his death, by founding an annual prize to the author of the best astronomical memoir, or most curious observation. He died at Paris, on the 4th of April, 1807, aged 75. LALANDE, Michael Jerome, a distinguished astronomer, author of se- veral articles in the " Connaisance des Tems," and nephew of the illustrious astronomer of the same name, died in 1839. LALLY, Marguis De Tolendal, author of " Plaidoyer pour Louis XVL," died 1830. LAMARQUE, a brave French officer, distinguished in the campaigns of Na- poleon, born 1772, died May 31, 1832. Upwards of 4000 persons were killed at Paris in the riots that took place at his funeral. LAMB, Charles, author of " Essays by Elia," &c., born February 18, 1775, died December 27, 1834, aged 60. LAMBERT, Daniel, died June 21, 1809, weighing 52 stone 11 lbs. ; 14 lbs. to the stone — 739 lbs. Probably the heaviest man on record. LAMBETH, Surrey. The kings of England had formerly a palace in this parish. Hardicanute, the son of Canute the Great, died suddenly, in 1041,whilst celebrating the marriage feast of a noble Dane; and here Harold H. is said to have placed the crown on his own head, after the death of Edward the Confessor. This palace continued to be the occasional residence of the royal family down to the reign of Henry VH. The palace of the archbishop of Canterbury in Lam- beth was founded about 1191, by Bald- win, who then occupied the see. LANARK, a royal burgh of Scotland, supposed to be the Colonia of Ptolemy, was, at an early period, a place of consi- derable importance. Kenneth H. held a parliament here in 978. Its castle, which stood on an eminence south-west from the town, is said to have been built in 1197, by David L It was several times reduced by the English in the 13th century. In 1244 the town was destroyed by fire, and in 1297 Wallace here first raised his standard, slew the English governor, and made himself master of the place. It was erected into a royal burgh under Alexander I. LANCASTER, capital of the county of Lancaster. After the Norman con- quest a grant of the lordship of Lancas- ter was obtained by Roger de Poitou, who erected a castle here, remains of which are still visible. Edward III., in the 50th year of his reign, created his son, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster ; and during the civil wars of York and Lancaster this town suflfered so much, that when Camden wrote it was merely the residence of a few husbandmen. Charles II. renewed the charter under which it was locally governed until the passing of the Municipal Reform Bill in 1835. LANCASTER, Joseph, the success- ful promulgator of the system of mutual instruction known by his name, which he brought into practice in 1798. He was bred a Quaker ; and, after spending considerable time in travelling over the kingdom to introduce his system of edu- cation, he went, about 1820, to America. He was the author of several publications relating to education. He died at New York, 1838, aged 68, of wounds received by being knocked down by a gig as he was walking in the street. LAND-SLIP, a convulsion exhibited in several places in England, particularly in the south coast. A remarkable one occurred recently near Axmouth, Devon. It commenced at three o'clock in the morning of December 24, 1839. A man who dwelt in a cottage half a mile dis- tant, saw that the ground was sinking beneath him, that it was gaping with fissures, and that the walls of his dwell- ing were cracking and tottering as if ready to fall. During the whole of Christmas day the disruption continued. An immense tract, extending east and west, one mile in length, and many hun- dred feet in width, subsided or sank down so as to foi'm a ravine or chasm more than 200 feet in depth. This huge mass, so cut otF, has been forced on its foundation many yards in a southerly direction towards the sea, inclined some- what from its former level, and rent and depressed into terraces. The bed of the sea also, the whole way along in front of it, has been lifted up to the height of 40 feet above the surface, to a great distance out from the original line of coast, now forming reefs and islands, inside which LAN 60& LA N are bays and small harbours, into which boats have been, and have found good soundings. On June 18, 1839, a remarkable dis- placement of an entire valley near the foot of a mountain took place at the vil- lage of Federowk, in Russia ; and during 72 hours it moved with an undulating motion towards the river Volga. The sinking of the valley is one mile and a half long, and 250 fathoms in breadth. Above 70 houses were damaged or thrown down, but happily no lives were lost. LANDEN, John, an eminent mathe- matician, born January 17l9,was elected fellow of the Royal Society January I6, 1766. He died January 15, 1790. LANDER, Richard, the enterpris- ing African traveller, born at Truro in 1804. He embarked with Captain Clap- pertonon the 24th of August, 1825, for Africa. The death of Clapperton oc- curred April 10, 1827, and Lander re- turned home April 30, 1828. He pub- lished his first journal in 1830. Imme- diately after he set out on his second ex- pedition to trace the river Niger, from thence to Benin, accompanied by his brother John. This second expedition became the triumph of Lander's fame, and imparted to his name a large share of immortality. In 1831 the discovery of the course and termination of the Ni- ger was announced, and the return of the brothers to England was the subject of the warmest congratulations. Richard, again hurried away by the same enter- prising ambition which had actuated him through life, set off on a third expedition. On his way to the interior he purchased an island near the city of Atta, on which he built a house, and which he in- tended as a depot for merchandise. He died of a wound he received at Fernando Po,byashotfrom the natives, Feb. 6,1834. LANDER, John, the brother of the above, and his attendant in his African expedition, died in 1839. LANDRECY, a town in France, department of the North, was besieged by Prince Eugene without success in 1712; in 1794 it was taken by the allied armies ; but soon afterwards eva- cuated. It was one of the barrier fort- resses occupied by tbe allies, after the second treaty of Paris in 1815. LANDSHUT, town of Bavaria taken by the French, April 21, I8O9. LAND-TAX, one of the annual taxes raised upon the subject ; exacted in some form in the reigns of Henry II. and III, but fell into disuse upon the intro- duction of subsidies, about the time of Richard II. and Henry IV. The land-tax was first properly introduced in the reign of WiUiam III. ; in 1692 a new assessment or valuation of estates was made throughout the kingdom : and, according to this enhanced valuation from the year 1693 to the present, the land-tax has continued an annual charge upon the subject. The method of raising it is by charg- ing a particular sum upon each county, and this sum is assessed and raised upon individuals by commissioners appointed in the act. An act passed annually for the raising in general £2,037,627 9s. 10c?. by this tax at 4s. in the pound, till the year 1799, at which time the land-tax was made perpetual, subject to redemption by purchase on certain conditions. In the first year upwards of £13,000,000 was purchased; and, since that period, a great propor- tion of the land-tax has been redeemed. By 4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 60, August 13, 1834, commissioners of the land-tax are empowered to transfer jurisdictions from one hundred or division to another, or to create new divisions. Assessments of open fields, commons, and waste lands, since the inclosure thereof, in the places in which they have usually been assessed, are declared valid, although not in the parishes in which they lie. Since the Reform Act, certain provisions of 18 Geo. II. c. 18, and 20 Geo. III.c. 17, re- lating to the assessment of the land-tax, have become unnecessary ; they are, therefore, repealed, and persons are in- demnified for omission, &c. LANFRANC, archbishop of Canter- bury, in the 11th century, was a native of Italy, and born at Pavia. He was appointed abbot of St. Stephen, at Caen, in 1063 ; and consecrated archbishop of Canterbury in 1070. Having presided over the diocese 19 years, he died in 1089,leaving behind him a high character for wisdom, learning, munificence, and other virtues. LANGHORNE, Dr. John, English poet, born at Kirkby-Stephen in West- moreland, in 1735. He held the living of Blagden, in Somersetshire, at the time of his death, which happened April 1, 1779. LANGRES, town, France, province Champagne, taken by the allied Russian LAR 606 LAT and Prussian army under General Guillay, January 17, 1814. LANGUAKD Fort, Essex, built 1618. LANTANE, a new metal, discovered byM. Mosander, 1839, while submitting the cerite of bastnas to fresh examina- tion. The oxide of cerium, extracted from the cerite by the usual method, contains nearly two-fifths of its weight of the oxide of the new metal, which but little changes the properties of the cerium, and lies, as it were, hiciden in it. For this reason, M. Mosander has named it lantane. It is prepared by calcining the nitrate of cerium mixed with nitrate of lantane. LAODICEA, on the Lycus, a town of Phrygia, built by Antiochus, son of Stra- tonice, and called after his consort Lao- dice. It was long an inconsiderable place ; but increased towards the age of Augustus Caesar. Its memory is ren- dered interesting, being one of the seven churches addressed by St. John in the Apocalypse. It was often damaged by earthquakes, and restored by its own opulence, or by the munificence of the Roman emperors. It became early a scene of ruin, and fell into the hands of the Turks about a.d. 1000. LAON, town, France, department Aisne. A severe battle was fought here between the Prussians and French, in March, 1814. LAPLACE, Marquis De, a French mathematician and astronomer of the first rank, was born in 1749. He was the successor of Bezout, as examiner of the royal corps of artillery ; and he be- came successively, member of the Aca- demy of Sciences, of the National In- stitute, and of the Board of Longitude. In 1796 he dedicated to the council of Five Hundred his " Exposition of the System of the World." In July, 1803, he was elected president of the senate ; and, in September, he became chancellor of that body. In April, 1814, he voted for a provisional government, and the dethronement of Buonaparte ; services for which Louis XVIII. rewarded him with the dignity of a peer. He was no- minated a member of the French Aca- demy in 18 J 6, and president of the commission for the re- organisation of thePolytechnic school. He died March 5, 1827. LA PLATA. See Buenos Ayres. LARCHER, P. H., French translator of Herodotus, born 1726, died 1812. LARDNER.Dr.Nathaniel, eminent divine and writer, was born at Hawk- herst, in the county of Kent, June 6, 1684, In 1727 he published, in two vols., the first part of his great work "The Credibility of the Gospel History, or the facts occasionably mentioned in the New Testament, confirmed by pas- sages of ancient authors, who were con- temporary with our Saviour, or his Apostles, or lived near their time." This valuable work occupied many years, and was not completed till 1743, when he published the fifth A'olume, which con- cludes with the year 306. In 1764 Dr. Lardner continued the prosecution of his grand object, and gave the world the first volume of "A large Collection of ancient Jewish and Heathen Testimonies to the Truth of the Christian Religion." The remaining three volumes were pub- lished at intervals between that and the close of the year 1767- They completed the grand design which had occu})ied 43 years of Dr. Lardner's life ; and by them, though far from j)rofitable, he has raised a monument to his fame, which can never perish. In 1768 he fell into a gradual decline, which carried him oft* in a few weeks, at Hawkherst, his native place, aged 85. L.\RISSA, city, Greece, capital of Thessaly, famous in antiquity as the birthplace of Achilles, and as having been the rendezvous of Julius Caesar's army previous to the battle of Pharsalia. It was the head quarters and centre of the military operations of the Turks against the Greeks, from the time of Ali Pacha, who died in 1822, and who here laid the foundation of his power. From this city, also, Kourschid Pacha, and all the other seraskiers who suc- ceeded him in the late Greek war, com- menced their campaigns against Livadia and Epirus. LATIMER, Hugh, bishop of Wor- cester, and one of the earliest British reformers, born about 1480, at Thur- caston in Leicestershire. In 1535 he was promoted to the bishopric of Wor- cester : in the possession of this dignity he continued till 1539, when, rather than assent to the act of the Six Articles, he resigned his office, and retired into the country. He was soon after accused of speaking against the Six Articles, and committed to the Tower, where he con- tinued prisoner till the death of Henry VIII. in Jan. 1547. On the accession LAU 607 LAV of Edward VI. he was released, but not restored to his bishopric, though he preached several times before the kinjr, and continued to exercise his ministerial duties with unremitting zeal. Edward finished his short reign 1553, and the persecuting Mary ascending the throne, Latimer was doomed to destruction, and, together with Cranmer and Ridley, confined in the Tower. In April, 1554, they were removed to Oxford, that they might dispute with the learned doctors of both universities. Latimer, and his fellow prisoner Ridley, adhering to their former declarations, they were con- demned to the stake Sept. 16, 1554. LATIN, that language, being cor- rupted by the irruption of the Lombards, ceased to be spoken in Italy, about 581. LATIUM, kingdom of, begun by Janus, A.c. 1367. LATOUR, Hubert Dk, the sta- tuary, died 1650. LAUD, William, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Reading, in 1573- He received his classical education at St. John's College, Oxford, of which he was afterwards a fellow and grammar reader. In 1610 he went into orders; in the following year he was elected pre- sident of St. John's College, and was sworn the king's chaplain. In 1621 the king nominated him to the bishopric of St. David's ; and he resigned the pre- sidentship of St. John's College, in obedience to the statutes of that college. In 1628 he was promoted to the see of London. Having now great influence, he became extremely active in the high- commission court, in which such arbitrary and severe prosecutions were carried on, as rendered him extremely unpopu- lar. He was elected chancellor of the university of Oxford in 1630, and made it his business during the remainder of his life to adorn the university with buildings, and to enrich it with valuable manuscripts and other books. In 1633 he was made archbishop of Canterbury, and was sworn a privy councillor for Scotland. In 1635 he was appoint- ed one of the commissioners of the Trea- sury; and on tlie 6th March, 1636, re- ceived the staflT of the lord high treasurer of England. In order to prevent the printing what he thought improper books, he procured a decree to be passed in the star-chamber, July 11, 1637, whereby it was enjoined that the master printers should be reduced to a certain number. and that none of them should print any book till they were licensed either by the archbishop or the bishop of London. On Dec. 18, Denzill Holies, by order of the house of commons, impeached Arch- bishop Laud for high treason, &c., at the bar of the house of lords. He was then committed to the Tower, found guilty, and beheaded on Tower-hill, Jan. 10, 1645, in his 72d year. LAURA, illustrious for her virtues, and immortalized in the verses of Petrarch, died 1348. See Petrarch. LAUREL, British frigate, lost in Qui- beron Bay, and the crew made prisoners Jan. 31. 1812. LAURISTON, a field-marshal, and a peer of France, born at Pondicherry 1768, died June 10, 1828. LAVALETTE, condemned at Paris for high treason ; escaped from prison disguised in his wife's clothes Dec. 21, 1815. Major-General Sir Robert Wil- son, Michael Bruce, Esq., and Captain Hely Hutchinson, were sentenced to three months' imprisonment for aiding his escape from France. LAVATER, John Gaspard, a ce- lebrated physiognomist, born at Zurich in Switzerland 1741. After completing his studies, he entered into the ministry in 1762, and in 1778 was chosen deacon and pastor of St. Peter's church. His first volume on physiognomy appeared at Leipsic in 1776, under the title of " Fragments." Two additional volumes appeared in quick succession. This work was translated into the French and English languages, and was for some timethe favourite topic of literary discus- sion. He was the determined enemy of tyranny in every shape, being posses- sed of the genuine Swiss zeal for liberty; and on the day when the city of Zurich was stormed by Massena in 1 799, Lavater received a wound in the breast from a Swiss soldier, from which he never re- covered. He died Jan. 2, 1801. LAVOISIER, Anthony Law- rence, a celebrated French philoso- pher and chemist, born at Paris August 26, 1745. In 1774 he published his " Opuscules Chymiques." Turgot em- ployed him in 1776 to inspect the ma- nufacture of gunpowder; andhis chemical investigations of the proper mode of pre- paring this article wei"e so successful, that he increased its explosive force by one-fourth. In 1778 Lavoisier discover- ed that all acids contain the respirable LEA 608 LEE portion of the atmosphere as a consti- tuent principle, and to this he gave the name of oxygen. His " Elements of Chemistry" were published in 1789. The last of his philosophical works was " On the Perspiration of Animals," first read to the Academy May 4, 1791. Having been involved in charges fabri- cated against 28 farmers-general, he was capitally condemned, and suffered on the scaffold May 8, 1794. LAW, Edmund, bishop of Carlisle, a theological writer, died 1789- LAW, Rev. William, a divine, author of the " Serious Call," &c., born 1686, died 1761. LAWRENCE, Sir Thomas, an emi- nent modern artist, was born at Bristol April 13, 1769. In 1787, when in his 18th year, he came to London, and availed himself of the public institutions in his art. He made his first appear- ance as an exhibiter at Somerset House the same year. In 1791 he was elected an associate at the Royal Academy. On the death of Sir Joshua Reynolds, the Society unanimously chose him as his successor as their painter. In 1818 he went to Aix-la-Chapelle, to paint for his Royal Highness the Prince Regent, the resemblance of those by whose actions posterity was so much to be in- fluenced. On November 7, the emperor of Russia repaired to tlie Town-hall to sit to Sir Thomas Lawrence. Having concluded his mission at Aix-la-Chapelle, Sir Thomas proceeded to Vienna ; from Vienna to Rome May 15, 1819 ; and he there finished the portraits of the pope and cardinal Gonsalvi. March 30, 1820, Sir Thomas Lawrence was, without op- position, elected to succeed Mr. West as President of the Academy. Immedi- ately after the coronation in July, 1821, his majesty George IV. directed Sir Thomas to paint a full-length portrait of him, in his coronation robes. His last public duty was the delivery of the biennial medals December 10, 1829. He died January 7, 1830 ; his remains were interred in St. Paul's Cathedral, Jan. 21. LEACH, Sir John, master of the rolls, a privy councillor, a bencher of the Middle Temple, and LL.D., was born 1760. He became king's counsel in 1807. His most remarkable speeches were on the duke of York's affairs, on the motion of colonel Wardle in 1809 ; and also on the bill for creating the vice-chancellor's court. He died Sept. 14, 1834. LEAD, a metal of much importance for its durability. It is extensively used in the construction of water-pipes and cisterns, as a covering for flat surfaces or tops of buildings, &c. &c. The lead-mines of Great Britain have been wrought from a very remote era. Pre- viously to 1289, however, those of Der- byshire only had been explored ; but in that j'ear lead-mines were discovered in Wales, and subsequently in Scotland, and since then others also have been worked in Cumberland and Northum- berland ; the whole producing annually about 16,000 tons. The total annual produce of the Scotch lead-mines is esti- mated at 4120 tons. The lead ore exported from the United Kingdom from January 1, 1832, to January 1, 1833, was 12,181 tons, 3 cwt. Since then the exports of Bri- tish lead have fallen off, and the imports increased, princij)ally owing to the vast supplies of that metal that have recently been furnished by the mines of Adra, at Granada, in Spain. The quan- tity exported from this country in 1838 was 7381 tons, at the declared value of £154,126. LEADENHALL, London, built 1446. LEAMINGTON Priors, Warwick- shire, has risen since 1797, and from an inconsiderable village become a place of fashionable resort. The springs are va- riously impregnated. The original spa contains a large proportion of common salt, with sulphate of soda, muriate of magnesia, and sulphate of lime ; there are besides chalybeate and sulphureous springs ; the waters of the latter are chiefly used externally. LEATHER-SELLERS' Company, London, incorporated 1442. LEDYARD, John, the African tra- veller, born 1751, died 1788. LEE BOO, a prince from the Pelew Isles, died of the small-pox, and was interred in Rotherhithe church-yard, Dec. 27, 1784. LEEDS, Yorkshire, is a place of great antiquity ; it is mentioned by Bede the ecclesiastical historian, and is noticed in the Doomsday Survey. A castle for- merly stood here, besieged by King Stephen in 1139, and in which Richard II., after his deposition in 1339, was confined for a short time previously to his repioval to Pontefract. Tlie town LEI 609 LEL received its first charter of incorporation from Charles I. in 1626 ; a second charter was granted by Charles II. in 1661, and renewed by James II. in 1684. Under this the town continued to be go- verned until the passingof the Municipal Reform Bill in 1835. LEGHORN, city, grand duchy of Tuscany, anciently Liburnum, was, in the 15th century, a village immersed in swamps ; it was then given by the Ge- noese to Florence, in exchange for Sar- zana : it is indebted for its prosperity to the family of Medici, who constructed the port and mole, and declared it a free harbour. LEGION OF Honour, instituted by Buonaparte, July 15, 1804; confirmed by Louis XVIII. in 1814. •LEIBNITZ, Godfrey William De, a celebrated mathematician and philo- sopher, was born at Leipsic in 1646. In 1700 he was admitted a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris ; and in the same year was appointed per- petual president of the academy of Ber- lin. His writings spread his fame over Europe, and procured him the patronage of several crowned heads. The emperor of Germany appointed him in 1711 aulic counsellor; and the czar of Russia made him privy councillor of justice, with a pension of 1000 ducats. On the accession of the elector of Hanover to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, Leibnitz visited this country, where he was received with every mark of distinc- tion. He died in I7l6, aged 70. His philosophy which has excited consider- able interest, is a system formed partly on the Cartesian theory. The particulars of this system may be seen in the "Principia" of Leibnitz," published by Hanschius in 1728. LEICES TER was, under the Romans, a military station of importance. About the year 737 the see of a bishop was transferred from Sidnacester to Lei- cester ; the period at which it ceased to be a bishopric is uncertain. The first charter was granted by King John in 1199, and confirmed by Heniy VII. in 1504. Elizabeth in 1584 granted a fresh charter, which was renewed by her suc- cessor in 1604. Leicester, during the civil wars, was occupied by the parlia- mentarians, and taken after a siege by the king in 1645 ; but after the battle of Naseby, was surrendered by the royal governor, Lord Loughborough, to Sir Thomas Fairfax. Here Cardinal Wolsey died, Nov. 29, 1530, having been com- pelled by sickness, on his journey to London, to seek an asylum there. LEIGHTON, Robert, an eminent English divine, the eldest son of Alex- ander Leighton, a native of Scotland, (well known by his writings and his suf- ferings,) was, from his youth, equally distinguished by his talents and his piety, and at an early age was ordained minister of Nevvbottle, near Edinburgh. In 1648 he declared his approbation of the measures in favour of the king, and "finding it impossible to avoid sharing in the disputes of that period, he resigned his charge, and withdrew to a private station. Soon after the Restoration, when the introduction of episcopacy into Scotland was resolved on, Leighton was consecrated bishop of Dunblane, but he resigned his bishopric. The king and council resolved to carry on the cause of episcopacy in Scotland on a different plan ; ami, with this view, Leighton was persuaded to acce[)t the archbishopric of Glasgow; but, finding it not in his power to stem the violence of the times, he resigned his archbishopric, and retired to a private residence in Sussex. He died in 1684 while on a visit to London. LEIPSIC, city. Saxony, is first men- tioned as a fortified city in the 12th cen- tury. On Sept. 7, 1631, Gustavus Adol- phus, on the plains of Leipsic, prevailed over the Roman catholic generals Tilly and Pappenheim. In 1642 Tostenson defeated, at the same place, the imperial Saxon troops, under the archduke Leo- pold WiUiam and Piccolomini. Leipsic is also celebrated for two of the greatest battles recorded in history, fought in its A'icinity between the French and the allied armies on Oct. 16 and 18, 1813 ; the French were completely defeated and the town captured : their loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, is stated at 60,000 men. Leipsic university, which was founded in 1409, is composed of six colleges, and is divided into four faculties : theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. It contains upwards of 70 professors, and about 1300 students. LELAND, John, the antiquarian, was born in London about the end of the reign of Henry VII. 'Intense application brought upon him a derangement of mind in 1550, from which he never re- covered. He died in 1552. 4 I LEO 610 LES LELAND, Dr. John, a distinguished nonconformist divine, and writer in de- fence of Christianity, was born at Wigan in Lancashire in I69I. His principal work entitled, "A View of the Principal Deistical Writers that have appeared in England, in the last and present Cen- tury, with Observations," &c., was pub- lished in 1754. He died Jan. 16, 1766, aged 75. LELAND, Dr. Thomas, a divine of the church of England, born at Dub- lin about 1702, author of "A History of Ireland," &c., died 1785, aged 83. LELY, Sir Peter, eminent portrait painter, born l6l7, died 1680. LEMPRIERE, John, D.D., author of " Bibliotheca Classica," died 1824. L'ENFANT, James, historian, born 1661, died 1728. LENNOX, Mrs., author of the " Fe- male Quixote," &c., died Jan. 4, 1804. LENOX, Earl of, regent of Scot- land, murdered 1571. LEO X., one of the most celebrated Roman pontiffs, was the second son of Lorenzo de Medici, and born at Florence in Dec, 1475. In the time of Innocent VIII. he was promoted to the rank of cardinal, being only 13 years of age. He was formally invested with the purple in 1492, and went soon after to reside at Rome, as one of the sacred college, and afterwards went to Florence. On the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. of France, he was involved in the expulsion of his family, and took refuge at Bo- logna. In 1505, when 30 years of age, he began to take an active part in public affairs, and Julius II. appointed him go- vernor of Perugia. He was taken prisoner at the battle of Ravenna in 1512, and con- veyed to Milan. On the death of Julius II. in 1513 he was chosen pontiff, and ascended the throne under the name of LeoX. It was during the reign of this pontiff that the reformation under Martin Luther commenced. Leo having exhausted his coffers, determined to take from the church the profits arising from the sale of indulgences for his own private emo- lument. In 1518 he published a bull, asserting the pope's authority to grant indulgences. The works of Luther were burnt in different places by Leo's com- znand. It was this pontiff who conferred on Henry VIII. of England the title of " defender of the faith." He died Dec. 1, 1521, aged 46. LEO BEN, town, Austrian empire. A convention was here concluded in April, 1797, between the French and Austrian s, previously to the peace of Campo Formio. LEON, kingdom of Spain. The foun- dation of it was laid by Pelagius in the eighth century, but Ordonno II. was the first who assumed the title of king of Leon. It was united to Castile in 1030. The town was the residence of the Ro- man catholic kings of Spain until the year 1037- LEOPOLD, Prince of Saxe-Co- BOURG, married to the Princess Char- lotte, May 2, 1816. He was elected king of Belgium June 4, 1831, crowned at Brussels July 21, 1831 ; married at Compeigne to Louise, daughter of the king of the French, Aug. 9, 1832. LEPANTO, town, Greece, situated on a bay, called the Gulf of Lepanto. Hav- ing been ceded to the Venetians by the emperor, it was fortified, and stood a siege of four months, in 1745, against the Turks, who lost 30,000 men. Near this town, Don John of Austria ob- tained a celebrated victory over the Turkish fleet, Oct. 7, 1571, which effec- tually checked the progress of the Turks in the Mediterranean. It was taken by the Greeks May 9, 1829- LERIDA, town, Spain, Catalonia, was for some time in the possession of the Goths and Moors, and under the latter was, for several years, the capital of a small kingdom. It was taken by the French in 1707 and in 1810. Capitulated to the Spaniards, Feb. 18, 1814. LESLIE, Sir J., professor of natural philosophy in the university of Edin- burgh, a corresponding member of the Institute of France, &c., was born April, 1766, at Largo. His differential ther- mometer was invented before 1800. His inquiries in relation to heat were given to the world in 1804, in his " Essay on the Nature and Propagation of Heat," which the Royal Society honoured by the Rumford medal. In 1805 he was elected to the mathematical chair in the university of Edinburgh. In 1809 he published " Elements of Geometry, Geo- metrical Analysis, and Plane Trigono- metry." In 1810 he discovered that beautiful process of artificial congelation, which enabled him to convert water and mercury into ice. In 1813 he published "An Account of Experiments and In- struments depending on the Relations of LIB 611 LIB Air to Heat and Moisture." In 1819, on the death of Professor Playfair, he was removed to the chair of natural philo- sophy. He -was knighted on June 27, 1832, and died Nov. 3, aged 66. LESSING, G. E., German dramatist, born 1729, died 1805. L'ESTRANGE, Sir Roger, a great patron of music, born 16 17, died Dec. 11, 1704. LETl'SOM, John, M.D., an eccen- tric physician, died 1815, aged 72. LEUWENHOEK, Anthony, a Dutch philosopher, celebrated for his discoveries and experiments in natural history, was born at Delft in Holland, 1632. He was a member of mostof the li- terary societies of Europe : he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1680; and a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1697. He died at Delft in 1723. LEVER, Sir Ashton, collector of the Leverian museum, died Jan. 30, 1788. LEVESQUE, P. C., historian, born 1736, died 1812. LEWES, Sussex, before the Norman conquest, was vested in the crown,but was made over by William to his son-in-law William de Warren, a Norman baron, in whose family it remained until 1347. Near this town was fought, in 1263, a battle between the forces of Henry III. and those of the rebellious confederate barons, when the king and his son, after- wards Edward I., were made prisoners. LEWIS, W^iLLiAM Thomas, come- dian, died Jan. 2, 1811. LEWIS, George, author of " The Monk," born 1773, died 1819. LEWIS, Rev., the historian and an- tiquary, died January 16, 1746, aged 73. LEXINGTON, a town in Massachu- setts, United States. The first conflict in the American war occurred in this place, April 19, 1775. LEYDEN, a city in Holland, famous for having sustained a long siege against the Spaniards in 1574, during which 6000 of the inhabitants perished by fa- mine and pestilence. In reward for this resistance, the university was founded in the following year. It is distinguished for its botanical gardens, anatomical theatre, observatory, and valuable library. The number of students exceeds 300. Ley den suffered much in January 1807, from an explosion of a ship containing 40,000 lbs. of gunpowder. LIBERIAj a district of Western Af- rica, Grain Coast, Guinea, recently es- tablished. This tract of country was purchased by the American Colonization Society from the natives in 1-820, and -settled with people of colour and liberated captives. The capital is Monrovia, on CapeMontserado, named after Mr. Mon- roe, president of the United States. The emigrants from America first established themselves in Liberia January 7, 1822, and have since that time transported thither free persons of colour, slaves rescued from pirates, &c. There are four flourishing settlements within the limits of the colony. It is represented as highly religious and moral, with trade and commerce rapidly increasing, and extending into the interior and along LIBRARY. The first public one of which we have any certain account in history was founded at Athens by Hip- parchus, ac. 526. The second of any note was founded at Alexandria by Ptolemy Philadelphus, A.c. 284. It was burnt when Juhus Caesar set fire to that city, A.c. 47. See Alexandria. The following are the principal during the Christian era:— One was established at Rome, a.d. 167 ; another at Constan- tinople, founded by Constantine the Great, about 335 ; destroyed 477. A second Alexandrian library, formed from the remains of the first, by Ptolemy's successors, was totally destroyed by the Saracens, 640. The Vatican at Rome, by Pope Nicholas V., founded 1446 ; rebuilt, and considerably improved by SixtusV.,1588. The Imperial, of Vienna, by Maximilian I., founded about 1500. The Royal, of Paris, by Francis I., about 1520. The Escurial.at Madrid, by Philip II., 1557. That of Florence, byCosmo de Medicis, 1560. The Bodleian, at Oxford, founded in 1595. See Bodleian. The Cottonian, formerly kept at Cot- ton-house, Westmin.ster, founded by Sir Robert Cotton about 1600 ; appropriated to the public use and benefit 13 William III,, 1701 ; partly destroyed by fire, 1731; removed to the British Museum, 1753. The Radcliffeian, at Oxford, founded by the will of Dr. Radcliffe,who left £40,000 to the university for that purpose, 1714. One at Cambridge, 17 20, to which George I. gave £5000 to pur- chase Dr. Moore's collection. The most valuable libraries now exist- ing in Europe, and the number of printed books and manuscripts, are aa follow : — LIF Vols. MSS. Royal Library, Paris. . 700,000. . 80,000 Bodleian, Oxford 420,000. . 30,000 jloyal Central, Munich 500,000. . 16,000 Vatican, Rome 100,000. . 40.000 University, Gottingen 300,000. . . 5000 British Museum 305,000. . 22,000 Vienna 350,000. . 16,000 St. Petersburgh 400,000. . 16,000 Naples 300,000. . . 6000 Dresden 300,000. . . 2700 Copenhagen 400,000. . 20,000 Berlin 250,030. , . 5000 The various public libraries in the United States of Americacontain 754,050 volumes. LICHFIELD, or Litchfield, said to have been a small village when Oswy, king of Northumberland, having defeat- ed and slain Penda, the pagan king of the Mercians, introduced Christianity among his subjects about the year 656, built a church, and established a bishop- ric at this place. The see was transfer- red to Chester, and thence, in 1102, to Coventry ; but Roger de Chnton having been appointed bishop in 1129, made this place again the seat of prelacy, and his successors have ever since retained the style of bishops of Lichfield and Coventry. LIERAU, treaty of, which annulled the feudal subjection of the duchy of Prussia to the crown of Sweden, Novem- ber 10, 1656. LIEGE, a province of Belgium, for- merly a bishopric in the circle of West- phalia, was occupied by the French in 1794; ceded to them by the peace of Luneville, and formed into the depart- ment of Ourthe. By a decree of the congress of Vienna, and a separate treaty of March 23, 1815, this country was given as a sovereign principality to the king of the Netherlands, and formed, until 1830, a province of that kingdom ; but at the revolution it became a portion of the Belgic kingdom. LIEGE, city, taken by the English 1702; by the French 1792 ; by the French 1795 ; by the Austrians 1798. A Uni- versity was established here in 1817, which, previous to the disturbances in 1830, contained 350 students. LIFE Annuities, periodical paj'- ments, depending on the continuance of the life of one or more persons. These annuities commence either immediately, or at some future period ; in the latter case they are called reversionary life an- 612 LIF nuities. Life annuities, for accelerating the liquidation of the national debt, by their reversion at the death of the nomi- nees into the sinking fun^, were intro- duced 1808. LIFE Assurance, or Insurance, a species of insurance founded on the average term of the duration of life. The average in Great Britain is longer by almost one-third, than it was during the last century. The rate of mortality in 1780, was one in 40j; in 1821 it was one in 58. The tables which have been con- structed, upon the experience of most European nations, enable us not only to determine the average term of life, but the probabilities of the number of years a person, at any particular age, has to live. Upon thesecalculations are founded the system of Life Assurance and annui- ties. For a list of the principal offices, see Insurance. LIFE Boats. See Boats. A new and improved life boat has lately been introduced, which from its strength and elasticity, is capable of sustaining con- cussions that would destroy life-boats of the usual construction : it was invented in 1823, but the originator only brought it into use in 1839. It is perfectly elas- tic, except about three-fourths of its keel, which are secured by plates of cop- per, or irori. The stern and other parts of the keel are secured by thinner plates, in joints, so as to give great strength to these parts, but still preserve their elas- ticity. The timbers, which are very slight, are of oak, tarred and covered with light strong canvass, with a casing over that of thin whalebone, and the out- side finished with leather, or improved canvass, sewed on. The materials of this cloth are saturated in the loom by a che- mical process, which preserves it from wet, and the action of the atmosphere, heat, mildew, or rot. LIFE Preserver, a new safety jacket, invented by a mechanic at Bath, 1823. LIFE Ships. The plan of dividing the hull of a vessel into sections, each of which should be completely water-tight, long practised by the Chinese, has been introduced, with some improvements, into European naval architecture, by Mr. Williams, the engineer of the Dub- lin steam-boat company in 1838. He divided the vessel into five compartments by means of four bulk-heads of iron. The central section of this division is Lie oi; occupied bj' the engine boiler and coal- bunkers; thus detaching them entirely from all other parts of the vessel. The sections, numbers 2 and 4, form the fore and after holds ; or, in case of pas- sengers' vessels, the fore and after cabins; and the two remaining sections at the bow and stern, need not be so high as the main deck, as the water could never rise within several feet of the same. Here then is an effectual remedy against the casualties attendant on a vessel coming into collision vi'ith another. Un- less the vyater break into the vessel in all its sections at the same time, (which may be considered impossible), there can be no danger of submersion ; and expe- rience has proved that a small addition of buoyancy would prevent a vessel from sinking, after it had been so immersed that the deck was level with the surface of the sea. LIGHTFOOT, Rev. Dk. J., a learned divine, born in 1602. In 1652 he took the degree of doctor of divinity, and in 1655 was made vice-chancellor of Cam- bridge. He took an active part in per- fecting the Polyglott Bible, then in the press. He was appointed one of the as- sistants at the conference upon the li- turgy, which was held in 1661. He died in 1675, aged 74. His works were col- lected and published in 1684. LIGHTHOUSE, a tower situated on a promontory, or headland on the sea- coast, for the reception of a hght for the guidance of ships at night. The most celebrated of all the ancient lighthouses was that erected by Ptolemy Soter, on the small island of Pharos, opposite to Alexandria ; it was of great height, and is said to have cost 800 talents. In the ancient world there were hghthouses at Ostia, Ravenna, Puteoli, Caprea, Rhodes, on the Thracian Bosphorus, &c. Nu- merous lighthouses have been erected in most civilized maritime countries ; they are particularly abundant in the Baltic and in the Sound, and have con- tributed in no ordinary degree, to render navigation comparatively safe. The Tour de Cordouan, at the entrance of the Gi- ronde, was begun in 1584, by order of Henry IV. of France, and was completed in 1611. Lighthouses were erected in England at an early period. The act 8 Eliz. c. 13, empowers the corporation of the Trinity House to erect beacons, &c., to prevent accidents to ships. The first lighthouse ; LIG erected by the Trinity corporation, wa.9 in 1680, but several had been ])revious]y erected by private parties. The most important British lighthouses are the Ed- dystone, near Plymouth, and Bell Rock, on the Forth of Tay, Scotland. The first hghthouse erected on theEddystone rocks only stood about seven years, having been blown down in the dreadful storm on Nov. 27, 1703; a second, erected in 1708, was burnt down in 1755. The present lighthouse, constructed by the celebrated engineer, Smeaton, was com- pleted in 1759 ; it is regarded as a mas- terpiece of its kind. The Bell Rock light- house was built by Mr. Stevenson, on the model of the Eddystone. The foundation stone was laid July 10, 1808. In Feb. 2, 1811, it was lighted for the first time. The light is clear and powerful, and may be seen, when the sky is clear, very dis- tinctly at eight leagues' distance. The invention of revolving, intermit- ting, and colouring lights, since the close of the last century, has afforded facilities for varymg the apjjearance of each light, which have been, in that re- spect, of the greatest importance. An improved method of illuminating was invented by Lieut. Drummond, 1832. 1836. Important regulations, in re- spect of lighthouses, are embodied in the act 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 79, in which provision is made for placing all light- houses, floating lights, harbour lights, buoys, beacons, &c. on and round the coasts of England and Wales, under the control and management of the Trinity House; and also for placing all light- houses, &c. on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland respectively, under the control and management of the Commissioners of Northern Lights, and of the Commis- sioners for improving the Port of Dublin. 1838 — 1840. It having been repre- sented to the Corporation of the Trinity House, that Mitchell's patent screw moorings might be advantageously em ployed in constructing lighthouses on sands, an experiment to ascertain its practicability was made under the su-- perintendence of their engineer, Mr. J. Walker. The spot selected is on the verge of the Maplin sand, at the mouth of the Thames, about 20 miles below the Nore. In August, 1838, operations were commenced to form the base of an oc- tagon, 40 feet diameter, with Mitchell's mooring screws, aitd have been since continued. LIN 614 LIN See LIGHTNING Conductors. Electricity, page 419. LILLO, George, dramatist, born 1693, died Sept. 3, 1739- LILLY, William, the astrologer, born 1602, died 1681. LILLY, William, the grammarian, was born at Oldham, in Hampshire, 1466, and educated at Magdalen College, Oxford. In 1510, when Dr. Colet founded St. Paul's school, Lilly was ap- pointed the first master. Being seized by the plague, he died in Feb. 1523, and was buried in the north yard of St. Paul's. His principal work on grammar is enti- tled, " Brevissima Institutio seu ratio Grammatices cognoscendse : " Lond. 1513. LIMA, city. South America, capital of the republic of Peru, was founded in 1535, by Francis Pizarro. A university was instituted at Lima in 1551, which obtained from the crown of Spain the same privileges as that of Salamanca. Lima has been repeatedly laid in ruins by earthquakes, more than 20 of which it has experienced since 1582. Previ- ously to the emancipation of Peru, Lima was the grand entrepot for the trade of all the west coast of South America ; but a considerable portion of the foreign trade of Peru is now carried on through Buenos Ayres. A revolution broke out at Lima against General Santa-Cruz, July 29, 1838. The Chilian troops en- tered Lima, Aug. 21. LIMBORCH, Philip, a learned Dutch divine, born at Amsterdam 1633. In 1655 he began to preach in public, at Haerlem. He obtained the professor- ship of divinity at Amsterdam, in which he acquitted himself with great reputation till his death, which happened in 1712. LIMERICK, a city in Ireland, was founded in 155, by Yuorus. In 970 it was plundered by Mahon, brother of Brian Boromhe. In 1174 it was first taken by the English, and was then the strongest fortress in Ireland, and the port much frequented. In 1651 it was again taken by Ireton, at the head of the Parliamentarians. In 1691 it surren- dered to General Ginkle, having first ob- tained the conditions well known as the "Articles of Limerick." The see of Lime- rick existed in the beginning of the 12th century, and is said to have been founded in the sixth. It was united to the sees of Ardfert and Aghadoe in 1663. LINACRE, Thomas, English phy- sician and philosopher, died 1524. LINCOLN, under the Romans, was an important colony, called Lindum. In the wars between the Danes and Saxons, it was twice stormed and cap- tured by the former, and as often re- taken. During the contest for the crown, between Stephen and the empress Ma- tilda, this place was the theatre of fre- quent hostilities. In the reign of Wilham the Conqueror it became the seat of a bishop, the see having been removed hither from Don- caster; soon after the transfer the see acquired a vast accession of territorial jurisdiction and wealth ; and, though Henry II. dismembered it by the foun- dation of the bishopric of Ely, and Henry VIII. by founding those of Pe- terborough and Oxford, it is still con sidered as the largest in England. LINCOLN'S-INN, London, built in 1229 ; converted from the bishop of Chi- chester's palace to an inn of court 1310; new buildings erected 1782. The square enclosed with rails 1737- LINDISFARNE Abbey, Northum- berland, founded 651 ; re-built 1014. LINEN Manufacture has been prosecuted in England since 1253. In 1698 both houses of parliament ad- dressed his majesty William III., pray- ing that the woollen manufacture of Ire- land might be discouraged, and the linen manufacture established in its stead. The linen trade of Ireland, from the reign of William III., has been the ob- ject of regulation. Besides premiums and other encouragements of various kinds, bounties were granted on the exportation of linen for a very long period. In 1727 a board of trustees was esta- blished in Scotland for the superinten- dence and improvement of the linen ma- nufacture. The regulations, after having been long objected to by those con- cerned, were abolished in 1822, and the bounties have ceased. The total average export of Irish linen, during the three years ending with 1825, was 51,947,413 yards, of which 49,031,073 came to this country ; the exports to all other parts being only 2,916,340. The quantity ex- ported from the United Kingdom in 1838, was 77,195,894 yards; declared value, £2.717,979. LINNiEAN Society, founded 1788; incorporated 1802. LINNiEUS, Charles, the most ce- lebrated botanist and natural historian of modern times, was born May, 1707, at LIS 61; Rashult, a village in Sweden. In 1727 he was matriculated at the University of Lund. In 1731 the royal academy of sciences at Upsal deputed him to make the tour of Lapland, with a view of ex- ploring the natural history of that region. In 1733 and 1734 he visited and ex- amined the several mines in Sweden. In 1735 he took the degree of doctor of medicine, and soon after published the first sketch of his " Systema Naturae." In 1736 Linnaeus travelled into Eng- land, and visited Dillenius, the professor of botany, at Oxford. In 1738 he settled as a physician at Stockholm. In 1741, upon the resignation of Roberg, he was constituted joint professor of physic, and physician to the king, with Rosen, and pronounced before the university his ora- tion " De Peregrinationum intra Patriam necessitate," Oct. 17. From this time we find this eminent man in a more ele- vated rank in life ; his reputation had procured him honours from nearly all the royal societies in Europe; and his own sovereign created him a knight of the polar star. In 1776 he was seized with apoplexy, which left him para- lytic; he died Jan. 11, 1778, in the 7 1st year of his age. LIPARI, volcanic islands in the Me- diterranean. The following are the prin- cipal eruptions on record : — Under the consulship of iEmilius Lepidus and L. Aurelius Orestes, a.c.126. In a. d. 1444, at which time both Sicily and the iEohan isles were agitated by dreadful shocks of earthquakes. In 1550 the fury of this volcano was again renewed. In 1739 it was attended with a noise so dreadful, that it was heard as far as Melazzo, in Sicily, liastly, in 1783, when the isles of Lipari were agitated anew by that fatal earth- quake which ravaged Calabria and part of Sicily. See Calabria. LISBON, the capital of Portugal, on the river Tagus, anciently called Olisipo, or Olisippo. The first inhabitants, ac- cording to Pliny, were the ancient Tertu- leans, who fell under the power of Rome after the destruction of Carthage. In 716 this place was taken b,y the Moors, who gave it the name of Lisboa; and in the 16th century it was made the capital of the kingdom, by Emanuel I. In 1531 the city was shaken, and in 1755 almost annihilated by an earthquake. See Earthquake. In 1807 theFrencharmy occupied this city, as well as the gi'eater part of Portugal. Upon the advance of i LIT theTrench on Lisbon, the royal family of Portugal embarked for Brazil, 1808. Don Miguel seized on Lisbon in 1829; reigned until 1833, at which time he was compelled to evacuate the city, and aban- don further contest for the crown of Por- tugal. Lisbon was captured by Donna Maria's forces, July 24. LISLE, city, France, taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in 1667; sur- rendered to the duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene in 17O8. At the peace of Utrecht it was restored to France. In 1792 it was bombarded by the Austrians, who were obliged to retire with the loss of 20,000 men. In 1815 Louis XVIII. spent one day here, pre- vious to his leaving France. LISLE, William De, eminent geo- grapher, born 1675, died 1726. LISLE, Joseph Nicholas De, an eminent French astronomer, brother of the preceding, was born at Paris, 1688. A total eclipse of the sun having taken place in March 1706, he was by this cir- cumstance led to the study of astronomy. He was chosen a member of the Aca- demy of Sciences in 1714 ; came over to England in 1724, where he became ac- quainted with Newton and Halley. In 1726 he went to Petersburgh, to fill the post of astronomer royal in the imperial academy of sciences. On the transit of Mercury over the sun, in 1753, De Lisle published an interesting map represent- ing it. About 1758 he withdrew into re- tirement, at the abbey of St. Genevieve, and died Sept. 11, 1768, aged 81. LISTER, Dr. M., natural philoso- pher, born about 1688, died 1768. LITANY, first used in churches 443 ; first used in England in English 1543. LITERARY Fund Society, estab- lished 1790 ; incorporated 1818. LITERARY Property. See Copy- right. LITERATURE, Royal Society of, founded 1831. LITHOGRAPHY, an art recently introduced into this country, which con- sists in taking impressions from a draw- ing or writing executed on stone: was first discovered in 1800, by Aloys Sene- felder ; brought over to England in I80I, when M. Andre D'OflFenbach, a mer- chant in London, succeeded in obtaining several beautiful drawings on stone; greatly improved since 1820, by Hul- mandel, and various other artists. 1840. Mr. Hulmandel took out a LIV 616 LOG patent for his latest and most important improvement; viz. the production on stone of tiitferent tints, put on by liquid washes with the brush, that will yield corresponding impressions. By this means the coloured drawings of Hard- ing and other eminent artists have been faithfully transferred from the stone ; so that what lithography has hitherto been to the draftsman, it will now become to the painter. LITURGY. The liturgy of the church of England was composed in the year 1547, established by statute 2 and 3 Ed- ward VI. c. 1., reformed and established by the act of 5 and 6 Edward VI. c. 1. It was abolished by Queen Mary, but af- terwards re-established with some few alterations and additions, by 1 Elizaljeth, c. 2. The last review of the liturgy was in the year l66l, and the last act of uni- formity, enjoining the observance of it, is 13 and 14 Charles II. c. 4. LIVERPOOL, Lancaster. A charter of privileges was granted to the towns- mCTi by Henry I.; but the first recorded charter is dated 1203. Henry III. granted farther privileges in 1227 ; vvhich were confirmed and augmented by Ed- ward III. in 1312; by Richard II. in 1378 ; by Henry IV. in 1413 ; by Philip and Mary in 1555; by Charles I. in 1626 ; and by Charles II. in 1676. In 1684 the charter was surrendered to James II. for one of his peculiar forma- tion, which, however, was annulled by William III. in 1695. In 1752 George n. granted an entirely new charter, au- thorising the mayor to act as justice of the peace for four years after the expira- tion of this office, and George III. e.v- tended tlie privileges and powers of the mayor and corporation in 1808. The last charter continued in operation until the passing of the Municipal Reform Bill. A castle was erected here in 1076 by Roger de Poictiers, one of the followers of William the Conqueror. The office of constable of the castle was vested in the Molyneux family from the reign of Henry V. to that of Queen Elizabeth ; in 1659 the castle was dismantled, and its site is now occupied by St. George's church. In 1644 the town was garri- soned for the parliament, and held out against Prince Rupert for one month, when Colonel Moore, the governor, was obliged to surrender. LIVERPOOL AND Manchester Railway. See Railway. LIVERPOOL, Right Hon. Robert Banks Jenkinson, late earl of, was born June 7, 1770. In 1791 he took his seat in the house of commons; and, in 1801, was appointed secretary of state for the foreign department. On the death of Mr. Pitt in 1806 he was made secretary of state for the home department. In 1808 his father died, and he was placed at the head of his family, as second earl of Liverpool. In 1809 he was made secretary of state for the war department; in 1812, first lord of the treasury, an office which he lield till 1827- On February 17, that year, he was seized with a fit both of an apoplectic and of a paralytic nature, which continued till his death, Dec. 4, 1828. LIVY, Titus Livius, the celebrated Roman historian, was l)orn at Patavium or Padua. He died in the fourth year of the reign of Tiberius, aged 70. His history was originally 142 books, of which only 35 are extant. The best editions are that of Gronovius, 1679; Le Clerc at Amsterdam, 1709 ; Crevier at Paris, 1735. LLANDAFF, Glamorganshire, South Wales. On the first introduction of Christianity amongst the Britons, a church was founded here, and Dubricius was consecrated first bishop in the fifth century, by St. Lupus and Germanus. The cathedral was built in 1120, Urban being bishop, and exhibits a beautiful specimen of the pure Norman style. LL ANTONY Abbey, Monmouth- shire, built 1110. LLEWELLIN, the last prince of the Welsh, defeated, and his head put on the Tower of London, 1286. LOCK Hospital, Knightsbridge, instituted 1746. LOCKE, John, an eminent English philosopher and ^vriter, was born at Wrington, near Bristol, in 1632. In 1651 he was sent to Christchurch, Oxford. In 1655 he took his de- gree of bachelor of arts, and in 1658 that of master of arts. In 1664 he went to Germany as secretary to Sir William Swan, envoy from the EngUsh court to the elector of Brandenburg. In 1670 he began to form the plan of his " Essay on Human Understanding." In 1685, when the duke of Monmouth and his party were active in Holland, the EngUsh LOG 6ir LON envoy at the Hague demanded him and 83 other persons to be delivered up by the states-general; and he was obliged to conceal himself till the following year. At the revolution he returned to England in the fleet which conveyed the princess of Orange. In 1690 he pub- lished his celebrated " Essay on Human Understanding." He also published se- veral other works, and died October 28, 1704, aged 73. LOCKHART, John Hugh, the Hugh Little-John of Sir Walter Scott, died December, 1831, aged 11 years. LOCUST, a destructive insect, the gryllus migratorius of Linnaeus. This species, originally a native of Tartaiy, frequently take their flight in such im- mense swarms, that they obscure the light of the sun. In the year 593, after a great drought, these animals appeared in such vast legions as to cause a famine in many countries. In 852 immense swarms took their flight from the eastern regions into the west, devouring the corn so rapidly as to destroy, on computation, 140 acres in a day. In 1271 all the corn-fields of Milan were destroyed; and in 1339 all those of Lombardy. In 1541 incredible hosts afflicted Poland, Wallachia, and all the adjoining territo- ries. In 1693 some swarms of locusts (probably of this species) settled in Wales. The species that visited this country in 1748, was certainly of this kind. A large swarm passed over Warsaw, June 17, 18 16 ; swarms also appeared at As- chersleben, in Prussia, the same year. LODI, town, Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom, was founded by the Emperor Barbarossa. Napoleon made his first display of heroism here in 1796, by lead- ing the French over the bridge of Lodi, under the fire of a battery of artillery that swept the bridge from end to end. LOFFr, Capel, the patron of Bloom- field, died 1824, aged 73. LOGAN, John, ;joet, born 1748, died 1788. LOGARITHMS, invented by Napier, published I6l7. Proposed change of the base by Briggs, 1615. Logarithmic Bines, &c., calculated, and logarithmic scale constructed, by Gunter, about 1620. Changed to the present form by Briggs, in 1633. The other improvements have been unimportant. Dr. Hutton's tables, publishedinl785,containthelogarithmsof numbers from 1 to 100,000, to 7 decimals; logarithms to 20 places; 61 places, &c. LOLLARDS, a religious sect which arose in Germany, so called from Walter Lollard, who began to teach his senti- ments in 1315, and was burnt at Cologne. They rejected the sacrifice of the mass, extreme unction, and penances for sin. Charles, duke of Burgundy, in 1472, ob- tained a bull from Pope Sixtus IV., or- daining that the Lollards should be ranked among the religious orders, and delivered from the jurisdiction of the bishops ; and Pope Julius II. granted them yet greater privileges in the year 1506. In England, the followers of WicklifFe were so called, by way of reproach, from an affinity be- tween some of their tenets. LOxMBARDO-VENETIAN King- dom, Austrian empire, comprehending the states of Venice and Lombardy, with the duchies of Mantua and Milan. The name was given since the Congress of Vienna, in 1815. LOMBARDY, a country in the northern part of Italy, corresponding nearly to the Cisalpine Gaul of the Ro- mans. The Lombards of Scandinavian origin were invited by Narses into Italy, where they founded their kingdom, un- der Alboinus, 568 ; their laws were formed into a system in 644. They were defeated by Charlemagne, and their kingdom destroyed 774. LOMBE, Sir Thomas, introducer of the silk-mill into England, from Pied- mont, died 1739. LONDON, the metropohs of Great Britain, and with Westminster forming the largest city in the world : it contains 80 squares, and 9000 streets, lanes, rows, alleys, &c. ; the houses in which exceed I70,000and the populationl, 500,000. The present site of London was said to be oc- cupied as a British town before the ar- rival of the Romans. Tacitus says, that about the year 61, Londinium, or Colonia Augusta, was the chief residence of mer- chants, and the great mart of trade and commerce. About the year 64 it was burned by the Britons under Boadicea, and the greater part of the inhabitants massacred. It was soon restored by the Romans, and it increased so much, that in the reign of the emperor Severus, was called by Herodian " a great and wealthy city." Constantine made this city a bishop's see ; it appears that th bishops of London and York, and an- other English bishop, were at the coun- cil of Aries in 314. Under the Saxons, London gradually 4 K LON 618 LON increased in extent and influence, and produce of wine and coal duties, levied about the year 819 it became, and has by the port of London, is proposed to be since continued to be, the metropolis of apphed ; the City revenues furnishing England. William the Conqueror, at his £23,000 additional. In order to raise accession to the throne, granted to the the required sum, the wine and coal du- citizens a charter, still preserved among ties will have to be continued for four the city archives. In 1077 the greater years beyond 1858, the time limited by part of the city was reduced to ashes by the acts 10th and 11th George IV., fire, and in 1086 it again suffered from a passed for the purpose of providing like calamity. The city flourished under funds for making the London Bridge Henry I. and Stephen On the death of approaches. Henry II. the title of the first magistrate Lord Mayor, the chief magistrate of London was changed from that of of the city of London, at the commence- portreeve to that of bailiff"; and in 1189 he ment of the reign of Richard I. was claimed and acted in the office of the denominated bailiff". Henry Fitz Alwyn chief butler at the coronation of Rich- was the first who bore the name of mayor, ard I., which privilege is still retained in 1191. Edward III., in 1354, granted by the chief magistrate of the city, the mayor the privilege of having gold Henry III. greatly oppressed, and fre- and silver maces carried before him; a quently exacted money from," the citi- privilege hitherto belonging only to zens ; in consequence of which they, royalty. From that period the chief being alarmed, demanded and obtained magistrate has borne the title of Lord from him a confirmation of the Magna Mayor. Charta at Westminster, in the year The following is a list of lord mayors 1225. from 1760, with the dates of their en- During the reign of Charles II., in tering upon their office : — 1665, London was ravaged by the most virulent plague ever known in Britain ; Sir Mathur Blackerton, Knight. . 1760 it appeared with violence in the months Sir Samuel Fludyer, Bart 1761 of July, August, and September, after a William Beckford 1762 very warm season. In September the fury William Bridged 1763 of the disease began to abate, and it totally Sir William Stephenson 1764 disappeared in the winter: itwascomputed George Nelson 1765 that 100,000 persons were carried off" by Robert Kite 1766 this dreadful malady. The plague was Right Hon. Thomas Harley 1767 speedily followed by the great fire of Samuel Turner 1768 London, Sept. 2, 1666. See Fire. The Wm. Beckford, Bart. Trecothick. . 1769 city was re-built in little more than four Brass Crosby . 1770' years, in such a manner as greatly to William Nash 1771 surpass the ancient capital in point of James Townshend 1772 health, convenience, and general ar- Frederick Bull 1773 rangement. In 1780 London was greatly John Wilkes 1774 disturbed by a riot, in consequence of a John Sawbridge 1775 bill brought into parliament for the relief Sir Thomas Halifax 1776 of the Roman Catholics. The malcon- Sir James Esdaile 1777 tents, with Lord George Gordon at their Samuel Plumbe 1778 head, assembled in St. George's Fields, Brackley Kennet 1779 and proceeded to destroy the Roman Ca- Sir Watkin Lewes, Knt 1780 thohc chapels. The disturbance conti- Sir WiUiam Plomer, Knt 1781 nued for about seven days : it was at Nat. Newnham 1782 length quelled, and about 20 of the prin- Robert Peckham 1783 cipal rioters were executed. Richard Clark 1784 The Metropolis Improvement Com- Thomas Wright 1785 mittee, in their reports made to the Thomas Sainsbury 1 786 House of Commons, in June and July, John Burnell 1787 1840, recommended the adoption of William GiU 1788 several plans for enlarging and con- William Pickett 1789 tinuing old thoroughfaies, and making John Boydell 1790 new ones ; towards accomplishing which John Hopkins 1791 a sum of £510,000, to be raised on the Sir James Saunderson 1792 LON 619 Paul Le Mesurier 1793 Thomas Skinner 1 794 William Curtis 1795 Brook Watson 1796 John William Anderson 1797 Sir Richard Carr Glyn, Bart 1798 Harvey C. Combe 1799 Sir William Staines, Knt 1800 Sir John Earner 1801 Charles Price 1802 John Perring 1803 Peter Perchard 1804 James Shaw 1805 Sir William Leigh ton 1806 John Ainsley 1807 Charles Flower 1808 Thomas Smith 1809 Joshua Jonathan Smith 1810 Sir Claudius Stephen Hunter. ... 1811 George Scholey 1812 Sir William Domville, Bart. 1813 Samuel Birch 1814 Mattthew Wood / J?J« \ 1816 Christopher Smith . . . ". 1817 John Atkins 1818 George Bridges 1819 John T. Thorpe 1820 Christopher Magnay 1821 William Heygate 1822 Robert Waithman 1823 John Garratt 1824 William Venables 1825 Anthony Brown 1826 Matthias P. Lucas 1827 William Thompson 1828 John Crowder 1829 John Key 1830 Sir John Key, Bart 1831 Sir Peter Laurie, Knt 1832 Charles Farebrother 1833 Henry Winchester 1834 William T. Copeland 1835 Thomas Kelly 1836 Sir John Cowan, Bart 1837 Samuel Wilson 1838 Sir Chapman Marshall ........ 1839 Thomas Johnson 1840 LONDON Assurance Office, Institution commenced 1805 ; was incor- porated 1815. LONDON East Indiaman, run down by the Russell, man-of-war, when she sunk, and 1100 persons perished Dec. 28, 1778. LONDON Hospital, Mile End, instituted 1740; foundation laid June 10, 1752; incorporated 1758 ; medical theatre opened Oct. 27, 1785. LON LONDON Institution, first stone of the new building laid in the am- phitheatre, Moorfields, November 4, 1815. LONDON Stone, Cannon Street first placed there by the Romans, A.c.15. LONDON University. See Uni- versity. LOxNDON Wall built 306. - LONDONDERRY, a city in Ireland, was erected into a' bishop's see in 1158. The most conspicuous event in the his- tory of this city is that commonly called " The Siege of Derry," on which occa- sion the citizens sustained a close siege from the month of December, 1688, to August, 1689, from the whole force of the Irish army, in the interest of James II. of England. LONDONDERRY, Maruuis of, born 1763, destroyed himself 1822. LONG, Mr. St. John, tried at the Old Bailey, October 30, 1 830, and found guilty of manslaughter, in the case of Miss Cashin, whose death was occasioned by injudicious treatment. His sentence was a fine of £250. Iii a similar case of Mrs. Lloyd, he was tried and acquitted, Feb. 19, 1831. LONGEVITY. Immediately after the creation, the ordinary age was 900 and upwards. After the flood, vvhen there were three persons to stock the world, their age was cut shorter, and none of those partriarchs but Shem, arrived at the age of 500. In' the second century after the Deluge, we find none that reached 240 ; in the third, none but Terah that reached 200. By degrees, as the number of people increased, their longevity dwindled; till it came down at length to the present age of three score years and ten. " ' From the FirSt Annual Report of the Registrar-General of England in 1837-8, it appears that in the whole of England and Wales, out of 1000 deaths, 145 had been at the age of 70 and upwards ; while in the North-Riding and northern part of West-Riding of Yorkshire, and in Durham, excluding the mining districts, the proportion had been as high as 210. In Northumberland, excluding the min- ing district, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and the north of Lancashire the propor- tion had been 198; in Norfolk and Suffolk 196; in Devronshire 192, and in Cornwall, 188. In the metropolis and its suburbs the proportion who had died at 70 and upwards had been only 104. In 'the LON C20 LON northern counties of England, in Wilt- shire, Dorset, and Devon, in Hertford- shire and Monnaouthshire, and in Wales, the deaths at that age, out of 1000 of all ages, had scarcely exceeded 180. The following are some of the most remarkable instances of longevity on record, which are exceptions to the ge- neral age : — Galen, physician Marc Albuna Thomas Pai r James Bowles J. Laurence Henry Jenkins Robert Montgomery . . James Sands His Wife Countess of Desmond. . Countess of Ecleston . . Col. Thomas Winslow. . John Mount A. Goldsmith Mary Yates John Bales Francis Consist Francis Bons Christ. J. Drakenberg . . Margaret Forster John Tice John Brooky William EUis James Brown Richard Loyd William Postell A woman of Belfast. . . . Martha Hannah Mary Meighan Mary Innes John Woods David Ferguson Mrs. Starr Barrett .... R. Lynch, a negro slave John Maddock Joseph Ram, a black . . William Mortimer Age. Residence. 140 150 152 152 140 169 126 140 120 140 143 146 136 140 128 126 150 121 146 136 125 134 130 120 133 120 123 126 129 127 122 124 120 150 121 146 125 Pergamus Ethiopia Shropshire Killingworth, War- wickshire Scotland Yorkshire Ditto Staffordshire Ditto Ireland Ditto Ditto Scotland France Shropshire Northampton Yorkshire , . France Norway Cumberland Worcester Devonshire Liverpool Cornwall Montgomery France Ireland Donoughmore GlasnaUilly, Isle of Sky Dungannon Boughton Charleston, N. Ame.. . Jamaica Holloway-Head Jamaica Straffan, Ireland .... Death. 361 1635 1656 166S 1670 1691 1766 1768 1769 1770 1771 1774 1777 1780 1781 1781 1808 1808 1813 1814 1818 1818 1820 1821 1821 1827 1833 LONGINUS, DiONYSius, a cele- brated Greek writer and critic, who flourished in the third century, was pro- bably born at Athens, where he pub- lished his "Treatise on the Sublime," for which he is so deservedly celebrated. He was executed by order of the em- peror Aurelian in 273. LONGITUDE, the distance of any point or place reckoned east or west on the equator, and from that point of it which is called the first meridian. The Fortunate Islands, supposed to be the Canaries, taken by the ancients as the first meridian were about 17° W. long, from Greenwich. The western extremity of Africa as then known, taken by Abul- feda, the Arabian geographer, was about 7° W. long. Terceira was taken by the Portuguese and Spaniards in the l6th LOR 621 LOU century; 27° 10' W. long. : Teneriffe by the Dutch in the l6th century ; 16° 30' W. long. : Ferro by all nations in the 1 7th and 18th centuries; 17» 30' W. long. Afterwards the European nations fixed their first meridian to that passing through their capital city, or some re- markable spot within their dominions. Thus, with the English, the meridian passing through the observatory at Greenwich is universally adopted as the first meridian. Methods for finding the latitude have long been discovered; but an easy prac- ticable method for determining the lon- gitude was long a desideratum. The cross-staff began to be employed by seamen towards the beginning of the l6th century. About 1664 Dr. Hooke and M. Huygens adapted the pendulum spring to watches, chiefly for the purpose of discovering the longitude at sea. This led to the adoption of the chrono- meter, which was brought to perfection at the commencement of the present century. See Chronometer. LOPE De Vega, Spanish dramatist, born 1562, died 1635. LOPES, Sir M. M., fined £10,000, and imprisoned in Exeter gaol for bribing the electors of Grampound; born 1755, died 1831. LORCA, a city of Murcia in Spain, destroyed by the bursting of a reservoir that inundated more than 20 leagues, and carried away 1000 persons, besides cattle, &c., April 30, 1802. LORD Auckland's group of islands in the South Sea, discovered by Captain Bristow, 1809. LORD High Steward. The first appointed for a coronation was Thomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for the trial of a peer was Edward, earl of Devon, on the arraignment of John, earl of Huntingdon, in the same reign. LORD Mayor's Show instituted 1453 ; the feast added the first time 1501. LORETTO, a town in Italy, States of the Church. It contains a church in which is the Santa Casa, the Holy House, said to have been the house of the Virgin Mary, with an image of the Virgin, which was traditionally carried by the angels in 1291 from Galilee to Dalmatia, and thence in 1295 to Italy. The image was forcibly carried to Paris by the French in 1796. but was restored with great pomp, Dec. 9, 1802. L'ORIENT, French man-of-war, 12a guns, blown up at Aboukir, August 1, 1798. LORINERS' Company, incorporated 1488. LORRAINE, Claude, or Claude Gillee, an eminent landscape painter, was born at Chamagnein Lorraine 1600. The works of Claude are very num-erous, and many of the most celebrated have found their way into the collections of England. He died in 1682, aged 82. LOTTERIES. The first in Englai^ mentioned in history was drawn at the western door of St. Paul's Cathedral 1569, consisting of 40,000 lots, at 10s. each lot. The drawing began January 11, and continued till May 6, follow- ing. In 1612 James I. granted per- mission for a lottery to be held also at the west end of St. Paul's, of which the highest prize was " of the value of 4000 crowns in fair plate." Soon after- wards lotteries were suppressed by an order of council. They were revived in 1630, when Charles I. granted to a com- pany, who undertook to supply London with water, a special licence to establish a lottery. After the revolution public lotteries were resorted to, among other expedients, for raising part of the extra- ordinary sums necessary for the public service. In 1698 an act passed for sup- pressing private lotteries; but the buying and selling of chances, and parts of chances, of tickets in the state lotteries became a general practice, till it was pro- hibited by an act passed in 1718. In the reign of Queen Anne, lotteries were suppressed as nuisances to the pub- lic; since that time,however, state lotteries have been licensed by act of parliament,^ under various regulations. The act passed in 1778 restricts any person from keeping an oflSce for the sale of tickets, shares, or chances ; or for buying, selling, ensur- ing, or registering, without a licence. Another state lottery act, enacting va- rious new regulations, was passed 49 George III. c. 94. LOUGHTON-HALL, Essex, the seat of William Whittaker Maitland, Esq., the high sheriff for the county of Essex, destroyed by fire, and property to the amount of between £20,000 and £30,000 consumed, Dec. 11, 1836 LOUIS XIV., king of France, sur- named Le Grand, succeeded to the throne in 1643. By his impolitic and unjust revocation of the edict of Nantz, LOU 622 LOU in 1685, he obliged the Protestants to take shelter in England, Holland, and different parts of Germany, where they established the silk manufactures, to the great prejudice of their own country. He at length raised against himself a confederacy of almost all the princes of Europe ; at the head of which was King Wjilliam IH. of England. For some years France seemed to have at- tained the highest pitch of military glory ; but at length, having provoked tbe English by repeated infidelities, their arms under the duke of Marlbo- rough, and those of Austria under Prince Eugene, rendered the' latter part of Louis's life as miserable as the begin- ning of it was splendid. His reign, from the year 1702 to l7ll, was one continued series of defeats and calami- ties. He was only saved by the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, and died in Sep- tember, 1715. LOUIS XVL, king of France, as- cended the throne in 1774, in the 20th year of his age. Some disturbances having arisen, the legislative assembly of the nation, the States-general, which had not met since the year 1614, were as- sembled at Versailles on May 4, 1789, assuming the title of the National As- sembly. This gave rise to commotions in Paris, which ended in the flight of the royal family. On June 21, 1791, it was announced from the Tuileries, that the king, the queen, the dauphin, with Mon- sieur and Madame, had quitted the pa- lace and capital, without leaving any in- formation of their intentions or their route. They proceeded in safety till they reached Verennes, when Louis was recognised by Drouet, the postmaster of St. Menehould, and detained. In 1792, after the massacre of the Swiss Guards, the National Assembly, under the influence of a turbulent audi- tory, that in fact dictated laws to the lawgivers, passed a series of acts, " de- claring the executive power suspended ; the authority given by the constitution to Louis XVI. from that moment revoked;" and inviting the peopleto meet in primary assemblies to form a national convention, to assemble on Sept. 20. Louis XVI. was in the mean time conveyed, under a strong escort, to the Teinj)le, while a de- cree of accusation was issued against se- veral of his late ministers. On Dec. 11, Louis was ordered to the bar of the Con- vention ; the act of accusation was read. and the king was summoned by the pre- sident, Barrere, to answer to each sepa- rate charge. On January 16, 1793, the trial closed ; and after a sitting of nearly 34 hours, the punishment of death was awarded. On Monday, January 21, at eight o'clock in the morning, the unfor- tunate monarch was summoned to his fate. He ascended the scaffold with a firm air and step. Raising his voice, he said, "Frenchmen, I die innocent; I pardon all my enemies." When they offered to bind his hands, he started back as if about to resist ; but, recollecting himself in a moment, submitted, and the instrument of death descended. Thus fell Louis XVL, a monarch possessed of good talents, a benevoli-nt temper, and a sincere desire to promote the good of his people ; but he was too tenacious of power, and deficient in that candour of character, and directness of purpose, which a sovereign owes to the people over whom he is placed. It would have been happier for him if, from the break- ing out of the revolution, he had acted a more ojjen and decided part ; but this may be excused when we consider the manners of the court in which he was educated, and the influence of the cour- tiers by whom he was surrounded. LOUIS XVIII., king of France, was born at Versailles, Nov. 17, 1755. In 1791 he secretly fled from Paris to Cob- lentz, where he organized the system of emigration ; and by his intrigues in the interior, accelerated the more fatal events of the revolution. He retired to Peters- burgh, and was allowed a pension by the emperor of Russia, April 3, 1798; landed at Yarmouth under the title of Count de Lille, Oct. 6, 1807; was recalled to the throne ; made a public entry into Lon- don, April 21, 1814; sailed from Dover April 23, reached Compeigne April 29, Paris, May 3 ; fled from Napoleon, March 21, 1815; resumed the govern- ment July, 1815. During many years Louis was a prey to serious infirmities, the results of intemperance. His enor- mous appetite gave rise to many laugh- able stories, which was the cause of his death. The state of the king's blood brought on a paralysis, when the disease made such rapid progress, that he died Sept. 16, 1824, in his 69th year. LOUIS Philippe, duke of Orleans, acknowledged king of the French by the Chamber of Deputies, Aug. 7, 1830. A conspiracy to dethrone him and re-esta- iL^TDTUg Sfl. LOW 623 LUC blish\ the late dynasty, detected in Paris Feb. 1, 1832. About 300 arrests took place, and large sums of money, received as bribes, were found on the persons of some of the prisoners. The assassina- tion of Louis Philippe by the Infernal Machine attempted at Paris in 1835; also other attempts in 1836 ; again in 1840. See France, p. 490, 491. LOUISBURGH, city, British North America, capital of Cape Breton, was taken from the French by an English and American force in 1745, but restored in 1748. It was retaken by the British in 1758, and its fortifications have since been demolished. LOUISIANA, one of the United States. In 1682 the country was ex- plored by La Salle, and named Louisiana, in honour of Louis XIV. A French settlement was begun at Iberville in 1699, and in I7l7 New Orleans was founded. In 1803 the extensive country of Louisiana, comprising all the territory now belonging to the United States, lying west from the Mississippi, was purchased from France for the sum of 15,000,000 doUars, and in 1812 the southern portion of this country Was admitted into the Union as an independent state. In the war between Great Britain and the United States, a formidable armament invaded Louisiana. Four engagements took place, in which the British were repulsed ; the last occurred on Jan. 8, 1815; after which they withdrew and abandoned the attempt. LOUVAIN, town, Belgium, contains a university, founded in 1426 by John IV., duke of Brabant, suppressed during the French revolution, and re-established in 1817 ; number of students 580. LOUVRE, at Paris, built 1552; the front completed 1688 ; first exhibition of painting and sculpture opened there, August 22, 1740 ; stripped of the trea- sures of art of which Napoleon had de- spoiled other nations, 1815. LOVAT, Simon Eraser, Lord, engaged in the rebellion of 1745 ; was beheaded April 2, 1747. LOVELACE, Richard, soldier and poet, born 1618, died 1658. LOWESTOFT, Suflfolk. Its harbour with a magnificent swing bridge, works connected with the Norwich and Lowe- stofF navigation, were finished under the direction of Mr. Cubit in 1830, by which the commerce of this town has been greatly benefited. LOWTH, Dr. Robert, an eminent prelate and writer, was born November 29, 1710. In 1730 he was admitted into New College, Oxford ; and took the de- gree of master of arts in 1737. In 1754 that university conferred upon him the degree of doctor of divinity by diplo- ma. In June 1766 he was preferred to the bishopric of St. David's ; and in October following, promoted to that of Oxford. In this office he remained till 1777, when he was translated to the see of London. He died at Fulham, Nov. 3, 1787. In 1762 was published his "Short Introduction to English Gram- mar," which has since gone through many editions, and in 1778 his great work, " A Translation of Isaiah." " To the world he was a benefit by his exem- plary life and his splendid abihties. And, whilst virtue and learning are reverenced ajnong men, the memory of Lowth will be respected and admired." LOYOLA, Ignatius, the founder of the order of Jesuits, was born in Spain in the year 1491. At the siege of Pam- peluna, in 1521, his right leg having been broken, during the slow progress of his cure, he met with a " Life of the Saints," which powerfully impressed his mind, and led to the establishment of the order. See Jesuits. Hediedin 1556, and was canonized in 1609 by Paul V. LUBECK, or Lubec, one of the four free cities of the German confederacy. It was founded by Adolphus II., count of Holstein-Schaumburgh, in 1144, who, 10 years afterwards, ceded it to Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. Henry made it a free port, and gave it the celebrated Lubeck code, afterwards adopted by many of the German cities. In 1226 it became a free city of the empire, and was subsequently at the head of the Hanseatic union. When the constitu- tion of the empire was abolished in 1806, Lubeck, though disconnected from the rest of Germany, remained a free Han- seatic city. After the battle of Lubeck, Nov 6, 1806, it was taken and pillaged by the French. In 1810 it formed part of the French department of the mouths of the Elbe. It capitulated to the allied Austrians, Russians, and Prussians, Dec. 5, 1813. By the congress of Vienna, Lubeck was again declared a free city. LUCAN, the author of " PharsaJia," born at Corduba in Spain, Nov. 11, 37. Condemned and bled to death in a bath, April 30, 64. LUD 624 LUT LUCCA, duchy, north of Italy, was originally a colony of the Ronnans, which on the fall of the Lombard kingdom in 774, was added by Charlemagne to his territories, and annexed by Otho L to his German dominions. During the middle ages it was repeatedly sold by its masters, but finally obtained its freedom in 1370, from the Emperor Charles IV. The French obliged it to adopt a new constitution, and in 1797 it was given to Bacciocchi, brother-in-law to Napoleon, as a principahty. In 1815 theAustrians took possession of it, and by an act of the congress of Vienna it was granted to the Infanta Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of Spain, who accepted the government in 1818, after the reversion of Parma was secured to her. LUCERNE, canton, Switzerland, joined the Swiss confederacy in 1332 ; it was one of 11 cantons in which fundamental changes in the cantonal constitutions were demanded by the peo- ple, in October, 1830 LUCIA, St., one of the Caribbee is- lands. The English first settled in this island in 1637, but were driven out by the natives in 1638 ; the French after- wards accupied it, but were massacred in l65fi. It was then considered neutral until 1763, when it was ceded to France. It was taken by the English, in 1779, and 1794; again, May 31, 1796 ; again, June 22, 1803; with whom it remains. LUCIAN, author of " Dialogues of the Dead," flourished a.c. 100. LUCIUS, the first christian king of Britain, reigned 11 years. He founded the first church in London, at St. Peter's, Cornhill, which was made the see of an archbishop, till removed to Canterbury 179. He died 180. LUCON, principal of the Philippine islands. It was discovered by Magellan, in 1521, and conquered by the Spaniards in 1571, under whose government it still continues. LUCRETIA, the celebrated Roman matron, wife of CoUatinus, a noble Ro- man ; being ravished by Sextus, the eldest son of Tarquin, king of Rome, stabbed herself a.c. 509. LUCRETIUS, one of the most cele- brated of the Roman poets, was born of an ancient and noble family, about A.c. 96 ; killed himself in a fit of insanity A.c. 54. LUDLOW, Edward, republican ge- neral and writer, born 1620, died 1693. LUDWIG, C. T„ botanist, born 1769, died 1773. LUKE, St., wrote his gospel 55 ; died about 70, aged 80 years. Festival of instituted 1090. LULWORTH Castle, Dorsetshire, built 1610. Charles X., king of France, took up his residence here, August 24, 1830, and left it Oct. 16, following. LUNEVILLE, Peace of, between the French republic and the Emperor of Germany, February 9, 1801. This treaty confirmed the cessions made by the treaty of Campo Formio, stipulat- ing that the Rhine, to the Dutch terri- tories, should form the boundary of France, and recognizing the indepen- dence of the Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics. LUTHER, Martin, the celebrated reformer, was born at Eisleben, in Sax- ony, in 1483. In 1501 he entered the university of Erfurt, and took his de- gree of M.A. when he was scarcely 20 years of age. The death of a friend by the discharge of a thunder cloud, so sen- sibly affected him, that he retired from the world. Having passed a year in the monastery of Erfurt, he took the vows, and was in 1507 admitted to priest's orders. In 1510 Luther was sent to Rome by the monks of his order, to get some disputes between them and their vicar-general settled by the Pope ; where he made his observations on the govern- ment of the church of Rome. On his re- turn to Wittemburg in 1512, he had the degree of doctor of divinity conferred upon him. In the year 1517 he attacked, with all the vehemence in his power from the pulpit, in the great church of Wittem- burg, the vices of those monks who openly distributed indulgences. He tried their doctrines by the standard of scrip- ture, and exhorted his hearers to look for salvation to the means appointed by God in hi s holy word. The boldness and fer- vour with which he uttered his exhorta- tions did not fail to make a deep and lasting impression on the people. Shortly after, Leo X. issued an order for his ap- pearing at Rome to justify himself; but the reformer was allowed to be heard at Augsburg, instead of being obliged to travel to Rome, where Cardinal Cajetan was appointed to try the merits of the question. He arrived at Augsburg in the month of October, 1518. The car- dinal required Luther, by virtue of the LUX 625 L YS apostolic powers, to retract his opinions. Being determined to maintain them, he witlidrevv, and sought the protection of the elector of Saxony. On June 15, 1520, a bull was issued, in which 41 proposi- tions, extracted from Luther's works, "were condemned as heretical, and all persons were forbidden to read his writings on pain of excommunication. On the accession of Charles V., he was cited before the diet at Worms. On his appearance he resisted all solicitations and threatenings on the measure of re- cantation. He was finally ordered by the emperor to leat-e Worms. In Octo- ber 1524, Luther threw off the monastic habit, and soon after married Catherine de Bore, a lady who had been a nun. In 1530 he furnished the materials for the Protestant confession of faith, to be pre- sented by the leaders of the Reformation at the Diet of Augsburg. In Feb. 1537, an assembly was held at Smalkald, about matters of religion, to which Luther and Melancthon were called. His health now began to be impaired, so that there were no hopes of his recovery, and he expired on Feb. 18, 1546, in his 63d ^'ear. LUXEMBURG, a province of Bel- gium, was erected into a duchy by the German emperor in 1354, and formed a part of the Austrian Netherlands. In 1815 it was granted to the king of the Netherlands. The possession of this province was for some time a subject of dispute. By the treaty of the 24 articles it was ceded to Holland in 1838. LUXOR, a village of Upper Egypt, occupying the site of ancient Thebes. A curious monument from these ruins, called the Luxor Obelisk, was set up in the Place de la Concorde at Paris, Octo- ber 25, 1836. It is the smaller of two monolithes of red granite, discovered in front of the ruins of the palace of Luxor, supposed to be 4000 years old. Itis covered with curious inscriptions, whichhavebeen explained by M. Cham.pollion. The con- veyance, the laying down, and the ac- cessories, cost 560,000 francs ; the gra- nite base upwards of 190,000 francs ; so that, altogether, this monolithe has cost the French government 1,700,000 francs. LUXURY restricted by an English law, wherein the prelates and nobility were confined to two courses every meal, 1337. An edict was issued by Charles VL, of France, which says, " Let no one presume to treat with more than a soup and two dishes," 1 340. LYCOPHRON, a Greek poet and grammarian, author of " Cassandra," flourished a.c. 300. LYCURGUS, the Spartan lawgiver, born 926 ; established his code of laws in Lacedaemonia, a.c 884, and died in Crete, a.c. 872. The laws of Lycurgus were abrogated by Philopoemen, a.c. 188, but the Romans soon re-established them. LYDGATE, John, the poet and his- torian, born 1380, died 1440. LYDIA, kingdom of, began in some form in 1223. Said to be regularly founded by Dejoces in 708 ; destroyed by Cyrus 548. LYING-IN-HOSPITAL, Old-street, began to be built 1770. LYON, Captain, R.N., a celebrated traveller and navigator, born 1796, died 1833. LYONS, the second city in France, and an archiepiscopal see ; made by Au- gustus the capital of Celtic Gaul. In the reign of Nero it was burned to the ground. In the 5th century the Bur- gundians made it their capital. During the revolution the fortifications and many buildings were demolished, the name abo- lished, and that of Ville Affranchie sub- stituted for it ; but it was afterwards restored. In 1814 it was the theatre o£ several bloody actions between the French and the allies. Capitulated to the Aus- trians, July 12, 1815. Revolutionary movements against the Bourbons sup- pressed, January 1816. Alarming riots at Lyons, November 31, 1831, in conse- quence of a dispute between the working weavers, their employers, and the civic authorities, respecting the rate of wages. Again, in 1834, April 5, to 15, at the trial of some workmen for their connec- tion with former riots, such demonstra- tions were made by their companions as rendered it necessary to call in the mili- tary, and keep them in readiness to act. The conflict between them and the mili- tary began soon after, and did not ter- minate until the 15th, when it was as- certained that the troops had lost 2000 men in killed and wounded ; and it was calculated that the killed and wounded among the insurgents were from 6000 to 8000. LYON'S-INN Society founded in 1420. LY''SANDER, an eminent Spartan commander. He defeated Conon at iEgospotamus, a.c. 405 ; took Athens 4 li MAC 626 MAC 404. The Spartan troops were defeated and Lysander killed, a.c. 394. LYSIAS, a Greek actor, born about A.c. 459, died aged 81. LYSIMACBUS, elected king of Ma- cedon, a.c. 2S6; slain in battle a.c. 281. LYSONS, Samuel, antiquary, the author of the " Environs of London," died in 1819- LYSONS, Daniel, physician, died 1800. LYTTLETON, Lord George, was born in January 1708-9. In 1744 he was appointed one of the lords of the treasury. He occupied several posts under government, but at the dissolution of the ministry in 1759 he went out of office. As a pohtician, his speeches on the Scotch and Mutiny bills, in ] 747 j on the naturalization of the Jews, in 1753 ; and on the privilege of parliament, in 1763, hold him out to public estima- tion. He died in August, 1773, in the 64th year of his age. He chiefly de- voted the latter years of his life to litera- ture, and was author of ' A Dissertation on the Conversion of St. Paul," which has ever been regarded as a masterly performance. LYTTLETON, Charles, bishop of Carlisle, the antiquarian, brother of the above. He died in 1768. M. MABILLON, J., a diplomatic writer and biographer, born 1632, died 1707- MABLEY, Abbe' De, apolitical wri- ter, born 1709, died 1785. MACADAM, John Landon, pro- jector of the improved system of road- making, died November 26, 1S36, aged 81, MA.CAO, a peninsula, China, was granted to the Portuguese in 1580, as a reward for assistance afforded by them to the Chinese against a body of pirates. MACARTHY, Sir C, killed in an action with the Ashantees, January 21, 1824. MACARTNEY, George, Earl of, was born in Ireland, 1737. In 1764 he was appomted envoy extraordinary to the empress of Russia. In 1792 he was selected as the fittest person for ambas- sador from the king of Great Britain to the emperor of China, to obtain permis- sion for the permanent residence of a British ambassador at that court. This being refused, he returned over land. He entered Canton in December 1793, and arrived in England September 1794. He died March 31, 1806. MACASSAR, a settlement in the island of Celebes, was at its height about the middle of the 12th century. The Portuguese settled here about 1525, but were expelled by the Dutch in 1660. The British took possession of it in 1810, but restored it; in 1814. MACAULAY, Zachary, F.R.S.,dis- tinguished for his talents and his philan- thropic and religious character, was editor of the " Christian Obsen^er " from its commencement in 1802 till 1816; and for more than 40 years he dedicated his eminent talents and active energies, in conjunction with Messrs. Wilberforce, Stephen, Buxton, and other distinguished philarthropists, to the abolition of the slave trade and colonial slavery. He died Mav 13, 1838, aged 70. MACCABEES, Government of, began at Jerusalem, a.c. 163. MACCHIAVELLI, Machiaval, Nicholas, political writer, born at Flo- rence 1469. He was employed in em- bassies to King Louis XII. of France to the Emperor Maximilian ; to the col- lege of cardinals ; to the pope, Juhus II., and to other Italian princes. He died in 1530. His principal works are, "The Golden Ass;" "Discourses on the First Decade of Livy," &c. Of all his writings, that which has made the most noise, is his political treatise, en- titled the " Prince." MACEDON, or Macedonia, a cele- brated kingdom of Greece, commenced by Caranus, an Argive, a descendant of Hercules, about a.c. 800, who conducted a small colony of his countrymen into this inland district. A.c. 547, the kings of Macedon became tributary to the Persian emperors ; but they insensibly extended their possessions and authority, and paved the way for the prosperous reign of Philip and the succeeding con- quests of Alexander. See Alexander. Macedon was made a Roman province, A.c. 168. MAC 627 MAD MAC GILL, Rev. Dr., eminent pro- fessor of divinity in the university of Glasgow. He was ordained at Eastwood September 8, 1791, inducted to the Tron Church, Octohei 12, 1797, and appointed professor of divinity in 1814. He died August 18, 1840, aged 75. MACHL\ERY, Power of. In 1792 the machinery in operation in England was equal to the labour of 10,000,000 of labourers; in 1827 to 200,000,000 ; and and in 1833 to 400,000,000. MACKENZIE, Henry, author of " The Man of Feeling," &c., died 1831. MACKEREL first allowed by statute to be cried through the streets of Lon- don on Sundays, 1698. MACKINTOSH, Sir Jambs, was born at Alldowrie, in the county of In- verness, Scotland, Oct. 24, 1765. In 1787 he took the degree of M.D., but was diverted from his professional studies to the science of politics. In 1791 he acquired considerable celebrity as the antagonist of Mr. Burke, in "Vindiciae Gallicse, or a Defence of the French Re- Afolution." In 1803 he \vas made re- corder of Bombay, on which occasion he received the honour of knighthood, De- cember 21. He obtained in July, 1813, a seat in the house of commons, as mem- ber for the county of Nairn. In 1818 he was elected for Knaresborough, through the influence of the duke of Devonshire; and was re-chosen at the subsequent elections of 1820, 1826, 1830, and 1831. He was appointed one of the commis- sioners for the affairs of India, Dec. 1, 1830. He was elected Lord Rector of the imiversity of Glasgow in 1822, and again in 1823. He died May 30, 1832, aged 67. M ACKLIN, Charles, the comedian, died Jidy 11, 1797, aged 97. MACLAURIN, Colin, an eminent Scotch mathematician, was born at Kil- moddan in 1698. In 1740 the Royal Academy adjudged him a prize for solving the motion of the tides from the theory of gravity. His elaborate "Treatise on Fluxions" was published at Edinburgh in 1742, and which is reckoned the most complete one on that science that has ever appeared. In 1745, having been very active in fortifying the city of Edinburgh against the rebel army, he was obliged to flee into the north of England, where he died June, 1746, aged 48 MACMAHON, Lord, hanged for high treason, Nov. 1, 1644. MACNEILL, Hector, Scotch poet, author of " Will and Jean," born 1746, died 1818. MACPHERSON, James, a Scotch poet and historian, was born at Ruth- ven, Inverness, in 1738. In 1760 he published " Fragments of Ancient Poe- try, collected in the Highlands of Scot- land, and translated from the Gaelic and Erse language." These pieces met with an extraordinary degree of admira- tion, and gave rise afterwards to the publication of the poems which profess to be the production of Ossian, the son of Fingal, king of Scotland, respecting which much dispute has arisen in the literary world. He died in Feb., 1796. MACQUER, J., chemist, born 17I8, died 1784. MACROBIUS, the author of " Sa- turnalia,'" flourished in the fourth cen- tury of the christian era, MADAGASCAR, island, Indian Ocean, was first known to Europeans by Marco Polo in the 13th century; visited by the Portuguese in the beginning of the 16th century. The French made attempts to found colonies there in the 17th century, but abandoned the island after many severe struggles with the natives. Their chief settlement was Port-Dauphin on the south-eastern coast. In 1745 they made new efforts, but without success. In 1814 it was claimed by England, as a dependency on Mauritius. One of the native kings named Radama, consented in 1820 to re- linquish the slave-trade, on condition that ten Madagasses should be sent to Eng- land, and ten to Mauritius for education. Those sent to England were placed under the care of the London Missionary So- ciety, who sent missionaries and me- chanics to Madagascar. This enterpris- ing king died in 1828, having been poisoned by his wife, who immediately seized the throne. The event introduced great anarchy, and the missionaries were banished from the island. An embassy from the queen of that country was sent to his late majesty, William IV., in 1837, consisting of six oflScers in the service of the queen, who had an audience of his majesty at Vv^indsor. MADEIRAS, group of islands. North Pacific Ocean, discovered by Zarco, a Por- tuguese navigator in 1419. In 1801 a British squadron took temporary posses- MAD 628 MAG sion of these islands, in order to pre- serve them from the French, but re- stored them at the peace of Amiens. In 1 807 Great Britain again occupied them in trust for her ally. They were taken possession of by the expedition sent out by Don Miguel, August 23, 1828. On receiving intelligence that Don Miguel had capitulated, the islands declared for Donna Maria 1834. MADISON, James, ex-president of the United States of America, a native of Virginia, and brought up for the bar. At the age of 22 he held a situation under the government, and was after- wards constantly employed in a variety of important offices. He was appointed secretary of state in 1800, during the presidency of Mr. Jefferson; and he was chosen president on Mr. Jefferson's retirement in 1808. He died July 30, 1836, aged 78. MADOX, Isaac, an English contro- versial writer, born 1697, died 1759. MADRAS, southern presidencj', Hin- doostan, so called after the name of its capital on the Coromandel coast. The territory was ceded to the East India Company 1639, by the reigning prince of Bijanagur, with permission to erect a fort, afterwards called Fort St. George, erected in 1640. In 1653 Madras was raised to the rank of a presidency. The native population soon assembled round the English fortress ; and in 1687 amounted to 300,000 persons. In 1744 Madras was taken by the French, and retained by them for five years. Dur- ing their occupancy the Black Town was almost destroyed, and the materials useti in constructing a glacis and enlarg- ing the fortifications. At the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1749, Madras was restored to the British, in whose pos- session it has ever since continued. MADRID, capital of Spain, was for a long time an inconsiderable place be- longing to the archbishop of Toledo ; but Philip II. made it the capital of the kingdom, and permanently fixed the court here in 1563. The French took possession of it in March, 1808 ; and on May 2, the inhabitants rose up in arms to expel them from the city, when a terrible carnage ensued, which lasted for several hours. On July 20 following Joseph Buonaparte entered it, but was obliged to abandon it soon afterwards. On December 2, it was retaken by Na- poleor., who reinstated his brother on the throne, which he retained until Aug. 1812, when Madrid was entered by the British army under the duke of Welling- ton. The French again took possession of it in the November following, but finally evacuated it in 1813. The in- habitants took part in a revolutionary movement in 1820, when the king was compelled to restore the constitution of the Cortes of 1812. In the French ex- pedition into Spain in 1823, Madrid was again entered by the French under the duke of Angouleme. A revolution took place here August 12, 1836; Isturitz, the prime minister, made his escape, reached Lisbon, and from thence he proceeded to England. Madrid was de- clared in a state of siege, in consequence of riots in that city, by the captain-gene- ral Antonio Quiroga October, 1839 ; the siege was raised Nov. 14. MADURA, district, Hindoostan, first taken by the British in 1757, and ceded to them in 1801. MAESTRICHT, city, Belgium, was taken from the Spaniards by the Dutch 1632 ; From the Dutch by France 1673; restored to them in 1679 ; besieged by the French in 1748 ; unsuccessfully attacked by them in 1793 ; and taken by them in 1794. In 1814 it was de- livered up to the allied armies. MAGDALEN Hospital instituted in Prescot-street, Goodman's-fields, 1758 ; and built in St. George's-fields 1772. MAGEE, Dr. William, archbishop of Dublin, bishop of Glandelagh, and primate of Ireland, born in 1765. His celebrated " Discourses on the Scrip- tural Doctrine of the Atonement and Sacrifices," were published in 1801. He was advanced in 1813 to the deanery of Cork; in 1819 he was consecrated bishop of Raphoe, and in 1822, was translated to the see of Dublin. He died August 19, 1831, aged 66. MAGELLAN, Straits of, a passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, discovered by Ferdinando Magellan, or Magalhaens, in the service of the crown of Spain, about the end of October, 1520. Having landed upon Matan, and taken part in a quarrel between some of the native tribes, Magellan was wounded in the leg by an arrow, beaten down, and at last slain with a lance in 1521, MAGIC Lantern, first invented by Roger Bacon in 1252. M A G 629 MAH MAGNA Charta, the great char- ter of the liberties of Britain, and the basis of our laws and privileges. It was signed and sealed by king John in a con- ference between the king and barons at Runing Medd, or Runnemede, between "Windsor and Staines, June 15, 1215, and afterwards confirmed in the 37th year of Henry III., and by 25 Edw. I. This charter protected every individual of the nation in the free enjoyment of his life, his liberty, and his property, unless declared to be forfeited by the judgment of his peers, or the law of the land. .MAGNETISM. The power of the loadstone or magnet was known to the ancients. Its application to the mariner's compass introduced into Europe before 1150. See Compass. North and south poles of the magnet described by Norman 1581. Experiments on magnetism by Dr. Gilbert ; making of artificial magnets ex- plained by bim in his treatise " De Mag- nete etCorporibusMagneticis," publish- ed in 1600. The analogy existing between electricity, galvinism and magnetism, suggested by Van Swinden, Ritter, and others, in the middle of the J S^ century; established by Oersted 1807- 1838. On November 30, Professor Gauss of Gottingen received from the Royal Society a Copley medal, for his recent improvements in the methods of making magnetic observations, and for his theoretical investigations relative to terrestrial magnetism. By the use of magnetical bars from one to twenty-five pounds in weight, by a multitude of ingenious and delicate applications of principles never before brought into combination. Professor Gauss has given to magnetic determinations the precision of astronomical observations ; and, in fact, may almost be said to have created anew this important department of science. 1839. Prof. Lloyd having observed to the British Association, that the phe- nomena of terrestrial magnetism could not be determined by one magnet, his researches have been directed to ascer- tain the best position of three magnets, 80 as in the least degree to aflfect each other, and work out this problem. One magnet should be placed in the line of the magnetic meridian, and is termed the declination magnet ; the second, per- pendicular to it, representing the hori- zontal force ; and the third, representing the vertical force, at the angle opposite the base of the other two. By the posi- tions of these three magnets, we have four indeterminate arbitrary angles, by which we are enabled to fulfil four equa- tions of conditions ; and thus the re- lative action is rendered nothing, and the mutual action of the three magnets destroyed. A gallery of about 40 feet in length is most practically convenient for the placing of the three magnets. The result arrived at by Prof. Lloyd is exceedingly interesting, in relation to the observatories about to be erected in the British colonies, and the solution of the difficult problem of terrestrial mag- netism. MAHOMEl, or Mohammed, the im- postor of Arabia, was born at Mecca, in the reign of Anushirwan the Just, em- peror of Persia, May 5, 570. His father Abd'allah was a younger son of Abd'al- motalleb. Abu Taleb, Mahomet's uncle, instructed him in the business of a mer- chant, and afterwards recommended him to Khadijah, a noble and rich widow, who employed him as her factor ; and he behaved so well that she afterwards married him, and thus raised him to an equality with the richest merchants in Mecca. After he had lived at his ease for some time, he formed the scheme of establishing a new religion. For this purpose he retired with his family to a cave in Mount Hara, about 604, where he opened the secret of his mission to his wife, telling her that the angel Gabriel had just before appeared to him, and told him that he was the apostle of God. The prophet commenced his career in the month of Ramaden, in the 40th year of his age, and his sect commenced about 622. He died in 631. He possessed good natural talents, a retentive me- mory, and promptness of judgment. Ambition was nevertheless the ruling passion of his later years; and the means by which he sought to gain his object were such as could not be justified on any of the common principles of morality. MAHMOUD II., late sultan of the Ot- toman empire, remarkable for the vigour of his character, was born July 20, 1785, ascended the throne in 1808, at about 23 years old. His mother was the daughter of a French merchant at Mar- tinique, who, at the age of 13 was taken prisoner by an Algerine ship of war, and carried into Algiers. The constitution MAI 630 MAL of the sultan's mind, as well as the senti- ments he bad adopted by education, disqualified him for patiently suffering the old order of things to remain ; he therefore, as a first step to a change of politics, determined on the destruction of tlie Janissaries, which he accomplished in 1826. See Janissaries. After a reign of nearly 31 years, in which be uni- formly opposed the established abuses in Turkey, he died July 1, 1839, in the 54th year of his age. MAHilATTA Territory, country Hindoostan. The Mahrattas first became known to Europeans towards the close of the 18th century, when the sovereigns abandoned the government to their mi- nisters, the peishwahs. On the accession of Ram Rajah, the last of the royal family, in 1740, at the age of eight years, he was confined by his minister to the fortress Sattarah. In 1802 the reigning pei.shwah became dependent on the Bri- tish, Tbe remaining portions of this once extensive empire have almost all become subject to the authority of Great Britain. MAIDSTONE, Kent. On Penenden Heath, about a mile north-east from the town, a county court was held in 1071 for the trial of a cause, said to have been the first instance of trial by jury in this kingdom. MAIL Coaches first established to Bristol 17S4; to other parts of England, and an act to regulate and encourage them, and exempt them from tolls, 1785; introiiuced into Ireland by Mr. Anderson in 1790. MAINE, state, member of the North American Union, The first permanent settlement was about the year 1630, and for several years the government of the colony was administered in the name of Sir Fernando Gorges. In 1652 Maine was jilaced under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. From that time it was styled the district of Maine until 1820, when it was erected into an independent MAINTENON, Madame De, the widow of Carron, and wife of Louis XIV., died in 1719 aged 84. MA IRE, James Le, Dutch navigator, died 1622. MAISON-DIEU, hospital, Dover, built 1229. MA IT LAND, William, the histo- rian of London, died 1757. MAIZE, or, Indian Corn, supposed to be indigenous to South Ancerica, being the only species of corn cultivated in the New World pre\'iously to its disco- very. It was introduced into the Conti- nent about the beginning, and into Eng- land a little after the middle of the l6th century. It has been raised in England in nursery gardens near the metropolis, for more than a century ; and, recently, it has been attempted to raise it in the fields, but with indifferent success. MAJORCA, island, Mediterranean sea, the largest of the Balearic islands. It assisted the Carthaginians in the se- cond Punic war, but was afterwards overrun by the Romans a.c. 122. It was subsequently seized by the Vandals, who were expelled by the Moors a.d. 800. The latter, with some interruptions, held it until 1229, when Don Jayme, grand- son of Alphonso II., king of Arragon, made an expedition against the island, exterminated the Moors, and established in it a new kingdom. This was again destroyed in 1341, and the island has ever since been subject to Spain, MALABAR, district, Hindoostan. This coast, the first part of India visited by Europeans, was discovered by Vasco de Gama, who landed at Calicut in May, 1498, Malabar was partially .subdued by Hyder Ali in 1761 ; more fully subju- gated in 1782 ; placed under the British government 1803. MALACCA, city, India, was founded in 1252 by the last king of Sing:ipoor. In 1508 it was taken by the Portuguese, and became their princijial settlement. In 1640 it was taken from the Portu- guese by the Dutch, who retained it until 1795, when it was subjected l)y a British force; it was restored in 1801, reca[)tured in 1807, and again given up in 1815, but was fully received in ex- change for the British settlements in Sumatra, and occupied by the British authorities in 1825. MALACHI, the prophet, flourished A.c. 397. MALAGA, town, Spain, was founded by tbe Phoenicians, and called, originally, Malacha. It was taken by the Moors in 714, and retained by them until 1487- It was taken by the French, Feb. 5, 1810; evacuated by them March 17, 1810 MALAY Pirates. Twenty-six double-decked Malay proas, manned with upwards of 1000 men, repulsed off Manilla,by Lieutenant Ehiott and 41 men, in a government falwa (viz., a large open MAL 631 MAM boat,) armed with one brass gun in tlie bow, four swivels in the stern, and small arms. Cannon Rejrister, May 24, 1836. MALCOLM, Major-Gen. John, author of the " History of Persia," died 1833. MALEBRANCHE, Nicholas, a French philosopher, author of the " Search after Truth," born 1638, died 1715. MALESHERBE, Christian Wil- liam, De Lamoignon De, born at Paris in 1721. He was chosen minister of state under Louis XVI. in 1775 ; but owing to the rejection of some important measures which his zeal for the public good led him to propose, resigned his post in May, 1776 ; was condemned by the convention in 1794, and received the stroke of the guillotine in April, in the 73d year of his age. M ALIBRAN, De Beriot, an excel- lent vocal actress, born at Paris, 1808, died at Manchester, Sept. 23, 1836. MALLET, David, dramatic author, died 1765. MALONE, Edmund, dramatic critic, born 1741, died 1812. MALPIGHI, the ana^mist, born 1628, died 1694. MALPLAQUET, village, France, the scene of a sanguinary battle, fought on September 11, 1709, between the French army commanded by Marshal Villars, and the British under the duke of Marl- borough and Prince Eugene, in which the former were defeated, though the latter lost 20,000 men. MALT Tax estabhshed 1667; in- creased 1760 ; new-modelled 1766. Tax repealed by 11 Geo. IV. c. 17, May 29, 1830, entitled " An act to alter and amend an Act of the 7th and 8th Geo. IV. c. 52, for consolidating and amend- ing the laws of excise on malt made in the United Kingdom, and for amend- ing the laws relatmg to brewers in Ireland, and the malt allowance on spirits in Scotland and Ireland." MALTA, an island in the Mediterra- nean sea, was early in the hands of the Carthaginians ; they were dispossessed by the Romans, who were driven out by the Arabs in 828, and expelled in their turn by Roger the Norman, earl of Si- cily, who took possession of it in 1190. From this time it continued under the power of the Sicilian princes till it was conquered by Charles V. In 1530 it was conferred by him on the knights of St. John, after their expulsion from Rhodes by the Turks. It was strongly fortified l)y the knights, and underwent several memoral)!e sieges, the most ce- lebrated of which took place in 1565, which lasted for four months, and ter- minated unsuccessfully to the Turkish assailants. In 1798 Buonaparte took possession of Malta, on his expedition to Egypt; in ISOO the French garrison was compelled by famine to capitulate to a British force. In 1814 the possession of it was confirmed to Great Britain by the treaty of Paris. MALTA, Knights of, originally called Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusa- lem, a religious military order, th-j foun- dation of which was laid by opening a house for the reception of pilgrims at Je- rusalem, 1048 ; became a regular mo- nastic order 1099, and a military order 1118 ; they took Rhodes, and were called Knights of Rhodes, 1310. Being ex- pelled from thence by the Tui'ks, the emperor Charles V. gave them the island of Malta, 1530; and they were called Knights of Malta. In 1566 they sustain- ed the memorable siege against the ar- mies of Solj'man, and did other great exploits against the infidels, 1595. Con- spiracy at Malta to destroy the whole order, for which 125 Turkish slaves suf- fered death, June 26, 1749. MALTE Brun, Conrade, the geo- grapher, died 1826. MALTHUS, Rev. T. R., author of the "Essay on Population," died 1835, aged 68. MALUS, S., mathematician, born 1775,, died 1812. MAMELUKES, Mamalukes, or Mamlouks, a dynasty that reigned in Egypt for a considerable time, were ori- ginally Turkish and Circassian slaves, who were introduced into Egypt in con- sequence of an expedition which took place in 1227- The Sultan of Egypt, Malek Salah, about 1230, purchased 12,000 of these young men, whom he de- signed to be his guard and marine. He died in 1249, and was succeeded by his son, Turan Shah; whom, in 1250, the Mamelukes deposed and massacred; and this event commenced the dynasty of the Mamelukes of Egypt, which continued till 1517. See Egypt, p. 415. MAMMOTH, a name given by the Russians to the fossil remains of an an- tediluvian animal. A skeleton of one was discovered at Ilford, in Esse.x, 16 feet MAN 632 MAN below the surface of the ground, May 1 , 1824. MAN, Isle of, was known to the Romans under the name of Monoeda, and Monabia. After Britain was aban- doned by the Romans, it was seized by the Scots, who were ex))elled by the British prince Cunedda. In 1270 Alex- ander III. of Scotland obtained full pos- session of it by purchase ; it remained suljject to Scotland until 1340, when Sir WilHam de Montacute, afterwards earl of Salisbury, conquered the isle with the sanction of his sovereign, Edward III., . by whose command he was crowned king of Man in 1344. In 1406, having been forfeited by rebellion, it was granted by the crown to Sir John Stanlej^ whose descendant was created by Henry VII., earl of Derby, in 1486. It was surren- dered to the royalists in the civil war, in Oct. 1651. The isle was given by par- liament, in 1652, to Lord Fairfax; but on the restoration of Charles II., it re- verted to the Derby family, who held it till 1735, when James, the 10th earl, dying without issue, it was transferred to the duke of Athol. The duke was in- duced, in 1765, to surrender the sove- reignty of the island to the British go- vernment for the sum of £70,000, and the Isle of Man has, since that time, formed an integral part of the British empire. In 1805 an act of parliament was passed, securing to the duke and his heirs one-fourth of the gross revenue of the island; and in 1825 another act was passed, granting to the family of the duke, as the purchase of their remain- ing interest in the island, the sum of £416,000. MANBY, Captain, inventor of the method of preserving shipwrecked per- sons, born 1765. MANCHESTER, county of Lancas- ter. Its origin may be traced back before the time of the Romans, who conquered it under Agricola, in 79. It is men- tioned, in the reign of Edward IV., as noted for the production of various woollen goods. In the reign of James I. a pestilence raged there, which carried off nearly 1000 persons. During the civil wars this place warmly espoused the cause of the parliament against Charles I., and it was besieged by a strong force under the earl of Derby. Its commercial superiority may be dated from about the year 1758. Its subse- quent increase and improvement have been materially influenced by the inven- tion of machinery for the abridgment of labour. In 1781, two years previous to the introduction of Arkwright's ma- chines, the quantity of cotton-wool im- ported annually, was but 5,198,778 pounds ; but after the successive inven- tions or improvements of Highs, Har- greaves, Arkwrij,ht, Crompton, andWatt, the quantity of goods manufactured was augmented more than thirty-fold. There were in 1825, in the parish of Manches- ter a\om, more than 20,000 steam-looms in motion ; and it appears that since that period the number has increased. See Cotton. MANDEVILLE, Sir J., the travel- ler, died 1372. MANDEVILLE, Bernard, author of the "Table of the Bees," died 1733, aged 65. MANETHO, an ancient Egyptian his- torian, who was high priest of Helio- polis, in the time of Ptolemy Philadel- phus, about A.c. 304. His History of Egypt in Greek, though in a great mea- sure fabulous, is often quoted by Jose- phus and other ancient authors. MANFREDI, Eustacio, astrono- mer, born 1674, died 1739. MANHEIM, town. Grand Duchy of Baden, has suffered much from the effects of war. It was devastated by the Bavarians in 1662 ; in the destruction of the palatinate, almost all the houses were demolished. Having been rebuilt by its princes, it was bombarded in 1795 by the republican armies of France, and a great many of its buildings were reduced to ashes. Retaken by the Austrians, Nov. 22, 1795, with 10,338 prisoners, four ge- nerals, and 400 guns, besides stores. Was taken by the French 1796, but re- taken by the Austrians, Sept. 18, 1799. Its commerce and manufactures have, however, contributed to restore it to its ancient prosperity MANICHEES, or Manicheans, a sect of ancient heretics, which had its rise about the year 277, and spread it- self principally in Arabia, Egypt, and Africa. They were the followers of Manes, who made his appearance in the reign of the emperor Probus, pretending to be the Comforter whom our Saviour promised to send into the world. MANILLA, city of the island of Lu- zon, chief of the Philippines, and metro- polis of the Spanish settlements there. Most of the public sanctuaries are built MA R of wood, on account of the frequent earthquakes, by one of which, in 16 17, a mountain was levelled ; and, in 1625, a third part of the city was overthrown by another, when 3000 persons perished in the ruins. In 1762 the English took this city by storm, and suffered the archbishop to ransom it for about a million sterling. A destructive fire took place here March 26, 1833, by which 10,000 bamboo huts were destroyed, 50 lives lost, 30,000 Indians left houseless, and an extent of three miles of country laid waste. MANLIUS, Marcus, a distinguished Roman general, thrown down from the Tarpeian rock, A.c. 484. MANSFIELD, Lord Chief Jus- tice, died March 15, 1793, aged 89. MANSION House, city of London, built 1739, first inhabited 1752, and cost £42,638 18s. 8d. MANTUA, an ancient town of Italy, founded about 300 years before Rome, celebrated as the birthplace of Virgil. After the fall of the Roman empire it be- came a free and independent state, sub- ject to its own dukes, about 200 years ; but the last of these princes having taken up arms against the Austrian interest, was driven from his dominions, and died in exile at Padua, in 1708. It surren- dered to the French, February 1, 1797, and was retaken July 28, 1799, by the Russians and Austrians, after a long siege. It is at present subject to the archduchess Maria Louisa, late empress of France. MAPS invented by Anaximander,who flourished about a.c. 400 ; improved by Ptolemy, and published about a.d. 140. Maps and charts introduced into Eng- land by Bartholomew Columbus, 1489. The first map of England published 1520, by George Lilly; the first of Rus- sia J 560. Geological Maps introduced about 1810; greatly improved about 1838. At the meeting of the British Association that year, new geological maps were ex- hibited and explained by Mr. Murchison and Mr. Griffiths. Professor Buckland said, " Mr. Murchison's new map must now be a standard work to the end of time." MAR, Earl of, sentenced to two years' imprisonment by the High Court of Justiciary at Edinburgh, for shooting at Mr. Oldham, a clergyman, December 17, 1831. 633 MAR MAR, Mr., and family, murdered under circumstances of peculiar atro- city, at Radcliffe-highway, December 7, 1811. MARALDI, James Philip, an Ita- lian mathematician and astronomer, was born at Perinaldo, in Nice, in 1665. His uncle, the celebrated Cassini, sent him to France in 1687, where he acquired great reputation on account of his learn- ing and observation. In 1700 he was employed by Cassini in prolonging the French meridian to the southern extre- mity of that kingdom. His catalogue of the fixed stars is more particular and exact than Bayer's. He died in 1729» in his 65th year. MARANA, author of " The Turkish Spy," bom 1642, died 1693. MARAT, the French demagogue, as- sassinated by Charlotte Cordoy, 1793. MARATHON, a village of Attica, ten miles from Athens, celebrated as the scene of Miltiades's victory over the Persians, by which the liberties of Athens and other cities of Greece were saved, A.c. 490. MARC Antony. See Antony. MARCLEY Hill, near Hereford, was moved from its situation February 17, 1571. It carried along with it the trees, hedges, and cattle, on its surface, overthrew a chapel in its way, and form- ed a large hill 12 fathoms high, where it settled, having left a chasm 40 feet deep, and 30 long. MARCO Polo, or Paulo. See Paulo. MARCOU, St., Isles, on the caast of France, taken by Sir Sidney Smith in July 1795, and ably defended by Lieu- tenant Price against the French troops. May 7, 1798. MACROSS, Glamorganshire, cliff at, fell and spread 300,000 tons of limestone on the beach, August, 1833, MARET, HuGUES Bernard, duke of Bassano, grand officer of the legion of honour, and a distinguished French political writer. He embraced with en- thusiasm the cause of the first French revolution, and was the publisher of the " Bulletin de I'Assemblee," until the bookseller, Panckouke, founded the " Moniteur," of which Maret was ap- pointed chief editor, and which became the official paper of the government. After acting an important part in public affairs in various offices, he was, in 1814, appointed minister of foreign affairs, 4 M MAR 634 MAR with the title of duke of Bassano. On the second restoration of the Bourbons he v/as banished from France, and re- tired to Gratz ; but after the revolution of July, 1830, he again returned to France, and was reinstated in his former honours. He died in 1839, aged 81. MARGARET, countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of King Henry VII., died June 29, 1509. MARGARET, countess of Salisbury, daughter of the duke of Clarence, bro- ther of Edward IV., beheaded May 27, 154i; aged 70. MARGARET, queen of Henry VI., with her son, taken prisoners at the battle of Tewkesbury, May 4, 1471. MARGATE, Kent. Though a place of considerable antiquity, it has risen to importance only since 1787, when an act of parliament was procured for re- building the pier with stone. This town has attained its present celebrity in consequence of the facihties afiorded for sea-bathing. The pier was consi- derably injured by a violent storm in 1808, when a new pier, terminatin;^ with a stone jetty, was erected, and completed in 1824. The new pier constructed under the direction of Mr. John Rennie, at the expense of £90,000, is built of Wliitby stone ; it is 900 feet in length, 60 feet where broadest, and 26 feet in height, with a parapet of four feet and a half. MARIA Antoinette, queen of France, guillotined Oct. 16, 1793. MARIA Louisa, consort of Napo- leon, obtained the states of Parma, Pla- centia, and Guastalla, by the treaty of Fontainbleau, A])ril 11, 1814. MARIEGALANTE, island. West Indies, discovered 1493; colonised by the French in 1647 ; conquered by the British during the revolutionary war, but afterwards restored. MARIENBURGH, in Prussia, found- ed by the Teutonic knights, 1231. MARINE Society estabhshed 1756, to u'hom Vv'^. Hicks, Esq. left £300 per annum 1753. Incorporated 1772. MARIUS, Caius, a Roman general, born at Arpinum, of an obscure family, was made tribune a.c. 119 ; praetor a. c. 116. He went into Africa as lieutenant to the consul Metellus against Jugurtha, A.c. 109; defeated the Teutones, 102; civil war between him and Sylla, 88 ; he joined Cinna, entered Rome like a conqueror, and filled it with blood ; they made themselves consuls a.c. 86 ; but Marius died 16 days after a.u.c. 666. MARK, St., wrote his gospel 44 ; died 68 ; his festival celebrated 1090. MARK, St., order of, began at Venice 830; reviA-ed 1562. MARK'S, St., Palace, Venice, built 450. MARK'S, St., Chukch, at Venice, built 826. MARLBOROUGH, John Chur- chill, Duke of, was born at Ashe, in Devonshire, in 1650. He was made page of honour to the duke of York, afterwards King James II. when oidy 12 years of age. In 1666 he was made an ensign in the guards. In 1672 he attended the duke of Monmouth, who commanded a body of auxiliaries in the French service. In 1673 he was at the siege of Maestricht, where he displayed so much courage, that the king of France made him a public acknowledgment of his service. After the abdication of James II., he was one of the noblemen who voted that the throne was vacant: and the prince and princess of Orange were in consequence declared king and queen of England. In 1689 he was appomted one of the privy-council, and raised to the dignity of earl of Marlborough. In 1690 he was made general of the forces sent to Ireland, where he took the strong garrisons of Cork and Kinsale prisoners of war. In 1692 he was suddenly (lis- missed from ail his employments, and committed to the Tower. Being restored to favour in 1698, he was appointed governor to the duke of Gloucester. Upon the accession of Queen Anne, he was declared captain-general of all her majesty's forces. After his first cam- paign in 1702, he was created marquis of Blandford and duke of Marlborough. On the battle of Blenheim, 1704, he re- ceived congratulatory letters from most of the potentates in Europe, and this was followed by several other success- ful campaigns. At the change of the ministry in 1710, owing to political in- trigues, he was disgraced, and his in- terest daily dechned, till the death of the queen. He attended on King George I. in his public entry through London, who appointed him captain-general, co- lonel of the first regiment of foot guards, one of the commissioners for the govern- ment of Chelsea Hospital, and master- general of the ordnance. Some years before his death he retired from public MAR 635 MAR i)usiness. He died at Windsor-Lodge in 1722, in his 73d year. MARMONTEL, a French writer, author of " Moral Tales," born 1723, died 1799. MOROT, Clement, a French poet, born 1495, died 1544. MARQUESAS, a group of islands. South Pacific Ocean, consists of two groups named the Marquesas and Washington Islands : the former dis- covered in 1596 by the Spanish naviga- tor Alvaro Mendana ; the other was first visited in 1791 by an American named Ingraham ; and then in 1792 by Mar- chand. They were examined in 1804 with some attention by Krusenstern, and have since been frequently touched by Bri- tish and American ships. They were recently visited by the Hon. W. Walde- grave, R.N., and also by Mr. Williams, the missionary about 1830. But the missionaries have not succeeded in esta- blishing permanent stations. MARQUESS, or Makquis, a title of honour, next in dignity to that of duke; first introduced in the reign of Richard II., when Robert Vere, earl of Oxford, was created marquis of Dublin, in the 80th year of his age. MARRIAGE. The law relative to the solemnization of marriage in Eng- land was formerly in a veiy undefined state. By the ancient law a marriage was good if celebrated in the presence of two witnesses, though without the inter- vention of a priest ; then came the de- cision of the Council of Trent 1545, rendering the solemnization by a priest necessary. The archbishop of Canter- bury had authority to grant special licences, derived from the 25 Henry VIII c. 21. Henry, in furtherance of of his quarrel with the pope, caused an act to be passed, 32 Henry VIII. c. 38, by which he declared all persons to be lawful "that be not prohibited by God's law to marry," and that "no reserva- tion or prohibition, God's law excepted, shall trouble or impeach any marriage within the Levitical degrees." During the commonwealth, a great number of marriages were solemnized by justices of the peace. Doubts having been raised about their validity, an act was passed the 12 Charles II. c. 33, entitled "An act for confirmation of marriage," in which all such marriages solemnized from May 1, 1642, were confirmed. There were a number of chapels in privileged places in London, claiming exemption from episcopal visitation. Of these, the chapel in the Fleet prison acquired the most infamous notoriety. In the Registration Act, 6 and 7 Will. III. c. 6, a clause is introduced, declaring that "no person shall be married at any place pretending to be exempt from the visitation of the bishop of the diocese without a licence, first had and obtained, except the banns shall be published and certified according to law." Again, in the loth Anne, c. 18, it is enacted that " every parson, vicar, or curate, or other person in holy orders, beneficed or not beneficed, who should, after the 24th of June, 1712, marry any person in any cluu'ch or chapel exempt or not exempt, or in any other place whatsoever, without publication of the banns of matrimony, &c., should forfeit £100, and a similar penalty was made applicable to gaolers and keepers of prisons for permitting, or conniving at, clandestine marriages." Lord Hardwicke's bill, called the Mar- riage act of 1753, 26 Geo. II. c. 53, " An act for the better preventing clan- destine marriages," took effect from the 25th of March, 1754; and Burn tells us, that so eager were all parties to be beforehand with the law, that on that day no less than 217 marriages were celebrated at the Fleet, "which," he adds, " were the last of the Fleet weddings." This act continued in full force till the recent act, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 85, Aug. 17, 1836, entitled "An act for marriages in England." The following are the principal provisions : — Afcer March 1, 1837, all rules prescribed by the Eu- brick are to continue to be observed by clergymen ; but marriages may be so- lemnized at other places on production of the registrar's certificate, as hereafter provided. Marriages of Quakers and Jews may be solemnized as at present, when both parties are members of those bodies, and notice be given as hereafter provided. Notice of every intended marriage to be given to the superintendent registrar of the district within which the parties shall have dwelt for not less than seven days then next preceding; or if they dwell in different districts, then to the superintendent registrar of each district, and shall state therein the name and surname, and the profession or condi- tion of each of the parties intending mar- riage, the dwelling place of each of them, and the time, not being less than sevea MAR 636 MAR days, (luring wliich each has dwelt there- in, and the church or other building in which the marriage is to be solemnized. Places of worship may be registered for solemnizing marriages therein, on ap- plication of the trustees, &c., and on removal of the same congregation, the new place of worship may be imme- diately registered, instead of the one dis- used. Marriages may be solemnized in such registered places in the presence of some registrar, and of two witnesses ; but it must be with open doors between 8 and 12 in the forenoon. And per- sons objecting to marry in such re- gistered places, may marry before the superintendent registrar and some regis- trar of the district, and in the presence of two witnesses. Under tiiis act the member of the established church may be married as heretofore, if he chooses ; the dissenter may be married with or without religious rites, as he pleases ; and both marriages are equally valid in the eye of the law. The machinery for registering dissenting places of worship, for the purpose of solemnizing marriages, is sufficiently free and unrestricted, consistently with a due provision for guarding against the evils which were put an end to by Lord Hardwicke's act, while it removed the obligations which were felt as infringe- ments upon the rights of conscience which that act perpetuated. MARS, one of the primary planets. The spots on the disc of Mars were first discovered by Dr. Hook in 1665 ; and from their motion he concluded that the planet revolves about its axis. M. Cas- sini, also in 1666, observed spots on the two hemispheres of Mars, which per- formed one revolution in 24 hours ; and in 1670 Maraldi repeated these observa- tions of Cassini ; and before the year 1720 the motion and period of this planet were satisfactorily determined. MARSEILLES, department, mouths of the Rhone, France, founded by a Greek colony from Phocis about a.c. 600. In the ilth century it erected itself into a republic, and was united to the crown of France in the reign of Louis XIV. In 1720 the plague broke out here and carried off" about 60,000 in- habitants. Marseilles was agitated along with all other parts of France by the troubles of the revolution ; and in 1793 it was entered by the forces of the convention. In January, 1794, the Jacobins dreading a counter-revolu- tion, ordered the inhabitants to be dis- armed and tlie town to be declared in a state of rebellion. It was not restored to tranquillity till the assumption of power by Buonaparte in 1799- MARSH, Herbert, D.D.,F.R.S.,&c. bishop of Peterborough, professor of di- vinity in the University of Cambridge, and author of many theological works and controversial publications, died May 1, 1839. MARSTON, Long, Yorkshire. Near this place is Marston Moor, celebrated for the defeat sustained by prince Rupert in 1644, from the parliamentary army. MARTABAN, town, Birman empire, was captured by the British, Nov. 1824; but by the provisions of the treaty of 1826, relinquishing the north bank of the Saluen, it was restored to the Burmese. MARTIAL, Marcus Valerius, the Latin epigrammatist, born at Bilboa, 34, died 109. MARTIN, Richard, the founder of the Humane Society for the Protection of Animals, died 1835, aged 80. Martin, Rev. Thomas, author of "Flora Cantabrigiensis," died 1825. MARTINIQUE, or Martiniccouc of the largest of the Caribbee islands, was first colonized by M. Besnambuc, a Frenchman, in 1635. The French con- fined themselves at first to the culture of tobacco and cotton ; that of sugar was not begun till about 1650. Ten years after, cocoa trees became the principal support of the colonists ; but by the in- clemency of the season, in l7l8,all the trees were destroyed. The culture of coflEee was then begun, and attended with the greatest success. The war of 1744, however, put a stop to its prosperity, till the freedom of trade was restored by the return of peace. Martinique fell into the hands of the British in 1794 ; was re- stored to France by the treaty of peace in 1801 ; was several times taken and re- taken till it again reverted to the French at the general peace in 1815. It suffered from an earthquake in 1839, by which nearly half of Fort Royal was destroyed, aearly 700 persons killed, and the whole much damaged. MARTIN'S, St., a Danish island in the West Indies, taken by the English, March 24, 1801. MARTYN, John, professor of botany at Cambridge, born Sept. 12, 1699, died Jan. 29,1768, in the 69th year of his age. MAR 637 MAS MARTYN, Justin, a Christian father, who flourished in the second cen- tury, was born in Flavia Neapolis, an- ciently called Sichem, a city of Samaria, in Palestine. His conversion happened about 132. In 140 he presented his first apology to the emperor Antoninus Pius. He suffered martyrdom about l64. MARTYR, Peter, a celebrated re- former, was born at Florence in 1500. About 1542 he was invited to Strasburg, where he filled, for the space of five years, the theological chair. In 1546 he married a nun who had escaped from a convent and became a protestant. In the following year he was sent to Eng- land by King Edward VI., and made professor of divinity at Oxford, in 1549. He wrote a great number of works, and died in 1562. MARUM, Dr. Martin Van, se- cretary to the Batavian Society of Sci- ences, at Haarlem, who superintended the publication of their transactions for many years. It was under his directions that the great electrical machine belong- ing to the Teylerian Museum was con- structed ; and he published in 1795 and 1800, the results of a very e.xtensive se- ries of experiments on the various forms of electrical phenomena which were pro- duced by it ; and more particularly with reference to a comparison of its effects with those produced by a powerful vol- taic pile, which were undertaken at the express request of Volta himself. Dr. Van Marum was remarkable for his very various acquirements, and was the au- thor of many memoirs in the Haarlem and other transactions, on botanical, chemical, physical, and other subjects. He was a man of the most simple habits, and of the most amiable character, and devoted himself most zealously, during the greatest part of a very long life, to the cultivation of science, and to the pro- motion of the interests of the establish- ment over which he presided. He died 1838. MARVEL, Andrew, the incorrupti- ble patriot and senator, born 1620, died 1 678, in a state of so virtuous indigence, that he was interred at the expense of his constituents. MARY, Queen of England, born Feb. 11, 1516, proclaimed July 9, 1553, and crowned Oct. 1 following. Mar- ried Philip of Spain, July 15, 1554, died Nov. 17, 1558 ; was buried at AVest- minster. MARY'', Queen of Scots, daughter of James v., was born Dec. 8, 1542. At six years of age she was conveyed to France, where she received her education in the court of Henry II. She married the dauphin in 1558, when her husband received the crown matrimonial of Scot- land, On the death of Henry II. he became king of France : he died after a reign of 16 months. Mary next mar- ried Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, July 29, 1565. On Feb. 10, 1567, the house in which he resided was blown up with gunpowder, and his dead body, without any marks of violence, was found in an adjoining field. Mary married the earl of Both well. May 15, following. She was soon after obliged to resign the crown, and was thrown into prison. In the castle of Fotheringay she was beheaded on Feb. 8, 1787, in the 45th year of her age. Twenty years afterwards her bones were, by order of her son. King James I., removed to Westminster, and deposited among those of the kings of England. MASON, Rev. William, author of "The English Garden," born 1725, died 1797. MASONS' Company, London, in- corporated 1677. MARYLAND, one of the United States of North America, was granted by Charles I. to George Calvert, Lord Bal- timore . The first settlement was formed by his son Leonard Calvert, together with about 200 Catholics, in 1634 ; and it was named Mar3'land, from Henrietta Maria, the queen of Charles. In 1687 the government was taken from Lord Baltimore, and Mr. Copley was ap- pointed governor by commission from William and Mary in 1692, when the protestant religion was established by law. The constitution of this state was formed in 1776. MASKELYNE, Rev. Nevil, astro- nomer-royal, and institutor of the " Nau- tical Almanack," died 1811. MASS, first celebrated in Latin 394, introduced into England 680 ; prostra- tion required at the elevation of the host, 1202. MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States of North America, and one of the earliest colonies from England. The first settlement was formed by 101 per- sons who fled from religious persecution in England, landed at Plymouth, Dec. 22, 1620, and laid the foundation df Plymouth colony. The territory of MAS 638 MAS Massachusetts comprised, for many years after its first settlement, two se- ])arate colonies, styled the Plymouth colony and the colony of Massachusetts Bay. The constitution of this state was framed in 1780, and amended in 1S21. MASSACRE, the sudden and promis- cuous butchery of a multitude. The following are some of the most remark- able massacres recorded in history : — A.c. 397. Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily. 331. 2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 put to the sword for not surrendering 'i'yre to Alexander. 1 54. The Jews of Antioch fell upon the other inhabitants, and massacred 100,000 for refusing to surrender their arms to Demetrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria. 102. A dreadful slaughter of the Teu- ton3S and Ambrones, near Aix, by Ma- rius, the Roman general, 200,000 being left dead on the spot. 89. The Romans, throughout Asia, women and children not excepted, cruelly massacred in one da)', by order of Mith- ridates, king of Pontus. 8G. A great number of Roman se- nators massacred by Cinna, Marius and Seitorius, and several of the patricians dispatched themselves to avoid their horrid butcheries. 82 and 79. Again, under Sylla, and CatiUne, his minister of vengeance. 41. At Praeneste, Octavius Ctesar or- dered 300 Roman senators, and other persons of distinction, to be sacrificed to the manes of Julius Ceesar. A.D. 70. At the destruction of Jeru- salem 1,000,000 Jews were put to the sword. 197. Cassius, a Roman general, under the Emperor M. Aurelius, put to death 37,000 of the inhabitants of Seleucia. 213. At Alexandria, of many thou- sand citizens, by order of Antoninus. 277- The Emperor Probus put to death 700,000 of the inhabitants on his reduction of Gaul. 370. Of 80 christian fathers, by order of the Emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia ; they were ])ut into a ship, which was set on fire, and driven out to sea. 390. At Thessalonica, when upwards of 7000 persons, invited into the Circus, were put to the sword by order of Theo- dosius. 475. In England, 300 English nobles, by Hengist. 532. Belisarius put to d£ath above 30,000 citizens of Constantinople for a revolt, on account of two rapacious mi- nisters set over them by Justinian. 1002. Of the Danes, in the southern counties of England. In the night of the 1 3th of November, at London, it was the most bloody, the churches being no sanctuary : amongst the rest, Gu- nilda, sister of Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for the performance of a treaty newly concluded. 1184. Of the Latins, by Andronicus, at Constantinople. 1189- Of the Jews, some few pressing into Westminster-hall, at Richard I.'s coronation, were put to death by the people, and a false alarm being given, that the king had ordered a general mas- sacre of them, the people in many parts of England, from an aversion to them, slew all they met ; in York, 500 who had taken shelter in the castle killed them- selves, rather than fall into the hands of the people. 1282. The Sicilians massacred the French throughout the whole island, without distinction of sex or age, on Easter-day, the first bell for vespers being the signal. This horrid affair is known in history by the name of the Sicilian vespers. 1572. Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French protestants, throughout the kingdom of France, attended with circumstances of the most horrid treachery and cruelty. It began at Paris in the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, by secret orders from Charles IX., king of France, at the instigation of the queen dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother. It is styled in history the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 1592. Of the christians in Croatia, by the Turks, when 65,000 were slain. 1600. Matins of Moscow, when all the Poles, adherents of Prince Deme- trius, wei'e assassinated at six o'clock in the morning, Aug. 25. 1624. Of the English, by the Dutch at Amboyna. See Amboyna. 1641. Of the Protestants in Ireland, when 40,000 were killed. 1692. Of the Macdonalds at Glen- coe, in Scotland, for not surrendering in time according to King William's proclamation. See Glencoe. 1724. Of a great number of protest- ants at Thorn, who were put to death under a pretended legal sentence of tlie MAT 639 MAU chancellor of Polana, for being concerned in a tumult occasioned by a popish pro- cession. 1740. At Batavia, when 12,000 Chi- nese were killed by the natives in October. 1811. Dreadful massacre of the Ma- melukes in the citadel of Cairo, March 1. 1836. At Barcelona, of 100 Carlist prisoners, in January. MAfcioAiNiELLO the fisherman of Naples. See Anello. MASSILON, Jean Baptist, a ce- lebrated French preacher and bishop of Clermont, was born at Hieres in Pro- vence in 1663. His first Advent sermon at Versailles was received with great approbation by Louis XIV. In 17 17 the regent appointed him to the bishop- ric of Clermont. The next year, being destined to preach before Louis XV., who was only nine years of age, he composed in six weeks those discourses which are so well known by the name of ' Le Petit Careme." The funeral oration of the duchess of Orleans, in 1723, was the last discourse he pronounced at Paris. He died Sept. 28, 1742, at the age of 79- MASSINGER, Philip, a dramatic writer, died 1640, aged 55. MASULIPATAM, district, Hindoo- stan, pro\ance Northern Circars. It is mentioned by Marco Polo in 1295. In 1749 the French established a factory here ; and in 1751 received possession of the town and fort. It was taken by storm in 1759 by the British troops. After this event the town and adjacent territory were ceded to the British, with whom they have ever since remained. MATARIA, village, Egypt. On the 20th March, 1800, a bloody battle was fought here between the French and the Turks. MATHER, Rev. Dr. Cotton, theo- logian, born at Boston, America, 1663, died 1728. MATHIAS, J. T., author of "Pursuits of Literature," died May 1835. MATHISSON, Frederick, the well-known German poet and tourist ; he died March 12, 1831, aged 71. MATLOCK, Derbyshire, derives its importance from the mineral springs discovered about 1698. Tliereare three bathing establishments ; the Old Bath, the New Bath, and the Hotel ; and many lodging-houses have been erected for the reception of visitors. MATTHEW, St., died in 65. MATTHEW, of Westminster, En- glish historian, died 1379. M AIT HEWS, Charles, the eminent comedian, was born June 28, 1776; in 1793 made his first public appearance on the stage as Richmond in " Richard the Third," and Bowkitt, in the " Son-in- Law." He was engaged in Aug., 1798, as principal low comedian at York, Leeds, Hull, Doncaster, and Wakefield, for the sum of 305. weekly, and four benefits per year. He made his first appearance at the Haymarket May 15, 1803; in 1804 he was jointly engaged with Mrs. Matthews at Drury Lane ; and there and at the Haymarket they remained until September 15, 1810, when Mrs. Mat- thews quitted the stage. On Oct. 12, 1812, he appeared at Covent Garden where he v/as engaged for five years. In 1815 he was thrown out of his gig, and his right leg fractured. This occurred in the midst of the Haymarket season, and his absence visibly affected the re- ceipts. On April 2, 1818, he announced his intention of giving, at the English Opera-House, a monodramatic enter- tainment called " Matthews at Home." Night after night, and season after sea- son, the theatre was thronged. What- ever merits Matthews possessed as an actor on the stage, his quahties of de- scription, imitation, and illustration, off the stage, far transcended them. After six years' success with this enter- tainment, Mr. Matthews went, in 1823, to America, where he was extremely well received by the public. He return- ed, and acted at the English Opera, in the autum of 1823; and on March 25, following, he produced his "Trip to America." In 1832 Mr. Matthews undertook a second trip to America ; and, for the first time, gave his "At Home"" in the United States. He re- turned to England in 1833, and died June 28, 1835, aged 59. MATURIN, Rev. R. C, author of "Bertram," &c., died 1824. MAUDE, Empress, daughter of Henry I. of England, bom lioi ; mar- ried to Henry IV., emperor of Germany, 1109; had the English nobility swear fealty to her 1126 ; buried her husband 1127; was marriedto Jeffrey Plan taganet, earl of Anjou, 1130; was set aside from the English succession by Stephen 1135. She landed inEngland, and claimed a right to the crown, September 30, 1139 ; was M AU 640 M A Y crowned, but soon after defeated at Winchester 1141 ; escaped to Gloucester on a bier ; and from a window of Ox- ford Castle by a rope, in the winter of 1142 ; retired to France 1147 ; returned to England, and concluded a peace with Stephen 1153; died at Rouen in Nor- mandy, Sept. 10, 1167, and was buried in the abbey of Beec. MAUNDAY Thursday, the Thurs- day in passion week, observed in com- memoration of the day on which Jesus Christ instituted the Lord's Supper; ceremony commenced in 1362. MAUPKRTUIS, Peter Louis Mareau De, a French mathematician and philosopher.was born at St. Malo in 1698. In 1723 he was received into the Academy of Science ; and in 1743 into the French academy, which was the first instance of the same person bein^ a member of both the academies at Paris at the same time. In 1746 he was de- clared president of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and soon after honoured with the order of merit ; he died in 1759, at ttie age of 69. He was the author of several valuable works in French, as " The Figure of the Earth," " Nautical Astronomy," &c. MAURICE, Rev. Thomas, author of "Indian Antiquities," died 1824. MAURITIUS, or Isle of France, island, Indian ocean, was discovered in 1507, by Don Pedro Mascarenhas, a na- vigator of the Portuguese government, who named it Carne' ; they were masters of it almost the whole of the 16th cen- tur}^ In 1598 the Dutch admiral. Van Nerk, landed on the island, took posses- sion of it, and named it Mauritius, in honour of the prince of Orange. The Dutch had regular governors appointed, who resided at Grand Port from 1644 to 1712, when Mauritius was finally abandoned by them, and was subse- quently colonized by the French ; its formal occupation took place in 1721, when the name was changed from Mau- ritius to Isle de France, and the terri- tory given by the king to the French East India Company, under whose sway it remained, from 1722 to 1767- On the renewal of the charter of the company in 1784, the island became a commercial depot, and the population rapidly aug- mented. In 1789 Mauritius declared for a na- tional assembly, and endeavoured to shake off dependance on France. After a severe struggle the colonial assembly was dissolved, and the colonists enjoyed tranquillity. Buonaparte saw its impor- tant position for the annoyance of Bri- tish commerce ; and under the govern- ment of General Decaen, Mauritius assumed a leading part in the eastern hemisphere, to the great injury of Bri- tish trade. To put a stop to these pro- ceedings, an armament of 12,000 troops, with 20 ships of war, was dispatched from India, and from the Cape of Good Hope, for the conquest of -Mauritius, in 1810. A capitulation was entered into, and it became subject to the crown of Great Britain. At the peace of 1814 the acquisition was ratified, and the island has ever since remained a colony of the British empire. 1832. The island was agitated by the conduct of the planters in relation to slavery. July 8, arrival of Mr. Jeremie, formerly protector of slaves at St. Lucie, and who distinguished himself by several publications in favour of negro emanci- pation. No sooner had he landed than a great part of the white population as- sembled to resist his admission to oflSce, and a deputation represented to the go- vernor. Sir Charles Cohalle, the impos- sibility of maintaining the public peace if Mr. Jeremie was not dismissed. Sir Charles at length was induced to comply wth their demands, and Mr. Jeremie returned to England. 1838. Abolition of slavery in the is- land. On July 18, 1840, arrival of Sir Lionel Smith, as governor, the well- known friend of the coloured population, who was the same day duly installed be- fore the legislative assembly. MAXIMILIAN I., emperor of Ger- many, born in 1459; succeeded to the throne 1493. The famous league of Cambray against the Venetians, took place in 1509, to which Maximilian was one of the contracting parties. He sum- moned Luther to appear, with the pro- mise of a safe conduct, before the diet of Augsburg. He died in January, 1519. MAXIMILIAN II. was born in 1 527 ; succeeded to the empire in 1564 ; was distinguished for prudence and modera- tion. He died in 1576. . MAXIMUS, Tyrius, the Greek phi- losopher, flourished a.c. 100. MAY, Thomas, author of the "His- tory of Parliament," died 1652. MAYER, Tobia.s, the astronomer, born 1723, died 1762. MliA G4l M EC MAYNOOTH, town, Iieland, county Kildare. The Royal College here, for the education of persons professing the Roman Catholic religion, was founded in 1795, conformable to an act of parlia- ment then passed. The number of stu- dents amounts to 330. The ecclesias- tical establishment is supported by an- nual parliamentary grants. The lay college depends upon subscriptions, and was opened in 1802. MAYOR, the chief magistrate of a city or town, had its origin in England, in the year 1191, when king Richard I. changed the bailiff of London into a mayor ; and from that example King John made the hailifl of Lynn Regis a mayor in 1204. The title of Lord Mayor of London first instituted in 1354. The city of Norwich did not obtain the title of mayor for its chief magistrate till the seventh year of King Henry V., in 1419, since which there are few towns of note but have had a mayor appointed. MAXTOCK Castle, Warwickshire, built 1346; burned down Aug. 1, 1762; Priory built 1337. MAZARINE, Cardinal Julius, ?rime minister of France, was born at 'iscina, in Italy, in 1602 ; made cardinal by Louis XIII. In 1641, during the minority of Louis XIV., he had the sole management of affairs ; he caused the president Blancmesnil and the counsel- lor Broussel to be imprisoned, which was the signal for the civil wars which commenced in 1648. Mazarine was af- terwards proscribed as a public disturber of the peace ; but an accommodation was effected in 1649. In 1650 fresh distur- bances led the parliament to issue a de- cree, banishing Mazarine fiom the king- dom ; but in 1653 he returned to Paris amidst the acclamations of the people. He died at Vinciennes in I66I. M'CRIE, Dr. T. M., author of the life of Knox, was a native of Dunse, Scot- land. In 1805 he separated from the General Associate Synod, and joined in founding the Constitutional Associate Presbytery ; his life of John Knox was published in 1812 ; he died August 5, 1835, aged 63. MEAD, Richard, an eminent En- glish physician, took his degree of doc- tor of philosophy and physic at Padua in 1695 ; he was made physician to King George II. in 1727; he died February 16, )754. His reputation as a physician and a scholai- was so universally esta- blished, that he corresponded with all the principal literati in Europe. MEAL-TUB Plot, as denominated from the place where the papers con- cerning it were found, a forged conspi- racy against James II. 1679- MEASURES. See Weights and Measures. MECHAIN, M., a French astronomer, born August 16, 1774, died Sept. 4, 1805. MECHANICS. The simple mecha- nical powers must have been known to the ancients ; but when first introduced is not known ; nor even the machinery by which the immense masses of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved and elevated. a.c. 320. First writing on mechanics by Aristole about this time. 205. The fundamental property of the lever demonstrated ; the pulley said to be demonstrated; and the centre of gra- vity treated of by Archimedes ; hand- mill or quern used at a very early period, the remains of Roman hand-mill found in Yorkshire ; cattle-mill {molce jumen- taricB) also used by the Romans. 70. Water-mill, probably invented in Asia ; the first described was near the dwelling of Mithridates about this time. 50. Water-mill erected on the Tiber, about this time. a.d. 500. About this time Roman water-mills were placed on the canals. 536. Floating- mills on the Tiber. 1078. Tide-mills at Venice about this period. 1200. Wind-mills, when they were in- troduced is uncertain, but they were common in the 12th century. 1332. Saw-mills said to be used at Augsburg. 1540. Theory of the inclined plane investigated by Cardan about this time. 1586. Work on statics by Scevinus. 1638. Theory of falling bodies by Galileo. 1647. Theory of oscillation by Huj'- gens, about this time. 1662. Laws of collision by W^allis, Huygens, Wren, about this time. 1675. Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels by Roemer. 1679. Percussion and animal mecha- nics by Borelli, who died this year. Ap- plication of mechanics to astronomy, paralleiogism of forces, laws of motion, &c. by Newton. 1697. Problem of the catenary Avith the analysis by Dr. Gregory. 4 .N MED 642 MED The solution of the problem of the centre of oscillation was brought forward again in 1714, and further illus- trated by the BernouilUs, and Dr. Tay- lor, &c. John Bernouilli employed for this purpose the principle of tensions ; Euler that of pressures ; Daniel Ber- nouilli that of virtual power. The pro- blem was further illustrated by D'Alem- bert. His general principles were first developed in ] 743, but more fully treated of in his " Treatise of Dynamics," pub- lished in 1749. The science of dyna- mics was still further enriched, in 1765, by an important discovery by Segner, who demonstrated "that if a bofiy of any size and figure, after rotatory or gyratory motions in all directions have been given to it, be left entirely to itself, it will always have three principal axes of rotation." This theory was treated at length by Albert, son of Euler, in his paper ' On the Stowage of Ships," which shared the prize of the Academy of Sciences at Paris for I76I. Very little improvement in the theory of mechanics during the present centurj', but their application to the mechanical and useful arts present new subjects every year. MEDIdNE, or the healing art. Its origin has been attributed by the Egyp- tians to Thoth, the Hermes or Mercury of the Greeks. /Esculapius became ce- lebrated about A.c. 1100. After his death for many succeeding centuries, the practice of medicine in Greece was confined to his descendants. Hippo- crates, who appeared about the fifth century before Christ, was possessed of endowments particularly adapted to the cultivation of medical science. He effected a total revolution both of opi- nion and practice. For nearly a century subsequent to the death of Hippocrates, Greece continued to be the exclusive seat of medical knowledge. The first who practised at Rome was Archagathus a native of Peloponnesus, who came to Italy about a.c. 200. Nearly a century after, Asclepiades made his appearance. His pathology was founded on the Cor- puscularian philosophy of Epicurus. His pupil Themison became the founder of a new sect called the Methodic. Cel- sus lived at the commencement of the christian era during the reign of Tibe- rius. His work " De Medicina," is ap- propriated to external diseases, surgical ooerations, and pharmacy. About the second century of the chris- tian era, Galen of Pergamus arose, whose talents acquired for him a despotic as- cendency in the schools of medicine, which was very unfavourable to the pro- gress of the science. Some centuries after this the Aiabians became the prin- cipal depositories of medical science, and by them it was very assiduously culti- vated. Though the disciples of this school paid a too obsequious deference to the authority of Galen, yet several diseases of great importance were discovered by them, and they added a considerable number of valuable articles to the Ma- teria Medica. The discoveries of the chemists and anatomists in the l6>h and I7th cen- turies, began to lessen the excessive veneration for the ancients which had hitherto prevailed. See Chemistry and Anatomy. The first in point of cele- brity who combined medicine and che- mistry was Paracelsus, a native of Switzerland, who flourished at the com- mencement of the 16th century. From this period to the commencement of the 17th century, the medical world was divided into the two sects of the Galen- ists and the Chemists. The latter sect gradually assiiraed a more scientific form, and their opinions were embraced by men of learning and character, amongst whom may be mentioned Syl- vius and Willis. The latter was one of the original members of the Royal So- ciety. His first appearance as an author was in the year 1659. His observations on the phenomena of diseases discover great correctness and acumen. Con- temporary with Willis was his moi"e celebrated countryman Sydenham, who has been designated the English Hippo- crates. Baglivi, and after him Hoffmann, at the close of the 17th century, first promulgated correct views on the pro- perties and action of the living fibre. In the 18th century important discoveries were made in the department of morbid anatomy. Bonetus led the way ; and the course of investigation which he had commenced, was pursued on a very ex- tensive scale by the celebrated Morgagni, and Haller. In the present century are writers of modern date who, disclaim- ing theory, have devoted themselves to the investigation of particular diseases. Among these, Heberden,Fothergill, Rus- sel, Cieghorn,- and Lind, distinguished themselves. And although no very pecu- MEL liar discovery has been recently made, inany living authors of deserved eminence and celebrity have contributed largely to the advancement of medical science. MEDICIS, or Medici, Cosmo De, called the " father of his country," born 1389, died 1464. MEDICIS, or Medici, Lorenzo De, styled the " Magnificent," was the grandson of Cosmo, and the son of Piero de Medicis, both celebrated citizens of Florence, and was born January 1, 1448. After tlie death of his father, at the re- qtiest of the people of Florence, he took upon himself the post of head of the rejiublic. He had incurred the displea- sure of pope Sixtus IV., who attempted his assassination and that of his brother, on Sunday April 26, 1478, and the ca- thedral was the place appointed for this horrid tragedy. But by the interference of the magistrates, Lorenzo escaped, and was conducted home in safety. Having distinguished himself beyond any of his predecessors, in the encouragement of literature and the arts, and by his public conduct, he died 1492, in his 44th year. MED WAY, a river of England, chiefly nsnning through the county of Kent. In the tempest which happened in Nov. 1703, the Royal Charlotte was driven on shore and lost. Oct. 19, 1840, a fearful accident happened on this river, near Chatham, by which seven men perished belonging to a party of "lumpers," 15 in number, who had been at work on board a merchant ship in the river. VIEGARA, a celebrated city of ancient Greece, was engaged in various wars wi,th Athens and Corinth ; it is now only a small village, retaining its original name ; it was much infested by Corsairs in 1676. Thevaiwode, or Turkish gover- nor, who resided in a forsaken tower above the village, was once carried off. The placewas burnedby the Venetiansin 1687. MEHEMET, or Mohamed, Ali, viceroy ot Egypt, was born at Cavala, in Macedonia, in 1769 ; was appointed pacha of Egypt by the sultan of Turkey in 1806. He has governed the country, in a great measure, according to Euro- pean princij)les, and has recently thrown off all allegiance to the Turkish govern- ment. His son Ibrahim Pacha, born 1784, the general of his armies, now makes a conspicuous figure in the East. See Egypt. MELA PoMPONius, an ancient geo- gra])hical writer, was born in the pro- 643 MEL vinceof Bcetica, in Spain, and flourished in the first century of the christian era, m the reign of the Emperor Claudius. He published a work in three books, " De Situ Orbis : " Isaac Vossius gave an edition of it in 1658, MELANCTHON, Philip, the cele- brated reformer, was born at Brettan, in Saxony, in 1497. In 1509 he went to Heidelberg, and made a most rapid .pro- gress in the classics and other branches of literature. Before he had attained the age of 17 he was elected doctor of philo- sophy, and in 1518 he was appointed by the elector of Saxony professor of the Greek language in the University of Wit- temberg. In 1519 he accompanied Lu- ther to Leipsic, to be witness of his ec- clesiastical combat with Eckius ; and in 1520 dehvered a course of lectures at Wittemberg on the Epistle of the Ro- mans, with which Luther was so highly pleased that he caused it to be published. Soon after he was engaged with Luther in drawing up a system of laws relating to church government, which John of Saxony promulgated in his dominions in 1529- In 1530 the protestant princes employed Melancthon to compose the Augsburg Confession of Faith. In 1541 he was present at the conferences at Ra- tisbon, and in 1548 he assisted at seven conferences on the subject of the interim of Charles V. He was employed in ar- ranging the order of the churches and academies in Misnia in 1553, and assist- ing at a conference at Nuremberg in 1554. He died at Wittemberg in 1560, at the age of 63. His literary powers and attainments were of no common or- der. To an excellent memory and great natural acuteness, he added indefatigable application in the investigation of every important subject, an undeviating love of truth, and great elegance as well as per- spicuity of diction. MELOS, one of the Grecian islands, situate between Crete and the Pelopon- nesus, was originally peopled by a La- cedssmonian colony, a.c. 1116. It en- joyed its independence for about 700 years before the Peloponnesian war. It now belongs to the new kingdom of Greece. MELROSE, a burgh of barony and market town, Roxburgh, Scotland. At a short distance from the town, on the southside of the Tweed, is the abbey of Melrose, which was founded in 1136. by David I. MEM 644 MEN MELVILLE, Henry, Viscount. See DuNDAS. MELVILLE, Lord, transport, wreck- ed near Kinsale harbour, when 11 per- sons were drowned, Jan. 31, 1816. MEMORY, extraordinary instances of. Seneca, whodied A. c.64,was able to repeat ■2000 words upon once hearing them, each in its order ; though they had no depen- dence or connection on each other. Dr. Wallis, who died in 1703, could perform arithmetical operations, as multiplica- tion, division, extraction of roots, &c. to forty places. Recent instances of the extraordinary exercise of the faculty are to be found in Jedediah Buxton, and Zerah Colburn; the latter was an American boy. When eix years old, in August IS 10, he began to manifest such powers of arithmetical computation as excited much wonder, and soon brought him into general no- toriety. He visited England in 1812; he was afterwards asked, by the duke ot Cambridge, the number of seconds emce the commencement of the chris- tian era, 1813 years, 7 months, and 27 days. The answer was correctly given : 57,234,384,000. He was asked the square root of 106,929, and before the number could be written down, he im- mediately answered, 327. He was then requested to name the cube root of 268,336,125, and with equal facility and promptness he replied 645. In July 1838, the remarkable youth, Gustave Adolphe Bassle, from the Hague, aged about 12 years, attended by his father. Chevalier Bassle, was introduced to his royal highness the duke of Sussex, accompanied by the Sicilian youth, Man- giamele, and several distinguished mem- bers of the Royal Society were present. Gustave Bassle first gave the relation of the circumference to the diameter of a circle, considered as unity, to 155 figures, without one fault ; after which the per- sons present demanded, at pleasure, the 35th, 9Sth, 73d, 140th, and 106th figures, and so forth, which he told almost in- stantly, without hesitation. On July 21 Chevalier Bassle lectured at the Royal Institution, and submitted to the au- dience programmes containing answers to upwards of 20,000 questions, by which each individual present could be satisfied of the accuracy of hismnemonical system. His son named the day of the week on which fell the first of January, from the commencement of the christian era till the adoption of the Gregorian calendar ; the same from that time till the year 2400, or to the most remote period; and the same for any day of the month, in any year whether common or bissextile. He repeated the numbers, denoting the proportion in any year, whether common or bissextile. He repeated the numbers, denoting the proportion of the circumfe- rence to the diameter, on the 154th place of decimals, backwards, forwards, or in any order ; and gave the figure ac- companying any piece taken at. random. MENAI Bridge. See Bridge, MENANDER, Greek comic writer, flourished A.c. 400. MENDICANTS, or Begging Fri- ars, were first patronised by Innocent III., and their number grew to such an enormous multitude, that Gregory X., in a general council, which he assembled at Lyons in 1272, suppressed them, as well as all the religious orders that had sprung up after the council held at Rome in 1215. MENGS, Anthony Raphael, a celebrated painter, was born at Ausig, in Bohemia, in 1728. At the age of 12 he went to Rome, and was there intro- duced to the works of M. Angelo, Ra- phael, &c. On the accession of Charles III. of Spain, he was sent for to Madrid, and arrived in Oct. 1761. He enjoyed a pension as first painter to the king tiUliis death in 1779. MENNONiTES, a sect in the United Provinces, who had their rise in 1536. They derive their appellation froraMenno Simon, a native of Friesland, born at Wilmarsum, a village in the neighbour- hood of Bolswert in 1505, who died 1561. MENTCHIKOF, Alexander, a statesman and general under the czar, Peter I , was the son of a peasant. The czar, by accident, discovering his talents, took him to serve about his person; and when he went on his travels for improve- ment he took Mentchikof for his com- panion. In 1706 he was created a prince of the German empire. He was victo- rious over the Swedes in the war against Charles XII., and had the command of the left wing of the Russians at the decisive battle of Pultowa in 1709- He died in November 1729. MENTZ, a town of Germany, grand duchy of Hesse. The university was founded by Charlemagne in 800, and established in 1482 by Archbishop MER 645 MET Diether. The town bad undergone many revolutions, and frequently changed its masters, until, in 1792, it was taken by the French ; but in the following year it was retaken. By the peace of Luneville in 1801 it was surrendered to the French, but was delivered up to the allies in 1814. MEQUINENZA, fortress of Spain, taken by the French June 8, 1810- capi- tulated to the Spaniards February 18, 1814. MERCATOR, Gerard, Flemish geo- grapher, born 1512, died 1594. MERCATOR, Nicholas, of Hol- stein, astronomer, died 1690. MERCATORS' Chart. See Chart MERCERS' Company, London, in corporated 1393. MERCIA, one of the kingdoms com- prising the Saxon heptarchy. See Eng- land, p. 423, 424. MERCHANT Tailors' Company, London, incorporated 1466. MERCHANT Tailors' School, founded 1568. MERCURY, the planet, passed over the sun's disc, visible to the naked eye, from 12 to 2 o'clock, at London, Nov. 25, ]769. MERCURY, quicksilver, discovered to be anti-venereal by Corpus, an Italian surgeon, 1512; first given to patients under inoculation, 1745 ; rendered mal- leable by Orbelin, at Vienna, 1785. MERIDA, town, Spain, in Estreraa- dura, under the Goths was the see of an archbishop ; and here a great church council was held in the year 666. It was besieged and taken by the Moors in 713, and was for some time the capital of a small Moorish kingdom : retaken by the Spaniards in 1230. In the penin- sular war it was taken by the French in January, 1811, and retaken by General Hill in Jan., 1812. MERIT, a military order of knight- hood in Prussia, instituted in 1730. MERLIN, the prophet, lived 477- MERRICK, James, divine and poet, born 1720, died 1769- MERTHYR-TYDVIL, or Tudfil, town, Glamorganshire, chiefly remark- able for its iron founderies commenced in 1755, when Mr. A. Bacon, member for Aylesbury, obtained a lease for 99 years of a tract of land, upon which he erected extensive iron and coal-works. There were alarming disturbances at this place, which ended with the loss of several hves, June 3, 1831 MERTON. Walter De, founder of Merton College, 0.\ford, died 1277. MESSIER, C, astronomer, born 1730, died 1817. • MESSINA, city, island of Sicily, most remarkable in history for its mis- fortunes, particularly the plague of 1743, and the earthquake of 1783. The former carried off more than half the inhabitants. In consequence of these calamities, se- veral immunities were granted to the inhabitants. They were exempted in 1783 from the payment of taxes for a period of 25 years, and their harbour was declared a free port. MESSOLUNGHI, Mesalongi, or MissoLONGHi, town of modern Greece, situate in the Gulf of Patras. It was taken by the Turks in 1826, dunng the late Grecian war, and the inhabitants nearly all put to the sword. So obstinate was the conflict, and so ruthless the massacre, that, although two or three thousand Greek troops perished, only 1 50 were returned as having been taken alive. The male population above 12 years of age were exterminated. Be- tween three and four thousand women and children survived, to be carried into slavery, Messolunghi surrendered to the Greeks by capitulation. May 17, 1829. METASTASIO, the Italian dramatist, born 1698, died 1782, aged 84. METELIN E, island in the Archipelago, had 2000 houses, &c. destroyed by an earthquake, May 27, 1755. METEORS, luminous phenomena, chiefly occasioned by atmospherical elec- tricity. Sometimes they take their course in a straight line, at others in the form of a curve, leaving a luminous train be- hind them, exhibiting for a time the ap- pearance of a comet. Some of these meteors when about to disappear are di- vided into numerous small bodies, ac- companied with an explosion, followed by showers of stony or metallic sub- stances called aerolites, meteoric stones, or meteorites. See Aerolites. These phenomena have latterly been the subject of very minute examination. The following are some of the most re- cently described : — Fall of a meteorite in Brazil, December 11, 1836, about half- past eleven p.m., over the village of Ma- cao, at the entrance of the river Assu ; it immediately burst with a loud crackhng noise, and a shower of stones, within a circle of ten leagues. They came into several houses, and buried themselvea MET 646 MEX some feet derp in the sand. The weight of those picked up varied from 1 to 80 podnds. Specimens were sent to thePa- risian academy to be analysed byBerthier. 1838. Remarkable meteor, without any falling body, observed March 7, near Kensington Palace, at about ten minutes before eleven o'clock. The arc described was at least 30 degrees. The meteor was not seen till its full briUiancy had been obtained ; and the whole course must have been 40 degrees or more. The gas lamps on the road were dull com- pared to its glowing brightness. Meteoric stone at the Cape of Good Hope observed the same year, October 13. Its appearance was that of a silvery hue, traversing the atmosphere for a dis- tance of about 60 miles, and then ex- ploding with a loud noise, like that from artillery, which was heard over an area of more than 70 miles in diameter, the air at the time being calm and sultry. The entire mass was estimated at about five cubic feet, according to Dr. Faraday's " Chemical Account" ot'the above meteor. 1839. Fall of a meteorite in Mis- souri on the afternoon of Feb. 13, which exploded near the settlement of Little Piney (lat. 37" 55' N., long. 92^^ 5' W.), End cast down to the earth one stony n ass or more in that vicinity. Although ihe ground was covered with three or four inches of snow, there was found a meteoric stone, about as large a man's head, partly imbedded in the earth. The total weight of all the fragments collected was 973 grains, METHODISTS, a term first applied to a sectof ancient physicians, wlio reduced the whole art of healing to a few com- mon principles or appearances. After- wards the denomination was given in the l7thcentnr}'to the doctors of the Romish church, in opposition to the Huguenots or Protestants, Lastly, the term in the present day was applied to the fol- lowers of Mr. John Wesley and Mr. Whitefield. and latterly has been confined to those of Mr. Wesley, In 1735 Mr. John Wesley, Mr.White- field, and others, while at college at Ox- ford, associated for reading the Greek Testament and religious exercises, which became the origin of the sect. It is said that the regularity of their lives induced the students of Christchurch to exclaim that " a new sect of methodists was sprung up :" alluding to the sect of an- cient physicians who bore that name. The methodists who were followers of Mr- Whitefield may date their origin in America, in 1739, when he landed at Philadelphia, and instantly began his spiritual labours, which were attended with astonishing success wherever he went. His followers were afterwards very numerous in the United Kingdom, particularly in London and its vicinity, 'dt Bristol, Bath, &c. The sect of Wesleyan Methodists, to which the term is now almost exclusively applied, commenced in 1738, when Mr. Wesley applied himself with the greatest assiduity and success to the propagation of his doctrine. Multitudes of converts were made in various parts of the king- dom, and the reproaches poured upon him by his opponents seemed to have rendered his zeal more fervent if possible than before. From the year 1738 to 1747, he, and the itinerant preachers in his connection, were employed in various parts of England. In 1750 they had formed 29 circuits, which emph)yed 67 itinerants, besides a considerable num- ber of local preachers. In 1767 the number of itineiant preachers was not more than 9"2, and of the people in the societies 25,911. In the year 1840 the 97th annual meeting of the conference was held at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, com- mencing July 29, when it appeared from the report that the number of preachers was 1078 ; of members belonging to the society in Great Britain 323,178; in Ire- land 27,047 : total throughout the world, includmg the United States and Upper Canada, &c. &c., 1,137.424. METHUSELAH died a.m. 1656, aged 969. METONIC Cycle, Lunar Cycle, or Golden Number, a period of 19 years, invented by Meton, A.c.432,atthe end of which the moon is supposed to ar- rive at the same point with respect to the sun that slie was in at the beginningof it. MEXICO, or New Spain, was first imperfectly discovered by a Spaniard named Nunez de Balboa; and in 1518 the conquest of it was undertaken by Ferdinand Cortez. He sailed from the Havannah, in Cuba, in Feb. 1519 ; en- tered the city of Mexico, Oct. 29, and soon after seized the emperor Montezuma. Retreat of the Spaniards from Mexico, 1520. The important battle of Otumba, July 7, in which the Spaniards were vic- torious, laid the foundation of their ulti- mate success. Cortez began his march M EX 54/ MIC towards Mexico, about six months after his fatal retreat from that city, Dec. 28. The siege of Mexico commenced 1521, and the city was taken Aug. 13. The fate of the capital decided that of the em- )»ire ; the provinces submitted one after another to the conquerors; small detach- ments of Spaniards marching through tliem without interruption, penetrated in different quarters to the great Southern Ocean, and Mexico remained in the hands of the Spaniards. When the Mexicans had been brought to bear pa- tiently the yoke of their conquerors, and the colonists had become tranquil pos- sessors of all the treasures of the country, the warlike spirit insensibly declined ; and the kingdom of New Spain, with the other settlements, enjoyed a peace of two centuries and a half. Till the late strug- gle for independence, the internal tran- quillity of Mexico was very rarely dis- turbed after the year 1596, when the do- minion of the Spaniards was established over all the territories, from the penin- sula of Yucatan and the Gulf of Tehuan- tepec, to the sources of the Rio del Norte and the coast of New California. 1810. Commencement of the civil commotions, which continued to agitate the country for several years. In 1821 the Mexicans were enabled to throw oflF the yoke of Spain, to desert the viceroys, and proclaim, under Iturbide, the inde- pendence of Iguala. The empire was in- stituted in 1822 by Iturbide, under the title of Augustine I. The republic com- menced in 1823, when the Mexicans drove the emperor (by a declaration of Casa Mata) from the throne, to which but the year before he had been elevated by the same body. After many vicissi- tudes, the Mexicans succeeded in form- ing a'constitution nearly on the model of that of the United States. On Oct. 4, 1824, the constitution was solemnly sworn to. Commerce and credit soon revived with the establishment of fi'eedom ; the revenue increased ; and the country, en- joying peace, was rapidly advancing in improvement. But revolts and conspi- racies in portions of the immense terri- tory succeeded, and afforded constant occupation to the new government, (un- der the president Victoria), which seemed hardly to have acquired sufficient strength for the arduous duties demanded from it. Nev/ commotions, in Dec. 1828, produced a civil war, which threatened the most disastrous consequences, and which ter- minated in another revolution in 1830, attended with circumstances of disorder and atrocity, for several years ; which, from the comparatively settled state of Victoria's government, had not at all been expected. 1835 Acentral constitution establish- ed, of which Santa Anna was madehead. 1836. Revolt of the province of TeXae, which was assisted by the United States. See Texas. 1838. Dispute with France ; blockade of the coast by a French squadron. Con- vention between Admiral Baudin and the Mexican general, Don Manuel Rincon ; the articles of which provided that 1000 Mexican troops should remain at Vera Cruz to preserve order ; that the block- aded ports should be opened to com- merce ; and that the fortress of St. John d'Ulloa should be evacuated when the differences between France and Mexico were decided. The war between France and Mexico was at length terminated by the mediation of England. Mr. Paken- ham, the British minister. Admiral Bau- din, and Generals Gorostija and Victoria, having had several interviews, a treaty of peace was signed, March 9, 1839 : Mexi- co to pay 600,000 dollars, the Castle of St. Juan d'Ulloa, with its artillery, to be delivered up; the Mexicans were at liberty to make treaty of commerce with the French, (for which no terms were sti- pylated); and the prizes made by France, and the losses resulting on both sides from the war, to be left to the arbitration of'England. 1840. A new revolution broke out in July, in favour of federalism, under Ge- neral Urrea. The garrison of the city of Mexico, with other troops, declared for the federation, and proceeded to the government palace, where they arrested the president Bustamente, and left the palace as well as the cathedral, the De- putacion, and the convents of San Do- mingo and San Francisco, in the power of the disaffected. General Almonte, mi- nister of war, strengthened himself in the citadel, being resolved to defend him- self to the utmost. MEYER, the constructor of lunar tables for the English government, died 1762. MEZZOTINTO. See Engraving. MICAH, prophet, flourished a.c. 754. MICHAEL'S, St., festival, first ob- served 487. MID 6lH MIL MICHAEL'S, St., order of kniaht- hood, began in France 14C9; in Germany ]618 ; in Naples, time unknown. MICHAELIS. John David, a cele- brated German theologian, was born at Halle, Feb. 27, 1717. In 1741 he came to England, where his superior know- ledge of the Oriental languages, intro- duced him to the acquaintance, and gained him the esteem of our first lite- rary characters. On his return to Halle he obtained the place of secretary to the Royal Society there, of which he was di- rector in 1761. In 1786 he was made privy councillor of justice to the court of Hanover, and two years afterwards was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. He was professor in the Uni- versity of Gottingen 45 years ; and dur- ing that long period, he filled the chair with dignity, credit, and usefulness. He died Oct. 22, 1791, aged 74. MICKLE, William Julius, the poet, translator of the " Lusiad," born 17.35, died 1788. MICROSCOPE, invented byZachary Jansen and his son, who presented the first microscojjes they had constructed to Prince Maurice, of Nassau, and to Al- bert, archduke of Austria, about 1619- The knowledge of the microscope pre- vailed in Germany about 1624; and from thence it most probably was e.xtended to the neighbouring countries. The solar microscope, also known by the name of the Camera Obscura microscope, was invented by M. Lieberkulin about the year 1738, and has since been consider- ably improved. The oxy-hydrogen microscope, exhi- bited at the Adelaide Gallery, is among the most valuable of modern improve- ments. See Adelaide Gallery. Others of less importance are conti- nually being made ; the following is one of the most recent. The Pantocratic microscope, the invention of Professor Fisher, of Moscow, in 1839. With it the observer can, by simple and almost imperceptible movements, vary the mag- nifying power from 270 to 550, without obscuring the object, the degree of en- largement being registered on the body of the instrument. MIDDLESEX, county, England. Before the invasion of Britain by the Ro- mans, this county constituted part of the territories occupied by a Belgic tribe of people. When the Roman government was established here, Middlesex was comprehended in the province of Flavia Csesariensis ; but it owes its present ap- pellation to the Saxons. Part of Mid- dlesex was formerly a vast forest, well stocked with deer and other wild animals. The whole county may now be regarded as a sort of demesne to the metropolis, being interspersed with villas, and inter- sected by a multitude of roads leading to it. See LoNDox. MIDDLESEX Hospital, instituted 1745 ; built 1755 ; enlarged 1834 ; house of correction finished 1794. MIDDLETON, Dr. Conyers, au- thor of the " Life of Cicero," born 1683, died 1750. MIDDLETON, Sir Hugh, who brought the New River water to London, died 1631. MIDDLETON Stoney, Oxford- shire, burned down April 29, 1755. MIGUEL, Don. See Lisbon. MILAN, capital of the government of the same name, in the Lombardo-Vene- tian kingdom, reputed to have been built bytheGauls, about a. c. 408; submitted to the Romans, a.c. 222 ; was formed into a republic, A. c. 121 ; governed by dukes from 1395 till 1501; the French expelled from it by Charles V., of Ger- many, about 1525, who gave it to hia son Philip II. ; taken by the Imperialists 1796 ; given to Austria, on Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748 ; seized by the French 1796; retaken by the Austrians May 1799- MILAN Decree, by which Napo- leon declared England in a state of Ijlockade, and promulgated his prohibi- tory system, Dec. 17, 1807, which gave birth to the English orders in council. MILDMAY, Sir Walter, founder of Emanuel College, Cambridge, died 1640. MILE, the length of it first deter- mined, in 1593, to consist of 5280 feet, or 1760 yards; so that a square mile con- tains 27,178,400 square feet, or 640 square acres. MILITARY Academy, Woolwich, established 1741. MILITIA. King Alfred first settled a national militia in this kingdom, and by his prudent discipline, made all the sub- jects of his dominions soldiers. This was continued till the reign of James I. ; was revived under Charles II. The order in which the militia now stands by law is principally formed upon the statutes which were then enacted viz., 13 Car. II. MIL 649 MIN cap. 6; 14 Car. II. cap. 3 ; 15 Car. II. cap. 4. Ey the 42 Geo. III. cap. 90, the chief former acts relative to the mili- tia are from June 26, 1802, repealed, excepting such as relate to the city of London, Tower Hamlets, the Stannaries, and the Cinque Ports; and it is provided by this act, that " the king shall appoint lieutenants for the several counties, &c., with full power to call together, arm, aiTay, and cause to be trained and exer- cised certain persons, once in every year; and such lieutenants shall appoint 20 or more persons, duly qualified, to be de- puty lieutenants, and shall also appoint a proper number of colonels, lieutenant- colonels, majors, and other officers, qua- lified to train, discipline, and command the persons to be armed and arrayed." MILL, James, author of the "His- tory of British India," &c., died 1836, aged 63. MILLHOUSE, Robert, author of " The Destinies of Man," and various other poems, was the son of poor parents, and had no advantages of education, except those of a Sunday-school. His employ- ment was mostly in the stocking-loom, which he gave up in 1832, and devoted himself to composition. He died at Not- tingham, April 13, 1839, in his 51st year. MILLAR, John, author of the " Historical View of the English Govern- ment," died 1801. MILLER'S Patent Fire Bars. See Fire Bars. MILNER, Joseph, author of the " History of the Church," died 1797. MILTIADES, the celebrated Athe- nian general and the son of Cimon. At the battle of Marathon, a.c. 490, he was the means of obtaining a decisive victory, which delivered his country from a foreign yoke. He died a.c. 489. MILTON, John, the brightest or- nament of English poetry, was born in London, Dec. 9, 1608. At the age of 17 he was sent to Christ's College, Cam- bridge, where he made great progress in all parts of academical learning, but poetry was his chief delight. In 1628 he obtained the degree of bachelor of arts, and in 1632 that of master of arts. About 1637 he commenced his travels for improvement, and visited Rome, Naples, &c. On his return to England, he fixed himself in the metropolis, and undertook the education of his sister's sons. In 1641 he published four trea- tises relative to church government, in which he attacked episcopacy, and sup- ported the cause of the puritans. In 1644 he wrote his "Tract upon Educa- tion," and soon after protested boldly against the restrictions on the liberty of the press. In 1645 he pubhshed his juvenile poems. On the death of Charles I. he was taken into the service of the common- wealth, and made Latin secretary to the council of state. About 1652 he lost his eye-sight by a gutta serena. When Cromwell took the reins of government into his own hands in the year 1653 he still held his office ; and on the depo- sition of his successor, Richard Crom- well, and the return of the Long Parha- ment, he was still continued secretary. On the return of Charles II. our author chose to consult his safety, and retire to a friend's house in Bartholomew Close. His great work, the "Paradise Lost," which probably occupied his thoughts, with no considerable interruption, for 11 years, was first printed in 1667. " Paradise Regained " .was written soon after, upon a suggestion of his friend Elwood ; " Sampson Agonistes " was published about the same time. He died Nov. 8, 1674, at 66 years of age. In 1737 a monument was erected to him in Westminster Abbey. Dr. Johnson has spoken in the highest terms of his genius as a writer. " The * Paradise Lost,' " he says, " is a poem which, considered with respect to design, may claim the first place, and with respect to perform- ance, the second, among the productions of the human mind." MILTON, Lord Viscount, eldest son of Earl Fitzwilliam, and M. P. for North Northamptonshire, died of typhus fever, Nov. 8, 1835, aged 24. His early death occasioned very general regret. MINA, Don Francisco Esposy, the distinguished Spanish constitutional general. During the peninsular war in 1810 he rendered his name the terror of the French. In 1811 the regency gave him the rank of colonel ; in 1812 that of brigadier-general, and, soon after, that of general. His force in 1813 consisted of 11,000 infantry, and 2500 cavalry; and with this he co-operated in the blockade of Pampeluna, and recovered Saragossa, and several other places. On the conclusion of peace, disgusted with the policy of King Ferdinand, he sought an asylum in France, until the army of Cadiz raised the standard of freedom in MIN 650 MIN 1822, Avhen he was appointed captain- general of the three armies of Navarre, Catalonia, and Arragon; and was em- ployed in suppressing a formidable in- surrection in Catalonia. He remained in arms until the intervention of France, in 1823, again restored the absolute mo- narchy, when he took refuge in this country. He landed at Plymouth on Nov. 30, 1823. After the last change in aflfairs Mina was employed in the field against Don Carlos, till near his death, which took place Dec. 24, ]836, aged 55. MINDEN, a town of Prussia. In 1529 this town embraced the reforma- tion ; in 1757 it was taken by the French, and the following year retaken by the Hanoverians. In 1759 the French enter- ed it again ; but after the celebrated battle of Minden, August 1, they were obliged to quit it immediately. In I8O6 it was occupied by the French, and finally ceded to Prussia in 1814. MINE, a term applied to all works carried on underground, but principally used for those which have for their ob- ject the discovery of metallic ores. Mining in England had a very early origin. The Saxons neglected the pur- suit of the metals, but the Normans worked for them to advantage ; and until the reign of King John, the mines were mostly in the hands of Jews. Ed- ward I. caused the Jews to be banished; and various persons held the right of searching for mines in the reigns of Ed- ward III., Richard II., Henry IV., and Henry VI. The mines continued to be protected by the crown, and jjarticularly by Henry VII., until Edward VI., when they were neglected. Elizabeth esta- blished, in 1568, a corporation, which still exists, called The Society for the Mines Royal. The application of gun- powder for the purpose of blowing up the rocks, first took place in Germany about 1600, and the mode was first in- troduced into England about 1670. Cop- per-mines were discovered in 1691. In 1702 the first brass- work in England was erected near Bristol, which has con- tinued to this time. For an account of the coal-mines see Coal. 1839. According to the Geological Report for this year, the value of metals annually raised in the mines of Great Britain and Ireland, is about £ 1 0,597,000, and of this sum the iron amounts to £8,000,000. The value of the remaining metals would be £2,597,000, of which Cornwall and Devon would furnish ai)out £1,340,000, or more than one- half, leaving £1,257,000 for the value of all the metals, with the exception of iron, raised in other parts of the United Kingdom. The two great metallic pro- ducts of the Cornwall district are copper and tin: of the former it yields one- third, and of the latter, nine-tenths of the whole supply of copper and tin furnished by the British islands, and all the coun- tries of the continent of Euro])e. Mining in France. By an ac- count presented to the British Associa- tion in 1838, the mineral resources of France have of late years been rapidly developed. The increase in the A'alue of coal, iron, lead, antimony, cop- per, manganese, alum, and sulphate of iron since 1832, has been 45 per cent. There are 46 coal-fields in France; and great as the increase has been of late years in the produce of the French coal-mines, large establishments are forming in the great field of the Loire, as well as in other localities. At pre- sent, France ranks second among na- tions in the production of iron ; England beingstill immeasuraidy in the advance of France. There are in the latter country 12 distinct localities, or districts, in which the making of iron is prose- cuted : four-fifths of the fuel employed are wood ; coke was not used in the iron-works of France until 1821 ; and, at the present time, is employed almost exclusively for processes subsequent to smelting the ore. The production in France of metals, other than iron, is of little or no commercial importance at the present time. The whole value of lead and silver, antimony, copper, and manganese, amounted, in 1836, to less than £60,000, and gave employment to only 1760 workmen. MINERVA'S Temple at Athens built A.c. 450. MINORCA, island, Mediterranean Sea, the smaller of those called by the Romans Baleares. See Baleric Is- lands. MINOS, the lawgiver, reigned at Crete a.c. 1432. MINOTAUR of 74 guns, wrecked on the Haaks bank, when 480 of the crew perished, Dec. 22, 1810. MINT, the place in which the money of any state is coined. There were an- ciently mints in almost every county m England. In 928 Athelstan enacted I MIS 651 MIS that only one kind of coin should be current. Edward II. appointed a mas- ter, warden, comptroller, king's and master's assay master, and king's clerk, with several inferior officers ; and this constitution continued with but few changes till 1798, when a committee was appomted to consider the establishment and constitution of his majesty's mint. The result of this was the erection in 1811, of a new and elegant building on the eastern side of Tower Hill; and Boulton and Watts' system of coining machinery was adopted. The bullion, as received from the Bank of England, is first sent to the master of the mint's assay office, and received into the strong- hold, till its quality is ascertained. It is next delivered to the melting-house. When finished, the plates of silver are about three- sixteenths of an inch thick. In the coining rooms there are several coining presses worked by a steam-en- gine. The machines are worked with such rapidity, that each will produce about 60 in a minute, or allowing for necessary delays, about 19,200 in an hour, from eight machines. MIRABEAU, the French orator, who made himself conspicuous during the revolution, died 1791. MIRAMICHI, river. New Brunswick. A terrible conflagration in October, 1825, devastated a tract of country upwards of 300 miles in extent along the banks of this river. MIRRORS. See Burning Glasses. MISCHNA, or Misna, a part of the Jewish Talmud, containing the text, as the Geraara contains the commentaries. The Mischna consists of various tradi- tions of the Jews, and of explanations of several passages of scripture. Ac- cording to Prideaux's account, the Mischna was composed about a.d. 150, but Dr. Lightfoot says, that Rabbi Judah compiled it about 190. It has been published with a Latin translation by Surenhusius, in six vols, folio, Amster- dam, 1698. MISSIONS, a term applied in mo- dern times to the attempts made for the propagation of christianityamongheathen nations. The following are theprincipal : — Moravians or United Brkthren, commenced their labours by sending two or three missionaries to Green- land in 1733, who fixed their residence near the colony of Good Hope. The same year a mission was established at the island of St. Thomas, one of the West India islands ; in 1734 at Georgia, for the purpose of introducing Chris- tianity among the neighbouring Indians ; in 1736 at the Cape of Good Hope among the Hottentots; in 1738 near Surinam in South America. In 1752 they turned their attention to the be- nighted inhabitants of Labrador, 1840. The United Brethren have btill stations at the above places ; they have also extended their labours over various parts of Asia and Africa, and, though on a small scale, are conducting their exertions with energy and success. Baptist Missionary Society. This had its origin in the year 1792, when a few baptist ministers assembled at Kettering in Northamptonshire, where they opened a subscription for this im- portant purpose ; one of the earliest mis- sionaries was the late Dr. Carey. See Carey. 1840. This society has the following principal stations: — In the East Indies, (the scene of its earliest operations in 1793), Calcutta is at present the chief seat of the mission. Farther up the country about 20 principal stations are occupied, on each of which are depend- ent several sub-stations, and each of which constitutes a centre of operation for the surrounding country. In the islands of Ceylon, (commenced in 1812) Sumatra, and Java, the missionaries are training up native converts as teachers. — In the island of Jamaica, the principal scene of the labours of this society in the west (commenced in 1813) notwithstand- ing the difficulties attending a transition from bondage to freedom, the missionary work has been going forward with a high degree of prosperity. From the latest return, the number of members was 21,337; those under a course of religious instruction and examination, preparatory to church membership, amounted to 20,919; the day-schools contained 5413 scholars; the evening- schools 577, and the Sunday-schools 10,127- Missionary stations also are occupied in the Bahamas ; at Balize in the Bay of Honduras ; and in Graham's Town, South Africa. London Missionary Society, formed in 1795, consisted of christians of various denominations, who agreed to unite their efforts in the great work of evangelizing the heathen. The atten- tion of this society was first directed to- MIS 652 MIS wards the islands of the South Sea; and in 1796, 29 missionaries embarked on board a vessel purchased by the society, and established a mission there, which recently, under the auspices of the late Mr. Williams, has been attended with great success. In 1798 this institution sent four missionaries to the Cape of Good Hope in Africa, with Dr. Vander- kemp, Mr. Kicherer, and others. In 1804 this society sent out missionaries to India; and in 1807, to China, under the late Dr. Morrison, who settled at Macao. 1840. The following are the principal stations of this society: — In the South Sea, at the Fiji or Fejee Islands, the Geor- gian (or Wind ward) Islands, principally at Tahiti (or Otaheite), the Society Islands, the Hervey Islands, the Austral Islands, and the Navigators' Islands. — Ultra Ganges. China, Malacca, Singapore, Penang, and Java. — East Indies. Cal- cutta district : Kidderpore, Chinsurah, Berhampore, Moorshedabad, Benares, and Surat. Madras district; Madras, Vizagapatam, Cuddapah, Clittoor, Bel- gaum, Bellary, Bangalore, Salem, and Combaconum. South Travancore, Na- gercoil, Neyoor, Quilon, and Cimbatoor. — Russian Empire. St. Petersburgh, Siberia.— South Africa. Stations with- in the colony of the Cape : Cape Town, Paarl,Tulba5h, Boschesfeld, Caledon In- stitution, Pacaltsdrop, Port Elizabeth, Uitenhage, Graham's Town, GraafFRei- net, Theopolis, and Kat River. Stations without the colony : CafFerland, Griqua- Town,Tsantsaban, Campbel, Philippolis, Mission to the Bushmen, and Lattakoo. — Island of Madagascar. — West Indies. Demerara, Essequibo, Berbice, and Jamaica. Wesleyan Missionary Society. Although missionary exertions were com- menced in 1780, in the West Indies, by Dr. Coke and others, this society was not formed till 1820, when the whole number of members connected with the West India mission amounted to 22,157, besides 120,000 stated hearers, and 36 missionaries. 1840. The missionary stations of this society, which are very numerous, are undei- the direction of the Wesleyan Methodist Conference ; but are immedi- ately conducted by a committee. The following are the principal : — In India, commenced in 1817, Madras, Bangalore, Mysore, and Courg Country, Negapa- patam, Melnattam and Manaargoody. — ' In Ceylon, commenced in 1814, Colom- bo and Colpetty ; Kandy, Negombo, and Caltura; Galle. Matura, and Moruwa Korle, in the South or Singhalese dis- trict : Jaffna, Point Pedro, Trincomalie, and Batticoloa, in the North or Tamul district. South Sea, commenced in 1816, New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, and the Friendly Islands, including Tonga, Vavou, the Ha- bai, and the Fejee Islands. — Southern Africa, commenced in 1817, Cape Town, Somerset, Hottentots' Holland, Khamiesberg, in Little Namacqualand; Nisbett Bath, Great Namaqualand ; Graham's Town and Salem, Bathurst and Port Frances, Wesleyville, Pato's Tribe, Mount Coke, Islambie's Tribe, Butterworth , H intza'sTribe,Clarkesbury, Vossanie's Tribe, Morley, Dapa's Tribe, Buntingville, Faku's Tribe, Chaka's Tribe, Plaatberg, Thaba Unchu, Umpu- kani, and the Mantatees. — West In- dies, commenced in 1786, Jamaica, Antigua, Montserrat, St. Christopher's, St. Eustatius, Nevis, St. Bartholomew's, Dominica, Tortola, and the Virgin Is- lands, St. Martin's, Anguilla, St. Vin- cent's, Grenada, Trinidad, Barbadoes, Tobago, Hayti, the Bermudas; and in the Bahamas, New Providence, Eleuthera, Harbour Island, Abaco, and Turk's Is- land. — British North America, commenced in 1780, Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, Cape Breton, New Brunswick, and New- foundland. In the whole of the above foreign stations the regular preachers and assistant missionaries, according to the Report to Conference for 1840, amounted to 342, and the number of members of the society, 78,504. Church Missionary Society'. This society was instituted in 1800, by some members of the church of England. Their first station was in Western Af- rica. Having failed in procuring mission- aries of their own communion, they obtained two from the Missionary Se- minary at Berlin. In 1804 Messrs. Renner and Hartwig sailed from Eng- land, and after a voyage of seven weeks, arrived at Sierra Leone. They commenced their labours in tie Susoo country, where they were received with kindness by some of the chiefs. 1S40. The following are the principal stations of this society : — West Africa commenced 1 804, number of mis8ionp.fiei MIS 653 MOC 7. Mediterranean commenced 1815, 2 missionaries. North India com- menced 18 16, 22 missionaries. South India commenced 1814, 18 missionaries. Bombay and Western India com- menced 1820, 6 missionaries. Ceylon commenced 1818, 8 missionaries. New Holland commenced 1832, 2 mission- aries. New Zealand commenced 1814, 8 missionaries. West Indies commenced 1827, 2 missionaries. North West Ame- rica commenced 1823, 2 missionaries. In the Mediterranean mission, the society had in view the revival of the ancient christian churches planted on its shores, as a prelude to the ex- tension of Christianity throughout the continents of Africa and Asia. On this errand the Rev. Mr. Jowett left England in Septemher, 1815. The Rev. Mr. Marsden's first visit to New Zealand was in the year 1814, to estahlish the first settlers of the society. On a second visit in 1819, he established Mr. Butler and others in the Bay of Islands. On a third visit in 1820, he was indefatigable in his exertions in promoting the objects of the society. The society has now in New Zealand 12 stations. The Society for the Propaga- tion OF THE Gospel in Foreign Parts, though originally differing in its principle, and more confined in its objects, than the preceding, yet from its recent proceedings and present sphere of ope- ration, requires to be mentioned among the missions of this country. This so- ciety was incorporated by royal charter in 1701, for the receiving, managing, and disposing of such funds as might be con- tributed for the religious instruction of her majesty's subjects beyond the seas; for the maintenance of clergymen in the plantations,colonies, and factories of Great Britain; and for the general propagation of the gospel. The society's missionary stations are British North America; dioceses of Toranto, of Montreal, of Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. British Inpia : dioceses of Calcutta and Madras. Cape of Good Hope. Australia. British West Indies; dioceses of Jamaica and Barbadoes. The other institutions connected with missions, chiefly of a local character are, the Colonial Mission, commenced in 1836; the Baptist Home Missionary So- ciety established in 1814; the Home Mission 1819 ; and the City Mission estabhshed in May, 1835, MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States of America, situated east of the river of the same name. The first set- tlement of whites was made here by the French at Natchez about l7l6; in 1729 these colonists were massacred by the Natchez Indians ; but in the succeeding year, this once powerful tribe was ex- tirpated by the French. . But few Ameri- can settlements were madein this country till near the end of the last century. In 1800 the territory was erected into a separate government; and in 1817 into an independent state. The constitution of this state was formed at the town of Washington in August. In 1829 a Board of Internal Improvement was organised by the legislature, and author- ised to take measures for the improve- ment of the navigable streams and pub- lic roads within the state. MISSOURI, one of the United States, bordering on the river of the same name. It is of recent formation, and until 1803 some parts were not inhabited. The con- stitution of this state was formed at St. Louis in 1820; and a board of internal improvement appeared in 1839. MITFORD, William, F.S.A., pro- fessor of ancient history to the Royal Academy, and author of the " History of Greece," born in London, Feb. 10, 1744. In 1796 he was returned to the house of commons as member for Beeral- ston. He died Feb. 10, 1827, aged 83. MITFORD, John, an eccentric writer, the author of "Johnny New- come in the Navy," for which the pub- lisher gave him a shilling a-day while engaged in its composition, died at St. Giles's workhouse Dec. 1831. MITHRIDATES ordered all the Ro- mans that were in Asia to be put to death, a.c. 88. MITYLENE. See Meteline. MNEMONICS. See Memory. MOBILE, West Florida, taken by the Americans, April 12, 1813. Surren- dered by capitulation to the British, Jan. 11, 1815. MOCHA, an extensive city and port, Araliia, the emporium of the Red Sea. The Dutch established a factory here in the l7th century; they were followed in 17O8 by the French, and by the English and Americans during the present cen- tury. The great article of export is coffee, which is universally admitted to be of the finest quality. The quantity anitually exported is about 10,000 tons. M OG 654 MOL MODENA, duchy, north of Italy ; it forms an independent state, possessed in full sovereignty by a lateral branch of the house of Austria. It was united to the Cisalpine republic in 1796, and formed afterwards a part of the kingdom of Italy. Tl'.e city surrendered to the Austrians, May 1799, and was re-taken by the French July 3 following. The Archduke Francis, who succeeded by right of his mother to the ancient duchy, took possession of it in 1814. Anattempt at insurrection was made by an Italian named Cyrus Menotti, and his accom- plices, in 1831 ; but it was suppressed shortly after. MOGUL Empire, in its original sense, including those parts of Asia over which Tamerlane and his successors reigned, was not either extensive or po- pulous till the time of Temujin, or Gen- ghiz Khan. See Genghiz Khan. At his death in 1227, it extended over a tract of country 1800 leagues in length, from east to west, and upwards of 1000 in breadth from north to south. In 1257 Hulaku, a descendent of Genghiz Khan, advanced to Bagdad, which he took, and put the caliph to death. Hulaku died in 1264; and at this period we may fix the greatest extent of the Mogul empire. It comprehended the whole of the conti- nent of Asia, excepting part of Hindoo- stan, Siam, Pegu, Cochin China, and a few of the countries of Asia Minor. From this period, however, the empire began to decline. It was divided among a great number of petty princes, who were engaged in perpetual wars with each other. In 1369 Timur Beg, or Tamerlane, having conquered a number of other princes, was crowned at Balkh, with the pompous title of Sabeb Karan. In 1399 he took the city of Delhi, the capital of the country, and seated himself on the throne of the Indian emperors. See Ta- merlane. He did not, however, dis- turb the order of succession in Hin- doostan, but left Mahmoud, the reigning emperor on the throne, reserving to himself the possession of the Paujab country only. The death of Mahmoud, in 1413, put an end to what is called the Patau dynasty. In 1518 Sultan Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane, conquered a consideral)le ])art of the empire. In 1555 his grandson, Acber, ascended the throne, then only 14 years of age. During his reign of 51 years, he estabhshedthe em- pire on a sure foundation. As in the person of Baber the line of Tamerlane first ascended the throne of Hindoostan, so in that of Acber it may be said to have been established : thus Baber was the founder of the Mogul dynasty The most remarkable prince of this line was Aurengzebe, who in I66O had attained full possession of the sovereignty. This prince died in 1707. The conquests of the British in India, terminated about 1760, in the entire humiliation of the Mogul, and his being reduced to a state of dependence on the English East India Company. 1838. Acber II., the last representa- tive of the Mogul dynasty, the nominal sovereign of India, the 15th in descent from Baber, who ascended the throne in 1805, died this year, beingSl years of age. His authority, as is well known, had long passed away, and he existed as a mere pensioner of the English government. MOLDAVIA, j)rovince, European Turkey. The sovereign, who is styled hospodar, is tributary to the Grand Seig- nior. Moldavia and Wallachia were invaded by the Russians, Nov. 23,1806. These provinces are in a state of double dependence upon Russia and Turkey. In conformity with the treaty of Adria- nople, a constitution, called " The Or- ganic Statute," was granted to Wal- lachia and Moldavia in 1832. MOLIERE, John Baptist Poque- LIN De, an eminent French dramatic writer, was born at Paris about 1620. His first regular comedy, " L'Etourdi," was acted at Lyons in 1653. He ob- tained permission to open a theatre in the metropohs; and in 1665 was placed in the ser\ ice of the kmg, Louis XIV., with a pension. He rapidly rose in reputation as a writer by the new pieces which he presented to the public. The principal were his comedy of the " Mi- santhrope," "Tartuffe;" and "La Ma- lade Imaginaire," which was the last of his productions. He died in 1653, in his 53d year. MOLUCCAS, or Spice Islands. in the Eastern Seas, were discovered in 1511 by the Portuguese, who formed some settlements, but were driven out in 1607 Ijy the Dutch, to whom the islands are at present subject. Till lately, very little information had reached this country respecting this chain of islands. The largest islands, Amboyna, Banda, Ternato, &c., had become some- xVI O N 655 MON what familiar, but many of the others were scarcely known in this country, even by name, till the year 1837, when Lieu- tenant D. H.KolfTs account of his voyage through tho southern, or little known part of the Archipelago, was presented to the Geograpliical Society. MOLYNEUX, William, astrono- mer, born 1656, died 1698. MONARCH, steam-boat, a vessel of 800 tons, ran down the Apollo of 120 tons, on the Thames, near Northfleet. The Apollo was sunk. The crew and passengers were saved, with the excep- tion of the stewardess and two children. MONASTERIES, houses built for the reception and entertainment of monks, &c. Their origin may be traced to the time of St. Anthonj'^, who, about 270, sold his possessions, and, retiring from the world, fixed his residence on a hill near the Red Sea. In the fourth century the deserts of Egypt became in- habited by a set of solitaries, who took upon them the monastic profession. The first monastery is said to have been founded in France, near Poictiers, by St. Martin, in 360 ; the first in Britain in 596, when St. Augustine, being sent into England by Pope Gregory, intro- duced the monastic state into this king- dom. Witl:in the space of 200 years, there were 30 kings and queens who pre- ferred the religious habit to their crowns, and founded stately monasteries. The dissolution of religious houses began in 1312, when the Templars were suppressed, and in 1323 their lands, churches, advowsons, and liberties, in England, were given by 17 Edw. II. Stat. 3, to the prior and brethren of the hospital of St. John at Jerusalem. In the year 1390, 1437, 1441, 1459, 1497, 1505, 1508, and 1515, several other houses were dissolved, and their revenues set- tled on diflferent colleges in Oxford and Cambridge. Soon after the last period. Cardinal Wolsey, by licence of the king and pope, obtained a dissolution of above 30 religious houses for the founding and endowing his colleges at Oxford and Ipswich. By 27 Hen. VIII. cap. 28, about 380 houses were dissolved, and a revenue of £30,000 or £32,000 a year came to the crown; besides about £100,000 in plate and jewels. By 31 Hen. VIII cap. 13, all monasteries, &c., which had been surrendered since Feb. 4, in the 27th year of his majesty's reign, and which hereafter should be surren- dered, were vested in the king. Tlie knights of St. John of Jerusalem were also suppressed by the 32 Hen. VIII. cap. 24. The last act of dissolution in this king's reign was 37 Hen. VIII. cap. 4, for dissolving colleges, free chapels, chantries, &c., which act was farther en- forced by 1 Edw. VI. cap. 14. By this act were suppressed 90 colleges, ,110 hospitals, and 2374 chantnes ajid free chapels. The number of houses and places suppressed from first to last seems to be 3182, which, at a moderate com- putation, might contain about 50,000 persons. MONBODDO, Lord, author of the " Origin and Progress of Language," died May 5, 1799- MONDEGO, river, Portugal. Its banks were the scene of great military movements between the British and French in 1810 and 1811. MONDOVI, town, kingdom af Pied- mont and Sardinia. In 1796 Buona- parte obtained here an advantage over the Piedmontese, v.'hich led the court of Turin to separate from its alliance with Austria. MONK, George, Duke of Albe- marle, memorable for having been the principal agent in restoring Charles II. to his throne, was born in Devonshire in 1608. He early engaged in the cause of parliament, and in 1646 obtained the command-in-chief of all the forces in the north of Ireland, where he performed signal services. On the death of Crom- well Monk proclaimed Richard Crom- well, and continued to make the strongest declarations of his attachment to the republican cause. But, notwithstanding, he was a principal instrument in the re- storation of the monarchy. On May 8, 1660, he assisted at the proclamation of Charles II., and on the 28th set out for Dover, where the king landed on the 25th. From thence he proceeded to London, into which he made his public entry with much magnificence on the 29th. About a month after, he was cre- ated a peer by the title of Baron Monk, earl of Torrington, and duke of Albe- marle. He died Jan. 3, 1670, in his 62d year. His remains were deposited with great funeral pomp in Henry VII. 's chapel in Westminster-abbey. MONMOUTH, county, England. Before the conquest of Britain by the Romans, Monmouthshire was included within the territories of the Silures, who MOxN 656 M O N were finally reduced to subjection by Julius Frontinus. Early in the fifth cen- tury the country became divided into a number of independent states, one of which was called Gevent. This part of the country contained more Roman set- tlements than most other districts ; and, as these were fortified })laces, the princes or chiefs of Gevent were enabled to de- fend their territories from the encroach- ments of the Anglo-Saxons. Mon- mouthshire continued under the sove- reignty of the Welsh princes till the entire subjugation of Wales, by Ed- ward I.; it was afterwards a part of the marches of Wales, and its inhabitants, together with those of the principality, were admitted to a participation in the legislative authority of the kingdom, by the 27th Henry VIII. About 1535 Mon- mouthshire was detached from the prin- cipality, and included among the coun- ties of England ; but was regarded as a Welsh county so late as the reign of Charles II., when it first began to be reckoned an English county, because the judge kept the assizes here, on the Ox- ford circuit. ■ MONMOUTH, Jeffery of, wrote in 1152. MONMOUTH, James, Duke of, natural son of Charles II., born at Rot- terdam, in Holland, 1649. He invaded England June 11, 1685 ; was proclaimed king at Taunton, June 20, following; defeated near Bridgewater July 5 ; be- headed on Tower Hill, July 15, aged 35. MONRO, Dr. Alexander, an emi- nent anatomist, and the father of the medical school of Edinburgh, was born in London, Sept. 1697. In 1719 he was appointed professor and demonstrator of anatomy to the company of surgeons, at Edinburgh. His first and principal pub- lication was his " Osteology, or Treatise on the Anatomy of the Bones," in 1726. In 1759 he resigned his anatomical chair, but he still continued to lecture as one of the clinical professors. He died July 10, 1767, aged 70. MONRO, Dr. Alexander, son and successor of the preceding, born 1732 ; filled the anatomical chair with great credit to himself and to the university, for upwards of 40 years; died 1817- MONRO, Dr. Donald, physician and medical writer, brother of the pre- ceding, died 1802. MONS, town, kingdom of Belgium, capital of the province of Hainault. It lias frequently sufl'^ered by the calamities of war. In 1746 its fortifications were demolished by the French ; and in this state it was restored to the emperor by the peace of Aix-la-ChapclIe. After the battle of Jemmappe, it was summoned by Dumourier, and surrendered the next morning. MONTAGUE, Lady Mary Wort- ley, daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, earl of Kingston, was born about 1690 at Thornsley, in Nottinghamshire ; mar- ried to Edward AVortley Montague on Aug. 12, 1712. After the death of Queen Anne he obtained an appointment in the Treasury. In I7l6 he resigned his situation at the Treasury board, in conse- quence of an appointment as ambassador at Constantinople. He left England in August, accompanied by his lady. The embassy continued two months at Adria- nople, where Lady Mary found oppor- tunity to augment her acquaintance with eastern manners, by an examination of the Harem, never before permitted to any European. In 1761, after an absence of 22 years, she returned to England ; but her health had suffered much, and a gradual decline terminated in death, Aug. 21, 1762. Her letters, written during her travels, from the year 1716 to 1718, are much admired; they are composed in a lively, interesting, and agreeable style, and contain many cu- rious facts relating to the manners and government of the Turks, which are no where else to be found. MONTAGUE, Elizabeth, author of the " Essay on the Writings and Ge- nius of Shakspeare," and memorable for her May-day festivals and regalement of the chimney-sweepers of the metropolis, at her house in Portman-square on that day, died 1800. MONTAIGNE, Michael De, the author of " Essays," &c., born 1533, died 1592. MONTAUBAN, town of France; its celebrated protestant university suppressed in 1629 was re-established by Buonaparte in 1810, and has four professors of theology. MONT Blanc. See Blanc, Mont. MONTEM. The triennial custom of the Eton scholars parading to Salt-hill, and distributing salt, originated about the 15th century, in the early days of monk- ish superstition, when the friars used to sell their consecrated salt for medical purposes. M ON 655 M OxX MONTESQUIEU, Charles De Secondat, Baron, an eminent French writer, was born at the castle of La Brede, near Bourdeaux, in 1689. He became a counsellor of the parliament of Bourdeaux in 1714. In 1721 he pub- hshed his " Persian Letters," without his name, and was received into the French Academy in 1728. He travelled through Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, and England. His work on the " Causes of the Grandeur and De- clension of the Romans," appeared in 1734, and his " Spirit of Laws" in 1750. He died at Paris Feb. 10, 1755. Lord Chesterfield says of him : " His virtues did honour to human nature, his writings justice. His works will illustrate his name, and survive him, as long as right reason, moral obligation, and the true spirit of laws, shall be understood, re- spected, and maintained." MONTE-VIDEO, sea-port town. South America, was taken by the Bri- tish, Feb., 1807 ; but, after the unsuc- cessful attack on Buenos Ayres, was evacuated with the other Spanish settle- ments, the same year. Capitulated to Buenos Ayres, June 20, 1814; became the capital of the United Provinces of La Plata, but these having been separated by the recent disturbances, Monte-Video and the Banda Oriental now form the new republic of Uruguay, of which the former is the capital. It has suffered severely in passing through the hands of the insurgent Artigas, and then of the Portuguese. MONTFAUCON, French antiqua- rian, born 1655, died 1741. MONTGOLFIER, Etienne, inven- tor of the balloon, died in November, 1799. MONTGOMERY Castle was an- ciently remarkably strong. The Welsh took and demoUshed it; but, in 1093, it was rebuilt by William Rufus. King Henry III. again seized and destroyed it ; but it became, shortly after, the re- sidence of the Lords Herbert and Cher- bury. It is now in ruins. MONTI, Vincenzo, one of the most eminent of the modern Italian poets. His tragedy of " Aristodemo," which appeared in 17S6, at once fix>:d his re- putation. His poem of the " Basvil- liana" insured his most permanent fame. For some time he was secretary to the Cisalpine Republic, and in 1805 was appointed by Napoleon historiographer of the kingdom of Italy. Hs ditd October 13, 1828. MONTLOSIER, Count, one of the most striking writers in that great con- troversy respecting the origin of basaltic rock, which occupied the attention of mineralogists during the latter half of the last century, died in 1839. MONTPELIER, city, France, capital of the department of Herault, owes its origin to the time of Charlemagne. A university for the study of medicine was founded here in 1180, and an academy of sciences was instituted in 1706. MONTREAL, town. Upper Canada, commenced in 1640 by a few log-houses built close together. In consequence of the hazards to which it was exposed from the hostility of the Iroquois, it was sur- rounded with a high wall, with battle- ments. It was taken by the English, under the command of General Amherst, in the year 1760. In 1775 it was taken by the Americans, under General Mont- gomery, but retaken June 15, 1776, and soon after evacuated. The new Ro- man Catholic cathedral in Montreal, the most splendid temple in the New World, was commenced in 1824, finished in 1829, and dedicated to the Virgin Mary. MONTROSE, James Graham, Marquis of, a celebrated general in the reign of Charles I. He reduced Scotland to the obedience of the king, and, after his death, made a second at- tempt, which was defeated by a nume- rous army. He was betrayed into the hands of the enemy by Lord Aston, his friend, and was executed May 21, 1650 MONTSERRAT, one of the Carib- bean isles belonging. to Great Britain, so named by Columbus, who discovered it in 1493. It was planted by a small co- lony from St. Christopher's in 1632. In 1712 it was invaded by a French force, and suffered much. Taken by the French, Feb. IS, 1782 ; restored to Eng- land 1783. MONTUCLA, John Stephen, French mathematician, was born at Lyons in 1725; in 1755 was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sci- ences at Berlin. In 1758 he published his " History of the Mathematical »Sci- ences." He died Dec. 1799. MONUMENT of London, a mag- nificent pillar erected by order of parlia- ment, in memory of the burning of the city of London in 1666. It was designed ])y Sir Christopher Wren, and was com- 4 p MOO 638 MOR menced in 1671, and finished in l677. It is of the Doric order, fluted, 202 feet high from the ground, and 15 feet in diameter. It is built of sohd Portland stone, with a staircase in the middle, of black marble, containing 345 steps. The lowest part of the pedestal is 28 feet square, and its altitude 40 feet ; the front being enriched with curious bas- so-relievo. It has a balcony within 32 feet of the top, whei'e is a curious and spacious blazing urn of gilt brass. Falls from the Monument. 1750. June 25, about four o'clock in the afternoon, a man, supposed to be a weaver, fell from the top. ■ 1788. July 17, Thomas Craddock, a baker, threw himself over the north side; he cleared the pedestal and the iron rails, but fell just outside of them, near to the north-west corner. 1810. January 18, Lyon Levy, a Jew dealer in diamonds, fell from the gallery on the east side. He struck the pedestal, but cleared the rails, and fell one yard outside, near to the south-east corner. 1839. September 11, Miss Margaret Moyes, one of four sisters, who resided at No. 3,Hemming's-rovv, Charing-cross. She had been in an exoted state for above a week, frequently crying. She was also observed to cry before she left home to commit this horrible deed. 1839. October 18, Richard Donald- son Hawes, aged about 18 or 19. He was the son of a laundress, residing near Chelsea. It has also been discovered that the father of the unfortunate youth destroyed himself by casting himself from an elevation. MOORE, Dr. John, a celebrated miscellaneous writer, was born at Stir- ling, in 1730. In 1772 he obtained the diploma of doctor of physic from the university of Glasgow, and soon after accompanied the son of the duchess of Hamilton and Argyle on the continent. They spent five years together in this tour, and visited France, Italy, Switzer- land, and Germany. He was author of "A Journal during a Residence in France," and other works ; all of which display a comprehensive knowledge of life and manners derived from his tra- vels. He died in 1803. MOORE, Sir John, son of the pre- ceding Dr. Moore, a celebrated British general, was born at Glasgow, Novem- ber 13, 1761. In 1795 he was appointed a brigadier-general in the West Indies, and served \vith honour under Sir Ralph Abercrombie. His next appointment was also under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, in the expedition to Holland in 1799, with the rank of major-general, and afterwards in Egypt. He had the chief command of the embarkation of the troops previously to the attempt on Alex- andria, and continued to serve in the army of Egypt until after the surrender of Alexandria. When he returned to England at the peace, he received the honour of knighthood, and the order of the bath. Sir John Moore was called, in 1808, to take upon him the command of an armament which the British go- vernment had prepared in aid of the Spanish patriots, then engaged in hostili- ties with Napoleon. In this disastrous campaign, by the masterly disposition of his troops at Corunna, he repelled the formidable attack of the French army, in which action a cannon ball deprived him of life. In his last moments he was consoled by the intelligence that victory had secured a safe embarkation for hia troops. He died January 16, 1809. MOORE, Daniel, F.R.S., fellow of the Royal Antiquarian, Linnaean, Astro- nomical, Horticultural, and other learned and scientific societies. He died Jan. 6, 1828, aged 68. MOORE, Philip, an English divine, translator of the Bible, &c. into the Manks language, died 1783. MOORE, JAMEs,an English dramatic writer, died 1734. MOORSHEDABAD, a city of Hin- doostan, province of Bengal. It became the capital of Bengal in l704, when the seat of government was removed from Dacca ; and it continued to be the me- tropolis until the conquest of Bengal by the British in 1757, when it was virtually superseded by Calcutta. MOOSE Island, Pasamaquoddy Bay, surrendered to the British July 1 1 , 1814. MORA Tree, a new botanical genus, of the order Leguminosae, a native of the forests of British Guiana, where it attains a large size, the trunk often ex- ceeding 90 feet in height. On March 20, 1838, was read to the Linnaean So- ciety a description of this tree, by Mr. R. H. Schomburgh, whose researches in Guiana are well known. The trunk produces large buttresses at its base, which, from their partial decay, after- wards became hollow beneath, and form MOR 659 MOR a chamber capable of sheltering several persons standing erect. The tops of these buttresses, and the trunk itself, are found clothed with innumerable epiphy- tes, which greatly add to the singularity oi tn6 tree MORAVIANS, or United Bre- thren, a sect of protestant Christians, who profess to derive their origin from the protestants of Moravia, who, in the 15th century, threw off the despotic yoke of Rome. The modern Moravians owe their origin and present establishment to Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorf, who, in 1721, settled at Bertholsdorf, a village in Upper Lusatia, afterwards called Herrnhuth. In 1732, 1736, and 1737, commissioners were appointed to examine into the doctrines and proceed- ings of the brethren. The commissioners made a favourable report; and ever since both Herrnhuth and other settlements of the brethren in Saxony have been pro- tected. The Moravian brethren have similar settlements in Holland, Denmark, England, Ireland, and America, and their missionary exertions have been eminently successful. See Missions. MORAYSHIRE, or Murrayshire, Scotland, was the scene of several bat- tles between the Scots and Danes, about 1010, and subsequently witnessed bloody contests between the king and his sub- jects. The Covenanters attacked Mont- rose in 1645; and for about 50 years aftenvards the contest between the king's troops and the Highlanders was carried on in this country. MORE, Sir Thomas, an eminent statesman and lord high chancellor of England, was born at London in 1480. At the age of 19 he entered the New Inn in London to study the law. Before he had attained his 23d year, having been chosen a member of the house of com- mons, he had an opportunity of distin- guishing himself by an opposition to some of the arbitrary measures of Henry VII., in consequence of which he was obliged to give up his practice at the bar and live in retirement. The death of Henry VII., in 1509, enabling him to resume his practice, his talents and acquirements soon raised him to emi- nent distinction. In 1514 he was ap- pointed, by the city of London, judge of the sheriff's court. About 1529, on the disgrace of Wolsey, More was made chancellor, which office he executed for three years with great wisdom and inte- grity; but, in 1533, in order to avoid the danger of refusing to confirm the king's divorce, he resigned the seals Refusing to take the oath enjoined by the act of supremacy, he was committed to the Tower, and, after 15 months ' im- prisonment, was tried at the bar of the king's bench for high treason ; the jury brought him in guilty, and he was con- demned to suffer as a traitor. Hewas beheaded on Tower-hill, July 6, 1535, in the 56th year of his age, deeply la- mented by all who knew his worth, and admired even by his enemies. MORE, Hannah, one of the most celebrated female writers of the present day, was born in 1744, at Stapleton in Gloucestershire, where her father kept the charity-school at the Fishponds. At an early age her literary abilities having been made known to some of the neigh- bouring gentry, a subscription was formed for establishing her and her sisters in a school of her own. Her first publication, "The Search after Happiness, a pastoral Drama," was writ- ten when she was 18 years of age, al- though not published until 1773. After writing several tragedies, the best of which was " The Fatal Falsehood," in 1779, her opinions on public theatres underwentachange,andsheherselfstated in the preface to the third volume of her works, " she did not consider the stage, in its present state, as becoming the ap- pearance or countenance of a christian." In 1782 she sent forth a volume of " Sacred Dramas," with a poem annex- ed, entitled *' Sensibility." Between 1786 and 1789, she published different poems of more or less merit. In 179S her " Strictures on the Modern System of Female Education" appeared. At this time she took up her residence at Barley Wood, a cottage delightfully situ- ated in the village of Kingston, where she wrote " Hints towards forming the Character of a Young Princess." In I8O9 was published, " Coelebs in search of a Wife." In 1811 and the following year, appeared her " Practical Piety ; or, the Influence of the Religion of the Heart on the Conduct of the Life," and " Christian Morals." In 1815 she pub- lished one of the ablest of her perform- ances — "An Essay on the Character and Writings of St. Paul." She had previously retired from Barley Wood to a neat house in Clarence-place, Clifton, where she lived in a state of peaceful MOR 660 M O R quietude till September 7, 1833, when bhe (lied, at the age of 88 years. MORE A, peninsula of Europe, to the south of Greece, to which it is joined by the isthmus of Corinth, anciently called Peloponnesus. The kingdoms of which it once consisted were Sicyon, Argos, Mycenae, Corinth, Achaia Propria, Ar- cadia, and Laconia. It was the scene of the most brilliant achievements in Gre- cian history, and was afterwards a pro- vince of the Roman empire. In the 15th century it was occupied by the Turks ; and after being alternately in possession of that powerful people and the Venetians for two centuries, it finally became subject to the Porte in 1715, in whose hands it continued under the appellation of the Morea, till the late Grecian war. By the treaty of 1830, it w^as agreed to form a part of the new kingdom of Greece. See Greece. MOREAU, the French general, wound- ed by a cannon baU while talking to the emperor of Russia, before Dresden, August 28, and died September 4, 18]3. MORELL, Dr. Thomas, the lexico- grapher, died 1784, aged 83. MORELLO, general of the insurgent army in South America, condemned and e.\ecuted at Mexico 1816. MORERI, Lewis, historian, born in France 1643, died 1680. MORGAN, William, author of " Doctrine of Annuities and Assu- lances on Lives," &c. died 1833. MORGAGNI, G., the anatomist, born 1681, died 1771. MORGHEN, Raphael, distinguished engraver, born at Naples June 19, 1758, died at Florence, April 8, 1833, aged 75. MORLAND, George, an Enghsh artist, was born in 1764. His favourite subjects were interiors of stables, pig- stys, farm-yards, doors of public-houses, &c., in which he excelled; but having unhappily acquired a habit of intoxica- tion, he fell into decay, and a premature dissolution closed his mortal career, Oc- tober, 1804, in his 40th year. MORNAY, P. Du Plessis, a French statesman, born 1549, died 1623. MOROCCO, ancient Mauritania, a kingdom north-west of Africa, the chief of the states comprehended under the general denomination of Barbary. It was occupied by the Romans a.c. 25, and reduced by them to a province a.d. 53. From this time it underwent va- rious revolutions, till the establishment of the Almovarides. The second em- peror of this family built the capital Mo- rocco. About 1116 Abdallah, the leader of a sect of Mahometans, founded the dynasty of Almahides, which ended in the last sovereign's total defeat in Spain 1312. At this period Fez and Tremecen, then provinces of the empire, shook off their dependence. Morocco was after- wards seized by the king of Fez ; but the descendants of Mahomet, 1550, subdued and united again the three kingdoms, and formed what is at present the em- pire of Morocco. MORRISON, Rev. Dr. Robert, F. R. S., &c., an eminent Chinese scholar, was born at Morpeth, Jan. 5, 1782. On May 2S, 1805, he placed himself under the patronage of the London Missionary Society ; and having chosen China as the field of his missionary labours, on Jan. 8, 1807, he was formally ordained in the Scottish church, in Swallow-street. On Jan. 31 he embarked for China, and landed at Macao on Sept. 4, 1807, whence he proceeded to Canton. In 1813 he completed an edition in Chinese of the whole of the New Testament. In 1815 he commenced the publication of hi.s "Dictionary of the Chinese Language." It consists of three parts : the first part containing the Chinese and English, ar- ranged according to the radicals, bearing date 1815, 1822, and 1823; the second part, published in 1819 and 1820, con- tains the Chinese and English, arranged alphabetically ; the third part, published in 1822, consists of English words with Chinese meanings. Dr. Morrison's Chinese Dictionary occupied, from its commencement to its completion, 13 years of the prime of his laborious life. I'he translation and pub- lication of the whole of the Old and New Testament, in 19 volumes octavo, was completed in 1819. On the arrival of Lord Napier at Macao, with his ma- jesty's commission, constituting the new arrangement for the administration of the British affairs in Canton in 1833, he appointed Dr. Morrison Chinese secre- tary and interpreter to the commission. To the zealous discharge of the duties of this a[)pointment, his life fell a sacrifice On July 23, 1834, having been exposed during the night in an oj)en boat, on the Canton river, to very boisterous and rainy weather, his illness was greatly MOS 661 MOZ increased in consequence, and he expired Aug. 1. MORTIMER, Roger, earl of March, hanged Nov. 29, 1330. MORTMAIN, an alienation of lands or tenements to any corporation, eccle- siastical or temporal, as bishops, vicars, &c. To prevent the undue alienation of property for charitable and religious purposes, various statutes were enacted, particularly tlie statute de religiosis, 7 Edward I., 1279, called the Mortmain Act, which provided that no person, re- ligious or other whatsoever, should buy, or sell, or receive under pretence of a gift or term of years, or any other title whatsoever; nor should by any art or ingenuity, appropriate to himself any lands or tenements in mortmain, upon pain that the immediate lord of the fee ; or, on his default for one year, the lords paramount, and in default of all of them, the king, might enter thereon as a for- feiture. This was afterwards regulated by other statutes, particularly 9 Geo. II. c. 36. ; 43 Geo. III. c. 108 ; 7 and 8 Will. III., &c. MOSCOW, or Moskva, city, Euro- pean Russia, is not a place of great anti- quity ; was founded in the middle of the 12th century, and was progressively en- larged in the 13th and 14th centuries. In 1571 it fell into the hands of theTar- tars, and was surrendered to the flames. It was afterwards recovered and re-built by the czars, and remained for a century and a half the sole caipital of the empire. Since the building of St. Petersburgh, in the early part of the 18th century, it has been the occasional residence of the court. The most remarkable event in the history of Moscow is its occupation by the French, on their invasion of Rus- sia, in 1812; and its entire destruction by fire by the Russians, under the com- mand of the governor. Count Rostop- chin, in order that it might not afford winter quarters for the French army. This event took place on Sept. 14, and on Oct. 19 the enemy were compelled to commence one of the most calamitous retreats ever recorded in history. The re-building commenced in 1817, under the emperor Alexander. In 1823 Dr. Lyell and Captain Cochrane found the work of reparation far advanced, and the new streets and edifices were constructed in a more regvilar style. According to a work published in 1824 at Moscow, by M. Leconite, 6341 houses had been burned, and 8027 had been built, so that it was larger than before. MOSELEY, Dr. B., physician, born in Essex, died 1819- MOSES, born a.c. 1571; fled into Midian, where he continued 40 years, and married Zipporah, the daughter of Jethro, 1531 ; set up the Tabernacle, and in it the Ark of the Covenant 1491. The five books of Moses were written in the land of Moab, where he died 1451, aged 120. MOSHEIM, John Laurence, au- thor of " Ecclesiastical History," born 1695, died 1755. MOTHE, LE Vayer, Francis De LA, a French writer, born 1588, died 1672. MOTHERWELL, William, born at Glasgow, author of an interesting and valuable collection of ballads, which he published in 1827, under the title of " Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern," &c. !He died Nov. 1, 1835, aged 38. MOTTE, A. H., De la, a French poet, born 1672, died 1731. MOULIN, Cha. Du, French writer, born 1500, died 1566. MOUNT OF Piety, at Naples, burnt down with the loss of above 2,000,000 crowns, July 31, 1786. MOUNTSANDFORD, Lord, killed at Windsor in an affray with a party of journeymen shoemakers, June 14, 1828. Two of the persons engaged in this unhappy event were afterwards found guilty of manslaughter. MOURZOUK, or Mourzuk, city, North Africa, kingdom Fezzan. It was here that Captain Clapperton, the late African traveller, in 1821, was cour- teously received by the sultan of Fezzan, but detained for near 12 months, from jealousy of the object of his mission. MOZAMBIQUE, or Mosambigue, island of, discovered by Vasco de Garaa, 1498. MOZART, John Chrysostom Wolfgang Theophilus, an eminent musical composer, was born at Salz- burgh in Bavaria, in 1756. At seven years of age he visited Paris, when he played the organ of the king's chapel, before the whole French court. He next visited London, where his talents excited universal attention. In 1781 he produced his opera " Idomeneo," which, with that of "Don Juan," he is said to have considered the best of his productions. His compositions were MUM 662 MUN very numerous, and embraced every branch of the science. He fell at last into a state of complete melancholy, but was employed in musical composition as long as he was able to make the least exertion. He died in the 35th year of his age, in 1792. MUDGE, Major-General Wil- liam, the mathematician, for many years employed on government surveys, died 1820. MUGGLETONIANS, a religious sect sprung from L. Muggleton, a journey- man tailor, 1657. MULGRAVE'S Islands, Lord, a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean, closely adjoining on the east to the Caro- lines, discovered by Captains Marshall and Gilbert, in a circuitous voyage from Port Jackson to Canton ; afterwards more fully examined in 1817, by Kotze- bne, who discovered the important isles of Radack and Ralik. MULL, island of, one of the largest of the Hebrides, anciently was part of the territories of the lords of the isles ; but it subsequently came into the possession of the Macleans, who still retain half of it, the other part having belonged, since 1674, to the dukes of Argyll. MULLER, WiLHELM, one of the most popular German lyric poets of his time, born October 7, 1794. Besides his larger \Torks, many tales and other pro- ductions from his pen appeared in va- rious pocket-books ; and in the " Ura- nia," for 1828, an admirable novellette, entitled " Deborah." He died Oct. 1, 1827, aged 33. MULLER, the distinguished profes- sor of Gottingen, died at Athens, Aug. 1, 1840, of a fever caught at Delphi, caused by exposing himself to the in- tense heat of the sun. MUM MY, a carcass or body embalmed or dried in the manner of the ancient Egyptians, A mummy which formed part of the collection of M. Passalacqua was opened in 1827, in the gallery of Egyptian Antiquities at Paris in pre- sence of her royal highness Madame, of the ambassadors of Prussia, Bavaria, and Tuscany, the duke of Blacas, Count Turpin, and Messrs. Champollion, Figeac, Champollion, junior, &c. After opening the external covering, which was attended with considerable difficulty, the bandages, which formed more than 26 turnings, from the head to the feet, was unrolled. The body, by reason of the bituminous substances which had been employed in the process of embalming, was in a state of perfect preservation. 1838. Among the curiosities lately added to the museum of the Royal So- ciety of Northern Antiquities at Copen- hagen, there is the mummy of a female, found in a peat bog near Haraldskioer in Jutland, supposed, on good grounds, to be the body of Gunnhilda, Queen of Normandy, whom King Harold Blaatand enticed, by promise of marriage, to come to Denmark in 965, when he put her to death by sinking her in a bog. 1839. A million of mummies, it is stated, have lately been discovered in the environs of Durango, in Mexico. With them were found fragments of finely worked elastic tissues (probably our modern India-rubber cloth^) and neck- laces of a marine shell found at Zaca- tecas, on the Pacific, where the Indians, probably, landed from Hindoostan, or from the Malay or Chinese coast, or from their islands in the Indian Ocean. MUNDEN, John Shepperd, the eminent comic actor, was the son of a poulterer in Brooks' market, Holborn, where he was born in 1758. His father died soon afterwards, leaving his widow with slender means, and Munden was thrust upon the world to seek his for- tune at 1 2 years of age. After a variety of adventures at provincial theatres, he appeared Dec. 2, 1790, at Covent Gar- den theatre, as Sir Francis Gripe, in the " Busy Body," and Jemmy Jumps in the " Farmer ;" his success in which parts established his popularity. During his theatrical course he was successively the original representative of Old Rapid, Caustic, Brummagem, Lazarillo, (" Two Strings to your Bow,") Crack, Nipper- kin, Sir Abel Handy> Sir Robert Bramble, Old Dornton, &c. On May 31, 1824, he took his farewell of the stage, in the character of Sir Robert Bramble in the " Poor Gentleman," and Old Dozy in " Past Ten o'Clock." He died Feb. 6, 1832, aged 73. MUNICH, capital of the kingdom of Bavaria. In 1632 it surrendered to the Swedes and German protestants, under Gustavus Adol|)hus ; in 1704, after the battle of Blenheim, it fell into the hands of the Bavarians; and in 1741 it shared the vicissitudes of war by the elector attempting to attain the imperial crown. For half a century it was free from war ; MUR 663 MUS but in 1796 the French army under Moreaa, obliged the elector to make a separate treaty. In 1800 Moreau again occupied Munich. MUNICIPAL Corporations. See Corporation. In 1836 and 1837 bills for the reform of Irish municipal corpo- rations were brought before parliament, which passed the commons, but were rejected by the lords. 1840. Early in the first session of par- liament the subject was resumed, and the statute 3&4 Victoria c. 108 was passed August 10. It defined certain towns in which it was proposed to substitute cor- porations for those now existing, others in which the corporations were also to be abolished, but no others created, al- though power was given to the crown upon the petition of a majority of the inhabitants to establish corporations. The act gave the management of corpo- rate property in the towns in schedule B to the commissioners acting under 9 Geo. IV., wherever that act was in ope- ration. It authorised the appointment of commissioner.s, provided the property was worth £100 a year ; but if it was not worth so much, then the act provided that it should be administered by the guardians of the poor, in aid of the poor- rates, and for general purposes. MUNRO, Major- General Sir Thomas, K.C.B., governor of Madras. He proceeded to India in the year 1778, as an infantry cadet, in the service of the East India Company, and was present at the fall of Seringapatam, in May, 1779. He obtained the rank of lieut.- colonel in 1804 ; in 1808 he returned to England. He was next sent to Madras by the court of directors, on an important duty connected with the permanent set- tlement of the revenues of that presi- dency. He took his seat as governor on June 10, 1820. In 1819 he received the dignity of a knight companion ; and was created a baronet, June 30, 1825. He died in India July 6, 1827. MUNROE, James, president of the United States of America, bom 1759, died in India July 4, 1831. MUNTZER, Thomas, founder of the sect of Anabaptists, put to death 1525. MUR.\T, Joachim, brother-in-law of Buonapaite, made king of Naples, Aug. 1, 1808. Acceded to the confede- racy of sovereigns against Buonaparte, Jan., 1814. Having been defeated by the Austrians, he quitted Naples, April 22, 1815. After wandering from Toulon to Corsica, and from Corsica to the coast of Calabria, he was there taken, tried by a military commission, and shot October 15. MURCIA, town, Spain, was taken by the Moors in 713, after a desperate re- sistance. In 1236 it was taken by Al- phonso X. of Castile. In the beginning of the 18th century it declared for the Bourbon branch. It was entered by the French April 23, 1810. MURPHY, Arthur, dramatic writer, and translator of " Tacitus," died 1819- MURRAY, Earl of, regent of Scot- land, killed Jan. 23, 1570. MURRAY, Dr. Alexander, the Orientalist, born 1775, died 1813. MUS^US, author of the poem of " Hero and Leander," flourished a. c. 400. MUSEUM. The first person who formed a cabinet of natural and artificial curiosities in England was Sir John Tradescant, who lived in the reign ot Charles I. His son followed his example; by their joint exertions, a valuable col- lection was framed, which afterwards became the property of Mr. Elias Ash- mole, and was the origin of the Ashmo- lean Museum, at Oxford ; founded in 1679 ; completed in 1682. Sir Ashton Lever opened his magni- ficent cabinet to the pubhc in Leicester- square, in 1780, which had cost him up- wards of £30,000, and which afterwards became the property of Mr. Parkinson, who erected a building suitable for its reception, near Blackfriars Bridge. The whole was sold by auction in several thousand lots, in the spring of 1806. Mr. Bullock, about three years after- wards, opened his interesting museum of natural history and other curiosities in a large apartment in Piccadilly, which was shortly after removed to a magnifi- cent edifice in the Egyptian style of ar- chitecture, near the end of Bond-street, in Piccadilly. ITie British Museum owes its origin to Sir Hans Sloane, whose collection was purchased by parliament, and opened in January 1759. See British Museum. MUSIC, in its ruder forms, was pro- bably known at the earliest periods of human existence. The Egyptians have produced more satisfactory proofs of the antiquity of their music than any other nation in the v.'orld. The monaulos, or single flute, called by the Egyptians MUS 664 MUS pliotinx, was one of the most ancient wind instruments used by them, or any other nation. But the chief music of the ancients was vocal, and reu;ulated entirely by the rhythm of the poetry. The hexameters of Homer were probably sung to melody which he hadcomjmsed. It has been disputed whether or not the ancients had any knowledge of harmony; that is, of music in parts. Dr. Burney concludes on the whole, that though they might employ in their music those chords which were most perfect and sim- ple, such as the octave, the fifth, and the third, they were ignorant of what is now termed regular counterpoint. The invention of notation and musical characters is ascribed to Terpander, a ce- lebrated poet and musician, who flourished about the 27th Olympiad, or a.c. 671- Among the Greeks this department of science became the source of various sects, and of much diversity of opinion. The founders of the most distinguished sects were Pythagoras and Aristoxenus. Of late the opinions of Pythagoras have been on some important points con- firmed by absolute demonstration. Music was early introduced into the Christian church. The practice of chant- ing the psalms was brought into the western churches by St Ambrose, about 350, and improved by St. Gregory the Great, in 600. In England music was employed in the church service, first by St. Augustine, and afterwards much im- proved by St. Dunstan, who was himself an eminent musician, and who is said to have first furnished the English churches and convents with the organ. The first organ seen in France was sent from Constantinople in 757. In Italy, Ger- many, and England, it became common in the course of the 10th century. Guido Aretino, a monk of Arezzo in, Tuscany, is, in the general opinion, supposed to have entertained the first idea of coun- terpoint about 1022. He was also the inventor of the method of solmisafion, or singing by syllables. See Aretino, The invention of the time table is at- tributed by almost all the writers on music to John de Muris, who flourished about 1330. But in the manuscript of John de Muris himself, in the Vatican library, that honour seems to be yielded to Magister Franco, who lived about 10S3. John de Muris, however, very much improved the art of counterpoint. Florid counterpoint, or figurative har- mony, is ascribed to the English, and in- dividually to John Dunstable, who died about 1453. In the l6th century music was an in- dispensable part of polite education : all the princes of Europe were instructed in that art. A collection is still preserved in manuscript, called " Queen Eliza- beth's Virginal Book." During the reign of Elizabeth the genius and learn- ing of the British musicians were not inferior to any on the continent. To- wards the close of the reign of James I. a music lecture, or professorship, was founded in the university of Oxford, by Dr. William Hychin. In the reign of Charles I. a charter was granted to the musicians of Westminster, incorporating them, as the king's musicians, into a body politic. Prior to 1600 there was little other music except masses and ma- drigals, the two principal divisions of sacred and secular music; but, from that time to the present, dramatic music has become the chief object of attention. At Rome, the first public theatre opened for the exhibition of musical dramas, in modern times, was II Torre de Nona, where, in 1671, "Giasone"was per- formed. The year 1710 is distinguished by the arrival in Britain of George Frederick Handel, and the sacred musical drama, or Oratorio, though invented early in the 14th centur)', was now revived under favourable auspices, and first brought into general notice. See Handel. During the latter part of the 18th cen- tury many eminent composers also flou- rished on the continent, as Jomelli, the family of the Bachs, Gliick, and Haydn ; but no discoveries or improvements have taken place in the science which merit particular notice. Within the last few years several new instruments have been invented. See Musical Boxes, Har- monica, Harmoniphon, &c. MUSICAL Boxes, first introduced 1817. MUSICAL Glasses. See Harmo- nica. MUSICIANS' Company, London, incorporated 1604. MUSKETS, first used in France at the siege of Arras, 1414 ; in general use 1521. MUSLINS, originally manufactured in India ; first worn in England 1670; 324,352 pieces were sold by the East India Coinpanyin 17S9 ; they were first N A"I 665 manufactured in England in 1781. They are made in immense quantities at Man- chester, Glasgow, &c., of a fineness and durabiUty which rival those of India, at the same time that they are very con- siderably cheaper. See Cotton. MUSSCHENBROECK, Peter De, an eminent mathematician and natural philosopher, was born at Leyden in 1692. He became professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at his native place, in which department he greatly distin- guished himself. He was elected a member of the Royal Society of London, and also of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. He died in 1761. MUTINY, in the army or navy, de- notes any insurrection against authority. A mutiny took place on board the fleet at Portsmouth for advance of wages, &c., April 18,1797- It partially subsided by a promise from the Admiralty Board, which being delayed, occasioned a recommence- ment on board the London man of war, when Admiral Colpoys and his captain were put into confinement for ordering the marines to fire, whereby three lives were lost. The mutiny subsided May 10, when an act passed to raise their wages, and the king pardoned the mutineers. A more considerable one broke out at the Nore, which blocked up the trade of the Thames : it subsided June 10, 1797, when the principal mutineers were put in irons, and several were executed. MUTINY Act, annually passed by parliament, to punish mutiny and de- sertion, and for the better payment of the army and their quarters. The first of these acts passed on April 12, 1689, and was to continue in force to Nov, 10, in the same year ; it continued as a matter of course, to 9 George IV., 1828. The following year an alteration was made by 10 George IV. c. 6, passed March 23, 1829, which diflFered from the last mutiny act, principally in the sim- plicity of its arrangement, by which it NAM was very considerably shortened; the former act consisting of 163 sections, and the latter only of 77. By section 1, the number of forces were reduced from 91,075 to 89,723; and by sect. 9, the powers of district and garrison court- martial were greatly enlarged, and modified to suit the present time. By 1 William IV. c. 15, March 15,1831, fur- ther improvements were made. By sec- tion 10, the powers of regimental court- martials were defined : " they may sen- tence any soldier to imprisonment, with or without hard labour, for any period under 30 days, and to solitary confine- ment, under 20 days," &c. MYSORE, province, in the south of India, situated between the 11th and 15th degrees of north latitude, and now surrounded by the British territories, under the Madras presidency. The whole of this country was subdued by Hyder All, who usurped the throne of Mysore in 1759, madeSeringapatam his capital, and was engaged in a war with the Company. He was succeeded by Tippoo Sultaun, who continued his father's state of warfare. On the termi- nation of the war in 1792, Tippoo agreed to pay 30 lacs of rupees, and to cede one half of his dominions to the English and their allies. In 1799, a new war taking place, his capital was taken by the English on May 4, and himself killed in the assault. A partition of his remain- ing territories took place ; and on June 30 following, Kistna Rajah, then only five years old, was placed by the British on the throne of his forefathers, and remains entirely dependent on their protection. MYSTICS, a rehgious sect, distin- guished by their professing pure, sub- lime, and perfect devotion, flourished in the fourth century. In the 13th century they were the most formidable antago- nists of the schoolmen ; and had, in the 15th century, many persons of distin- guished merit in their number. N, NAHUM, the prophet, flourished a.c. 758. NAIAD Transport, lost by strik- ing on the rocks oflF the coast of New- foundland, Oct. 23, 1805. NAIAD Frigate, attacked off Bou- logne by seven French praams, by order of Buonaparte, which were repulsed and driven under their batteries, Sept. 21, 1811. NAMUR, fortified town, Belgium, celebrated in English history for the 4 a NAP 6G6 NAS long siege which it sustained in 1692, against Louis XIV,, and again in 1695, against Willian III. of England. It was often taken and retaken during the wars of the French revolution ; and it was the scene of an obstinate conflict in J 815, between the Prussians and the French, under Grouchy, when retreating after the battle of Waterloo. NANTES, city, France, department of the Lower Loire. Its university, founded in 1460, has, since the revolution, been converted into a lyceum. It has been the seat of several ecclesiastical councils, and is noted for the celebrated edict is- sued there by Henry IV., in 1598, in favour of the protestants, which was re- voked in 1685. NANTWICH, market town, Che- shire. In the reign of William the Con- queror, a sanguinary battle between the English and Welsh was fought in its vi- cinity. In 1113 it was laid waste by the Welsh, and in 1146 a band of these mountaineers was defeated here. At the time of the civil wars between the king and the parliament, in the I7th century. Lord Byron besieged it for the king; but his army was attacked and defeated by the parliamentary forces under Sir William Fairfax. In 1438 almost every house in the town was consumed by fire. NAPIER, John, baron of Merchis- ton, in Scotland, celebrated as the in- ventor of the logarithms, was born in 1550. After going through the ordinary course at the University of St. Andrew's, he made the tour of France, Italy, and Germany. He communicated his dis- covery of the logarithms to Mr. Briggs, mathematical professor in Gresham col- lege in 1615. See Logarithms. His last literary exertion was the publication of his " Rabdalogia and Promptuary," in 1617, containing the description and use of an apparatus called Napier's Bones. See the next article. He died at Merchiston, April 3, the same year, in the 68th year of his age. NAPIER'S Bones, a method of computation by means of marked pieces of wood, invented by Lord Napier, 1617. NAPLES, kingdom, Italy, anciently Capua and Campania. Great part of the country was inhabited in ancient times by the Etruscans,who built Nolaand Capua. Tins territory has undergone various re- volutions, and was distinguished from another division of Sicily by the title of the kingdom of Puglia, of which Roger,' count of Sicily, was the first monarch, II 27. Given by the pope to the Compte d'Anjou, inl266, in exclusion of the right heir, Conradin, who was taken prisoner and beheaded, aged 16. 1386. Charles, king of Naples, being invited by the Hungarians to the crown of Hungary, was, when there, crowned ; afterwards murdered by order of the queen regent, who for this was soon after taken out of her carriage, and drowned in the river Boseth, 1442. Alphonsus, of Arragon, united Sicily to Naples, and the sovereigns have been since called kings of the Two Sici- lies. The kingdom was taken from the French and annexed to Spain 1504 ; con- tinued with the Spaniards till 1706, when it was again taken by the emperor; con- quered by the Spaniards again 1734 ; set- tled on Don Ca:rlos, son of the king of Spain, 1736; resigned to his third son, Ferdinand, 1759. 1799. The French seized on Naples, and compelled the king to retire to Si- cily, Jan. 24, but it was restored on July 10, following, when the king returned. In 1806 the lawful monarch was again driven from Naples, and Joseph Buona- parte made king of it by his brother. 1808. The crown transferred to Joa- chim Murat, Aug. 1 ; restored to Ferdi- nand 1814. 1840. Although Naples is well situ- ated for commerce, since the restora- tion, the unwise policy of the govern- ment has been most unfavourable to its growth, and has confined it within com- paratively narrow limits. The annual imports into Naples, from Britain and her colonies, amount to £575,000 ; the e.xports £174,000. Disputes with Na- ples respecting the sulphur monopoly by a French company ; settled in April by the mediation of the French government. NARES, Dr., musical composer, born 1715, died 1783. NARES, Rkv. Robert, author of " The Elements of Orthoepy," &c., died 1829, aged 75. NARVA, a sea-port town, European Russia, was taken by the Russians from the Danes in 1558, and by the Swedes in 1581. Near Narva is also the spot celebrated for the victory which Charles XII., in the 19th year of his age, gained over the Russian army in 1700. NASEBY, parish, Northamptonshire. J On Naseby field, adjacent to this village. NAT 667 ■ N AT was fought in 1645, a memorable battle 1839- Disputes arose between Dingan, between the royalists and parliamenta- the Caffre chief, and the colonists, in rians, in which the royalists were totally which the former had carried off their defeated. " cattle : nevertheless, by accounts from NASH, John, a modern architect; Port-Natal to September 4, the new one of those attached to the board of colony appeared to be in a fair way of works. He designed tlie Pavilion, at progress, and cultivation was going on Brighton; the New Palace, at St. James's prosperously. Several interviews had Park; Regent-street; and the Regent's taken place between the chiefs of the Park. He died May 13, 1835. emigrant camp and Dingan, the Caffre • NASH, Richard, familiarly styled leader, and his envoys. Since that time " King of Bath," died 1761. the death of Dingan has taken place. NASH, Thomas, satirist and dra- NATIONAL Assembly of France, matist, born 1564, died 1601. instituted May 4, 1789. NATAL, Port, South Africa, coun- NATIONAL Debt, sums which have tiy of the Zoolas, on a river of the same been, from time to time, lent to govern- name. The country was discovered in ment. See Funds. The practice of 1498, by Vasco de Gama, during his regular loans to defray the war ex- first voyage, and was frequented by the penditure, began in this country in the earlier navigators to India. Captain reign of William III. Before that time Vidal, of his majesty's vessel Barracouta, it was customary to borrow upon the visited the coast of Natal in 1823, and security of some tax, set apart as a fund explored it by order of government ; and for discharging the principal and interest since 1824. Port Natal has been almost of the sum borrowed. This discharge constantly occupied by British subjects, was, however, very rarely effected, who have succeeded in opening a trade The following is an account of the with the natives, which gradually in- progress of the national debt of Great creased, from the encouragement af- Britain, from the Revolution to the forded by the Zoolas. present time : — Frincipiil. Interest. £ £ Debt at the Revolution in 1689 664,263 39,855 Excess of debt contracted during the reign of William III., above debt paid off 15,730,439 1,271,087 Debt at the accession of Queen Anne in 1702. . 16,394,702 1,310,942 Debt contracted during Queen Anne's reign 37,750,661 2,040,416 Debt at the accession of George I. in 1714 54,145,363 3,351,358 Debt paid off during the reign of George I. above debt contracted 2,053,125 1,133,807 Debt at the accession of George II. in 1727 • • 52,092,238 2,217,551 Debt contracted from the accession ol George II. till the peace of Paris in 1763, three years after the accession of George III 86,773,192 2,634,500 Debt in 1763 138,865,430 4,852,051 Paid during peace 10,281,795 380,480 Debt at the commencement of the American war in 1775 128,588,635 4,471,571 Debt contracted during the American war 121,267,993 4,980,201 Debt at the conclusion of the American war in 1784 249,851,628 9,451,772 Paid during peace, from 1784 to 1793 10,501,380 243,277 Debt at the commencement of the French war in 1793 239,350,148 9,208,495 Debt contracted during the French war 608,932,329 24,645,971 Total funded and unfunded debt, Jan. 5, 1817. when the English and Irish Exchequers were consolidated 848,282,477 33,854,466 Since 1817 a deduction has been made of the debt, and about 5,000,000 from of above 80,000,000 from the principal the annual charge on its account. This N A V 668 NAV diminution has been principally effected pay off the holders of different stocks, by taking advantage of the fall in rate of unless they consent to accept a reduced interest since the peace, and offering to payment. State of the Public Funded Debt of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Charge thereon, on January 5, 1839. Great Britain Capitals. Capitals standing in the Names of the Commis- sioners. Capitals unre- deemed. £729,510,658 33,260,566 £1,423,534 £728,087,123 33,260,566 Total United Kingdom . £762,771,224 £1,423,534 £761,347,690 NATIONAL Gallery, Trafalgar- square, commenced 1834, exterior com- pleted 1837. The structure is from the design and under the direction of Mr. Wilkins. The Royal Academy are ac- commodated with a part of the National Gallery for their exhibitions. NATIVITY OF THE Virgin, a feast established by Pope Sergius I., who was advanced to the see of Rome in 687, and observed on Sept. 8. NATURALIZATION, the act of na- turalizing an alien, or putting him into the condition of a natural-born subject. First law for, in England, 1487. Natu- ralization of Jews' bill passed 1753 ; re- pealed December following. NAUMBERG, treaty of, between Au- gustus, elector of Saxony, and the de- posed elector, John Frederick, 1554. The electorate to descend to John Frederick and his heirs, in default of heirs male of Augustus. NAVAL Asylum, instituted by the duke of Clarence, 1801. NAVARINO, or Navarin, seaport town, kingdom cf Greece, on the west coast of the Morea, memorable for the destruction of the Turkish and Egyptian fleets, by the English, French, and Rus- sians, in 1827. The battle commenced at two o'clock in the afternoon of Oct. 20, and continued with unabated fury dur- ing four hours. Atthe end of that period the Turkish and Egyptian fleets had dis- appeared ; the bay of Navarino was co- vered with their wrecks ; only a few of the smaller vessels, or some battered and useless hulks, escaped into the security of the inner harbour. The severest loss on the side of the allies was sustained by the British squadron, which had 75 men killed, and 197 wounded. Nava- rino was taken possession of by the troops of the French expedition, witbout any resistance from the Turkish garri- son, Oct. 6, 1828. NAVARRE, a province of the north- east of Spain. This territory in 470 was seized by Euric, the king of the Goths. These people were expelled by the Moors ; but in 806 the latter were, in their turn, driven out by Louis, king of Aquitaine, a son of Charlemagne. About half a century after, a count of Bigorre established in Navarre a sovereignty, which lasted in his family 500 years. In 1512 the kingdom was dismembered. The reigning prince seized all the part lying on the Spanish side of the Pyre- nees ; but French Navarre preserved its independence, and continued a separate state, till added to the dominions of France by the accession of Henry IV. to the throne of the latter, in the end of the l6th century. NAVIGATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who cultivated this art to any useful extent. They were the first who passed through the Straits of Gibraltar, a.c. 1250, and subsequently visited the western coast of Spain and Africa. The Carthaginians exceeded them in the extent of their voyages to- wards the west and north. The ancient navigation was, after all, very imperfect till the invention of the mariner's compass, said to have been known to the Venetians a.d. 1260. See Com- pass. The Portuguese were the earliest people who, after this period, made any pretensions to superior knowledge in marine affairs. In the reign of John I. 1420, they discovered Madeira and the Canaries. Plain charts and the ma- riner's compass were both in use about 1420. 1492. Variation of the compass disco- NAV GG9 NEC vered by Columbus. 1537. That the oblique rhomb lines are spirals, disco- vered by Nonius. First treatise on na- vigation in 1545, was published at Val- ladolid, by Pedro de Medina, under the title of " Arte de Nauegar ;" this was fol- lowed 1 1 years after by another work of the same kind, published at Seville, by Martin Cortes. The log first mentioned by Bourne in 1577- Mercator's chart introduced 1599. See Chart. 1600. Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for mea- suring angles, used about this time. 1620. Logarithmic tables applied to na- vigation by Gunter. 1623. Middle lati- tude saihng introduced. 1631. Nor- wood's mensuration of degrees. 1731. Hadley's quadrant introduced. 1764. Harrison's time-keeper used. See Chro- nometer. 1767- Nautical almanac first published. 1820. Barlow's theory of the deviation of the compass. NAVIGATION Lavps. The origin of these laws may be traced to the reign of Richard II. in the first navigation act, 1381. In the reign of Henry VII., two of the leading principles of our later na- vigation laws, were distinctly recognised in the prohibition of the importation of certain commodities, unless imported in ships belonging to English owners, and manned by English seamen. In the early part of the reign of Elizabeth (5 Elizabeth, c. 5.), foreign ships were ex- cluded from our fisheries and coasting trade. The republican parliament gave a great extension to the navigation laws, by the act in 16.50, which prohibited all ships, of all foreign nations whatever, from trading with the plantations in America, without having previously ob- tained a hcence. The following year, Oct. 9j 1651, the republican parliament passed the famous act of navigation ; in- tended not only to promote our own na- vigation, but also to strike a decisive blow at the naval power of the Dutch. The leading provisions of this act were adopted by the regal government which succeeded Cromwell, and formed the basis of the act of the 12th Car. II. c. 18, which continued in force till the late act, 3 and 4 Will. III. c. 54, passed Aug. 28, 1833. This statute, entitled " An act for the encouragement of Bri- tish shipping and navigation," prohibits the importation of certain goods from diflFerent parts of the world into the United Kingdom, except in British ships or ships of the country of which the goods are the produce, with certain ex- ceptions therein named, &c. NAVIGATORS' Isles, a cluster of 10 islands in the Pacific Ocean, disco- vered by Bougainville, and explored by Perouse in 1787. They were visited several times, from 1823 to 1830, by the late Mr. WiUiams, the missionary, and particularly described in his work. NAVY OF England, at the time of the Spanish Armada, was only 42 ves- sels, 34 in an eflficient state, and 8 in dock, but none larger than frigates. At the death of Cromwell, the English navy consisted of 157 vessels. In 1756 it consisted of 320 vessels of various classes. In 1776 it consisted of 130 ships of the line, and 209 vessels below 50 guns. In 1778 it was increased to 450 vessels. In 1782 it consisted of 600 vessels, 161 of which were line-of-battle ships. In 1779 it consisted of of 864, of which 180 were line-of-battle ships. In 1807 it consisted of 627 ships in commission, and 66 on the stocks. During the period between 1806 and 1812 the British navy, including ordnance and tenders, seldom consisted of less than 1000 pendants floating in the breeze. In 1834, accord- ing to oflScial returns, it consisted of 557 vessels of various classes, including 12 ships of 120 guns, and 14 from 104 to 132. The naval force, during the same pe- riod, of the three other principal powers, namely, France, Russia, and America, were — France had 31 sail of the line, and 37 frigates ; Russia 36 sail of the line and 23 frigates ; and America 8 sail of the line and 10 frigates. We have no further account since the above period. NAVY Office, founded Dec. 4, 1644. NEATH Abbey, Glamorganshire, built 1150; castle built 1090. NEBUCHADNEZZAR made the kingdom of Judah tributary, a.c. 605; pillaged the temple of Jerusalem 597 ; took that city, after a siege of 18 months ; took Tyre, 572. His death took place 562. NECHO,king of Egypt, began a canal for uniting the Nile with the Red Sea, A.c. 610 ; invaded Judah 608 ; ordered a voyage of discovery to be undertaken, being the first on record, 604. NECKER, James, the distinguished financier and statesman of France, was born at Geneva in 1732; was sent to i\ E L 670 Paris in 1746. His reputation for finan- cial knowledge caused him, in 1776, to be appointed director of the French finances. He continued for many years to enjoy the confidence of the French monarch; but about 1781 he published a work, entitled the " Compte Rendu," which produced debates, and ended in his resignation. Necker was recalled in the month of August 1788. Conten- tions ensued, which terminated in an order for him to leave Paris within 24 hours, July 11, 1789- As soon as his dismission was known, the whole city was in a flame. The destruction of the Bastile soon followed ; and the king was glad to send an express, urging his return. His entrance into Paris was regarded as a day of rejoicing. But the popularity of Necker had reached its summit. His personal safety was en- dangered, and he quitted Paris, and re- turned to Switzerland. This extraordi- nary man died August 9, 1804. NEEDLES were first made in Eng- land by a native of India in 1545, but the art was lost at his death; it was, however recovered by Christopher Green- ing in 1560, who was settled at Long Crendon in Bucks, where the manufac- tory has been carried on to the present day. 1838. At the late meeting of the British Association were exhibited se- veral specimens, illustrating the progress of manufacturing needles by new patent machinery, invented by Mr. S. Cocker, Porter Works, Sheffield. The value of labour from the wire. No. 1 to 7 inclu- sive, would be Is. per thousand. The ex- pense by patent machinery, from No. 1 to 5 or 6 inclusive, Id. per thousand. One hundred patent machines will, by the power of a six-horse steam-engine, be sufficient to produce 14,000,000 needles per week. NEEDLE Makers' Company, Lon- don, incorporated 1656. NEELE, Henry, author of "Ro- mance of History," &c., born 1798, died 1828. NEHEML^H, the prophet, flourished A.c. 450. NELSON, Viscount Horatio, one of the most distinguished commanders of the British navy, was born 1753, and, discovering at an early age strong pre- dilection for the naval profession, he was sent in 1771 to the West Indies in a merchantman. After several other NEL appointments he was sent again to serve in the West Indies, where he became acquainted with Prince WiUiam Henry, afterwards William IV., who, from that time, proved a friend to him through life. In 1783 Nelson was a third time sta- tioned in the West Indies, where he found himself senior captain, under Sir Edward Hughes. In 1795, as commo- dore, he was in the Mediterranean with Sir John Jervis. In the battle of St. Vincent, in 1797, he distinguished him- self by prodigies of enterprising valour. In the course of the action, determining to board the San Nicholas, he accompanied the party in the attack ; passing from the forechains of his own ship into the enemy's quarter-deck, he arrived in time to receive the sword of the dying com- mander, who had been mortally wounded by the boarders. On July 15 he was detached with a small squadron to make an attack on the town of Santa Cruz, in the island of Teneriff"e. Nelson, in the act of stepping out of the boat, received a shot through the right elbow, and fell. The same night at 10 o'clock his arm was amputated. Early in 1798 Nelson, now an admiral, rejoined Earl St. Vincent in the Medi- terranean, and on Aug. 1, the important engagement of the Nile took place. In the midst of the battle, about 10 o'clock, the Orient blew up with a most tremen- dous explosion. The firing instantly ceased on both sides, and the first sound was the fall of her shattered masts and yards, which had been carried to an as- tonishing height. The victory was so complete that, of 13 sail of the line, nine were taken and two burnt : of the four frigates, one was sunk and another burnt. In consequence, of this victory he was created Baron Nelson of the Nile, and a pension of £2000 a-year for three lives was confered upon him. In 1801 he was appointed second in com- mand over a fleet sent to the Baltic to chastise Denmark, Sweden, and Russia, for a coalition with France against the maritime rights of Great Britain. In the engagement which took place, and which was entrusted entirely to Nelson's ma- nagement, he displayed the most un- daunted bravery, as well as unparalleled skill. After the peace of Amiens, he re- tired to a house which he had purchased, at Merton, in Surrey. In January, 1805, the French fleet escaped out of Toulon, and joining the Spanish, sailed for the '%(^ 'Vid)(^(^ Bata«3 of Ui-afalga 'Nelson woa-Mdod av Sar^ta Crrvz. T.oNDOw: •jiiOMAS kkijjY, ae*p . NEP 671 NER West Indies, and Nelson pursued them. From this unparalleled chace of more than 7000 miles full speed. Nelson re- turned to England, Aug. 1. In 1806 he once more left his native country, to take the command of a fleet destined to achieve the greatest naval victory on re- cord, in which he nobly fell at the mo- ment of victory, Oct. 21. See Trafal- gar. All the honours which a grate- ful country could bestow, were heaped upon the memory of Nelson. His brother was made an earl, with a grant of £6000 a-year ; £10,000 were voted to each of his sisters ; and £100,000 for the purchase of an estate. A public funeral was decreed, which took place with cir- cumstances of unusual splendour, at the public expense, and he was buried at St. Paul's church, London, Jan. 9. 1807- NELSON, Earl, Duke of Bronti, brother of the celebrated naval hero, died Feb. 28, 1835, in his 78th year. The heir to the title, a nephew of the naval hero, after enjoying the honour for a few months, died Oct. 31. He was succeed- ed by his son, a boy of 10 years of age. NJELSON, Robert, divine, of the Church of England, author of "Fasts and Festivals," and other works, was born at London, in 1656. He died at Kensington, Jan. 1715, in his 59th year. He left his whole fortune to pious and charitable purposes, tojwhich he had de- voted a great part of his income during life. NEMiEAN Games, instituted by Adrastus, a.c. 1226; revived 568. They were celebrated every third year by cha- riot races, and the victors were crowned with parsley. NEMOURS, town, France, was the scene of an action between the French and Austrians in 1814. NENNIUS, an ancient British histo- rian, abbot of Bangor, is generally said to have flourished about 620, and to have taken refuge at Chester, at the time of the massacre of the monks at that mo- nastery. He was author of several works ; but the only one remaining is his " Historia Britonum;" or " Eulogium Britanniae." NEPAUL, important kingdom. North- ern Hindoostan. The Brahmins, at a period prior to any known records, pene- trated in great numbers into Nepaul, where their superior knowledge soon enabled them to act a leading part. They absorbed most of the civil de- partments of government, and effected the conversion of the people. The whole territory was made subject to the mili- tary government of the rajah of Gorkha. Sikian, the most easterly of the present Nepaulese dominions, was conquered in 1788; but it was not until the com- mencement of the present century that the accession of Garhawl extended the empire to its western hmit, beyond the Jumna. The government having in- volved itself in war with Britain, and being completely vanquished, was ob- liged to cede these western conquests. This conflict terminated April 2/, 1815 ; the treaty of peace was signed between the parties, Dec. 2. War was renewed by an infraction of the treaty by the Ne- paulese, Jan. 1816. After several con- tests unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the former treaty was ratified, March 15, the same year. 1840. Insurrection in Nepaul against the British authority. The insurgents, amounting to 8000 men, took possession of the whole of the Chumparun district. The indigo planters, Europeans and ci- vilians, fled before them. They pro- ceeded to the capital, and blockaded the British resident and his escort. The rajah positively disclaimed any know- ledge or connection with the affair. NEPOS, Cornelius, a celebrated Roman biographer and historian, who flourished in the reign of Julius Caesax", and lived, according to St. Jerome, to the sixth year of Augustus. As an au- thor, he is known by his " De Vitis Ex- cellentium Imperatorum," which is his only work that has reached modern times. NEREIDE, British frigate, stranded and fell into the hands of the French at the Cape of Good Hope, August 23, 1810. NERO, Claudius DomitiusC^- SAR, the Roman emperor, celebrated chiefly for his tyranny and cruelty. He was adopted by Claudius, a. d. 50, and four years after succeeded him on the throne. Nero's mother, having of- fended him, he removed her out of the way by poison in 55. Many of his courtiers shared this unhappy fate ; and Nero sacrificed to his fury or caprice all who obstructed his pleasure or opposed his inclination. In 62 he divorced his wife, whom he banished and afterwards put to death. From this time, acts of cruelty and rapacity alone marked the NET 672 NEW life of Nero. In the terrible conflagration of Rome in 64, he caused the christians to be accused as the incendiaries, and put to death. Many conspiracies were formed against liim ; but they were ge- nerally discovered. The conspiracy of Galba, however, at length proved suc- cessful; and to avoid the consequences, he destroyed himself in 68, in the 32d year of his age, after a reign of 13 years and eight months. NESBIT. Dr., Enghsh physician, died 1761. NESBIT, AbEXAnDER, heraldic writer, born 1672, died 1725. NESTORIANS, an ancient sect of christians, whose distinguishing tenet is that Mary is not the mother of God. Their name originated from Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople in 439. In the 10th century, the Nestoriansin Chal- dea, extended their spiritual conquests beyond Mount Imaus, and introduced the christian religion into Tartary. The spiritual dominion of the great Nestorian pontiffs is still very extensive, including a great part of Asia. NETH ERLANDS. This country was conquered and kept in subjection by the Romans, till tiie decline of their 'empire in the fifth century ; the Franks then occupied it ; and for a considerable time it formed part of the kingdom of Aus- trasia, of which Metz was the capital. It was subsequently jilaced under the government of counts or earls. Hav- ing afterwards been incorporated with the possessions of the dukes of Burgundy, the Netherlands passed to Maximilian of Austria, father of the em- peror Charles V. The latter united the 17 provinces into one state, and pub- lished, in 1549, a law that they should in future be all governed by the same so- vereign. The l)igotry of his son Phihp II. produced the separation of the Dutch provinces. The others continued under the Spanish crown until the middle of the I7th century, when the activity of Conde, and the more formidable tactics of Turenne, were both exerted to add them to the dominions of Louis XIV. " After the battle of Ramillies, in 1706, the Netherlands were brought under the power of the allies, and assigned to Aus- tria by the peace of Utrecht. In the war of the French revolution when hostilities commenced in 1792, Austria lost the Ne- therlands in the first campaign. Though recovered in 1/93, they passed in 1794 to France. In 1814, in consequence of the revolution which replaced the sceptre in the hands of the Bourbons, the vvhole 17 provinces were erected into one king- dom along with the grand duchy of Luxemburg. By the revolt of the Bel- gic provinces, however, this territory has been again divided into two separate kingdoms; viz. Holland and Bel- gium, which see. NETLEY ABBEY/Hants, built 1239; castle built 1540. NKUFCHATEL, canton, west of Switzerland, originally formed, with the neighbouring principality of Valengin, a small state, enjoying a considerable share of freedom. In 1707 the state ac- knowledged the claims of the king of Prussia, till, by the treaty of Tilsit, in 1807, it was ceded to France. The events of 1814 relieved it from subjec- tion ; after which the congress of Vi- enna acknowledged it as a Swiss canton. NEVA, convict-ship, lost, with 224 convicts on board. May 14, 1835. NEVIS Isle, West Indies, was dis- covered by Columbus, and said to have received its name from him, from an opinion that its top was covered with snow. An English colony from St. Christopher's first settled here in 1628. It was taken by the French February 14, 1782; but restored to the English in 1783. NEWBURY, market town, Berks, was formerly celebrated for its woollen manufactures. In the reign of Henry VIII., John Winchcombe (Jack of New- bury), kept 100 looms at work upon his own premises. A new charter was granted in 1596, by Queen Elizabeth. NEWBURY Bank, robbed of pro- perty to the amount of £20,000, Dec. 1 1, 1815. NEWCASTLE- ON-TYNE, seaport, Northumberland, called by the Anglo- Saxons, Moncaster, from its being in- habited chiefly by monks. Robert, son of William I., built a castle here, and gave the town its present name. In the reign of Edward I. it was taken and burnt by the Scots, but was quickly re- built. It was one of the principal com- mercial ports of England as early as the time of Edward I., and has continued so to the present time. The prosperity of the town has arisen chiefly from the coal trade ; its present importance is thus described in 1838- Its population, in- cluding Gateshead and the adjacent NEW 673 NEW neighbourhood, exceeds 100,000 ; and the tonnage surpasses that of any town in the kingdom, London only excepted. About 70 steamers are employed in towing vessels up and down the river, whose banks, in the number of manu- factories, rival those of the Thames itself. CoUiery railways exist out of number. The Newcastle and Carlisle line, the traffic of which was formerly estimated at £28,000 per annum, is now actually receiving upwards of £75,600. NEW Forest, in Hampshire, affo- rested 1031. NEWFOUNDLAND, island. North America, lying on the north-east side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, discovered by John Cabot, the Venetian, who obtained a commission from Henry Yll. during his first voyage in 1497- The abundance and excellency of its cod fishery soon at- tracted fishermen from European nations to visit its coasts. In 1585 a voyage was made by Sir Bernard Drake, who claimed its sovereignty and fishery in the name of Queen Elizabeth; and an attempt was made at forming a settle- ment in 1610; but the first permanent colony was established in 1623, by Sir George Calvert, afterwards Lord Balti- more. Settlements continued to be made all along the eastern coast of the island ; and the French succeeded in establishing themselves in Placentia Bay, on the south. From 1702 till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, the colony was much disturbed by the French. The revolu- tionaiy war in America occasioned fresh disputes as to the right of fishing on the banks of Newfoundland ; while the im- perfect administration of justice amongst the colonists for years continued a sub- ject of just and constant complaint. Newfoundland has had a resident go- vernor ever since 1728. Civil and justi- ciary courts were soon after established, and a superior court was added about 1750. In 1832 a representative govern- ment was given' to the colony, similar to that enjoyed at Nova Scotia. NEWGATE, built 1776 ; damaged by fire in the press yard, 1752 ; burned by the rioters 1780; restored 1781; riot among the convicts quelled by threaten- ing to withhold their allowance of food, xAug. 26, 1816. NEW Guinea. See Papua. NEW Holland. See Holland, New. NEW Inn Society, founded 14S5. NEW Orleans. SeeORLEANS,NEW^. NEW River Cut finished in three years' time, 1609; the manager, Mr. Hugh Middleton, knighted by King James. It runs 50 miles, and has about 200 bridges over it ; it was brought to London, and the water first let into the basin, now called the New River Head, Sept. 29, 1613. The undertaking cost £500,000, and for the first 19 years after finishing the work, the annual profit on each share scarcely amounted to 125. Each of these shares was origi- nally sold for £100, and lately some of them have amounted to £10,000. NEW South Walks. See Wales, New South. NEWSPAPERS. The first published in modern Europe, made its appearance at Venice in 1536 ; but the jealousy of the government would not allow of its being printed ; so that for many years it was circulated in manuscript. News- papers were first issued in England by authority in 1588, during the alarm oc- casioned by the approach of the Armada, a copy of which is in the British Museum, dated July 23. From this era news- papers have, with a few intermissions, ge- nerally appeared in London; sometimes at regular, and sometimes at irregular inter- vals. During the civil wars both parties had their newspapers. The earliest news- paper published in Scotland made its appearance under the auspices of Crom- well, in 1652. The " Caledonian Mer- cury " was, however, the first of the Scotch newspapers of native manufac- ture; it made its appearance at Edin- burgh, under the title of " Mercurius Caledonius," in 1660; but its publica- tion was soon afterwards interrupted. Newspapers and pamphlets were pro- hibited by royal proclamation 1680. Though at the revolution prohibitions of this kind were done away, and the press set at liberty, yet newspapers were afterwards made objects of taxation : the number of them, however, has gradually increased to the present time. In the reign of Queen Anne, 18 papers were published in London ; but the " Daily Courant " was the only daily paper. In the reign of George I., the number was three daily, six weekly, and ten pub- lished three times a week, and the " Lon- don Gazette" twice a week. In 1815 the number of newspapers published was 252; in 1833, 369, of which 248 were published in England, 46 in Scotland, and 75 in Ireland. 4 R NEW 674 NEW Newspapers were first stamped 1713; stamp increased 1725, 1765, 1781, 1789, 1793,1805, 1808; advertisements reduced 1833. Before 1836 the stamp duty on a newspaper was nominally 4(1. with a discount of 20 per cent., which reduces the stamp duty actually paid to 35^. From the stamp office accounts it ap- pears, that the average number of copies of newspapers sold annually in Eng- land in 1753, was 7,411,757; in 1760, 9,464,790; in 1790, 14,035,639; in 1792, 15,005,760; in 1833, 27,690,929. By 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 76, Aug. 13, 1836, the stamps were reduced from 4rf. to \d. This act also regulated the mode of suing persons acting under the act, and the recovery and application of penal- ties, &c., and repealed several previous statutes. The duties imposed by this act, are for every sheet or piece of paper whereon any newspaper shall be printed, id. ; and where such sheet shall contain on one side thereof a printed superficies, exceeding 1530 inches, and not exceed- ing 2295 inches, the additional duty of id. And where the same shall contain a superficies exceeding 2295 inches, the additional duty of Id. The number of newspapers for which stamps were issued, and the number of stamps issued to newspapers, in the year ending Septem- ber 1836, were, newspapers 397, stamps 35,576,056, duty £443,278; and in 1839, newspapers 519, stamps 58,516,862, duty £239,457. NEW Style, first introduced into Germany in 1584; Switzerland in 1584; Poland in 1586; Hungary in 1587; France, Spain, Portugal, Holland, Flan- ders, Denmark, and parts of Italy, 1700; Tuscany in 1751; into Eng- land in 1752; Sweden in 1753; and Rus- sia in 1832. NEWTON, Dr. Thomas, an emi- nent prelate, was born at Lichfield, Jan. 1704. His principal work, his " Disser- tation on the Prophecies," was pub- hshed in 1754. In 1757 he was made prebendary of Westminster; in 1768 dean of St. Paul's, and bishop of Bris- tol. He died Feb. 1782. NEWTON, Sir Isaac, the most dis- tinguished philosopher and mathema- tician the world has ever produced, was born on Christmas Day, 1642. He was sent to Trinity CoUege, Cambridge, where he was much noticed by Dr. Barrow. In 1664 he took the degree of bachelor of arts; and in 1668 that of master. He had before this time dis- covered the method of fluxions ; and in 1669 he was, ui)on the resignation of Dr. Barrow, chosen professor of mathema- tics in the university of Cambridge. About 1674 he commenced those stu- dies which afterwards became the won- der of his age. He published in 1687, " Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy," a work which the Marquis de I'Hospital said he regarded " as the production of a celestial intelligence ra- ther than of a man." In 1699 he was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and in 1704 he published his Optics, which was a piece of philosophy so new, that the science may be considered as entirely indebted to him. In 1715 M. Leibnitz attempted to baffle Sir Isaac Newton's mathematical skill, by his famous problem of his Tra- jectories, which he proposed to the En- glish by way of challenge. The problem, it is said, was received by him at four o'clock in the afternoon ; and though he was extremely fatigued with business, he finished the solution of it before he re- tired to rest. He had the perfect use of all his senses and understanding till the day before he died, which was on March 20, 1727, in his 85th year. He was buried March 28, in Westminster Abbey, where a noble monument was erected to his memory. NEWTON, Gilbert Stuart, dis- tinguished modern artist, was born in Hahfax, Nova Scotia, on Sept. 20, 1794. The first works by which he became ex- tensively known were his " Forsaken," and his "Lovers' Quarrels," engraved in the " Literary Souvenir," 1826; his " Prince of Spain's Visit to Catalina," engraved for the same work, in 1831, and painted for the duke of Bedford. He died Aug. 5, 1835. NEW York, state and city of the United States of North America. Its settlement was commenced by the Dutch in 1614, who called it New Netherlands. Charles II. granted his brother, the duke of York, a patent for a large tract of country, forming the present states of New York and New Jersey. Colonel Nicholls was sent out, who made a con- quest of the country, and changed the name to New York. In 1673 the'Dutch recaptured the colony, and held it for a few months ; but, with this exception, it has belonged to the English from the year 1664 to the American revolution of a^AA© Fmwi^c ^47I I I [ 29 [ 53] ^105 PARLIAMENT, Houses of,' burnt down October 16, 1834. In this con- flagration were destroyed nearly all the various offices, the old painted chamber, associated with a thousand historical reminiscences, &c. In less than half an hour from the first discovery of the flames, the whole interior of the build- ing from the ground-floor to the roof, presented through the numerous win- dows with which it was studded, one entire mass of fire. The libraries and state- papers, with much other valuable property in 'the houses of lords and commons, as well as in the official resi- dence of the speaker, were preserved ; but both the houses were completely ruined, with the exception, in the lords, of the library and adjoining rooms, with some ofiices and committee-rooms; and, in the commons, of four committee- rooms, which admit of being repaired. The speaker's house was partly de- stroyed, and the remainder much da- maged. The most probable explanation of this disastrous conflagration was, 4 u P AR 698 PAR that the fire originated from the flues used for warming the house of lords having been unusually heated, by a large fire made by the burning of the old wooden exchequer tallies, which had been improperlyentrusted by the clerk of the works to a workman named Cross. New Houses of Parliament. The first contracts for the commence- ment of the works were entered into, September, 1837. They comprehend the formation of an embankment, 886 feet in length, projecting into the river 98 feet ; the front in a line with the inner side of the third pier of West- minster-bridge, in four feet of water at low-water ; the whole surrounded by a river wall, 30 feet high from the base, and 1141 feet in length, with a curvi- linear batten, and faced with granite ; a terrace 673 feet long next the river, and 35 feet wide, is formed in the front of the new houses, with an esplanade at each end 100 feet square, and landing stairs from the river 12 feet wide. PARMA, city, Italy, capital of the duchy of the same name, was founded by the ancient Etrurians, but was seized by the Gauls, and afterwards by the Romans. On the decline of the Roman power, it asserted its independence, but feeing torn by factions, it fell into the hands of the popes, and was given by Paul III. to his son, Luigi Farneise, whose descendants continued to govern it till the extinction of the male line. In 1714 Elizabeth Farnese married Phi- lip V. of Spain, and her son, Don Carlos, took possession of it in 1731, Four years afterwards, the duchy was ceded to the emperor of Austria, who governed it till 1748, when it was ceded to Don Philip II. son of Philip and Elizabeth. In 1801 the duke of Parma, was raised to the throne of Tuscany, under the title of Etruria, but Buona- parte united it to France. In 1814 Parma and Placenza were ceded to the e.x-em- press, Maria-Louisa, devolving, on her death, to Austria and Sardinia ; but subsequent arrangements have decreed that this territory shall eventually de- volve on Spain. 1831. An insurrection broke out at Parma, Modena, &c., February 10, A deputation of insurgents waited on the duchess, and informed her it was neces- sary she should withdraw. Her high- ness refused ; and after some demon- strations of the insurgents, a provisional government was formed. At length the insurrection was -suppressed by an Aus- trian force. The governments of Mo- dena and Parma were restored. The duchess of Parma granted a free pardon to all the persons who had appointed the provisional government ; only ex- cluding them for three years, from public offices. PARNELL, Rev. Thomas, author of the "Hermit," &c., died 1718. PAROCHIAL Assessment. See Poor Law^s. PAROS, island, kingdom of Greece ; anciently owed its celebrity to its mar- ble, remarkable for its whiteness and hardness. The Apollo Belvidere, Venus de Medicis, and other celebrated statues are sculptured of it. Antiquities are scattered over the island, and the Arun- delian marbles were brought from hence, and presented to the university of 0.x- ford in 1667- See Arundelian Marbles. PARR, Catherine, married to Henry Villi, 1 543, afterwards the wife of Sir Thomas Seymour, lord high ad- miral, died Sept. 1548. PARR, Samuel, one of the most ce- lebrated literary characters of the present day, was born at Harrow-on-the-Hill, in January, 1747. In 1752 he was sent to the free school at Harrow, and en- tered at Emanuel College, Cambridge, in 1765. In 1768 he was ordained by the bishop of London. In 1780 he was preferred to the rectory of Asterby, in the diocese of Lincoln ; which he after- wards exchanged for the perpetual curacy of Hatton, in Warwickshire. In addi tion to this, he obtained a prebend in St. Paul's, and the wealthy living of Graffham, inHuntingdonshire. Towards the close of 1824 his health began to decline ; and after a long and pro- tracted illness, he died Feb. 26, 1825, in his 78th year. PARR, Thomas, aremarkable instance of longevity ; he lived in the reign of 10 kings and queens. He was born at Alderbury, Salop, in 1483. In 1634 he was brought to London, and introduced at court to King Charles I., as a prodigy ; but the change of air and new mode of living, occasioned his death in the same year, aged 152. PARRY, J. H., a writer of Welsh biography, died Feb. 12, 1825. PARTH[A, anciently an extensive empire of Asia, afterwards a province of PAS 699 PAT the Persian empire. Its capital was named Hecatompolis, from the circum- stance of its having 100 gates. Parthia was first subject to the Medes, then to the Persians, and afterwards to Alexan- der the Great. After his death the pro- vince fell to Seleucus-Nicator, and was held by him and his successors till the reign of Antiochus Theus, about a.c. 250, when the kingdom of Parthia began under Arsaces. From this prince all the other kings of Parthia took the surname Qf Arsaces. The Parthian conquests in Armenia, about a.c. 70, brought them acquainted with the Romans ; and they generally lost ground in Armenia and Mesopotamia, during the time of the Ro- man emperors . In a . d . 245 Persis,or Per sia Proper, which had for some ages ranked as a province of Parthia, gained the as- cendency; and, under Artaxerxes, put an end to the dynasty of the Arsacidae, and restored the ancient name of Persia to the empire, after that of Parthia had existed nearly 500 years. PASCAL, Blaise, an eminent ma- thematician and philosopher of France, was born at Clermont, in Auvergne, in 1623. When about 23 years old, having Seen Torricelli's experiments respecting a vacuum and the weight of air, he as- certained the fact of the general pressure of the atmosphere, and composed a large treatise, in which he fully explained the subject. Incessant application at length occasioned the loss of health; in 1647 he was seized with a paralysis ; and in 1654, having gone to take an airing on the Pont de Neuillyin a coach and four, the horses suddenly took fright, and he narrowly escaped a sudden and violent death. From this time he determined tQ employ his remaining days in reli- gious meditation ; for this purpose he entered a monastic institution at Port Royal. • In the disputes between the Je- suits and Jansenists, he became a parti- san of the latter, and wrote his celebrated " Provincial Letters," published in 1656 ; but his bodily infirmities became severe, and he expired Aug. 19, 1672. PASHA, one of the largest steam ves- sels ever built in England, was launched at Limehouse, May 7, 1834 ; length 211 feet, six inches ; breadth 56 feet ; depth 32 feet 6 inches ; burden nearly equal to that of a 74 gun-ship ; two engines, each of 120 horse power. PASSAGE Boat, lost on the Frith of Dornoch, by which 40 out of 127 pas- sengers were drowned, Aug. 13, 1809. Another on the Ardrossan canal, between Paisley and Johnstone, heeled on one side, and precipitated 100 persons into the water, of which 84 were drowned, Nov. 10, 1810. PASSAU, town, kingdom of Bavaria. In 1552 was concluded here the peace which is considered by all German pro- testants as the charter of their liberties. PASSOVER, instituted on Monday, May 4, A. c. 1491, celebrated in the New Temple, April 18, a.c. 515. PATAGONIA, country. South Ame- rica, was discovered in 1519, by Ferdi- nand Magellan, who passed through the narrow sea that separates it from Terra del Fuego, called after him the Straits of Magellan. PATENTS granted for titles, first used 1344; first granted for the exclu- sive privilege of publishing books, 1591. PATNA, city, Hindoostan, capital of the province of Bahar, on the southern banks of tiie Ganges. Here are the re- mains of a British factory, where a dreadful massacre of 200 prisoners was perpetrated in 1763, by the German ad- venturer, Sormo, then in the service of Meer Cossin ; immediately after which the city was captured by the British troops under Major Adams, and has ever since remained in their possession. PATRAS, a seaport town, Greece, north-west of Morea. After the Greek war it surrendered, by capitulation, to a detachment of the French army, under General Schneider, Oct. 5, 1828. Since the establishment of the kingdom, Patras has a more extensive trade than any other port of Greece. The exports of currants from thence, at an average of three years, ending with 1831, amounted to about 50,000 cwt. a year, worth about £33,000. PATRICK, St., the apostle and tute- lary saint of Ireland, was born in 373 at Kirkpatrick, nearDumbarton, Scotland. Pope Celestine having consecrated him bishop, and given him a commission to convert the Irish, he landed in the coun- try of the Evolein, or at Wicklow, in 441. His first convert was Sinell, eighth in descent from Cormac, king of Leinster. After labouring several years indefati- gably in his great work, he visited the Isle of Man, which he converted in 440, when the bishopric was founded ; and in 448 returned to Ireland. He spent the remainder of his life between the monas- PAU 700 PAV teries of Armagh and Saul, superintend- ing and enforcing the great plan of doc- trine and discipline which he had estab- lished. After having instituted schools, he closed his hfe and ministry at Saul Abbey, in the 120th year of his age, 493. PATRICK, St., benevolent Society of, instituted 1783. The 52d anniversary was celebrated at the Freemasons' Ta- vern, Great Queen-street, March 4, 1835. There were about 300 noblemen and gentlemen assembled ; the subscriptions amounted to £1185 3s. PATRICK, Simon, a learned Eng- lish prelate, was born at Gainsborough, in Lincolnshire, in 1626. In 1644 he was admitted into Queen's College, Cam- bridge, and entered into holy orders. In 1678 he was presented to the dea- conry of Peterborough ; in 16S9 he was nominated to fill the vacant see of Chi- chester. In 1691 he was translated to the see of Ely, and died tbere in 1707, in the 81st year of his age. His works were numerous, among which the most distinguished are his " Paraphrases and Commentaries on the Holy Scriptures," in three volumes folio. PATTEN Makers' Company, Lon- don, incorporated 1670. PAUL, St., converted 33, wrote his epistles between 51 and 66 ; he died in the year 67. PAUL, St., order of knighthood begun at Rome 1540. PAUL, Father, or Peter Sarpi, a monk of the l6th century, celebrated for his opposition to the Roman see, was born at Venice, Aug. 14, 1552. The most active part of his life began about 1615; when Pojie Paul V., exasperated by some decrees of the senate of Venice, laid the whole state under an interdict. On this occasion Father Paul was dis- tinguished by his defence of the rights of the supreme magistrate. In conse- quence of this, several attempts upon his life obliged him to confine himself to his convent, where he was engaged in writing the " History of the Council of Trent." In this and other works he spent the remaining part of his life. He died in 1623, in the 7lst year of his age. " He was hated by the Romans as their most formidable enemy, and honoured by all the learned for his abilities, and by the good for his integrity." PAULINUS, Pontius Meropius, a, celebrated prelate and ecclesiastical writer in the fifth century, born at Bour- deau.x in 353, was baptized by Delphi- nus, bishop of Bourdeau.x, in 391. In 409 he was ordained bishop ofNola. He died in 431, in his 78th year. PAULINUS, who flourished in the eighth centurj^ was honoured by the Catholics with the title of saint. The emperor Charlemagne, in 776, promoted him to the patriarchate of Aquileia. He became celebrated as a writer in defence of the Trinity. PAULINUS, called the apostle of Yorkshire, an English bishop, who flou-> rished in the early part of the seventh century. He was the first archbishop of York about 626. He built a church at Almondbury, and dedicated it to St. Alban, where he preached to and con- verted the Brigantes. PAULO, or Polo, Marco, the Venetian traveller and historian, born about 1255. Having learned the different dialects of Tartary, he was employed in embassies which gave him the opportunity of tra- versingTartary, China, and other eastern countries, and he returned in 1295. A short time after, serving his country at sea against the Genoese, his galley, in a great naval engagement, was sunk, and himself taken prisoner and carried to Genoa,]where he composed the history of his voyages, which appeared at Venice in 8vo., 1496. PAUL'S, St., cathedral, London, built on the foundation of an old temple of Diana, 610; burnt 964; rebuilt 1240; having been 1 50 years building ; the steeple fired by lightning 1443 ; church rebuilt, having been in great part burnt down 1631 ; totally destroyed by fire 1666; first stone of the present building laid 1675 ; finished 1710, and cost £1,000,000; first service performed December 2, 1697. The ball and cross renewed 1823. The iron balustrade round the churchyard extends three furlongs and one-fifth. PAUL'S, St., School, built 1510; rebuilt 1825. PAUSANIAS, a learned Greek his- torian, who flourished in the second century, under the reign of Antoninus the philosopher. He declaimed both at Athens and Rome, in which last-named city he died at an advanced age. He wrote an excellent description of Greece, in ten books. PAVEMENT. The first act of par- liament to regulate pavement, passed in 1762; prior to this, each inhabi- tant paved before his own door, with PEA 701 PEE any material he chose to select. Wood pavement for roads introduced 1838. PAVIA (ancient Ticinum or Papia), town, Austrian Italy. Tlie university is said to be the most ancient in Europe, having been founded by Charlemagne in 791. In 1525 Francis I. was made pri- soner by the imperialists, in a battle fought near this place. The town was afterwards taken by the imperialists ; but after 60 years, restored to the French, who kept it till 1814, when it fell under the Austrian dominion. PAWNBROKERS. The practice of advancing money to the poor, either with or without interest, was occasionally followed in antiquity. But the first pub- lic establishments were founded in Italy, imder the name of Monti di Pieta, in the 14th and 15th centuries. From Italy these gradually spread over the continent. The Mont de Piete, in Paris, was established by a royal ordinance in 1777 ; and after being destroyed by the Revolution, was again opened in 1797. The Mont de Piete receives annually about 1,200,000 articles, upon which it advances upwards of 20,000,000 francs ; it has generally about 650,000 articles in its possession. The first law in England in relation to pawnbrokers was 30 Geo. II. c. 24, amended by 25 Geo. III. c. 48, 1785 ; but the act 39 and 40 Geo. III. c. 99, contains the latest and most complete regulations on the subject. By this statute, every person exercising the trade of a pawnbroker must take out a licence, renewable annually, ten days at least before the end of the year, for which he shall pay, within the cities of London and Westminster, and the hmits of the twopenny post, £15, and everywhere else £7 10s., &c. The number of pawn- brokers licensed in the metropolis and in the country in the year ending Janu- ary 5, 1830, was as follows : — London: rate£l5, 295 ; rate £7 10s., 7- The coun- try : rate £15, 4 ; rate £7 10s., 1038. PEARLS were in the highest possible estimation in ancient Rome, and bore an enormous price. One of the most re- markable pearls of which we have any authentic account was bought by Taver- nier, at Catifa, in Arabia, a fishery famous in the days of Pliny, for the enormous sum of £110,000. The pearl oyster is fished in various parts of the world, par- ticularly on the west coast of Ceylon ; at Tuticoreen, in the province of Tinne- velley, on the coast of Coromandel ; at the Bahrein Islands, in the gulf of Per- sia ; at the Sooloo Islands ; off the coast of Algiers ; off St. Margarita, or Pearl Islands in the West Indies, and other places on the coast of Colombia ; and in the Bay of Panama, in the South Sea. Pearls have sometimes been found on the Scotch coast, and in various other places. The pearl fisheries on the coast of Colombia were, at one time, of very great value. In 1587 upwards of 697 lbs. of pearls are said to have been imported into Seville. Phillip II. had one from St. Margarita, which weighed 250 carats, and was valued at 150,000 dollars. But for many years past the Colombian pearl fisheries have been of comparatively little importance. In 1825 two joint, stock companies were formed ; one on a large scale for prose- cuting the pearl fisheries on the coast of Colombia ; and another on a smaller scale, for prosecuting it in the Bay of Panama and the Pacific. Both were abandoned in 1826. PECKHAM, John, archbishop of Canterbury, the first writer on perspec- tive, 1279- PEDESTRIANS, Remarkable. Powell, a lawyer, walked from London to York, and back again, in six days, being a distance of above 402 miles, Nov. 1773. Again, when at the age of 57, June 1788. Captain Barclay, at Newmarket, walked 1000 miles in 1000 successive hours, walking one mile only in each hour, April 1809. Thomas Stan- den completed a more arduous task, by walking 1100 miles in as many succes- sive hours, July 1811. Baker, of Ro- chester, performed lOOlf miles in 20 days, Nov. 20, 1815. Eaton completed the task of walking 1100 miles in 1100 successive hours, walking a mile in each hour, upon Blackheath, Dec. 17, 1815. PEDRO, Don, eldest son of John VL of Portugal, was elected emperor of Brazil, Oct. 12, 1822 ; abdicated April 7, 1831 ; landed on the shores of Portugal, July 8, 1832; was appointed regent Aug. 28, 1834 ; died Sept. 22, the same year. See Brazil and Portugal. PEEL Castle, in the Isle of Man, built before 1245. PEEL Castle, Lancashire, built 1140. PEEL, Sir Robert, father of the ex-premier, was born at Peel's-cross, near Lancaster,' April 25, 1750, and was, PEL l)rought up to the cotton trade. In 1780 he published a pamphlet entitled, " The National Debt productive of National Prosperity," which laid him open to cri- ticism. He was created a baronet by patent, dated Nov. 29, 1800. He died May 3, 1830, aged 80. PEGU, or Begu, in the l6th century a kingdom in India, beyond the Ganges, but since the middle of the l7th century, a province of the Burmese empire. Pegu produces abundance of teak timber, and so early as 1707, the Arabs of Muscat were accustomed to build teak ships here. For procuring this valuable tim- ber, a great intercourse has always sub- sisted between Pegu and the British pro- vinces ; and a garrison was stationed at Rangoon, an important port of Pegu. The capital city of Pegu was nearly de- stroyed at its capture by the Burman emperor, Alompra, in 1757 : he caused parts of the walls to be levelled, and the houses to be destroyed. After the Bur- mese war in 1826, Rangoon was evacu- ated by the British garrison, and the place delivered over to the Burmese au- thorities. Immediately after this the Peguers revolted, and commenced hos- tilities against their former masters, but were defeated with great slaughter. PEKIN, or Peking, city, China, and capital of the whole empire. By early travellers it is mentioned under the name of Cambalu, built by the Tartar monarchs, adjacent to the Chinese city of Taydu, about three centuries ago. An earthquake, which happened here in 1731, buried above 100,000 persons in the ruins of the houses which were thrown down. PELAGIANS, a sect who appeared in the Christian church about the end of the fourth or beginning of the fifth cen- tury. They derived their name from Pe- lagius, called also Morgan, a monk of Bangor. His heresy made such rapid progress, that it attracted the attention of the Roman see. Pelagius, to avoid the danger which threatened him, in 409 passed over to Sicily. His followers were condemned by the council of Ephe- sus in 431 ; and the Gauls, Britons, and Africans, by their councils, and emperors by their edicts and penal laws, demo- lished this sect in its infancy. PELHAM, Henry, English states- man, died 1754, aged 60. PELICAN, the vessel in which Drake circumnavigated the globe, 1577 — 1580, 702 PEM of the relics of which a chair was made, and presented to the University of Ox- ford, and still preserved. PELLEW, Sir Edward. See Ex- MOUTH. PELLEW, Admiral Sir Israel, brother to Lord Exmouth, a brave and judicious naval officer, born 1761, died 1832. PELLEW,or Pelew Islands, in the Pacific Ocean, between the Philippine and Caroline islands. The Jesuits of Manilla, in the Philippines, endeavoured in I696 to reduce these islands, and effected a landing in 1710. Those who landed were never more heard of. In 1783 Captain Wilson, commander of the Antelope packet, in the service of the East India Company, was wrecked on this coast. The king entertained so great an esteem for Captain Wilson, that he entrusted his son, Prince Lee Boo, to his care, who died of the small-pox at Captain Wil- son's house, in London, in 1784. In return for the kindness shown by the prince of Pellew to the crew of the Ante- lope in 1791, the East India Company sent him a present of cattle which had greatly increased in 1802, with the ex- ception of the sheep, which had failed. At that time several Europeans resided on the islands, for the purpose of col- lecting biche de mar, &c. PELOPONNESIAN War began A.c. 431 ; ended by the taking of Athens 404. PELOPONNESUS. See Morea. PEMBROKE, South Wales, is of great antiquity, was anciently fortified and protected by a magnificent castle, founded in 1092, by Arnulph De Mont- gomery, son of the earl of Shrewsbury. During the wars with the Welsh it was frequently besieged, but owing to its great artificial strength, and almost impregnable natural position it resisted successfully nearly all the efforts of the assailants to reduce it. Oliver Crom- well, however, besieged it in person, and compelled its garrison to surrender. In one of its apartments Henry VII. was born. PEMBROKESHIRE formed part of the kingdom of Demetia, or Dyvet, which subsisted as an independent monarchy till conquered by Ethelwolf, knig of England. In the time of the Danish incursions, this county suffered more injury than any other in the principality. During the civil wars in PEN the reign of Charles I., several of its castles, particularly those of Pembroke and Roch, were garrisoned for the king, and withstood long and obstinate sieges in the royal cause. So late as 1797, Fishguard is rendered memorable by the landing of a French force of 1400 men in its immediate vicinity. PENANCE first enjoined as a punish- ment 157. ?' PENDRAGON Castle, Westmore- land, destroyed 1341 ; repaired 1660. PENDULUM. The first notion of measuring time by means of the vibra- tions of a pendulum has been ascribed to Gahleo, about 1649. Christian Huy- gens contested the priority of this dis- covery, and made a pendulum clock before 1658. He proved, in a satisfac- tory manner, that if the centre of motion were perfectly fixed, and all friction, re- sistance of the air, &c. perfectly removed, then the pendulum, being set in motion, would continue to vibrate for ever ; and all its vibrations would be perfectly isochronal ; that is, they would all be performed in equal times. The com- pensation pendulum, in which the rod consists of two or more wires with other apparatus, so connected as to remedy the inconveniences of expansion and con- traction, by heat and cold, was one of the most important improvements of the 18th century. These were of several kinds; the three following were the prin- cipal: — The mercurial pendulum, in- vented by Mr. Graham, about 1715; the gridiron pendulum, invented by Mr. John HaiTison about 1725, and em- ployed by him in the construction of his time-keeper; and the lever pendu- lum first employed about 1737, the inven- tion of which is ascribed to Mr. Graham. See Chronometer. Numerous other modifications of the compensation pendulum have been made. The following is one of the most recent: — Frodsham's, described in the Proceed- ings of the British Association, 1839. It is an ordinary pendulum, with a steel rod ; over this, Mr. Frodsham slips a zinc tube, which passes through a brass bob, and rests on the adjoining screw of the lower end of the rod. As the steel rod expands downwards, and is length- ened by heat, the zinc tube expands up- wards in the same degree ; and, there- fore, if the length of the rod and the tube be rightly proportioned, the pendulum may be regarded as of invariable length. 703 PEN PENITENTIARY House, Milbank for the imprisonment of convicts. The' act for its erection passed in 1812; con- victs were removed into it, June, 1816. From the report of 1828, it appears that on December 31, 1827, there were 471 male prisoners, and that 177 had been received during the year. The earn- ings of the prisoners during the year were valued at £4191 13s. 6d. The net prison expenses at £19,194 10s. 8d. The act 7 Will. IV. c. 13, June 8, 1837, empowers his majesty to direct the removal to Milbank of any person imprisoned in any place within Great Bri- tain under sentence of any court for any offence, there to remain under such sen- tence, or untilfurther orders shallbegiven. PENN, Sir William, brave En- glish admiral, born 1621, died 1670. PENN, William, founder of Penn- sylvania, the son of the preceding, was born in London in 1644. About 1668 he became a public preacher among the Quakers; and that year was committed close prisoner to the Tower, where he wrote several treatises. Being dis- charged after seven months' imprison- ment, he went to Ireland, where he also preached among the Quakers. Return- ing to England, he was in 1670 com- mitted to Newgate, for preaching, and suflPered various other persecutions. In 1681 King Charles II., in consideration of the services of Mr. Penn's father, and several debts due to him from the crown, granted Mr. Penn and his heirs, the pro- vince lying on the west side of the river Delaware in North America, which from thence obtained the name of Pennsyl- vania, which see. He died July, 1718. PENNANT, Thomas, an eminent tourist and naturalist, was born in Flint- shire, North Wales, about 1726. In 1754 he was elected a fellow of the So- ciety of Antiquaries. He began, in 1761, to prepare his " British Zoology," which he afterwards published for the benefit of the Welsh charity-school in London. In 1767 he was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and from this time pub- lished several valuable works. He died in 1798, in his 72d year. PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States of N. America, granted by Charles II. to William Penn, by patent, dated March 4, 1681. In 1682 William Penn, together with about 2000 settlers, most of whom, like himself, belonged to the Society of Friends,arrived in the country; PER 704 rnd in the following year he laid out the plan of the city of Philadelphia. He established a friendly intercourse with the Indians, which was not inter- rupted for more than 70 years. The first constitution of Pennsylvania was adopted in 1776 ; the present constitu- tion in 1790, by which the legislative power is vested in a general assembly, consisting of a senate and house of re- presentatives. PENNY-PIECES, and twopenny, of copper, first coined in England 1797. PENROSE, Thomas, poet, born 1743, died 1779. PENSACOLA, the capital of West Florida, United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1497, was esta- blished by the French, and ceded to Great Britain in 1763. In 1781 it was re- duced by the Spaniards under Don Ber- nardo Galvez, and with the whole pro- vince was confirmed to the Spaniards by the treaty of 1783, and finally trans- ferred to the United States, 1821. PENSION of £20 granted to a lady for national services, 1514; another, £6 13s. 4c/. per annum, 1536; another, £13 6s. 8d. for the maintenance of a gentleman in studying the laws of Eng- land, 1558. PENSIONERS, Band of Gentle- men, the noblest sort of guard to the sovereign's person, consisted of 40 gentle- men, who received a yearly pension of £100. First instituted by King Henry VII., about 1509. PENTATEUCH, or the five books of Moses, written A.c. 1452. PEPPER, early known in Europe as growing in Hither India; black pepper vines discovered in Jamaica in 1793. PEPUSCH, J. Christopher, Ger- man musician, born 1667, died 1752. PEPYS, Samuel, naval historian, died 1703. PERA., a suburb of Constantinople, fire at, in which the hotels of the ambas- sadors of England, France, and Hol- land, which belonged to those nations, and the residences hired by the ministers of Russia, Prussia, Sardinia, and Naples, together with a number of churches, and 5000 houses, fell a prey to the flames, Aug. 2, 1831. PERCEVAL, Spencer, prime mi- nister of England, assassinated in the lobby of the house of commons, by John Bellingham, May 11, 1812. PERCEVAL, Thomas, M.D., author PER of the " Father's Instructions," &c., died 1804. PERCY, Dr., bishop of Dromore, in Ireland, author of " Relics of Ancient Poetry," died Oct. 1, 1811. PERCY, Henry, earl of Northum- berland, last male heir of that family, died 1669. PERE La Chaise, building, Paris, laid out as apubhc cemetery in 1804. It was formerly the chief seat of the Jesuits' establishment in France, and was pre- sided over by Pere La Chaise, confessor of Louis XIV. PERGAMUS, anciently a small king- dom of Asia, formed out of the ruins of the empire of Alexander the Great, com- menced about A.c. 283. Attalus III., the last king, at his death, left the Ro- man people heirs of all his goods ; upon which they seized on the kingdom, and reduced it to a jjrovince of their em- pire by the name of Asia Proper, A.c. 133. The country remained subject to the Romans while their empire lasted, but is now in the hands of the Turks.' PERICLES, one of the greatest states- men of ancient Greece, was born at Athens ; and after the death of Cimon, was raised to the supreme authority. He made himself master of Euboea a.c 447, and soon after concluded a truce of thirty years with the Lacedaemonians. In 432 began the memorable plague of Athens, which carried olF his eldest son, Xantippus, and his sister. He died in 429. PERIGAPATAM, town, Hindoostan, province Mysore. In the Mysore war, the army of Tippoo Saib was defeated in the neighbourhood of this jjlace by the British, under General Stuart. Here was formerly a strong fort, but it was destroyed by order of Tippoo. PERIPATETIC Philosophy, a sys- tem of philosophy introduced among the Athenians in the early part of the fourth century before Christ. This name was given them, as some assert, because they received the philosopher's lectures, not in a sitting or reclining posture, butwalk- ing. This philosophy was introduced into Germany A. D. 1144. PERJURY, the crime of swearing falsely, in some judicial proceeding, was anciently death ; afterwards banishment, or cutting out the tongue, then forfei- ture of goods. The punishment of the pillory was first inflicted by statute 5 Eliz. c. 9, 1563.] PER 705 PER PERNA MBUCO, province, empire of Brazil. There was a revolutionary in- surrection in thisprovince, inMarchl8l7. PEROUSE, J. F. G. De La, a cele- brated but unfortunate French navigator, was born at Toulouse in 1741. With two frigates he sailed from Brest in August, 178 5, on his voyage of discovery. They proceeded round Cape Horn into the South Sea, and in February, 1786, cast anchor in the bay of Conception, on the coast of Chili. They arrived at the Navigators' islands in December, where they were attacked by the natives, and M . de Langle and eleven of his men lost their lives. Quitting this place without any attempts at vengeance, Perouse proceeded to New Holland, and arrived in Botany Bay in Januarj', 1788; and here terminates all that is known of the voyage of this navigator. The Research, Captain Dillon, sent out by the East India Company, arrived at Calcutta, April 7, 1828, after ascertaining the loss of the French ships, commanded by De La Perouse. The Research had found and brought to Calcutta various articles of the wrecks of these vessels. PERRAULT, Charles, French writer, bom 1628, died 1703. PERRAULT, Claude, architect, born 1613, died 1688. PERRIER, M. Casimir, prime mi- nister of France, died of cholera morbus. May 16, 1832, aged 54. PERROU, ANauETiL Du, French orientalist, died Oct. 30, 1805. PERSECUTIONS of the primitive christians. The first was under Nero, 64 ; under Domitian, 93 ; under Trajan, 107 ; under Adrian, 118 ; under Marcus Aurelius, 164; under Severus, 202 ; un- der Maximus, 235 ; under Decius, 250 ; underValerian, 2575 under Aurelian,272 ; under Diocletian, 302 ; by the Arians, under Constantius, 337 ; under Sapor, 340 ; under Julian, the apostate, 361. PERSECUTIONS of the protestants by the papists. In Franconia 50,000 of Luther's followers were killed by William de Furstemburg, 1525. In England, when Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and above 300 protestants were burnt, and great numbers perished in prison, 1556. Of the Protestants in France, on St. Bartholomew's day, &c,, 1572. See Massacre, p. 638. Also again in 1723, when great numbers were hanged, their assemblies prohibited, iheir places of worship pulled down, &c. PERSIA, an ancient and extensive empire of Asia, the limits of which have varied greatly according to the vicissi- tudes ot conquest or revolution, though it has been a monarchy for above 2000 years. Cyrus founded the' empire a.c. 557, which lasted about two centuries under a race of kings, among whom were Darius Hystaspes, who was elected king A.c. 522; Xerxes, who ascended the throne A.c. 485 ; Artaxerxes, supposed by some to be theAhasuerus of Scripture, A.c. 464. The kingdom having sunk into the imbecility common to eastern na- tions, yielded after a very feeble strug- gle, to Alexander the Great, a.c. 333, when that prince pushed his conquests over the whole of Western Asia. After his death his dominions were divided, but the Greek princes continued to rule over Asia, Seleucus holding the whole of modern Persia. Artaxerxes, about a.c. 200, asserted the independence of his country, and founded the monarchy of the Parthians, which lasted several cen- turies. See Parthia. Early in the third century, a.d. an in- ternal convulsion placed the dynasty of the Sassanides on the throne, and re- stored the name as well as the laws of ancient Persia, till the Mahomedan in- vaders succeeded in placing a descendant of the prophet on the throne of Cyrus. Some centuries afterwards, the succes- sive invasions by the descendants of Gen- ghis Khan, by Timur, and by the Turks, changed the face of Western Asia ; and Persia being the chief seat of war, suf- fered deplorably. In 1506 a native dy- nasty arose ; Shah Abbas raised himself from obscurity to the throne, delivered his country from a foreign yoke, and ex- tended its limits on all sides. His reign forms the most brilliant era in the his- tory of Persia ; for, though ambitious and even sanguinary, he caused justice to be strictly administered, maintained in- ternal peace, and promoted every species of improvement. In the beginning of the last century, Persia was overrun by the Afghans, who carried devastation through its whole extent, and reduced its capital to ashes. These atrocities were revenged, and the independence of Persia vindicated by Nadir Shah ; but though the victories of this chief threw a lustre upon his coun- try, his death, in 1747, left it a prey to civil war, till the fortune of arms established the right of Kurreem Khan. 4X PER 706 PER Similar disputes arose after his death in 1779, till Aga Mahommed, a eunuch, raised himself to the throne in 1796, and not only filled it during his life, but left it in peace to his nephew, the late sove- reign, who assumed the title of Futteh Ali Shah. During his reign, although he had severe contests to maintain with the Russians in 1827 and 1828, who wrested from Persia extensive provinces, internal peace was preserved, and considerable exertions were made to improve the con- dition of the country. Attempts were also made, particularly under the aus- pices of his third son. Prince Abbas Meerza, to introduce European improve- ments. In 1827 hostilities commenced with Russia ; Erivan was besieged and taken by the Russians. In 1828 preli- minaries of peace were signed, but the Shah refused to ratify them. At length peace was concluded between Russia and Persia, at Turkoman Ischan, Feb. 22 ; by this treaty the provinces of Erivan and Nakhetchevan were ceded by Persia, and afterwards by an ukase of the em- peror Nicholas, annexed to the Russian empire by the title of the province of Armenia. 1835. Intelligence arrived of the death of Futteh Ali Shah. After a contest among his sons respecting the succes- sion, Mohammed Mirza, who had been nominated by the late deceased king as his successor, was maintained on the throne. Persia was at first implicated in the^ late disputes between this country and India, in 1838 and 1839; but has .atterly assumed a more peaceable cha- racter. See Cabool. PERSIUS, Flaccus, a Latin poet, in the reign of Nero, author of " Satires," was born at Volterra, in Tuscany, in 34. At the age of 15 he removed to Rome, where he studied philosophy under Cor- nutus, the celebrated stoic. He died at the early age of 30. As a poet, Persius is only known by his " Six Satires," which were in high reputation among his countrymen. PERSPECTIVE, a branch of mixed mathematics, teaching correctly how to dehneate visible objects on a plane sur- face. Agatharchus, a painter of Athens, who flourished a.c. 470, was the earliest writer on this subject ; the principles were afterwards taught more distinctly by Anaxagoras, a.c 420, and by Demo- critus, of Abdera, a.c. 348. After these. Euclid wrote a treatise on the subject, a.c. 300. The art fell into disuse with the decline of painting and sculp- ture, after the subversion of the east- ern empire, but was revived by Bartho- lomo Bramantino and Pietro Del Borgo, about 1440, and the principles fully laid down in two treatises, by Dr. Brook Taylor, secretary to the Royal Societ)', published in 1715 and 1719- The more modern treatises are those of Ferguson, Emerson, Nicholson, &c. PERTH, royal burgh, Scotland. The Picts, after their conversion to Chris- tianity, erected a church here, and dedi- cated it to St. John the Baptist. About 1210 it was strongly fortified, and was re- garded as the capital city of the kingdom of Scotland ; it now ranks next in im- portance to Edinburgh and Glasgow, and was formerly the usual residence of the Scottish kings. Fourteen parliaments were held here between 1201 and 1459. At Perth the reformation of the church of Scotland may be said to have com- menced. In 1559, John Knox having preached a sermon in the parish church, the people broke down the altars and images, and then destroyed all the mo- nasteries in the town. In 1715 this town was the head-quarters of the Pre- tender and the earl of Mar ; and on the subsequent attempt to restore the house of Stuart, in 1745, Perth was for some time occupied by the forces of Charles Edward, the young pretender. PERU, new republic of South Ame- rica, formerly one of the five viceroyal- ties while under the Spanish govern- ment. When the Spaniards landed in this country in 1530, it was governed by Incas, who were regarded almost as dei- ties by their subjects. The inhabitants were soon subdued by the Spaniards under Pizarro. After his assassination, civil contentions continued till 1562, when Tupac Amaru, the son of Manco Capac, who had taken refuge in the mountains, was attacked by the viceroy Toledo. The Inca was forced to surren- der, and was led to the scaflfold amidst the tears of the people. The royal au- thority thus established, continued till 1781, when a descendant of Amaru be- gan an insurrection. After two years of varied success, he was taken prisoner with his family, and all were executed. After the commencement of the revo- lution in South America, Peru remained tranquil for some time. In 1809 juntas i PER 707 PET were established in La Paz and Quito ; but Peru sent out troops which sup- pressed tliem. In 1817 the Peruvian army was compelled to evacuate Chili, and Chili, in return, sent an army into Peru, under General San Martin ; which, in conjunction with Lord Cochrane, suc- ceeded in liberating it from the Spanish yoke in 1821. Since that period Peru has had to contend with much internal discord. For some time the authority of Bolivar, styled the liberator, was the only government ; but, on his leaving, a new republic was formed in 1826, on the model of the other South American states. In 1827 the departments of Cusco and Puno separated themselves from the republic, and joined Bolivia. The city of Arequipa claimed to be de- clared the capital in place of Lima, and threatened to desert the confederation if its claims were not admitted. 1828. The Peruvian army under Go- marra, attacked Bolivia; the Peruvians revolted against Bolivar, who, as presi- dent of Columbia, declared war against them. A new Peruvian constitution, signed by the president of that republic, March 21. This change overturned the influence of Bolivar in Peru. In 1832 an adjustment of the disputes between Peru and Bolivia took place, and the two governments entered into treaties of amity and commerce. 1836. An assembly of deputies from the southern departments of Peru was held at Sicuani on the l7th March,when the independence of these departments was declared, and a new state formed, called South Peru, composed of the de- partments of Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cuzco, and Puno. The chief power was in- trusted to General Santa Cruz, as " Su- preme Protector of South Peru." The northern departments, Junin, Lima, Libertad, and Amazonas, formed them- selves into an independent state, under the name of North Peru. Soon after, the two new Peruvian states agreed to form with Bolivia a federative common- wealth, at the head of which, by common consent, was placed General Santa Cruz, who announced this event in a circular, dated August 20. 1837. The constitution of the new Peru-Bolivian republic made its appear- ance. It gave to each of the three states a separate assembly ; a general congress composed of two chambers was to meet once in two years. On the 5th of June a treaty of commerce and navigation was executed between the Peru-Bolivian confederation and Great Britain. It pro- vided for "a recipi'ocal freedom of trade between the two nations, and was fully calculated to establish on a more satis- factory and equitable footing their com- mercial realation to each other. By the 14th article the government engaged to co-operate with Great Britain for the total abolition of the slave trade. The same year war with Chili. Chilian ex- pedition against Peru. See Chili. 1838. Revolution at Lima against General Santa Cruz. Generals Obregoso and Nicto, at the head of the enterprise, proclaimed the independence of Peru, the suppression of the Peru-Bolivian Con- federation, and the protectorate of Ge- neral Santa Cruz. 1839. The protector General Santa Cruz, having been beaten by the Chihans near Yungay, resigned the presidency. March 4. Proclamation of the president {pro tern.) of Peru (Gene- ral Gomarra), dated at Lima, announcing the termination of the war. PERUGINO, PiETRO, of Perugia, painter (master of Raphael), born 1446, died 1524. PERUKE. The first used in France, 1620; introduced into England, 1660. PESCHIERA, a town of the Lom- bardo- Venetian kingdom. The fortress, built by the Venetians in 1549, is small, but strong. Taken from the French, with 90 pieces of cannon, &c.. May 6, 1799. PEST, a city of Hungary. Inn703 it received its grant of privileges as a city ; in 1724 the two courts of appeal were ti.Ked here ; and in 1777 the univer- sity was removed hither from Buda. PESTALOZZI, M., inventor of the Pestalozzian, or interrogative system of education, died 1827. PETARD, a kind of ordnance in shape of a high-crowned hat. The invention is ascribed to the French Huguenots in 1579. . , PETER, St., wrote his first epistle, 60; his second epistle, 65; died, as is supposed, by crucifixion, by order of Nero, 7Q- PETER I., of Russia, called The Great, was born 1672; proclaimed czar when but 10 years of age. In 1698 he sent an embassy to Holland, and went incognito in the retinue, in order to learn the art of ship-building. At Amster- dam he worked in the yard as a private ship-carpenter, under the name of Peter PET 708 RET Michaelof. In the same year he came over to England, where he was treated with great attention by King Wilham III. He returned to Holland, taking with him a number of naval officers. Being strengthened by the alliance of Augustus, king of Poland, about 1700 he took the field against Charles XII., king of Sweden. He afterwards gained considerable advantages, and founded St. Petersburgh in l703. In 1709 he gained a complete victory over the Swedes at Pultava. In 1712 he was enclosed by the Turks on the banks of the Pruth, and seemed inevitably lost, had not the czarina Catherine bribed the grand vizier, and the czar's prudence completed his deliverance. Peter, being at peace, was left to pursue his designs ; and in the years 1713 and 1714 he effected a total reduction of Finland ; and a victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish ren- dered him master of the isle of Oeland. About 1719 a rupture ensued between Russia and England, but a peace was concluded with Sweden, under the medi- ation of France, in 1721. On this occa- sion the senate of Russia requested the czar to assume the title of Peter the Great. He died January 28, 1725, in his 53d year. PETER II., of Russia, married his prime minister's daughter, NovemberSO, 1729. He died of the smaU-pox, Janu- ary 19, 1730, PETER III. was deposed and mur- dered, July 16, 1762. PETER BoTTE, mountain, isle of Mauritius. The conical, or rather per- pendicular summit was ascended by Cap- tain Lloyd, and Lieutenants PhiUpotts, Keppel, and Taylor, Sept. 1, 1833. PETERBOROUGH, Northampton- shire, was anciently called Peter 'sBurgh, from the saint to whom the abbey church was dedicated. Peterborough and the whole county in which it is situated were included in the diocese of Lincoln previously to 1541, when Henry VIII. constituted it a new and distinct bishop- ric, appropriating the conventual church of the then recently suppressed monas- tery for a cathedral, and appointing the last abbot of Peterborough to be the first bishop. PETERBOROUGH, Earl of, one of the great masters of the art of mili- tary strategy, born 1658, died 1735. PETERPence granted 689; first paid to Rome, 790; abolished 1534. PETER'S, St., cathedral at Rome, begun 1514, finished I629. PETERSBURGH, St., a city of Eu- ropean Russia, owes its origin to the ge- nius and perseverance of Peter the Great- Previously to the year 1703 its site con- tained only two small huts ; and after the battle of Pultava, in 1709, and the permanent acquisition of Livonia, that monarch assembled on this spot (which he designed to make his capital) a great number of workmen, who built the citadel in a few months. After the erection of the city it suffered frequently from fire and other disasters. It had 2000 houses destroyed by fire August 12, 1736; re- ceived damage to the amount of 1,000,000 of roubles by an inundation and storm, September 23, 1777 ; also to the amount of 2,000,000, by a fire, August 26, 1780 ; again it had 11,000 houses destroyed by a fire occasioned by lightning, Novem- ber 28, the same year ; and a large ma- gazine of naval stores, and between 90 and 100 vessels in the harbour were destroyed, June 7, 1796. Notwithstanding these disasters, its commerce and population have yearly increased. In 1703 the first merchant ship that ever appeared on the Neva arrived from Holland, and the czar, to mark his sense of the value of such visi- tors, treated the captain and crew with the greatest hospitality, and loaded them ^vith presents. In 1714, 16 ships ar- rived at Petersburgh ; in 1730 the num- ber had increased to 180; and so rapid has been the progress of commerce and civilization in Russia since that period, that, at present, from 1200 to 1500 ships annually enter and clear out from Petersburgh. PETION, chief of Hayti, defeated with great slaughter, and his flotilla de- stroyed by Christophe, February 1808 See Hayti, p. 555. PETIT, Peter, mathematician, bom 1598, died 1667. PETITOT, John, famous for enamel, born at Geneva, 1607, died 1691. PETRARCH, Francis, one of the most celebrated ItaUan poets, was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, about 1304. When about 23 years of age he con- tracted an intimacy with JacopoColonna, afterwards bishop of Lombes ; this led to the attachment that he preserved during his whole life to the beautiful Laura, which gave a caste to all his literary productions, and was undoubt- PHI 709 PHI edly a source of great unhappiness to the poet. After receiving various ho- nours, in 1352, being at Milan, Galeas Visconti made him counsellor of state. Petrarch spent nearly all the rest of his life in visiting the different cities in Italy. He was archdeacon of Parma, and canon of Padua, but never received the order of priesthood. He died at Arcqua, in 1374. He vi^rote many works that have rendered his memory iimnortal. PETRONIUS, Arbiter, a celebrated critic and polite writer of antiquity, the favourite of Nero, by whom he was made proconsul of Bithynia. Being accused of a conspiracy against the emperor, which threatened his life, he ordered his veins to be opened, and bled to death, A,D, 66. PETTY, Sir William, one of the earliest writers on political economy, born 1623, died 1687- PEVER, THE River, in Gloucester- shire, suddenly altered its course, and 10 acres of land, with every thing upon its surface, were removed with the cur- rent, 1773. PEWTERERS' Company, London, incorporated 1474. PHiEDRUS, the Roman fabulist, born A.c. 47, died a.d. 31. PHALARIS, tyrant of Crete, inventor of the brazen bull, died a.c. 563. PHARAMOND, the first French monarch, died 428. PHAROS, a small island off the coast of Egypt, nearly opposite Alexandria, chiefly noted for its tower, which was so high as to have been seen 100 miles off; considered one of the seven wonders of the world. It was built a.c. 283, by the famed architect Sostrates, a native of Cnidos, and cost Ptolemy Philadelphus 800 talents. PHARSALIA, battle of, a.c. 48, at which Pompey was totally routed by Caesar, and afterwards assassinated by order of Ptolemy Dionysius, king of Egypt. PHERECYDES, a phUosopher of Scyros, who flourished about a.c. 560. Pythagoras was one of his disciples. PHIDIAS, the most celebrated Athe- nian sculptor, flourished in the 83d Olympiad. He made the famous statue of Minerva, at the request of Pericles, which was placed in the Pantheon ; also that of Jupiter Olympius, which was reckoned one of the wonders of the world. He died a.c. 432. PHILADELPHIA, the capital of Pennsylvania, United States, was founded in 1682, by the celebrated William Penn, who, in October 1701, granted a charter incorporating the town with city privi- leges. It is now the second city in the Union, and is more regularly built than any other. The institutions and general aspect of Philadelphia are still influenced by the character and conduct of Frank- lin, who died in 1790, The commercial prosperity of the city was greatly pro- moted by the generous and persevering efforts of Stephen Girard, who died in 1831, and who bequeathed large sums to various charitable purposes. PHILANTHROPIC Society. Lon- don, commenced 1788. PHILEMON, of Athens, comic poet, flourished a.c. 274. PHILETUS, of Cos, grammarian, flourished a.c. 280. PHILHARMONIC Society, com- menced 1813. PHILIDOR, musician and chess- player, born 1726, died 1795. PHILIP, king of Macedon, and father of Alexander the Great, was ^ son of Amyntor, and began to reign about a.c. 360 ; the same year he invaded the Pe- loponnesus ; gained his second battle over the lUyrians 359 ; concluded the second war 348 ; conquered Thrace 343 ; became master of Greece 338 ; was as- sassinated by Pausanias 336. PHILIPPINE Islands were dis- covered by Magellan in 1521, but were not taken possession of till three years afterwards. In 1570 a settlement was effected at the mouth of the Manilla river, which was in the following year constituted the capital of the Spanish possessions in the Phihppines. In 1574 the colony was attacked by a fleet of Chinese pirates ; but they were repulsed after a bloody engagement. The Spa- niards attacked the island of Sooloo in 1590, but were repulsed. From this period various intestine wars disturbed the Philippines, till in 1757, the viceroy of the islands despatched all the Chinese settlers to their own country. Manilla was taken by the English in 1762, but given up to the Spaniards by the peace of 1764. See Manilla. PHILIPS, Ambrose, dramatic poet, died 1748. PHILIPS, John, an EngUsh poet, author of " The Splendid ShiUing," died Feb. 15, 1708, aged 30. PHCE 710 PHR PHILIPSBURGH, town, duchy of Baden, was formerly one of the strongest places in Germany ; but was completely dismantled during the wars of the French revolution; was taken by theFrenGhl734. PHILLIPS, Sir Richard, formerly sheriff of London and Middlesex, and founder of the Sheriff's Fund, for the relief of distressed prisoners, born in 1767. He was universally known in the literary world as the projector, and for many years the conductor and proprietor of the " Monthly Magazine. " He was also the author and publisher of many books connected with an improved sys- tem of education on the interrogative plan, which will remain honourable tes- timonials of his great industry, extensive knowledge, and powerful understanding. He died March 24, 1840, at Brighton, in his 73d year. PHILO, a Jewish writer, flourished at Alexandria during the reign of Cali- gula. He was the chief of an embassy sent to Rome about a.d. 42, to plead the cause of the Jews against Apion, of which he wrote an entertaining account. The best edition of Philo is that of " Mangey," two vols, folio, London, 1742. PHILOPCEMEN, a celebrated gene- ral of the Achaean league, was born in Me- galopolis, in Peloponnesus ; took Sparta A.c. 121 ; abrogated the laws of Lycur- gus 188 ; was defeated and slain 183. , PHILOSTRATUS, Flavius, a Greek writer, a teacher of rhetoric, first at Athens and then at Rome, from the reign of Severus to that of Philippus, who obtained the empire a.d. 244. PHILPOT, John, an alderman of London, stabbed Wat Tyler in Smith- field, 1381. PHLOGISTON, in chemistry, for- merly considered as the principle of in- flammabihty. The doctrine was intro- duced by Stahl, born 1660 ; exploded by the discoveries of Lavoisier, 1770. See Chemistry. PHOCAS, a Roman emperor of the East, by his concessions founded the temporal power of the popes, a.c. 606 ; was put to death by Heraclius, Oct. 5, 610. PHOCION, Athenian general, put to death a.c. 318. PHOi^NICIA, or Phcenice, an an- cient country of Asia, called in scripture the land of Canaan. The Canaanites, afterwards called Phoenicians, descended from Canaan, the son of Ham. When the Israelites were carried into captivity by Salmanasar, a.c. 921, the Phoenicians and Philistines were so united that they were considered as the same people, and the whole coast was known by the name of Phoenicia. The Phoenicians were governed by kings ; and their territorj% though small, included several king- doms : as those of Sidon, Tyre, Aradus, Berytus, and Byblus. They were great merchants, navigators, and planters of colonies in foreign parts. They acquired the power of the Mediterranean a.d. 826. PHOSPHORUS, a pecuhar solid in- flammable substance, discovered acci- dentally by Brandt, an alchemist of Hamburg, in 1669, while he was in quest of the philosopher's stone. PHOTIUS, a patriarch of Constan- tinople, in the ninth century. The em- peror Basil expelled him in 869 : on the death of Ignatius he resumed his dig- nity in 879. In 886 Leo caused him again to be deprived, and confined in a monastery, where he died in 891. He was the author of several valuable works, and, among others, " Biblietheca," con- sisting of an abstract of 280 different writers in the departments of history, oratory, theology, &c. PHOTOGENIC Drawing, a me- thod invented by M. Daguere, a French painter. See Daguerreotype. PHRENOLOGY, a term now used for the new science of Gall and Spur- zheim, at first known by the name of Craniology, which see. Since the first development of their principles, many writers in this country have de- voted their attention to the subject. The ingenious but eccentric Abernethy, who died in 1831, while he admits that the brain in animals is an organ by which the percipient principle becomes variously affected, remarks, in relation to phren- ology, "Though the possession of ori- ginal dispositions, faculties, and senti- ments, may create a tendency to certain actions, yet Gall and Spurzheim admit, that it is education which produces knowledge and character : it is the dis- position and ability to do what has been repeatedly done, and with progressive improvement, that gives us talents and habits of thinking, feeling, and acting in a particular manner. It is repetition, or education, by which, also, motives are rendered so predominant that we feel the indispensable necessity of imphcit PIA and energetic obedience to their com- mands, which is called enthusiasm, and which has given rise to glorious deeds, dignifying and exalting human nature far above animal existence." PHYSIC. See Medicine. PHYSICIANS, College of. See College. PHYSIOGNOMY, orthe art of know- ing the disposition and character of persons by the lines of the face, was seldom in modern times mentioned, except in conjunction with the exploded arts of magic, alchemy, and judicial as- tronomy, till the appearance in 1770 of Lavater's great work. See Lavater. In this work the author does not profess to give a complete synthetical treatise on physiognomy, but exhibits fragments only, illustrative of its different parts. In the " Berlin Transactions " for 1 775, there appeared a formal attack upon Lavater's work by M. Formey. PIANOFORTE, a keyed instrument, in which the tone is produced by ham- mers instead of quills, as in the harpsi- chord. Early in the last century, the hammer harpsichord was invented at Florence, of which there is a description in the "Giornale d'ltaha, l7ll." The invention made but a slow progress. The first that was brought to England was made by Father Wood, an English monk at Rome. The first attempts were always on a large size, till Zumpe, a German, constructed small pianofortes of the shape and size of the virginal. Large pianofortes afterwards received great improvement in the mechanism by Mer- lin, and in the tone by Broadwood, Stoddard, Clementi, &c. A modern alteration of the exterior shape is found in the upright or cabinet pianoforte. 1839. At the late Exhibition of the Produce of French Industry, 6/ masters sent nearly 200 pianos, amongst which were several of an entirely new shape ; such as table, gueridon, oval, hexagon, and consol. These new instruments were made at the manufactory of Mr. Pape, pianoforte maker to the king, who also exhibited a square piano, justly considered as a masterpiece of its kind, veneered with sheets of ivory, part of which is carved and inlaid, and forms a most beautiful mosaic design. M. Pape also exhibited a grand piano of a small size. The most remarkable im- provement in this instrument is the sounding-board, which is so disposed 711 PIE that the tension of the string stretches and i keeps the sounding-board level. The consequence is, that the sound im- proves in the course of time, whilst in pianos of the ordinary construction the contrary will happen. PIAZZI, Joseph, the discoverer of the planet Ceres, died 1826. PICART, John, the mathematician and astronomer, died 1693. PICCINI, Nicholas, musical com- poser, died 1800. PICHEGRU, General, found dead in his prison, supposed to be privately murdered by order of Buonaparte, April 5, 1804. PICKEN, Andrew, author of " Do- minie's Legacy," died 1833, aged 45. PICKETT, William, reviver of painted glass, died October 14, 1795, aged 65. PICTON, Sir Thomas, lieutenant- general in the British army, and mem- ber of parliament for the borough of Pembroke; born at Poyston in Pem- brokeshire, in August, 1758; died at Waterloo June 18, 1815. A monument was erected to commemorate his death and services in 1827. PICTS, a people who anciently inha- bited the eastern part of Scotland, first particularly mentioned in history about the third century. St. Columba con- verted Brudius, king of the Picts, to the Christian faith, in the sixth century. They were defeated and nearly extirpated by the Scots in 838. Upon the death of Bred, the last Pictish king, 843, Ken- neth, the son of Alphin, king of Scots, obtained the Pictish government, when the union of the Picts with the Scots conjoined the separate dominions of both. PICTS' Wall, between England and Scotland, built by Agricola 85 ; repaired by Urbicus 1 44 ; Adrian built one from Newcastle to Carlisle 121 ; Severus from sea to sea 203. PICUS, Prince 'of Mirandola, Mo- dena, Italy, memorable for his extraordi- nary genius -and memory in language, being master of 22 languages, and of all the science of his time, died 1494. PIEDMONT, province, north-east of Italy. The southern division was, in 1794 and 1795, the scene of miUtary operations between the French and alhes, long maintained without decided ad- vantage on either side ; but in 1796 the arrival of Buonaparte obliged the court PIN fl2 PIR of Turin to make a separate peace, which was followed, two years after, by the de- position of the king and the incorpora- tion of Piedmont into the French ter- ritory. Piedmont surrendered to the French 1798; was recovered in 1799. On the reinstatement of the Sardinian monarch in 1816, this territory was in- corporated with his dominions under the title of the kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia. PIERRE, St. Bernardin. See St. Pierre. PILATE, or Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor at the death of Christ, was placed over Judea in the room of Gratus, a.d. 26 or 27, and governed that province for 10 years. He is re- presented both by Philo and Josephus as a man of an impetuous and obstinate temper, and as one who, in his capacity as judge, used to pronounce any sentence that was desirecl, provided he was paid for it. He was at length deposed by Vitellius the proconsul of Syria in 38, and sent to Rome to give an account of his conduct, but before he arrived, the emperor, Tiberius, was dead. His suc- cessor, Caligula, banished him to Vi- enna, in Gaul, where he put an end to his existence a.d. 40. PILLORY, an ancient mode of punishment, noticed in England in the time of Henry III. ; abolished, except in case of perjury and subornation of perjury, 1816 ; totally abolished by 1 Victoria, c. 23, June 30, 1837. PILNITZ, village. Saxony. Here is a royal palace, celebrated as the spot where the king of Prussia, the emperor of Germany, and other sovereigns con- cluded, in 1791, the treaty for the sup- port of the Bourbons in France, which gave rise to the wars of the revolution. PINDAR, the celebrated lyric poet of ancient Greece, was born at Thebes, about A.c. 520. There is no great poet in antiquity whose character has been less censured than that of Pindar. His works abound with precepts of the purest morality. According to the chro- nology of Dr. Blair, he died a.c. 435, aged 86. PINELLI, John Vincent, a Ge- noese of distinguished character, was born at Naples in 1535. Died in 1603, aged 68. PINKERTON, John, author of "Modern Geography," &c., died 1826, aged 67. PINNEY, the mayor of Bristol, was tried for negligence and pusillanimity during the memorable riots, and acquit- ted, Nov. 1, 1832. See Bristol. PINS were formerly made of iron wire, which being blanched, passed for brass ; but the ill effects of those pins discarded their use. The French, how- ever, could not be driven off from them without several arrets of parliament. By a sentence of the lieutenant de police, July, 1695, the seizure of some millions of those pins was confirmed, and the pins condemned to be burnt by the common executioner. Pins were brought from France, in 1543, and were first used in England by Catherine Howard, queen of Henry VIII. Before that invention, both sexes used ribands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and skewers of brass, silver, and gold. PIN-MAKERS' Company, London, incorporated 1636. PIOZZI, Mrs., the friend of Dr. Johnson, known as Mrs. Thrale, the author of " Enghsh Synonymes," died 1821. PIPES of lead for the conveyance of water invented 1538. PIRACY consists in committing those acts of robbery and violence upon the seas, which, if committed upon land, would amount to felony. Piracy was almost, universally practised in the heroic ages. Instead of being esteemed in- famous, it was supposed to be honour- able. The prevalence of this piratical spirit in these early ages may, perhaps, be explained by the infinite number of small independent states into which the country was divided, and the violent animosity constantly subsisting amongst them. Cilicia was, at all times, the great stronghold of the pirates of anti- quity; so that it became necessary to send Pompey against them, with a large fleet and army. During the anarchy of the middle ages, piracy was universally practised. The famous Hanseatic league was formed chiefly for the purpose of protecting the ships of the confederated cities from the attacks of the pirates. See Hanse Towns. The most daring pirates of modern times were the Buccaneers of the 17th century. See Buccaneers. The most remarkable recent piracies were those during the late Greek war, of which many instances are recorded. In Janu- WSILILirAM IPITT, i^.,^^^-^/!.. London.: PoblUted by Thomas Ki-lly Paternoster Rdw. JB36 PIT 713 PIT ary, IS^S, Carabusa, in the isle of Can- dia, which sheltered the pirates, was attacked by Sir Thomas Staines, in the Isis frigate, with vessels, French and British, under his command, the Greeks having been first summoned, but in vain, to give up the chiefs of the pirates and their vessels. The forts were evacuated and put into the possession of a chief appointed by the President Capo d'Istria, and the vessels in the port were sunk or taken possession of. In March fol- lowing the Greek Admiral, Miaulis, de- stroyed or captured at ScopeIo,41 vessels suspected of piracy; 38 more were seized by him on the same grounds a few days afterwards at Skiatho. By the ancient common law of Eng- land, piracy, if committed by a subject, was held to be a species of treason, but since the statute of treasons (25 Edw. III. c. 2) it is held to be only felony in a subject. Formerly, this offence was only cognisable by the admiralty courts, but the statute 28 Hen. VIII. c. 15 established a new jurisdiction for this purpose, which proceeds according to the course of common law. At a very early period of our history, a law was made for the restitution of property taken by pirates, if found within the realm, whether belonging to strangers or Englishmen. The stat. 6 Geo. IV. c. 49 enacts, that vessels and other property taken from pirates, proved to have be- longed to any of his majesty's subjects, are to be delivered up to them, on their paying a sum of money as a salvage, equal to one-eighth part of the true value of the same. 1 Victoria, c. 88, July 17, 1 8 37> remits the punishment of death, except where murder is attempted. PISA, city, Italy, in a province of the same name, grand duchy of Tuscan)^ is a place of great antiquity, though it did not become famous till the 10th century, when it took the lead of the commercial republics of Italy. In the 13th century, the ascendency of Genoa cast Pisa into the shade. The treachery of its princes, with the interference and deceitful poli- tics of France, undermined its freedom, and, at length, the intrigues of the Me- dici completed its ruin, and enslaved it to its rival Florence, about 1428. PISTOLS first used by cavalry 1544. PITCAIRNE, Dr. Archibald, an eminent physician, born in 1652. The university of Leyden in 1691 solicited him to fill the medical chair, at that time vacant. He accepted the invitation, and, on April 26, 1692, delivered his inau- gural oration. He was universally con- sidered as the first physician of his time. He collected one of the finest private libraries in Europe ; which was purchased after his death by the Czar of Russia. He died Oct. 23, 1713. PITCAIRN'S Island, Pacific Ocean, remarkable as having afforded a^ refuge to the mutineers of the Bounty in 1790. After abandoning their captain (Bligh) to the waves, eight of the mutineers fixed on this island as their residence. In ten years 13 men had been killed, and there remained alive only one, named Adams, with 6 women and 19 children. Captain Beechy, in 1825, found 36 males and 30 females, forming a happy little society, well instructed, orderly, and friendly. In 1833 they had greatly increased in numbers and improved in manners, and are useful to vessels touching there. PITT, William, the great earl of Chatham. See Chatham. PITT, The Right Honourable William, the distinguished statesman, and son of the first earl of Chatham, was born May 28, 1759. About 1780 he entered parliament as member for Ap- pleby. Having espoused the popular side in regard to the American war, his opening talents were displayed to great advantage, and he was regarded as destined, at some future period, to rank high in the councils of his native country. In 1783 the oflSces of first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer were bestowed on him ; and he thus became prime minister before he was full 24 years of age. Having now at- tained the summit of power Mr. Pitt exercised every function of his important offices, without any check or control. Possessed of a great majority in both houses of parliament, as well as in the cabinet, his principles as well as his whole deportment were changed. Soon after the commencement of the French revolution, his policy became unpopular, and he was thought to mani- fest too much eagerness to enter into a war, which must bring numerous evils on the country. Having held the reins of government during 18 years, both he and all the members of the cabinet sud- denly retired from office in 1 80 1 . On this occasion all parties appeared to rejoice at the appointment of Mr. Addington. 4 Y PI z 714 PLA But the talents of the new minister were soon fovind unequal to the contest in which he had embarked, and Mr. Pitt, in 1804, resumed his post as first lord of the treasury. In December, 1805, his health began to fail, and he died Jan. 23, 1806, in his 47th year. Public monuments have been since raised to his memory in Westminster Abbey, in Guildhall, and by many public bodies in different parts of the kingdom. PITT, John, earl of Chatham, the son of the first and the brother of the second William Pitt, died Sept. 1, 1835, in his 80th year. This title is now extinct. PITT, Rev. Christopher, trans- lator of Virgil, born 1699, died 1748. PITT, Thomas, governor of Fort St. George, proprietor of the famous diamond, and grandfather of the first earl of Chatham, died 1726. PITTA CUS, Grecian sage, born about A. c. 650 ; died a.c. 579. PIUS VII., whose history is rendered memorable by its connection with the French revolutionary wars, was raised to the dignity of pope, after the death of Pius VI., 1799. By a convention ra- tified Sept. 10, 1801, Buonaparte, as first consul, was not only acknowledged to possess all the privileges of the ancient French monarchj%but new and essential immunities were obtained for the Gal- ilean church ; and by a concordat, agreed to soon after, the apostolical and Roman faith was declared to be the religion of the state. This concordat was ratified by the legislature of France in April, 1802. For a considerable time Pius VII. was placed in circumstances the most perplexing and distressing : but early in the year 1813 a reconciliation was effected between the head of the Romish church and the emperor of France. The consequence of this was a new concordat, by which Napoleon agreed to restore Pius VII. to his tem- poral power, and to reinstate him in his former dignity. The complete restora- tion of the papal see did not, however, take place till after the fall of the Napo- leon dynasty in 1815, when Pius VII. resumed his authority. He died at Rome Aug. 20, 1823, at the age of 81. PIX, or Box, to contain the host, ordered by the Lateran council 1215. PIZARRO, Feanci.s, a celebrated Spanish general, the discoverer and con- queror of Peru. In 1524, with Diego de Almagro, and Hermando Liique, he entered into an association for discovering the countries on the coast of the South Sea. Pizarro made several successful voy- ages ; and with his associates, in 1532, ef- fected the conquestof Peru. Atlength the conquerors quarrelled among themselves, and in April 1538, a battle was fought between the forces of Pizarro and Al- magro, which ended in the total defeat of the latter. Almagro himself being taken prisoner, was soon after executed by Pizarro. A conspiracy was formed against the life of Pizarro, and on June 26, 1541, he was assassinated by Her- roada, one of the principal of the Alma- grian officers, at the head of 18 deter- mined associates. PLAGUE, a very acute, malignant, and contagious fever, which has at times visited most nations in different ages of the world. These raging epidemics have consisted of different maladies in different instances ; but in more modern times the various forms of pestilence having been more accurately defined, the true plague has been more readily distin- guished, and its form and character well recognised. Ethiopia and Egypt haA^e been stigmatized in every age as the ori- ginal source and seminary of the plague. One of the most extensive and fatal in- stances was that which depopulated the earth in the time of Justinian and his successors; it first appeared about a.d. 542, in the neighbourhood of Pelusium, between the Serbonian bog and the eastern channel of the Nile. From thence tracing as it were a double path, it spread to the east, over Syria, Persia, and the Indies ; and, penetrating to the west, along the coast of Africa, and over the continent of Europe, the disease al- ternately languished and revived. But it was not till the end of 52 years that mankind recovered their health, or the air resumed its pure and salubrious qua- lity. At-one time during three months, from five to ten thousand persons died each day at Constantinople, many cities of the east were left vacant, and in seve- ral districts of Italy the harvest and the vintage withered on the ground. The following are some of the most remarkable plagues since the above period. 1348. In Germany, &e., which cut off 90,000 people. 1349, when 50,000 people died in London, 1 500 in Leicester, &c. PLA 715 PL I 1407. In London, which killed 30,000 people, 1477- Again, when more were de- stroyed than in 15 years war before. 1499- Again, when 30,000 died in London. 1604, Again in London, which carried off a fourth part of its inhabitants. ^1611. At Constantinople, when 200,000 persons died. 1625 and 1631. At London, when 35,000 people died. 1665-6. Again at London, which de- stroyed 68,000 persons. This was a ca- lamity so vast and awful, as to have erased all the jjreceding ones from popu- lar memory, and to be called alone, in ordinary speech, The Great Plague. 1773. In Persia, when 80,000 persons perished at Bassorah. 1784. At Smyrna, that carried off about 20,000 inhabitants, and at Tunis 32,000. 1792. In Egypt, where near 800,000 died. 1799. At Fez, 247,000 died. 1800. In Morocco, in one day^l800 died. 1814. In Lesser Asia, Syria, and the adjacent islands, by which Smyrna is computed to have lost 30,000 persons. 1816. In the kingdom of Naples, where it committed considerable ra- vages. 1837. At Constantinople, more fatal than for many years. AH family ties were dissolved by fear of the disorder : parents forsook their children, children their parents. PLASSEY, town, Bengal, on the river Hooghly, chiefly celebrated as the scene of the decisive battle fought in June, 1757, which decided the fate of Bengal, and ultimately of India. In this engagement the British forces, under Colonel Clive, consisting of about 3000 men, put to the rout the army of the Nabob Seraje ud Dowlah, estimated at 50,000, PLASTERERS' Company, London, incorporated 1500. PLATA, La. See Buenos Ayres, PLATE-GLASS Company, incor- porated 1773, when it erected its exten- sive works at Ravenhead, near St. He- len's, in Lancashire. PLATINA, a metal found in various parts of South America, in the island of St. Domingo, and in the province of Es- tramadura, in Spain. First brought into England in 1741, by Charles Wood. He obtained it in Jamaica, and pubhshed an account of his experiments on it in the Philosophical Transactions for 1749 and 1750. PLATO, the illustrious philosopher of Athens, was born in the island of Egina, about a.c, 430. At the age of 20 he applied himself to the study of philosophy, attaching himself wholly to Socrates, and remaining with him eight years as a scholar. His school of philoso- phy soon became celebrated, and its mas- ter was ranked among the most eminent philosophers. Having enjoyed the ad- vantage of an athletic constitution, and lived all his days temperately, he arrived at the 81st year of his age, and died through the mere decay of nature, in the first year of the 108th Olympiad, about A.c. 359. PLATOFF, General count, Cossack general, died April, 1818. PLATTSBURG, Lake Champlain, ex- pedition against, by Sir George Prevost, abandoned after a naval defeat, Sept. 11, 1814. PLAUTUS, the Roman comic poet, died A.c. 184. PLAYFAIR, John, a celebrated Scottish mathematician and natural phi- losopher, was born March 10, 1748, and entered the University of St. Andrew's at the age of 14. In 1785 he was ap- pointed professor of mathematics. In 1789 succeeded Dr. Gregory, as secre- tary to the physical class of the Royal Society. The death of Dr. James Hut- ton in 1797, gave a new direction to his studies ; and the rest of his life was chiefly devoted to geological investigation. Af- ter five years' labour, Mr. Playfair pro- duced in 1802, his "Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory," in one volume 8vo. In 1815 he undertook a journey to the continent, for the purpose of examining the geology of the Alps, and returned to Edinburgh in the end of 18 16, Some time after his return he read to the Royal Society a paper on volcanos, which ex- cited great interest. He died July 19, 1819, in his 72d year. PLAYFORD, John, English musi- cian and composer, born I6l3, died 1693. PLEURES, in Switzerland, destroyed by the falling of part of a mountain, when 2000 persons perished, Aug. 28, 1618. PLINY THE Elder, or Caius Pli- PLU 716 PN E Nius SECUNDUs,oneof themostlearned Roman writers, was born at Verona in the reign of Tiberius, a.d. 23. He bore arms in a distinguished post, and was employed in several important affairs by Vespasian and Titus, who honoured him with their esteem. He had the com- mand of the fleet stationed at Misenum, when in the month of August, a.d. 79, a great eruption of Vesuvius broke out. On its first appearance he steered di- rectly to the spot, where he was sufibcated, being then in the 56th year of his age. PLINY THE Younger was born A.D. 62, at Novocomum, a town upon the lake Larius. He was the son of L. Caecilius, by a sister of the elder Pliny. He held the offices of quaestor and tri- bune, through the reign of Domitian; was promoted to the consulate by Tra- jan when 38 years of age, and afterwards made proconsul of Bithynia ; whence he wrote to Trajan that well-known letter concerning the primitive christians, which with Trajan's rescript, is extant among his epistles. He died about a.d. 116. PLOT, Dr. Robert, antiquarian and historical writer, born 1641, died 1696. PLOWDEN, Francis, author of the " Historical Review of the State of Ire- land," Sic, died 1829. PLUMBERS' Company, London, incorporated 1611. PLUMTREE, Rev. James, author of the " Collectionof Songs, Moral," &c., died 1832. PLURALITY OF Benefices or Livings, is where the same clerk is pos- sessed of two or more spiritual prefer- ments with cure of souls. A remedy was attempted for this abuse at the coun- cil of Lateran, under Alexander III. and Innocent III. in 1215 j but the same canon granting the pope a power to dis- pense with it in favour of persons of dis- tinguished merit, the prohibition became almost useless. Pluralities were also re- strained by statute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 ; but the same statute provides for dis- pensation in certain cases. The act 1 and 2 Vic. c. 106, Aug. 14, 1838, is designed to abridge the holding of benefices in plurality, and to make better provision for the residence of the clergy. It repeals the 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13, and 57 Geo. III. c. 99, except as to penalties already incurred, or licences already granted under them ; and enacts that not more than two preferments shall be held together (except as therein specified); nor two benefices, unless withinlO miles of each other ; nor if the population of one such benefice is more than 3000, or their joint yearly value shall exceed £1000. A licence or dis- pensation to hold together any two be- nefices under this act, must be obtained from the archbishop of Canterbury ; but previous thereto the bishop of the dio- cese must certify. PLUTARCH, an eminent philosopher and biographer of antiquity, was born at Chseronea, of Bceotia, in Greece, about the commencement of the reign of Nero. He was placed under the care of Ammo- nius, an Egyptian, under whom he made great advances in knowledge, travelled into Egypt, visiting in his way all the academies and schools of the philoso- phers, gathering from them many of those observations with which he has abundantly enriched posterity. He was several times at Rome to make ob- servations upon men and manners, and to collect materials for writing the lives of the Roman worthies, in the same manner as he had already written those of the Grecian, He died in the fifth year of Adrian, at the age of 70. PLYMOUTH, seaport, Devon, is a place of considerable antiquity, and now one of the largest maritime towns in England. Until the reign of Henry II. it was principally inhabitedby fishermen ; since that period, owing to the goodness of the haven, it has attained its present eminence. In the time of the civil wars, this town adhered to the parlia- ment, and in 1643 was besieged for several months by the royal army. It is defended by several strong batteries, and a citadel, erected by Charles II. about 1670. Plymouth is chiefly distin- guished for the capaciousness of its harbour. The gigantic work called the Breakwater, has added much to the safety of the Sound. See Breakwater. PLYMOUTH Dock. See Devon- port. PNEUMATICS, that branch of na- tural philosophy in which are investi- gated the weight, pressure, and elasticity of elastic fluids. The pressure of the air was discovered by Torricelli, 1645. Found to vary with the height by Pascal, 1647. The air-pump, invented by Otto Guericke, 1654. Air-pump improved and rendered more manageable by Boyle, after the publication of " Mechanica Hydraulic© Pneumatica," by Schottus, PO L 717 POL in which Guericke's experiments were described, 1657. The mechanical pro- perties of air are those only about which this branch of science is concerned ; their nature and chemical properties belong to chemistry ; and the investiga- tion of these constitutes a very important part of the valuable improvements that have been introduced into that science since the middle of the 18th century. See Chemistry, p. 254. POACHING prohibited by act 28 Geo. II,, passed 1753; reduced to a trespass by 2 William IV., 1831. See Game Laws. POCOCKE, Dr. Richard, bishop of Meath, the traveller, died 1765. POGGIO, the reviver of Greek and Latin literature, born 1380, died 1459. POICTIERS, town, France, depart- ment La Vienne, province Poitou. Near this place Edward the Black Prince gained a decisive victory over the French in 1356, taking King John and his son prisoners, whom he afterwards brought over into England. The army of the Enghsh amounted only to 12,000 men, and the French to 60,000. POINT Db Galle, fortified sea- port town, south-west of the isle of Ceylon, was taken possession of by the Portuguese in 1517, and taken from them by the French in 1640. In 1796 it came into possession of the British, POISSONNIER, Peter Isaac, phy- sician, first lecturer on chemistry at Paris, born 1720, died 1798. POLAND, formerly an independent kingdom, but now almost annihilated from among the nations of the earth. In its highest prosperity it contained an area of 284,000 square miles, and a po- pulation of about 15,000,000; but it has gradually been reduced in extent, and incorporated with its more powerful neighbours. The kingdom began, by favour of Otho III., emperor of Ger- many, under Boleslaus, 999- Red Rus- sia was added to it, 1059. Pomerania, that had been separated 180 years, was again united v/ith it, 1465. Poland was, from this time, governed by a race of kings, among whom the most remarkable was Sigismund I., who ascended the throne in 1507. This mo- narch, having reformed some internal abuses, determined on rendering the kingdom as formidable as it had for- merly been. Sigismund III., surnamed De Vasa, who in 1587 became master of the throne of Poland, waged a successful war with the Tartars, and was otherwise prosperous ; but as he succeeded to the crown of Sweden, he found it impossible for him to retain both kingdoms, and he was formally deposed from the Swedish throne. From this time the following are the kings of Poland : — Sigismund III., whose reign began 1587; Uladislaus VII., 1632 ; John II., 1648 ; Michael, a Russian prince, 1669; John III, So- bieski, 1671 ; Frederick II,, elector of Saxony, 1698 ; Stanislaus I., 1704; Fre- derick II. again, 1710; Frederick III., 1733; Stanislaus II., Count Ponia- towski, 1764, In 1772 a partition, projected by the king of Prussia, was effected, by that monarch, in conjunction with the empress of Russia and emperor of Germany, By this one-third of the country was wrested from the kingdom. The partitioning powers also forcibly effected a great change in the constitution; but in 1791, the king and the nation established ano- ther constitution, the throne being de- clared hereditary, in the house of Saxony. A scond partition, which took place in 1793, roused the spirit of the nation, and General Kosciusko ap- peared in the following year at the head of a Polish army to assert the indepen- dency of his country. He was, however, overpowered by numbers, taken pri- soner, and sent, with many other pa- triots, into confinement at Petersburgh, The king, Stanislaus II., Tormally re- signed his crown at Grodno in 1795, and was afterwards removed to Petersburgh, where he remained a kind of state pri- soner till his death in 1798. The whole of this unfortunate country was divided among the three powers. Austria had Little Poland, and the greater part of Red Russia and Podolia, now called the kingdom of Galicia : Prussia had Great Poland, Polish Prussia, a small part of Lithuania, and Podlachia : and Russia had Samogitia, the remainder of Lithua- nia, Polynia and Podolia. At the settlement of the continent in 1815, after the overthrow of Buonaparte, a small portion of the original territory of Poland, with an area of about 47,000 square miles, and a population of 3,000,000, was erected into a separate kingdom, subject to the emperor of Rus- sia, but governed by its own laws. By the liberal policy of the emperor Alex- POL 718 POL ander, a constitutional charter was framed to combine, as far as possible, the ancient forms of the Polish constitution with the modern improvements in legislation. On the accession of the emperor Nicholas, his despotic policy aroused the Poles again to resistance. In 1833 they flew to ariBS, and made a noble effort to gain their independence ; but the overwhelming force which Russia was able to bring against them rendered the struggle in- effectual, and only ended in their de- struction. Exasperated by the resistance which they made, the line of policy adopted by Nicliolas seemed calculated, if possible, to destroy their existence as a nation, and they have been gradually incorporated with Russia. POLAR Regions have, at all times, since the extension of geographical know- ledge, been the object of eager curiosity, but various circumstances have given a more intimate and profitable connection with the northern than with the opposite extremity of the globe. After the dis- coveries of Vasco De Gama and Colum- bus, at the close of the 15th and beginning of the l6th centuries, had stimulated the enterprise of commercial adventurers, it was suggested that shorter routes might be found to the regions of wealth jby pursuing a northerly navigation. To this we are indebted for the voyages of Martin Forbisher, who, in 1578, made three voyages towards the north-west, under the auspices of Queen Elizabeth ; also that of Davis, who, about 1586, added much to hydrographic knowledge, and of Henry Hudson, in 1607, and Baffin in the early part of the I7th century. For an account of the more recent expeditions see the following articles ; Arctic Ex- pedition, America, and North West Passage. With regard to the southern Polar regions much less is known. In 1838 Captain Washington read to the British Association a paper "on the recent ex- peditions to the antarctic seas," illus- trated by a south circumpolar chart on a large scale, showing the tracks of all for- mer navigators to these seas, from Dirk Gherritz, in 1599, to M. D'Urville, in 1838; including those of Tasman, in 1642; Cook, in 1773; Bellingshausen, in 1820 ; Weddell, in 1822 ; Biscoe, in 1831 ; and exhibiting a large basin, nearly in extent to the Atlantic Ocean, unex- plored by any ship, British or foreign. The writer pointed out that the ice in these regions was far from stationary ; that Bellingshausen had sailed through a large space within the parallel of 60'*, where Biscoe found ice that he could not penetrate ; that where D'Urville had lately found barriers of field ice, Wed- dell, in 1822, had advanced without difficulty to the latitude of 74?*, or within 16'^ of the pole; and that it was evident from the accounts of all former navigators, that there was no physical obstacle to reaching a high southlatitude. An expedition to the Antarctic Ocean, consisting of two vessels, chiefly fitted out under the direction of Mr. Charles En- derby, sailed from London July 16, 1838, and returned in Sept. 1839, with a most successful issue. The two vessels crossed the equator in 22° 40' west longitude, touched at the island of Amsterdam, and, on December 3, anchored in Chalky Bay, near the south-western angle of the southern island of New Zealand. On January 7, 1839, the vessels sailed for the southward. On February 9, the ap- pearance of land was seen to] the south- west, lat. 66° 22' S. ; long. 163° 49' E., which proved to be a group consisting of five islands, three large and two small, which were named respectively after Messrs. Young, Borradaile, Buckle, Sturge, and Row, the spirited merchants who united with Mr. Enderby in sending out this expedition. POLARIZATION of Light. Disco- very matured by Malus in 1810. See Optics. POLE, Reginald, a distinguished statesman and cardinal, was born in Staffordshire in 1500. Having been sent nuncio to different parts of Europe, in 1543 he was appointed legate at the coun- cil of Trent, and was afterwards em- ployed by the pope as his chief counsel- lor. Pope Paul IIL dying in 1540, Pole was twice elected his successor, and twice, it is said, refused the papal dignity. On the accession of Queen Mary, he was sent legate to England, where he arrived in 1554. He had now the sole management of ecclesiastical affairs in England ; and from this time the perse- cution became more violent, and the exe- cutions more frequent. He was m"ade archbishop of Canterbury the day after Cranmer's execution, and before the end of the same year (1556) he was made chancellor of Oxford and Cambridge. He died in 1558, a few hours after the queen,|at the age of 58. POL 719 POM POLICE, Metropolitan, formerly regulated by various statutes for enforc- ing the duty of watch and ward ; as the statute of Winton, 13 Edward Lj 14 George IIL c. 90, s. 14. for regu- lating the watch of the metropolis; 7 George IV. c. 142, s. 73, for con- solidating the turnpike trusts near London, and various other acts of parlia- ment for similar objects. The New Police Act, 10 Geo. IV. c. 44, passed June 19, 1829, after recit- ing that offences against property have lately increased, and the local establish- ments of nightly watch and police have been found inadequate, enacts that a new police office be established in Westmin- ster, and two fit persons appointed as justices of the peace for the counties of Middlesex, Surrey, Hertford, Essex, and Kent, and all the liberties therein, to conduct the business of the said office, under the directions of the Secretary of State. The whole of the city and liber- ties of Westminster, and such parishes, townships, &c. in Middlesex, Surrey, and Kent, as are enumerated in this act, to constitute one district, to be called " The Metropolitan Police District." The most important feature of the new act is the establishment of a police force, separate from the control of the local magistracy, and independent of the pa- rochial authorities, to whom the'appoint- ment and regulation of the nightly watch had been hitherto entrusted. The pre- vention and detection of offences within the districts included in the act de- volves on the newly-appointed " Com- missioners of Police," whose functions are exclusively confined to the attain- ment of these objects ; while the ex- amination of persons charged with of- fences continue to be exercised by the magistrates of the metropolitan offices as before. ! 1839. 2 and 3 Vic. c. 71, Aug, 24, continues the present police courts and police magistrates ; but empowers her majesty, by order in council, to alter their number and situation, so as there are never more than 27 magistrates, &c. Similar acts passed to amend the police at Manchester, by 2 and 3 Vic. c. 87, Aug. 26, 1839, and Birmingham by 2 and 3 Vic. c. 88, Aug. 26, 1839. I'OLIGNAC, Prince, the minister of Charles X. of France, tried and con- demned to perpetual imprisonment, Dec. 21, 1830. After several years of imprisonment was banished France, Nov. 23, 1836. His colleagues had been previously set free, POLITIAN,Angelus, eminent scho- lar, born 1454, died 1494. POLITICIAN, the term first intro- duced in France, 1569. POLLIO, a Roman orator and poet, who occasioned the first library being opened at Rome for public use, died4n42. POLL-TAX, first levied in England 1378. Abolished by William III. POLTAVA, European Russia, me- morable for the battle fought near this town in 1709, when the Swedes, under Charles XII., were completely defeated, and the king obliged to take refuge in Turkey. POLYBIUS, a celebrated Greek his- torian, was born at Megalopolis, a city of Arcadia, about] a. c. 205. He arose to considerable honours in his own coun- try, but was compelled to visit Rome with other principal Achaeans, who were detained there as pledges for the sub- mission of their state. He accompanied Scipio Jj^milianus into Africa, and was materially aided by his counsel. His his- tory extends from the second Punic war to the subversion of the Macedonian kingdom, a period of 53 years. He died aged 82. POLYCARP, one of the most ancient fathers of the christian church, and an early martyr to the cause of Christianity, was born toward the end of the reign of Nero. He was unqviestionably a disci- ple of St. John the Evangelist, and is said to have conversed familiarly \nth other of the apostles. He governed the church, of Smyrna with apostolic purity, till he suffered martyrdom a.d. 148, in the persecution which happened in the seventh year of Marcus Aurelius. POLYGAMY was frequent in the Roman empire, till the reigns of Theodo- sius, Honorius, and Arcadius, who first prohibited it by express law in 393. POMBAL.MaruuisDe, eminent Por- tuguese statesman, born 1699, died 1782. POMERANIA, province, Prussia, was ceded by Sweden to Denmark in 1814, as a partial indemnity for Norwaj^ but afterwards came to Prussia by exchange for Saxe Lunenburg. POMFRET, Rev. John, author of the "Choice," died young, in 1709. POMPEII, or PoMPEiA, the ruins of an ancient city of Italy, at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, was burned in an erup- PON tion of the volcano, a.d. 79 ; and, like Herculaneuin, not discovered till the be- ginning of the 18 th century. The vol- canic matter covering Pompeii, being much less hard than that of Hercula- neum, a great part of the city has been cleared, and new discoveries illustrative of the manners and customs of the an- cients are continually being made among the ruins. These are particularly de- scribed by Sir William Gell in his "Pom- peiana," published in 1819. In June 1827, an excavation was made at Pompeii, in the presence of the king and queen of Naples, which was one of the most successful ever remembered, on account of the abundance and quality of the objects discovered: particularly a very beautiful fountain in mosaic, in which was a genius of bronze holding in his left hand abird, with its wings expanded, from the beak of which the water issued, and then fell back into the basin. In 1837 the excavations were prosecuted with much activity. Near the street of the tombs were found, in the vestibule of a house, four mosaic pillars about 15 feet high, in very good preservation, beingthe first discovered of the kind. POMPEY THE Great, Cneius PoMPETUs Magnus, an illustrious Ro- man commander, and the rival of Julius Caesar, was born a.c. 107. Caesar a.c. 49, being by a decree of the senate pro- claimed a public enemy, Pompey was required to take upon himself the de- fence of the state. The result was the famous battle of Pharsaha, which took place A.c. 48, in which Pompey was en- tirely defeated, and, attempting to escape, he was slain, in the 59th year of his age, leaving behind him a name among the most illustrious of antiquity. POMPONIOUS, Mela, the geogra- pher, died in the vear 40. PONDICHERRY, city, Hindoostan, province Carnatic, formerly a village, was purchased by the French from the king of Bejapore, in the year 1672. It was taken by the Dutch in 1693, who con- siderably improved the town, and en- larged the fortifications, but were obliged to return it four years afterwards. In 1761 it was taken, after a long siege, by the British army vinder Colonel Coote. At the peace of 1763 it was restord to the French, and, though afterwards re- taken by the British, was at length finally restored at the conclusion of the late war. 720 POO PONIATOWSKI, Prince, drowned in the Elster, after the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 19, 1813. PONS, Louis, celebrated Florentine astronomer, died Oct. 14, 1831. PONSONBY, George, an eminent Irish la^vyer, and upright statesman, born March 5, 1755, died July 6, 1817. PONT Cyssylter, the superb aque- duct of, over the vale o^ the Dee, erected 1815. PONTIUS Pilate. See Pilate. PONTOPPIDAN, Bishop, author of •' Origines Haymenses," died 1764. PONZA, island, Mediterranean, be- longing to the Pontian group, kingdom of Naples, has a harbour defended by batteries, but was taken by the British in 1813. POOLE, Matthew, a learned bibli- cal writer, was born at York in 1624. He succeeded to the rectory of St. Mi- chael de Quern, in London, about 1648, but in 1662 he was ejected from his living for nonconformity. In 1669, the first two volumes of his Synopsis, were published in London, and these were afterwards followed by three others. Besides this great work, Poole pubhshed several other pieces. He died in 1679- POONA, city, Hindoostan, province Aurungabad, formerly capital of the Mahratta empire. In 1802, a treaty of alliance was ratified between the peshwa and the British, and the connection was kept up for nearly 1 5 years ; but in 1 8 1 9, the peshwa was obliged to resign his office, leaving the British in quiet posses- sion of the western Mahratta empire. POOR Laws. Formerly the main- tenance of the poor was chiefly an eccle- siastical concern, and a fourth part of the tithes in eveiy parish was set apart for that purpose : hence naturally sprung the parochial settlement. But upon the total dissolution of the monasteries, abundance of statutes were made in the reign of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Ehzabeth, for their relief. The statute of the 43d of Elizabeth was the basis of all the poor laws in England ; yet expe- rience has now proved, that it was not so salutary as was expected. In the year 1744 parliament instituted an in- quiry into the amount of the poor-rates, i in England and Wales, and again in f 1783. In the year 1680 the poor rates had produced no more than £666,390. In 1764 they stood at £1,200,000, and in 1773 they were estimated at £3,000,000, POO 721 POP and for many years past they have amounted to the enormous sum of £8,000,000. The subject of the poor laws from this time frequently employed the at- tention of parliament ; numerous com- mittees were appointed to investigate the subject, and partial amendments proposed. At length in 1832, the com- mission of poor law inquiry was insti- tuted, in March. In that year the amount expended for the relief of the poor was £7,036,969. The Poor Law Amendment Act, 4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 76, passed Aug. 14, 1834, was designed as a remedy for the evils produced by the previous condition of the poor. It empowers his majesty to appoint three commissioners to carry the act into execution, to be styled "The Poor Law Commissioners for England and Wales ;" who may sit as a board, with power to summon and examine witnesses, and call for production of pa- pers on oath. Administration of relief to the poor to be under control of the commissioners, who are to make rules and regulations for the management of the poor, and administration of the laws for their relief, &c., the apprenticing of the children, &c., and the direction of vestries and parish officers, &c.; and the commissioners may suspend or alter such rules, but they may not interfere in any individual case for the purpose of ordering relief. General rules to be sub- mitted to the Secretary of State forty days before coming into operation. If disallowed by the sovereign in council during the forty days, not to come into operation ; and if disallowed afterwards, they are to cease, but without prejudice to all under the same previously to such disallowance. When a union of parishes shall be proposed, commissioners to in- quire the expense of the poor belonging to each parish for three years preceding ; and after the union, the several parishes therein shall be assessed to a common fund for jjurchasing, buildmg, hiring, or providing, altering or enlarging any workhouse, &c. Power to commission- ers to dissolve, add to, or take from any union ; and thereupon to make rules adapted to its altered state, &c. LTnions are to have guardians elected by a ma- jority of the rate-payers, whose number, duties, and qualifications are to be fixed by the commissioners ; but each parish is to have one, and each guardian is to be elected annually, but may be re- elected. It empowers the commissioners to regulate the relief to able-bodied pau- pers, and their families out of the work- house ; and relief contrary to their re- gulations shall be disallowed ; but over- seers may delay the operation of such regulations, under special circumstances, for thirty days, and make report thereof to the commissioners, &c. Poor Law, Ireland. 2 Victoria, c. 56, July 31, 1838, entitled an act for the more effectual relief of the destitute poor in Ireland, authorises the poor law commissioners for England to carry this act into execution, and to examine wit- nesses, and to call for papers, &c., upon oath. Administration of relief to the poor shall be under the control of the commissioners, who may make and sus- pend aud rescind all such orders for the government of workhouses, houses of industry, and foundling hospitals, and of the poor therein, and for the guidance and control, appointment and removal of the officers thereof, and for the guid- ance and control, according to the in- tention of this act, of all guardians, wardens, and other officers, paid or un- paid, acting in the management or relief of the destitute poor, and for the keep- ing, examining, auditing, and allowing or disallowing of accounts, and for the making of contracts in all matters re- lating to such management or relief, or to any expenditure for the relief of the destitute poor, and for carrying this act into execution in all other respects as they shall think proper. One commis- sioner to reside in Ireland for the execu- tion of this act, when required by the secretary of state. 2 Vic. c. 1, March 15, 1839, amends the act of last session, extends the act to any place in Ireland, whether known as a town land or not ; and by s. 2, directs that all cities and towns, &c., with a population exceeding 10,000, may be constituted electoral divisions, and that such electoral divisions, may be divided into wards. POPE, Alexander, one of the most eminent British poets, was born in Lon- don, June 1688. When seven or eight years old, he became a lover of books, and early exhibited a taste for poetry. The earliest of his productions was his " Ode on Solitude," written before he was twelve. His pastorals, begun in 1704, first introduced him to the wits of 4 Z POP 722 the time ; among which were Wycherly and Welsh. In 1704 he wrote the first part of his "Windsor Forest," though the whole was not published till 1710. In 1708 he wrote the "Essay on Cri- ticism/' and in 1712, the "Rape of the Lock." The pubhcation of his "Iliad" was completed in 1720, and soon after his " Odyssey." His " Essay on Man" was completed in 1734. He died May 30, 1744. " Of his intellectual charac- ter," says Dr. Johnson, " the consti- tuent and fundamental principle was good sense, a prompt and intuitive per- ception of consonance and propriety. He saw immediately, of his own con- ceptions, what was to be chosen, and what to be rejected ; and, in the works of others, what was to be shunned, and what copied." POPE, Sir Thomas, founder of Trinity College, Oxford, born 1 508, died 1588. POPERY, a term frequently applied to the doctrines and practices of the church of Rome, on account of the su- premacy claimed by the bishops of Rome. Their power began about 60G, when the emperor first confined the title to them. It was carried to its highest pitch under Gregory VII., and his successors from 1013 to 1500. See Gregory VII.; Pius VII.; and Church of Rome. POPULATION of England is taken by a census every ten years. See Cen- sus. Population of England and Wales dur- ing the present century. Year. No. of persons. 1801 9,168,000 1811 10,502,500 1821 12,218,500 1831 14,594,500 Scotland. 1801 1,652,400 1811 1,865,900 1821 2,135,300 1831 2,365,807 Ireland. 1821 6,846,949 1831 7,767,401 The Metropolis. 1801 900,000 1811 1,050,000 1821 1,274,800 1831 1,474,069 The total population of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland in 1831, POR was 24,027,782. Grand total of Great Britain, &c., and her Colonies, in the year 1832, 138,704,589. The population of the world is esti- mated (by Balbi 1826) as follows : — Europe 227,700,000 Asia 390,000,000 Africa 60,000,000 America 39,000,000 Oceanica 20,300,000 PORCELAIN. See China Ware. PORLIER, Juan Diez, Spanish general, having been condemned to a year's imprisonment in the castle of Antonio, by Ferdinand VII., revolted, and entered Corunna with an armed force, Sept. 18, 1815. Apprehended by treachery, Sept. 22. Tried by court- martial, and suiFered death by the cord, Oct. 3, following. PORPHYRY, or Porphyrius, a celebrated Platonic philosopher, and an inveterate enemy to the christian faith, was born at Tyre, a.d. 233, in the reign of Alexander Severus. His trea- tises against Christianity are now lost. Many of them were extant in the fifth century, and were known to Jerome, who made large extracts from them. Porphyry died at Rome, in the reign of Dioclesian, about a.d. 303. PORSON, Richard, an eminent scholar, was born Dec. 25, 1759. He was sent to Eton in 1774, where he dis- played great superiority of intellect, and facility in the acquirement of his lessons. About the close of the year 1777 he was entered at Trinity college, Cambridge, and in every branch of study to which he applied, his progress was so rapid as to astonish every observer. In 1791 he was elected Greek professor at Cam- bridge, by a unanimous vote of the seven electors. In 1793 he published a beautiful edition of Heyne's Virgil, to which he prefixed a short preface. On the establishment of the London Insti- tution he was elected the principal li- brarian. He died Sept., 1808, in his 49th year. " Professor Porson is generally allowed to have been the first Greek scholar of the age in which he lived. Few, if any, even among those familiar with literary pursuits, combined so much solidity of judgment, with acuteness in discovering the corruption of a text, and at the same time restoring the true reading." PORTA, Baptista Della, inventor of the camera obscura, died 1515. POR 723 POR PORT-AU-PRINCE, the capital of Hayti, or St. Domingo, was founded in 1749 ; since which, with few inter- vals, it has been the capital of French St. Domingo, as it is now of the entire island. PORT EssiNGTON, a port and ter- ritory of North Australia, situated on the north side of the Cobourg Peninsula. It was examined in the recent survey of Major Campbell, formerly commandant of Melville Island ; also by Captain King in 1818, and named by him after Vice- Admiral Sir William Essington. There is no harbour yet known (Port Jackson excepted) to be compared to it in the whole extent of Australia, and it may be entered in safety, as well during the night as by day. PORT Royal, seaport town, island of Jamaica, was destroyed by an earth- quake, June 7, 1692; by a fire in 1703 and by a hurricane, Aug. 28, 1722 again by storm, Oct. 20, 1744 and 1784 by a fire, July 13, 1815. ' PORTER, Maria Ann, the novelist, died 1832. PORTEUS, Beilby, a distinguished prelate of the church of England, was born at York in 1731. He entered at Christ's College, Cambridge, where, in 1752, he was admitted to the degree of bachelor of arts. His earliest prose pub- lication was a sermon preached before the university of Cambridge in 1761, entitled " The Character of David, king of Israel, impartially stated," to which the future fortunes of Mr. Porteus may be attributed, for it obtained for him the patronage of Dr. Thomas Seeker, arch- bishop of Canterbury, He, on every occasion, pleaded the cause of the Negro slaves, was a warm friend to the instruc- tion of the poor, and everywhere encou- raged the establishment of Sunday- schools. Upon the death of Bishop Lowth in 1787, Dr. Porteus was trans- lated from the see of Chester to that of London. He died in May, 1808, in his 78th year. PORTEUS, Captain, whose death is known in Scottish history as forming the foundation of Scott's tale, " The Heart of Midlothian." While attending an execution at Edinburgh, apprehending a rescue, he ordered the soldiers to fire, April 14, 1736; was accused of murder, and convicted, but respited by Queen Caroline, June 22 ; was put to death by the mob at Edinburgh, Sept. 7- PORTLAND Isle, nearly opposite Weymouth, noted in history as the scene of several important transactions. In 787 a party of the Danes landed here, and put to death the governor, Gerela. In 1052 it was again seized upon and plundered by Godwin, the banished earl of Kent. Its castle, in 1142, was taken possession of by Robert earl of Glou- cester, in the name of the Empress Maud. The present fortress was erected by Henry VIII. In 1665 the great pier was entirely demolished, and the channel filled up with rubbish, and nearly 100 yards of earth slid into the sea. In De- cember, 1734, about 150 yards on the east side of the isle gave way, and fell into the ocean. But the greatest slide occurred in 1792, the extent of ground that moved being a mile and a quarter from north to south, and 600 yards from east to west. PORTO Bello, seaport town, re- public of Columbia. In 1739 Admiral Vernon, with six ships, entered the har- bour, and made himself master of the place, after demolishing the forts ; but it has since been strongly fortified. PORTO Rico, island. West Indies, the smallest of the greater Antilles, has suffered much from hurricanes ; those of 1742 and 1825 having been particu- larly destructive. Since the breaking up of the old Spanish colonial system, the progress of Porto Rico has been most rapid. The population in 1778 was esti- mated at 80,650, in 1827 to 288,473, of which only 28,408 were slaves. PORTO Santo, island, Atlantic Ocean, near Madeira, frequented for the purpose of repairs and refreshments, by ships passing to and from India. It was discovered by Vaz and Zarco, Portu- guese, in 1418. PORTSEA, Island of, in the 10th century was part of the royal demesnes. It was subsequently transferred to Win- chester college, the warden and fellows of which still hold much of the land. PORTSMOUTH, seaport, county of Southampton, an ancient borough; which together with the modern town of Port- sea, are situated near the south-western extremity of the island of Portsea. Ed- ward IV. erected fortifications for the defence of this port ; Richard III. made additions to them ; Edward VI. improved the fortifications, and for the defence of the harbour erected a town on each side of the entrance, from which might be POR '24 POR extended a vast iron chain, which was raised on the appearance of a French fleet in the channel during the American war. The works for the defence of this place were extended and impi'oved by Charles II. and his successor, and also by William. III. ; but, especially since 1770, vast additions of various descrip- tions have taken place, which have ren- dered the united towns of Portsmouth and Portsea one of the principal naval arsenals of the kingdom. On the plat- form battery was erected, in 1823, a se- maphore, or improved species of tele- graph, by which intelligence may be transmitted to the Admiralty, London, in three minutes. In the royal Dock- yard is the Royal Naval College, founded in 1720, for the education of young gen- tlemen intended for the sea-service. PORTUGAL, the most westerly king- dom of Europe ; from its maritime ad- vantages was known to the Phoenicians, and Carthaginians ; and, following the fortunes of Spain, was, after a long strug- gle, reduced to a province by Augustus. It continued so till the fifth century, when it was invaded by tribes of Alani, Suevi, and Visigoths. The Moors over- ran the greater part of Portugal early in the eighth century; but the mountainous nature of the country favouring the in- habitants, the northern part was soon recovered ; and in 1093, Henry duke of Burgundy obtained the sovereignty of that part of Portugal that was in the hands of the Moors. His son and suc- cessor assumed the title of king in 1139. In the 13th century the Moors were expelled from the south of the kingdom ; and in the 14th the Portuguese made occasional descents upon the coast of Africa. In 1497 Vasco de Gama suc- ceeded in doubling the Cape of Good Hope, and reaching the coast of Ma- labar ; and for many years the naviga- tion by the Cape was considered the ex- clusive property of the Portuguese. Bra- zil was colonised about the middle of the l"Cth century; and in 1580 Philip II. of Spain united the crown of Portugal to his own. In 1640, however, a success- ful insurrection led to the expulsion of the Spaniards, and the crown of Por- tugal was conferred on the duke of Bra- ganza, in whose family it has remained. The following are the kings and queens from this time : John IV., whose reign began 1640 ; Alphonso 1646 ; Peter II. ^683; John V, 1706; Joseph 1750; Mary, the late queen, 1777 ; John VI. 1816. In 1807 the king, John VI., and the royal family, removed to Brazil, a French army occupying Lisbon. After the ex- pulsion of the French from Portugal, and the general pacification of Europe (1814), the king returned ; but this country continued to be the scene of internal discord, chiefly through the machina- tions of Don Miguel, the youngest son of John VI., who, after the death of his father in 1826, assumed the reins of go- vernment, which he exercised in the most cruel and despotic manner for se- veral years. In 1828, the young queen Donna Maria, daughter of Don Pedro, eldest son of John VI., arrived from Brazil. After touching at Gibraltar, the royal suite proceeded to England, where her majesty was received with the respect due to her rank. The year 1830, and following year, witnessed in Portugal little diminution of the tumult and dis- order which had characterised hitherto the reign of Miguel. In 1832 Don Pedro arrived from Bra- zil, and Portugal became the scene of a civil war, maintained by two opposite parties, at the head of which were the two brothers; Don Pedro maintaining the right of his daughter, and Miguel feebly supporting his usurpation. In the beginning of 1833 Don Pedro, as re- gent for his daughter, confined himself within the walls of Oporto, at the head of his army of foreign adventurers and volunteers, with whom he was supplied from France and Great Britain ; but on June 21a large division of the army on board the fleet, landed in the Algarves, the most southern province of the king- dom. The troops were well received by the people, and the young queen was proclaimed amid loud acclamations. On July 24 she was also proclaimed at Lis- bon ; and Don Pedro, as regent, saUed from Oporto to assume the government. Great Britain and France immediately acknowledged Donna Maria, who ar- rived at Lisbon on September 23. Be- fore the month of May, 1834, all Por- tugal had submitted to the queen's go- vernment. May 26, a convention was signed by which Don Miguel was com- pelled to leave Portugal within 15 days, and engage never to return to any part of the Spanish provinces, or the Portu- guese dominions ; nor in any way concur in disturbing the tranquillity of those POS 7-25 POS kingdoms. On June 2, he went on board a British vessel of war, which carried him to Genoa, The civil war being brought to an end, and the authority of the queen acknow- ledged all over the kingdom, Don Pedro issued a decree, convoking an extraor- dinary meeting of the cortes, to assemble on Aug. 15, by whom the regency of Don Pedro was renewed without restric- tion; but he died on Sept. 22. On Dec. 1, the marriage of the queen to the duke of Leuchtenberg was celebrated at Lisbon ] also a bill to exclude Don Mi- guel and his descendants from the throne of Portugal was passed by the deputies without one dissentient voice, and re- ceived the sanction of the peers. 1835. Death of the queen's husband, March 28. The queen's second marriage with the prince of Saxe-Coburg, Dec.|7. In 1836, a military insurrection took place at Lisbon, Sept. 9 ; the queen was com- pelled to proclaim the constitution of 1822. Protest of the peers against the forced constitution, and attempt at a counter-revolution, Nov. 1 ; proposals on the part of the court to modify the revolutionary charter, which were ac- cepted. 1840. Insurrection of the military at Lisbon ; suspension of the laws for pro- tecting individual liberty and the liberty of the press ; the soldiers suspecting that their leaders were about to desert them, shot their commander, and laid down their arms in submission to the queen's forces, at the end of the month. The same year disputes with Spain com- menced. POST, or Post-Office. Regular posts or couriers were instituted at a very early period, for the safe, regular, and speedy transmission of public intelli- gence. In Persia, men and horses were kept at certain stations along the public roads ; and the despatches being given to the first courier, were by him carried to the second, and so on, with an expe- dition that neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor darkness, could check. A simi- lar institution, under the name of Cur- sus Publicus, was established at Rome by Augustus, and was extended and im- proved by his successors. Posts were established, for the first time in modern Europe, in 1477, by Louis XL They were originally intended to serve merely as the ancient posts, for the conveyance of public despatches, and of persons travelling by authority' of government. Subsequently private in- dividuals were allowed to avail them- selves of this institution ; and govern- ments, by imposing higher duties or rates of postage on the letters and par- cels sent through the post-office, have rendered it productive of a considerable revenue. The post-office for the general convey- ance of letters, &c., was established in England in the reign of Charles I., who erected a letter-office for England and Scotland in 1635 ; but this extended only to a few of the principal roads, and did not succeed. At length, an establish- ment for the weekly conveyance of letters to all parts of the kingdom, was insti- tuted in 1649, by Mr. Edward Prideaux, attorney-general for the Commonwealth ; the immediate consequence of which was, a saving to the public of £7000 a- year on account of post-masters. In 1657» the post-office was established nearly on its present footing, and the rates of postage that were then fixed were continued till the reign of Queen Anne. So late as 1784 mails were conveyed either on horseback, or in carts made for the purpose, which accomplished the journey between London and Bath in 17 hours. About this time Mr. John Palmer, of Bath, comptroller-general of the post-office, suggested the plan of contracting with the proprietors of the coaches for the carriage of the mail ; the latter being bound to perform the jour- ney in a specified time, and to take a fuard with the mail for its protection. Ir. Palmer's plan encountered much opposition, but was at length carried into effect. On August 2, 1784, the first mail-coach left London for Bristol ; others to different parts followed, and, before many days had elapsed, it became evident that the plan would be success- ful. For the nine years ending 1774, the average net amount of revenue had been £162,534 65.; for the nine years ending 1783 (prior to the commencement of the new system), the net amount was only £149,333 18s., showing a decrease of £13,198 135. In 1793 the net revenue was £391,508; and in 1797 it was £541,833. Up to that period not a single robbery of the mails had taken place. The number of newspapers car- ried free had increased from 2,000,000 to 8,000,000. The rates of postage were POS 726 POS raised in 1784 to 2d. for the ktters, which had been previously id., Zd. for those which had been 2a., and so on generally through the scale. In the same year the Irish post-ofBce was esta- blished independent of that of England, but the two have been now for several years consolidated. In 1795 the abuses of franking at- tracted the attention of the legislature ; franked letters were now only to carry one ounce, and they were only to pass free when posted within 20 miles of the place where the members concerned were on that or the preceding day. No more than ten were to be sent, or 15 received daily. Two years after, by 37 George III., the rates of postage were again raised, an additional Id. being levied upon the lower priced classes of letters, 2c?. on the higher. In 1799 the post- master was empowered to send foreign letters by any vessels ; to charge 4c?. upon ship letters received, for which the shipowner was to be allowed 2c?. In 1801 the rates of the higher priced classes of letters were considerably increased : 8c?. had been hitherto the maximum, even for distances of 500 miles ; the maximum was now made Is. In 1805 an additional] Id. was charged upon all classes of letters; and again in 1812 on all but the two or three lowest priced clas- ses. In 18l6the gross revenue amounted to £2,418,741, the charges of collection of which amounted to £704,639, leav- ing a net revenue of £1,619,196, since which time no material increase has taken place. The total net produce in the year 1838 was £1,659,511. Two-Penny Post. The establish- ment of a post for the delivery of let- ters in London, originally at lo?., arose from the enterprise of a private indivi- dual (Mr. WilUam Dowckra) about the close of the Protectorate. It was ex- tended to the towns and villages round London on the application of the inha- bitants, who voluntarily agreed to pay an additional penny on the receipt of their letters. The charge of this additional penny was not authorised by law till 1727. The penny post became a two- penny post in 1801, under the 41 Geo. III. c. 7; and in 1805 the postage on letters delivered beyond the limits of the city of London, Southwark, and West- minster, was advanced to threepence. In 1831 the boundaries of the twopenny post were extended to include all places within three miles of the general post- office ; and, in 1833, the boundaries of the threepenny post were extended to places not exceeding 12 miles. General Reduction of Postage. A commission of inquiry having been appointed at the suggestion of Mr. R. Hill and others, supported by numerous petitions, they gave their judgment in 1838, that the evidence taken before them proved the high rates of postage to be injurious to all classes, produced serious injury to commerce, and, conse- quently, to national prosperity. This gave rise to the act 2 and 3 Victoria, c. 52, 1839, for the further regulation of the duties on postage, which enacts that the rates of inland postage shall be reduced to one uniform rate of a penny on every letter of a given weight ; and that meanwhile a temporary power shall be given to the lords of the treasury till October 5, 1840. In pursuance of this, their lordships directed that all letters posted on or after the 5th of December 1839 should be subject to the following regulations : — Letters not exceeding half an ounce, one postage, at the former rate ; ditto, one ounce, two postages ; ditto, two ounces, four postages ; ditto, three ounces, six postages ; and so on, adding two postages for every ounce up to 16 ounces; beyond which no packet subject to postage should be received. 1840. The uniform penny postage came into full operation Jan. 10. An act was passed, 3 and 4 Vic. c. Q6, Aug. 10, entitled " An act for the regulation of the duties on postage." By this the price of a postage must be prepaid, either by money or the use of a stamp, or it will be charged double ; and if the weight of the letter should exceed the value of the stamp attached, the excess will be charged double : thus, a letter weighing more than half an ounce, but not exceed- ing an ounce, if bearing one penny stamp only, will be charged an additional two- pence on delivery. Stamps, covers, and envelopes, are to be purchased at every post-office, as well as at most stationers; the covers and envelopes at I5C?. each. There are also stamps, covers, and en- velopes for a doijble postage, price 2c?. and 2id. each. Newspapers, to go the same day, must be put into the general post office before six o'clock ; but those put in before half-past seven o'clock will go the same evening by paying a half- penny with each. The uniform single POT rate on all letters conveyed by packet between the United Kingdom and the British colonies and possessions to be one shilling, with the exception of let- ters between the United Kingdom and Malta. 1841. The penny postage, which it was feared would not pay its expenses, yielded £441,000 net revenue the first year of its establishment. New Post-office. This elegant building, erected under the direction of Mr. Smirke, architect, was 14 years in completion, dating from the time of the passing of the act in 1815. Much of this period was consumed in the pur- chase and removal of the houses which were crowded upon its site. It is 389 feet long, 130 wide, and 64 high, stand- ing in an inclosed area of irregular figure, of very scanty dimensions, at the junction of St. Martin's-le-Grand with Newgate-street, in a situation as central and perhaps as convenient to the metro- polis as possible. The edifice is exter- nally of Portland stone. The fagade of St. Martin's-le-Grand is the only one in which there is any architectural display ; and this is confined to three porticos of the Ionic order, one at each end of four columns, and one in the centre of six ; the last surmounted by a pediment. On the frieze over the column is the inscription, " Georgio Quarto Rege, MDCCCXXIX." POTASSIUM, the metallic base of potash, was discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1807. POTATOES, the roots of the sola- num tuberosum, of innumerable varie- ties. Some authors affirm that this plant was first introduced into Europe by Sir John Hawkins, in 1545 ; others that it was introduced by Sir Francis Drake in 1573; but this is supposed to have been the sweet potato (convolvulus battatas). The common potato was first brought here fromVirginia by SirW alter Raleigh ; who, on his return homeward in the year 1623, stopping at Ireland, distributed a number of potatoes in that kingdom. From thence they were brought into England by a vessel wrecked on the western coast, called North Meols, in Lancashire. The Royal Society, March 18, 1662-3, recommended the planting of potatoes in all parts of the kingdom to prevent famine. Previously to 1684 they were raised only in the gardens of the nobility and gentry ; but in that year 727 P O U they were planted, for the first time, in the open fields in Lancashire. Potatoes wei-e not raised in Scotland, except in gardens, till 1728, when they were planted in the open fields by a day labourer of the name of Prentice, at Kil- syth, who died at Edinburgh in 1792. In Sweden, notwithstanding the indefa- tigable industry of Linnaeus, the culture of potatoes was only introduced in 1764, when a royal edict ivas published to en- courage their general cultivation. The extension of the potato cultivation has been particularly rapid during the last half century. They were introduced into India 60 or 70 years ago, and are now successfully cultivated in Bengal, and have been introduced into the Mad- ras provinces, Java, the Philippines, and China. So rapid an extension of the taste' for, and the cultivation of, an ex- otic, has no parallel in the history of in- dustry ; it has had, and will continue to have, the most powerful influence on the condition of mankind. POTOSI, city. South America, ca- pital of a department of the same name, republic Buenos Ayres, celebrated for its silver mines, is situated on a river also of the same name. The mines were first dis- covered by an Indian peasant in 1545. In 1547 was founded the town of Po- tosi ; a royal mint was established in 1562; and in l6ll the town contained 160,000 inhabitants; but latterly the mines are much exhausted, and the po- pulation has continually decreased. The town was evacuated by the royalists, and entered by the Buenos Ayres army, un- der General Rondeau, April 5, 1815. POTSDAM, town, Prussia, near which is the palace of Sans Souci, the favourite retreat of Frederick II., three quarters of a mile to the north-west. It was en- tered without opposition by the French on Oct. 24, 1805, soon after the fatal battle of Jena. The French carried away with exultation the sword and scarf of Frederick, which he wore during the seven years' war. POTTER, John, archbishop, author of "Antiquities of Greece," died 1747, aged 73. POTTER, Robert, the translator of "iEschylus," "Euripides," and "So- phocles," died Feb. 1804. POULTERERS' Company, London, incorporated 1503. POUSSIN, Nicholas, an eminent French painter, was born in 1594, at PRA 728 PRE Andel, in Normandy. After studying the paintings of the best masters, he went to Rome, where in 1624 he was favoured with the patronage of Cardinal Barberini, nephew of Pope Urban VIII. His fame, and many of his Italian pic- tures, having reached his native coun- try, Louis XIII. invited him to return, with which, after much hesitation, Pous- sin comphed, and arrived in France in 1640. None of his designs have been more generally admired than that of the " Death of Germanicus. " He returned to Rome in 1642, and never more revisited his native country. He died in 1695 in his 72d year. POWELL, George, English actor and dramatic writer, died 1714. POWIS Castle, Montgomeryshire, built 1110. PR^MUNIRE, Statutes of, may be traced to the time of Edward I., who made a law against papal provisions, which was the foundation of them all. 16 Rich. II. c. 15, called by way of emi- nence, the statute of praemunire, enacts, that whosoever procures at Rome, or elsewhere, any translations, processes, excommunications, bulls, &c., shall be put out of the king's protection, their lands and goods forfeited to. the king's use. The penalties of a praemunire were inflicted on some persons for refusing to take the oath of allegiance in the reign of Charles II. PRAGMATIC Sanction, a rescript or answer of a sovereign to some college or body of people, upon consulting him on some case of their community. The term is chiefly used among the modern writers, for that famous ordinance of Charles VII. of France, drawn up at Bourges, and published in 1438, con- taining a regulation of ecclesiastical dis- cipline, conformable to the canons of the council of Basil, since used by the Gal- hcan church, as a barrier against the en- terprises and encroachments of the court of Rome. This statute still held in force till the concordat, held between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. in 1517, when the pragmatic sanction was abo- lished. The most recent ordinances of this nature is the pragmatic sanction of the emperor Charles VI., published April 17, 1713, whereby in default of male issue, his daughters were to suc- ceed in preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I. PRAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Bohemia, is an ancient city, and has often been exposed to the calamities of war, particularly in the 15th century, during the troubles excited by the per- secution of the Hussites. In 1620, a memorable battle was fought on the White mountain, about two miles from this city, between the imperialists and Bohemians, in which the latter were defeated. In 1757 Prague underwent a siege and heavy bombardment, until relieved by the defeat of the Prussians at KoUin. PRATT, poet, and author of " Glean- ings," &c., born 1749, died Oct. 4, 1814. PRAXITELES, a celebrated Greek sculptor, who flourished about a.c. 360, at the time of the reign of Alexander the Great. Many of his performances were in the Ceramicus of Athens, among the rest of the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton, which Xerxes carried away, and Alexander afterwards restored. PRESBURG, town, Hungary, was declared by a royal decree of 1536 the capital of Hungary, but the viceroy and palatine reside in ihe more central situa- tion of Buda. A treaty was concluded here between France and Austria, after the short but eventful campaign of 1805. PRESBYTERIANISM, the estab- hshed discipline of the church of Scot- land, was introduced there as soon as it began to assume a regular form, about 1560. See Church of Scotland, p. 284. In 1580 the general assembly declared diocesan episcopacy to be un- scriptural and unlawful. The first presbyterian church in Eng- land was established at Wandsworth, near London, in 1572; and others were afterwards formed in neighbouring counties. Under the commonwealth in 1649, the Presb)i;erian government was declared by the house to be the estab- lished form ; it continued under the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, and till after the restoration of Charles II., when episcopacy was re-established. PRESTER, or Presbyter, John. See Abgillus. PRETENDER, James Francis Ed- ward, eldest son of James II., of Eng- land, born June 10, 1688; married, 1719, Mary Clementina, grand-daughter of John Sobieski, king of Poland, and died Jan. 1, 1766. PRETENDER, the Young, Charles Edward, son of the Pre- tender, commonly called the Chevalier PRI 729 PRI St. George, born Nov. 31, 1720, died Jan. 31, 1788, without male issue. PRICE, Dr. Richard, a distin- guished writer and divine, was born at Tynton, in Glamorganshire, in 1723. At the request of Mr. Pitt, he proposed the sinking fund for liquidating the national debt, which was established in 1786. He died on the 19th of iVIarch 1791. PRIDEAUX, Dr. Humphrey, his- torian and M'riter, was born at Padstow in Cornwall, in 1648. In 17] 5 he pub- lished his most celebrated work, entitled " The Old and New Testament, con- nected in the History of the Jews and neighbouring Nations." He died Nov. 1, 1724, in his 77th year. PRIESTLY, Dr. Joseph, a distin- guished philosopher and divine, was born March 24, 1 733, at Field-head, near Leeds. His history of electricity made its appearance at Warrington in 1767. About ] 768 he was chosen pastor of a large and respectable congregation of protestant dissenters at Leeds, where his attention was first excited to the pro- perties of fixed air. The first of Dr. Priestly's publications on pneumatic chemistry was in 1772, announcing a method of impregnating water with fixed air. In 1774 he made a full discovery of dephlogisticated air, which he pro- cured from the oxides of silver and lead. In 1778 Dr. Priestly pursued his ex- periments on the properties of vegetables growing in the light to correct impure air, and the use of vegetation in this part of the economy of nature. From this time till his death he was the author of numerous works, both on experimental philosophy and in favoiir of the Socinian contro^versy. He chose for his abode the vicinity of Birmingham, as the re- sidence of several men of science, and the artificers necessary to the carrying on of his experiments. The celebration of the anniversary of the destruction of the Bastile, by a public dinner on July 14, 1791, gave the signal for those well- known riots in Birmingham, which did irreparable injury to the town, and by which his house, library, manuscripts, and apparatus, were made a prey to the flames. In 1794 he took leave of his native country, and embarked for North America, where he was received with great respect. He died at Philadelphia, Feb. 6, 1804, in the 7lstyear of his age. PRINCE, John, English historian, born 1643, died 1723. PRINCE Edward's Island, Bri- tish North America, formerly called St. John's, situated in the Gulf of St. Law- rence. It was discovered by Cabot, in 1497, being the first land seen after his departure from Newfoundland. In 1758 it was taken po£ses.«ion of by the English, and at the conclusion of the peace in 1763, annexed to the governuient of Nova Scotia. PRINGLE, Thomas, poet and fihilan- thropist, editor of "Blackwood's Ma- gazine," during the first six months of its existence, and for many years secretary to the London A nti- Slavery Society, died in London, Dec. 5, 1834. PRINTING was early practised by the Chinese on wooden blocks, but the art of printing letter- press from types is generally ascribed to John Faust, who invented it at Strasburg in 1440. Metal types were used by John Gottenburgb, of Mentz, 1444, by whom the first book was printed, 1450. The first printers who settled at Rome were Conrad Sweyn- heim and Arnold Pannartz, who intro- duced the present Roman type in 1466, in Cicero's " Epistolse Familiares." The first whole book in Greek was the Gram- mar of Constantine Lascaris, in quarto, revised by Demetrius Cretensis, and printed by Dionysius Palavisinus, at Milan, 1476. Venice soon followed the example of Milan ; and in 1486 were published in that city the Greek Psalter and the " Batrachomyomachia." In 1488 a fine edition of Homer's works at Florence, in folio, was printed by Deme- trius, a native of Crete. Aldus has been erroneously supposed to be the first Greek printer ; his characters in general were more elegant than any before used, and he printed many valuable works, but they were subsequent to the pre- ceding. He was born in 1445, and died in 1515. The art was brought to Eng- land by William Caxton, a mercer of London, 1472. See Caxton. Stereotype. Animpeifect kind was invented by J. Vander Mey, who resided at Leyden about the end of the l6th century, but the invention was dropped, the process being too expensive. Stereo- type plates, on the present principle, were simultaneously invented by Ged and Tilloch from 1725 to 1727, after which Didot, a French printer, published several Latin classics in the same man- ner, about 1790, and to whom some of his countrymen wished to ascribe the 5 A PRI 730 PRI merit of the invention. About 1800 Mr. Wilson, a printer in London, engaged with Earl Stanhope, for the purpose of bringing the stereotype art into general practice ; by this means it was intro- duced to the two universities, and soon became general. A few years after this, printing machines were introduced which were wrought by steam, and first adopted by the Times newspaper, November 28, 1814. PRIOR, Matthew, an eminent En- glish poet, was born at London in 1664. Upon the revolution, he was brought to court by his patron, the earl of Dorset, by whose interest he was introduced to public employment. In 1690, he was made secretary to the earl of Berkley, ])lenipotentiary to King William and Queen Mary at the congress at the Hague. Being opposed to the Hano- verian succession, in June, 1715, Robert Walpole moved the house against him, and Prior was ordered into close custody. In 1717 he was discharged from his confinement, but withdrew from all pub- lic employment. He died in 1721 at AVimple, then a seat of the earl of Oxford. His remains were interred in West- minster-abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. PRISCIAN, Priscianus, an eminent grammarian, was born at Caesarea, and taught grammar and rhetoric at Con- stantinople, with great reputation, about 525. The grammatical fame of this author may be inferred from the pro- verbial phrase of "breaking Priscian's head," applied to a violation of grammar. PRISONS. The subject of the con- struction and management of prisons has frequently engaged the attention of philanthropists. Howard commenced his career of investigation in 1774. See Howard. He was followed by Nield, one of his majesty's acting justices of the peace for the counties of Bucking- ham, Kent, and Middlesex, and for the city and liberty of Westminster, who published in 1812 the result of his ob- servations. The cause of the prisoner, and of society in general, has also more recently found an able advocate in Sir F. Buxton, who inspected many of the prisons, and gave to the world the result in 1818, in his " Inquiry, whether Crime and Misery are produced or prevented, by our present System of Prison Dis- cipline. Illustrated by Descriptions of the Borough Compter ; Tothill Fields; the gaols of St. Alban's, and at Guilford ; the gaol at Bury ; the Maison de Force at Ghent ; the Philadelphia Prison ; the Penitentiary at Milbank: and by the Proceedings of the Ladies' Committee at Newgate." Mr. Gurney describes the state of the gaols of Scotland, derived from the benevolent tour of inspection, undertaken by him in the summer of 1818. About the same time a warm interest began to prevail in Ireland, prin- cipally through the exertions of the Dublin Association for the Improvement of Prisons, formed in 1818, under the pa- tronage of the Right Hon. Charles Grant. The improvement of the prisons and of the prison laws, has formed the sub- ject of some important legislative enact- ments, among which an act extending the abolition of gaol-fees to Ireland, is of signal importance. The following, of more recent date, have also in view the benevolent object of ameliorating the condition of the prisoners. 5 and 6 Will. IV. c.38, Aug. 25, 1835, "An act for effecting greater uniformity of practice in the government of the several prisons in England and Wales ; and for appointing inspectors of prisons in Great Britain." The latter are ap- pointed by one of her majesty's principal secretaries of state, to inspect all books and papers relating to gaols, to make a separate report in writing of the state thereof, and transmit the same to one of the principal secretaries of state ; and a copy thereof shall be laid before par- liament within 14 days. 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 51, Aiigust 31, 1836, is applied to the prisons of Ireland. The grand jury of the county of the city of Dublin are empowered to appoint a board of superintendence, as in other counties, under the 7 Geo. IV. c. 74 ; and by sect. 7, the provisions of that act with respect to the support of poor prisoners, are extended to prisoners confined in the Marshalsea, Dublin. 1 Victoria, c. 76, August 4, 1838, enables her majesty in council, and the governor and council of any colony, to make rules for the government of the prisons of each colony in the West Indies ; empowers her majesty to appoint or to authorise the governor to apj)oint inspectors of prisons, who are not to be obstructed in their office, under a penalty of £20. No person shall be imprisoned in any prison which the governor shall have certified to be unfit. PRO 731 PRO PRITCHARD, Mrs., celebrated actress, died 1769. PRIVY-COUNCIL, in ancient times, was about 12. Afterwards it increased to so large a number, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and despatch; and therefore Charles II., in 1679, limited it to 30. By the act of settle- ment, 12 and 13 Will. Ill .c. 2, it is en- acted, that no person born out of the do- minions of the crown of England shall be capable of being of the privy-council. To prevent the inconvenience of having no council in being at the accession of a new prince, it is enacted, by 6 Ann. c. *] , that the privy-council shall continue for six months after the demise of the crown, unless sooner determined by the suc- cessor. PROCLUS,theplatonist,diedA.c.500, PROCLUS, the theologian, died a.c. 445. PROCOPIUS, author of the " His- tory of the Reign of Justinian," flou- rished A.c. 600. PROCTUS, Platonic philosopher, born 410, died 485. PROME, town, kingdom of Ava, on the Irawady river, was captured by the British in 1825, during the Burmese war. On this occasion, the houses and property of the natives who had fled were taken care of, and proclamations issued, inviting them to return ; so that it soon recovered from the devastating system of the Burmese leaders. PROMETHEUS, the son of Japetus, supposed to have been the first dis- coverer of the art of striking fire by flint and steel, which gave rise to the fable of his stealing fire from heaven. He flou- rished about A.c. 1687. PROMISSORY Notes, subject in general to the same regulations as bills of exchange. See Bills. PRONY, Baron De, one of the most distinguished engineers of France ; and one of the most voluminous writers of the present age, generally upon mathe- matical and other subjects connected with his professional pursuits. He died 1839- PROPAGATION of the Gospel, society for. See Missions, p. 653. PROPERTIUS, author of "Elegies," died A.c. 16. PROPERTYTax. See Income Tax. PROPYLEUM,at Athens, built a.c. 432. PROTAGORAS, Greek sophist, origi- nally a porter, born at Abdera, flourished A.c 620. PROTECTORATE. Tiiat of the earl of Pembroke began October, 1216, at the death of Henry III. ; ended by his death the same year. Of the duke of Bedford, began 1422 at the death of Henry VI. ; ended by his death, Sept. 1435. Of the duke of Gloucester,, began April, 1483, at the death of Edward V. ; ended by his assuming the royal dignity, June, 1483. Of Somerset, began 1547, at the death of Edward VI. ; ended by his resignation, 1549. Of Oliver Crom- well, began Dec. 1643, at the death of Charles I.; ended by his death, 1658. Of Richard Cromwell, began 1658 ; ended by his resignation, April, 1659. PROTESTANTS, a name first given in Germany to those who adhered to the doctrine of Luther; because, in 1529, they protested against a decree of the emperor Charles V., and the diet of Spires. They were tolerated in Ger- piany 1624 ; in Bohemia 1707 ; in Hun- gary 1784; in France 1792; in Portu- gal 1801. See Reformation. PROTOGENES, a celebrated ancient painter, was born at Caunas, a city of Caria, subject to the Rhodians, and flourished a.c. 300. The finest of his pictures was that of Jalisus. This pic- ture saved the city of Rhodes when be- sieged by Demetrius, king of Macedon ; being able to attack it only on that side where Protogenes worked, he chose rather to abandon his design than to destroy so fine a piece. PROVIDENCE, or Old Provi- dence, island, Carribbean sea. West Indies, in former times was much noted as the haunt of the Buccaneers, who long infested that part of the New World. See Buccaneers. In 1664, when the Spaniards were in quiet possession of the island, Mansvelt, celebrated alike for his daring and crimes, took this island, considering it well adapted for the head quarters of the lawless band of which he was the leader. At his death, Morgan assumed the command, and took pos- session of it in December, 1670. After this, little mention is made of the island till 1795, when a few families from Blewfields, on the Mosquito coast, set- tled, by permission of the Spaniards. From this time it remained quite tranquil, until the arrival of an adventurer named Aurey in 1817-18 ; when the South American colonies, separating from the PRU 732 PRU mother country, presenteLl an opening for privateering, he established a go- vernment, repaired the principal fort, and his vessels, commandel by adven- turers like himself, annoyed the Spanish trade very successfully. At his death in 1821-2, the privateers dispersed, and the island resumed its present quiet state under the republic of Granada. It was examined at the government survey of the eastern coast of Central America, and of the island and quays adjacent, under the direction of Captain Owen, in 1835, when his majesty's schooner. Jack- daw, was wrecked on the morning of March 11. PROVISIONS, Price of, at diffe- rent periods, as follows : — A fat o.\ I2d.; sheep 4d. ; provender for 20 horses 4(/. ; bread for 100 men I2d., 1177- Wheat V2d. the quarter; beans and oats 4d., 1216. Goose 4d. ; lamb at Christmas 6d., all the rest of the year 4d. ; two pul- lets lid., 1299. Wheat 30/. the quarter, 1315. Wine 20s. the tun, "1316. Barley Is. the quarter, 1317. Wheat Is. the quarter; malt l6d., 1454. Wheat 3s. the bushel, 1486. Wheat 20c?. the bushel, 1491. Wheat I5s. the quarter, 1527. A barrel of beer, with a cask, 6d. ; and four great loaves for id., 1553. Wheat 14s. the quarter, 1558, and £6 in 1726. Flour 10s. the bushel, 1596, and 18s. in 1796. Living seven times cheajjcr in 1066 ; six times cheaper 1381; ten times cheaper in 1403; four times cheaper in 1440; three times and a half cheaper in 1 498 ; near five times cheaper in 1500, — than in 1796. PRUSSIA, kingdom, Europe. This territory was anciently possessed by the Venedi, whose kings were descended from Athirius, first king of the Heruli, on the Baltic, a.c. 320. Tlie Venedi were conquered by the Borussi, who in- habited the Riphsean mountains; thence the country was called Borussia, or Prussia, which was subdued by the Mercian knights sent by the emperor Frederick II., a.d. 1215. The royal house of Prussia originally held only the office of burg-grave, or governor of the castle of Nuremburg. This office they found means to render hereditary, and to succeed in 1248 to the principality of Bayreuth and Anspach. One of their number, purchased in 1417 from the reigning emperor, the marqui- sate of Brandenburg, with the rank of elector. In 1473 it was agreed that the marquisate should remain undivided ; a determination which led to the subse- quent greatness of the house. The Teutonic knights, the masters of Prussia Proper, being engaged in a mili- tary contest with Poland, Albert, mar- grave of Brandenburg, grand-master of the order, in 1525 concluded a treaty with Poland, by which he obtained East Prussia as a hereditary duchy for his family. About 1620 a further accession was obtained by inheritance, viz. the duchy of Cleves, and the counties of Mark and Ravensberg. Frederick Wil- liam, elector of Brandenburg, adhered faithfully to the protestant cause, and at the j)eace of Westphalia, in ] 648, ob- tained the bishoprics of Minden, Hal- berstadt, and Magdeburg. His succes- sor, a weak and vain prince, directed all his efforts towards obtaining from the emperor the royal dignity, in which he at last succeeded in 1700, as Frederick I. He died in 1713. His son Frederick II., surnaraed the Great, ascended the throne in 1740; he invaded Silesia, and after an eventful but in general successful contest, he ob- tained, in 1745, the cession of this va- luable province ; by which, with pieced- ing acquisitions, the kingdom was esta- bhshed. In 1756 a coalition was formed that threatened the total overthrow of the Prussian monarchy. It was then that his personal abilities, the discipline of his army, and the financial aid of Eng- land, were the means of saving his king- dom. He died in 1786. His successor, Frederick William II., sometimes called Frederick IV., in the part which he took in the war with the French republic, by no means added to the reputation of the Prussian arms. Frederick William III., the late king, came to the crown in 1797, and acted for several years in concurrence wiih France. At last, in 1806, war against France was determined on, and the army led to the western frontier. The result was the battle of Jena ; the cajjture, in succes- sion, of almost ev^ery corps of the army; the loss of the capital ; and, soon after, of every province of the kingdom except Prussia Proper. The peace of Tilsit re- stored little more than half the Prussian states ; during six years all the cala- mities attendant on foreign occupation were accumulated on this kingdom. This roused them to arms in 1813 ; their cou- rage was displayed in Silesia, next in Saxony, and finally in Champagne. By PRY 733 PUF the peace of Paris in 1814, confirmed by that of 1815, the territory and powers of this kingdom were consolidated. Al- though Prussia lost some of its acquisi- tions in Poland, &c., it received an ample equivalent in Saxony and the Lower Rhine, &c. Frederick Wilham III. died June7,1840. SeeFREDERiCKWiLLiAM. PRUSSIAN Blue, a well known blue pigment obtained from a combina- tion of prussic acid with iron. It was discovered by accident in 1709. Berg- man, in 1775, first ascertained that this colouring matter was a peculiar acid ; but its nature and composition were first explained by Scheele in 1782. 1 839. The gold isis medal was awarded by the Society of Arts to Mr. Lewis Thompson, of Lambeth, for an improved mode of manufacturing Prussian blue. In the usual mode the requisite carbon and nitrogen are obtained by decompos- ing animal matter in contact with potash. Mr. Thompson conceiving that tlie at- mosphere might be made to supply, in a very economical manner, the requisite nitrogen, if allowed to act on a mixture of carbon and potash under favourable circuijistances ; the experiment proved correct, for the carbonaceous matter em- ployed may be worked over again many times, and is even improved by each ope- ration. By the former method six ounces of pearlash, containing 45 per cent, of alkali, yielded only 295 grains of Prus- sian blue ; while one pound of the same pearlash, by his method, yielded 1355 grains. PRYNNE, William, a learned En- glish lawyer and antiquarian, distin- guished in the civil commotions imder Charles I., was born at Swanswick in Somersetshire in I6OO. In 1632 he published an elaborate work, entitled " Histrio-matrix." This book contain- ing some reflections that oflfended the court, he was sentenced by the star- chamber to pay a fine of £5000, to stand in the pillory, to lose his ears, and to perpetual imprisonment. During his confinement, he wrote several other books; particularly, in 1636, one en- titled "News from Ipswich," which, reflecting severely on the bishops, he ■was again sentenced by the star-chamber to another fine of £5000, to lose the remainder of his ears in the pillory, and to be branded on both cheeks with S. L. for seditious libeller. In 1640, being set at liberty by the house of commons, he entered London in a kind of triumph, and was elected into parliament for New- port in Cornwall. Notwithstanding the ill usage he had received, when parliament had become victorious in the civil wars, and in its turn became arbitrary, he used all his influence to promote an accommo- dation with the king. Being restored to his seat after Cromwell's death,, he as- sisted in promoting the restoration. He died in 1669. PSALMODY, Metrical, first intro- duced by John Huss, Jerome of Prague, the Bohemian brethren, and Martin Luther, and published by them in the German language for the use of the common people. Clement Marot, about 1540, versified and dedicated to Francis I., of France, about 50 of the Psalms. Theodore Beza versified the rest shortly after, and the whole 150 were pub- lished at Strasburg in 1545. The first edition of Sternhold's, consisting of 51 Psalms, was printed in 1549, the second in 1553. The entire version of the Psalms was published in 1562. PTOLEMY, Claudius, Egyptian astronomer, author of the Ptolemaic system of the universe, was born at Pe- lusium, about a.d. 70. In his system he has adopted and exhibited the ancient notion, which placed the earth in the centre of the universe. He was also the author of a " Canon of the ancient Kings." See Canon. PTOLEMY Lagus, or Soter, king of Egypt, was brought up to arms, and became one of the most celebrated officers of Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied in all his expeditions. He died a. c. 283, aged 84. PTOLEMY Philadelphus, son of the preceding, began to reign A.c. 281. He estabhshed and augmented the celebrated Alexandrian library, and granted considerable privileges to the Jews, from whom he obtained a copy of the Old Testament, which he caused to be translated into Greek, and deposited in his library. This is supposed to have been the version called the Septuagint. He died a.c. 246. PUFFENDORF, Samuel, a learned historian, was born in 1631 at Fleh, a village in Upper Saxony. In I66O he published his "Elementa Jurispruden- tiae Universalis," which recommended him to the elector Palatine, who invited him to the university of Heidelberg, where he founded a professorship of the PYE 734 P Y T law of nature and nations. He died in 1694- His works are numerous. PUGIN, Augustus, well known to all admirers of the fine arts by his nu- merous publications relative to architec- ture. He was a native of France, but may be considered an Enjrlish artist, having resided in this country upwards of 40 years. He died Dec. 19, 1832. PULTAWA. See Poltava. PUMP. See Air Pump. Vitruvius ascribes the invention of the common water pump to Ctesibius, an Athenian mathematician, who flourished at Alex- andria, A.c. 135. PUNIC Wars. See Carthage. PUNISHMENTS. See Capital Punishments, and Criminal Law. PURCELL, Henry, an Enghsh mu- sician, was the son of Henry and nephew of Thomas Purcell, both musicians, and gentlemen of the chapel royal, at the restoration of Charles II. He sung in the king's chapel till he was 1(5 or 17 years of age ; after this, it appears he had a few lessons in composition from Dr. Blow. At 24 he was advanced to the place of organist of the royal chapel. He produced many admirable composi- tions for the church and chapel of which he was organist. He was also early in life solicited to compose for the stage, and chamber, in both which undertak- ings he was greatly superior to all his predecessors. He died in 1695, in the 37th year of his age, and was interred in Westminster-abbey. PURCHAS, S., author of "Collec- tion of Voyages," born 1577, died 1628. PURGATORY, in the Romish church, was partly introduced towards the close of the fifth century, and by Gregory the Great in the si.\'th century ; but it was not positively confirmed till al)OUt 1 140, nor made an article of faith till the council of Trent. PURIFICATION OF the Virgin, festival of, appointed 542. PURITAN, an appellation given in the primitive church to the Novatian schismatics, because they would never admit to communion any one who, from dread of death, had apostatized from the faith. About 1556 it was applied to the nonconformists of Great Britain. See Nonconformists. PURPLE. See Dying. PUTNEY Bridge, budt 1726. PYE, Henry James, poet laureate, died August 11, 1813. PYM, John, lawyer, born 1584, died 1643. PYRAMIDS OF Egypt. According to Herodotus and Diodorus, the first pyramid was erected by Clieops, or Chemmis, a king of Egypt, who em- ployed 360,000 men for 20 years in the structure. Cephren,brother and successor to the former king, is said to have been the founder of the second pyramid ; and the third is said to have been built by Mycerinus, the son of Chemmis, ac- cording to Diodorus, but according to Herodotus, of Cheops. Greaves places the third king who erected those pyra- mids in the twentieth dynasty ; Cheops having begun his reign a. c. 1266. Ce- phren, the builder of the second, reigned 56 years ; and Mycerinus, the builder of the third, seven years. The opening of the first pyramid has been long ago effected ; it is ascribed to the caliph Mohammed, in the ninth century. The second pyramid, or that of Cephrenes, had defied all attempts to enter it, till the enterprise was recently achieved by Belzoni about 1818. PYRENEES, a range of lofty moun- tains, south of Europe, which flivide France from Spain. The passages over them are not so diflScult as those over the Alps ; one of the most frequented is that from Pampeluna to St. Jean de Pied de Port, by which the French, under marshal Soult, marched to attack the British in 1813. PYRRHO, a Greek philosjpher, born atElea in Peloponnesus, about a.c. 300. A great part of his life was spent in solitude ; and he always preserved a settled composure of countenance, un- disturbed by fear, joy, or grief. He died about a.c. 288. PYRRHUS, king of Epirus, began to reign A.c. 295; lost 20,000 men in battle with the Romans, a.c. 280; he was killed by a woman's throwing a tile at him A.c. 272. PYTHAGORAS, a celebrated philo- sopher of antiquity, was the son of a lapidary at Samos, and flourished about AC. 500. He first distinguished him- self in Greece at the Olympic gatnes, where, besides gaining the prize, he is said to have excited the highest admira- tion by the elegance and dignity of his person, and the brilliancy of his un- derstanding. He spent many years in travelling in search of knowledge. He visited Egypt, where he became QUA acquainted with geometry and the solar system ; India, where he acquired a knowledge of the philosophy and litera- ture of the East ; and Crete, where he was initiated into the sacred mysteries of Greece. Having thus added to ^his stores of learning, he returned toSamos, and instituted a school of philosophy. About the beginning of the 59th Olym- piad he passed over into Italy, and at- tempted to establish his school among the colonies of Magna Graecia. His 735 QUA doctrine raised a powerful party against him, which obliged him to retire to Me- tapontum, and take refuge in the temple of the Muses, where he died about a.c. 497. PYTHIAN Games, instituted a. c. 1263; revived 591. They were cele- brated in honour of the conquest of Apollo over Python, a monstrous ser- pent, and were observed at first, every ninth year, but afterwards every fifth : the reward was a laurel wreath. Q. QUADRANT, an optical instrument, used in astronomy, navigation, &c., said to have been in use before the Christian era. Among the more modern improve- ments are the following : — Davis's qua- drant, commonly called the back-staff, invented about 1590, by Captain John Davis, and formerly much used at sea for taking the sun's^altitude and zenith distance. Gunter's quadrant, invented about I6l7, by the Rev. Edmund Gunter, B.D., professor of astronomy at Gresham College. Hadley's quadrant, now universally preferred to any other, for making nautical and other observa- tions, ascribed to John Hadley, Esq., who, having laid down the principles of its construction in a clear and vivid manner, first introduced it to public notice in the Philosophical Transactions for 1731. QUADRUPLE Alliance, the treaty of alliance between Great Britain France, and the Emperor, signed at London, August 2, 1718. This alliance, on the accession of the states of Holland, was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reigning families of Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of the Spanish monarchy. QUAKERS, a peculiar society of Christians, who received this denomina- tion in 1650, from Gervas Bennet, a justice of peace in Derbyshire, partly on account of the exhortation addressed to this magistrate by Fox and his com- panions, who, when they were called before him, desired him with a loud voice and a vehement emotion of body, " to tremble at the word of the Lord." In 1660 the quakers held their first general meeting, for the care of their poor, and other concerns of the society. at Skipton in Yorkshire ; within a few years after which, meetings for discipline were established throughout England and Ireland, which have been continued annually. About the above period the society received a considerable accession of respectability by the conversion of Wilham Penn and Robert Barclay. The quakers, as a body, have been long relieved from actual persecution, though they are still involved by their principles in occasional trouble as indi- viduals. Their aflfirmation was first ac- cepted as an oath 1702 ; they were first admitted to a seat in parliament Feb. 14, 1833 QUALIFICATION for members of parliament, act passed 1711 ; for justices of the peace, act passed 1732. QUARANTINE, a regulation by which all communication with indivi- duals, ships, or goods, arriving from places infected with the plague, or other contagious disease, is interdicted for a certain definite period. The regulations upon this subject were issued for the first time at Venice about 1484 ; they have since been gradually adopted in other countries : their introduction into Eng- land was comparatively late. Various preventive regulations had been previ- ously enacted ; but quarantine was not systematically enforced till after the alarm occasioned by the dreadful plague at Marseilles in 1720. The existing qua- rantine regulations are embodied in the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 78, and the different orders in council issued under its autho- rity. QUARLES, Francis, an English poet, was born in 1592, educated at Cam- bridge, and became a member of Lin- coln's Inn. He obtained the place of RAB 736 RAB cup-bearer to the queen of Bohemia, daughter to James 1. ; and upon his re- turn he was appointed secretary to arch- bishop Usher, in Ireland, from which country he made his escape on the break- ing out of the revolution in 1641, after the loss of his property. He died in 1644, aged 52. QUEBEC, city, British North Ame- rica, capital of Lower Canada. A settle- ment was formed here in 1608 bj the French. Its progress was slow, owing to the liostihty of the Indians. In 1759 Quebec was taken by the English, under the command of the brave General Wolfe, who fell in the engagement; in 1763 it was ceded, with the rest of Canada, to the conqvierors. In 1775 it was attacked by the Americans, under General Mont- gomer)', who ,was slain, and his army re- pulsed. The castle of St. Louis, situated on the summit of the roclc, was burnt down in 1834. QUEEN'S To\VN,Conada,takenbythe troops of the United Slates, Oct. 13, 1812. Re-taken by the British the same day. QUESNE, Abraham Du, admiral of the naval forces of France, and one of the greatest men of the I7th century, was descended from an ancient family in Normandy, and born 1610/ In 1682 he was sent with a fleet to awe the piratical states of Barbary ; and in the following year he sailed to Algiers, and bombarded the town. He struck equal terror in the states of Tripoli and Tunis, which were likewise compelled to jjurchase peace with France by submission. He died in 1688. QUESNOY surrendered to Prince Frederick, of the Netherlands, June 29, 1815. QUEVEDO DeVillegas, Fran- cisco, a celebrated Spanish poet, was born at Madrid in 1570. He composed several treatises on rebgious subjects, and translated some authors into Spa- nish. He died in 1644, aged 74. QUICK, John, the celebrated come- dian, born in 1748. Before he was 18 he performed Hamlet, Romeo, Rich- ard, George Barnwell, Jaffier, Tancred, and many other characters, in the high- est walk of tragedy. In 1798 he quitted the stage, after 36 years of its toils ; and e.xcepting a few nights at the Lyceum,, after the destruction of Covent Garden Theatre, he did not again act. He died April 4, 1831. QUIN, James, a favourite performer on the English stage, was born at Lon- don, in 1693, was admitted into Drury Lane company in 1715. In 1720 he dis- played his comic powers in the character of FalstafF. He continued a performer at Lincoln's Inn Theatre, where he had engaged himself till 1748, when he re- tired to Bath, where he died in 1766. QUINCY, Dr. John, eminent En- glish physician, died 1723. QUINCY, Le Marcq, French engi- neer and military author, died 1720. QUINTILIANUS, Marcus Fa- Bius, a celebrated orator among the Romans, was educated under Domitius Afer, who died a.d. 59. He was ap- pointed preceptor to the young princes whom Domitian destined for his succes- sors on the throne. He died about the year 95. QUIRINI, CARDINAL, the learned traveller, died 1755. QUITO, city. South America, repub- lic Columbia, was erected into a bishop- ric in 1545. Earthquakes are not un- common, and are usually violent ; that of 1775 was very destructive. The great earthquake on Feb. 4, 1797, changed the face of the whole province, and in one instant destroyed 35,000, or 40,000 per- sons. An insurrection took place here, May 1810, which was suppressed, and 39 persons j)unished with death ; among whom were four marquesses and counts, eight ecclesiastics, 14 lawyers, and the president. R. RAAB, city, Hungary, capitulated to the French, June 24, 1S09. RABELAIS, Francis, a celebrated French writer, was born at Chinon in Touraine about 1483. He went to Rome, in quality of physician to Cardi- nal John Du Bellay, archbishop of Paris, where his wit much interested the pope and cardinals. In 1537 he took his doctor's degree in physic at Montpelier. He published several works, but his chief performance is " A History of Gur- RAD 737 RAI gantua and Pantagruel," being asevere satire upon the monks. He died in 1553. RACES, either on foot, on horseback, or in chariots, &c., were among the ancient Grecian games. Horse-races were known in England in very early times. In the days of Henry n.,the citi- zens of London took great delight in the diversion; and in the reign of Queen Elizabeth they were carried to such excess as to injure the fortunes of the nobility. In 1607 there were races near York, and the prize was a little golden bell. Newmarket was also then a place for the same purpose, though it was first used for hunting. Racing was revived soon after the Restoration, and much encouraged by Charles II., who ap- pointed races for his own amusement at Dachet Mead. Newmarket now became the principal place. The king attended in person, and gave a silver bowl or cup, value 100 guineas. Instead of the cup or bowl, the royal gift is now 100 guineas. Races are regulated by 13 Geo. II. c. 19, and 18 Geo. II. c. 34. RACINE, John, one of the most dis- tinguished French poets, was born in 1639. In 1664 he brought upon the stage his first tragedy, entitled "La Thebaide, ou les Freres Ennemis." Be- tween the years 1670 and 1678 he pub- lished several plays. His popularity and reputation excited a very strong party against him : and he underwent much chagrin from the artifices of his enemies. Having drawn up a memorial upon the miseries of the people, it so displeased the king, Louis XIV., that he excluded him from the court ; this so preyed upon his mind, that he fell into a state of me- lancholy, of which he died 1699, aged 60. RADCLIFFE, Dr. John, an eminent physician, was born at Wakefield in Yorkshire, in 1650. He completed his studies at University College, Oxford, and took the degree of master of arts in 1672. In 1675 he proceeded bachelor of medicine, and immediately began to practise at Oxford. He continued there, increasing alike in wealth and reputa- tion, until 1684, when, having previously taken the degree of doctor, he removed to London. In 1687 the princess Anne of Denmark, made him her physician. In 1714 he incurred some censure for his treatment of Queen Mary, who died of the small-pox ; and he soon after lost the favour of the princess Anne. He died at Carshalton, Nov. 1, the same year. Dr. RadclifFe has perpetuated his memory by founding a library, whidh bears his name, at Oxford. This build- ing was finished in 1747, and is a great ornament to the university. From the surplus of the same funds, the trus- tees erected and furnished the public infirmary, Oxford, called "The Rad- clifFe Infirmary." Although his manners and conversation were marked by con- siderable eccentricity. Dr. Radchffe was the most celebrated physician of his time, and was generally considered the most successful practitioner. RADCLIFFE, Mrs. Anne, known and admired by the world as the able authoress of some of the best romances that have ever appeared in the English language, was born in 1761. Her prin- cipal production was the famous " Mys- teries of Udolpho," published in 1793, for which the bookseller gave her £1000. She died Feb. 7, 1823. RADSTADT. See Rastadt. RAGUSA, capital of Dalmatia, was founded in the seventh century, and, after being for some time subject to the Roman and Greek empire, became inde- pendent, and continued so till Buona- parte made Marshal Marmont Duke of RAIKES, Robert, inventor of the Sunday-school system, died 1811, aged 76. See Schools, RAILWAYS, or Railroads. The earliest account of their introduction is about 1670, when they were made use of at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Early in the present century, there were nume- rous railways in Derbyshire, Shropshire, Lancashire, and many other parts of the country. The first railway act which received the sanction of parliament, was in 1801, for the incorporation of the Surrey iron railway company. The application of steam, as a propelling force, as a further improvement, was first brought into full operation in the railway, from Liverpool to Manchester, and from the former place to Birming- ham. About 1822 a number of gentle- men in Liverpool and Manchester en- tered into a subscription for the purpose. The plan was suffered to sleep until the year 1824, when it was renewed with increased activity and spirit, and the railway was opened Sept. 15, 1830. The Liverpool and Birmingham railway was projected at a public meeting held at Birmingham in August, 1824. 5 B RAI 738 RAI 1341. Since the opening of the Liver- pool and Manchester railway, upwards of 1100 miles of railway for the transit of passengers and merchandize, by means of steam power, have been constructed and brought into operation in this coun- try. Nearly the same length is now in progress : the investment of capital in these improvements amounting to £60,000,000. On the chain of railroads connecting London with Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester, and Preston, which, with the branch to Aylesbury, amounts to an aggregate length of 260 miles, the total receipts from about July 1, 1839, to June 30, 1840, were £1,467,562 19*. 8f/.s the expenses during the same period, including interest on bor- rowed money, being £820,893 19*. lOrf., or nearly 56 per cent. This gives an average daily income of £4020 14s. 4^d., or £15 9s. 3zd. per mile. By the recent railway act, 3 and 4 Vic. c. 97, Aug. 10, 1840, two months' notice must be given to the Board of Trade before a railway, or any part of one, can be opened, in or- der that it may be carefully examined. Returns of traffic and other matters are also required by this act, which will en- sure a most important mass of materials for any future account. The principal railways in GreatBritain and Ireland, in which steam power is em- ployed, with the time of the incorporation of the companies, their, length, &c., are as follow : — Liverpool & Man- ' Chester Dundee and New- ' tyle Garnkirk & Glas- ' gow Johnstone & Ar- drossan Clarence ■ Name. Llanelly Kenyon and Leith Y Junction J Warrington and "1 Newton / Newcastle upon \ Tyne& Carlisle/ Wisha w and Colt- Wigan Branch. . ■ Leicester& Swan- nington Leedp and Selbyj St. Helen's andf Runcorn Gap J Preston &Wigan, now N. Union Manchester and \ Bolton J Dublin & Kings- town Bodmin & Wade- bridge Date of Date Length earliest of of Acts. opening. Miles. 1826 &"! 1827 J Sept. "1 1830 J 31 1826 &1 1830 J Dec. \ 1831 / lOi 1826 &■! 1827 / 1831 8J 1827 &"! 1840 J .. 22^ 1828 &\ 1829 / .. 36 1828 &"l 1833 J 1833 26 1829 n 1829 &1 1830 / 1833 4^ 1829&\ 1832 / 1839 61 1829 & I 1834 J .. 13 1830 &■! 1834 J Sept. \ 1832 J 7 1830 &\ 1833 J July 1 1832 / 16 1830 &T 1835 J Sept. \ 1834 J 20 1830 &T 1834 J •• 12 1831 &~1 1834 J Oct. \ 1838 J 15i 1831 &"1 J 832 J May "I 1838 / 10 1831 &"1 1834 / Dec. "1 1834 J 51 1832 &\ 1835 / 1834 12 Power usod. J Locomotive en- \ gines. r Locomotive and X fixed engines J Chiefly locomo- \ tive engines. f Chiefly locomo- \ tive engines, f Chiefly locomo- \ tive engines, f Chiefly locomo- 1 tive engines. / Locomo. en- \ t gines. J /Locomotive en- \ gines. /Locomotive en- \ gines. r Chiefly loco. 1 \ engines. J / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Chiefly locomo- \ tive engines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive and \ fixed engines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. /Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive en- t gines. /Locomotive en- t gines. Remarks. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Coal & passen- gers. Coal, passen- gers, &c. Coal, passen- gers, &c. Coals & other minerals. A single track. Passengers & gen. traffic. Passengers, &c. Minerals. Passengers, &c. Coals, lime, pass., &c. Passengers, &c. For coals, and but few pass. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Minerals, pas- sengers, &c. RA I 739 RAI Name. Hartlepool -j Grand Junction . -! London and Bir- \ mingham .... J London & Green- \ wich / Durham Junction -| Hayle ...» London & South "1 Western J Durham and Sun- \ derland . . London and Croydon Slamannan -| Preston & Wyre V Brandling Junc-\ tion J Paisley and Ren- \ frew J Great Western. . Dundee and Ar- broath '.} Ulster Arbroath & For. far Birmingham and \ Derby Junct. . / Bristol and Exe- \ ter J Aylesbury Date of earliest Acts. Deptford Pier "1 Junction .... j South Eastern. . -j Newcastle-on.Tyne "I & NorthShields J Cheltenhem and\ Gt.Westr.Un.J Midland Coun- "I ties J Hull and Selby.' York and North "1 Midland...... / TafFVale / 1832 &"1 1834 J 1833 &1 1834 j 1833 &1 1835 J 1833 &"1 1837 J 1834 &\ 1837 J 1834 &\ 1836 J 1834 &\ 1837 J 1834 &■! 1837 J 1835 &\ 1836 J 1835 &\ 1837 J 1835 &1 1837 J 1835 &\ 1836 / 1835 { 1835 1836 { 1836 { 1836&\ 1840 J 1836 &1 1838 J 1836 &1 1838 J 1836 I 1836 &i 1839 J 1836 & 'I 1837 J 1836 &1 1840 j 1836 & "I 1838 J 1836 &1 1838 J 1836 I 1836 & "I 1837 J 1836 & 1837 Date of opening. 1836 July\ 1837/ Sept. \ 1838 J Dec. 1 1838 J Aug.-l 1838 J May \ 1840/ 1836 June\ 1839 J 1840 July! 1840/ Sept. \ 1839 J Apl. 1 1837/ Apl. 1 1840/ Aug.\ 1839/ Jan. "1 1839/ Aug.! 1839/ June 1 1839 J Not yet made In pro- L gress. / June"! 1839/ In pro- L gress. j June"l 1840 J July -[ 1840/ June") 1840/ Oct. \ 1840/ Length of Miles. 15 82i 112 3J 12 76f 16 8j I2i 15i 3i 117^ 16J 36 15j 48i 754 7 783 yards 66 61 43i 57 30j 23A 24i Power used. r Locomotive en- 1 gines. J Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. {Locomotive en- gines. / Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- 1 gines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. Fixed engines. / Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- l gines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive en- l gines. / Locomotive en- l gines. / Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- i. gines. r Locomotive en- l gines. r Locomotive en- l gines. / Locomotive en- 1 gines, r Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- l gines. / Locomotive en- 1 gines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- l gines. / Locomotive en- l gines, / Locomotive en- l gines, /Locomotive en- l gines. / Locomotive en- L gines. Remarks. Chiefly for coals. Passengers, &c. - Passengers, &c. Chiefly for passengers. Chiefly for coals. Chiefly for mi- nerals. Passengers, &c. Chiefly coal. Passengers & gen. traffic. Chiefly mi- nerals. Passengers, &c. Passengers, coal, &c. Pass, to steam boats, &c. Passengers & traffic. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Minerals, pas- sengers, &c. RAI Uo RAI Name. Date of earliest Acts. Norfhern &East- \ em / London Grand \ Junction .... J Great North En- \ gland / Eastern Counties -j North Midland.,./ Thames Haven... Sheffield & Ro-\ therham j Manchester and \ Leeds J Dublin and Dro-\ gheda j ISheffield & Man- ^ Chester ...... J Lancaster and "I I Preston Junct. J Chester & Crewe < Manchester and "f Birmingham. . J Gt. North of Eng. Clarence, and Hartlepooljun. Maryport& Car- lisle Great Leinster & ' Munster .... Chester & Birk-" enhead Cork & Passage Glasgow, Paisley, \ & Greenock . . J Glasgow,Paisley, Kilmarnock & Ayr London & Brigh- "1 ton J Bolton & Preston -I Bishop Auckland "[ and Weardale. / Taw Vale (and\ Dock) J Edinburgh and 1 Glasgow .... J Gosport Branch Bristol and Glou- "1 cester J West Durham, . 1836 &- 1839 J 1836 ■\ 1836 &" 1837 . 1836 &' 1838 ^ 1836 &' 1837 . 1836 - 1836 &■ 1840 1836 &" 1837 . 1836 &" 1837 . 1837 1837 &' 1840 1837 &■ 1840 1837 &■ 1839 . 1837 1837 ■ 1837 1837 &' 1840 1837 1837 &' 1840 1837 & 1840 1837 1837& 1838 1837 { 1838 -f Date of opening. 0-1 5. j- Sept. "I 1840 J Not \ made_ J In pro" \ gress. j July "1 1840/ July \ 1840 J Not \ made, j Oct. \ 1838 J Oct. \ 1840 J In pro- gress In pro- \ gress. j June \ 1840 J Oct. \ 1840 J June\ 1840 J July 1 1840 J Sept. 1 1840/ Sept. 1 1840/ Aug. I 1840 J May 1 1840 / Length 1 of Miles. Power used. 1838 1840 1839 1839 1839 In pro gress In pro gress In pro gress In pro gress. fn pro- \ '• / gress In pro June"! 1840/ 30 2i 76 126 72h 15i 5i 50j 32 40 20j 20^ 38i 7J 28 7H 14§ 22# 40 414 14* 2^ 46 151 22 / Locomotive en- 1 gines. / Locomotive en- 1. gines. / Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- 1. gines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- 1 gines. " / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- l gines / Locomotive en- l gines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- L gines. / Locomotive en- 1 gines. i/ Locomotive en- 1 gines. / Locomotive en- 1 gines / Locomotive en- l gines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive en- 1. gines. / Locomotive en- l gines. / Locomotive en- \ gines. / Locomotive en- l gines. / Locomotive en- l. gines. Remarks. Passengers &| gen. traffic Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c Passengers, &c. Passengers &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Passengers, &c. Chiefly mine- rals. RAL 741 RAP RAINBOW, the theory of, given by De Dominis, 1611. Des Cartes (in 1637) was the first who applied the ma- thematics to the investigation of this phenomenon, or who gave a tolerably correct theory of it; bnt philosophers remained ignorant of the causes of the diflferent colours of the rainbow, till Sir Isaac Newton, about 1689, gave the so- lution of this problem. RAINE, Matthew, D.D., master of the Charter-house school, born 1760, and died in 1810. RALEIGH, Sir Walter, a distin- guished officer and courtier of the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., was born in 1552. In 1580 he obtained a captain's commission, and under the command of the earl of Ormond, governor of Mun- ster, he surprised the Irish Kerns at Rakele, and made them prisoners. On his return to England he was quickly introduced to the queen's notice, and by his own merits obtained a large share in her favour. He fitted out two vessels, which sailed for America in 1584, and took possession of an island near the mouth of the Albemarle river, in what is now called North Carolina. He after- wards planted a new colony in Virginia. In 1589 the queen showed her conti- nued approbation of his services by making him gentleman of her privy chamber, and augmenting the profits of his other places. From this period to 1594 he was continually engaged in pro- jecting new expeditions, sending suc- cours to the colonies abroad, and trans- acting parliamentary business with equal ability and resolution. When James I. came to the crown. Sir Walter Raleigh fell into disgrace. A conspiracy was formed for placing upon the throne Lady Arabella Stuart, in which Raleigh par- ticipated ; for this he was apprehended, and brought to trial on a charge of high treason. After 12 years' confinement, he obtained his liberation, and employed all his resources in fitting out an expe- dition for Guiana, with 12 armed ves- sels, m July, 1617. This expedition proved entirely unsuccessful, and King James having assured the Spanish court that he had forbidden Raleigh to commit any act of hostility, this brave officer was sacrificed to the resentment of the Spanish monarch. In July, I6l8, Sir Walter arrived at Plymouth, but on his journey to London he was arrested, car- ried back to Plymouth, and after a mock trial executed, Oct. 29 following. RALPH, James, English historian and poet, died 1762, RAMEAU, J. P., musical composer, born 1683, died 1767. RAMSAY, Andrevp Micha^el, ge- nerally known as the Chevalier Ramsay, was a Scotch writer, born in 1686. He was sent to Rome by the Pretender, to undertake the education of his children, in 1724. He died in 1743. RAMSAY, Allan, the author of the " Gentle Shepherd," died 1743. RAMSDEN, a celebrated mathema- tical and astronomical instrument maker, was born at Salterhebble, near Halifax in Yorkshire, in 1735. He was the originator of many important inventions, which led his friends to propose him as a member of the Royal Society, and he was elected in 1786. He died Nov. 5, 1800, in his 66th year. RAMSGATE, seaport, Kent, belong- ing to the cinque ports, has risen to im- portance in modern times. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth it contained but 25 houses, and it continued to be an obscure fishing village till the latter part of the I7th century. In 1750 the con- struction of the harbour was commenced. The pier, built of Purbeck and Portland stone, and of Cornish granite, is one of the most magnificent structures of the kind in the kingdom. The harbour was made a royal port in honour of the visit of his late majesty, George IV., in 1821. RAMUS, Peter, French writer, born 1515, died 1573. RANDOLPH, Thomas, English historian, born 1605, died 1634. RANGOON, city and seaport, Bur- mese empire- In May, 1824, it was captured by the British, who, however, delivered it over to the Burmese autho- rities two years afterwards. RAPHAEL, or Raffael, Sanzio, the greatest and most celebrated painter of modern times, was born at Urbino in 1483. In 1508 he was summoned to Rome by Julius II., and immediately employed in the decoration of the Va- tican, where the series of apartments, ennobled by his pencil, are still called by his name ; among these are the School of Theology, the School of Athens, the Parnassus, painted in 1512, &c. He was employed by LeoX. to make the Cartoons (now at Hampton Court,) as exemplars RAT 742 RAY for works in tapestry, to be executed in Flanders ; these were completed at the expense of 70,000 crowns. He died on Good Friday, 1520, aged 37- RAPIN De Thoyras, Paul, the well known historian of England, was born at Castres in Languedoc in 1661. He followed the prince of Orange into England in 1688 ; was present at the battle of the Boyne, and wounded at the siege of Limerick. He died in 1725. His " History of England" was origi- nally written in French ; it was printed at the Hague in 1726, and reprinted at Trevoux in 1728. RAROTONGA, island. South Pacific Ocean, the most important of the group called the Hervey Islands, discovered by Mr. Williams the missionary, in 1823. He resided some time on the island, and was the means of effecting the most sudden and beneficial change ever pro- duced in the annals of discovery. Ra- rotonga was again visited by Mr. Wil- liams in 1827. The missionaries after- wards introduced a code of laws into these islands. In 1832 Mr. Williams landed a cargo, consisting of several barrels of flour, together with horses, asses, and cattle. RASK, Erasmus, a learned Danish philologist and grammarian, author of an Icelandic grammar and lexicons, an Anglo-Saxon grammar, &c. In 1822 he was master of no less than 25 lan- guages and dialects. He died in 1833. RASTADT,orRADSTADT,town, duchy of Baden. In the campaign of 1796 the French here obtained an advantage over the Austrians. March 6, 1714, peace of Rastadt between France and the em- peror. On Dec. 9, 1797, congress of Rastadt commenced its labours to treat concerning a general peace with the Germanic powers. RATHCORMACK, Ireland, a san- guinary tithe affray took place here, Dec. 18, 1834. A number of persons assembled, and attempted to obstruct the magistrates, and the civil and military force which accompanied them. The riot act was then read. The troops were assailed by volleys of stones, the magis- trates ordered the troops to fire, and many of the mob were wounded and several killed. RATISBON, city, Bavaria, formerly known as the place of meeting for the diet of the empire. On Oct. 30, I630, the peace of Ratisbon between France and the emperor, terminated the war for the Mantuan succession. Ratisbon was long the see of an archbishop, but in 1817 was reduced to a bishopric. In April, 1809, this vicinity was the scene of ob- stinate contests between the French and A II of I*! an Q RAVENNA, States of the Church, was made a Roman colony by Augustus. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, hav- ing, in the latter part of the fifth century, made himself master of Italy, fixed the seat of his empire here, and erected several public buildings. In the reign of Justinian the Goths in Italy were van- quished by the talents of Behsarius and Narses Longinus. The successor of the latter took the title of exarch, but the exarchate was brought to a close in the eighth century, when Pepin, father of Charlemagne, took Ravenna and made it over to the see of Rome. RAVITZ, Prussian Poland, was erected by fugitives from Germany, during the thirty years' war. Charles XII. quar- tered here in the winter of 1704. In 1802 the greater part of the town was burnt by an accidental fire. RAY, Rev. John, the most cele- brated naturalist of his age, was born at Black Notly in Essex, in 1628. In I66O he published his " Catalogus Planta- rum," &c. ; and in the following year he accompanied Mr. Willoughby, and others, in search of plants and natural curiosities, into the north of England and Scotland. In 1663 he set out with his friend Willoughby on a tour to the continent. An account of their observa- tions was pubUshed by Ray a few years afterwards. It had been mutually agreed between them, before they began their travels, that they should endeavour to reduce the various tribes of things to some method of classification. Wil- loughby undertook the animals, and Ray the vegetables; but the untimely death of the former, left his plans to be completed by the latter. He applied his system to practical use in a general "Historia Plantarum," of which the first volume was published in 1686, and the second in 1687- The third volume came out in 1704. The work, however, which proved the great corner-stone of his reputation in this department of science, was the " Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum." After pub- lishing many other valuable works on REA 743 REF natural history, he died Jan. 17, 1705, in his 77th year. RAYNAL, ABBE',author of the "His- tory of the East and West Indiesj" died March, 1796, aged 84. RE', small island, off the west coast of France. In 1388 it was ravaged by the EngUsh. An attempt was made on it by an army under Villiers, duke of Buckingham (1627,) but the resistance was so vigorous that the British troops were obliged to re-embark. READING, market town, Berks, is not mentioned in history till the 9th century, when it was taken by the Danes. Elfrida founded a nunnery here, which was burnt with the town in 1006, by order of Sweyn, king of Denmark, in revenge for the massacre of his coun- trymen. The town was soon rebuilt, and, in 1121, Henry I. erected a noble mo- nastery for Benedictine monks. Stephen built a castle here, but it was demolished by order of Henry II. In 1213 a council was held here before the papal legate Pandulphus, in order to effect a recon- ciliation between King John and the prelates and nobles who opposed his tyranny. A grand national council was also held at Reading in 1385, and par- liament sat here in 1439, 1452, 1453, and 1467 ; on the last occasion it was removed from Westminster on account of the plague. In the reign of Henry VIIL Reading suffered much from the suppression of its rich and splendid mo- nastery. A considerable part of the conventual buildings (which originally covered a space of nearly half a mile in circumference,) was standing till the civil war under Charles I., when Reading was occupied as a garrison by the royalists and parliamentarians, and the abbey almost reduced to a heap of ruins. REALISTS, a sect of school philoso. phers formed in opposition to the nomi- nalists. See Nominalists. REAUMUR, Rene-Antoinb Fer- CHAULT, a celebrated French philoso- pher and naturalist, was born at Rochelle in 1683. In 1703 he went to Paris, and so distinguished himself in a few years, that in 1708 he was admitted into the academy of sciences. His experiments on the art of turning iron into steel ob- tained him a pension of 12,000 livres. In 1722 he published a work which con- tained a minute and scientific account of the processes employed in that branch of manufacture. He rendered his name celebrated by his peculiar method of graduation on the thermometer, which is still the only one used in France, and many parts of the continent. But he acquired his greatest fame as an ento- mologist. Besides a number of curious papers on this subject in the meinoirs of the academy, he published a very elabo- rate work,entitled "Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire Naturelle des Insectes," in six volumes 4to., 1734 — 1742. He died October 18, 1757, in his 76th year. RECULVER Abbey, Kent, built 669. RED-EAGLE, in Prussia, military order revived 1792. RED Sea, called by the ancients the Arabian Gulf, a sea much celebrated in sacred history. It extends about 1470 miles from the straits of Babelmandel to Suez. It terminates in two branches, the western being extensive, and the eastern ascending a little beyond the parallel of Mount Sinai. The passage of the Israelites took place, according to Niebukr,a fewmilesfromSuez, A.c. 1 491. The western channel was chosen in the days of the Ptolemies for the track of the Indian and African commerce. These monarchs erected a great number of cities along the western coast. The Red Sea was for many ages the channel of communication between Egypt and other countries bordering on the Mediterranean and India ; but after the passage to In- dia by the Cape of Good Hope was dis- covered by Vasco de Gama at the close of the 15th century, its commerce de- cayed. Early in the l6th century the Portuguese became possessed of a mo- nopoly of the trade with India, and the Red Sea lost its importance as a channel of communication between the western and eastern parts of the globe. REDES DALE, Lord, formerly speaker of the house of commons, and afterwards lord chancellor of Ireland, died January 16, 1830, aged 88. REECE, Dr. Richard, author of the "Domestic Medical Guide," died 1831, REES, Dr., editor of the " New Cy- clopaedia," died 1825, aged 84. REEVE, Clara, author of "The Old English Baron," &c., died January 1808, aged 70. REEVES, John, author of the " His- tory of the Common Law," died 1812, aged 11. REFORM Act, Parliamentary. See Parliament. This statute, 2d William IV. c. 45, 7th June, 1832, after REF 744 REF reciting that it is expedient to take effec- tual measures for correcting divers abuses that have long prevailed in the choice of members of parliament, &c., disfranchises certain boroughs in the schedule A, Boroughs in schedule B to return one member only. Boroughs in schedule C to return two members, and to include the places respectively com- prehended within their boundaries. Bo- roughs in schedule D to return one member. Places in schedule E to share with other places mentioned in conjunc- tion therewith, &c. The Reform Act for Scotland, 2 and 3 William IV. c. 65, I7th July, 1832, en- acts that there shall be 53 representatives for Scotland, of whom 30 shall be for several or conjoined shires or steward- ries, and 23 for cities, burghs, and towns, or districts of cities, burghs, and towns, hereinafter enumerated, &c. The Reform Act for Ireland, 2 and 3 Wilham IV. c. 88, 7th August 1832, confers the right of voting in counties at large on leaseholders with other provi- sions applying the principles of the English act. REFORM, Municipal. See Cor- porations. REFORMATION. Waldus, in the 12th century, Wickliffe, in the 14th, and Huss, in the 15 th, inveighed against the errors of popery with great boldness; but all their attempts proved abortive. The reformation of religion, called, by way of eminence, the Reformation, was begun by the elector of Saxony, at the solicitation of Luther, about the begin- ning of the l6th century: the rise of it in Switzerland was at least as early as in Germany ; for Ulric Zuiugle had, in 1516, begun to explain the scriptures to the people, and to censure, though with great prudence and moderation, the er- rors of a corrupt church. In 1524 Nu- remberg, Frankfort, Hamburgh, and se- veral other cities in Germany of the first rank, openly embraced the reformed religion, and by the authority of their magistrates abolished the mass and other superstitious rites of popery. The progress of the reformation in Germany was also promoted by the proceedings of the diet held at Spire in 1526 and 1529. At the diet held in 1530, the Augsburg, or Augustine confession, was presented to the emperor Charles V., and rejected by him. After various negotiations be- tween the emperor and the protestant princes, terms of pacification were agreed upon at Nuremberg in 1532, and ra- tified afterwards solemnly in the diet of Ratisbon. In this treaty it was stipu- lated that universal peace be established in Germany until the meeting of a ge- neral council. After many evasions and delays, it was proposed to assemble a council at Trent, which met in 1546. The fathers assembled promulgated their decrees, and the protestant princes in the diet of Ratisbon again protested against their authority. See Protest- ants. This produced thewarofSmalcald, which was prosecuted with various suc- cess on both sides till 1552,when Charles was constrained to conclude at Passau the famous treaty of pacification with the protestants, which is considered by those of Germany as the basis of their reli- gious liberty. The reformation in England com- menced about 1533, when Henry VIII., having sued in vain for a divorce from Catherine of Arragon, his brother's vddow, at the court of Rome, determined to apply to another tribunal ; and Cran- mer, by a sentence founded on the au- thority of universities, doctors, and rabbles, annulled the king's marriage with Catherine. This circumstance pro- duced a rupture with the pope, the effect of which was that the reformation made great progress during this and the fol- lowing reigns, and the Scriptures were translated. See England, page 444 — 447. It had not been long estabhshed in Britain, when the Belgic provinces withdrew from their spiritual allegiance to the Roman pontiff; the nobility formed themselves into an association ; and in 1566 roused the people, who, under the heroic conduct of William of Nassau, prince of Orange, seconded by the suc- cours of England and France, delivered this state from the Spanish yoke : in consequence of which the reformed re- ligion, as it was professed in Switzerland, was established in the United Provinces. 1835. Oct. 4. This day, happening to fall on a Sunday, was pretty generally celebrated over this country in the dif- ferent churches and chapels, as a cente- nary of the Reformation, the printing of the first English Bible (that of Bishop Coverdale) having, as appears from the Colophon, been finished on Oct. 4, 1535. REFUGE FOR THE Destitute, Hackney, commenced 1806. There are two establishments ; that for the males REG 745 regt is near'Hoxton-square. The female estab- lishment is in Middlesex-house, Hackney Road. The concerns of the institution are conducted by a committee, consist- ing of the president, vice-president, trea- surer, and 30 governors, chosen annually, who meet twice a week. REGENT'S Street, London, com- menced building 1815. REGENT'S Canal, from Padding- ton to Limehouse, opened Aug. 1, 1820. REGGIO, town, Italy, capital of a duchy of the same name, was the birth- place of the poet Ariosto. Buonaparte made Marshal Oudinot duke of Reggio. It suffered dreadfully in the earthquake which took place in Calabria, March, 1832 REGIMONTANUS, JohnMuller, astronomer and mathematician, poisoned at Rome, 14/6. REGISTER, Registration. Parish registers were first enjoined to be kept on the dissolution of the monasteries. But this did not become a national mea- sure in England till 1538. The 12th article of Cromwell's injunctions to the clergy that year directs that every cler- gyman shall, for every church, keep a book, wherein he shall register every marriage, christening, and burial; and the injunction directs the manner and time of making the entries in the register book weekly — any neglect being made penal. This measure created great ex- citement. It was surmised that the registry was preliminary to a new levy of taxes. In the first year of Edward VI. (1547.) all episcopal authority was suspended for a time, while the ecclesi- astical visitors then appointed went through the several dioceses to enforce different injunctions, and, among others, that respecting the keeping of parish registers, issued by Cromwell nine years previously. One of the canons of the convocation of Canterbury in 1603 (which were confirmed by James I., but never received the sanction of parlia- ment) prescribes minutely in what man- ner entries were to be made in the parish registers. An act was passed in 1694, having for its object a general registration of births, marriages, and deaths, 6 and 7 Will. III. c. 6, entitled "An act for granting to his majesty certain rates and duties upon marriages, births, and burials, and upon bachelors and widowers, for the term of five years, for carrying on the war against France with vigour." A supplementary act was passed (the 9th Will. III. c. 32) entitled " An act for preventing frauds and abuses in the charging, collecting, and paying the duties upon marriages, births, burials, and widowers." Considerable excite- ment prevailed in 1753, respecting a registration bill which had been intro- duced into the house of commons> but was rejected by the lords. The 52 Geo. III. c. 146, made some alterations of the law respecting parish registers. This act, which received the royal assent on July 28, 1812, directed that the registers of parishes, and of chapelries should be kept in books of parchment, or of good and durable paper, on which should be printed the heads of information required to be entered ; and that the register- book should be kept in a dry, well painted iron chest, in the residence of the officiating minister, or in the parish church or chapel. The reason of this law will appear from the fact, that one half of the registers anterior to a.d. 1600 have disappeared. Partial attempts at registration were made by the registry of births kept by the Dissenters at Dr. Williams's Library, Red-cross street, Cripplegate, &c. ; but the defect in regard to national registra- tion began to be felt when the question in relation to the law of marriage was agitated about 1824. This led to the recent registration act, 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 86, Aug. 17, 1836. This statute re- citing that it is expedient to provide the means for a complete register of the births, deaths, and marriages of his majesty's subjects in England, repeals so much of recited acts as relates to the registration of marriages, and appoints a general registry office to be provided in London or Westminster, and that an annual abstract of registers is to be laid before parliament. To each district a registrar of births and deaths has been appointed, also a registrar of marriages, and in each union there is a superin- tendent registrar. By the first Annual Report for 1839, the total number of registrars of births and deaths at the end of September, 1838, was 2193. The number of places of religious worship not belonging to the church of England, and registered under the Marriage Act, was 1332, on Dec. 31, 1838. In the fii'st year under the new system ending July, 1838, there were 5 c REG registered in England and Wales, births, 399,712; deaths, 335,956; marriages, 111,814. The probable number of deaths registered would have been about 29 1,715, while the number of deaths registered under the new system exceeded this number by 44,241. By the second Annual Report for 1840, the numbers registered for the first and second years, ending respec- tively June 30, 1838 and 1839 were as follows : — Births... Marriages Deaths. . . 1838. 399,712 111,814 335,956 1839. 480,540 121,083 331,007 80,828 incr. 9,602 incr. 4,949 deer. The decrease of registered deaths in the second yearis to be ascribed to dimi- nished mortality, the mortality of the year ending June, 1838, having exceeded that of average years. 1841. Deaths at different ages in Eng- land and Wales, out of 1000 registered deaths, abstracted from various tables in the last Report : — Ages. 1 Males. Fe- males. Mean. Under ] ^ y^ear 239"3 197-8 218-5 1 and under 3 1239 126-7 125-3 3 — 5 50-5 527 51-6 5 — 10 47*4 47-8 47-6 10 — 15 25-9 28-7 27-3 15 — 20 32-1 38-8 35-5 20 — 25 39-5 43-9 41-7 25 — 30 35-8 40-3 380 30 — 35 321 36-5 34-3 35 — 40 321 35-0 33-6 40 — 45 31-1 32-2 31-6 45 — 50 32-5 300 31-3 50 — 55 31-8 30-4 31-1 55 — 60 32-9 30-8 31-8 60 — 65 40-5 38 9 39-7 65 — 70 410 40-7 40-9 70 — 75 41-2 44-4 42-8 75 — 80 396 42-3 40-9 80 — 85 28-8 32-6 30-7 85 — 90 • 16-2 20-1 18-2 90 & up vards 5-8 9-4 7-6 REGISTRY, in commercial naviga- tion, the registration or enrolment of ships at the Custom-house, so as to entitle them to be classed among, and to enjoy the privileges of, British built ships. The registry of ships was first introduced into this country by the Navigation Act (12 Car. 2 U6 REM spect to it by 7 and 8 Will. 3. c. 22 ; and the whole was reduced into a system by the 27 Geo. III. c. 19- The existing regulations, as to the registry of ships, are embodied in the act 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 55, commencing from Sept. 1, 1833. Under this statute no vessel is entitled to any of the privileges or advantages of a British registered ship, unless the person or persons claiming property therein shall have caused the same to have been registered in virtue of the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 110, or of the act 4 Geo. IV. c. 41, or until such person or persons shall have caused the same to be registered according to the provisions of the statute. REGNIER, Mathhrin, French writer, born 1573, died 1613. REGULUS, M. Attilius, a cele- brated Roman general. During the first Punic war he was elected consul, a.c. 256. He was taken prisoner and put to death about a.c. 251. REICHSTADT, Due De, son of Na- poleon and of the Archduchess Maria Louisa, of Austria, born at Paris, March 20, 1811, died at the palace of Schoen- brunn, near Vienna, July 22, 1832. REID, Dr. Thomas, author of the " Inquiry into the Human Mind," &c., died 1796, aged 87. RELICS, the remains of the bodies or clothes of saints or martyrs. The super- stitious regard for relics originated in a very ancient custom that prevailed among christians, of assembling at the cemeteries or burying-places of the mar- tyrs, for the purpose of commemorating them, and of performing divine worship. The rage for procuring relics became so excessive in 386, that the emperor Theo- dosius the Great was obliged to pass a law forbidding the people to dig up the bodies of the martyrs, and to traffic in their relics. RELIGIOUS Houses. See Mo- nasteries. REMBRANDT, Van Rhin, a dis- tinguished Flemish painter and engraver, was born at a village near Leyden, in 1606. Without study, and almost with- out assistance from masters, he formed rules for a certain practical method of colouring, by which his style will always be distinguished from that of any other painter. He died in 1674. REMONSTRANTS, a title given to the Arminians in consequence of the re- c. 18. 1660.) Several provisions were made with re- monstrance made by them in l6lO to the REN 747 REV states of Holland, against the sentence of the synod of Dort, which pronounced them to be heretics^ RENCHEN, town, duchy of Baden, gives name to the Rencherloch, a pass which the imperial general, Montecu- culi, maintained against Turenne in 1675. In 1796 Moreau here obtained an advantage over the Austrians, which opened his passage into Suabia. RENI, orRHENi, GuiDO. SeeGuiDO. RENNELL, John, member of the Royal Institute of France, of the Impe- rial Academy of St. Petersburgh, of the Royal Society of Gottingen, and sur- veyor-general of Bengal, was born at Chudleigh, in Devonshire. At the age of 24 he was sent upon active service to India, as an officer of engineers. There he distinguished himself greatly, was favourably noticed by the government, and speedily promoted to a majority. His maps and charts have rendered great service to geography. In 1798 he gave his aid to Mr, Park, in the arrange- ment of his " African Travels." His greatest work was his " Geographical System of Herodotus," 1800. He died March 29, 1830, aged 88. RENNIE, John, engineer, of Ply- mouth Breakwater, Waterloo-bridge, BeUrock Lighthouse, &c., born 1760, died 1821. RENSSELAER, Major-General Stephen Van, distinguished for his wealth, his munificent charities, and ex- emplary and christian virtues, both in pubhc and private hfe. He was born in the city of New York, in Nov. 1764, and was graduated at the University of Cam- bridge, Massachusetts, in 1782; was elected a member of the New York se- nate in 1795 : he was six years lieutenant- goveribr of Yew- York ; a member of congress from 1822 to 1829; was ap- pointed in 1810, one of the canal com- missioners ; and for the last 14 years of his life was president of the board. During the last war with England, he commanded with reputation as major- general in the Niagara frontier. He died Jan. 26, 1839, in his 75th year. REVEL, town, European Russia, was founded by the Danes in 1218, conquered afterwards by the Swedes, and taken from the latter by the Russians in"l7lO. REVENUE of England, from the Conquest to the reign of George III : — William the Conqueror £400,000 William Rufus 350,000 Henry 1 300,000 Stephen 250,000 Henry II 200,000 Richard 1 150,000 John 100,000 Henry III 80,000 Edward 1 150,090 Edward II 100,000 Henry IV 100,643 Henry V 76,000 Henry VI 64,966 Edward IV Edward V 100,000 Richard III Henry VII 400,009 Henry VIII 800,000 Edward VI 400,000 Mary 450,000 EUzabeth 500,000 James 1 600,000 Charles 1 895,819 Commonwealth 1,517,247 Charles II 1,800,000 James II 2,001,855 William III 3,895,205 Anne (at the Union) ..... 5,691,803 George I. (including Scot- land) 6,762,643 George II. (including Scot- land) 8,522,540 George III. 1788, (including* Scotland) 15,572,971 Revenue of the United Kingdom, for the Years ending January 1840 and 1841. Customs and excise 1840. 1841. £31,792,465 6,574,461 3,711,794 1,519,000 160,000 86,610 £32,328,902 6,735,902 3,946,444 44 1,000 167,500 78,116 Stamps Assessed and land taxes Post office Crown lands Other ordinary revenues and resources Total Income £43,844,330 43,697,864 See Civil List, Funds, and National Debt. REY 748 RHI REVOLUTIONS, Remarkable, in history. A.c. 546. The Assyrian empire de- stroyed, and that of the Medes and Per- sians founded by Cyrus the Great. A.c. 331. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Per- sian, on the defeat of Darius Codoraanus, by Alexander the Great. A.c. 47. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian or Greek monarchy, by Julius Caesar. A.D. 306. The eastern empire founded by Constantine the Great, on the final overthrow of the Romans. 302. The empire of the western Franks began under Charlemagne. This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire, under Ro- dolph of Hapsburg, the head of the house of Austria, 1273, from whom it is also called the monarchy of the Aus- trians. 1300. The eastern empire passed into the hands of the Turks. 1668. Revolution in England on the accession of William III. 1704, 1709, and 1795. Revolution in Poland. 1730, and 1808. Revolutions in Turkey. 1748 and 1753. Revolutions in Persia. 1682, 1740, and 1762. Revolutions in Russia. 1772 and I8O9. Revolutions in Sweden. 1775- Revolution in America; revolt of the colonies. 1789. Revolution in Francfe, com- menced by the destruction of the Bas- tile. 1795. Revolution in Holland. 1797, May 17, Revolution in Venice. 1797, Feb. 26. Revolution at Rome. 1810, April 19- Revolution in South America ; revolt of the Spanish colonies. 1830. Second revolution in France. 1830. Revolution in Brussels. 1830, Sept. Revolution at Warsaw. 1831, April. Revolution in Brazil. 1836. Revolution at Lisbon, when the constitution of 1820 was proclaimed, Sept. 9: counter revolution attempted Nov. 8. 1836. Revolution throughout Spain, when the constitution of 1812 was pro- claimed. REYNOLDS, Sir Joshua, one of the most celebrated Britisli painters, was born at Plympton, Devonshire, in 1723. In Oct. 1741 he first visited the capital. and was placed with Mr. Hudson, the most renowned portrait painter of that time. He accompanied captain (after- wards Lord) Keppel, into Italy, in 1749, to visit the schools of the great masters. On his return he painted a portrait of Lord Edgecumbe, which introduced him to the first business in portrait painting, and he soon became the favourite pain- ter in England. Upon the foundation of the Royal Academy of painting, sculp- ture, and architecture, Reynolds was appointed president. His majesty also conferred on him the honour of knight- hood, and he delivered his first discourse at the opening of the academy, on Jan. 2, 1769. In the course of 21 years, viz. from 1769 to 1790, inclusive, he com- posed 15 discourses, replete with the soundest principles and the most useful information concerning the art he prac- tised, that ever have been given to the world. The last eflFort of his pencil was the portrait of Charles James Fox, which was executed in his best style. In Oct. 1791, his spirits began to fail him, and he died at his house Leicester- square, Feb. 23, 1792, aged 69. A just and pleasing tribute was made to his me- mory in 1813, by a public exhibition of a selection of his works at the gallery of the British Institution, Pall-Mall. RHEES, the last king of South Wales, killed 1094. RHEIMS, one -of the most ancient and celebrated cities of France, in the department of the Marne, seated on the Vesle. Before the revolution it was the see of an archbishop, who was the first duke and peer of France, and always crowned the king. The University of Rheims was founded in 1547, and in the following year, authorized by theparlia- ment of Paris. This city was ta^^ and re-taken several times by the French and allied armies in 1814. RHINE, river of Germany, celebrated both in ancient and modern history. Caesar is the most ancient author who has traced the course of this river from its source in the Alps to its discharge into the sea. By the treaty of Paris in 1814, the Rhine is to remain as the boundary of France and Germany, and the main stream of this river constitutes the fron- tier. It is by the Rhine that the timber of Suabia is conveyed to Belgium. The passage boats up and down the Rhine also afford commodious conveyances. In 1820 a steam navigation was intro- SEM, JJO^IHlilJik MIE¥M(D)ILID)< Eondfln.PiMahea."b-v T Jiom as Zeibr.'iZ^EstEmostsrJ&cm • '\ RIC 749 RIC. duced ; and a canal has recently been projected for uniting the Rhine with the Danube, passing through the Black Fo- rest. See Danube. RHINE, Confederation of the. See Confederation. RHODE Island, one of the states of North America. Its settlement was com- menced at Providence in 1636, by Roger WiUiams; and in 1638 the settlement of the island from which the state is named was begun by Williams, Coddington, and others. In 1764 a charter was ob- tained from England, by which the set- tlements of Rhode Island and Providence Plantation were united under one go- vernment, which continued in force till 1663, when a new charter was granted by Charles II., which has ever since formed the basis of the government. Rhode Island was taken from tRe Ame- ricans by the British forces, Dec. 6,1776. RHODES, island of Asiatic Tur- key, was anciently a celebrated state of Greece, distinguished by its commerce and naval power ; though it was not till after the death of Alexander that Rhodes appeared in its full glory. Demetrius undertook the siege of Rhodes, but was obhged to raise it after a year's perse- verance, A.c. 303. The celebrated Co- lossus of Rhodes was reckoned one of the seven wonders of the world, but was overthrown by an earthquake, A.c. 224. See Colossus. In the time of Cicero and Caesar the schools of Rhodes were among the most frquented by those who aspired to scientific distinction. Rhodes was among the last states which yielded to the Roman arms, and is not heard of in history till the downfall of the eastern empire, when the island became one of the last retreats of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem. This little band of heroes rendered it illustrious by their resistance to the Ottoman emperors; they were subdued by Solyman the Great, after one of the most memorable sieges recorded in history. The city of Rhodes was taken by the Turks, 1521, when the knights quitted it, and settled at Malta. See Malta. From this time the island of Rhodes has been subject to the Turks ; and, like other countries under that tyrannical yoke, has lost its former importance. RIALTO, a celebrated bridge at Ve- nice, begun 1588, finished 1591. RICARDO, David, the author of " PoUtical Economy," died 1823. RICCI, Lawrence, the last general of the society of Jesuits, born August 2, 1703 ; made general of the order May 21, 1758; imprisoned at Rome, September 22, 1773; died November 24, 1776, aged 72. RICHARD I., king of England, was born at Oxford, 1157 ; crowned at Lon- don, September 3, J 189; set out on the crusade June 29, 1190; returned to England March 29, 1194; was wounded with an arrow at Chalons; died April 6, 1199, and was buried at Fonteverard. RICHARD II., born at Bourdeaux, January 6, 1367; created prince of Wales, 1376 ; succeeded his grandfather, Ed- ward III., June 21, 1377; resigned his crown, September 29, 1399 ; was mur- dered in Pomfret Castle, February 13, 1400, and buried at Langley, but after- wards removed to Westminster. RICHARD III., duke of Gleucester, brother to Edward IV., born 1453 ;made protector of England May 27, 1483; elected king June 20, and crowned July 6 following; again at York, September 8. Skin in battle at Bosworth, Au2;ust 22, 1485, aged 32. Was buried at Lei- ccstcr RICHARDSON, Samuel, a cele- brated novel writer of the l7th century, was born in 1689. After the expiration of his apprenticeship, he passed several years as ajourneyman in a printing-office, and then set up in business for himself. He published his "Pamela" in 1740, which procured him much repute. His " History of Sir Charles Grandison," his concluding work, appeared in 1753. He died July 4, 1761, at the age of 72. RICHELET,C^sARPETER,aFrench writer, born in 1631. He applied him- self to the study of the French language, and compiled a dictionary. He died at Paris in 1698, at the age of 67 ■ RICHELIEU, John Abmand Du Plessis, a celebratedcardinal,and states- man of France, was born at Paris in 1585. In 1624, in the reign of Louis XIII., he was made prime minister, and found means to possess himself of the whole authority of the crown. In 1627 war broke out with England, and the Rochellers, with whom an accommoda- tion had been made, were induced to favour the English. Richelieu in person took the command of the siege of Ro- chelle, which, after a noble resistance of eleven months, submitted to famine, and RIC 750 RIE the protestants were rendered incapable of again acting as an armed party. Riche- lieu died in December 1642, at the age of 58. RICHMOND, village of Surrey, has belonged to the crown since the reign of Edward I. Edward II. also resided here, and founded a convent of Carmelite friars, which was afterwards removed to Oxford. Edward III. either erected or improved a royal palace here, where he often resided, and in which he died in 1377. Here also Ann' of Luxemburg, the first wife of Richard II., died ; he was so much affected by the misfortune, that he abandoned the palace, and suf- fered it to fall to decay. Henry V. re- stored it, and erected near it a Carthu- sian monastery, which was richly en- dowed. Edward IV. also resided here ; and it was the favourite residence of Henry VII., in whose reign a grand tournament was held at Richmond in 1492. A few years afterwards it was burnt down, and the king having rebuilt it, gave it the name of Richmond, from the title of nobility borne by him before his accession to the crown. In the park is an observatory, built by Sir William Chambers in 1769- RICHMOND, a market-town, York- shire, celebrated for the still magnificent remains of its ancient castle, which was founded by Alan, the first earl of Rich- mond, about 1070. During the reigns of our Norman kings, this title and property were possessed by several dif- ferent families. By Henry VIII., Rich- mond was constituted a duchy in the person of his natural son, Henry, who died without issue in 1535. R1CHTER,Jean Paul Frederick, a distinguished m.odern German writer, was born May 21, 1763, at Womsiedel in Bavaria. In his I7th year he wrote two essays entitled, " How our Concep- tion of God arises," and " On the Har- mony between Time and erroneous Pro- positions." In 1781 he went to the university of Leipsic, where he felt him- self abandoned by all human society, and had to struggle, for 12 months, against ever increasing poverty. In 1787, after having written several works to little advantage, he accepted the place of tutor in the family of a nobleman in the vicinity. At the end of 1789 he relin- quished his tutorship. About this time he wrote the " Invisible Lodge," an unfinished romance, and sent it, in 1 792, to Moritz, bookseller of Berlin, who pro- nounced it to be a work of great excellence, " beyond even Goethe." He oflfered him iOO ducats for the book, and sent 30 immediately. From this time he began to be .intro- duced to more public notice. In 1804 he settled himself in Baireuth, where he passed the remainder of his days, honoured and respected by all men. On the occasion of the war in 1806, he stepped forth as a political writer, and strove to rouse the spirit of his country- men, at the same time, that, with the keenest humour, he ridiculed many long- standing prejudices. He received from the prince primate Von Del berg, a pen- sion of 1000 guilders, which was con- tinued in 1815 by the king of Bavaria. The loss of his only and beloved son, in 1820, shook his constitution, and he died Nov. 14, 1825. His funeral was attended by all the distinguished families in Baireuth, and accompanied with a solemnity and sympathy worthy of the departed. RIDLEY, Nicholas, an eminent English prelate, who became a martyr to the cause of the Reformation, was born in the beginning of the l6th century, and sent to Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, in 1518. In 1547 he was promoted to the bishopric of Rochester ; and in the following year he was employed in reforming the liturgy, in conjunction with Cranmer, five other prelates, and some learned divines. Soon after he was translated to the see of London, and was nominated one of the commissioners for examining Gardiner, bishop of Win- chester. When the parliament assem- bled in 1553, the king, Edward VI., who was languishing under decline, ordered the two houses to attend him at White- hall, where bishop Ridley preached before him. Upon the death of Edward VI., having assisted in attempting to set Lady Jane Grey on the throne, he was immediately committed to the Tower, and afterwards, with Cranmer and Lati- mer, sent to Oxford ; when they arrived there in March 1554, they were closely confined in the common prison. With bishop Latimer, he was burnt, Oct. 15 following. He was a man of great learning, and was the author of several works. RIENZI, Gabrini, whose proper name was Nicholas, an extraordinary political character, was born in the 14th RIN 751 RIO century at Rome. His first post was that of a public scribe or notary in 1346. In 1347 he usurped the sovereign power, under pretence of restoring the tribuneate at Rome, May 19, and ruled with so- vereign authority for seven months. Finding that he had lost the affection and confidence of the people, he with- drew from Rome ; and, in the beginning of the year 1348, took refuge in the king- dom of Naples, and was obliged to live concealed in a hermit's cell till the com- mencement of 1350. Upon the acces- sion of Innocent VI., he was released from confinement, and he recovered his former authority, which, however, he held but a short time. The nobles found means to excite a sedition against him, in which he was slain, Oct. 1354. RIGA, city, European Russia, was, in regard to commerce, the second city in Russia before the rapid increase of Odessa. Riga has, at different times, suffered by sieges. Of these the most remarkable were those sustained from the Russians in 1656 ; from the Saxons and Poles in 1700 ; from the Russians in 1701; and from the French in 1812, when its suburbs were burned. Owing to the advantageous situation of Riga, at the mouth of the Dvvina, its popula- tion and trade have lately increased. The ships despatched from Riga, during the six years, ending with 1832, were 1483. RIGAUD, Professor, F.R.S, to whom was confided the care of the Ob- servatory at Oxford, was the author of many valuable communications to the "Transactions of the Royal Astrono- mical Society," and to other scientific journals, on subjects connected with physical and astronomical science. There was no other person of his age who was equally learned on all subjects connected with the history and literature of astro- nomy. He died in 1839- RIGHTS, Bill of. See Bill. RINGS. Their antiquity is known both from Scripture and profane authors. AVhen Pharaoh committed the govern- ment of all Egypt to Joseph, he took his ring from his finger, and gave it to Joseph, Gen. xli. 42. The Romans were contented with iron r ngs a long time ; and Pliny assures us, that Marius first wore a gold one in his third consu- late, which was in the year of Rome 650. The episcopal ring was esteemed a pledge of the spiritual marriage between the bishop and his church. The fourth council of Toledo, held in 633, appoints, that a bishop, condemned by one coun- cil, and found afterwards innocent by a second, shall be restored, by giving him the ring, staff, &c. RIO De Janeiro. See Janeiro. RIO De La Plata, river. South America, discovered by De Soils in 1516. The country near it now forms the republic of Buenos Ayres, which see. RIOTS, in law. The riotous assembling of 12 persons, or more, was first made high treason by statute 3 and 4 Edw. VI. It was repealed by statute iMar. c. 1. ; but in substance re-enacted by 1 Mar. statute 2. c. 12. And by statute 1 Eliz. c. 16, it was revived and continued during her life and then expired. From the accession of James I. to the death of Queen Anne, it was never once revived ; but in 1715 the act, now called the riot act, was passed. The statute 1 Geo. I. c. 5, enacts, that if any 12 persons are unlawfully assembled to the disturbance of the peace, and any one justice of the peace, sheriff, under-sheriff, or mayor of the town, shall think proper to command them by proclamation to disperse, if they contemn his orders and continue together for one hour afterwards, such contempt shall be felony without benefit of clergy. The following are the most remark- able riots in British history : — 1262. The goldsmiths' and tailors' company fought in the streets of Lon- don ; several were killed on each side : the sheriffs quelled it, and 13 men were hanged. 1271. A riot at Norwich; the rioters burnt the cathedral and monastery ; the king went thither, and saw the ring- leaders executed. 1709. In London, on account of Dr. Sacheverel's trial ; several dissenting meeting-houses were broke open ; the pulpit of one was piilled down, and, with the pews, burnt in Lincoln's-inn-Fields. 1715. 2 Geo. I., riots of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Ormond and New- castle mobs ; the riot act passed the same year, great mischief having been done by both parties in London. 1736. 9 Geo. II. Of the Spitalfields weavers, on account of employing work- men come over from Ireland ; the mili- tary and civil power joined to queU them, and some lives were lost. RIO 752 RO A 1736. At Edinburgh the mob rose, set fire to the prison-door, took out Captain Porteus, and hanged hira upon a sign-post, and then dispersed. 1768. A mob in St. George's-fields, to see Mr. Wilkes in the King's-bench, prison: the military aid indiscreetly called for by the justices of the peace, and several innocent persons, particu- larly young Allen, fired upon and killed by the soldiers. 1791. July 14. At Birmingham, on occasion of commemorating the French revolution, when several houses were destroyed. 1809. Sept. O. P. at Covent-garden theatre ; terminated Jan. 4, 1810. These tumults arose from an attempt by the managers to raise the price of admission. The public having in vain demanded the "old prices," assumed the initials, O. P., as the watch-word for their demand. 1809-10. In Piccadilly, in consequence of the warrant of the speaker of the house of commons to commit Sir Francis Burdett to the Tower. 1814. In different places in the north of England, during this and the preced- ing year, by the Luddites. Among the sailors in the merchants' service at Lynn, which was quelled without bloodshed, Dec. 9. 1815. April 8. At the depot at Dart- moor, among the prisoners, in quelling which seven Americans were killed, and 35 others wounded. 1816. Dec. 2. In London, inconse- quence of a popular meeting in Spafields, for the purpose of presenting a petition to the Prince Regent, from the distressed manufacturers and mechanics : the shops of several gunsmiths were attacked for arms, and in that of Mr. Beckwith, on Snowhill, a Mr. Piatt, who happened to be in the shop, was shot in the body by one of the rioters. Several parts of the kingdom were agitated by similar con- VTilsions this and the following year ; as at Dundee where 100 shops were plun- dered; at Preston, Lancashire, among the unemployed workmen, &c. 1817. June 16. Several of the rioters of London were apprehended, and one of the name of Watson was tried for high treason and acquitted. 1819. Aug. 16. An immense multi- tude assembled at Manchester, led by Hunt, who had become notorious since the meeting in Spafields in 1816. The magistrates ordered the yeomanry to advance, when they rode in among the crowd, trampling down those who were so unfortunately situated as to obstruct their progress. Great numbers were severely bruised, many received sabre wounds, and some were crushed to death. Hunt and his coadjutors were taken into custody, but afterwards liberated. 1830. The memorable riots and con- flicts in the streets of Paris. See Paris. 1831. June 8. In Dean Forest and its neighbourhood, when the rioters destroyed 50 miles of wall and fence, and threw open 10,000 acres of plantation. 1831. October. At Bristol, in which the town was at the mercy of the mob for three days. See Bristol. 1831. Oct. 8. At Derby and Notting- ham, &c., in consequence of the rejec- tion of the Reform Bill. 1834. A riot of a serious description at Oldham, of the Trades' Union ; two members were arrested by some police- men, when a large crowd attacked the officers, whom they beat severely, and rescued the prisoners ; one man was shot, which so incensed the mob, that the windows of a manufactory were immediately demolished, the dwelling- house of the proprietor entered, and a total destruction of its contents effected. RIPON, Yorkshire, was destroyed by the Danes in the ninth century, but was soon restored, and made a borough by Alfred the Great. It was destroyed a second time in the war by Ed red against the Danes, and being again rebuilt, con- tinued to be a place of importance : it was plundered by Robert Bruce when he invaded England in the reign of Edward II. Henry IV. fixed his resi- dence here when driven from London by the plague. In the civil war, under Charles I., the town was occupied by the parliamentarians, under Sir Thomas Manleverer, until they were expelled by Sir John Mallory. RITSON, Joseph, the antiquary, died October, 1803. RIZZIO, David, an Italian musician, and the favourite page to Mary Queen of Scots, killed March 9, 1566. ROADS. The ancient Roman roads are much celebrated in history. In Italy alone, the Romans are said to have laid about 14,000 miles of road. Of these the principal are the Appian, Salernian, Flaminian, Ostian, Praenestine, Tibur- tine. Triumphal, and others, varying in extent and importance according to the RIO 753 RIO circumstances of the country through which they passed. The most noble of the Roman roads was the Via Appia, or Appian Way^ wliich was carried to such a length, that Piocopius reckons it five days' journey to the end of it, and Leip- sius computes it at 350 miles. The principal of the Roman roads in Eng- land are Watling-street, Ikenild-street, Foss Way, and Erminage-street ; but the remains of these are hardly to be traced. In England the progressive improve- ments in the high roads may be estimated by the laws enacted at different times respecting them. The earliest of these was in the year 1285 ; when the lords of the soil were enjoined to "enlarge those ways where bushes, woods, or ditches be, in order to prevent robberies." The next law was made by Edward III. in 1346 ; when a commission was granted by the king to lay a toll on all sorts of carriages, passing from the hospital of St, Giles-in-the-Fields, to the bar of the old Temple, &c. Little further relating to this subject occurs, till the reign of Henry VIII., when the parishes were entrusted with the care of the roads, and surveyors were annually elected to take care of them. The increase of luxury and commerce introduced a number of heavy carriages for the conveyance of goods. This introduced toUgates or turnpikes about 1663. The union with Ireland, 1801, gave rise to the extension and improvement of the roads leading to the great ferries at Portpatrick, Holyhead, and Milford, which have severally undergone the latest amendments, especially the Holyhead line of road, passing through North "Wales, by Shrewsbury, and also by Chester to London. The military roads of the Highlands, Scotland, had their origin in the rebel- lion of 1715, when it was found that the royal troops could not penetrate farther into the Highlands than Blair, in Athol, from the total want of roads. The first line of road which they formed was from Stirling, across the Grampians, to Inver- ness, and from thence along the chain of forts, including Fort George, Fort Augustus, and Fort William, by which troops and artillery were carried witli facihty into the central Highlands ; and thereby the disturbances of 1745 were speedily suppressed. About 1803 a select committee of the house of com- mons, took under its consideration the farther extension of roads in the High- lands and islands, and another on the roads and highways of England and Walt'S was appointed in 1806. Mr. M'Adam, since well known for his improvements in the construction of roads, made a communication to a com- mittee of the house of commons in 1811, containing directions for the repair of an old road. This paper was published Avith the report by order of the house. He made a similar statement in 1819 to the honourable board of agriculture ; and in the same year the subject under- went a full investigation before a com- mittee of the house of commons. By the report it appears, that the admirable state of repair into which the roads under Mr. M'Adam's direction were brought, attracted very general attention, and in- duced the commissioners of various dis- tricts to apply for his assistance or advice. His plans were generally adopted, and so far succeeded that in February, 1820, the lords commissioners of his majesty's treasury received a representation from several noblemen and gentlemen, urg- ing in very strong terras the claims of Mr. M'Adam to remuneration for the services he had rendered to the public. In the session of 1820, Mr. M'Adam presented a petition to parliament, pray- ing for the payment of his expenses, and such reward for his services as the house in its justice and wisdom should think fit to grant. It appeared that the dis- tance travelled by Mr. M'Adam was 30,000 miles, and that there were 1920 days employed in this service. The expense of the above travelling amounted to the sum of £5019 6*., which sum Mr. M'Adam stated to have been expended by him on this service, up to August 1814, and this was accord- ingly allowed. In June 1823 the sub- ject was again presented to the house of commons. From the report of the select committee it appeared, that the sum of £2000, or £2500, in addition to his expenses, would be but a moderate com- pensation to Mr. M'Adam for his great exertions and very valuable services. The turnpike roads in the neighbour- hood of the metropolis were, at the beginning of 1827, placed under the management of commissioners ; and the third report, dated April 29, 1829, de- tails some important experiments either effected or contemplated, and others have since been carried into effect. 5 D ROB 754 ROB 1833. The house of commons ordered • the second report from the select com- ■ mittee of the house of lords, to examine the turnpike returns, &c. The report is itself a valuable document. The com- mittee states also, that one of the greatest evils in the present road system is the number of trusts, as well as their limited range of extent ; and recommends every consolidation of trusts which their loca- lities and other circumstances will per- mit. It appears from the evidence of Lord Lowther, the chairman of the com- missioners of the metropolis roads, &c., that the debts ujion the trusts through- out England, Wales, and Scotland, which amounted in 1821 to £6,000,000, in 1833 amounted to £8,000,000. Mr. M'Adam stated in evidence, tliat the Holyhead commissioners expended on that Hue of road the sum of 379,000, of which the Barnet and Mims improve- ment, as it was called, a length of but three miles, cost £18,000. Since the great increase of railways, the turnpike roads are become of less importance; and there will probal)ly be some difficulty in maintaining them, particularly in agri- cultural districts. See Railways. ROBERTSON, Dr. William, cele- brated historian, was born in Mid Lothian, Scotland, in 1721. In 1743 he was pre- sented to the living of Gladsmuir, in East Lothian; and in 1755 a sermon, delivered before the Society for Propagat- ing Christian Knowledge raised him very high as a pulpit orator. His " History of Scotland, during the reigns of Queen Mary and King James VI.," made its appearance in 1759. In 1761 he was appointed one of the king's chaplains in ordinary in Scotland, and in the follow- ing year elected principal of the Univer- sity of Edinburgh. Two years after this he was appointed to the post of histo- riographer royal of Scotland. His "His- tory of the Reign of Charles V.," pub- lished soon after, was, like the former, received with high approbation. In 1779 his "History of America" appeared, in two volumes quarto. He died June 11, 1793, in the 7lst year of his age. His works have been translated into nearly all the languages of Europe. ROBESPIERRE, Maximilian Isi- dore, one of the leaders of the French revolution, was born at Arras in 1759. In 1789 he took an active part in all the revolutionary meetings, and was ap- pointed a deputy from the province of Artois, in the States General. In the new assembly which met in September 1792, he was returned a member for the city of Paris, and he soon became the head of the party called the Mountain. After the execution of Louis, Robespierre, assisted by Dan ton and Marat, gained a decided supremacy; and the reign of terror commenced : 16,000 persons are supposed to have fallen during nine months. At length he lost his popu- larity ; a decree of the convention was l)assed against him; and July 28, 1794, he was led to execution, amidst the ac- clamations and curses of thousands of spectators, in the 36th year of his age. ROBIN Hood. See Hood. ROBINS, Benjamin, a celebrated mathematician, was born at Bath in 1707. In 1727 he was admitted a member of the Royal Society, and in 1742 published his Treatise on Gunnery. See Gun- nery. Having obtained the post of engineer-general to the East India Com- pany, he arrived in the East Indies in 1750 ; but the climate not agreeing with his constitution, he died there the year following, in the 44th year of his age. ROBINSON, Sir Charles, Judge of the Admiralty Court, died April 22, in his 70th year. ROBINSON, Mrs., author of "Ly- rical Tales," and other poems, died 1800. ROBINSON, Rev. Thomas, author of "Scripture Characters," died*1813, aged 54. ROBINSON, Robert, a dissenting minister of high repute, was born Oct. 8, 1735, at SvvafFham, in Norfolk. He published, in 1775, his translation of " Saurin's Sermons ;" and in 1778 a translation of " Claude's Essay on the Composition of a Sermon," with nume- rous notes. Tlie latter years of his life were chiefly occupied in his " History of Baptism," and his "Ecclesiastical Re- searches ;" works abounding with cu- rious information and striking remarks. He died June 8, 1790, in his 55th year. ROBISON, John, an eminent Scot- tish natural philosopher and mathema- tician, was born at Roghall, Stirlingshire, in 1739. He accompanied Admiral Sir Charles Knowles to St. Petersburgh, as his private secretary, in 1770. After his return from Russia in 1781, he was ap- pointed general secretary to the Royal Society. About 1793 he contributed va- rious scientific articles to the " Encyclo- ROC 755 ROD peedia Britannica." He died Jan. 30, 1805, in his 66th year. ROBSON, George Fennel, emi- nent painter in water-colours, was a native of Durham, Before he was 20 he came to London, and was soon known as a most active and persevering student. In 1813 he first appeared as an exhibitor in the ninth annual exhibition of the So- ciety of Painters in Water-colours ; and in 1815 his works commanded that public attention which gained for hira extensive and abundant patronage. In 1826 he published, in conjunction with Mr. Britton, a most delightful series of " Picturesque Views of the English Ci- ties." He died Sept. 1833. ROCHEFOUCAULT, Francis, Duke of, prince of Marsillac, was born in 1613. He was distinguished equally by his courage and his wit. He died at Paris in 1680, aged 68. ROCHEJAQUELIN, H. Db La, a French royalist leader, born 1773, died 1794. ROCHELLE, La, town, France, de- partment Lower Charente, was for some time in possession of the English, pre- viously to 1224, when it was retaken by the French. In the 16th century it be- came a stronghold of the protestants, and was governed for some time as a republic. In 1637 it was taken by Louis XIII. after a siege of 13 months. ROCHESTER, city and seaport, Kent, was probably founded by the Romans. Through it passed the ancient road called Watling-street, leading from the Rhutu- pian port to London, and thence across the island to Chester. It continued to be a place of importance after the con- quest of the country by the Anglo- Saxons, who gave it the appellation of Hroveester ; and about the beginning of the sixth century a church was erected here by Ethelbert, and shortly after Ro- chester was made the see of a bishop. In 676 the city was ravaged and almost destroyed by Ethelbert, king of Mercia ; and it suffered greatly during the inva- sions of England by the Danes, in the ninth century. William I. gave Roches- ter to his brother Odo. In 1130 the city suffered by a terrible conflagration. The castle was captured by King John in his wars with the barons. Henry III. repaired the castle, strengthened the walls, and improved the city, where he held a tournament in 1251. A few years after the castle was made a royal gar- rison, and successfully defended by the earl of Warren against the attacks of the earl of Leicester. It was from Rochester that James II. embarked on his flight to France, at the revolution in 1688. The see of Rochester is the smallest of the EngHsh bishoj)rics. The ecclesias- tical establishment includes a bishop, dean, an archdeacon, six prebendaries, six minor canons, a chancellor, a regis- trar, eight choristers, and various other officers. The cathedral church, dedi- cated to St. Andrew, is a fine edifice of Norman architecture, erected by bishop Gundulph, about 1080. ROCHESTER, Earl of, a celebrated wit of the reign of Charles II., the son of Henry, earl of Rochester, was born in 1648. In 1659 he was admitted a nobleman of Wadham College, Oxford, where he obtained the degree of master of arts. He afterwards travelled through France and Italy. His love of pleasure, and his disposition to extravagant mirth, carried him to great excesses. By his constant indulgences, he entirely wore out an excellent constitution before he was 30 years of age. In 1679 he was visited by Dr. Burnett, who published an account of his conferences, in which it appears, that though he had lived the life of a libertine and an atheist, there is good evidence to believe he died the * death of a penitent. His death happened in 1680. ROCKINGHAM, Northamptonshire. William the Conqueror built a castle, which stood on the summit of a hill overlooking the town. In the reign of William Rufus, a great council of the nobility, bishops, and clergy, was as- sembled here. The council sat on Sun- day, March 11, 1094, in the chapel belonging to the castle. Edward III. frequently honoured this fortress with his presence; and his successor, Edward IV., settled the manor here. Sir Lewis Watson was created Baron Rockingham, of Rockingham Castle, in the year 1644. RODNEY, George Bridges, Ad- miral, a distinguished naval com- mander, was born 1718. In 1744 he was appointed to the command of the Ludlow Castle, of 44 guns, and in the war with France was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral, and employed to bombard Havre de Grace. In January, 1780, he took 19 Spanish transports bound from Cadiz to Bilboa, together with a 64 gun sliip and five frigates. ROL 756 ROM their con vo3\ The same year he beat both the Spanish and French fleets. In 1781 he continued his exertions, with much success, in defending the West India Islands. But his greatest triumph was on April 12, 1782, when he came to a close action with the French fleet under Count de Crasse. The whole loss of the enemy on this occasion amounted to eight ships, one of which, the Ville de Paris, was the only first-rate man-of- war that had ever, at that time, been taken and carried into port by any com- mander of any nation. The following year, as a reward for his numerous ser- vices, he had a grant of £2000 a year for himself and his heirs, and was promoted to the peerage by the title of Baron Rodney of Stoke. He died Mav24,l792. ROEMER, Olaus, a celebrated Da- nish mathematician and astronomer, was born at Arhussen in Jutland, in 1644. He was united with Picard and Cassini in making astronomical observations, and became a member of tiie French academy of sciences in 1672. Roemer was the first person who discovered the velocity with which light moves, by means of the eclipses of Jupiter's satel- lites. Christian V., king of Denmark, recalled Roemer to his native country in 1681, and appointed him professor of ^ astronomy at Copenhagen, where he died in 1710. ROGER De Hovedon, the histo- rian, flourished 1182. ROGERS, Captain WooDS,English navigator, died 1732. ROHILCUND, territory, Hindoostan, east of the Ganges. In the early period of the Mogul empire, it was in a very flourishing state. In 1774 the forces of the Rohillahs were defeated by the Bri- tish troops at the battle of Cutterah, when Hafez Rehmet, their chieftain, was slain, after which the Rohillah sway in Hin- doostan terminated, the country being transferred to the Oude government. ROLAND, Marie Jeanne Phi- LEPON, wife of M. De la Platiere Ro- land, who was greatly distinguished in thatJtevolutionary commotions in France, waa^born at Paris in 1754. In 1792 Roland was appointed minister of the interior ; and the principal part of his labours was generally attributed to Madame Roland. At length she was called before the revolutionary tribunal. On Nov. 8 she was condemned to death for having conspired against the unity and indivisibility of the republic, and her execution immediately followed. ROLLIN, Charles, a celebrated French writer, was born at Paris in l66l. He became professor of rhetoric in the college of Plessis, and in 1688 suc- ceeded Horsan, his master, as professor of eloquence in the royal college. In 1694 he was chosen rector of the uni- versity. In 1699 he was made coadjutor to the principal of the college of Beau- vais. In this situation he remained till 1712 ; when the war between the Jesuits and the Jansenists drawing towards a crisis, he fell a sacrifice to the preva- lence of the former. His treatise upon the " Manner of Studying and Teaching the Belles Lettres" was published in 1726; and his "Ancient History of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes and Persians, Ma- cedonians and Greeks," between 1730 and 1738. He died in 1741, at 80 years of age, leaving a character universally esteemed. ROLLO was a Norwegian chieftain, who was banished from his country by Harold Harfager, who conquered Nor- way in 870. He proved himself so for- midable an enemy to Charles the Simple, king of France, that he was glad to make a treaty with Rollo, by which he gave him his daughter in marriage, with that part of Neustria, called Normandy, for her dower. As soon as he saw himself in full possession of Normandy, he ex- hibited such virtues as rendered the province happy. He died worn out with the cares of government, in 932. ROMAINE, Rev. Wm., the theolo- gical writer, died May 1795. ROMAN Catholics. See Catho- lics. ROMANO, GiULio, a celebrated Ita- lian painter, the disciple of Raphael, was born at Rome in 1492. After he had completed the "Hall of Constantine," in the Vatican, from the design of his master, Raphael, he went to Mantua. He died in 1546. ROME, its foundation laid by Ro- mulus, its first king, a.c. 753, according to most chronologers : by Sir Isaac Newton's chronology, a.c. 627- They seized the Sabine women at a public spectacle, and detained them for wives, A.c. 750. A. c. 667. The Romans and the Al- bans, contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part ROM 757 ROM to decide it. The three Horatii, Roman began to contend for supreme power over knights, and the three Curiatii, Albans, the commonwealth, which produced a being elected by their respective coun- bloody civil war. Ceesar was assassinated tries, engaged in the celebrated combat, in the senate-house a.c. 44; but the which by the victory of the Horatii, revolution intended to be prevented by united Alba to Rome. this catastrophe, was only hastened. A.c. 605. The circus built, said to The Roman state was divided into fac- have been capable of containing 150,000 tions by Octavius Caesar and Marc An- people. tony; a civil war ensued a.c. 41. A.c. 500. Sextus Tarquin having ra- a.c. 27. The republic changed, to an vished Lucretia, the Tarquins were empire, Octavius Caesar having the titles expelled, the kingly government abo- of Imperator and Augustus conferred on lished, and the republican established him by the senate and people. About under two annual consuls. this time the annual revenue of the a.c. 493. The dictatorship first Intro- Roman empire amounted to £40,000,000. duced. The city of Rome was computed to have A.c. 451. Decemviri appointed to form been 50 English miles in circumference, a body of laws, which being done, they and its inhabitants to exceed 4,000,000. were written on ten tables, transcribed A new census being taken by Claudius, on pillars of brass, and made the standard the emperor and censor, the inhabit- of judicial proceedings. ants of Rome were found to amount A.c. 450. The tribunes, sediles, &c., to 6,900,000, a.d. 48. The number divested of all power. of inhabitants able to bear arms was A.c. 443. Creation of censors. Patrir 320,000. cian tribunes chosen instead of consuls. The following is a list of the Roman A.c. 421. The consulship restored A.c. emperors, with the dates of their acces- 418. Three questors from among the sion : — people elected a.c. 410. Roman soldiers Julius Caesar A.c. 39 first paid a.c. 406. City sacked by Augustus — 43 Brennus a.c. 390. City burnt by the Tiberius a.d. 14 Gauls A.c. 318. The temple of Mars Cahgula — 3/ built A.c. 380. Praetors first appointed Claudius — 41 A.c. 365. Nero — 54= A.c. 266. The firstPunic war declared. Galba — 68 Before this time the Romans never car- Otho. — 69 ried their arms beyond Italy, nor encoun- Vitellius .>..•. — 69 tered their enemies at sea. Vespasian — 69 A.c. 269- About this time silver money Titus — 79 was first made at Rome, instead of Dornitian ■ — 81 brass, before in use ; it took the name Nerva — 96 of moneta from the temple of Juno Trajan — 97 Moneta, where it was coined. Adrian — 117 A.c. 218. The secondPunic war began. Antoninus Pius — 138 The capitol and temple of Janus built Marcus Aurelius — 161 A.c. 207. The third Punic war A.c. 149. Commodus — 180 A.c. 146. After a siege of three years Pertinax — 193 the Romans took Carthage and utterly Julianus... — 193 destroyed it. See Carthage. Severus — 194 A.c. 103. Marius made his grand Caracalla and Geta — 211 triumphal entry into Rome, preceded by Macrinus and his son — 217 an immense treasure of gold and silver, Heliogabalus — 218 the spoils of Numidia ; the famous Alexander — 222 Jugurtha, its king, and his two sons in Maximus and his son — 235 chains, graced the triumph. Pupienus and Balbinus — 238 A.c. 102. The Ambrones and Teu- The Gordiani — 238 tones defeated by Marius ; the wives of Philip and his son — 244 the former being refused security from Decius and his son — 248 violation, murdered themselves and their Gallus and Volusian — 251 children. Valerian — 254 A.c. 59. Pompey and Julius Caesar Gallienus — 259 ROM 758 ROM Claudius II A.D. 268 Quintilius — 270 Aurelian — 273 Tacitus — 275 Florianus — 275 Probus — 276 Carus — 282 Numerian — 282 Carinus — 282 Dioclesian — 284 Maximian — 286 Galerius and Constantius — 304 Constantine the Great — 306 Constantine, Constans, and Con- stantius — 337 Julian the Apostate — 360 Jovian — 363 Valentinian and Valens — 364 Gratian — 367 Valentinian II — 375 Theodosius the Great — 379 Honorius — 395 The Goths, Vandals, and other bar- barous nations of the north, began to invade the Roman empire about a.d. 250. It was divided into four parts between the two emperors Dioclesian and Con- stantius, (which proved the basis of its dissolution,) about 292. The seat of the empire was removed from Rome to Con- stantinople, by Constantine in 330. It was divided again into the eastern and western empires in 379. The city of Rome was taken and plundered by the Goths in 410; by the Vandals in 455; by the Heruli in 476. It was recovered for Justinian, by Belisarius, 537. In 547 the Goths retook it ; and in 553, Narses, another of Justinian's generals, reconquered it for the emperor. 726. Rome with its territory revolted from the Greek emperors, became a free state, and was governed by a senate. Finally, the senate and pope acknow- ledged Charlemagne, king of France, as emperor ofthe West, who surrendered the city and duchy to the people, reserving the sovereignty, 800. The popes after- wards made themselves independent, and continued in possession of this re- nowned city and its territories, called the ecclesiastical states, till 1798. The inhabitants of Rome, June 4, 1780, amounted to 155,184, of whom 36,485 were housekeepers. The States ofthe Church were reduced by the French to a republic, and the pope was sent from Rome, February 15, 1798. The pope having been restored to the government, went to Paris to crown Buonaparte emperor of France, and performed that ceremony, Dec. 2, 1804. Revolution in the form of the papal government 1809. Ecclesiastical states united to the French empire, Ja- nuary 17, 1810; restoration of the papal government 1815. Rome is now the capital of the States of the Church, and, with the territory around it, forms one of the delegations into which these states are divided. See Church, States of THE, p. 287- ROMILLY, Sir Samuel, one of the most distinguished lawyers of the present day, was born in 1757- He was articled at the age of 16, to one of the six clerks of chancery. At 21 he entered at Gray's Inn, and after five years of assiduous study, was called to the bar in 1783. In the spring of 1784 he first went the circuit, his choice having fallen on the Midland ; but having pursued this course for two or three years without making any progress, he gave up the circuit, and attended, in preference, the Coventry and Warwick sessions. In 1 800 his practice had so much increased, and he had obtained such celebrity as to be appointed one of the king's counsel. Five years afterwards, on the resignation of Mr. Baron Sutton, he was promoted to the chancellorship of Durham. On Mr. Fox and Lord Grenville coming into power in 1806, he was ap- pointed solicitor-general, and immedi- ately afterwards was returned member for Queenborough. He introduced to the notice of parliament several measures connected with legal reform, but was unable to eflfect any great improvement before a change in the government took place, and his party occupied the seats of the opposition. Notwithstanding the loss of office, and of the influence which it gave, he continued his exertions to secure an improvement of the laws, and especially the abolition of the punish- ment of death in all minor oflfences. In 1818, parliament having been dissolved, he was elected, early in September, the representative of the city of West- minster, but he was fated never to take his seat in the house. Lady Romilly, who had been ill for some months pre- viously, died October 26, and from the bereavement of a wife with whom he had lived in uninterrupted happiness for 20 years, his mind received so severe a shock that, on October 29, three days after her death, in a paroxysm of fever. R OS 759 ROS he put an end to his own existence. Thus died a man so much of whose life had been devoted to ameliorate and improve the condition of his fellow-creatures, than whom few were ever more beloved while living, or descended to the grave more regretted. ROMNEY, George, an eminent En- glish artist, was born at Dalton in Lan- cashire, in December 1734. He set out for London in 1762, where he first painted portraits at five guineas a head, and acquired considerable practice. In 1764 he visited France, and obtained admittance to the gallery of the duke of Orleans, the Luxemburg and other repositories of art. On his return to London he continued to advance in re- putation [and practice, exhibiting with the incorporated society of artists in Pall Mall and in Spring Gardens. In 1775 he took a house in Cavendish- square, where he resided till he retired, in 1798, from public practice. He died in Nov. 1802. ROOKE, Sir George, a celebrated naval commander, born in 1650. In 1690 he was appointed rear-admiral of the red, and in that rank he served in the fight off Beachy Head. In 1692 he was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral of the blue, when he served in the famous battle off La Hogue ; in which he be- haved with such distinguished courage that King William settled a pension of £1000 per annum on him for life. Upon the accession of Queen Anne in 1702, he was constituted vice-admiral and lieutenant of the admiralty of Eng- land. In July 1704 he attacked Gib- raltar, when, by the bravery of the En- glish seamen, the place was taken on the 24th. At last, obhged by the preva- lence of party-spirit, to quit the service of his country, he retired to his seat in Kent, where he spent the remainder of his days as a private gentleman. He died Jan. 24, 1708, in his 58th year. ROSA, Salvator, an admired pain- ter, well known as the author of spirited and extravagant sketches of banditti, &c., was born at Naples in 1614. The style which he formed is peculiarly his own. He spent the early part of his life in a troop of banditti ; and the rocky desolate scenes in which he was accustomed to take refuge, furnished him with those romantic ideas of landscape in which he so greatly excelled. He died in 1673, aged 59. ROSAMOND, daughter of Walter Lord Clifford, and mistress of Henry II. was born in 1162. She was buried in the church of Godstow, Oxfordshire, where her body remained till it was or- dered to be removed with every mark of disgrace by Hugh bishop of Lincoln in 1191. ROSARY, or beads, first used in Ro- mish prayers 1093. ROSAS, ancient Rhodia, a town of Spain, was taken by the French in 1703, and again in 1808, when the town was burned. , ROSBx\CH, in the upper circle of Saxony, totally disappeared, supposed by an earthquake, October 1792. ROSCIUS, QuiNTus, a Roman actor of great celebrity, was a native of Gaul, and was contemporary at Rome with the celebrated actor Esopus. So great were his talents for the stage, and such was the degree of perfection to which he carried his art, that, according to Cicero, a complete master in any other art was popularly called the Roscius of it. He died A.c. 61. ROSCOE, William, associate of the Roj'al Society of Literature, and F.L.S., was born at Liverpool, of obscure parent- age. At the age of 16 he was admitted as an articled clerk to Mr. Eyes, a re- spectable attorney in Liverpool. While engaged in the duties of the office, he found means to acquire a knowledge of Latin, and afterwards of French and Italian. After the expiration of his arti- cles he entered into partnership with Mr. Aspinall, when the entire management of an office, extensive in practice, and high in reputation, devolved on him alone. In December 1773 he recited before the society formed at Liverpool for the encouragement of drawing, paint- ing, &c., an ode, which was afterwards published with "Mount Pleasant." He occasionally gave lectures on subjects connected with the objects of this insti- tution, and was a very active member of the society. The great work on which Mr. Roscoe's fame chiefly rests, his " Life of Lorenzo de Medici," was com- menced in 1790, and completed in 1796. In 1805 appeared his second great work, "The Life and Pontificate of Leo the Tenth," the son of Lorenzo de Medici. In I8O6 he was elected one of the mem- bers for his 'native town in parliament. His senatorial career was brief; but during its continuance he distinguished ROS 760 himself as a steadfast advocate of the principles he had always professed, and as a warm partisan of tlie cause of eman- cipation throughout the debates upon the slave trade. After the dissolution, in 1807, he declined entering upon a new contest, and from that time interfered with politics only by means of occasional pamphlets. He died June 30, 1S31, aged 80. ROSCOMMON, Earl of, English poet, died 1684. ROSE, Rev. Hugh James, B.D., principal of King's College, London, Avas born at Uclcfield, and educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was senior medalist of his year (1817) and 14th wrangler; was made vicar of Horsham in 1822 ; Christian advocate at Cambridge in 1829; professor of Divinity in the university of Durham in 1833; and principal of King's College, London, in 1836. He performed the duties of his several offices with the most exemplary fidehty and ability ; and his distinguished talents, varied learning, zealous piety, and benevolent and amia- ble character, gained for him a high respect and a commanding influence. He died December 22, 1838. ROSENMULLER, John George, critic, born 1736, died 1815. ROSLIN, village, Mid Lothian, Scot- land, remarkable for its ancient chapel and castle. The castle was built about the middle of the 12th century. The chapel was founded in 1446, by William Saint Clair. The fields immediately contiguous are celebrated in history as the scene of three sanguinary engage- ments betwixt the English and Scotch, all fought on the same day, February 24, 1303. ROSS, Captain, arrived at Hull, October 18, 1833, on his return from his Arctic expedition, after an absence of four years, and when all hope of his return had been nearly abandoned. ROSSI, Giov. Gherardo De, di- rector of the academy of fine arts at Na- ples. As a dramatic writer, he was reckoned among the best of his day. He died March 28, 1827. ROSTOCK, a town in the dnchy of Mecklenburg, contains a university founded in 1419. In 1437 the town fell under the ban both of the emperor and pope, and the professors removed to Griefswalde, whence they returned again in 1443. In 1487 tlie university was ROU removed to Lubeck, but again restored in 1492. In 1218 it was admitted into the Hanseatic confederacy. The com- merce has greatly increased of late years. The total vahie of all sorts of exports, in 1835, was estimated at about £185,000. ROTHESAY Castle, steam-boat, plying between Liverpool and Beaumaris, lost on the night of August 17, 1831, with nearly 200 passengers and crew on board, of whom only about 20 were saved. ROTHSCHILD, N. M.. the leading stockbroker of Europe, died at Frank- fort, July 28, 1836. His remains were brought to London for interment in the Jews' burial ground, Whitechapel-road. ROTTERDAM, seaport of Holland, is of considerable antiquity. In 1270 it was surrounded with ramparts, and honoured with several privileges ; but 27 years after, it was taken by the Flem- ings. In 1418 Brederode, chief of the Hacks, made himself master of it; since that period it has continued yearly to increase by means of the conveniency of its harbour. ROUBILIAC, famous sculptor, died Jan. 11, 1762. ROUEN, city, France, formerly capital of Normandy. Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was burnt here by the En- glish in 1431. The cathedral was struck by lightning ; the principal tower de- stroyed, and part of the nave and covering of the choir burnt, Sept. 15, 1822. ROUND Table, order of knight- hood, began 516; revived 1344. ROUSSEAU, Jean Jaques, was born at Geneva, June 28, 1712. Ac- cording to his " Confessions," his early life was marked by scenes of the most gross description, dishonourable alike to the author and his early associates. He was first put apprentice to an attorney, and after this to an engraver, but he became a fugitive from his master when he was in his 15th year. In 1741 he went to Paris, where he was long in very destitute circumstances. The year 1750 was the commencement of Rousseau's li- terary career, in his "Discourses against the Sciences," in consequence of which he found himself involved in a formida- ble train of correspondence. From that period he decreased in happiness as he increased in celebrity. In 1760 Rous- seau published his celebrated novel, "Julie, ou la Nouvelle Heloise;" in 1762 his " Emilie, ou de I'Education," ROY 761 RUE which may be regarded as his puncipal work. The French parliament con- demned this book in 1762, and entered into a criminal prosecution against the author, which forced him to a precipitate retreat. Rousseau set out for London in 1766, where his morbid sensibility led to a quarrel with Hume, although the latter had procured for him a very agreeable settlement in the country. In 1770 he returned to Paris, where he was contented with living in a calm philoso- phical manner, giving himself only to the society of a few tried friends. He died of an apoplexy at Ermenonville, a castle, the seat of the marquis de Girar- din, about ten leagues from Paris, July 2, 1778, aged 66 years. ROVIGO, Duke of, a minister of Napoleon's government, died June 1, 1833. ROWAN, Archibald Hamilton, well known for his connection with the Irish rebellion, trial, escape, &c., died in Dublin, Nov. 2, 1834, aged 84. ROWE, Elizabeth, the author of " Devout Exercises," &c., died Feb. 20, 1737. aged 63. ROWE, Nicholas, the author of " Jane Shore," the " Fair Penitent," &c.,died 1718, aged 44. ROWLEY, eminent English mathe- matician, died 1728. ROY, Rammohun, an Indian rajah, converted to Christianity. He visited England, and died at Stapleton, near Bristol, Sept. 27, 1833. ROYAL Academy of painting, sculp- ture, and architecture, founded 1768. The first president was Sir Joshua Rey- nolds in, 1769- See Reynolds. The annual exhibition, formerly at Somer- set-house, was removed in 1837 to the National Gallery, Trafalgar-street. ROYAL Exchange, founded by Sir Thomas Gresham 1566. See Gresham. Entitled royal by Queen Elizabeth, Jan. 29, 1571; burnt down 1666; rebuilt 1670; repaired and beautified Sept. 28, 1769; the tower rebuilt 1821; repaired 1824; burnt down again Jan. 10, 1838. Sale of the materials April 1838, which produced nearly £2000. The alto-re- lievo, in artificial stone, representing Queen Elizabeth proclaiming the Royal E.xchange, sold for £21; the corre- sponding alto-relievo, representing Bri- tannia seated amidst the emblems of commerce, accompanied by science, agri- culture, manufactures, &c., £36.; the carved emblematical figures of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, £110. ROYAL Society of England, instituted by King Cluules II., de- rived its origin from the private meet- ings of a few individuals distinguished for their love of science, who, about 1645, agreed to meet regularly on a certain fixed day of the week, for the discussion of philosophical sul)jects. The king granted them a royal charter, dated July 15, 1662; and a more am))le one was granted April 22, 1669, by which they were erected into a corpora- tion, and endowed with various privileges and authorities. The Royal Society thus formed consisted, as it now does, of a president, council, and fellows. Their first president was Lord Brouncker. In 1703 Sir Isaac Newton was elected to the chair, which he filled during 25 years. Among the more recent distin- guished presidents of this society was Sir H. Davy, from 1820 to 1827- On the resignation of the duke of Sussex November, 1839, tlie marquis of North- ampton was chosen. RUBENS, Peter Paul, an eminent Flemish painter, was born at Cologne in 1577. Having travelled in Italy to study the productions of the most eminent artists, he established himself at Ant- v/erp, where his success in his art, and the honours and wealth which were ac- cumulated upon him, excited the envy and malignity of many of his rivals. In 1620 he was invited to Paris by Maiy de Medicis, queen of Henry IV. of France, where he painted the galleries in the palace of Luxemburg. He came over to England in 1630, and Charles I. treated him with every mark of respect; and as an acknowledgment of his merit, created him a knight. He returned to Antwerp, where for some time he enjoyed his well-earned fame and honours. He continued to exercise his art until 1640, when he died aged 63. Among his finished pieces may be mentioned the Crucifixion ; but of all his works, the paintings of the palace of Luxemburg best display his genius and his style. RUDDIMAN,Thomas, grammarian, born 1674, died 1757. RUDHARD. M. Von, the late chief minister of Greece, born in 1790, in Upper Franconia, died at Trieste, shortly after resigning his olfice, April 11. 1838. RUE, Abbe', Gervais De La, 5 E RUM 762 RUS honorary canon of the cathedral of Bayeux, knight of the legion of honour, member of the Institute, dean of the faculty of letters of the Royal Academy of Caen, and foreign member of the Society of Antiquaries of London, died September 27, 1835. RUFFHEAD, Owen, eminent En- ghsh lawyer, died 1769- RUFFO, Cardinal Fabrizio, was born at Naples, September 10, 1744, and distinguished himself by his finan- cial talents during the pontificate of Pius VI. In 1799 he accomphshed the task of reconquering Naples from the French. In 1801 he was appointed minister plenipotentiary from the king of Naples to the court of Rome. After the imprisonment of Pius VII. at Savona, Napoleon invited the cardinal to Paris, and bestowed on him the cross of the legion of honour. He returned to Rome with the pope in 1814. During the lat- ter years of his life, he resided chiefly on his estates in the kingdom of Naples. He died Dec. 13, 1827. RUFINUS, an ecclesiastical writer, was bom about the middle of the fourth century, in Italy. After various travels, in 407 he returned to Rome ; but the year after, that city being threatened by Alaric, he retired to Sicily, where he died in 410. RUHNKEN, the Dutch phUologist, bom 1723, died 1798. RULING Machines, used in en- graving, invented by a Dutchman at London, 1782 ; greatly improved by Woodmason, Payne, Brown, &c. ; intro- duced into Scotland, 1803. RUM, a spirituous liquor, imported from the West Indies, obtained by means of fermentation and distillation, from molasses, the refuse of the cane juice, and portions of the cane, after the sugar has been extracted. During the three years ending with 1802, when the duty in Great Britain was about 9s. a gallon, and in Ireland 6s. 8|c?., the consumption of the United Kingdom amounted to 3,150,000 gallons a year. During the three years ending with 1823, when the duty in Great Britain was 13s. ll^d. a gallon, and in Ireland 12s. 8id., the annual consumption amounted to only 2,307,000 gallons. The reduction of the duty in 1826, to 8s. 6d, increased the consumption from about 2,500,000 to above 3,600,000 gal- ons, in 1830. RUMBOLD, Sir George, English minister to the Hanseatic towns, seized at Hamburgh by the French, and carried to Paris, October 24, 1804. RUMFORD, Count Benjamin, the author of "Experiments on Heat," &c., born 1753, died August 19, 1814. RUMSEY Abbey, Hants, built in 972. RUNNEMEDE, or Runnymede, the place where Magna Charta was signed. See Magna Charta. RUPERT, Prince, the third son of Frederick, elector palatine of the Rhine, and Elizabeth, daughter of King JamesJ. of England, was born in 1619. In 1642 he came over to England, and offered his services to King Charles I., who gave him a command in his army. When a part of the English navy, in 1648, went over to Charles II., it was placed under the command of Prince Rupert, who was employed in some important ser- vices, and greatly distinguished himself in the Dutch war in 1673, &c. He died at his house in Spring Gardens, Nov. 29, 1682. RUSSELL, Dr., author of the " His- tory of Modern Europe," died 1794. RUSSELL, Lord William, a dis- tinguished patriot during the reign of Charles II., was born September 29, 1639. He was committed to the Tower on a false charge of being concerned in the Ryehouse plot; and after some of the conspirators had been condemned and executed, and the nation was fully im- pressed with horror of a plot supposed to be connected throughout with a design of assassination, he was brought to trial in July 1683.* The jury, after a very short deliberation, found the pri- soner guilty, and he received the sentence of death. He suffered with resignation and composure on July 21 following. RUSSELL, Lady Rachel, the vene- rated relict of the martyr of liberty, and author of " Letters," died 1723. RUSSELL, LATE Lord William, uncle of the duke of Bedford and Lord John Russell, found dead in his bed at his house in town, with his throat cut, April 5, 1840. Courvoisier, his Swiss valet, was afterwards tried and executed as his murderer. RUSSIA, or Muscovy, was anciently Sarmatia.and inhabited by the Scythians. The earliest authentic account of this country is when Rurick was grand duke of Novogorod, in 862. The Poles con- J RUS 763 RUS quered it about 1058. Andrey I. began his reign 1158, and laid the foundation q( Moscow. In the 13th century the seat of government was transferred from Kiev to Moscow. In 1382 that city was taken after a short siege, by Tamerlane, and the east frontier continued subject to repeated invasions from the Tartars. In 1477, under the prosperous reign of Ivan I., the town of Novogorod, a part of Lithuania, were incorporated with the Russian dominions. In 1552 Moscow was entered and consigned to flames by the Tartars. The extinction of the reigning dynasty in 1595, by the death of the czar, Theo- dore, proved a prelude to a long series of civil struggles, until 1613, when a no- bleman of the name of Romanof was created sovereign, and succeeded in re- storing tranquillity to Russia. His son Alexis, a prince of ability, recovered part of the provinces lost in the preceding disorders, but died in 1675 ; leaving three sons, of whom the youngest was the celebrated Peter L, surnamed the Great. See Peter I. In 1709 the empire was invaded by Charles Xll.of Sweden; butfrom the battle of Pultawa (1709), fortune favoured the arms of Peter. Poland and his north- west provinces were recovered, and the latter were definitely confirmed to Russia by the peace with Sweden in 1721. Peter died in 1725, in his 53d year; he was succeeded byhis widow, Catherine 1., who reigned only two years, and her son, Peter II., only three years. Anne, a niece of Peter, came to the throne in 1730, and reigned until 1740. Ivan III., a child, bore the name of sovereign hardly two years ; but the reign of Eli- zabeth, daughter of Peter I., lasted 20 years, and proved a period of great splendour. Her successor, Peter III., was a weak prince, who lost both his throne and hfe in the first year of his reign. The imperial power was vested in his widow Catherine II. Her first war with Turkey lasted from 1768 to 1774, with great success. In 1773 the first parti- tion of Poland took place; in 1787 a second war with Turkey was begun and carried on, first in conjunction with Austria, afterwards by Russia alone ; it was then that the energy of the Russian arms was called forth, and led to the suc- cesses of Suwarrow. Peace was signed in 1792, in consequence of the hostile attitude of England ; and about three years afterwards the final division of Po- land took place. Catherine died in 1796, leaving her throne to her son, the feeble Paul I. The campaign of 1799 first brought the Russian and French arms into con- tact. In Italy the Russians, commanded by Suwarrow, were victorious. The Rus- sians again met the French in Switzer- land, under Korsakof, where they were defeated ; and the contest was cut short by Paul, who recalled his troops in 1800 : he perished by a conspiracy in 1801. Alexander his son, succeeded to the throne, and preserved peace until the aggressions of Buonaparte led to the formation of the third coalition in 1805. The continual usurpations of Buona- parte again roused the Russian court ; and in 1812 began the fourth great struggle between Russia and France: the plan pursued by the Russians of destroying supplies proved successful. This was exemplified in the destruction of the ancient capitalof the czars in 1812. See Moscow. The emperor Alexander died Dec. 1, 1825, and was succeeded by Nicholas, the present emperor. In 1827 a war with Persia broke out, occasioned by some disputed territory on the north-west boundary, between the two countries, towards Georgia. Fall of Erivan the same year ; the trenches were opened on the night of Oct. 7. During six days the works were carried on with activity, and a battery was erected. On the 19th the garrison surrendered pri- soners of war. This opened up to the Russians a passage into the heart of the Persian territory, and led to peace in the following month. The same year war was declared against Turkey ; and in May 1828, the Russians had crossed the Pruth. After a series of rapid successes, before the end of the campaign, they took posses- sion of Varna, where they established themselves during the winter. The next campaign was equally successful ; so that before the end of the year 1829, they were enabled to dictate the terms of peace almost at the gates of Constanti- nople. In 1833 Russia made an attack on Poland, by which that country was almost annihilated. See Poland. 1837. The aggressive ])olicyof Russia in the East became a subject of disturb- ance to England. In 64 years Russia had approached 450 miles nearer Con- RUT \i RYS stantinople; she had possessed herself of the metro])oUs of Poland, while the capital of Sweden, from which, in Peter the Great's time, her boundary was 300 miles distant, was now within a short march of her garrison. Within the same period she had extended herself about 1000 miles in the direction of India, and towards the Persian capital. The batta- lions that invaded Persia found, at the termination of the war, that they were as near to Herat as to the banks of the Don, and that they had already accomplished half the distance to Delhi. The pro- gress of this ambitious power was, how- ever, severely checked by the Circassian war, which commenced this year. 1838. Russia regained her ascendency in the cabinet of the Schah of Persia, and in defiance of the remonstrances of the British government, that monarch conducted an expedition against Herat at her instigation. The Marquis Clan- licarde, envoy from Great Britain to St, Petersburgh, presented to Count Nessel- rode a note, demanding an explanation of the events which had taken place in Persia and in Afighanistan, and com- plaining of the proceedings of the Rus- sian ambassador in Persia, Count Si- monitsch, and of the Russian agent Witkewitsch, at Cabool. For an account of the war brought on by thess intrigues, see Cabool. RUSSIAN Company was first incor- porated by charter of Pliilip and Mary, sanctioned by act of parliament in 1566. The statute 10 and 11 Will. III. c 6. enacts, that every British subject desiring admission into the Russian company, shall he admitted on paying £5; and every individual admitted into the com- pany conducts his business entirely as a private adventurer, or as he would do were the company abolished. RUTER, Martin, D.D., a distin- guislied American minister of the Me- thodist episcopal church, was born April 3, 1785, at Charlestown, Mass. He was elected in 1827 president of Augusta College in Kentucky, which office he resigned in 1832, and was sta- tioned for two years at Pittsburg, Pa. In 1834 he became president of Alle- ghany College at Meadville, wliich office he sustained till 1837, when he resigned it for the purpose of undertaking the superintendence of a mission to Texas, where he fell a sacrifice to his zealous and benevolent labours. He died May 16, 1838. RUYSCH, Frederick, anatomist, born 1638, died 1731. RUYTER, Michael Adrian De, a distinguished Dutch naval officer, was born at Flushing in 1607. In 1641 he was sent to the assistance of the Portu- guese, who had thrown off the yoke of Spain. When war broke out in 1652 between the English and Dutch, he was appointed to the command of a squadron. He fell in with the English Admiral Ayscough, with whom he had an en- gagement off Plymouth, which termi- nated to the advantage of the Dutch. De Ruyter likewise distinguished himself in the terrible battle of three days, fought in February, 1653, between Tromp and Blake, near the mouth of the Channel. After other services, he obtained a signal victory over the combined fleets of France and Spain in 1672. The next year he had three engagements with the fleets of France and England, in which his bravery was still more distinguished. But he did not long enjoy his triumphs; in an engagement with the French fleet in 1676 oflf the coast of Sicily, he lost the day, and received a woxmd of which h© died at the age of 69, deeply regretted by his country and admired by all Europe. RYAN, Lacy, eminent actor and dramatic writer, died 1760. RYE, market town, Sussex, is a place of considerable antiquity. It is men- tioned as a cinque port in the reign of Henry III.; and in that of Edward III., a wall, with several towers, was erected for the defence of the town. In the reign of Richard II. the French landed here, and plundered and burnt the town ; but in the reign of Elizabeth it had againbecome aplace of importance. RYE-HOUSE Plot, prevented by a fire that happened at Newmarket, March 22 ; discovered June 14, 1683. RYMER, Thomas, English antiqua- rian and historian, died 1713. RYSWICK, IPeace of, between France, England, Spain, and Holland ; signed by Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. SAD 765 SAF S, , SABA, island. West Indies, planted by the Dutch 1640. It was taken by the English in 1781, and again in 1801, but afterwards restored. SABBATICAL Year among the Jews ; the first was a.c. 1451. SABELLIANS, a sect of Christians of the third century. They embraced the opinions of Sabellius, a philosopher of Egypt, who openly taught that there is but one person in the Godhead. Sa- bellianism spread to a great degree in 375 ; there were many of that opinion in Mesopotamia and at Rome. SABRINA Island, in the Azores, which suddenly appeared in Jan. 30, 1811, gradually disappeared Oct, 1811. SACHEVEREL, Dr. Henry, a famous clergyman of the church of England, in the reign of Queen Anne ; who distinguished himself by sermons and writings against the Dissenters, &c. He owed his consequence to being in- discreetly prosecuted by the house of lords for his assize sermon at Derby, and his fifth of November sermon at St. Paul's in 1709 ; in which he asserted the doctrine of non-resistance to govern- ment in its utmost extent, and reflected severely on the act of toleration. His trial, March 1710, inflamed the high- church party to dangerous riots and excesses : he was suspended for three years, and his sermons burned by the common hangman. He died 1724. SACRAMENT, St., or Colonia, city, republic of Buenos Ay res, was founded by the Portuguese in 1679, under Don Manuel de Lobo, and has oc- casioned many struggles between Spain and Portugal. It was successively wrested from its founders, restored by Charles V. to the Portugues, resumed in in 1750 by Spain, and in 1778, ceded to the Spaniards. SADDLERS' Company, London, in- corporated 1280. SADDUCEES, a sect among the an- cient Jews ; according to the Jewish Tal- mud, derived their name from Sadoc, and arose about a.c. 260. They denied the resurrection of the dead, and the existence of angels, and of the spirits or souls of men departed. Lender the reign of Hyrcanus, who about a.c. 130 ])ossessed the supreme civil and sacer- dotal power, the Sadducees were the leading sect. After the destruction of Jerusalem the sect fell into contempt among their countrymen ; but in the be- ginning of the third century they were formidable in Egypt, and met with defenders in the 8th and 12th centuries. There are still Sadducees in Africa, and in several other places. SADI, the author of the Persian poeras, " The Garden of Roses," and " The Gar- den of Fruits," died 1296, aged nearly lOO. SADLER, Michael Thomas, for- merly M, P. for Newark, and after- wards for Aldborough, in Yorkshire. He was well known for his exertions in connection with the factory question, and for his works on population and on Ire- land. He died at Belfast of disease of the heart, July 29, aged 55. SAFETY Lamp, invented by Sir Humphry Davy about 1815, for illu- minating mines, and at the same time for greatly diminishing, if not com- pletely annihilating, the danger of ex- plosion. This invention consists of a lamp, or rather a number of air-tight lanterns of various constructions, sup- plied with air from tubes or canals of small diameter; or from apertures co- vered with wire-gauze placed below the flame, through which explosions cannot be communicated, and having a chimney at the upper part for carrying off the foul air. Some improvements, originating in Sir Humphry's researches into the na- ture of flame, were afterwards effected. In 1838 a new safety lamp was in- vented by Messrs. Bursill, which con- sists of a portable iron cylinder being highly charged with condensed atmo- spheric air. At one end of this cylinder is a double way cock, to supply the safety lamp and the tube for breathing, when required. A number of these cylin- ders, prepared with straps to fasten on the back, are to be charged with pure atmospheric air from an air-pump, worked by the steam-engine, and after- wards to be lowered into the mine for the use of the miners. It is calculated SAL 766 SAL that one of these small portable cylin- ders will contain a supply of atmospheric air for three or four hours. SAFFRON, first brought to England by a pilgrim, 1389, cultivated 1582. SAGE, Le, author of "Gil Bias," born 1677, died 1727- SAGUNTUM, an ancient town of Spain, now called Morvedro, reduced by Hannibal a.u.c. 528 ; remained under the dominion of the Carthaginians till 538, when Scipio having humbled the power of Carthage in Spain, in process of time recovered Saguntum, and made it a new city. SAILORS' (destitute) Asylum, or Bethel Maritime Establishment, Well- close-square, founded 1829. ST. JOHN, Henry. SeeBoLiNG- BROKE. ST. PAUL'S Cathedral. See Paul's ST. PIERRE, Henry Bernar- DiN, author of the " Studies of Na- ture," &c., died 1814, aged 11, SALADIN, a celebrated sultan of Egypt, equally renowned as a warrior and legislator, was born in 1137. By the death of Al-Malek in 1181, he ob- tained the possession of Syria, as well as Egypt. He now manifested an ardent desire to expel the christians from Pa- lestine, and recover the city of Jeru- salem, which he soon effected, and en- tered the holy capital in great triumph. The loss of Jerusalem excited the utmost grief and consternation among the chris- tian powers. The kings of France and England, with several other princes, took the cross. Succours arrived from various parts of Europe ; and they were enabled in 1189, to undertake the re- covery of Acre; which, in 1191, surren- dered to their united arras. Philip of France upon this event, returned to Europe ; but Richard I. of England, remained; and after he had twice de- feated Saladin, took Csesarea and Jaffa, and spread alarm as far as Jerusalem. At length a truce was made between the two sovereigns. The departure of Richard freed Saladin from his most formidable opponent; but he died at Damascus in 1193, at the age of 56. SALAMANCA, an ancient city of Spain, near the river Tormes. The uni- versity was founded in 1239- The num- ber of students is about 300 or 400. The banks of the river, and the country west of Salamanca, were the scene of an engagement between the British under Lord Wellington, in 1812. SALAMIS, an island of the Archipe- lago, famous in antiquity for a battle between the Greek and Persian fleets, fought A.c. 479, in the strait formed be- tween it and the continent. SALE, George, translator of the Koran, died 1736. SALIC, or Salioue, an ancient law of France, by which females are excluded from inheriting the throne, confirmed in the reign of Pharamond, 424 ; first quoted 1327- SALISBURY, or New Sarum, Wilts, was founded in the beginning of the 13th century. The see of Sarum, an ancient city about two miles distant, was transferred hither by bishop Le Poor, Henry III. granted the inhabitants a charter.^entitling them to the same rights and privileges as were enjoyed by the people of Winchester. National councils were held here in 1296 by Edward I. ; in 1328 by Edward III. ; there was also one in 1384. The charter bestowed by Henry III. was renewed by Edward I., and several of his successors. The ca- thedral church, completed in 1258, is one of the purest specimens of the early Gothic, and dedicated to the Virgin Mary. SALLEE, a seaport town of Africa, on the coast of Morocco, was formerly the great hold of Moorish piracy; and great depredations were committed from it upon European commerce. These are now confined to the Barbary states, and the only trace of these proceedings now remaining at Sallee is an immense dreary dungeon formed under ground for the captives. Near the mouth of the river, below Rabat, are the remains of a large and strong castle, built in the 12th cen- tury by Jacob Almansor, but demolished by the late emperor, who preserved only some magazines remarkable for their strength. SALLUST, Caius Crispus Sal- lustius, a celebrated Roman historian, was born at Amiternum, a city of Italy, a.u.c, 669 ; a.c. 85. He was made quaestor a.u.c. 694, and afterwards tri- bune of the people. By virtue of his quaestorship he obtained an admission into the senate, but was expelled thence by the censors in 704, on account of his immoral and debauched way of life. In 705 Csesar restored him to the dignity of a senator. In 707 he was made prae- SAL 767 SAM tor for his services to Caesar, and sent to Nuraidia. He died at the age of 50, in A.u.c. 710. His only compositions that have come to modern times, in a state of tolerable perfection, are the history of Catiline's conspiracy, and of the wars of Jugurtha, king of Numidia. SALMASIUS, the opponent of Milton, born 1596, died 1652. SALOP, or Shropshire, England, bordering on the last retreat of the Bri- tons on the invasion of the country by the Saxons, became the scene of many conflicts of the contending nations. In the 9th century it was infested by the Danes, who destroyed the ancient city of Virioconium, which occasioned the foundation of Shrewsbnry, a few miles north of that station. This county was the theatre of hostilities between Stephen and the empress; and in 1164 Henry H. assembled an army in Shropshire for the invasion of Wales. In the civil war under Charles I., the Salopians favoured the royal cause. Sieges and battles took place at Tong Castle, Oswestry, Shrews- bury, Ludlow, and Bridgenorth, which last was taken by the parliamentarians in 1646, when the contest was nearly ter- minated. SALSETTE Isle, Hindoostan, is very rich in mythological antiquities. It was long possessed by the Portuguese, but was wrested from them by the Maha- rattas in 1750. In 1773, during a rup- ture with that nation, the Company's troops obtained possession, and it was ceded by the Maharattas ac the treaty of Poorunder in 1776. In 1783 the small islands in the gulf formed by Bombay and Salsette were added. SALT, Henry, F.R.S., British con- sul-general in Egypt. He accompanied Lord Valentia to the Levant, Egypt, Abyssinia, and the East Indies ; and the travels of that nobleman, published in 1809, derived great benefit from the gra- phic illustrations of Mr. Salt. He was employed by government as the bearer of presents to the emperor of Abyssinia, the result of which mission appeared be- fore the public in 1814, in a work entitled "A Voyage to Abyssinia, and Travels into the interior of that country." He died at a village between Cairo and Alex- andria, October 30, 1827. SALT Mines,- Springs, &c. The principal are at Wielitska in Poland, Ca- talonia in Spain, Altemonte in Calabria, Loowur in Hungary, in many places in Asia and Africa, and in Cheshire in this country. These mines have been wrought for more than 600 years. The salt mines in the neighbourhood of Northwich and Cheshire are very extensive. They have been wrought since 1760. The greater part of this salt is exported. In England, duties upon salt were im- posed in the reign of William III. In 1798 they amounted to 5*. a bushel; but were subsequently increased to 15*. a bushel, or about 40 times the cost of the salt. The opinion of the public and of the house of commons having been strongly pronounced against the tax, it was finally repealed in 1823. SALTER'S Company, London, in- corporated 1558. SALTPETRE, or Nitrate of Pot- ash. Beckmann contends that the an- cients were unacquainted with saltpetre. It has been known, however, in the East from a very early period. Gunpowder was invented in India, and brought by the Saracens from Africa to the Euro- peans, who improved its manufacture, and made it available for war-like pur- {)oses. Saltpetre was first made in Eng- and in 1625. Lately a new species of saltpetre, under the denomination of nitrate of soda, has been received from South America. The imports of it have much increased since 1831. The deliveries of this description for home consumption, have been, in 1831, 70 tons; in 1832,690 tons; and in 1833, 1210. SAMARCAND, or Sarmacand, an- cient and celebrated city of Asia, formerly the capital of the kingdom of Sogdia, in the time of Alexander the Great. In the time of Jenghiz Khan in the 13th cen- tury, it was forced to yield to the arms of that cruel conqueror. It was after- wards, in the 14th century, the capital of the empire of Timour the Great, and was then in its zenith. Although less magnificent than formerly, and much de- clined since the time of Timour, it is still large and populous. Of late, under the government of Shah Murad Bey, who took it from the Tartar tribe, it has re- covered some of its former greatness. SAMARIA, a country of Judea, with a capital city of the same name. The city was built by Omri, king of Israel, wh© began to reign in a.m. 3079, and died A.M. 3086. It was besieged by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, and taken three years after in a.m.' 3283. When SAN 768 SAN Alexander the Great came into Judea, he took Samaria, and put in Macedonians to inhabit it ; giving the country round it to the Jews, The kings of Egypt and Syria, fwho succeeded Alexander, de- prived them of the property of this country. But Alexander Balas, king of Syria, restored to Jonathan Maccabseus, the city of Lydda, Ephrem, and Ramatha. Lastly, the Jews re-entered into the full possession of this whole country, under John Hircanus the Asmonaean, who ruined it. It continued in this condition till A.M. 3937, when Aulus Gabinius, the proconsul of Syria, rebuilt the city and gave it the name of Gabiniana. Herod the Great, before the birth of Christ, restored it to its ancient lustre, and gave it the Greek name of Sebaste. The Samari- tans have latterly been very few in num- ber. An account of their usages was published by Joseph Scaliger,in a.d, 998, translated into Latin by Father Morin ; printed in England in 1682. SAMOS, (ancient Parthenias,) island of the Grecian Archipelago, separated from Asia Minor by a narrow strait. Its capital of the same name was built A. c. 986. The Samians assisted the Greeks against the Persians when Xerxes invaded Europe, and were reduced under the power of Athens, after a revolt, by Pericles a.c. 441. They were after- wards subdued by Eumenes, king of Pergamus, and were restored to their ancient liberty by Augustus. Under Vespasian, Samos became a Roman pro- vince. SAMUEL, the twelfth and last judge of Israel, for 21 years, about A.c. 1116. SANCHONIATHON, an ancient Phoenician philosopher and historian, who flourished about a.c. 1100. Of this writer, the only remains extant are sundry fragments of cosmogony. SANCROFr, archbishop of Canter- bury, born I6l6; committed to the Tower, tried, and acquitted, 1688 ; de- prived 1689 ; died November 24, 1693, aged 77. SANCTORIUS, an ingenious Italian physician, born 1561, died 1636. SANCTUARIES, instituted 617; abolished in England 1534. SANDBY, ThoxMas, an Enghsh artist, born 1721, died June 24, 1798. SANDBY, Paul, an English artist, born 1732, died 1809. SANDEMANIANS, a modern religi- ous sect that originated in Scotland about 1728, called also Glassites from Mr. John Glass, who was expelled by the synod from the church of Scotland. About 1755, Mr. Robert Sandeman pubhshed a series of letters, in which his views of faith corresponded with that of the Glassites, and gave his name also to the SANDERSON, English antiquary, died 1741. SANDOWN Castle, Isle of Wight, built 1539. SANDWICH, borough, Kent, and one of the cinque ports, under Wil- fred, archbishop of Canterbury, about 655, gradually advanced to importance. In the reign of Henry VI., the French landed and plundered the town. Charles VIII. of France despatched hither 4000 men, who landed, and after a bloody conflict, gained possession of the town, set fire to it, and put most of the inhabi- tants to the sword. To prevent the re- currence of such disasters, Edward IV. new walled, ditched, and fortified it. Since then [it has in great measure re- covered its prosperity. SANDWICH Islands, group of is- lands. North Pacific Ocean, discovered by Captain Cook in 1778. It was at Owhyee, the largest of this groupe, that he lost his life in 1779. See Owhyke. The inhabitants of these islands have been particularly'distinguished by their efforts to raise themselves to the level of European arts and civilization. In this career they were first led by Ta- mahama I., who about 1794, with the assistance of Vancouver, and of Young and Davis, two English seamen, began to form a small navy. His son, Riho- Riho, in 1819 embraced Christianity, and abolished idolatrous worship. Since 1825, missionaries from the United States have made great efforts for the instruc- tion of the natives, and have estabhshed an extensive influence. The principal commercial activity prevails at Hono- rocu, in the island of Woahoo, the only place in these islands deserving the name of a town. Recently, however, Mowee, or the island of that name, has been pre- ferred by many as a place for re-fitting. 1838. A newspaper was established in the Sandwich islands ; the first number of which furnishes some curious particu- lars of their state and- progress. From July 1, to Dec. 14, 1836, there were 154 arrivals at the port, of which 80 were brigs and schooners belonging to the SAR 769 SAD country, 56 from the United States, and 17 from England. A treaty of com- merce was concluded in Nov. 1837, be- tween the king and Lord F. Russell, of H.M.S. Acteon, which secures to British siibjects the right to establish themselves in the Sandwich islands, to build houses and import all sorts of merchandize. SANSON, Nicholas, an eminent French geographer, born 1600, died 1667. SAPPHO, a celebrated lyric poetess of antiquity, was born at Mitylene, in the isle of Lesbos, about a.c. 610. Of her numerous poems, there is nothing remaining but some small fragments, a Hymn to Venus, and an Ode to a Young Female. SARAGOSSA, or Zaragoza, city, north-east of Spain, has a university founded in 1478; an academy of fine arts, and two public libraries. This city is celebrated for the sieges of 1808 and 1809, which were sustained with the greatest courage and perseverance against the French armies. In 1835 an insur- rection took place at Saragossa against the ecclesiastics; five or six of the con- vents were broken into, and pillaged or set on fire; and 12 monks were mur- dered in cold blood. SARDINIA, kingdom, south of Eu- rope, called also the kingdom of Pied- mont and Sardinia, consisting of the island of Sardinia, Piedmont, Savoy, Genoa, &c. The reigning family is de- scended from the counts of Savoy, who are of great antiquity. In the early part of the 11th century, a branch of that house possessed the principality of Pied- mont: but becoming extinct in 1418, their dominions were added to Savoy. The political importance of this state was increased by the contest between France and Austria for the north of Italy; in which, after the siege of Turin by the French in 1706, followed their signal defeat by the allies, under prince Eu- gene. After a peace of half a century, the kingdom of Sardinia took part in the wars of the French revolution. This contest was maintained until 1796, when the assumption of the command by Buo- naparte led to the overthrow of the allied forces, and the conclusion of an unfavourable treaty of peace. This was followed by the removal of the royal family to the island of Sardinia, and the incorporation of their continental states with the French territory. They were restored to the legitimate sovereign on the overthrow of Buonaparte in 1814. The Genoese territory was added by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. SARPl, or Father Paul. See Paul. SARUM, Old, formerly an ancient, and now a deserted and disfranchised borough, Wilts. It returned members to parliament the 23d of Edward I.; and the next return was made the 34th of Edward III., since which time it has continued to return members till the passing of the Reform Act in 1832, when the borough was disfranchised. SARTI, SiGNOR, musical composer, born 1720, died July 28, 1802. SAUNDERS, George, F.R.S., ar- chitect, and a diligent and learned anti- quary, died 1839. SAUNDERS, Prince, attorney- general of Hayti, one of the best educated men of colour in America, was born at Thetford, United States. About 1806 he was employed to teach a free coloured school at Colchester, in Connecticut, and afterwards in Boston. From Boston he went to Hayti, where he was employed by Christophe to improve the state of education in his dominions, and was sent to England to procure means of instruc- tion. After a while he again returned to Hayti, where he was made attorney- general. He died at Port-au-Prince> Feb. 1839. SAUNDERSON, Nicholas, the mathematician, bom 1739, aged 57. SAURIN, James, a celebrated French protestant preacher, was born at Nismes in 1677. Being captivated with a mili- tary life, in 1694 he made a campaign, and served with reputation till I696. He afterwards studied divinity, and in 1705 fixed his residence at the Hague, where he became one of the pastors to a church of French refugees. He died Dec. 30, 1730, aged 53 years. His justly cele- brated sermons were published in 12 vols. 8vo. and 12mo., and selections, translated into English, were published between the years 1775 and 1784, by the Rev. Robert Robinson, of Cambridge, in five vols. 8vo. SAURIN, William, formerly, during 15 years, attorney-general for Ireland, and greatly respected for his talents and virtues. He died at Dublin February 11, 1839, aged 83. SAUSSURE, Horace Benedict, naturalist and traveller, was born at SAV 770 SAX Geneva in 1740. At the a^e of 22, he obtained the professorship of philosophy at Geneva, which he held with high reputation during a period of 25 years. The first volume of his travels through the Alps was published in 1779- During the troubles which agitated Geneva in 1782, he made his beautiful and inte- resting experiments on hygrometry, which he pubHshed in 1783. In 1786 he pub- lished his second volume of travels, con- taining a description of the Alps round Mont Blanc. The two last volumes of his travels, which appeared in 1796, contain a great mass of new facts, and observations of the greatest importance to physical science. He died March 22, 1799, in his 59th year. SAVAGE, Richard, a poet and miscellaneous writer, was born in 1698. After passing through various scenes in low hfe, as recorded by his biographer Dr. Johnson, he was condemned for murder in 1727, pardoned in 1728, and died in 1743. SAVAGE Island, South Pacific Ocean, discovered by Captain Cook in 1774, visited by Mr. Williams, the missionary, in 1834, who took with him two Aitutakian teachers ; but apprehend- ing that their lives would be in danger, they returned to the vessel ; so that, at present, no intercourse has been opened with this island. SAVARY, an eminent French tra- veller and writer, was born at Vitre in Brittany, about 1748. In 1776 he tra- velled into Egypt, where he resided almost three years, employing himself in acquiring the Arabic language, and in studying the antiquities and manners of the people. On his return to France in 1780, he published several works, the most important of which was his '* Let- ters on Egypt," in 3 vols. 8vo., in 1785. He died February, 1788. SAVARY,dukeof Rovigo, SeeRoviGO. SAVILLE, Sir George, afterwards marquis of Halifax, and one of the greatest statesmen of his time, was born about 1630. He was a strenuous opposer of the Bill of Exclusion ; but proposed such limitations of the duke of York's autho- rity, as should disable him from doing any harm either in church or state. He died April, 1695. SAVILLE, Sir Henry, a learned Englishman, was born at Bradley, near Hahfax, in Yorkshire, in 1549. In 1596 he was chosen provost of Eton College, which he filled with many learned men. He was a great benefactor to the university of Oxford, and in 1619 founded two professorships, one of geo- metry, and the other of astronomy, and endowed each with a salary of £180 per annum ; he also gave at his death a legacy of £600 to purchase more lands for the same use. After a life spent in the encouragement of literature and science, he died at Eton College, Feb- ruary 19, 1622. SAVINGS Banks. See Banks, p. 64. On Nov. 20, 1839, the total num- ber of depositors in these banks was 610,027- Total amount of money in- vested by depositors £18,033,992. Of charitable institutions, number depo- sited, 6355; amount of money invested, £381,500. Friendly societies, number deposited, 6086. Amount of money in- vested, £830,729. SAVOY, duchy, Europe, part of the continental states of the kingdom of Sardinia ; was anciently part of GalUa Narbonensis, which submitted to the Romans a.c. 118. The Alemans seized it A.D. 395. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title of earl. Amadeus VIII., earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund, em- peror of Germany, to erect his dominions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, Feb. 19, 1417. The last duke having taken Sicily in 1713, by the assistance of England, was made king of that country, but by the peace of Utrecht, changed for Sardinia, 1718. Great part of the country was ceded to France in 1796; seized by the French, Dec, 1798, who were repulsed in 1799 ; but subju- gated it again in the year following. It was restored to Sardinia 1816. In Feb., 1834, an attempt was made by 400 men, chiefly Polish refugees, Piedmontese, and other Italians, headed by General Romarino, to revolutionise Savoy. The attempt was a signal failure, and the conspirators fell back on Geneva, where they were disarmed, after a vain attempt to excite an insurrection there also. SAVOY Palace, Strand, London, built 1245, converted into an hospital 1549, burnt down March 2, 1776. SAWTREE, Sir William, the first that was burnt alive on account of reli- gious opinions in England, Feb. 19, 1401. SAXE, Maurice, Count of, a cele- brated general, born at Gosl^r. Han'>-'>r, SAX 771 SCA in 1696, was the natural son of Frederick Augustus I., elector of Saxony and king of Poland. In 1717 he served in Hun- gary under Prince Eugene, was present at the siege of Belgrade, and at a battle which the prince gained over the Turks. In 1733 he entered the French service, and his brilliant services caused him, in 1734, to be advanced to the rank of lieutenant-general. After a short peace in Europe, the death of the Emperor Charles VI., occasioned a new war, and in 1741 Count Saxe took Prague by escalade, and then reduced Egra. In 1744 he was made mareschal of France, and commanded a part of the French army in Flanders. In 1745 he gained the famous battle of Fontenoy, and he was greatly distinguished in the cam- paigns of 1747 and .4748, which last was followed by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. He died Nov. 30, 1750. SAXE-COBURG. See Coburg. SAXON Heptarchy. See Hep- tarchy. SAXONY, kingdom of Europe, formerly an electorate. The first mar- grave of Meissen who bore the title of elector began his reign in 1422. In the beginning of the l6th century, John Frederick, the elector, took a conspi- cuous part in the reformation. See Re- formation. The Saxons were vigor- ously engaged in the thirty years' war, in support of the protestant religion which was terminated by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. But in 1697 the temptation of acquiring the crown of Poland, vacant by the death of Sobieski, induced the reigning elector, Augustus I., to profess himself a catholic. The Swedes, howeA'er, under Charles XII., invaded Saxony, bringing great distress into the country; this was relieved by the march of Charles into Russia, after which the crown of Poland was resumed by Augustus. 1806. The eleetor, Frederick Augus- tus IV. sent all his troops into the field, in support of Prussia against France, when Buonaparte, by his success, at- tached the Saxons to his cause, made the elector king, and Prussian Poland was added to the Saxon dominions. In 1813 the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen took place ; and the attack on Dresden, and the decisive engagements at Leipsic, were followed by the retreat of Buona- parte to the Rhine, and by divesting the king of Saxony of the government. Agreeably to the decision of the congress at Vienna, his title was restored in 1815, but a considerable portion of his terri- tory was separated from the kingdom, and transferred to Prussia. Frederick Augustus IV. died at Dresden, on May 5, 1827, in the 77th year of his age. He was succeeded by prince Anthony Cle- ment, who was already 72 years old. In 1830, political commotions were ex- cited at Dresden ; a few days after vi^hich the king resigned his authority to his nephew, Frederick, whom he appointed regent. SAY, Jean Baptist, author of " Political Economy," born 1767, died 1833. SCALIGER, Julius C^sar, an eminent scholar, who was also a poet, physician, and philosopher, born 1484. He died in 1558, in his 75th year. SCALIGER, Joseph Justus, one of the most learned critics and writers of his time, and the son of the preceding, was born at Agen in France in 1540. In 1593 he was made honorary profes- sor of the university of Leyden. He died of a dropsy in that city in I609. SCANDERBERG, whose proper name was George Castriot, a prince of Alba- nia, was delivered up as a hostage to Amurath II., sultan of the Turks, who spared him on account of his youth. In a short time he became one of the most renowned generals of the age. Revolting from Amurath, he joined Hanniade Corvin, a most formidable enemy to the Ottoman power. He recovered the throne of his ancestors, and maintained the independency of his country against Amurath and his successor,'Mahomet 11., who was obHged to make peace with him in 1461. He obtained several important victories, and saved his own capital, which was invested by a great army under Mahomet himself. He died in 1467. SCAPULA, John, the reputed author of a Greek lexicon, which has long been in great esteem in the literary world. Being employed by Henry Stephens as a corrector to his press while he was publishing his " Thesaurus LinguaB Graecee," Scapula made an abridgment in one volume, and published it as an original work, with his own name. Sca- pula's lexicon was first printed in 1570i in 4to. SCARPA, Antonio, professor of ana- tomy at Pavia, died October 31, 1833. SCH 772 SCH SCARRON, Paul, a French writer of burlesque, was born at Paris in 16 10. He married Mademoiselle D'Aubigne, afterwards the famous Madame de Main- tenon. He died in 1660, at the age of 50. SCHELE, Charles William, a celebrated Prussian chemist, was born at Stralsund in 1742. At Upsal he began the series of experiments on that remark- able mineral substance manganese ; from which investigation he was led to make the interesting discovery of oxyrauriatic acid in 1774. His name was well known by all Europe, and he was member of several learned academies and philoso- phical societies. He died in 1786. SCHILLER, Frederick, a German dramatist, born November 10, 1759, died May 9, 1805. SCHLEGEL, Frederick Von, au- thor of the " History of Literature," &c., born at Hanover, 1772, died 1829- SCHOMBERG, Duke of, a distin- guished officer, was born in 1608, served under William H. of Orange. He fol- lowed the prince to England when he came to take possession of the throne of these realms. In August 1689 he was sent to Ireland, to reduce that kingdom to obedience, and was killed at the battle of the Boyne the same year. SCHOOL OF Design, Somerset House, opened June 1837. SCHOOLMASTERS' Society, in- stituted 1798. SCHOOLS, Charity, or institutions for the instruction of the ignorant poor, have been established in England for more than a century. The design had its origin in 1698, when a great number of parishes in London associated together for this purpose. Trustees were chosen in each district to overlook the managCT ment of the masters and mistresses, and to prescribe rules and orders for the go- vernment of each school. In 1700 it was thought necessary that the trustees should be formed into a voluntary society, and that a chairman should be elected to preside at the meetings of the trustees. In 1729 rules and orders for the better regulation of the various institutions were recommended by several trustees of the schools, &c. 1713. Out of 2250 youths who had been placed as apprentices and servants from these schools, more than 1400 assembled at St. Bride's church, in which a sermon was preached before them. In 1716, about 4800 children attended on the anniversary of the cha- rity schools, at St. Sepulchre's church. Afterwards the trustees were allowed the use of St. Paul's for their meeting ; and thi.'^ has been continued annually, in the month of May, to the present time. The plans formed by Dr. Bell and Mr. Lancaster for the general education of the lower classes, which became ge- nerally known about the year 1798, gave rise to the institution of the British and Foreign School Society, and the National School Society, which have been the means of diffusing the benefits of educa- tion to a great extent. The British and Foreign School Society, instituted in 1805, on the plan of Mr. Lancaster, conducts its operations on a large scale. It has in London up- wards of 100 schools, and about half that number in the country within ten miles of the metropohs, yielding instruction to about 20,000 scholars ; besides a great number of schools throughout the king- dom more or less connected with it. Its foreign operations extend nearly all over the world. In particular the society has corresponding connections in France, Russia, Canada, Malta, South Africa, West Indies, United States, Denmark, &c. The following is a statement of the annual increase of schools on the Lan- casterian system in the kingdom of Den- mark :— 1823, 244 schools; 1824, 605 schools; 1825, 1143 schools ; 1826, 1545 schools; 1827, 2003 schools. Schools organizing in 1828, 368 ; that is to say, 2371 schools for the Danish dominions. The National School Society was instituted in 1811, and has extended its operations, under the patronage of the established church, to every part of the kingdom. These are conducted on the plan of Dr. Bell, who, in 1789, when a chaplain to the East India Company, undertook the management of a charity school established at Madras. In 1797, on his return to England, he pubhshed "An Experiment in Education, made at the Male Asylum at Madras, suggesting a System by which a School or Family may teach itself, under the Superintend- ence of the Master or Parent ;" and his system was adopted by the National School Society. By the official returns, it appears that the number of unendowed day schools in England, in 1818, was 1411 ; the number of children, 50,034; in 1828, unendowed day schools 326Qi SCH 773 SCH children 105,571. Since then the pro- gress of the system has been eo rapid that it is estimated that a milUon and a half of the children of the humbler classes are receiving the advantages of daily education. Sunday Schools owe their origin to Robert Raikes, of Painswick, in Glou- cestershire, who first attempted the plan at Painswick, and it was carried into ex- ecution in the city of Gloucester about 1782. This led to the institution of the following societies: — Sunday School Society, origi- nated by W. Fox, Esq., who was born Feb. 14, 1736, at Clapton, in Gloucester- shire, but who afterwards resided in London. It was formed in London in 1785, "for the establishment and sup- port of Sunday schools in the diflFerent counties of England." Sunday School Union established on the 13th July 1803, when a nume- rous assembly was convened at Surrey Chapel School Rooms. The objects of this Union are, by mutual communica- tion to improve the methods of instruc- tion ; to ascertain those situations where Sunday schools are most wanted, and promote their establishment ; to supply books and stationery suited for Sunday schools at reduced prices. The report for the year ending May 1840 stated that 22 grants had been made during the past year in aid of the expense of erect- ing Sunday school-rooms, amounting to £495, making the total number of grants up to the present time 173, amounting to £3879. The number of Sunday school lending libraries granted this year had been 127, making a total of 598. The following is a general statement of Sunday schools in the United King- dom for 1839. Tabular Statement.Eng- ~| land and Wales, from Parliamentary i returns J Schoola. 16,827 1,161 2,813 500 50(i 400 22,201 Teachera. 136,437 5,000 20,596 5,000 2,500 4,000 Scholus. 1,548,890 63,326 214,462 50,000 35,000 40,000 Add, not included in"] Parliamentary re- turns Scotland] Ireland Estimated omissions — England Scotland Irelsmd Estimated totals in the -i United Kingdom / 173,533 1,951,678 Schools in Ireland. The follow- ing summary is taken from the second report of the Commissioners, 1836 : — Total number of daily schools in Ireland, 9657; number of daily schools sup- ported wholly by payments from the children, 5653 ; number of daily schools supported wholly, or in part, by endow- ment or subscription, 4004 ; number of daily schools of which the books con- taining lists of the children were pro- duced, 8886. The total number of scholars, 583,413. SCHREVELIUS, Cornelius, ,lexi- cographer, died 1667. SCHULTEUS, the Dutch philologist, born 1686, died 1750. SCHWARTZ, Berth., discoverer of gunpowder, died 1340. SCHWARTZ, Christian Fre- derick, an eminent Christian mission- ary, was born at Sonnenburg, in Bran- denburg, on the 26th of October, 1726. In 1746 he travelled to Halle, where he availed himself of the instructions of the tutors of the university. Under the sanction of the Danish Mission College he was sent to India, and arrived at Tran- quebar on the 30th of July, 1750. After labouring zealously with his colleagues for some years, he was directed by the college to establish himself at Trinchi- nopoly, under the " Society for promot- ing Christian Knowledge" in England. He visited Tanjore several times in 1772, in order to strengthen the congregation there. He resided in India during a pe- riod of 50 years, embracing every oppor- tunity of promoting both the temporal and spiritual welfare of the people. Among the many fruits of his indefati- gable labours was the erection of the church at Tanjore in 1779. The Chris- tian seminaries at Ramnaporam and in the Tinnevelly province were established by him. The late Hyder Ally Cawn, in the midst of a bloody and vindictive war with the Carnatic, sent orders to his officers " to permit the venerable Father Schwartz to pass unmolested." The late Tuljaja, rajah of Tanjore, when on his death -bed in 1787, desired to entrust to his protecting care his adopted son, Serfojee, with the administration of all the affairs of his country. On a spot of ground, granted to him by the same prince, two miles east of Tanjore, he built a house for his residence, and made it an orphan asylum. Here the last 20 years of his life were spent in the educa- tion and religious instruction of children, and here, on the 13th of February, 1798, he closed his truly christian career, in his 7 2d year. The East India Com- SCL 774 SCO pany, anxious to perpetuate his memory, quent date the Venetians extended their caused a monument to be erected to acquisitions to this country. It remained him in 1807. subject to them and the Hungarians until SCHWEITZ, a canton of Svvitzer- overrun by the Turks in 1540, in whose land, in conjunction with those of Uri possession it continued till 1687; soon and Underwalden, threw off the Austrian after which they lost this and all the yoke in 1308, and formed a perpetual territories which the Austrians possess alliance in 1315, which was the grand north of the Save and Danube, foundation of the Helvetic confederacy. SCONE, a village of Perthshire, Scot- SCILLY Isles, a group of islands at land, chiefly remarkable as the former the west entrance of the English Channel, residence of the Scottish monarchs. As early as 96 1 they belonged to the Here was once an abbey, founded in Benedictine abbey of Tavistock, from 1114, where they were crowned. It was which period to the 30th of Henry VIII. burnt by the populace at the period of they were governed by lords abbots, the Reformation, and afterwards rebuilt, and coroners, or crown officers. After Charles II. was the last king crowned in having been granted away by Henry VIII. the kirk. It was made the residence of they reverted to the crown by exchange the Count D'Artois of France, 1798. in the reign of Queen Mary; and Eliza- SCOTLAND, anciently Caledonia. Its beth, in 1571, gave them to Francis authentic history began in the first cen- Godolphin ; but, after ha\Ting been more tury, when the Romans under Agricola than 200 years under the sway of Go- invaded the country, a.d. 203 this coun- dolphins and Osbornes, dukes of Leeds, try received the Christian faith. 838. they again lapsed to the crown (1831), The Picts and Scots were united under and are at present under the duchy of one monarchy by Kenneth II., the 69th Cornwall. king, and called Scotland. 1032. Divided SCIO, ancient Chios, an island in the into baronies. 1263. Invaded by the king Grecian archipelago, conquered by Cyrus of Norway near Loch Lomond. 1283, king of Persia, in the sixth century, a.c, on the death of Alexander III. the crown afterwards a Roman province, till it fell of this kingdom was disputed by 12 can- with the eastern empire under the Otto- didates, who submitted their claims to man power. In 1822, during the Greek the arbitration of Edward I. of England, war, the inhabitants of this island were which gave him an opportunity to con- given up to indiscriminate massacre, and quer it. 1296. Its regalia and crown it is calculated that above 40,000 were were taken and brought to England, with slain. the coronation chair, now in Westminster SCIPIO, PuBLius Cornelius, a Abbey. 1314. RobertBruce recovered the celebrated Roman general, surnamed kingdom and secured its independence Africanus, for his conquests in that coun- by the decisive battle of Bannockburn. try. His other signal military exploits This nation boasts of a line of kings, were, his taking the city of New Car- who pretend to deduce their pedigree thage in a single day; his complete vie- from Fergus, a.c. 328. Metellus, the tory over Hannibal, the famous Cartha- I7th king of Scotland, died a.d. 29. ginian general ; the defeat of Syphax, The following is a list of the Scottish king of Numidia, and of Antiochus, in kings from this period : — Asia. He died A.c. 180. Name. Beganto reign. SCIPIO,PubliusEmilianus, being Caractacus a.d. 32 adopted by Scipio Africanus, he was Corbred I ».... 54 called the younger Africanus. He showed Dardanus 70 himself worthy of his adoption, follow- Corbred II 72 ing the footsteps of Scipio Africanus, Luctatus 104 whom he equalled in military fame and Mogaldus 107 public virtues. He was strangled in his Conarus 142 bed by order of the Decemviri, who Argadus 146 dreaded his popularity, A.c. 129, aged 56. Ethodius I I6l SCLAVONIA, province of the Aus- Satrael 193 trian empire, formed under the Romans, Donald 1 197 part of ancient Illyria, and derives its Ethodius II 216 name from a tribe of Sclavi, who settled Achiro 230 here in the sixth century. At a subse- Nathalocus 242^ SCO Name. Began to reign. Findocus 252 Donald II 262 Donald III 263 Crathilinthus 277 Finchormarchus 320 Romachus 368 Augusianus 371 Fethelmachus 373 Eugenius 1 376 Fergus 1 403 Eugenius II 419 Dongard 451 Constantine I 457 Congale 1 479 Goran 1 501 Eugenius III 545 Congale II 558 Chinlane, or Cumatillus 568 Aidan 569 Kenneth I 604 Eugenius IV 6o6 Ferchard 1 622 Donald IV 632 Ferchard II 646 Maldvvin 664 Eugenius V 684 Eugenius VI 687 Amberchelet 697 Eugenius VII 698 Mordac 715 Etsinius 730 Eugenius VIII 761 Fergus II 763 Solvatius 76Q Achaius , . 787 Congale III 819 Dongal 824 Alpin 831 Kenneth II 834 Donald V 854 Constantine II 858 Ethus 874 Gregory. ... ; 876 Donald VI. ..." 892 Constantine III 903 Malcolm 1 938 Indulphus 958 Duphus 968 Cullenus 972 Kenneth III 973 Constantine IV 994 Grimus 696 Malcolm II 1004 Duncan 1034 Macbeth 1040 Malcolm III 1057 Donald VII 1093 Duncan 11 1095 Donald VII. again 1095 775 SCO Name. Began to reign. Interregnum I096 Edgar IO96 Alexander 1 1 107 David 1 1124 Malcolm IV.; 1153 William 1165 Alexander II 1214 Alexander III 1240 Interregnum 1245 John Baliol 1292 Robert 1 1306 David II 1329 Edward Baliol 1332 David II. again. 1341 Robert II 1371 John Robert 1390 James 1 1405 James II , . 1437 James III 1460 James IV ] 488 James V., 1513 Mary Stuart 1542 The accession of the infant Mary, in 1542, at six years of age, and her re- moval to France, proved very favourable to the ambitious designs of Henry VIII., who now proposed a union of the two kingdoms by the marriage of his son Edward VI. with Mary, the young Queen. This union did not take place, but the kingdom was governed by regents : the earl of Arran in 1542 ; the earl of Murray 1567 ; earl of Lenox, July 12, 1570 ; earl of Mar, September 6, 1571 ; earl of Morton, November 24, 1572. James VI. of Scotland succeeded to the crown of England 1603. This produced a union of the two crowns, and in 1707 the two kingdoms were united by a legis- lative act, 5 Anne, March 6, and took the title of Great Britain. See Britain. SCOTT, Jonathan, LL.D., oriental professor at the royal military and East India colleges, Calcutta, and author of various works connected with oriental literature. He died February 11, 1829. SCOTT, John, engraver of animals, was a native of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. He was one of the eight artists who met together in the year 1809-10, to frame the fund for the benefit of decayed artists, their widows, and children. He died February 1828, aged 54. SCOTT, Thomas, a divine of the church of England, chiefly noted for his excellent commentary on the Old and New Testament, was born at Braytoft, in Lincolnshire, Feb. 16, 1747. In 1783 he was settled at Olney, in Buckingham- SCO 776 SCO shire ; and in a few years after he removed to London, and preached at the Lock Hospital. Here he formed the plan of an asylum for the discharged female patients ; and by means altogether of his pastoral exertions, a meeting was held April 18, 1787, at which the duke of Manchester presided, when his design was carried into execution. The first number of his great work, " The Family Commentary," appeared on March 22, 1788, and the last copy was sent to press June 2, 1792. In 1801 he obtained the living of Aston Sandford, where he died April 16, 1821. His writings, particu- larly his Commentary, fully entitle their author to be considered as the most labo- rious and most useful writer of his day. SCOTT, Sir Walter, our most eminent novelist, and often designated as the Great Magician of the North, was born at Edinburgh, May 15, 1771- After having been two years under the rector of the High School, he was placed in the university of Edinburgh, Oct. 1783. "While still at the High School, he made his first attempt in original versification; the subject being a thunder storm which happened one day as he and his compa- nions were amusing themselves. He published " The Minstrelsy of the Scot- tish Border" in 1802, and in 1805 "The Lay of the Last Minstrel." Shortly afterwards he obtained the reversion of the office of a principal clerk in the Court of Sessions, salary about £1200 a-year. In 1808 he published his second poem of magnitude, "Marmion," which brought an immense increase of reputation to the author. In 1811 appeared the "Vision of Don Roderick;" in 1814 "The Lords of the Isles," " The Bridal of Triermain," and " Harold the Dauntless," were pub- lished anonymously : they made a very slight impression upon the public. It now became evident to our author that his day as a poet was well nigh past. About the close of the last century he had commenced a tale of chivalry in prose, founded upon the legendary story of Thomas the Rhymer. Subsequently he resolved upon a prose romance rela- tive to an age much nearer our own time. "Waverley" was published in 1814, and as the title-page was without the name of the author, the work was left to win its way in the world without any of the usual recommendations. About this period our author removed to Abbotsford. It was chiefly to this spot that the world is indebted for a se- ries of the most delightful fictions that ever appeared. To " Waverley" suc- ceeded, in 1815, " Guy Mannering;" in 1816 "The Antiquary," and the first series of " The Tales of my Landlord," containing " The Black Dwarf," and " Old Mortality ;" in 1818 " Rob Roy," and the second series of " The Tales of my Landlord," containing "The Heart of Mid Lothian;" and in 1819 the third se- ries of "Tales of my Landlord," contain- ing "The Bride of Lammermoor," and " A Legend of Montrose." " Ivanhoe," which appeared in the beginning of 1820, came out as the production of the author of " Waverley." To it succeeded, in the course of the same year, " The Monas- tery," and "ITie Abbot." In the be- ginning of the year 1821 appeared " Ke- nilworth," making 12 volumes, if not written at least published in as many months. In 1822 he produced "The Pirate," and " The Fortunes of Nigel ;" in 1823 "Peveril of the Peak," and " Quentin Durward ;" in 1824 " St. Ro- nan's Well," and " Redgauntlet;" in 1825 "Tales of the Crusaders;" in 1826 "Woodstock;" in 1827 " Chronicles of the Canongate," first series; in 1828 " Chronicles of the Canongate," second series ; in 1829 " Anne of Geiernstein," and in 1831 a fourth series of " Tales of my Landlord," in four volumes, con- taining two tales, respectively entitled " Count Robert of Paris," and " Castle Dangerous." The whole novels pub- lished at various periods by Sir Walter, make 74 volumes. The late king, George IV. was pleased in March, 1820, to create him a baronet of the United Kingdom. In Jan. 1826, Messrs. Constable and Co., his publishers, became bankrupts, and Sir Walter found himself called on to meet the demands of creditors upon commercial establishments with which his fortunes had long been bound up, to the extent of no less than £120,000. The blow was endured with a magnanimity worthy of the greatest writer of the age ; and he endeavoured by increasing efforts in authorship, to weaken the force of the storm; but his health, which from his l6th year had been very good, began to fail. His physicians recommended a residence in Italy, and in April 1831 he proceeded to Rome, where he was re- ceived with every mark of attention and respect ; but as all hopes of amendment SEC 111 SEN were at an end, he determined upon re- turning with all possible speed to his native country, and his death took place at Abbotsford, Sept. 21, 1832. A mo- nument Avas erected to his memory at Edinburgh in 1840, the foundation stone of which was laid Aug. 15, with great ceremony, and at which 4000 persons SCOTUS,JoHN. See Duns ScoTUS. SCRIPTURES. See Bible. SCRIVENERS' Company, London, incorporated I6l6. SCUDERY, George, French writer, born 1603, died 1667. SCUDERY, Magdalen De, French writer, died 1701. SEA-HORSE, transport, stranded by a gale in Tramore Bay, Ireland, when 365 persons, chiefly soldiers of the 59th regiment, were drowned, January 30, 1816. SEALS not much in use with the Sa.xons ; but they signed parchments with the cross, impressions of lead being affixed. Sealing charters and deeds first introduced into England 1065. There was a seal of King Edward's at Westminster, about 1188. Coats of arms were not introduced into seals till 1218, Great seal of England first used to crown grants, &c. 1050; stolen 1784. SEALING-WAX brought into gene- ral use 1556. S EATON, Rev. Thomas, who in- stituted the prize poems at Cambridge, born about 1684, died 1750. SEBASTIAN, St., town, Spain, province of Biscay, has been repeatedly taken by the French ; it fell into their hands in 1719, in the revolutionary war of 1794, and on Buonaparte's invasion in 1808. It was taken by the British in 1813, SECKER, Dr. Thomas, a celebrated prelate of the church of England, was born in 1693, at Sibthorpe, Nottingham- shire. At the age of 19, he had made considerkble progress in Greek and Latin, and had acquired a knowledge of French, Chaldee, and Syriac. In Dec. 1734, the king advanced him to the see of Bristol, and in 1737, he succeeded to the see of Oxford, a promotion which he held for more than 20 years. On the death of Archbishop Hutton, he was promoted to the see of Canterbury, and was confirmed at Bow Church, April 21, 1758. All designs and institutions which tended to advance good morals and true religion, he patronized with zeal and generosity ; he contributed largely to the maintenance of schools for the poor, and to I'ebuilding or repairing of parsonage houses and places of wor- ship. He died Aug. 3, 1768, in his 75th year. SEDAN Chairs introduced into England by the duke of Buckingham 1734. SELDEN, John, a distinguished scholar, and eminent political character, was born at Salvington in Sussex in 1584. He entered himself at Clifford's Inn, in order to study the law, and about two years after removed to the Inner Tem- ple, where he soon acquired great reputa- tion by his learning. In 1625 he was chosen burgess for Great Bedwin in Wiltshire, to serve in the first parliament of Charles I., in which he declared himself warmly against the duke of Buckingham. In 1627 and 1628, he opposed the court party with great vigour. In 1640 he was chosen mem- ber for the university of Oxford, when he again opposed the court. In 1643 he was appointed one of the lay-mem- bers to sit in the assembly of divines at Westminster, and was the same year appointed keeper of the records in the Tower. In 1645 he was made one of the commissioners of the admiralty. He died in 1654, and was interred in the Temple church, where a monument is erected to his memory. His works, which were numerous, were published collectively in three volumes folio, by Dr. David Wilkinsin 1726, with a Latin life of the author. SELKIRK, Alexander, the hero of the fascinating novel entitled " Ro- binson Crusoe," was a native of Largo a parish of Fifeshire, in Scotland, and sailing-master of a vessel named the " Cinque Ports' Galley." While navi- gating this vessel in the Pacific Ocean, he was put on shore by the command of Stradling, the captain, on the uninhabited island of Juan Fernandez, as a punish- ment for mutiny, on October 4, 1704. In that solitude he remained five years and four months, when he was discovered and brought to England by captain Woodes Rogers, Sejjtember 1709; he died 1723. SENECA, Lucius Ann^eus, a cele- brated philosopher, was born at Corduba in Spain, about the beginning of the 5 Q SEP 778 SET christian era. Entering into public life he obtained the office of quaestor, and had risen to some consequence in the court of Claudius, when he was accused of an adulterous commerce with Julia, the daughter of Germanicus, and was banished to the island of Corsica. Agrip- pina being married to Claudius, she prevailed with the emperor to recall Seneca from banishment, and afterwards procured him to be tutor to her son Nero. By the bounty and generosity of his royal pupil, Seneca acquired that prodigious wealth, which rendered him in a m:inner equal to kings. When Nero began to display his real character the influence of Seneca over his pupil was entirely lost, so that the tyrant de- termined on his destruction. Under the pretence of Seneca's connection with a conspiracy, a military tribune was sent with a band of soldiers to his house, where he was commanded to put an end to himself. The death which he chose was that by opening his veins, and he expired in the year 65, and in the 12th year of Nero's reign. SENEGAL, or Senegambia, a coun- try of Africa, situated between the rivers Senegal and Gambia, and including many kingdoms and states. By the treaty of 1783, the river of Senegal and its dependencies were left in the posses- sion of the French, who had extended their factories above 500 miles from the shore. In 1784 was founded the com- pany of the gum of Senegal, which ob- tained an exclusive privilege of trading in gum, slaves, gold dust, &c. In 1791 this company was suppressed by the na- tional assembly, and the trade with Se- negal was declared free. The island of Senegal, situated in the river so called, was taken from the French by the British troops in 1758 ; and by the peace of 1763 it was ceded to Great Britain. SENNEFELDER, Aloys, theinven- ventor of lithography, died at Munich, Feb. 25, 1834, in his 63d year. SEPTUAGINT, the name given to a Greek version of the books of the Old Testament, supposed to be the work of 72 Jews, in obedience to the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who died a.c. 246. The Septuagint chronology reckons 1500 years more from the creation to Abraham than the Hebrew bible. Dr. Kennicot, in the dissertation prefixed to his Hebrew bible, has shown it to be probable that the chronology of the Hebrew scriptures was corrupted by the Jews, between a.d. 175 and 200, and that the chronology of the Septuagint is more agreeable to truth. SERINGAPATAM, city, Hindoostan, province of Mysore, on an island of the same name. In 1792 Tippoo's army was defeated by Lord Cornwallis, under the walls of this city. In 1799 it was stormed by General Harris, when Tippoo wa8 killed, and the British government ob- tained possession of the island. SERTORIUS, QuiNTUs, Roman war- rior, flourished A.c. 73. SERVETUS, Michael, alearned Spa- nish physician, was born at Villaneuva, in Arragon, in 1509. He was burnt at Geneva, as was supposed at the instiga- tion of Calvin, because he differed from him respecting his heresy, October 27, 1553. SERVIA, province, north of Euro- pean Turkey, were originally a tribe of Sclavonians from Galicia, in Poland, supposed to be of the same race as the Russians. Servia was occupied by in- vaders on the decline of the Roman empire. It yielded to the Turks in 1365. The oppression of the Turks led to an insurrection in 1801, when Czerni Georges, known as the head of a band of robbers, besieged and took Belgrade, and expelled the Turks from the country till 1814, when he withdrew into Russia; and by a convention concluded between his country and the Porte in 1815, the Servians acknowledged the sovereignty of the sultan, but observed the free ex- ercise of their religious as well as their civil rights. SESSIONS, or Quarter Sessions, an English court that must be held in every county, once in every quarter of a year. The jurisdiction of this court, by 34 Edward III, c. 1, 1360, extends to the trying and determining all felonies and trespasses whatsoever. Court of Sessions, otherwise called the College of Justices, is the supreme court in Scotland for all civil causes. It was first appointed by James I. 1425 ; abolished 1503 ; re-established by James v., 1531; reinstated at Edinburgh 1756. SETTLEMENT, Act of, a name given to the statute 12 and 13 Will. III. C.2., 1689, whereby the crown was hmited to the illustrious house of Hanover, and some new provisions were added for bet- ter securing our religion, laws, and liber- SEY 779 SHA ties, which the statute declares to be the birthright of the people of England, according to the ancient doctrine of the common law. SEVERUS, Septimius, a Roman emperor, who has been much admired for his military talents. Some have called him the most warlike of the Ro- man emperors. He died in 211. SEVE^US' Wall, built in the north of England, 208. SEVIGNE', Marie De Rabutin, MARauiSE De, a celebrated French lady, was born in 1626. In 1644 she married the marquis of Sevigne, who was slain in a duel by the chevalier D'Albert in 1651. Her daughter, who in 1669 married the count de Grignan, accom- panied him to his government of Pro- vence ; and this separation gave rise to the greater part of the letters which have gained her so high a reputation. She died in 1696, aged 70. SEVILLE, city and province, Spain. The city is supposed to have been founded by the Phoenicians, who gave it the name of Hispalis. The Romans embellished it with many magnificent edifices ; of which scarce any vestige now remains. The Gothic kings for some time made it their residence : but in process of time they removed their court to Toledo. In 1027, Seville be- came an independent monarchy ; but was conquered 70 years afterwards by Yusef Almoravides, an African prince. At last it was taken by Ferdinand II., after a year's siege ; from this period it has always made a part of the dominions of the kings of Castile. The silk manu- facture was also formerly very flourish- ing in this place, so that in the year 1248 it employed 16,000 looms, and 130,000 persons. Seville surrendered to the French in 1812, who left it after- wards at the general evacuation of the south of Spain. SEWARD, Anna, the author of the elegy on Captain Cook, died in 1809, aged 66. SEWARD, William, the author of " Biographical Sketches of Eminent Characters," &c.,died 1799. SEYCHELLES, group of islands, Indian Ocean, situated to the northward of Madagascar. They were partially explored by M. Lazarus Picault in 1743, by order of Mahe De La Bourdon nais, the governor of the Isle of France. They capitulated to the English in 1794, after which their flag was considered neutral betv/een the English and French. On the capture of the Mauritius in 1810, the islands were |taken possession of as a dependency of that colony, and have since continued under the superintend- ence of an agent deputed from Mauritius. SEYMOUR, Lord, made lord high- admiral 1547 ; married the widow of Henry VIII., March, 1548 ; who died in child-bed, September following. He was beheaded on Tower-hill, March 20, 1549. SHAFTESBURY, Earl of. See Cooper. SHAKESPEARE or Shakspeare, William, the prince of dramatic writers, was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, in Warwickshire, April 23, 1564. His father being incumbered witli a large family of children, was somewhat reduced in circumstances. Shakspeare continued in domestic obscurity for some time, till, by an unhappy instance of miscon- duct, he was obliged to quit the place of his nativity, and take shelter in London. As his name is found printed among the lists of players in some old plays, it is probable that he was early employed as an actor. It is difficult to ascertain what was the first poetical essay of the genius of Shakspeare. The highest date Rowe has been able to trace is "Romeo and Juliet" in 1597, when the author was 33 years old ; and Richard II. and III., the next year. Queen EHza- beth had several of his plays acted before her ; and she was so well pleased with the admirable character of Falstaff, in the two parts of " Henry IV." that she recom- mended him to continue it in one play more, and to make him in love. This is said to have been the occasion of his writing the "Merry Wives of Windsor," in 1601. 1603. A hcence, by King James I., was granted to him, with Burbage, Philips, Hemmings, Condel, &c., *' to exercise the art of playing comedies, tragedies, &c., as well at their usual house called the Globe, on the bank- side, Southwark, as in any other part of the kingdom, during his majesty's pleasure." The whole dramatic works of Shakspeare consists of 35 pieces, com- mencing with the first part of " King Henry VI." in 1589, and ending with "Twelfth Night," 1614. In 1623 his plays were collected and published in folio by two of his friends in the com- pany of comedians, Hemmings and Con- SHA 7S0 SHE del. The latter part of our author's life was spent in ease and retirement. He resided some years before his death at his native town, Stratford-upon-Avon, in a handsome house he had purchased, which he had the good fortune to save from the flames, when a dreadful fire consumed the greatest part of the town in 1614. He died April 23, I6l6, in the 53d year of his age, and was interred among his ancestors, in the great church of Stratford, where there is a handsome monument erected to his memory. In 1740 another very noble one was raised at the public expense in Westminster Abbey, an ample contribution for this purpose being made upon exhibiting his tragedy of " Julius Caesar," at the theatre-royal in Drury Lane, April 28, 1738. The Shaksperian Jubilee, or the festival in celebration of the birth-day of Shakspeare, was first held at Stratford in 1769, under the patronage of Garrick, and since continued. In 1827, it was revived by the Shaksperian club with unusual festivities. SHARP, Abraham, mathematician and astronomer, born in 1651. He kept up a correspondence with most of the eminent mathematicians and asrono- mers of his time, as Flumsteed, Newton, Halley, Wallis, Hodgson, &c. He died in July 1742. SHARPE, archbishop of St. An- drew's, born in 1618, was shot in his coach. May 8, 1679. SHARPE, Granville, the philan- thropist, one of the first who set on foot the inquiry into the African slave trade, died July 8, 1813. SHAW, Dr. Thomas, the traveller, was born at Kendal, [in Westmoreland, about the j'ear 1692. He was educated at the grammar-school of that town, and in 1711 .was admitted of Queen's College, Oxford. Soon after he had taken orders, he was appointed chaplain to the English factory at Algiers, in which station he continued for several years, and from thence took opportunities of travelling into different parts of Barbaryand Egypt. He returned in 1733, was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and published the account of his travels at Oxford, folio, 1738: a supplement was added in 1746. " Dr. Shaw's Travels have been regarded as particularly useful in illustrating the scriptures by comparisons between the ancient and modern state of the eastern regions," In 1740 he was nominated principal of St. Edmund Hall, and was regius professor of Greek at Oxford, until his death, which happened in 1751. SHAW, Dr. George, the celel)rated naturalist, was born in 1751, at Bierton, in Buckinghamshire. In 1765 he was entered at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. He was ordained deacon in 1774, at Buck- den, by Dr. Green, bishop of Lincoln, but afterwards laid aside his tlieological career, and went to Edinburgh to qualify himself for the profession of medicine. In 1789 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and the following year became a candidate for the office of a librarian in the British Museum. He now quitted the duties of physician, and devoted himself entirely to researches in natural science. In 1800 he began his great work, entitled " General Zoology, or Natural History," with plates from the best authorities and most select spe- cimens, in which the Linngean arrange- ment, with occasional variations, has been pursued throughout. In the year 1806 and 1807, Dr. Shaw delivered a course of zoological lectures, which were pubhshed in 1809. In 1807, upon the death of Dr. Gray, keeper of natural his- tory in the British Museum, Dr. Shaw was promoted to that office. He died July 28, 1813, in his 62d year. SHEBBEARE, John, M.D., author of " Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea," born 1709. He was pilloried at Charing Cross, Dec. 5, 1758, for his *' Letters to the People of England," the object of which was to show that this nation was injured by its connection with Hanover. He died 1788. SHEERNESS, seaport, Kent, situated at the confluence of the Medway with the Thames. An ancient fort at Queen- borough having been blown up by the Dutch fleet in 1667, a new one was commenced at this place by order of Charles II. A regular fortification was afterwards constructed, and forts built on both sides of the Medway for the de- fence of the river. The town, which is entirely of modern origin, gradually rose in its vicinity. SHEFFIELD, borough, Yorkshire, is of great antiquity; it is the chief place of the extensive district of this county called Hallamshire, the same as the Saxon manor Hallam. There was for- merly a strong castle, in which Mary Queen of Scots was confined 14 years. SHE 781 SHE In lG46 it was so completely demolished that nothing now remains but a few ves- tiges of the underground works ; but the site is still called Castle Hill. Sheffield is famous for its manufac- tures of cutlery. In 16'25 the master manufacturers were first incorporated by the style of the company of cutlers of Hallamshire; and about 1750 this town assumed the rank it now holds in manu- facturing opulence. In 1758 the silver plated manufacture was commenced on an extensive scale, and has subsequently been prosecuted with great advantage. SHELDON, Archbishop, died Nov. 9, 1677. SHELLEY, Percy Bysshe, poet, died 1822, aged 30. SHENSTONE, William, an ad- mired English poet, was born at Hales Owen, in Shropshire, in 1714. He was sent in 1732 to Pembroke college, in Ox- ford, where he first discovered his poeti- cal genius, and produced some composi- tions of considerable merit. He pub- lished, in 1740, his " Judgment of Hercules ;" and this was two years after- wards followed by the " School Mis- tress." He died Feb. 11, 1763. SHEPHERD, Rev. Revett, a cele- brated English naturalist, born 1778, died 1830. SHERARD, William, founder of the botanic professorship at Oxford, died 1728. SHERBORNE Castle, Dorset, built 1107. SHERIDAN, Dr. Thomas, the in- timate friend of Dean Swift, born about 1684, in the county of Cavan, Ireland. He died Sept. 10, 1738. One of the vo- lumes of Swift's Miscellanies consists almost entirely of letters between him and Dr. Sheridan. SHERIDAN, Richard Brinsley, grandson of the preceding, a celebrated English public cliaracter, and dramatic writer, was born in Sept. 1751, at Dub- lin. His father, Mr. Thomas Sheridan, was an actor of considerable celebrity, but devoted the latter part of his life to the profession of a schoolmaster. In 1770, in conjunction with a Mr. Halhed, an old school-fellow at Harrow, Mr. She- ridan commenced his literary career by the production of a farce, in three acts, called "Jupiter," written in imitation of the burletta of " Midas." On Jan. 17, 1775, his comedy of "The Rivals" was brought out at Covent Garden ; which after some alterations rose into public favour, and established his reputation. He rapidly made his way into the very highest circles. Mr. Fox pronounced him the wittiest man he had ever met with ; and his ambition being kindled by such applause, he determined to try his fortune in parliament, and was re- turned for Stafford. Sheridan's first appearance as a politi- cal character was in conjunction with Mr. Fox, in 1780, when the resolutions on the state of the representation were laid before the public by the West- minster committee. Annual parliaments and universal suffrage were the professed objects of this meeting. In 1812 Mr. Sheridan made an unsuccessful attempt to be returned again for Stafford, by which his means were exhausted, and he was left a lonely and helpless wreck upon the waters. His last moments were marked by circumstances of ex- treme poverty and distress. Writs and executions came in rapid succession, and bailiffs at length gained possession of his house. After suffering the ex- tremes of misery and want he died July 7, 1816. SHERIDAN, Thomas, only son of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, died Aug. 12, 1817. SHERIFF, an officer of very great antiquity in this kingdom, being known in 1079, in the reign of WiUiam I. Anciently in some counties the sheriffs were hereditary, but the statute 9 Ed. II. s. 2, enacted, that the sheriffs should be assigned by the chancellor, treasurer, and the judges; as being persons in whom the same trust might with confi- dence be reposed. Sheriffs in London, were first appointed in 1189. SHERLOCK, Dr. William, an eminent English divine, was born in London in 1641. On the discovery of the Piye-house plot he appeared as an asserter of the doctrine of non-resistance. After the revolution, refusing to take the oaths to the new government, he was suspended from all preferments. During his suspension he published the " Trea- tise on Death," to which he is chiefly indebted for celebrity as an author. He died in 1707, in his 67th year. SHERLOCK, Dr. Thomas, a dis- tinguished prelate, and son of the preceding, was born in London in 1678., Being promoted to the deanery of Chi- chester in 1726, he soon after made his SHI 782 SHI first appearance in print, as a champion of the establishment, in " A Vindication of the Corporation and Test Acts " In 1728 he was promoted to the bishopric of Bangor ; and was translated to Salis- bury in 1738. In 1747 he was offered the see of Canterbury, which he declined on account of ill health, but afterwards recovering, he accepted the see of Lon- don in 1749. He died in 1761, in his 84th year. SHETLAND Isles, group of islands, Scotland, forming the most remote por- tion of the British dominions northward, and lying about 15 leagues north-east of the Orkneys. In the beginning of the 9th century, the Picts, having been conquered by Kenneth II., king of the Scots, sought refuge here in great num- bers, and erected many small castles as signal stations. Having failed in their hopes of recovering their territories in Scotland, they remained confined to the Shetland and Orkney islands, and con- tinued subject to the kings of Denmark till the final cession of the islands to James VI. of Scotland about 1600. SHETLAND Isles, New, cluster of barren islands, South Pacific Ocean. They were first seen by Dirck Gheritz, who commanded one of the five ships which sailed from Rotterdam in 1598, to make a western passage to India. After this time they were lost sight of till they were described by lieutenant Kendal, R. N., whose journal was com- municated to the Geographical Society by Sir John Barrow in 1831. SHIELD,WiLLiAM, an eminent musi- cal composer, was a native of the county of Durham. About 1792 he published his well-known " Introduction to Harmony." In 1817 his majesty appointed him master of his musicians in ordinary. His dramatic compositions were very nume- rous and eminently successful, among which were, " Rosina," "The Poor Soldier," &c. He also composed some iBxcellent songs, particularly " The Thorn," "The Wolf," "The Post Captain," &c. He died January 1829, aged 80. SHIP. The ships of remote antiquity were rudely put together with just suffi- cient compactness to keep out the water. The first ship seen in Greece is said to have arrived at Rhodes from Egypt A.c. 1485. Some ascribe the first rigging out of ships of war to Parhalus or Samyres, others to Semiramis, and others agam to Egaeon. The art of sailing is ascribed to the Phoenicians of Tyre and Sidon. See Navigation. Polybius, in his " Universal History," affirms that the first time the Romans ever adven- tured to sea was in the first Punic war, A.c. 264 ; but it was as late as A.c. 261, before the Romans had seriously deter- mined on building a fleet of ships of war. The Roman ships afterwards became su- perior to those constructed by any other nation ; for a law was enacted in the reign of the emperor Honorius, a.d.418, inflicting capital punishment on any who should instruct the barbarians in the art of ship-building. The Anglo-Saxon ships were very small, badly contrived, and ill- built; but the British ships of the 12th century were more numerous, larger, and better constructed, than they had been at any period before the conquest. Those of the largest size and strongest construc- tion, were called dromones ; of which kind was the famous Saracen ship, captured by Richard I., near the port of Aeon. The fleet of Richard I. of Eng- land, when he weighed anchor for the holy war from Messina, in Sicily, where he passed the winter, 1190-1, is said to have consisted of 13 dromones. Most of the ships which were employed at that time were probably very small. Ed- ward III.'s fleet, from Calais, 1347, con- sisted of 738 English ships, carrying 14,956 mariners, being on an average but 20 men to each ship. In the 15th century ships of a larger size were constructed. It is mentioned that a very large ship was built in 1449, by John Taverner of Hull ; and in the year 1455, King Henry IV., at the re- quest of Charles, king of Sweden, grant- ed a hcence for a Swedish ship of the burden of 1000 tons. In the fleet fitted out by Henry VIII., there was one ship, the Regent, of 1000 tons burden, one of 500. and three of 400 each. In 1575 the whole of the royal navy did not exceed 24 ships, and the number of merchant ships belonging to England amounted to no more than 135 vessels above 100 tons, and 656 between 40 and 100 tons. At the time of the Spanish Armada, the English navy was but little more than the above, but afterwards during succeeding reigns it rapidly in- creased. See Navy. The mercantile shipping of England first became considerable in the reign of SHI 783 SHI Elizabeth ; and gradually increased under her successors, James 1. and Charles I. At the restoration, the British shipping cleared outwards amounted to 95,266 tons. The war which was terminated by the treaty of Ryswick, l697j checked this progress. But commerce and navigation have steadily advanced with the excep- tion of two short periods, during the war of 1739 and the American war, from the beginning of the last century down to the present day. The number and tonnage of vessels employed in the coasting trade, which entered inwards and cleared outwards with cargoes, at the several ports of the United Kingdom, during the year ISSQ, was, inwards, ships 130,254 ; tonnage 10,610,404 : outwards, ships 142,895 ; tonnage 11,266,073. Number of other vessels which entered inwards and cleared out- wards, in the year 1839, was, inwards, ships 23,114; tonnage 3,957,468: out- wards, ships 18,423 ; tonnage 3,085,752. Vessels employed in the foreign trade of the United Kingdom, including repeated voyages during the year 1839, were, in- wards, vessels 27,961 ; tons 4,433,015 : outwards, A^essels 27,764; tons4,494,707. SHIP-BUILDING was first treated of as a science by Hoste in 1696. Ships' bottoms were universally sheathed with wood, chiefly deal, till after the middle of the 18th century; but this material had been long found to be very incon- venient. In 1770 copper was introduced for the sheathing of ships' bottoms. A great number of other improvements in the construction, fitting, and rigging of ships, has been introduced within the last 70 years ; but they are individually not of gieat importance, and to under- stand them requires minute description. The only improvements of magnitude are the introduction of steam as a pro- pelling power, (see Steam Naviga- tion,) and that of iron-built ships. 1839. April 25, was read to the Royal Society an "Account of Experiments on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the Purpose of discovering a Correction for the Deviation of the Compass produced by the Iron of the Ships," by G. Biddell Airy, Esq., A.M. In this paper, the problem of the deviation of a ship's compass, arising from the influence of the iron in the ship, more particularly in iron-built ships, is fully investigated ; and the principles on which the correc- tion for this deviation depends having been determined, practical methods for neutralizing the deviating forces are deduced and illustrated by experimental application. The first sailing vessel ever built of iron was constructed in Liver- pool, and named the Ironsides. She first sailed for Pernambuco, in 1839, which she reached in 47 days. The largest iron ship is building by Messrs. Ronalds, Fortdee, Aberdeen, for a Liver- pool company. Her length of keel is 130 feet; breadth of frame, 30 feet; depth of hold, 20 feet ; length over all, 137 feet; tons register, 537. SHIP Money, an imposition charged upon the ports, towns, cities, &c., of the realm, in the reign of King Charles L, in the j^ears 1635 and 1636, for the pro- viding and furnishing of certain ships for the king's service, &c. SHIPWRECK. Anciently the con- duct observed towards those that were shipwrecked was barbarous ; and in fact they were, in most instances, either put to death or sold as slaves. The Roman law made it a capital offence to destroy persons shipwrecked, or to prevent their saving the ship ; and the stealing even of a plank from a vessel shipwrecked or in distress, made the party liable to answer for the whole ship and cargo. Various statutes were made in England also, to protect those who suffered this calamity. But owing to the confusion and disorder of the times, they were very ill enforced; and|the disgraceful practices alluded to, continued to the middle of the last century, when more strenuous measures were adopted. By statute 1 and 2 Geo. IV. c. 75, it is enacted, that any person or persons wilfully cut- ting away, injuring, or concealing any buoy or buoy-rope attached to any anchor or cable belonging to any ship whether in distress or otherwise, shall be judged guilty of felony, and may, upon conviction, be transported for seven years. The loss of property by shipwreck is very great. It appears from an exami- nation of Lloyd's list from 1793 to 1829, that the losses, in the British mercantile navy onlj', amounted at an average of that period, to about 557 vessels a year, of the aggregate burden of about 66,000 tons, or to above l-40th part of its en- tire amount in ships and tonnage. Since then, the number of these calamities has in no degree diminished. The following account compiled from Lloyd's books. S II o 784 SIA shows the amount of shipwrecks from Jan. 1, 1832, to June 30, 1836. 1832. British, 345; foreign, 139- 1833. British, 626 ; foreign, 185. 1834. British, 432; foreign, 158. 1835. British, 594; foreign, 158. 1836. British, 284; foreign, 115. An invention for saving the lives of shipwi'ecked mariners was introduced by Capt. Manby, 1811. A method somewhat similar had been published 20 years before by Sergeant Bell. Captain Henvey, R.N., in 1839, invented a life-buoy of the simplest but most efficacious description, and one which has already proved use- ful in practice. The " Lincolnshire As- sociation for the Preservation of Lives in Shipwreck," combined the use of these life-buoys with Captain Manby's appa- ratus in such a way that the lives of mariners and of passengers on board stranded ships, they hope, may be saved, when, by all the means heretofore used, nothing could be done to relieve them. Captain Dansey, R.N., has invented a contrivance of the kite and messenger for the same humane purpose. This contrivance was practically exhibited at the United Service Institution, April 22, 1839, by Captain Saumarez, R.N. SHIPWRIGHTS' Company, Lon- don, incorporated 16 10. SHOEING OF Horses, first intro- duced into England, 481. SHOES. In the 9th and 10th cen- turies the greatest princes of Europe wore wooden shoes, or the upper part of leather and the sole of wood. In the reign of William Rufus, a great beau, Robert, surnamed the Horned, used shoes with long sharp points, stuffed with tow, and twisted like a ram's horn. The points continued to increase till, in the reign of Richard II., they were of so enormous a length that they were tied to the knees with chains, sometimes of gold, sometimes of silver. The long pointed shoes were called crackowes, and continued in fashion for three cen- turies in spite of the bulls of popes, the decrees of councils, and the declama- tions of the clergy. At length the parhament of England in- terposed by an act, 1463, prohibiting the use of shoes or boots with points or pikes, excepting two inches in length, and pro- hibiting all shoemakers from making shoes or boots with longer pikes, under severe penalties. But even this was not sufficient ; it was necessary to denounce the dreadful sentence of excommunica- tion against all who wore shoes or boots with ])oints longer than two inches. The present fashion of shoes was introduced in 1633, and the buckle began to be used about 1670. SHOVEL, Sir Cloudesley, a dis- tinguished British admiral, was born about 1650. In the battle of Bantry- Bay he commanded the Edgar, and, for his gallant behaviour in that action, was knighted by King William III. Soon after he was made rear-admiral of the red, and shared the glory of the victory at La Hogue. In 1694 he bom- barded Dunkirk. In 1703 he com- manded the grand fleet in the Mediter- ranean, and did every thing in his power to assist the protestants who were in arms in the Cevennes In 1705 he com- manded the fleet, together with tlie earl of Peterborough and Monmouth, which was sent into the Mediterranean. After an unsuccessful attempt upon Toulon, he sailed for Gibraltar, and from thence homeward with a part of the fleet. On October 22, at night, his ship, with three others, was cast away on tlie rocks of Scilly, when he with the whole of his crew perished. SHREWSBURY, Shropshire, is a place of great antiquity, and was built by the Britons on the ruins of Uriconiura, a Roman station. After the Norman conquest W'illiam gave this country to Roger de Montgomery, who built here a baronial castle of great strength. A battle took place here in 1403, between the armies of Henry IV., and the earl of Northumberland. When the parliamen- tary war first broke out Charles I. came here, and was shortly after joined by Prince Rupert, Prince Charles, and the duke of York. He established a mint, and the inhabitants took plate to a large amount to be melted down and coined for the necessities of their monarch. In 1687, James II. visited this place, and held his court in the council-house, used for the same purpose by Charles I. SHROPSHIRE. See Salop. SIAM, ancient kingdom of India beyond the Ganges. It was wholly un- known to Europe until the discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope. The first traces of its authentic history began about 1550. From 1687, Siam experienced much internal discord, and many sanguinary massacres. It remained, however, exempt from any SIC 785 SID serious external annoyance until 1754, when, in consequence of the conquest of Pegu, the Birraan dominions came in con- tact with those of Siam. In 1767, the Bur- mese captured Yuthia, the then capital, pillaged and burned it, and extirpated the royal family. In 1769, Piatac, a Chinese chief, collected some troops and expelled the Burmese from all their conquests ex- cept the provinces now belonging to the British along the bay of Bengal. He was succeeded by the first sovereign of the present dynasty, who reigned until 1 809, when the late king ascended the throne ; he died after a few days' illness. On the same day his oldest but illegitimate son, Prince KromaChiat, ascended the throne. In 1821, a mission from Bengal was dis- patched to Siam : but it was received with great jealousy and distrust. By the treaty of 1827 all British subjects may proceed by sea to any Siamese port. SIBERIA, territorj', Asiatic Russia, including the whole northern part of the continent of Asia. The exploration of Siberia may be dated from the period when Russia began to emancipate herself from the yoke of the Tartar conquerors. The czars, about the l7th century, having acquired a knowledge of the countries upon the Obi, began to erect little forts, and proceeded to colonize this district by making it a place of banishment for state criminals, — a practice which has been continued to the present day. SICILY, an island, Mediterranean, between Italy and Africa, which together with the continental dominions of the king of Naples, constitute the kingdom of that name. See Naples. Sicily, originally Sicania, derived its name from the Siculi, a people who invaded it from Italy. The Greeks resorted to it for the purpose of colonizing. The west and north coast were occupied by the Car- thaginians about A.G. 500. About a cen- tury and a half after took place the long military contest between the Romans and Carthaginians for the possession of the island, on the termination of which Sicily remained in possession of the former during many centuries. In the 8th and 9th centuries of the christian era, the Saracens succeeded in conquering Sicily, and, making Palermo their capital, remained in possession of the island 200 years. They gave way to the Normans, who conquered it in the 1 1 th century ; it afterwards submitted to the French in 1266. By the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, Sicily was given to the duke of Savoy, with the title of king. But in 1720, the Austrians exchanged it for Sardinia, and added it to Naples. The war of 1734, carried on by France and Spain against Austria, transferred the crown of Naples, or, as it was termed, of the Two Sicilies, to a branch of the royal family of Spain. The French revolution, in 1799, led to the expulsion of the royal family ~frora Naples, but they were restored in 1815. SICK AND WOUNDED SeAMEn's Incorporation began June 24, 1747- SIDDONS, Mrs., the celebrated actress, was the eldest daughter of Mr. Roger Kemble, the manager of an itinerent company of comedians. Early in life she was married to Mr. Siddons, and soon afterjoined a strolling company of no great reputation. Afterwards at Liverpool, Birmingham, &c., she acquired a celebrity which procured her an engage- ment at Drury-lane. Her first appear- ance as Portia took place there, Dec. 29, 1775. After having removed to Bath, she made her second appearance at Drury-lane, on the 10th Oct., 1782, in the character of Isabella. Her fame was soon spread abroad, and the theatre overflowed every night. Her talent in reciting dramatic works had been highly spoken of, which reaching the ears of the royal family, she was frequently invited to Buckingham-house, and Windsor, where she and her brother, John Kemble, often recited plays. She also visited several of her noble patrons, amongst whom Lord and Lady Harcourt stood con- spicuous. After acting with high reputation for many years she died, June 8th, 1831. Her remains were interred at Paddington church on the 15th of June. The number of persons assembled to witness the funeral could not be less than 5000. SIDNEY, Sir Philip, was born at Penshurst in Kent, in the year 1554. After visiting France, Germany, Hun- gary and Italy, he returned to England in 1575, and was next year sent by Queen Elizabeth as her ambassador to Rodolph, emperor of Germany. In 1585, after the queen's treaty with the United States, he was made governor of Flushing, and master of the horse. Here he distinguished himself so much both by his courage and conduct, that his reputation rose to the highest pitch. But his illustrious career was soon terminated ; for in 1586 he was wounded at the battle of Zutphen, and 5 M SIE 786 SIL carried to Arnheira, where he soon after died. SIDNEY, Algernon, was the second son of Robert earl of Leicester, and was born about the year 1617- His father, upon being appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, procured him a commission for a troop of horse in his own regiment in 1641. In 1643, he took part with the parliament, and accepted a captain's com- mission in the earl of Manchester's regiment of horse in 1644, and in 1645 he was raised to the rank of colonel of a regiment of cavalry by General Fairfax. In 1648 he was nominated one of the members of the high court of justice, appointed to try Charles I. Upon the restoration he retired to Hamliurgh, and afterwards to Frankfort, where he resided till 1677, when he returned to England and obtained from the king a pardon. Being brought to his trial for an alleged, conspiracy against the government, he was declared guilty, and suffered on Tower Hill, Dec. 7th, 1633. SIENNA, or Siena, ancient city, Tuscany, was long an independent repub- lic, but became subject to France and Spain'in the 16th centuiy, and was after- wards ceded to the court of Florence. The town is the seat of a university founded in 1321. SIERRA Leone, British colony, Western Africa, on a river of the same name. The first settlers here were the Portugiiese ; shortly afterwards, the En- glish established themselves upon Bance Island, in the middle of the river, in 1787. The Sierra Leone Company having been formed in 1791, with a charter for 31 years, the establishment was conducted with spirit ; but it had many difficulties to encounter. It was disturbed by inter- nal dissensions ; it was involved in con- tests with the bordering native states ; and in 1794 was plundered by a French squadron. The Sierra Leone Company being obliged to resign their concerns in 1807, the colony again reverted to the British government. By a convention in 1819 between Sir C. M'Cartby and a Timmanee chief, named Ka Konka, possessing country on the boundary of the peninsula, that chief ceded to Great Britain the unlimited sovereignty of the lands known by the name of Mar Ports and Roe Boness, situated on the hanks of the Bance river. In 1824, Ba Mauro, king of the North Balloms, ceded to Great Britain the islandsof Bance, Tasso, Tombo, &c. The colony thus extends over a mountainous tract of country, formed by two rivers, which nearly intersect it. Free-town, the capital, is built upon the south side of the Sierra Leone river, and at the northern extremity of the peninsula. The total population of the colony in 1831 amounted to 31,627. SI EYES, Abbe', a celebrated French politician and writer, was born May 3d, 1748, at Frejus. He was brought up to an ecclesiastical life, but at the time of the American revolution, abandoned his religious pursuits to enter into the field of politics. When Louis XVI. con- voked the States General, the Abbe Sieyes published his famous work, enti- tled, "What is the Third Estate ?" The author was leturned by the city of Paris as one of the members, and he was ex- ceedingly active in that assembly. He was elected to the Convention, where he voted for the death of the king, but from 1792 to 1795 he did not speak more than three times in that assembly. In May 1799 be was chosen a director in the room of Rewbell, and afterwards became president. It was while he was invested with this character, and by his influence, that the celebrated revolution of the 18th of Bruraaire took place, which led to the elevation of Buonaparte. On the 4th of April, 1814, he submitted to the Bourbons ; but, on the return of Buonaparte, in 1815, he was created a peer of France, and in 1816 was oMiged to remove to Brussels. After the revo- lution of 1830, he, like all other French exiles, returned to his native country, but he never reappeared on the political scene. He died June 20th, 1836. SILESIA, province of Prussia, was formerly subject to Poland, but was ceded to Bohemia in the 11th century. It passed with Bohemia to the house of Austria in the 16th century, but after the war which took place in 1740, the greatest part of it was ceded to Prussia. SILHET, district Hindoostan, pro- vince Bengal, the most eastern of the British possessions in Hindoostan. Prior to 1824, this district enjoyed a long tran- quillity, except by an attack on Gentiah, in 1774. In 1824 it became necessary to collect troops to guard against an invasion from the Birman empire ; and latterly the British became aggressors, by invading the contiguous province of Cachar. SIL m SIL . SILISTRI A, one of the frontier towns of Turkey. In 1773 several actions took place here between the Russians and Turks. It surrendered to the Russians in 1 829 ; the garrison of 8000 men, and 10,000 armed inhabitants, to be prisoners of war ; it was restored by the treaty of the same year. SILK. The art of rearing silkworms, of unravelling the threads spun by them, and manufacturing the latter into articles of dress and ornament, seems to have been first practisedbythe Chinese. It first began to be introduced at Rome from China, probably in the age of Pompey and Julius Caesar ; the latter of whom displayed a profusion of silks in some of the magnificent theatrical spectacles. Owing to the great distance of China from Rome, and the high price of silk in China, its cost, when it arrived at Rome, was so great, that a given weight of silk was sometimes sold for an equal weight of gold. In the beginning of the reign of Tiberias, a law was passed that no man should disgrace himself by wear- ing a silken garment. But the profligate Heliogabalus despised this law, and was the first of the Roman emperors who wore a dress composed wholly of silk. The exampleonce set^the customof wear- ing silk soon became general among the wealthy citizens of Rome, and through- out the provinces. China continued to draw considerable sums from the Roman empire in return for silk, now become indispensable to the Western World, till the sixth cen- tury. About the year 550, two Persian monks, who had long resided in China, and made themselves acquainted with the mode of rearing the silkworm, en- couraged by the gifts and promises of Justinian, succeeded in carrying the eggs of the insect to Constantinople. A new and important branch of industry was thus established in Europe. Greece, particularly the Peloponnesus, was early distinguislied by the rearing of silkworms, and by the skill and success with which the inhabitants of Thebes, Corinth, and Argos carried on the manufacture. Until the 12th cen- tury, Greece continued to be the only European country in which these arts were practised ; but the forces of Roger, king of Sicily, having, in 1147, sacked Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, carried oS large numbers of the inhabitants to Palermo, who introducod the culture of the worm, and the manufacture of ellk, into Sicily. From this island the arts spread into Italy ; and Venice, Milan, Florence, Lucca, &c., were soon after distinguished for their success ih raising silkworms, and for the extent and beauty of their manufactures of silk. The silk manufacture was introduced into France in 1480; Louis XI. having invited workmen from Italy, who es- tablished themselves at Tours. The manufacture was begun at Lyons about 1520 ; when Francis I., having got possession of Milan, prevailed on some artizans of the latter city to esta- blish themselves, under his protection, in the former. Henry IV. rewarded such of the early manufacturers as had sup- ported and pursued the trade for 12 years, with patents of nobility. The manufacture was introduced into England in the 15th century. In the reign of Elizabeth, the silk throwsters of the metropolis were united in a fellow- ship, in 1562 ; and were incorporated in 1629- Though retarded by the civil wars, the manufacture continued gradually to advance ; and in 1666, there were 40,000 individuals engaged in the trade. By the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685, Louis XIV. drove several hundreds of thousands of his most industrious subjects to seek an asylum in foreign countries; of whom it is supposed about 50,000 came to England. Such as had been engaged in the silk manufacture established them- selves in Spitalfields, where they intro- duced several new branches of the art. In 1697 parliament passed an act pro- hibiting the importation of all French and other European silk goods ; and, in 1 701, the prohibition was extended to the silk goods of India and China. In 1719 a patent was granted to Mr. (afterwards Sir Thomas) Lombe and his brother, for the exclusive property of the famous silk mill erected by them at Derby, for throwing silk, from models they had clandestinely obtained in Italy. From this period the history of the silk manufacture presents little more than complaints, on the part of the manufac- turers, of the importation of foreign silks ; impotent efforts on the part of parliament to exclude them ; and com- -binations and outrages on the part of the workmen. In 1773 was passed what is commonly called the Spitalfields Act, which entitled' the weavers of Middlesex SIL 78'8 SIM to demand a fixed price for their labour, which should be settled by the magis- trates ; and while both masters and men were restricted from giving or receiving more or less than the fixed price, the manu- facturers were liable to heavy penalties if they employed weavers out of the district. About 1785, however, the substitution of cottons in the place of silk gave a severe check to the manufacture, and the weavers then began to discover the real nature of the Spitalfields Act. Being interdicted from working at reduced wages, they were totally thrown out of employment ; so that, in 1793, upwards of 4000 Spitalfields looms were quite idle. In 1798 the trade began to revive ; and continued to extend slowly till 1815, and 1816, when the Spitalfields weavers were again involved in sufferings far more extensive and severe than at any former period. The monopoly enjoyed . by the manufacturers, and the Spitalfields Act, eflfectually put a stop to all improve- ment, so that the manufacture continued stationary in England, while on the Con- tinent it was rapidly advancing. At length the principal manufacturers in and about London subscribed, in 1824, a petition to the bouse of commons, against the restrictive acts ; and Mr. Huskisson moved, on the 8th of March, that the prohibition of foreign silks should cease on the 5th of July, 1826, and that they should then be admitted for impor- tation on payment of a duty of 30 per cent, ad imlorem. His proposal was agreed to ; and considerable reductions were at the same time effected in the duties charged on most of the dye stuflFs used in the manufacture. It is stated on the whole, that the effect of the opening of the trade has been such as to justify all the anticipations which the advocates of the measure had formed of its success. During 1822 and 1823, when the restrictive system was in its vigour, the entries for consumption of all sorts of raw and thrown silk amounted at an average to 2,454,842 lbs. a year. But at an average of 1832 and 1833 they rose to 4,565,850 lbs ; being an increase of nearly 100 per cent, upon the quantity entered during the monopoly. The exports of silks from France have been declining, while those from England have been increasing beyond all pre- cedent. The declared value of our exports of silk goods, in 1823, amounted to £351,409, whereas in 1833 it amounted to £740,294, and by the latest parliamen- tary return in 1839 to £868,118. 1839. An attempt has been made to establish the growth of silk in England. An experiment was made in one year at Nottingham, and detailed to the British Association by Mr. Felkin. He exhibited cocoons of the white and gold coloured products, adding, that except in one instance near London, for which the Society of Arts had awarded its premium in the year 1790, no one had succeeded in a similar experiment in England. The eggs were from Italy ; and neither the situation in the heart of the town, nor the season, had been propitious. The room, was, however, kept at a temperature of between 55'* and 70** ; and, especially from the worms fed on the mulberry leaves, the silk was of a good quality. SILKThrov^'sters'Company, Lon- don, incorporated 1629. SILVER. The most productive mines are in America, particularly in Mexico and Peru. There are also silver mines in Hungary, Saxony, and other parts of Europe, and in Asiatic Russia. Silver mines were discovered in Germany in 950 ; in Devonshire, England, 1294; at Potosi,1545 ; at Cusco, 1712 ; in Brittany, France, Nov. 1730. SIMMONS, Charles, D.D. author of the " Life of Milton," died 1826. SIMONIDES, Greek lyric poet, flou- rished A.C. 503. SIMPSON, Thomas, mathematician, was born at Market Bosworth, in Leices- tershire, in 1710. In 1737 he published his " Treatise on Fluxions ;" in 1740 "On the Nature and Laws of Chance," and " Essays in Speculative and Mixed Mathematics." After this appeared his " Doctrine of Annuities and Reversions," '• Mathematical Dissertations," &c. In 1743, he obtained the mathematical pro- fessorship at Woolwich Academy ; and soon after was chosen a member of the Royal Society. He died May 14, 1761, in his 51st year. SIM SON, Dr. Robert, mathemati- cian, was born in 1687. About the age of 25 he was chosen professor of mathe- matics in the university of Glasgow. His intimate acquaintance with all the ori- ginal works of the ancient geometers, as well as with their commentators and cri- tics, induced him to publish new editions of them, particularly the Elements and Data of Euclid, which appeared about. 175S He died in 1768, aged 81, SIN SINAI, mountain, Arabia, near the head of the Red Sea, celebrated in scrip- ture as the spot whence the law was given to Moses, a.c. 1491. At the foot of the mount is the Greek convent, St. Catherine, founded a.d. 1331. The summit of Sinai is marked at once by a Christian church and Turkish mosque. The descent terminates at the monastery of the Forty Saints, which has suffered greatly from the depredations of the Arabs, who, according to the most recent accounts, have now driven out the monks, and obtained entire possession of it. SINCLAIR, Sir John, of Ulbster, Scotland, a privy councillor, fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, &c. &c., was born at Thurso Castle, in the county of Caithness, in 1754. In 1775 he was admitted a member of the Faculty of Advocates, and was called to the English bar at Lincoln's -inn, May 9, 1782. In 1780 he was elected member for the county of Caithness, which he also represented in the parliaments of 1790, 1802, and 1807. In 1786 he undertook an extensive tour in the North of Europe ; and in the same year he was created a baronet of the United Kingdom by patent dated Feb. 14. In 1791 he procured the establishment of a society, in Scotland, for the improvement of wool ; and the Board of Agriculture, the labours of which are so well known, in 1793. His literary v/orks were very numerous, and were issuing from the press for more than half a century. He died Dec. 21, 1835. SINGAPORE, island. Straits of Ma- lacca, off the south point of the Malay peninsula, was taken possession of by the British under Sir Thomas Raffles, in 18 19. A treaty was concluded with the native chief, and in 1824 a regular ces- sion in full sovereignty of this and the neighbouring islands for 10 miles round it, was obtained from the sultan. When taken possession of by the English it had been inhabited for eight years by about 150 Malays, half fishermen and half pirates. In 1832 its population had reached 22,000. As a commercial mart, and key to the navigation of the seas in which it is situated, this settlement is of incalculable importance, having already an annual commerce amounting to up- wards of £3,000,000 sterhng. SINKING Fund, a provision made by parliament, consisting of a portion of the public revenue, appropriated to the 789 SLA payment of the national debt. See National Debt, and Funds. In 1715 different projects for this purpose were published by Edward Leigh, Mr. Asgill, and others. And in 1717 a plan for the gradual discharge of the debt was adopted by Sir Robert Walpole, which was afterwards generally known by the name of the sinking fund. For « few years the fund was strictly applied to the purposes for which it was established, but in ] 724, the sum of £15,144 19*. was taken from the fund, to make good the loss to the treasury from the reduction of the value of gold coin. In 1733 the gross sum of half a million was taken from it towards the supplies, at which time the medium annual produce of the fund for five years had been £1,212,000. The amount would have fully dis- charged the debt which then existed, but the alienation of it was continued. In March, 1786, Mr. Pitt brought forward his celebrated plan for the gradual extinction of the national debt by the establishment of a sinking fund, formed upon the model of that projected by Sir Robert Walpole, which was continued with some modifications for some time. But exhausted as the nation was by the stupendous efforts it had made during the progress of the war, it became im- possible to continue the collection of taxes required for maintaining this fund in its integrity, so that about the year 1824 the plan was virtually abandoned. SION CoiiLEGE, London- wall, founded 1623, incorporated 1664. SIX Clerks Office, Chancery-lane, London, built 1770. SKINNER, Stephen, English phy- sician and antiquary, born about 1622, died 1667. SKINNERS' Company, London, incorporated 1327. SLAVERY AND the Slave Trade. That slavery had its origin from war, appears extremely probable, and still more so that it existed at a very early period in the history of the world. In very remote ages, prisoners were most commonly put to death ; but the selfish gradually predominated over the more passionate feelings, and for many ages it was usual to reduce them to the condition of slaves ; being either sold by their captors to others, or employed by them as they might think fit. At a very early period, the Phoenicians had such an established commerce in SLA 790 SLA slaves, that, not satisfied with reducing to bondage their prisoners of war, they scrupled not to kidnap in cold blood persons who had never kindled their resentment, in order to supply their foreign markets. The origin of slavery in Greece and Rome was the same as in every other country. Prisoners of war were of course reduced to that state, as if they had been criminals. Fabius, whose cautious conduct saved his coun- try when Hannibal was victorious in Italy ,having subdued Tarentum, reduced 30,000 of the citizens to slavery, and sold them to the highest bidder. The gladia- torial exhibitions, so common at Rome, were contests between slaves, denomi- nated gladiators, trained to fight in public for the amusements of a ferocious popu- lace, who took the greatest delight in these sanguinary combats. Thousands were annually sacrificed in this inhuman sport. In consequence partly of their ill usage, and partly of its Ijeing accounted cheaper to buy than to breed slaves, vast num- bers were annually imported into Italy. Thrace and the countries round the Black Sea furnished large supplies of the best slaves ; and numbers were obtained from Egypt, Syria, Cappadocia, and other places. Delos in Cilicia was the greatest slave market of antiquity ; as many as 10,000 slaves have been sold there in a single day. The establishment of Christianity contributed more, perhaps, than any thing else, first to mitigate, and finally to suppress the abomination of slavery. But within no very long period after its abolition had been completely effected in every part of Europe, its horrors began to be inflicted on America. After the discovery of the new world, in con- sequence of the rapid destruction of the Indians employed in the mines of St. Domingo or Hayti, Charles V. au- thorised, in 1517, the introduction into the island, of African slaves from the establishments of the Portuguese on the coast of Guinea. The concurrence of the emperor was obtained by the interces- sion of the celebrated Las Casas, bishop of Chiapa, who, contradictorily enough, laboured to protect the Indians by en- slaving the Africans. The importation of negroes into the West Indies and America, having once begun, gradually increased, until the extent and import- ance of the traffic rivalled its cruelty and guilt. Sir John Hawkins" was the first Englishman who engaged in this traffic ; and such was the ardour with which our countrymen followed his example, that they exported from Africa more than 300,000 slaves between the years 1680 and 1700 ; and between 1700 and 1786, 610,000 Africans were im- ported into Jamaica only; to which adding the imports into the other islands and the continental colonies, and those who died on their passage, the number carried from Africa will appear immense. The importation by other nations, par- ticularly the French and Portuguese, were also very great, and the traffic was carried on without obstruction for nearly three centuries. Abolition of the Slave Trade. The first motion on this subject in the British parliament was made in 1776; but without success. The subject was not taken up systematically till 1787, when a committee was formed, of which Mr. Granville Sharp and Mr. Clarkson, whose names are imperishably associated with the history of the abolition of the slave trade, were members. This com- mittee collected evidence in proof of the enormities produced by the trade, pro- cured its circulation throughout the country, and succeeded in making a very great impression on the public mind. After a number of witnesses on both sides had been examined before the privy council, Mr. Wilberforce, on May 12, 1789, moved a series of resolutions condemnatory of the traffic. They were supported by Mr. Burke in one of his best speeches ; and by Mr. Pitt and Mr. Fox. But, notwithstanding the resolu- tions were carried, nothing was done to give them effect. In the following years the great struggle was continued with various suc- cess, but without any definite result. At length the triumpli of humanity and justice was finally consummated in 1807. A bill for the total and immediate aboli- tion of the slave trade, having been car- ried in. both houses by immense majo- rities, received the royal assent March 25, being the last act of the administra- tion of Mr. Fox and Loi-d Grenville. "Thus ended," says Mr. Clarkson, "one of the most glorious contests, after a continuance of 20 years, of any ever carried on in any age or country ; a con- test, not of brutal violence, but of rea- son ; a contest l)ctvveen those who felt dee})ly for the happiness and the honour SLA 791 &LA of their fellow-creaturee, and those who, through vicious custom, and the impulse of avarice, had trampled under foot the sacred rights of their nature, and had even attempted to eflface all title of the divine image from their minds." But notwithstanding what had been done, further measures were soon dis- covered to be necessary. The Spaniards and the Portuguese continued to carry on the trade to a greater extent than ever ; and British subjects did not hesi- tate, under cover of their flags, to be- come partners in their adventures. An attempt was made to put a stop to this practice in 1811, by the enactment of a law introduced by Mr. (now Lord) Brougham, that made trading in slaves punishable by transportation for H years, or by confinement to hard labour for a term of not more than five years nor less than three years. At the congress of Vienna, in 1814, the plenipotentiaries of the great powers agreed to a declaration that the slave trade was " repugnant to the principles of humanity and of universal morality ; and that it was the earnest desire of their sovereigns to put an end to a scourge which had so long desolated Africa, de- graded Europe, and afflicted humanity." But in spite of this memorable declara- tion, the immediate abolition of the trade was not agreed to. Though the trade nominally ceased in France in 1819, it was clandestinely car- ried on to a great extent in French ships. By an arrangement November 30, 1831, made with his Majesty Louis-Philippe, the right of search is reciprocally con- ceded, within certain limits, by the French and English ; so that French ships suspected of being engaged in the trade may be stopped by British cruisers. The Spanish slave trade was to have finally ceased in 1820, according to the stipulations in the treaty between Spain and this country, July 5 and August 28, 1814; but still slave ships were publicly fitted out from Cuba, and immense num- bers of slaves were imported into that island, with the open connivance of the authorities. A mixed commission court, consisting of British and Spanish com- missioners, was established at Havannah for the condemnation of vessels proved to have been engaged in the slave trade. Slaves were freely imported in im- mense members into Brazil, till Feb. 1830, when the trade was to cease, con- formably to the convention entered into with this country June 23, 1826. But although the legal abohtion of the traffic had been thus accomplished by so many powers, yet there is good evidence that the laws have been evaded and the traffic continued to an enormous extent. Sir T.F. Buxton, in 1838, in his work on the "African Slave Trade,'" shows that the trade in slaves has doubled since it was rehnquished in 1807, by the British nation ; that at the present time, certainly far more than 150,000, and probably 250,000 negroes are annually torn from the coast of Africa for the supply of the western slave markets alone. This statement is the result of modes of investigation altogether various and distinct, but which concur in ex- hibiting the same appalling amount of misery and crime. The largest propor- tion of these slaves are landed at the ports of Brazil and Cuba, but the trade is also actively carried on to Porto Rico, Texas, Buenos Ayres, and other coun- tries and colonies of America. "Within the last few years, the citizens of the United States have built many vessels, " only calculated for piracy and the slave trade." Sir T. F. Buxton states, on the testimony of African merchants engaged in the legitimate trade, corroborated by the high authority of Mr. Mac Lean, governor of Cape Coast Castle, that one- third of the slaves are paid for by the dealers in cotton goods, which to the value of £250,000 yearly are "manu- factured in Lancashire, and shipped to Brazil, Cuba, the United States, and elsewhere, intended for the slave trade, and adapted only for that trade." Abolition of Slavery. In the year 1823, the condition of the slaves in the British colonies was brought be- fore parliament. During the following ten years, strenuous effiarts were made in every shape to resist emancipation ; a society was then formed for the Aboli- tion of Slavery ; information was circu- lated through the country; auxiliary societies were established ; public feeling was universally excited ; petitions were poured into both houses of parliament, and laid before the throne, from cities, towns, and villages. In 1833, an act was passed by the legislature for the Abohtion of Slavery in the British Colonies. Under the statute (3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 73,) slaves were to become apprenticed labourers from August 1, SLA 792 SME 1834. They were divided into praedial and non-praedial. Apprenticeship of the praedial labourers was limited to Aug. 1, 1840. Apprenticeship of the non-prae- dial labourers to August 1, 1838. The treasury was empowered to raise loans, not exceeding £20,000,000, towards com- pensating the persons entitled to the services of the slaves to be manumitted and set free by virtue of this act, for the loss of such services. Directions were also given how the same was to be paid; and the interest and charges were made chargeable upon the consolidated fund. But, although a generous and con- fiding nation was betrayed into a grant of £20,000,000, the slave was not yet made a free-man ; consigned to an ap- prenticeship of six years, subject to the domination of the same master, he still groaned under the oppression and cruelty inseparable from the state in which he was placed; personal inspec- tion confirmed the worst apprehensions of the abolitionists, and proved that the apprenticeship was only slavery under another name. Again the sympathies of the British nation were aroused, and the efforts of the friends of justice and humanity were finally crowned with suc- cess. In 1838 the planters of Jamacia, finding themselves unable to maintain the conflict against reason and humanity with any hope of success, themselves passed a law in the legislative assembly terminating the apprenticeship system from Aug. 1, 1838. On Thursday, June 7, the bill was broughtin, andhavinggone through the preliminary stages, it was committed. After two days' discussion, the bill was passed, clauses being in- serted to provide for the aged and indi- gent negroes, as well as to prevent their ejectment from their domiciles without three months' notice. The other islands in the West Indies soon after followed this example, and it appears that no injurious consequences have resulted from this measure, but rather that it has proved favourable to the moral and spiritual condition of the slave population. 1839. A new society was formed to endeavour to extend the benefits of free- dom throughout the world. See Anti- Slavery Society. 1840. A general anti-slavery conven- tion, consisting of delegates from all parts of the world, assembled in London. It commenced its sittings at Freemasons* Hall, June 12. The conference lasted several days, when much important in- formation was elicited from the delegates, especially in relation to American slavery, and resolutions were passed calculated to promote the benevolent objects of the meeting. SLINGSBY, Sir Henry, governor of Hull, beheaded on Tower-hill with Dr. Hewit, June 8, 1658. SLONE, Sir Hans, a distinguished physician and naturalist, was born at Killelagh, Ireland, April 19, 1660. After studying four years in London, he visited foreign countries for farther improve- ment. About 1684 he returned to Eng- land, and was admitted a member of the Royal Society. In 1787 he was chosen a fellow of the College of Physi- cians. On the advancement of George I. to the throne, that prince, April 3, 1716, created him a baronet, and at the same time made him physician general to the army, in which station he con- tinued till 1727, when he was appointed physician in ordinary to George II. The death of Sir Isaac Newton, which hap- pened the same year, made way for the advancement of Sir Hans to the presi- dency of the Royal Society. In this oflSce he continued till 1740 when he resigned the presidency and retired to Chelsea, where he died, Jan. 11, 1752. SLUYS,or EcLUSE, town, kingdom of Belgium, was taken by the Spaniards in 1587, and in l604 the Dutch retook it. The French took it in 1747, but it was restored at the peace. SMALCALD in Franconia, league of entered into between the elector of Brandenburg and other princes of Ger- many, in defence of Protestantism, Dec. 1529. SMALL-POX. See Inoculation and Vaccination. SMALL-POX Hospital, Coldbath Fields, instituted Sept. 26, 1746. SMEATON, John, an eminent civil engineer, was born in May, 1724, at Austhorpe, near Leeds. In 1753 he was elected member of the Royal Society, and published a number of papers in their transactions. In 1759 he was honoured with their gold medal for his paper entitled, " An Experimental Inquiry concerning the Natural Powers of Water and Wind to turn Mills, and other Machines depending on a Circular Motion." In Dec. 1755, the Eddystune SMI 793 SMO iighthouse was rebuilt under Mr. Smea- ton's direction, and completed in the summer of 1759. See Lighthouse. He di«d Oct. 28, 1792. SMELLIE, Dr. William, eminent anatomist, died 1763. SMIRKE, R., architect, died at Brampton, Cumberland, July, 1815. SMITH, John Thomas, an eminent artist and writer, and keeper of the prints and drawings at the British Museum. He was author of '* Antiquities of London and its ISnvirons," containing views of houses, monuments, statues, and other curious remains of antiquity ; " Antiquities of Westminster," contain- ing 246 engravings of topographical objects, &c. In Mr. Upcott's album he wrote a playful account of himself, in which is the following paragraph. "J can boast of seven events, some of which great men would be proud of. I received a kiss, when a boy, from the beautiful Mrs. Robinson,— was patted on the head by Dr. Johnson, — have frequently held Sir Joshua Reynolds's spectacles, — partook of a pot of porter with an elephant, — saved lady Hamilton from falling, when the melancholy news arrived of Lord Nelson's death, — three times conversed with King George III. — and was shut up in a room with Mr. Kean's lion." He died March 8, 1833, aged 67. SMITH, Adam, the celebrated writer on political economy, was born at Kirk- aldy, in Scotland, June 5, 1723. He was sent in 1737 to the university of ■Glasgow, where he remained till 1740, when he went to Baliol College, Oxford. In 1748 he fixed his residence in Edin- burgh, and for three years read a course of lectures on rhetoric and belles lettres under the patronage of Lord Karnes. In 1751 he was elected professor of logic in the university of Glasgow, and the year following was removed to the pro- fessorship of moral philosophy. In 1776 he published his " Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations." He died in July 1790. SMITH, Sir E. J. first president of the Linnsean Society, and author of "En- ghsh Botany," died 1828. SMITH, Sir Sidney, an eminent British naval oflficer, was born in 1764, entered the navy at the age of 13, and early distinguished himself by his feats of courage and daring. His gallant defence of Acre in 1799 against the utmost efforts of the French army at Egypt will transmit his name with honour to posterity. See Acre. He was almost the first to interfere for the suppression of European slavesry in Africa, at the commencement of the present century, and made indefatigable and strenuous exertions in that humane cause. After a series of brilliant engagements ill the service of his country, at the latter period of his life he retired to France. He died at his residence Rue d' Aguesseau, Paris, May 27, 1840, and was interred in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. His funeral was attended by a great number of dis- tinguished persons. " Honoured by his sovereign, and decorated with numerous foreign orders, he was in private life beloved and respected by all who had the honour of his friendship or acquaint- ance. His chivalrous and lofty bearing, his cheerful and animated conversation, his unbounded fund of anecdote, the suavity of his temper, his invariable be- nevolence and good nature, rendered him a most welcome and instructive companion." SMOLENSKO, town, European Rus- sia. Being a place of strength, the Rus- sians made here their first serious oppo- sition to the French in 1812, when the town was bombarded and set on fire. It was entered by the French after a sanguinary battle, Aug. 18, and evacu- ated by them, Nov. 18, the same year. SMOLLET, Dr. Tobias, a celebrated writer, was born in 1720, at a small vil- lage in Dumbartonshire, Scotland. In the early part of his life he studied medicine, and served as a surgeon's mate in the navy. The incidents that befell him during his continuance in this capacity served as a foundation for " Roderic Ran- dom," one of themostentertaining covels in the English language, which was pub- lished in 1748. From this period a cer- tain degree of success was insured to every thing known or suspected to proceed from his hand. In the course of a few j'ears appeared the " Adventures of Peregrine Pickle," " Sir Launcelot Greaves," &c. Abandoning medicine altogether as a profession, he fixed his residence at Chelsea, and devoted his time entirely to writing. He translated " Gil Bias" and " Don Quixote," and was concerned in a great variety of compilations. His " His- tory of England" was the principal work of that kind. He was employed, during the last years of his life, in abridging the 5 I SMU 794 SOA " Modern Universal History," great part of which he had originally written him- self. He died Oct. 21, 1771. SMUGGLING, or the offence of de- frauding the revenuaby the introduction of articles into consumption, without paying the duties chargeable upon them, occupies a prominent place in the cri- minal legislation of all modern states. In England it is restrained by a great variety of statutes. 19 Geo. II. c. 34, makes all forcible acts of smuggling, carried, on in defiance of the laws, or even in disguise to evade them, felony without benefit of clergy. This act was made perpetual by 43 Geo. III. c. 15. More recently, 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 53, Aug. 28, 1833, makes a great number of regulations for the prevention of smuggling. Three or more armed per- sons assembled to assist in the illegal landing of goods, or in the rescuing of goods seized, or maliciously shooting at, maiming, or dangerously wounding any officer of the army, navy, or marines, duly employed in the prevention of smuggling, &c., shall suflfer death as felons. Any person in company with four others having prohibited goods, or with one other armed or disguised, shall be transported for seven years. Notwithstanding these statutes, the commercial relations between France and Great Britain afford very curious details as to the smuggling carried on between them. It has been estimated from a comparison of the shipments of diiFerent articles from France for Eng- land, with the imports into the latter, and other authentic data, that the total amount of duties evaded by the fraudu- lent importation of overtaxed French articles (exclusive of tobacco, whole cargoes of which are sometimes intro- duced into Ireland) into this country amounts to about £800,000 a year. Of this sum, the loss on brandy makes by far the largest item ; and is said to be " considerably more than £500,000." The smuggling on the frontiers of France was carried on to a large extent by horses till 1825, when it was sup- pressed. The director of the custom- house of France, July 30, 1831, made some curious statements on the fraudulent introduction of articles by dogs, which, since the suppression of smuggling by horses, have been employed. The first at- tempts were made in the neighbourhood of Valenciennes, afterwards at Dunkirk, Charleville, Thionville and Strasburg, and, last of all, in 1828, at Besan^on. In 1823, it was estimated that 100,000 kilo- grammes of goods were thus introduced into France; in 1825, 187,315; and in 1826, 2,100,000 kilogrammes; all these estimates being reported as rather under the mark. The dogs, which are of a large size, sometimes carry 10 kilogram- mes, and sometimes 12. The above estimate supposes that one dog in 10 in certain districts, and in others one in 20, is killed in this illicit traffic. In the neighbourhood of Dunkirk, dogs have been taken with burdens of the value of 600, 800, and even 1200 francs. The dogs which are trained to these " dis- honest habits" are conducted in packs to the foreign frontier ; they are kept without food for many hours, they are then beaten and laden, and at the begin- ning of the night started on their travels. They reach the abodes of their masters, which are generally selected at two or three leagues from the frontiers, as speedily as they can, where they are sure to be well treated and provided with a quantity of food. It is said they do much mischief by the destruction of agricultural property, and being tor- mented by fatigue, hunger, and hunted by the custom-house officers, they are exceedingly subject to madness, and they frequently bite the officers, one of whom died in consequence in 1829. They have also been trained to attack the custom-house officers in case of interference. SMYRNA, city, Asiatic Turkey, Asia Minor, one of the most celebrated of the ancient cities of Asia, and claims to be the birthplace of Homer. The original city was destroyed by the Lydians, but Antigonus and Lysimachus rebuilt it on a different spot. In modern times, Smyrna has been distinguished for its extensive trade. SNOWHILL, act of parliament passed for the improvement of, June 26, 1795. SOAP is generally divided into two sorts — hard and soft : the former is made of soda and tallow or oil, and the latter of potash and similar oily matters. The alkali employed by the ancient Gauls and Germans in the formation of soap was potash ; hence we see why it was described by the Romans as an unguent. The manufacture of soap in London first began in the year 1524; before which time this city was served with soc 795 SOC white soap from foreign countries, and with grey soap, speckled with white, from Bristol. London, Liverpool, New- castle, Bristol, Brentford, Frodsham, and Glasgow, are the great seats of the British soap manufacture. Thus, of 119,379,037 lbs. of hard soap made in Great Britain in 1832, London furnished 29,627,736 lbs.; Liverpool, 28,878,466 lbs. ; Newcastle, 6,982,049 lbs. ; Bris- tol, 6,861,407 lbs.; Brentford, 5,573,074 lbs.; Frodsham, 4,933,335 lbs.; and Glasgow, 4,607,354 lbs. Of 10,350,703 lbs. of soft soap, made during the same year, Liverpool furnished above half; the rest being supplied by Glasgow, London, Bristol, Hull, &c. The direct duty charged on hard soap, which is by far the most extensively used, amounted, till June 1833, to 3d. per lb., or 28*. per cwt., while the price of soap rarely exceeded 6c?. per lb., or 56s. per cwt. ; so that the direct duty was full 100 per cent. 1840. 3 and 4 Vic. c. 49, Aug. 4, consolidates and amends the laws for collecting the duties of excise on soap made in Great Britain. No less than 17 previous acts regulating the manu- facture of, and trade in, soap, are re- pealed by this act, so far as they relate to soap. SOAPMAKERS' Company, London, incorporated 1638. SOBIESKI, John, the heroic king of Poland, born 1629, died I696, SOCIETY FOR THE Propagation OF THE Gospel. See Missions. SOCIETY Islands, group of islands. South Pacific Ocean, was discovered and so named by Captain Cook, in 1769. The principal island is Otaheite or Tahiti, which sometimes gives the name to the group. See Otaheite. They were first visited by the missionaries in 1798, who introduced the gospel among them. Since the conversion of the in- habitants to Christianity, they have been visited frequently by Europeans, who bear testimony to their advances in civil- ization. Captain Waldegrave, R.N., recently gives the following account of them : — " The islands of this group acknowledging the sway of Queen Po- marre, are Otaheite and Eimeo; Raiatea, Huaheine, and Bona-bona being inde- pendent ; her revenue consists of taxes of cloth, oil, pigs, and arrow-root. The population, by a census made by the missionaries in 1828, was as follows : — Turaboo 2000 ; Otaheite 5000 ; Eimeo 13,000; Huaheine 2000; Raiatea 1700; Bona-bona 1800; TahaalOOO; Menra 1000. Through the persevering activity of the late missionary, Mr. Williams, they have made much greater advances towards industry than any of the other islands. SOCINIANS, a sect of anti-trinitafians who derived this denomination from Lse- lius and Faustus Socinus, and who arose in the 1 6th century. See Socinus. The chief school of the Socinians was at Racow, where they obtained the grant of a settlement, and there all their first books were published. But in 1638 the academy was destroyed, and their churches shut up. In 1658 another severe act was published requiring all the Socinians to leave the kingdom. This edict was renewed in 1661 ; and the Socinians sought an asylum in Transyl- vania, where they still continue nume- rous. The Socinians in England have adopted the appellation of Unitarians. SOCINUS, L^Lius, the first author of the sect of the Socinians, was born at Sienna, in Tuscany, in 1525. He died at Zurich in 1562. SOCINUS, Faustus, nephew of the preceding, and principal founder of the Socinian sect, was born at Sienna in 1539- In 1577 he began to propagate his religious opinions, for which pur- pose he wrote a treatise, " De Jesu Christo Servatore." In 1579 he retired into Poland, and lived under the pro- tection of several Polish lords. In 1598 he met with many insults at Cracow, and was with great difficulty saved from the hands of the popxdace. Having re- tired to a village about nine miles from Cracow, he there closed his life, in l604. SOCOTARA, or Socotra, island, Arabian Sea, appears to have been known at an early period to the ancient geographers. Arrian says, "that the inhabitants of it were subject to the kings of the incense country." After this period, it may almost be considered as lost to geography until the visit of Marco Polo, in the 13th century. At the commencement of the I7th century, it was frequently visited for shelter or refreshment; and, in 1800, when the French army was in Egypt, Commoilore Blanket was authorised to take posses- sion of it. In 1834, on the establish- ment of a steam communication between India and Europe, the attention of SOD 796 SOM government became particularly directed towards Socotra, and it was surveyed by Lieutenant Wellsted. The whole island may be described as a pile of mountains, of nearly equal height, almost sur- rounded by a low plain, extending from their base to the margin of the sea. The principal articles of commerce are the aloe spicata, or socotrina, and the dra- gon's blood-tree (pterocarpus draco). SOCRATES, the most eminent of the ancient philosophers, was born at Alo- pace, a village near Athens, in the fourth year of the 77th Olympiad, a.c. 469- In the long and severe struggle between Athens and Sparta, he signalized him- self at the siege of Potidaea, both by his valour and by the hardiness with which he endured fatigue. He also served in other campaigns with distinguished bra- very. When he was upwards of 60 years of age, he was chosen to represent his own district, in the senate of five hun- dred. Under the tyranny of the Thirty Tyrants, he never ceased to condemn their oppressive and cruel proceedings. At length clandestine arts were employed to raise a prejudice against him ; and a direct accusation was preferred, before the supreme court of judicature. He delivered, in a firm and manly tone, an unpremeditated defence of himself, which silenced his opponents. But their pre- judices would not suffer them to pay due attention to this apology ; they de- clared him guilty of the crimes of which he stood accused; and he was condemned to be put to death by the poison of hemlock. With perfect composure he swallowed the poisonous draught, and expired, in the first year of the 96th Olympiad, and in the 70th year of his age. SODA, one of the fixed alkalies, gene- rally procured from the ashes of marine plants. Its great depository is the ocean ; soda being the basis of sea salt. Prof. Graham has observed that, in the history of the useful application of chemical science to the arts, the year 1839 will be memorable for various improvements connected with the soda process. Sul- phuric acid, which is the key to so many important chemical products, had been chiefly prepared from the sulphur of Sicily ; the supply of which was sud- denly much reduced by some fiscal re- gulations of the Sicilian government. This led to the invention of several new processes for soda, v/hich possess con- siderable merit as chemical discoveries. The most interesting is that of M. Go- sage, in the neighbourhood of Birming- ham, for the recovery of the sulphur from soda-water; which promises not only a great saving of material, but a benefit of another kind, in abating, or entirely removing the nuisance of the escape of muriatic acid into the atmo- sphere in the ordinary soda process. — Proceedings of the British Association. SODOM, burnt in the 65th year of Lot's age, a.c. 1897- SOLANDER, Dr., naturalist, died May 13, 1782. SOLAR System. See Astronomy. SOLIS, Antonio De, Spanish histo- rian, born 1610, died 1686. SOLOMON, king of Israel, laid the foundation of his temple a.c. 1012; was visited by the queen of Sheba, 992 ; died 975. SOLOMON Isles, discovered by Mendana, a Spaniard, sent by the go- t vernor of Peru, 1575. SOLON, one of the sages of Greece, Avas born at Salamis, of Athenian parents, who were descended from Codrus, and born about a.c. 549 ; became archon and legislator of Athens, 594 ; his laws were carried to Rome, 456. The inter- view which Solon is said to have had with Croesus king of Lydia, the recol- lection of those remarks by Croesus when doomed to die, and the noble conduct of Cyrus on that occasion, are well known. Solon died in the island of Cyprus, about the 80th year of his age, and statues were erected to his memory both at Athens and Salamis. SOLWAY Moss, bordering on Scot- land, 10 miles from Carlisle, began to swell, owing to the heavy rains, and upwards of 400 acres of it rose to such a height above the level of the ground, that at last it rolled forward like a tor- rent, and continued its course above a mile, sweeping along with it houses, trees, and every thing in its way; it then divided into islands of different extent, from one to ten feet deep. It covered near 600 acres at Netherby, to which it removed, and destroyed about 30 small villages. It continued in motion from Dec. 4, to Dec. 31. 1771. SOMERS, Lord, chancellor of Eng- land, and author of several valuable works, born 1650, died 1716. SOMERSET, maritime county, Eng- land. Under the Roman government. S O R was included in the province called Bri- tannia Prima; and it contained among others the cities of Ilchester, Glaston- bury, and Bath. On the invasion of South Britain by the Saxons, this county became the theatre of repeated contests, and Bath was captured by the West Saxons, and the greater part of Somer- setshire became united to the kingdom of Wessex. Somersetshire was the scene of some important contests in the civil war between Charles 1. and the parlia- ment, and in the reign of James II. of the judicial executions of Judge Jefferies. SOMERSET House, Strand, Lon- don, built 1549; pulled down 1776, and began to be rebuilt in. its present state ; the navy office, pipe office, victualling office, and other public offices, removed into it in 1788. The sum of ^£306,134 was granted by parliament to defray the expense of its erection, &c., to the year 1789, £1500 in addition in 1798, and £2550 in 1801. SOMERTON Castle, near Newark, Lincolnshire, built 1305. SOMERVILLE, William, author of the " Chase," &c., died 1743. SOONDA, territory Hindoostan, pro- vince of Canara. In 1763, Imody Se- dasiva, the last independent raja of Soonda, was expelled by Hyder, when he sought refuge at Goa, and surren- dered to the Portuguese the whole of the territory below the Ghauts for a stipulated pension. In 1799 this ter- ritory was transferred to the British government, and annexed to the juris- diction of Canara. SOPHIA, St., mosque of, at Constan- tinople, built 566. SOPHOCLES, the celebrated Greek tragic poet, was born at Colonn. His studies were early devoted to the tragic muse, the spirit of JEschylus lent a fire to his genius, and excited that noble emu- lation which led him to contend with his great master. He gained the prize for tragedy over j^Eschylus, a.c. 469. He wrote 43 tragedies, of which seven only have escaped the ravages of time. He died in the 91st year of his age, about A.c. 406. SORBONNE, or Sorbon, the house or college of the faculty of theology established in the university of Paris, was founded in 1252, by St. Louis, or rather by Robert de Sorbon, his con- fessor and almoner, first canon of Cam- bray, and afterwards of the church of 797 SOU Paris. The college has been since mag- nificently rebuilt by the cardinal de Richelieu. SOTHEBY, William, the translator of "Homer," and of Wieland's " Obe- ron," died Dec. 30, 1833, in his 77th year. SOUFFRIERE, mountain, in , the island of St. Vincent, experienced an eruption in 18 12, which lasted four days ; the sun was darkened by its smoke and ashes, and stones were thrown which killed many people. Several houses were also set on fire. SOUND, or Oresound, the strait between the Danish island of Zealand, and the continent of Sweden, leading into the Baltic. A toll was established here by Denmark on all ships passing into the Baltic sea, 1348. Out of this toll the king of Denmark maintained all lighthouses on the coast. SOUTH, Rev. Dr. Robert, a divine of the church of England, was born at Hackney, in 1633. He was educated at W^tminster School from whence he was elected to Christchurch, Oxford. He was promoted to a prebend of West- minster in 1663, and was in the same year admitted to the degree of D.D. He soon succeeded to a canonry of Christ- church ; and in 1673 he attended as chaplain to the younger son of the earl of Clarendon, in an embassy to Poland. Dr. South was, from principle, a stre-^ nuous asserter of the royal prerogative,, when William was seated on the throne, and a violent enemy to toleration, and to any concessions for conciliating the separatists. He died in July, I7l6, at the age of 83. SOUTH Sea, a name commonly applied to the Pacific Ocean, though not with propriety, for that ocean extends northward to the neighbourhood of th& Arctic circle, or to about 64 degrees north latitude. See Pacific Ocean. SOUTH Sea Company owed its origin to a deceitful project for relieving govern- ment from the embarrassment of a large amount of unfunded debt, in May 1710. Their stock-jobbing speculations were succeeded by mercantile projects, which were not much better conducted. The act of the 9 Ann, c. 21, establishing the South Sea Company, conveyed to them the exclusive privilege of trading to the Pacific Ocean, and along the east coast of America, from Orinoco to Cape Horn. In 1724 this company undertook the SPA 798 SPA whale fishery. After eight years' trade Grenada, and expelled out of Spain the their loss proved to amount to upwards Moors and Jews, who would not embrace of £237,000. In 1733 their capital was the Christain faith, to the number of put upon the same footing with other 1/0,000 families. government annuities, and the company The following is aUst of the sovereigns ceased to be a trading company. See of Spain, with thedate of theiraccession: — Funds, page 497. a.d. SOUTHCOTT, Joanna, the pro- Ferdinand the Great, under whom phetic impostor, who fancied herself the Castile and Leon were united, woman of the Revelations, died Dec. 27, from 1027 to 1035 1S14. Sancho the Strong 1065 SOVEREIGNS, the coin, first issued Alphonso the Valiant 1072 May 8, 1821. Sovereigns coined at the Alphonso VII 1109 Mint during the year 1836, 1,717,694 ; Alphonso VIII 1122 in 1837, 1,172,984. Half sovereigns in Sancho III 1157 1836, 70,087; in 1837, 80,103. Ferdinand II 1157 SPAFIELDS. From 20,000, to 30,000 Alphonso IX 1158 persons assembled here, to vote anaddress Henry 1 1214 to the Prince Regent, from the distressed Ferdinand III 1216 manufacturers, tradesmen, &c., Nov. 15, Alphonso X 1252 1816. Second meeting, Dec. 2, follow- Sancho IV 1284 ing, which terminated in a very alarming Ferdinand IV 1295 riot, the shops of several gunsmiths hav- Alphonso XI 1312 ing been plundered of arms by the mob. Peter the Cruel 1350 SPAIN was first civiUzed by the Phoe- Henry II 1368 nicians, who possessed great par* of it ; John I. the Bastard 1379 these called in the Carthaginians; it Henry III 1390 was afterwards invaded by the Rhodians. John II 1406 The Carthaginians, however, made new Henry IV 1454 conquests, a. c. 209 ; and after the des- Ferdinand and Isabella ; the first truction of ancient Tyre, became the styled Catholic 1474 most powerful in this country. It was Philip 1 1504 conquered by the Romans, A.c. 216. Charles 1 1516 Grenada and Andalusia were the Boetica Philip II 1555 of the Romans, and the rest of Spain the Phihp III 1598 province of Tarragona. Phihp IV 1621 The several provinces now subject to Charles II 1665 the crown were once independent king- Phihp V. resigned 1700 doms, but became one kingdom in a.d. Lewis 1724 414. In the fifth century the irruption Ferdinand VI 1745 of the northern barbarians, the Suevi, Charles III 1759 Vandals, and Alani, spread devastation Charles IV 1788 over almost every part of Spain and who resigned the crown to his Portugal. They were vanquished by the son Ferdinand VII 1808 Visigoths, assisted by the Roman power, Maria Isabella, daughter of Ferdi- and Christianity was introduced into nand VII 1834 Spain in the sixth century. The invasion Maria Christina was regent during of the Moors took place in 711, and they this reign till 184a in a few years overran the whole countrj% In the war of 1803 Spain avoided a except the Asturias. " rupture with Britain, until roused by the The Moors kept full possession till the capture of her ships in 1804 and 1805. 11th century when their power was The compulsory abdication of the royal greatly impaired. About this time Spain family of Spain by Buonaparte, took was divided into 12 or 13 kingdoms. A place in 1808, and was followed by a series of warlike princes gave the Moors general insurrection, the well known repeated overthrows, till the year 1 474, peninsular war ; and the evacuation of when all the kingdoms in Spain, Portu- the Spanish territory by the French in gal excepted, were united by the marriage 1813, when Ferdinand VII. was restored, of Ferdinand, king of Arragon, and The first acts of Ferdinand were to Isabella, the heiress of Castile. They took revive the inquisition and other abuses^ SPA 799 SPE and banish and iinprision those men who, to the best of their power, had con- tributed to his re-establishment. The dissatisfaction which his conduct pro- duced, together with the contrariety ex- isting in the pohtical views of the }/reat body of the people, rendered Spain from 1820 to 1830, a scene of civil commotion. The country was divided into two oppos- ing factions, which threatened the extinc- tion of all social order, one of which was headed by Don Carlos, brother of the king. Ferdinand VII. died Sept. 29, 1833. By a will dated in 1830, he provided, that if, at the time of his death, any of his children should be under the age of 18, the queen was to be their guardian, and regent and governess of the monarchy, till the heir should complete the age of 18. . The will of Ferdinand VII. which was the title of Donna Isabella II. to the throne, and of his widow. Queen Chris- tina to the regency, Avas treated by his brother Don Carlos as a violation of the fundamental laws of the monarchy. To this source may be traced the civil war in Spain, from 1833 to 1839. See Carlos. 1840. After the exile of Don Carlos, a state of comparative tranquillity ensued in Spain till this year, when an insurrec- tionary movement took place in Sept., which spread to most of the large towns in Spain, and appeared in the more com- manding attitude of a revolution ; the object of which was the maintenance of free institutions against the despotism of the crown. The junta of Madrid formed a Provisional Government, which on the 4th sent to the Queen Regent an exposi- tion of their views, with a statement of their demands. In this address, whilst professing continued allegiance to the queen, and disavowing all intentions but the support of the constitutional prero- gatives of the crown, the junta com- plained of the projects of law upon the liberty of the press, upon electoral rights, and upon the administration, &c. The queen refused to receive the address ; and acting under the advice of her minister, Castill y Ayerbe, she sent it back unopened. Her majesty appealed to General Espartero, who refused to act against the insurgents. This led to the abdication of the Queen Regent, Oct. 12. A new ministry was formed, who, by the constitution, were invested with the regency till the meeting of the cortes. which was postponed till March, 1841. Queen Christina quitted Valencia, Oct. 17, for France. She was escorted to the boat by the council of regency, and the municipality of Valencia. She re- ceived along the road the customary honours and salutes. Arrived at Mar- seilles on the 23d, and afterwards re- tired to Naples. The government, in an address, urged the necessity of intro- ducing reforms in all branches of the administration, and in the system of education ; it directed the attention of the future government to the national debt, to the guarantee of which are at- tached the existence and welfare of thousands of famihes, native as well as foreign ; it recommended that tithes be abolished, and that a competent provi- sion be made for the support of the clergy; and concluded by recommending a revision of the Ayuntamiento law, the establishment of a law for ministerial responsibility, the revision of the civil, criminal, and commercial codes, &c. SPARTA. See Laced^mon. SPEAKING-TRUMPET. See Acous- tics. SPECTACLE-MAKERS' Company, London, incorporated 1630. SPECTACLES were altogether un- known to the ancients, and the invention has been much disputed by the mo- derns. The most general opinion is, that Alexander de Spina, of Pisa, a monk of the order of Predicants, of St. Catherine, was the inventor about 1290 ; and that he communicated his invention, in conse- quence of finding that some other person was in possession of the secret as well as himself. He died"at Pisa in 1313. SPECULUM, any highly polished sur- face, which is employed to reflect to the eye of the observer the images of objects presented to it. See Burning Glasses. The term is most usually employed to signify the mirror in a Gregorian, Newtonian, or other reflecting telescope. The Rev. Mr. Edwards invented a metal for specula, as described in the Nautical Almanac for 1787^ said by Dr. Hutton to be the whitest and best of any that he had ever seen. 1839. Mr. Nasmyth, in oflfering to the British Association a few remarks " On the Difficulties in the General Use of Metallic Specula for Reflecting Tele- scopes," &c., drew attention to an in- vention of his, viz., a plate-glass pneu- matic speculum, placed on a concave SPE 800 SPU cast-iron bed, the edges only of the glass resting on a rim perfectly turned, and fastened in with bees'-wax, which ren- dered the apparatus air-tight, and was also of a yielding character. SPELMAN, Sir Henry, the anti- quarian, died J 641, aged 80. SPENCE, Thomas, apohtical enthu- siast, who devised and published a plan by which human kind could be provided with sustenance without pauperism, namely, by the confiscation and division of the landed, and the extinction of the funded property of the kingdom ; died 1814. SPENCER, THE Right Hon. Geo. John, second earl, was born at Wim- bledon, September 1, 1753. In 1794 Lord Spencer was sent on a special em- bassy to the court of Vienna ; and, dur- ing his absence, July 19, was appointed lord privy seal ; which office he resigned in the following December for that of first lord of the admiralty. On the peace of Amiens, he retired from office. He returned again to public duty, as secre- tary of state for the home department, together with Lord Grenville and Mr. Fo.x, in 1806. The death of the latter statesman, which soon followed, dis- solved the administration; and from that period the noble earl removed from the arena of parliament. The earl was the collector of the finest private library in Europe, the history of which is developed by Dr. Dibdin, in the " ^des Althor- pianae ;" and some of its most important contents aredescribedinthe " Bibliotheca Spenceriana." On the estabhshment of the Roxburgh club in 1812, Earl Spen- cer became its president. He died Nov. 10, 1834, aged 76. SPENCERS, father, son, and grand- son, political characters and favourites in the reign of Edward II. and Henry IV. The father was hanged at Bristol, aged 90, in Oct. 1320. The son was hanged at Hereford, Nov. 24, following. The grandson was beheaded at Bristol, in 1400, in the reign of Henry IV. SPENSER, Edmund, an ancient English poet, was born at London in 1553. In 1578 he was introduced to Mr. Sidney, afterwards Sir Philip Sid- ney, by whom he was presented to Queen Elizabeth, who honoured him with the place of poet-laureate. About this time he finished his " Shepherd's Calendar," which was first printed in 1579- In 1587, having obtained a royal grant of 3000 acres of forfeited lands in the county of Cork, in Ireland, he set out for that kingdom, took possession of his estate, and fi.xed his residence in the castle of Kilcolman, where he com- pleted his great work of the " Faery Queen." In 1597, on the rebellion of Lord Tyrone, who ravaged the whole county of Cork, he was obliged to fly for safety with his family to England, where, in 1599, he died in extreme poverty. His whole works, with his life by Hughes, were published in six vols. 12mo., in 1715 and 1750. SPINOZA, Benedict, theologian, born at the Hague, 1632, died 1677- SPIRE, or Speyer, town Bavaria, was frequently the seat of the German diet. From 1795 to 1814 it belonged to the French, after which it was restored to Bavaria. SPITALFIELDS, the weavers of. reduced to extreme suflfering from want of employment, 1816. Again in 1837. On this occasion a ball took place at the Opera House, London, June 1, the pro- fits of which were intended for the relief of the weavers. The dresses worn were all of British manufacture, and it is stated that temporary employment had been given to 8000 distressed weavers. SPITZBERGEN, or East Green- land, group of islands. Frozen Ocean, were discovered by Hugh Willoughby in 1553, who supposed them to be part of the west continent. The Dutch at- tempted to settle a colony here, but all the people perished. The cold is so intense that these islands are uninha- bitable ; but eight English sailors, who some years ago were accidentally left here by a fishing ship, survived the winter. SPURZHEIM, Caspar, M.D. the celebrated phrenologist, was born Dec. 31, 1776, at the village of Longvich, near Treves, on the Moselle. In 1800 he attended, for the first time, the private course of craniological lectures which Dr. Gall had been occasionally in the habit of giving, at his own residence, for four years past. Spurzheim devoted himself to anatomy and physiology ; and having completed his studies, in 1804, became the associate and fellow-labourer ol Dr. Gall. They visited the principal cities of Germany, and the north of Europe, and arrived at Paris in 1807. In 1814 Dr. Spurzheim visited England, and by his lectures and writings dis- seminated a knowledge of phrenology, S T A 801 and rendered its principles in some degree popular. During his residence in England, Dr. Spurzheim published several works on phrenology, &c. He died Nov. 10, 1832, aged 56. ST. HELENA. See Helena. ST. STEPHEN'S Chapel, the En- glish house of commons, built 1115. STACK, Major, gallant British officer, born in 1787, was a native of the county of Kerry, and served with great distinction in the Peninsula and in India. He commanded the company of the 43d regiment, which defeated the Chartists at Newport, in Wales, Nov. 1839. See Chartists. He died Nov. 7, 1840, in his 53d year. STADTHOUSE, at Amsterdam, buUt 1649, completely finished 1655. STAEL, Madame Db, Anna Louisa Germaine De, the celebrated writer, was born in Switzerland in 1766. Her father, M. Necker, was originally a Genevese banker, a man of distinguished parts, and afterwards famed for the high position he occupied in France ; on account of his financial ability he was elevated to the ministry of that depart- ment in 1776. See Necker. This position brought his daughter into con' nection with all the most noted characters of the day, andMarmontel, Raynal, with many other celebrated writers of the time, were the daily visitors and intimate friends of the family. In her fifteenth year, she wrote an abstract of Montes- quieu's " Spirit of the Laws." Her first published works were three plays — "Sophia," a comedy; " Lady Jane Grey " and '* Montmorency," tragedies, in 1786. The same year she was married to the Baron de Stael Holstein, ambassador from Sweden to France. During the revolutionary storm she retired to her father's house in Switzer- land ; but in 1795, the French republic was recognised by Sweden ; and Madame de Stael, in that year, left her retirement, and returned to Paris with her husband, who was again appointed ambassador. By her iniiuence with Barras and his colleagues in the Directory, Madame de Stael procured for Talleyrand the ap- pointment of foreign minister. In 1797 she was introduced for the first time to Napoleon, whose enmity was destined to embitter her future hfe. The Baron de Stael died in 1798, leaving his widow with two children, a son and daughter. At the time of his death, he was on his way. ST A in company with Madame de Stael, to her father's house at Coppet, whither she hastened on hearing of the danger impending over Switzerland from the French armies. Necker was injudicious enough, in a work issued in 1802, to tell the world that the First Consul intended to re-establish a monarchy in France. Madame de Stael defended her father's conduct. Napoleon accused her of send- ing information to Necker injurious to the French government, and banished her from Paris. In the year of her banishment, two of her most celebrated works issued from the press at Paris ; namely, her " Considerations on the Influence of Literature on Society," and her romance of " Delphine." In 1805 she published Necker's manuscript remains, with a life prefixed to them. Madame de Stael visited Germany in 1810, for the purpose of collecting materials for her great work, entitled " L'AUemagne, or Germany." No sooner had the work been announced than Buonaparte, then all-powerful, ordered Savary, the police minister, to seize the whole impression, exiled the authoress from France; and her friends, Madame Racamier and M. de Montmorency, for merely visiting her, received sentence of banishment. A new marriage with Mi de Rocca, a retired French officer, gave her a protector and companion ; and in the spring of 1812, she fled to Vienna, From this she went to Moscow, and when the French army arrived at that city, removed to St. Petersburgh, and in the autumn of the same year to Stock- holm. In 1813 she passed over to Eng- land, and was entertained by the British in a very flattering manner. She pub- lished her " Ten Years of Exile" in 1814, and on returning to France was received with honour by the aUied princes. From this time till her death, the life of Madame de Stael was spent in happiness and honour. She died on the morning of July 14, 1817. STAFFORD, county, England, after the Anglo- Saxon invasion became a part of the kingdom of Mercia. Edward the Elder gained a victory over the Danes at Wednesfield, between Bloxwich and Wolverhampton ; and, after the Norman conquest, several military actions occur* red within the limits of this county. STAHL, George Ernest, an emi.« nent German chemist, was born at Onold in Franconia, in 1660, and chosen pro- 5 K ST A 802 STE fessor of medicine at Halle, when a university was founded in that city in 1694. He was called to visit Frederick "William, king of Prussia, at Berlin, in 1716; and afterwards returned several times to that capital, where his reputa- tion was greatly increased, and where at length he died in 1734, in his 74th year. He was the author of the " Doc- trine of Phlogiston," which, though now completely overturned by the discoveries of Lavoisier and others, maintained its ground for more than half a century, and was received and supported by some of the most eminent men which Europe has produced. STAMFORD Bridge, Yorkshire, is celebrated for the memorable battle fought in 1066, by king Harold against his brothers, Tosti and Harfager, kings of Norway. STAMP Duties, a branch of the perpetual revenue of Great Britain, first instituted by statute 5 and 6 W. and M. .c. 21. in 1694 ; the duties have since, in many instances, been increased to five times their original amount. They were increased in 1756 ; aj^ain, 1776, 17S0, 1789, 1797, 1801, 1802, 1808, and 1815. They were begun in Ireland, March 25, 1774; increased 1801. The total produce of stamp duties of Great Britain, the year ending in January, 1806, was £4,194,285 12s. lO^d. The following are some of the miscellaneous stamp duties : — annual licences ; law proceedings ; matricula- tion in any university in Great Britain ; appraisement of estates, real or personal ; certificate to be taken out yearly, by attorneys, solicitors, or proctors, in Eng- land ; receipts and bills of e.xchange ; newspapers, &c. For an account of the stamps on newspapers since the late act, see Nev^tspapers. STAMP Act in America passed 1764, which gave rise to the American war ; repealed March 18, 1766. STANHOPE, Philip Dormer, Earl of Chesterfield. See Chesterfield. STANHOPE, Charles, Earl, poU^ tician and inventor, born 1753, died Dec. 16, 1816. STANISLAUS, the abdicated king of Poland, burnt by accident, Feb. 6, 1768, aged 89. STANISLAUS, Poniatowsky, the last king of Poland, who was deprived of his kingdom in 1795, died Feb. 11, 1798, aged 65, at Petersburgh. STANNARY Courts, in Devonshire and Cornwall, instituted for the admi- nistration of justice among the tinners. The privileges of the tinners are con- firmed by a charter, 33 Ed. I., and fully expounded by a private statute, 50 Ed. IIL, which has since been explained by a public act, 16 Car. I. c. 15, 1641. STAPLEDON, Walter, bishop of Exeter, murdered in London in an in- surrection, 1326. STAPLES' Inn Society, established 1415. STAR Chamber, Court of, an oppressive court of very ancient origin, in England. It was new modelled by statutes 3 Hen. VII. c. 1., and 22 Hen. VIII. c. 20. It consisted of divers lords, spiritual and temporal, being privy councillors, &c., and its jurisdiction ex- tended over riots, perjury, and other notorious misdemeanors. Yet this was afterwards stretched to the asserting of all proclamations and orders of state, to the vindicating of illegal commissions and grants of monopolies. It was finally abolished by the statute I6 Car. I. c. 10. in 164], to the general joy of the whole nation. STARCH-MAKERS' Company, London, incorporated 1632. STATES OF THE Church, the pope's dominions in Italy. See Church, p. 287. STATIONERS' Company, London, incorporated 1556. STAUNTON, Sir George, author of the " Memoirs of the Embassy to China," died 1801. STEAM Engine, the idea of its prin- ciple suggested by the Marquis of Wor- cester, in his " Century of Inventions," as a " way to drive up water by fire," pubhshed in 1663. 1698. Captain Savery's engine for raising water. 1699 Papin's engine exhibited to the Royal Society. 1713. Atmospheric engine, by Savery and Newcomen. 1765. Watt's invention of performing condensation in a separate vessel from the cylinder. 1769. His first patent. 1775. His engines upon a large scale erected in manufactories, and his patent renewed by act of parliament. 1778. His expansion engine. 1778-9. Made to give a rotary motion ; Wash- borough's patent. 1779. Double acting engine proposed by Dr. Falck on Newcomen's principle. 1781. Double engine executed by Watt. 1802. Trevithick's high-pressure engine. STE 803 STE 1804. Woolf's double cylinder expan- sion engine. 1819. The establishment at Soho alone had manufactured of Watt's machines a number whose steady labour would have required not fewer than 100,000 horses ; and the saving resulting from the sub- stitution of these machines for animal labour amounted annually to more than £3,000,000 sterling. Throughout England and Scotland, at the same date, the num- ber of these machines exceeded 10,000. They effected the work of 500,000 horses, or of three or four millions of men, with an annual saving of from £12,000,000 to £16,000,000 sterling. These results must, since the general application of the engines to navigation, be more than doubled. See the next article for an account of the number of vessels. The idea of the rotary motion pro- duced by the direct action of steam instead of being obtained by the inter- vention of moving parts, for converting the rectilineal motion produced- by steam into a rotary one, engaged the attention of Watt and others but without success. Galloway's rotary engine, patented in 1826, was only in part successful ; the great friction, leakage, and the difficulty of maintaining the packing steam-tight, have been generally found the great ob- stacle to the successful adoption of such engines. This difficulty has however been recently surmounted. 1839. Hearne and Davies's rotative disc engine was examined by Mr. F. Whishaw, C.E., who reports that, from several trials made with an engine of this construction at the works of the British Alkali Company, near Bromsgrove, he found the work done by a 24-inch disc engine, working with the steam at 29 lb. pressure, to equal 20-horse power, with due allowance for friction ; and the con- sumption of coal, (common Stafford- shire), in general to 2 cwt. per hour, or rather more than 11 lb. per horse, per hour. Mr. Rowley, of Manchester, about the same time, invented a new rotary engine, combining simplicity of construction with rapidity of motion, greater power than a common engine of the same size, and a saving in fuel of upwards of 20 per cent. Locomotive Engines. The em- ployment of an internal mechanism to impel waggons on a plane road is of very early date. But the first application of the steam engine to this purpose took place at Paris, towards the close of the last century. From this time but little progress appears to have been made in the use of this species of wheel carriage, till 1802 when Mr. Trevithick patented his high-pressure engine for the above purpose. Trevithick's engine was im- proved by Blenkinsop in 1811, and by Dodd and Stephenson, of Newcastle- upon-Tyne in 1815. Several patents were obtained for locomotive engines, applicable to the common roads, namely, that of Mr. Julius Griffith, in 1821 ; of Mr. Samuel Brown, in 1823 ; Mr. W. H.James, in 1824; Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney, in 1826, and others. But this has been found to be ineffectual as a mode of conveyance in common roads. At length the application of steam power to locomotive engines on railways was introduced, which has been very recently marked by the most signal success. See Railways. STEAM Navigation. The first actual attempt on record, was made by Jonathan Hulls, who in Dec. 21, 1736, obtained a patent for the first steam- boat ; but Hulls did not meet with the encouragement he merited, and the plan was for that time abandoned. In 1782 the Marquis de JoufFroy constituted a steam -boat to ply on the Saone at Lyons. It was 140 feet long and 13 feet wide, and drew 3.2 feet of water. A few years afterwards various com- petitors for the application of steam navigation appeared : in America two rivals, James Rumsey of Virginia, and John Fitch of Philadelphia. In Italy the application of steam power to vessels was proposed by Dr. S. Serratti, and in Scotland by Mr. Miller of Dalswinton ^ under the direction of the latter, Oct. 14, 1788, the first steam-boat voyage ever made was successfully performed on Dalswinton Lake. The next attempt was made by Mr. Symington, in a vessel which was tried on the Forth and Clyde Canal, for the first time, in November, 1789. In 1801, Lord Dundas, then Governor of the Forth and Clyde Canal Company, em- ployed Mr. S3'mington to make an engine for an experimental vessel for that Company, which was soon after com- pleted, and made many trips on the canal. The first American steam-boat that completely succeeded was made by Ful- STE 804 STE ton, an American engineer. The vessel was launched at New York, Oct. 3, 1807, fitted with a steam engine made by Boulton and Watt, and soon afterwards this vessel plied between that city and Albany, — a distance of 160 mUes. The successful introduction of steam navigation, for purposes of utility in Britain, we owe to Mr. Henry Bell, who, in 1811, built a steam vessel called the " Comet." Since that time the progress of steam navigation has bee» exceedingly rapid. The number of steam-boats on the Clyde in 1825 amounted to 51. The total number in Great Britain about the same period was 140, with a power equivalent to the work of 4700 horses, and a carriage of 16,000 tons. The number, tonnage, and power of vessels belonging to the mercantile steam marine of the United Kingdom, and its dependencies, at the close of the year 1838 were as follows : — Vessels 810. Computed tonnage 157,840. Amount of horse power 63,250. The American number is rated at 800 vessels, of which 600 belong to the western waters. About 140 belong to the state of New York. The total tonnage is estimated at 155,000. The American boats do not equal ours in size : the largest runs between New York and Natchez, and is of 860 tons ; the ne.Yt in size are on Lake Erie, and along the New England coast. 1838. First voyage across the Atlan- tic. Steam-ships of large burden, having been provided with engines of greater power than any before constructed for the purpose of navigation, the voyages between this country and New York of the ^' Sirius," the " Great Western," and the " Royal William," were per- formed free from the intervention of a single obstacle or accident. Trans- atlantic steam-Yoyages may now be said to be as easy of accomplishment, by means of ships of adequate size and power, as the passage between London and Margate. The " Sirius" and " Great Western" arrived back from their first voyages on "the IQth and 22d of May. Since this period vessels of larger construction have been built. The " President" steamer was laid down towards the close of 1838, built by Messrs. Young and Curling, of Lime- house ; in whose dockyard was also con- structed the " British Queen." The proprietois of both vessels are the British and American Steam Navigation Com- pany ; the " President" to run with the " British Queen," between London and New York. This magnificent vessel was towed out of the builders' dock on Dec. 9. Steam vessels have also been con- structed for the navy. The " Cyclops" steam-frigate, the largest steam man-of- war in the world, on July 10, was launched, at Pembroke Dockyard. Her dimensions are as follows : — Length 225 feet ; beam between paddles 38 ; depth of hold 21 ; tonnage 1300. Her equip- ments as a man-of-war, are the same in all respects as a frigate. Her engines are of 320 horse-power. STEELE, SiK Richard, pohtical and miscellaneous writer, was born at Dublin, in 1671. In 1691 he was entered of Merton College, Oxford. He pubhshed his " Christian Hero" in 1701. In 1709 he commenced the " Tatler," a series of periodical papers, which, more than any of his other exertions, has contributed to estabhsh his fame. In 1711 this paper was succeeded by the more cele- brated "Spectator," and in 1713 the " Guardian," to all which he contributed. He afterwards engaged in other periodi- cal works, but being subservient to mere political purposes, they have all been long since forgotten. On the accession of George I. he was presented with a small appointment under government, and in April, 1715, he received the honour of knighthood. In 1722 he brought for- ward his comedy of " The Conscious Lovers," which was received with great applause ; but embarrassments pressed upon him ; and he retired to an estate in Wales, where he died in 1729. STEEVENS, George, the editor of " Shakspeare," died Jan. 21, 1800, aged 65. STEPHEN THE Martyr, died Sept. 26, A.D. 33. STEPHEN, James, one of the great promoters of the abolition of the slave trade, and the deviser of the system of continental blockade of the last war, died 1833, aged 73. STEPHEN, king of England, horn 1105 ; crowned Dec. 2, 1135. Died at Dover, Oct. 25, 1154, aged 50; was buried at Feversham. STEPHENS, Henry, Robert, and Charles, learned printers, editors, and critics, flourished in the l6th century. STEREOTYPE. See Printii^g, STE 805 STO STERNBERG, Count Gaspard. a distinguished naturalist. His principal work, an antediluvian Flora, published in French and German, has long been highly appreciated by the scientific world. He died in 1838. STERNE, Laurence, an eccentric English writer, was born at Clonmell, in the south of Ireland, in 1713. In 1722 he was sent to school at Halifax, in York- shire, where he continued till 1732, when he was removed to Jesus College, in Cambridge. In 1741 he was made a prebendary of York. In 1760 he pub- lished his two first volumes of " Tristram Shandy." In 1762 he went to France, and two years after to Italy, for the recovery of his health. He languished imder consumption till 1768, when he died. The works of Sterne are" very generally read. His " Sentimental Jour- ney" and " Tristram Shandy" are the most known. STERNHOLD, Thomas, the author of the " Old Version of the Psalms," died in 1549. STESICHORUS, Greek lyric poet, lived A.c. 600. STEVENS, George Alexander, author of the " Lecture on Heads," died, 1787. STEVENSON, Sir John Andrew, Mus. D. and a distinguished composer, came from Scotland to settle in Dublin about the middle of the last century. In 1779, he composed some of the airs for O'KeeflFe's farce of " Dead Alive," at which time he was not 19- Soon after he was admitted to the chapter of Christ- church, Dublin, where his celebrity was soon established. He received the honour of knighthood from the earl of Hard- wicke, then lord-lieut., in April, 1802. From the year 1800 to 1816, Sir John Stevenson was constantly engaged in musical publications, in conjunction with his friend Mr. Moore. One of the last and greatest of his productions was his oratorio of the " Thanksgiving." He died Sept. 1833, aged 73. STEWART, DuGALD, professor of Moral Philosophy at Edingburgh. In Oct, 1766, he was entered at the univer- sity, and his principal pursuits were history, logic, metaphysics, and moral philosophy. In 1792 he published the first volume of his *' Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind," the second volume of which did not appear till 1813, and tiie third, not till 1827. He wrote some of the Dissertations pre- fixed to the supplement of the " Ency- clopaedia Britannica." He was elected a member of the academy of St. Peters- burgh, and also of the academy of Phila- delphia; and, in 1826, the Royal Society of Literature of London voted him a medal, for his essay on the " Philoso- phy of the Human Mind," &c. He 'died, June 11, 1828, aged 75. STILLINGFLEET, Edward, a learned prelate of the church of Eng- land, was born at Cranborn, in Dorset- shire, in 1635. In 1657 he was presented to the rectory of Sutton, in Nottingham- shire. By publishing his " Origines Sacrae," one of the ablest defences of revealed religion that has ever been writ- ten,he acquired great reputation. In Jan. 1665 he was presented to the rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He was after- wards chosen lecturer at the Temple, and appointed chaplain in ordinary to King Charles II. In 1685 appeared his "Origines Britannicae, or the Antiquities of the British Church." After the revo- lution he was advanced to the bishopric of Worcester. He died at Westminster, in 1699, and was interred in the cathe- dral of Worcester, where a monument was erected to his memory. STIRLING Castle, Scotland, was alternately held by the English and Scots,, till it was taken by Robert Bruce, after he had triumphed at Bannockburn, 1314. Here James I. of Scotland kept his, court, and James II. assassinated his, turbulent kinsman, William, earl Dou-. glas. James III. added to the castel- lated palace a magnificent hall for the meeting of the Scottish parliament, which is now used for barracks. The castle is one of the Scottish fortresses, the pre- servation of which, in constant repair is guaranteed by the articles of union be- tween the two kingdoms. STOCKHOLM, the capital of Sweden. The foundation is attributed to Birger Jarl, regent of the kingdom about the middle of the 13th century, during the minority of his son Waldemer, who had been raised to the throne by the states of the kingdom ; but it was not before the 18th century that the royal resi- dence was transferred from Upsal to this city. Several treaties took place here. The peace of Stockholm, between the king of Great Britain and the queen of Sweden, by which the former acquired STO 806 STO the duchies of Bremen and Verden, as Elector and Duke of Brunswick, Nov 20, 1719. Treaty of Stockholm between Russia and Sweden, in favour of the duke of Holstein Gottorp, March 24, 1724 ; and treaty of Stockholm, entered into between England and Sweden, March 3, 1813. STOCKINGS. The Romans and other ancient nations had no particular clothing for the legs. During the mid- dle ages, hose or leggings, made of cloth, began to be used. At a later period, the art of knitting stockings was disco- vered, but nothing certain is known as to the origin of this important invention. Silk stockings were first worn in 1547, by Henry II. of France. It is proved, however, that the practice of knitting woollen stockings was well known in England, and had been referred to in acts of parliament, a good many years previously to this period. The stocking frame for weaving stock- ings, in a rude form, was invented in 1589, by Mr. William Lee, of Wood- borough, in Nottinghamshire. At the invitation of Henry IV. of France, he introduced the stocking frame at Rouen, with distinguished success. A know- ledge of the machine was brought back from France to England, by some of the workmen who had emigrated with Lee, and who estabhshed themselves in Not- tinghamshire, which still continues the principal seat of the manufacture. f)urmg the first century after its invention few improvements were made upon it. But in the course of the last centur}'-, the machine was very greatly improved. The value of cotton hosiery now annually made is estimated at £880,000 ; of worsted £870,000 ; of silk £241,000. STOCKS. See Funds. STONEHENGE, a celebrated mo- nument of antiquity, which stands in the middle of a flat area on Salisbury Plain, six miles distant from Sahsbury. The whole number of stones, uprights, imposts, and altar, is 140. Geoffroy of Monmouth, who wrote in the reign of king Stephen, says, that it was erected by the counsel of Merlin, the British enchanter, in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hengist. It is the more probable, however, according to Mr. Grose, that this structure was a British temple, in which the Druids of- ficiated, and that this and other monu- ments of the kind are all anterior to written evidence. STORMS, Remarkable: — a.d.234, one in Canterbury, threw down 200 houses, and killed several families. 549. In London, which threw down many of the houses, and killed 250 in- habitants. 944. In London, which threw down 1500 houses. 951. Southampton nearly destroyed in a storm of lightning. 1055. Nearly 400 houses in London blown down. 1194. A violent storm almost desola- ted a great part of Denmark and Nor- way. 1359. When Edward III. was on his march, within two leagues of Chartres, there happened a storm of piercing winjj that swelled to a tempest of rain, light- ning, and hailstones, so prodigious, as instantly to kill 6OOO of his horses, and 1000 of his best troops. 1510. In Italy a storm of hail de- stroyed all the fish, birds, and beasts of the country. 1515. Jan. I. A violent one in Den- mark, which rooted up whole forests, and blew down the steeple of the great church at Copenhagen. 1658. September 3. The day that Oliver Cromwell died, one was so violent and terrible, that it extended all over Europe. 1703. Nov. 27- The most terrible one that had ever been known in England, attended with Hashes of lightning, which unroofed many houses and churches, blew down several chimnies and the spires of many steeples, tore whole groves of trees up by the roots, and the leads of some churches were rolled up like scrolls of parchment. Several ves- sels, boats, and barges were sunk in the Thames ; but the royal navy, which had just returned from the Mediterranean, suffered the greatest damage : one 2d rate, four 3d rates, four 4th rates, and many others of less force, were cast away upon the coast of England, and above 1500 seaman lost, besides those that were cast away in the merchants' service; in London only, the damage was esti- mated at a million sterling. 1737. Oct. 11. At the mouth of the Ganges, in India, when 20,000 vessels of different kinds were cast away, eight English East India ships, and 300,00a STO 807 STR people were lost, and the water rose 40 feet higher than usual. 1782. April 22. At Surat, in the East Indies, which destroyed 7000 of the in- habitants. 1794. Jan. 16. Almost universal through Great Britain, by which much damage was done. 1816. Aug. 31. A m-ost tremendous gale, by which many vessels were lost, and much damage was done to the ship- ping in general on the English coasts. 1817- Feb. 27. Tremendous gale of wind, which did considerable mischief, was experienced at Birmingham, Liver- pool, Manchester, and other northern towns. 1818. March 4. A tremendous hurri- cane throughout England, which did great damage to the shipping at the ports ; another, Nov. 23, 1824, 1833. Tremendous gales of wind, which occasioned great loss of shipping on the coasts of England and France. 1833-1834. In the winter, when nume- rous shipwrecks occurred on the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, as well as on both sides of the Channel, and on the shores of the German Occean, to the extent of 100,000 tons. 1836. Nov. 29. Throughout England and on the coast of France, which did great damage, when the ball and cross of St. Paul's Cathedral vibrated fearfully. 1839. Jan. 6 and 7. A violent hurri- cane, on the night of the 6th, andduring the 7th, committed great ravages on the western coast of England, and opposite shores of Ireland, and destroyed many vessels in St. George's Channel. The storm also raged with great violence throughout the counties of Cheshire, Staffordshire, and Warwickshire. In Liverpool, 20 persons were killed by falling buildings ; Bootle Bay was covered with wrecks, as many as 15 ves- sels being thrown on the shore within the space of a mile ; 100 persons were drowned, and an immense quantity of property was destroyed ; the cargoes on board two of the vessels wrecked, amounted to £500,000. Dublin is said to have presented the appearance of a sacked city, the houses in some parts burning, in others unroofed or blown down with their furniture strewn in the streets. In Athlone, from 40 to 50 houses were blown down ; in Moate, 70 houses were burnt ; and the town of Loughrea was almost totally destroyed 70 houses being burnt, and 100 levelled to the ground by the wind. 1840. Severe storms in Nov., which did a great deal of damage both inland and at sea, and lasted several days. At Lexden, near Colchester, and at Lincoln the gale assumed the character of a whirlwind. At sea, on all parts of the coast, but more particularly on' the southern and eastern, the wrecks were unusually numerous and disastrous. STOTHARD, Thomas, librarian to the Royal Academy, and a distinguished artist, was born, Aug. 17,1755, in Long Acre. He studied with great diligence at the Royal Academy, and the tirst picture he exhibited was Ajax defending the body of Patroclus. He was elected an associate of the Academy in 1785, and a royal academician in 1794. In 1810, he was appointed deputy librarian to Mr. Birch, and on his death in 1812, succeeded as librarian. Among Mr, Stothard's more important works, may be enumerated his designs for " Boydell's Shakspeare, " his " Canterbury Pil- grims," his ceremony of the " Flitch of Bacon," at Dunmow, and his " Welling- ton Shield." His largest work was paint- ing the staircase at Burleigh, the seat of the marquis of Exeter. He died April 27, 1834, aged 78. STOW, John, an industrious anti- quarian and historian, was born about 1525. In 1565 he first published his summary of the Chronicles of England. About the year 1584 he began his Sur- vey of London, first pubhshed in 1598. Having spent his patrimony ,he sunk into penury in his old age, and died in 1605, at the age of 80. STO WELL, Lord, elder brother of the Earl of Eldon, died Jan. 29, 1836, at Early Court, Reading, in his 91st year. He presided for many years over the Consistory and Admiralty Courts. STRABO, a celebrated Greek geo- grapher, philosopher, and historian, was born at Amasia, He flourished under Augustus in the century before the Christian era, some say a.c. 30. He composed several works, all of which are lost except his geography in seventeen books, which are justly esteemed very precious remains of antiquity. The best edition of this work is that of Amster- dam, in 1707. STRADA, author of the "Histgry of the Wars of Flanders," died 1649. STRAFFORD, Thos. Wentworth, STR 808 SUG Earl of, was born in London, April 13, 1593. In the parliament in 1628, he signalized himself as a patriot, but after- wards became one of the most strenuous supporters of the despotic power of Charles I.,who heaped honours upon him. In 1639 he was created baron of Raby, and earl of StraflFord ; and the following year, he was also made knight of the garter. On Nov. 11, 1640, eight days after the opening of the long parliament, on the motion of Mr. Pym, he was im- peached of high treason, and tried March 22, 1641, After a feeble and in- sincere attempt of the king to save him, he was executed on Wednesday, May 12, 1641. STRALSUND, town, Prussia, for- merly belonging to Sweden. It was built about 1209, and became a member of the Hanseatic league. In 1678 it was forced to surrender to the elector of Brandenburg. After this the Swedes defended it to the last extremity ; and Charles XII. in 1714, came hither after his return out of Turkey. But the throne of Sweden not being able to hold out against five great powers, it was forced to submit in 1715. In 1720 it was ren- dered back to Sweden, but ceded to Prussia in 1813. STRASBURG, city, France, depart- ment Upper Rhine, is a place of anti- quity : it early received the doctrines of the reformation, and is the see of a bishop. The cathedral is a beautiful Gothic structure, founded in 1015, and finished in 1275, said to be the loftiest building in the world. A protestant university was established here in 1803. STRATFORD-ON-AVON, Warwick- shire, chiefly celebrated as the birthplace of the immortal Shakspeare, who was born here in 1564. It was a place of considerable consequence previous to the conquest, and was famous for a monas- tery founded in the reign of Ethelred. In September 1769, was the first com- memoration of Shakspeare's Jubilee, which lasted three days. A species of an- nual commemoration is still kept up. STREATHAM, Surrey. It contains a newly built church, in which upon tablets of white marble, are Latin in- scriptions from the pen of Johnson, to the memory of Mr. Thrale and Mrs. Salusbury, mother of Mrs. Piozzi. The steeple was struck by lightning, and great part of the church burnt down, Jan. 3, 1841. STRUTT, Joseph, author of " Sports and Pastimes," died 1802. STRYPE, John, author of "Eccle- siastical History," &c., born 1643, died 1737. STYLE, Old and Nevs^. See Calen- dar, p. 179. SUCKLING, Sir John, dramatic writer, born 1613, died 1642. SUDBURY, Archbishop of Canter- bury, beheaded by the rebels on Tower- hill, June 14, 1381. SUDELEY Castle, Gloucestershire, built 1442. SUETONIUS, Tranquillus Caius, Roman historian, was born at Rome, and became secretary to the emperor Adrian, about a. d. 118, but ihat post was taken from him three years after. His History of the " Twelve Roman Emperors" has been much commended by most of our polite scholars. SUETONIUS Paulinus, a Roman general, in the reign of Nero, invaded the island of Anglesea, and burnt the Druids, 59. Defeated Boadicea at Lon- don, and slew 80,000 of the Britons the same year. SUEVI. See Vandals. SUGAR was very imperfectly known by the Greeks and Romans. Theo- phrastus, who lived about a.c. 320, is the first writer whose works have come down to us by whom it is mentioned. Pliny describes it as " honey collected from canes," but this was probably the mode of preparing, which has been un- derstood and practised in China from a very remote antiquity. The Saracens, having in the 9th century, conquered Rhodes, Cyprus, Sicily, and Crete, in- troduced into them the sugar cane, with the cultivation and preparation of which they were familiar. The Venetians im- ported, in the 12th century, sugar from Sicily at a cheaper rate than they could import it from Egypt. The Saracens also introduced it into Spain soon after they obtained a footing in that country. The first plantations were at Valencia ; they were afterwards extended to Gra- nada and Murcia, and in 1664 the plan- tations had made considerable progress. Plants of the sugar cane were carried by the Spaniards and Portuguese to the Canary Islands and Madeira, in the early part of the 15th century. Barba- does is the oldest settlement of the English in the West Indies. They took possession of it 1627, and in 1646 began SUG 809 SUR to export sugar. When Jamaica was conquered in 1656 tliere were only three small sugar plantations upon it. But fresh plantations were speedily formed, and continued rapidly to increase. The sugar cane was first cultivated in St. Domingo in 1506. It succeeded better there than in any other of the West India islands. In 1518 there were 28 sugar works in St. Domingo established by the Spaniards. Previously to its devastation, in 1790, no fewer than 65,000 tons of sugar were exported from the French portion of the island. For nearly a century theWest Indies continued the chief place for the growth of sugar. East India Sugar has been grown since the year 1/92, when, from the limited supply and high price of West India sugar, the attention of the East India Company was drawn to its impor- tation, and, since 1838, sugar has been brought over from India of a very su- perior quality. In Axigust 1834, a cargo of sugar arrived at Liverpool from Lima, in Peru, being the first ever brought to this country from that quarter. The art of refining sugar, and making what is called loaf-sugar, is a modern European invention, the discovery of a Venetian, about the end of the 15th or the beginning of the I6th century. It was practised first in England in 1569 ; was first taxed in 1685. England consumes about one- fifth of all the sugar produced in the world, but our demand is principally limited to our West India colonies. The sugar plant- ers of the British West Indies have a monopoly of the home market. In the five years ending 1824-29-34-39, the quantity they supplied us, taking the annual average of each period, was as follows :— From 1820 to 1824, 3,764,360 cwts.; 1825 to 1829, 3,869,933 cwts. ; 1830 to 1834, 3,860,484 cwts. ; 1835 to 1839, 3,354,833 cwts. Beet- ROOT Sugar. — The manufac- ture is carried on to a very consider- able extent in several parts of the con- tinent, particularly in France ; it would probably however have been entirely ex- tinguished, but for the oppressive addi- tions made to the duties on colonial sugars in 1820 and 1822. Also, 1 Vict. c. 57. July 15, 1837, imposes on every hundred weight of sugar manufactured in the United Kingdom from beet-root, and so in proportion, a duty of £1 4*. SUIDAS, a Greek writer, who flou- rished in the 11th century, under the reign of the emperor Alexius Comnenus. He wrote, in Greek, an historical and geographical dictionary or lexicon. SULLY, Duke DE.aneminentFrench writer and political character, author of " Memoirs," died 1641, aged 82. SULPHUR, or BRiMSTONE,is of great importance in the arts, and as an article of commerce, being extensively used in the manufacture of gunpowder, and in the formation of sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol. The entries for home consump- tion in 1831 and 1832 amounted, at an average, to 312,698 cwt. a year. In some parts of Italy and Sicily, it is dug up in a state of comparative purity. 1840. A dispute arose respecting the sulphur monopoly. In March, the English ambassador at Naples required the dissolution of a Freneh company which had monopolised the trade. The government of the Two Sicilies refused to abolish the monopoly. Admiral Stop- ford proceeded to Naples with the inten- tion of capturing Neapolitan and Sicilian vessels, but the mediation of the Fi'ench government between England and Na- ples was accepted, and the disputes adjusted. SULPICIUS the historian, died 420. SUMATRA, island, in the Eastern Seas, discovered by Siqueyra, a Portu- guese, in 1508 ; more accurately examined by the Portuguese in 1511; now belong- ing to Holland. By a recent treaty, Bencoolen and other British settlements in the island wer« ceded to Holland for some continental territories, to take place from March 1825, SUNDAY Schools. See Schools. SUN-DIAL. See Dial. SURAT, one of the most ancient cities of Hindoostan, being mentioned in the Ramayuna. After the discovery of the passage to the east by the Cape of Good Hope, it was much frequented by vessels belonging to European nations, who exported pearls, diamonds, &c. A treaty was concluded in 1800 with Nassir ud Deen, the new nabob, by which he agreed that the management of the city and district of Surat should be vested in the British government. By a subse- quent treaty in 1803, the Maharattas, who had for many years overrun Surat, were compelled to abandon it, and it has ever since remained under the Bom- bay presidency. 5 L SWA 810 SWE SURGEONS' Company, London, incorporated 1745. SURINAM, colony. South America, Dutch Guiana, was ceded by the Enghsh to the Dutch, for the province of New York, in 1774. It was taken by the British in 1799, and again in 1804; and restored in 1814. SURPLICES first used in churches, 316. SUSA, or SusE, province, Africa, em- pire, Morocco. It was bombarded and nearly destroyed by the Venetians, No- vember 1784. SUTTEE, a name applied in India to the practice of immolating the widow on the funeral pile of her husband. This inhuman rite has been frequently brought before the British parliament, in the present century. In 1817, under the government of Lord Hastings, was is- sued, a formal set of circular instruc- tions for the regulation of suttees. In 1824, Mr. Courtney Smith, second judge of the nizamut adawlut at Calcutta, gave it as his opinion, that these regu- lations had an injurious influence. The actual number of widows immolated for 10 years, ending 1824, was as follows : — 1815,378; 1816,442; 1817,707; 1818, 839; 1819,650; 1820, 597; 1821, 654; 1822, 583; 1823, 575; 1824, 572; total, 5997. In 1829, under the administra- tion of Lord W. Bentinck, the supreme government of Bengal abolished the practice by a " Regulation for declaring the habit of suttee, or of burning or burying alive the widows of Hindoos, illegal, and punishable by the criminal courts, established by the governor in council on the 4th of Dec. 1829." SUTTON, Thomas, founder of the Charter-house, born 1532, died l6ll. SUWARROW, or Suveroff, Mar- shal, Russian general, born 1730, died 1800. SWAMMERDAM, John, natural phi- losopher, was born 1637- He went to the university of Leyden in 1651 ; and in 1653 was admitted a candidate of phy- sic. In 1657 he returned to Leyden, and took his degree of doctor of physic. In 1663 he published a " General History of Insects," and in 1675 his " History of the Ephemeras." He died in 1682. His works were translated into English in 1758. SWAN River Settlement, situ- ated at the south-west angle of the con- tinent of New Holland, or Australia. No attempt had been made to explore this coast, till, in 1827, Captain Stirling sailed from Sidney and reached Gage's Roads, at the mouth of Swan River. This colony received the encouragement of the Bri- tish government, by an order from the colonial office, in 1829- The settlers arrived in Aiigust, and began to locate themselves along the banks of the Swan and Canning rivers, so that, hy the end of that year, there were in the new colony residents 850 ; non-residents 440 ; value of projjerty, giving claims to grants of land, £4 1,550. By accounts in ] 837 the colony was going on very favourably. The last harvest had proved abundant, and all the necessaries of life were plen- tiful, and the prices moderate. The colo- nists were embarking in the whale fishery, and had estabhshed a whcJing joint stock company. SWANSEA Castle, Glamorgan- shire, built 1113. SWEATING Sickness, that carried off great numbers, first observed in Eng- land in 1481. Again 1483 ; in Sept. 1485; again 1506; again, so that in some towns half the people died, in others one-third, 1517. SWEDEN, anciently Scandinavia, the kingdom of, began 481, was united to the crown of Denmark and Norway, in 1 394. Gustavus Vasa expelled the Danes in 1525, imtil which time the crown was elective. See Gustavus Vasa. Lutheranism was established there by Gustavus Vasa, about 1525. Popery abolished, and the crown declared here- ditary, 1544. The most memorable events after this period occurred in the time of Charles XII., who began his reign 1697. See Charles XII. Conspiracy for altering the govern- ment, when Counts Brahe and Home were beheaded, 1756. Revolution in the government, and the king, Gustavus III. made absolute, Aug. 13, 1772; another revolution, 1789. The king was assas- sinated, March 16, 1792. He was suc- ceeded by his son, then only 14 years of age, by the title of Gustavus Adolphus IV., who was dethroned, and the govern- ment devolved on his uncle, Charles, duke of Suderraania, March 13, 1809, as Charles XIII. On account of the advanced age of Charles XIII., Charles Augustus, prince of Augustenburgh, was chosen as crown prince and future successor, Jan. 24, IS 10. Charles Augustus dying suddenly. SWI 811 SWI May 29, John Bernadotte, prince of entitled " A Prcijosal for the Universal Ponte Corvo, was chosen crown prince, Use of Irish Manufactures." In 1727 he Aug. 21, following. The government published his " Gulliver's Travels." was resigned by Charles, in favour of his The latter years of his life were beclouded adopted son Bernadotte, March 17, 1811, by ill temper ; and the advances of old but resumed by him January *], 1812. age made life a burden to him. In 1741 Sweden made peace and alliance with he became utterly incapable of conversa- .jEngland in August of the same year, tion ; and at last sunk into a perfect Norway was ceded to it by treaty, Jan. 14, silence, which continued till Oct. 29, 1814. Charles XIII. died July 5, 1818, 1745, when he expired in his 78th year, on which occasion Bernadotte, the crown SWINBURNE, Henry, the tra- prince ascended the throne with the title veller, died 1803. of Charles XIV. SWITZERLAND, inhabited formerly Kingsand Queens of Sweden, from Sigis- by the Helvetii, who were subdued by mund I. King of Poland. Csesar, a.c. 571. It remained subject to Sigismund I. began 1592 the Romans, till again conquered by the Charles IX 1606 Alemans from Germany, a. d. 395. These Gustavus II. Adolphus 1611 were driven out by Clovis I. of France, Christina, aged 6 1632 496. This territory became part of the Charles X 1654 kingdom of Burgundy, 838. It was Charles XI. four years old 1660 given by the last king of Burgundy to Charles XII. aged 15 1697 the emperor of Germany, 1032, to which Ulrique, sister to Charles, aged 15 1718 it belonged, till the Swiss cantons were Frederick 1720 formed, 1307. Adolphus of Holstein 1751 About this time, Rodolph of Haps- Gustavus III 1771 burgh, at the head of the empire, ex- Gustavus IV 1792 tended the Austrian influence over the Charles XIII 1809 chief part of Switzerland. Rodolph's Charles XIV 1818 son, Albert, assumed a lofty tone to- SWEDENBORG, Emanuel, areli- wards the Swiss, and appointed as go- gious visionary, who wrote many mysti- vernors, men of overbearing character, cal books, born at Stockholm 1689, died It was the tyranny of one of these, in London 1772. named Geysler, or Gresler, that led to SWEIN, the Dane, was proclaimed the insurrection of the three mountain- king of England in 1013. He died ous districts of Schweitz, Uri, and Un- Feb. 3, 1014, at Thetford, in Norfolk. terwalden, in 1308, under the celebrated SWIETEN, Baron Von, the Dutch William Tell, when the imperial officers medical writer, born 1700, died June were seized, conducted to the frontier, 1772. and obliged to take an oath that they SWIFT, Jonathan, universally ad- never would return, mired as a wit and classical writer, was In 1345, Leopold, the brother of the born at Dublin, Nov. 30, 1667. In 1688, reigning emperor, advanced at the head under the patronage of Sir William of an armed force, but was defeated and Temple, he was introduced to public expelled. The three cantons now formed notice. In 1704 he published the " Tale an alliance with Bavaria, and were joined of a Tub." From this period till 1708 soon after by five other cantons. This he gave successively to the public the confederacy, after consisting, during a " Sentiments of a Church of England century and a half, of eight cantons, re- Man," the "Argument against abolish- ceived five more, making 13, the num- ing Christianity," and the " Defence of ber by which the Swiss commonwealth the Sacramental Test." In 1710 was was formerly known in the history of commenced the " Examiner," of which Europe. During five centuries the Swift wrote 33 papers, beginning his Swiss saw very little war. first part of it on Nov. 10, 1711. He In 1797 the partizans of France hav- obtained the deanery of St. Patrick's in ing excited disturbances, the French 1713. On the death of Queen Anne entered the country, and, after defeating Swift lived in a private manner, known the troops and peasants, they abolished and regarded only by his friends, till the constitutions of the principal can- about 1720, when he published his first tons, erected the Helvetic republic, added political pamphlet relative to Ireland, six new cantons, and vested the govern- SWI 812 SYR ment in two councils and a directory. This constitution was abolished in 1802 by the first consul of France, and another was presented for their acceptance, but rejected ; he offered them a new one in 1803, which they accepted. In 1813 the allied armies traversed the country for the purpose of invading France, when some changes took place in the administration of Switzerland ; these produced commotions among several of the cantons ; but in 1814, on the meeting of the diet, these disturb- ances were appeased, three more can- tons were added, and a federal compact was signed at Zurich. The integrity and independence of the Swiss republic was recognised by the congress at Vi- enna in 1815. 1830. Insurrection at Berne : the go- vernment found it necessary to lend an ear to the public demand for changes in their institutions. The rural communes of the canton of Basle also rose, de- manding a larger share in the govern- ment. Many of the other cantons ex- pressed the same determination. In Zurich, Lucerne, Aargau, Thurgau, and Soleure, ameliorations v/ere promised, guarantees were given, and governments yielded to the general feeling. 1833. Fresh dissensions in Basle and Schweitz : several of the cantons formed themselves into a separate diet. Dis- turbances at Kussnacht. Basle was occupied by federal troops. Resistance of Neufchatel to the general diet. Plan for detaching it from Prussia. 1836. Disputes between France and Switzerland. The Duke de Montebello, French ambassador, delivered to the federal diet an official note, intimating that all relations, diplomatic and com- mercial, were suspended, until satisfac- tion was made by Switzerland to France for certain alleged affronts. An extra- ordinary meeting of the diet was con- voked for Oct. 17. The British govern- ment offered its mediation, through its ambassador. 1838. New constitution of Zurich. Dis- sensions in the canton of Schweitz. Dis- pute with France relative to Louis Buo- naparte. See France, p. 490. 1840. Fresh revolt in Switzerland. Soleure began the disturbance, and was scarcely quieted ere Argovia, or Aargau, broke out into yet greater disorders. Several towns revolted, and resisted the government troops for three days. The result was the utter rout of the insur- gents. The monks had taken part in the rebellion, and the government visited them with special punishment, suppress- ing all monasteries within the province. SYDENHAM, Thomas, physician, the restorer of true medical science, died December 29, 1689, aged 65. SYLLA, Lucius Cornelius, a Ro- man warrior and tyrant, born a.c. 137, died A.c. 78. SYRACUSE, a town in the island of Sicily. It was besieged by the Atheni- ans, A.c. 414. It was governed by Dio- nysius the Elder and Timoleon in less than half a century after. Syracuse was taken by the Romans, a.c. 212, and continued under their dominion until the inroads of the barbarians at the downfall of the empire. See Sicily. SYRIA, a very ancient kingdom of Asia, underwent various changes till the death of Ale.xander, when it gave name to a very considerable empire. The first king was Seleucus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, who obtained possession of the whole of Syria about a.c. 280. Seleucus was succeeded by his son Antiochus Soter, who held the empire 19 years. He died a.c. 261, and was succeeded by his son Antiochus Theos. Antiochus, surnamed the Great, as- cended the throne a.c. 225. Being in- duced to declare war against the Romans, he involved himself in perpetual disasters. After a variety of usurpers and tyrants, the kingdom of Syria fell under Tigranes, king of Armenia, in a.c. 83, and \ipon his overthrow by the Romans, it became a province of the rejjublic. From them it was taken by the Saracens in the reign of the caliph Omar, in the seventh cen- tury, and became a province of Turkey in Asia. Since this period chiefs have from time to time started up, who have long set the power of the Porte at defiance. About the middle of the 18th cen- tury, Daher, a powerful Arabian sheik, established in Syria a })ower so inde- pendent, that the Porte, in order to pre- serve any form of allegiance, was obliged to grant him an annual lease of his do- minions. His successor was the cele- brated Dsjezzar Pacha, who soon raised a power almost equally independent. His reign was rendered remarkable by the invasion of Syria by Buonaparte, when Dsjezzar, with the aid of Bitish TAL 813 TAL seamen, gave that dreaded commander the first serious check he had received. After the death of Dsjezzar, tlie power reverted to the Porte, and Soleiman was appointed pacha. In 1811, when Mr. Burckhardt viras at Damascus, Soleiman reigned over the whole of Syria and Palestine, except the pachalic of Aleppo. 1832. Meheraet Ali, the pacha of Egypt, attacked Syria. He marched a powerful army, under the command of his son, Ibrahim, attended by an equally powerful fleet, to attack him at St. Jean d'Acre, the capital of his pachalic. Acre, Damascus, and Aleppo, successively fell before him, and laid open to the Egyp- tian army the road to the extremities of Syria, and by the signal victory between Antioch and Scanderoon, July 29, the conquest of Syria was completed. By the intervention of the four European powers, England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, a convention was proposed in 1839, by which the pachalic of Syria was offered to Mehemet Ali for life. See Egypt, 1840. On the 26th November, Com- modore Napier concluded a convention with the pacha, in virtue of which the latter became bound to recall Ibrahim Pacha from Syria, and to restore the Ot- toman fleet as soon as he should have received the official notification. 'Phis gave rise to a correspondence between the Porte and the British government, in consequence of which, on the 11th of January, 1841, the pacha made his com- plete submission to the sultan, gave up the whole of the Turkish fleet and eva- cuated Syria. On the 12th of January the sultan sent instructions to his com- missioners in Egypt to inform Mehemet Ali that his submission being complete, he would grant him the hereditary tenure of the pachalic of Egypt. SYSIGAMBIS, mother of Darius, king of Persia, on hearing of the death of Alexander, starved herself, a.c. 324. T, TABLES, Laws of the Tw^elve, were the first set of the laws of the Ro- mans, enacted and confirmed by the senate and an assembly of the people, A.u.c. 303. TACITUS, Caius Cornelius, a celebrated Roman historian, born about A.u.c. 809. He lived in the reigns of Vespasian, Domitian, and Nerva. Ta- citus was engaged in A.u.c. 850, to pro- nounce the funeral orationof Virgi n ius Ru- fas. He died about the reign of Trajan. TAGUS, river of Spain. Several places on or near its banks, as Santa- rem, Almaraz, and Talavera, were the scenes of military operations in the late peninsular war. TALAVERA De la Reyna, town, Spain, New Castile, is a place of great antiquity, and contains many Roman monuments. It is memorable for the battle fought in 1809, between the French and an allied force, in which the former were repulsed. TALLARD, Marshal, French gene- ral, taken prisoner by the English at the battle of Blenheim, 1/04, died 1/28. See Blenheim. TALLEYRAND, Perigord, Charles Maurice Db, the eminent French statesman, was born at Paris, in 1/54. In 1788 he was consecrated bishop of Autun, and the year after was elected deputy of the clergy of his dio- cese to the States -General. In 1790 he was named president, and in the same year officiated at the altar in the Champ de Mars, on the day of the National Federation. His resignation of the bishopric of Autun, and his election as a member of the directory for the de- partment of Paris, followed soon after. In 1792 he was sent into England on a secret mission, but was afterwards or- dered to leave the country within 24 hours. He then left France for the United States, but in 1796 was recalled by a decree of the Convention. In 1797 he was appointed minister of foreign affairs. On Napoleon becoming empe- ror in 1806, he was elevated to the rank of prince of Benevento, and grand cham- berlain of the empire. In 1814 he was appointed president of the provisional government of France, until the arrival of the Comte d'Artois. He was French commissioner at the congress of Vienna, and, on the final return of Louis XVIII., T A R 814 in 1815, he resumed the portfoHo of foreign affairs, as president of the coun- cil. After the revokition of 1830 he proceeded to London as ambassador, where he remained till 1835. He died at Paris, May 17, 1838, in his 84th year. TALLOW Chandlers' Company, London, incorporated 1463. TALMA, Francis Joseph, the Gar- rick of the French stage, born 1763, died 1826. TALMUD, a collection of Jewish tra- ditions ; there are two works which bear this name, the " Talmud of Jerusalem," and the " Talmud of Babylon." Each of these is composed of two parts ; the Mishna, which is the text, and is com- mon to both, and the Gemara or Com- mentary. See Mishna, TAMERLANE, Timur Bkc, or Ti- MOUR,aTartar prince, and the conqueror of Asia, born 1335, died 1405. See Mogul Empire. TAMWORTH Castle, Warwick- shire, built 914. TANGIERS, seaport, Morocco, is an ancient town, and was known by the name of Tingis, to the Romans. In modern times, it has been a subject of contest between the Moors, Portuguese, and Spaniards. It was taken by the latter in 1470. In 1662 it was ceded to Charles II. of England. The Enghsh abandoned it in 1684 ; and it became a distinguished station for piracy. TANNER, Thomas, bishop of St. Asaph, antiquarian, died 1735. TAPESTRY. This art is supposed to have been borrowed from the Sara- cens. The first manufacture at Paris was set up under Henry IV. in 1606 or 1607, by several artists whom that mo- narch invited from Flanders. The art was brought into England by William Sheldon, in the reign of Henry VIII. In 1619 a manufacture was established at Mortlake, in Surrey, by Sir Francis Crane, who received £2000 from king James to encourage the design. Under Louis XIV. of France, the manufacture of the Gobelins was instituted. See Gobelins. TARBES, town, south-west of France. In 1814 the French army under Soult were forced from their position here by Lord Wellington. TARLETON, General Sir Ba- nastre, governor of Berwick, and for- merly, for 22 years, M.P. for Liverpool. He entered the army in 1^75, in the TAS king's dragoon guards. In 1776 he ob- tained leave to go to America, where he distinguished himself during the war, until the British army was, as a whole, overpowered by that of the republicans. After his return home he published " A History of the Campaigns of 1780 and 1781 in the Southern Provinces of North America," 4to. 1787. From the peace of 1783 to 1788 he was continued on half pay as lieutenant-colonel commandant of cavalry. In 1790 he attained the rank of colonel, and in 1794 that of major- general. He obtained the rank of general January 1, 1812. He was created a ba- ronet, by patent, dated November 6,1818, and he was at length invested a G.C.B. May 20, 1820. He died January 25, 1833, aged 78. TARRAGONA, a town, north-east of Spain, Catalonia, is remarkable for its siege and sack by the French marshal Suchet. It surrendered to the French June 28, 1811. Was abandoned by them September 4, 1813. TARTARY, a country of Central Asia, which, taken in its fullest extent, reaches from the Eastern Ocean to the Caspian Sea, and from Corea, China, Tibet, Hin- doostan, and Persia, to Russia and Si- beria. These countries are inhabited by Tartar tribes of different denominations and different manners. ITiey are known in antiquity under the name of Scythians. In the 12th century Tartary became the seat of the most formidable empire that has ever been established. See Mogul Empire. Since that time the popula- tion and political state of this country have undergone an entire change. It has been occupied by a race who are divided into several kingdoms, of which Bokhara is the most important. TASSO, ToRauATo, a celebrated Ita- lian poet, was born at Sorrento, Naples, in 1544. He was sent to the university of Padua, and at 18 published his " Ri- naldo," a poem on the plan of Homer's Odyssey, which extended his fame through all Italy. He went to reside at Ferrara, where, at the age of 30, he finished his " Jerusalem," the success of which was astonishing. It was translated into Latin, French, Spanish, and even into the Oriental languages, almost as soon as it appeared. After this he spent the remainder of his life alternately at Florence, Naples, and Rome, and died at the latter place in 1595. All his works were printed together at Florence in 1724. TEA 815 TEF TATE, Nahum, poet laureate, died 1716. TAVERNER, John BAPTisT,French traveller, died 1689. TAVERNER, William, a dramatic writer, died 1731. TAXES. See Assessed Taxes, Land Tax, &c. TAYLOR, Jeremy, bishop of Down, author of " Holy Living and Dying," &c.,born I6l3, died 1667. TAYLOR, Jane, whose poetical effu- sions for the young have been much ce- lebrated, was the second daughter of the Rev. Isaac Taylor of Ongar, and was born at London, September 23, 1783. " Original Poems for Infant Minds," and " Hymns for Infant Minds," to which she largely contributed, appeared between 1805 and 1810. In 1814 she completed a tale under the title of " Dis- play," and in 1816 her "Essays in Rhyme, on Morals and Manners." She died in 1824, in the 41st year of her age. By her works she has, in an unpretend- ing walk of literature, widely scattered the seeds of virtue and piety, TAYLOR, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Her- bert, principal aid-de-camp to the late Queen Charlotte, much respected for his public services and private virtues. He was appointed private secretary of the duke of York in 1799 ; of George III. in 1805 ; and of the queen in 1812. He attained the rank of major-general in 1813; of lieutenant-general in 1825. He published an interesting narrative of the last illness of the duke of York. TAYLOR, Thomas, the platonist, was born in London, in 1758. His most laborious task was a translation of Pau- sanias, in three vols. His publications extend to 23 quarto and 40 octavo vols. He was assistant secretary to the Society of Arts. He died Nov. 1, 1835, aged 11. TEA was wholly unknown to the Greeks and Romans, and even to our ancestors previously to the end of the l6th or beginning of the l7th century. It seems to have been originally import- ed in small quantities by the Dutch, but was hardly known in this country till after 1650. In 1660, however, it began to be used in coffee houses. In I6b4 the East India Company bought 2 lbs. 2 oz. of tea as a present for his ma- jesty. In 1667 they issued the first order to import tea, directed to their agent at Bantam, to the effect that he should send home 100 lbs. of the best tea he could get. In 1689, instead of charging a duty on the decoction made from the leaves, an excise duty of 5s. per lb. was laid on the tea itself. In the nine years preceding 1780, above 180,000,000 lbs. of tea were ex- ported from China to Europe, in ships belonging to the English. Smuggling was carried on to an enormous extent till Mr. Pitt, in 1784, reduced the duties from 119 to 121 percent. This measure was signally successful, and the legal imports of tea were about trebled. In 1795, however, the duty was raised to 25 per cent. ; and after successive aug- mentations in 1797, 1800, and 1803, it was raised in 1806, to 96 per cent, ad valorem, at which it continued till 18 19^. when it was raised to 100 per cent, on all teas that brought above 2s. per lb. at the company's sales. The following statements show the progress of the consumption of tea in this country, being the quantity retained for home consumption in Great Britain every 10 years from l789to 1833. In 1790 14,693,299 lbs. ; 1800, 20,358,702 lbs.; 1810, 19,093,244 lbs.; 1820, 22,452,050 lbs.; 1830, 30,047,079 lbs.; 1833, 31,829,620 lbs. 1834. The act 3 and 4 Will. 4. c. 93, abolishing the Company's monopoly, and making it lawful for aU individuals to import tea, was passed. 1840. The imports ending Januaiy this year amounted to 38,068,565 lbs. The Tea-plant in Assam. — ^This was discovered about the year 1828, but little attention was paid to it, until the investigations of Captain Jenkins and Lieutenant Charleton brought the matter under the serious notice of Go- vernment. About 1837 Mr. C. A. Bruce was sent thither to explore the tea coun- try, and was appointed superintendent of its culture. He then proceeded to raise plantations; and in 1838 transmit- ted to England eight chests of " Assam Tea," each containing 320 lbs. Mr. Bruce discovered 120 tea-tracts, some of them very extensive, both on the hills and in the plains ; whence a sufficient number of seeds and seedlings might be collected in the course of a few years, to plant off the whole of Assam. TEFLIS or Tiflis, city, Asiatic Russia, kingdom of Georgia, wasfounded in 1063, by the Tzar Liewvang. In 1723 it was taken by the Turks, and in 1734 retaken by Kouli Khan. Since the con-' TEL 816 TEL quest of Georgia by the Russians, it has been the residence of their governor and commander-in-chief, and has been greatly improved. TEHRAUN, city, Persia. After being destroyed by the Afghans at the begin- ning of this century it was rebuilt by Kurreen Khan, and enlarged by Aga Mahoramed, who made it the seat of government. In 1829, in consequence of a quarrel between the suite of M, GribojedofF, minister of Russia, at the court of Persia, and the populace of Teheran, the whole of the embassy were murdered, with the exception of M. Mat- zoff, secretary of the legation, and three others. TEIGNMOUTH, Devon, is a place of great antiquity, and is said to have been the first landing place of the Danes, in 787. It gives the title of baron to the family of Shore. TEIGNMOUTH, LoRo.author of the " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Sir W. Jones," died 1834, aged 82. TELEGRAPH, an instrument by means of which information may be quickly conveyed to a considerable dis- tance. Amongst the Greeks some sort of telegraph was in use. In 1 663 the marquis of Worcester, in his " Century of Inventions," affirms that he had dis- covered " a method, by which, at a window, as far as my eye can discover black from white, a man may hold dis- course with his correspondent." About 40 years afterwards, M. Amontons pro- posed a new telegraph by means of signals. It was not, however, till the French revolution that the telegraph was applied generally to useful purposes. M. Chappe, in 1793, constructed a tele- graph on principles nearly similar to that of Amontons. Two working mo- dels of this instrument were executed at Frankfort, and sent by Mr. W. Playfair to the Duke of York ; and hence the plan and alphabet of the machine came to England in 1796. The introduction of railways has cre- ated an additional use for telegraphic communications. The Pneumatic Tele- graph for railways was invented by Mr. S. Crossley, in 1835, a model of which may be seen at the Polytechnic Institu- tion. Lieutenant Watson, of Liverpool, in 1839, contrived a telegraph, or means of indicating the state of the wind and ba- rometer at Holyhead or Bidston. The instrument consists of a large circle, 12 feet diameter, with the points of a com- pass marked thereon. It has two hands, like a clock, the longer one showing the point of the wind at Holyhead, the shorter one at the north-west light-ship, or Bidston. At the top of the mast is an iron rod, on which a ball works. When the ball is at the top of the rod, it indicates a light breeze ; when in the middle, moderate ; and when seen at the bottom, blowing very fresh. TELESCOPES are of two general kinds — refracting and reflecting. A re- fracting telescope is constructed entirely by glasses, which serve to magnify the observed object. A reflecting telescope, besides glasses, has a metallic speculum within its tube, by which the rays pro- ceeding from an object are reflected to the eye. The first idea of a Refracting Te- lescope is attributed to Bacon, who died in 1294. Leonard Digges, in 1571. by the assistance of one of Bacon's manuscripts, learned a method of dis- covering far distant objects, by means of perspective glasses set at due angles, and it is said invented the instrument. In 1609, Jansen, a spectacle maker, at Middleberg, constructed the first teles- cope 16 inches in length, and presented it to Prince Maurice of Nassau. It was Galileo who first thought of adapting these instruments to astronomy, and with one of them, constructed by himself, observed the four satellites of Jupiter in Jan. 1610. The refracting telescope was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, who died in 1630 ; he also pointed out methods of constructing telescopes of greater power and more convenient application than those that had been in use. Kepler's instrument is that which has been usually called the astronomical telescope. Father Reila afterwards introduced an important im- provement in the astronomical telescope, by employing three eye-glasses instead of two. Compani's telescoj)es, made by order of Louis XIV. were respectively of 86, 100, and 136 feet focal length. It was with the two latter of these that Cassini discovered Saturn's first and second satellites, in March 1684. One of the principal inconveniences complained of in the use of the refract- ing telescopes, was the diflferent colours it exhibited to the eye, and the distor- tion of the image, owing to the different TEL 817 TEM degrees of refrangibility of the rays of light. At length, in 1758, Mr. John Dollond, of St Paul's Churchyard, suc- ceeded in removing the difficulty. See Achromatic Glasses, and Optics. A variety of other improvements has been made in the refracting telescope by Hadley, Euler, Rarasden, Frauen- hofer, &c. A new gigantic telescope was com- pleted in 1833, at Munich, on Frau- enhofer's principle, of 15 Paris feet focal distance, and an aperture of lOj inches. It magnifies far above 1000 times. Thus, when Saturn, at its smallest distance from the earth, is 165,000,000 of geographical miles dis- tant, it seems, when magnified 816 times by this telescope, to have approached to the distance of 192,000 geographical miles ; and the moon, at her smallest distance from the earth, seems, when magnified in the same manner, to have approached within 68 geographical miles. The Reflecting Telescope. — The idea was first suggested by Martin Mer- senne, an ingenious French mathemati- cian and philosopher, and superior of the convent at Nevers, in 1651. Mr. James Gregory of Aberdeen, in his " Optica Promota," printed in 1663, first pub- lished an account of the manner of con- structing a reflecting telescope. Sir Isaac Newton, about 1666, began to turn his thoughts to Mr. Gregory's invention, and early in 1672 had completed two small reflectors, one of which he pre- sented to the Royal Society. The New- tonian reflector was, however, suffered to remain, tiU Hadley, the ingenious inven- tor of the quadrant, in 1723, presented to the Royal Society a telescope constructed upon Newton's plan. It was about six feet long, and equalled in performance the famous aerial telescope of Huygens, of 123 feet in length. Herschel's reflect- ing telescope erected at Slough, of which an account is given in the " Philoso- phical Transactions" for 1795, though of immense size, was far less efficient than many of inferior dimensions of more modern construction. Latterly, although no particular improvement has been effected in the principle, a greater approxi- mation has been made to perfection in the different parts. See Speculum. TELFORD, Thomas, president of the Society of Civil Engineers, was born in the parish of Westerkirk, in the county of Dumfries, Scotland, in 1757- In 1783 he proceeded to London, and was for some time employed at the great square of public offices at Somerset House. His works are numerous all over the island. The Menai and Con- way bridges, the Caledonian canal, the St. Katharine's Docks, the Holyhead roads and bridges, the Highland roads and bridges, the Chirk and Pont-y- cisyle aqueducts, the canals in Salop, and other great works from 1788 to 1816, will immortalize his name. In 1817 loan commissioners were appointed to apply £1,750,000 towards carrying on public works. Mr. Telford was employed as their engineer ; and he examined and reported on the works for which aid was requested. He also made several exten- sive surveys of the mail coach roads, by direction of the post-office. He died Sept. 2, 1834, aged "il. TELL, William, the illustrious Swiss patriot, was the chief instrument of the revolution which delivered the Swiss cantons from the German yoke in 1307 and 1308. See Switzerland. TEMESVAR, town, Hungary, at the confluence of the rivers Temes and Bega. In 1664, in the war between the Turks and the emperor of Germany, after the Turks had been defeated, the truce of Temesvar was concluded, on Sept. 7> for 20 years ; the emperor ceding Great Waradein and Neuhausel. Temesvar was taken by the Imperialists in I7l6. TEMPERANCE Societies first established in the United States of America, by the exertions and influence of the Rev. Dr. Becher, and other dis- tinguished persons. The American Temperance Society was formed at Bos- ton, in 1826, and since its formation more than 5000 similar societies have been formed throughout the Union. The subject has attracted the attention of several of the states of Europe. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, total ab- stinence began soon after to be practised. The British and Foreign Temperance Society was established in London, about 1836. On Dec. 29, 1837, about 800 persons from the northern and western parishes of the metropolis drank tea toge- ther, at the Crown and Anchor Tavern, in commemoration of the establishment of the West London auxiliary branch of this new society. Similar societies or auxiliary branches were soon after esta- blished throughout the United Kingdom. 1838. In Ireland the system has been 5 M TEM 8 particularly successful. In the spring of this year Father Mathew, a Roman Catholic priest of Limerick, commenced his efforts to reclaim from the destruc- tive vice of drunkenness the poor of his locality in the southern quarter of this city ; and a society was formed. In Oct. 1830 the number of signatures had arrived at considerably over 60,000. The great moral reformation spread in many parts of Ireland, but especially in the south. In Dublin and its vicinity the members of temperance societies exceeded 5000, the chief part of whom were heads of families. The Dubhn Total Absti- nence Society fitted up an excellent reading-room, well lighted with gas, and stored with all the cheap publications of the day, to which the members have access on paying one penny per week. The advantages which would attend on similar movements in Scotland is ap- parent from the temperance statistics, taken from the parliamentary documents, as returned in the United Kingdom for 1837. From this document it appears that the quantity of spirits consumed in England is seven pints and one-ninth per head on the population ; in Ireland 13 pints per head ; and in Scotland rather more than 23 pints per head per annum. TEMPLARS, Knights, or Knights OF THR Temple, a religious order in- stituted at Jerusalem, in the beginning of the 12th century, for the defence of the holy sepulchre, and the protection of christian pilgrims. It was founded by Baldwin II., then king of Jerusalem, in 1118, with the concurrence of the pope. The order flourished for some time, and acquired riches and military renown, but their arrogance, luxury, and cruelty, rose at last to such a mon- strous height, that their order was anni- hilated with the most terrible circum- stances of infamy and severity. In 1307, upon an appointed day, all the knights were seized and imprisoned, and many of them put to death in the most cruel manner. In 1312 the whole order was suppressed by the council of Vienne, and in 1342 all that remained in France were destroyed. TEMPLE OF Jerusalem, finished by Solomon a.c. 1004 ; destroyed by Nebu- chadnezzar 587 ; ordered to be rebuilt by Cyrus 536. Second temple finished, and the passover kept, 515 ; destroyed by Titus a.d. 70; attempted in vain to be re-built by Julian 363. 8 TER TEMPLE, inns of court in London, thus called, because anciently the dwell- ing house of the knights templars, and founded by them in 1185. The Temple church was built in 1240; the Middle Temple hall was built 1572. The three societies of the Inner, Middle, and Outer, founded 1560. New Inner Temple regulations, relat- ing to the admissicm of persons into the society of the Inner Temple, came into operation on July 10, 1829, tending to exclude from admission to the bar per- sons whose education and previous habits of life do not afford testimony of proper qualifications. TEMPLE Bar built 1079; act for pulling down the houses without, and improving the street, June, 1795. TEMPLE, Sir William, miscella- neous writer, died Jan. 1699, aged 69- TENBY castle, Pembrokeshire, built 1079. TENIERS, David, of Antwerp, an eminent painter, born 1582, died 1649. TENNANT, Swithson, chemical professor, died by a fall from his horse at Boulogne, Feb. 22, 1815. TENNANT, Charles, of Glasgow, the eminent practical chemist and pa- tentee of chloride of lime for bleaching, died 1839. TENNESSEE, state. North America, United States. The earliest settlements were made here in 1770, by emigrants from North Carolina and Virginia. This country was included in the limits of North Carolina till 1790, when it was placed under a separate territorial go- vernment, denominated the " the terri- tory south of the Ohio," and in 1796, it was admitted to the union as an inde- pendent state. TENTERDEN, Lord. See Ab- bott. TENTHS. See First Fruits. TERCEIRA, one of the Azores is- lands, north west of Africa, was for some time the refuge of the Portuguese patriots. In 1828 the island declared for the queen. In 1829 the Portuguese expedition, sent out from Lisbon against it was defeated Aug. 1 1 ; regency esta- bUshed here by Don Pedro, March, 1830. TERENCE, the Roman comic poet, died A.c. 159. TERNATE, island. Eastern Seas, one of the Moluccas, belonging to the Dutch. In the revolutionary war it was twice TEX 819 THA captured by the British, but was ulti- mately restored at the peace of 1814. TERPANDER, ancient musician, lived about a.c. 706. TERRA Del Fuego, a large island, separated from the southern extremity of America by the Strait of Magellan, discovered by that navigator in 1521. TERTULLIAN, author of the " Apo- logy for Christianity," died 220. TEST Act, See Corporation and Test Acts. TES^i^AMENT, New. See Bible. TEUTONES, an ancient people, seated beyond the Elbe, on the Sinus Codanus, or Baltic. The Teutones, in conjunction with the Cimbri and Am- brones, made war on the Romans, and marched towards Italy in a.c. 101. In Transalpine Gaul, they engaged the Ro- man consul Marius, but were defeated with incredible slaughter. TEUTONIC Order, a military order of knights, established towards the close of the 12th century, consisting chiefly of Germans. The grand master resided at Marienburg. This order still exists, but is now little more than a shadow of what it formerly was. TEWKESBURY, borough, Glouces- tershire, is a place of great antiquity. In 715 a monastery was founded here, which subsequently became an abbey of Benedictine monks, and continued to flourish till the dissolution. In 1471 the last decisive battle between the Yorkists and Lancastrians was fought within half a mile of this town. Tewkesbury was alternately occupied by parliamentarians androyaUsts; in 1644 it was, taken by the former. TEXAS, territory. Central America, formerly belonging to Mexico, but which has recently thrown off its connection with that republic. In 1824, when the Mexican republic was divided into states, the district of Texas not being sufficiently populous to form a state, was attached provisionally to Coahuila. It soon in- creased in population from the United States, and in 1833 sent a delegate to the general congress with a petition to be admitted into the Union ; but this was refused by Mexico. The constitutional general congress of Mexico was dissolved in May, 1834, by a military order of the president, before the constitutional term expired ; a new revolutionary congress was convened in January, 1835, and speedily established a new constitution, by which the separate state governments were annihilated. The people of Texas, offended by this deci- sion, refused to pay taxes, expelled the custom-house officers, and set the laws of Mexico at defiance. On Nov. 7> the Texians issued a declaration, in which they assumed the character of an iride- pendent people, and endeavoured, by loans, and assistance of men and arms from the United States, to maintain what they called their rights. Battles, sieges, skirmishes, and all the ordinary horrors of warfare followed, and at length Texas assumed the form of independence, and established a provincial government. 1838. The newly formed government established by one of their first legislative acts, the continuance of slavery, though it had been abolished by the Mexican government ; and enacted, as a part of their constitutional law, that slaves should be admitted into Texas only from the United States. In consequence of this, strenuous efforts were made at the ses- sion of congress to carry the annexation of that country to the republic of the United States. 1839. The continuance of slavery and the slave trade, as sanctioned by the law of Texas, produced a great sensation among the friends of humanity in England. It has been stated that the slave-breeding states in America employ Texas as a slave market, to which they can send their surplus population for sale. The magni- tude of the evil appears from the fact that the number of slaves exported from Virginia to Texas within twelve months is estimated at 120,000 — each slave averaging at least 600 dollars, making an aggregate of 72,000,000 dollars. 1841. Notwithstanding these facta Texas has been acknowledged by Eng- land, France, Holland and Belgium. The treaty between France and Texas was signed at Paris, Sept. 25, 1839, that with England Nov. 16, 1840. TEXEL, island, kingdom of Belgium, at the entrance of the Zuyder Zee. Near the Texel Admiral Blake defeated the Dutch in 1653. After an encounter near the Texel in 1799 between the British and Dutch, the latter surrendered. THALES, a celebrated philosopher, and the first of the seven sages of Greece, was born at Miletus, about a.c. 640. In order to improve himself in the know- ledge of the sciences, he travelled into Egypt, where he discourtpd with the THA 820 THE priests and other learned men. He com- posed several treatises in verse on Meteors, and the Equinoxes, but they are all lost. He died a.c. 572. THAMES Tunnel. This bold at- tempt to effect a communication between the shores of a wide and deep river, without any interruption to its naviga- tion, has had no parallel for many ages. In 1823 Mr. Brunei completed a design for the execution of the tunnel beneath the river Thames ; and a bill to incorporate a company for the execution of this pro- position under his superintendence re- ceived the royal assent, June 24, 1824. In 1825 the shaft was begun, which was necessary to be sunk on the Rother- hithe shore, in order to get down to the level of the intended works at that end of the tunnel. In December 1825 the first horizontal excavation commenced. On March 2, 1827, it had advanced 470 feet, or about one third of the whole length. But on May 18, at a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the river found its way through a portion of loose earth, and entered the tunnel. This happened while the workmen were at their duties, but no lives were lost. About 1000 tons of loose soil and rubbish descended into the tunnel. The breach was examined by means of the diving bell, and repaired by depositing about 1500 cubic yards of clay in bags in and around it. The tunnel was again opened for public in- spection. May 1828; the water having been entirely withdrawn from the shaft, and from the southern endof the tunnel. Difficulties having arisen on account of increased expense, at a meeting of the shareholders, held at the City of London Tavern, 1835, it was announced that government had placed in the hands of the directors £247,000 in exchequer bills, advanced on the security of the property. In 1837 another irruption of the river took place in these works ; the tunnel was entirely filled, but no lives were lost. The only injury done was a suspension of the works. The following is a state- ment of the rate of the progress of the tunnel. In 1836 there were 117 feet completed; in 1837 only 28 feet; in 1838 80 feet; in 1839 194 feet; and from Jan. 1, to March 1, 1840, had been completed 76 feet, — being at the rate of 460 feet per annum ; and the tunnel was then completed to within 60 feet of the "Wapping shore. Meanwhile, the public curiosity to inspect the tunnel increased with the progress of the works : in 1838 it was visited by 23,000 persons, and in 1839 by 34,000 persons, — being an increase of 35 per cent. 1840. The works have now been in progress 1 6 years ; the total sum ex- pended, including the money advanced by government, £363,000, and the tunnel will be altogether completed for less than £500,000. It is calculated that one archway will be shortly opened. THEATRE of Bacchus at Athens, the first ever erected, built by Philos, a.c. 420; the ruins still exist. The first royal licence for one in England was in 1574, to James Burbage and four others, ser- vants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, or in any part of England. Plays were opposed by the Puritans, 1633, and suspended till 1660, when Charles II. hcensed two companies, Killigrew's and Davenant's ; the first at the Bull, Vere-street, Clare- market, which in a year or two was re- moved to Drury-lane. See Drury- LANE Theatre. See also Drama. THEBES, a celebrated city of ancient Greece, supposed to have been built by Cadmus, about a.c. 2555. It was des- troyed by Alexander, when he left only Pindar the poet's house standing, a.c. 335. Few vestiges of the ancient city remain above ground, but the walls may still be traced. It is now called Thiva. The modern town occupies httle more than the site of the acropolis. THEBES, the remains of an ancient city, formerly the capital of Egypt. In proportion as Egypt was modernized, her capital was transferred nearer to the Delta and the Mediterranean. At the time of the Persian invasion, Memphis a little above Cairo, had supplanted Thebes, and the Ptolemies, about the 2d century, a.c, transported the seat of the empire to Alexandria. In the reign of Ptolemy Philopater, Thebes re- volted, and being taken after a siege of three years, was plundered and ran- sacked, and from that time its importance as a city was destroyed. Thebes still presents some remarkable remains of antiquity ; temples and other monuments were explored about the commencement of the present century by Denon and others. M. Belzoni, about 1816, succeeded in opening several of the tombs of the kings hitherto inac- cessible. THE 821 THO THELWELL, John, tried and ac- quitted for high treason, 1794, died Feb. 17, 1834, aged 70. THEMISTOCLES, the renowned Athenian general, who gained the battle of Salamis, Being banished his country he slew himself, a.c. 464. THEOBALD, Lewis, an EngUsh dramatic writer, died 1742. THEOCRITUS, the Greek pastoral poet, flourished a.c. 285. THEODORE Newhoff, king of Corsica, abdicated his kingdom (to which he had been by intrigue elected in 1736) 1737. Liberated by an insolvent act 1756, and died in an obscure lodging in Soho, London, in the same year. THEOPHRASTUS, a celebrated Gre- cian philosopher, was born about a.c. 371. He succeeded Aristotle in the peripatetic school, and conducted the charge with such high reputation, that he had about 2000 scholars. He was the author of many valuable works, but few of which are extant. He died at the advanced age of 85. THERMOMETER. Very imperfect ones were invented, according to Italian writers, by Santorio; according to Dutch writers, by Drebble, before I626. The thermometers in most general use are Fahrenheit's, Reaumur's, and Celsius's. Fahrenheit's is used in Britain, Reau- mur's in France, and Celsius's in Swe- den. Fahrenheit's was invented in 1730. The scale called Reaumur's soon after 1730 ; his mode of construction, by sub- stituting quicksilver for spirits, several years after. The Centigrade, by Cel- sius, 1742. Wedgwood's thermometer, for very high degrees of temperature, invented about 1750, marks with much precision the different degrees of igni- tion from a dull red heat visible in the dark, to the heat of an air-furnace. In the prosecution of delicate experiments the Differential Thermometer, recently invented by Sir John Leslie, and de- scribed in his "Experimental Inquiry into the Nature of Heat," may be ad- vantageously used. THERMOPYLAE, a narrow pass or defile, celebrated in Grecian history, ennobled by the brave stand made by Leonidas and 300 Spartans against the whole army of Persia, a.c. 480. THESEUS'S Temple, at Athens, built a.c, 428. THESPIS, the poet, inventor of tra- gedy, flourished about A.c. 539- THETFORD, Norfolk, is a place of great antiquity. It was burnt by the Danes 1010. In the reign of Edward III. it contained 24 principal streets, five market places, 20 churches, eight mo- nasteries, and six hospitals. THEVENOT, Melchisedec, the French traveller, died 1692. THIBET. See Tibet. THISTLE, a mihtary order of knight- hood in Scotland, instituted 1540, About the time of the Reformation this order was dropped, till James II., of Great Britain, resumed it by creating eight knights. The Revolution unsettled it again ; and it lay neglected till Oueen Anne, in 1703, restored it to tiie primi- tive design of twelve knights of St. An- drew. THISTLEWOOD, Watson, Pres- ton, and Hooper, tried for high treason and acquitted, June 9, 1817- Thistlewood was afterwards hanged among the Cato- street conspirators, 1820. See Cato- street, p. 225. THOMAS, Mrs., daughter of Mr. Parkhurst, author of the Greek and He- brew Lexicons, the new edition of which, since her father's death, she edited, died 1831. THOMAS, St. the principal of the Virgin Isles, West Indies, belonging to the Danes. In 1801 it was taken by the British, It was given up at the peace of Amiens, but was again taken in the course of the subsequent war, and was restored to Denmark at the peace of Paris in 1814. THOMAS'S, St, Hospital, South- wark, founded 1553, THOMSON, James, a celebrated British poet, was born in the shire of Roxburgh, Scotland, in 1700, and was educated in the university of Edinburgh. Early in life he repaired to London, He published his poem on Winter in 1726, and from the universal applause it met with, Mr, Thomson's acquaintance was courted by people of the first taste and fashion. The expectations which his "Winter" had raised were fully satis- fied by the successive publication of the other seasons; of " Summer," in the year 1727 ; " Spring," in the following year; and of " Autumn," in a quarto edition of his works, in 1730. Besides the Seasons, and his tragedy of Sophonisba, written and acted with applause in 1729, he had, in 1 7 2 7, published his poem to the memory of Sir Isaac Newton, with an account of TIC 822 TID his chief discoveries. At the death of his patron, the honourable Charles Talbot, he was reduced to a state of a precarious dependence ; but the prince of Wales settled on him a handsome allowance, and honoured him with many marks of particular favour. His poem, entitled " The Castle of Indolence," was his last work, pubhshed before his death, which took place August 27, 1748. THORLACKEN, the Icelandic poet, translator of" Paradise Lost," died 1820. THORN, a town of Prussia. In 1806 it suffered from the invasion of the French, and remained in their hands until the retreat from Moscow in 1812. THORNHILL, Sir James, an emi- nent painter, born 1676, died 1734. THORPE, John, antiquarian, died August 2, 1792, aged 78. THOU, J. A. De, author of the " His- tory of France," born 1553, died 1617- THREATENING Letters made punishable by act passed 1730. THUCYDIDES. the celebrated Greek historian, was born at Athens a.c. 471. During the Peloponnesian war he was commissioned by his countrymen to re- lieve Amphipolis ; but the Lacedaemonian general defeated his operations; and Thucydides, unsuccessful in his expedi- tion, was banished from Athens. In the eighth year of this war, he began to write an impartial history of the events which happened. His history is continued to the 21st year of the war, and is divided into eight books. He died at Athens, where he had been recalled from exile about A.c. 411. THURLOW, Lord Chancellor, died Sept. 21, 1806, aged 71. THURLOW, Edward, second lord, who succeeded his uncle in 1806, wrote and published a large quantity of poetry. He died June 4, 1829, aged 47. TIBERIUS, Claudius Drusus Nero, the Roman emperor, born a.c. 34, died A.D. 37. TIBET, or Thibet, country, Asia, north of the Himalaya mountains. In 1720 the emperor of China acquired the sovereignty of Tibet, which continued in a tranquil condition until 1790, when the Gorkhas of Nepaul invaded it, but were repulsed with great loss, and Tibet has ever since continued subject to China. TIBULLUS. the author of " Elegies," died A.c. 17. TICKELL, Richard, wit and poet, killed himself. 1793. TICKELL, Thomas, Enghsh poet, died 1740. TIDES, periodical and alternate mo- tions of the waters of the ocean ; called also the flux and reflux, or the ebb and flow. Some of the ancients suspected that the sun and moon might influence the tides ; as Pliny a.d. 70, Ptolemy 140, andMa- crobius 415. Kepler, at the beginning of the 1 7th century, says, " If the earth ceased to attract its waters towards itself, all the water in the ocean would rise and flow into the moon." Galileo and Dea Cartes, who lived in the time of Kepler, expressed themselves on this subject in a manner equally philosophical ; but for a development of the theory we are in- debted to Sir Isaac Newton in 1687. He saw that the moon is the principal agent which produces these regularly alternate motions of the waters ; and by means of his new principles of gravitation and geometry, he was soon able to show, generally, the manner in which they are effected. But difficulties still attended some of the phenomena of tides which have recently undergone investigation. 1839. Mr. Walker, Assistant Master- Attendant in H. M. dockyard, Devon- port, (who has long devoted much time to tidal phenomena,) has made valuable observations on oceanic shores, such as those of a large part of Cornwall and Devon. Professor Whewell also com- municated to the Royal Society his re- searches " on the laws of low water at the port of Plymouth, and on the per- manencyof mean water,&c.," and reports have been made to the British Associa- tion, " on tides." On Nov. 11, Profes- sor Whewell explained to the Cambridge Philosophical Society his new theory of the tides, which, is as follows : The tide of each large ocean may be considered as nearly independent of the tides of other waters. The central area of each ocean is occupied by a lunar wave, which oscil- lates, keeping time with the moon's returns, and having its motion kept up by the moon's attraction acting at each retinn. From the skirts of this oscillating central area, tides are carried on all sides by free waves, the velocity of which depends upon the depth and local cir- cumstances of the sea; and thus the littoral tides may travel in any direction, while the oceanic tides near the centre of the oscillating area may be small, or may vanish altogether. This theory was con- firmed by a reference to tide observations TIL 823 TIN on the eastern and western sides of the Pacific, and by mathematical calculations, tending to show that such a motion is mechanically possible. TILBURY, parish, Essex. Tilbury Fort built in 1545, stands close to the banks of the Thames; it was originally a block-house, erected in the reign of Henry VIII. ; but, after the memorable attack of the Dutch fleet in 1667, it was converted into a regular fortification, to which considerable additions have since been made. TILLOCH, Dr. Alexander, late editor of the " Philosophical Magazine," was born at Glasgow, Feb. 28, 1/59. In early life he took an important part in the invention of stereotype printing, and, either singly or in partnership, carried on that trade for some time in his native city. In 1787 Dr. T. came to the British metropolis, and in 1789, in connection with others, he purchased the " Star," a daily, evening paper, of which he be- came the editor, and continued so until within a short time of his death. The first number of the " Philosophical Magazine" appeared in June 1797 ; from which time it was continued without interruption. After a life spent in literary activity. Dr. Tilloch closed his career, at Islington, Jan. 25, 1825, in his 66th year. TILLOTSON, John, a celebrated archbishop of the English church, was born at Halifax, in Yorkshire, in 1630. In 1666 he took the degree of doctor of divinity at Cambridge ; in 1669 vvas made prebendary of Canterbury ; in 1672 was admitted dean of that cathe- dral ; and three years after was made a prebendary of St. Paul's cathedral, Lon- don. In 1683 he visited the unfortunate Lord Russel when under condemnation ; and attended him in his last moments on the scaffold. In 1689 he was installed dean of St. Paul's, and made clerk of the closet to King William and Queen Mary. In 1691 he was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury, and sworn one of the privy council. In 1694 he was seized with a palsy, of which he died, in the 65th year of his age. After his death there was found a bundle of bitter libels which had been published against him, on which he had written with his own hand, " I forgive the authors of these books, and pray God that he may forgive them too." TILSIT, town, Prussia. The memo- rable treaty of peace was concluded here in 1807 between France and Prussia, which unfortunately threw the weight of Russian influence for several years into the scale of Buonaparte. TIMBUCTOO, or Tombuctoo, city. Central Africa, has for many centuries been the emporium of the interior trade of that continent, but till lately has been little known. It is said to have been founded, in 1215, by a king called Mense Suleiman. Under his successor, named Izchia, Timbuctoo extended its domi- nions over all the neighbouring states, and acquired that commercial prosperity for which it has been distinguished. The first European traveller who succeeded in penetrating to Timbuctoo was the unfortunate Major Laing, who reached that city in 1826, and resided there for two months, but was assassinated on his homeward route through the desert. An enterprising Frenchman, M. Caille, April 20, 1828, arrived at Timbuctoo, and remained till May 4. The Geogra- phical Society of Paris conferred on this traveller the well-earned prize ofi'ered to the first person who should arrive at Timbuctoo from Senegambia. TIMOUR. See Tamerlane. TIN Trade. The mines of Corn- wall have been worked from a very re- mote era. The voyages of the Phoeni- cians to the Cassiterides, or Tin Islands, mentioned by Herodotus, are supposed to have been to the Scilly Islands, and the western extremity of Cornwall. After the destruction of Carthage, the British tin trade was carried on by the merchants of Marseilles, and subsequently by the Romans. Besides Britain, Spain fur- nished the ancients with considerable quantities of tin. In modern times, the tin mines of Cornwall and Devon have been wrought with various degrees of energy and suc- cess. Queen Elizabeth brought over some German miners, by whom some of the processes were improved. During the civil wars, the mines were much neglected. At the commencement of last century, however, the business of mining was carried on with renewed vigour; and from 1720 to 1740, the an- nual produce was about 2100 tons. The produce has gone on gradually increas- ing to the present time, with very few exceptions. The present average pro- duce is estimated at 4500 tons a year. Tin is found in several provinces of TIT 824 TIT China; but the most extensive, and, probably, richest tin district in the world, exists in the Malay countries. In the beginning of last century, the mines of the island of Banca, the most productive at present worked, were accidentally discovered. The mining operations of Banca have long been conducted upon a larger scale, and with more skill, than in any other of the Malay countries. TINIAN, one of the Ladrone islands, in the North Pacific ocean, first disco- vered by the crew of a Manilla ship, which was cast away here in 1638. Commodore Byron visited it in 1765, but he found the trees and underwood so thick, that in endeavouring to force a passage through, they were entangled and cut, as if with whipcord. Tinian was also visited in 1767 by Captain Wallis ; in 1787 by Captain Portlock; in 1788 by Captain Sever ; and afterwards by other navigators, all of whom confirm the account given of it by Commodore Byron. TIN-PLATE Workers' Company, London, incorporated 1670. TINTERN Parva, Monmouthshire, •celebrated for the remains of Tintern Abbey, the property of the Duke of Beaufort. It was founded in 1131, as a convent for Cistercian monks ; and the ruins of its church present some beau- tiful specimens of Gothic architecture. These ruins stand on the western bank of the river Wye, five miles north of Chepstow. TIPPOO Saib, sultan of Mysore, born 1749, died 1799- See Mysore. TIRABOSCHI, author of the " His- tory of Italian Literature," died 1794. TITHES, the tenth part of the in- ■crease, yearly arising and renewing from the profits of lands, the stock upon lands, and the personal industry of the inhabitants. The first mention of them in any written English law, is a consti- tutional decree, made in a synod held A.D. 786, wherein the payment of tithes in general is strongly enjoined. They were first granted for the maintenance of the clergy, 894 ; established legally by the Lateran council, 1200. It has long been acknowledged, that the payment of tithes in kind is a great discouragement to agriculture. This subject has, therefore, during the present century, been frequently brought before parliament. 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 71. August 13, 1836, an act for the commu- tation of tithes in England and Wales, empowers the secretary of state to ap- point two, and the archbishop of Can- terbury one, of a board to be called the "Tithe Commissioners for England and Wales." This act is amended by 1 Vict, c. 69 ; 1 and 2 Vict. c. 64, and 2 and 3 Victoria, c 62, Aug. 17, 1839; and 3 Vict. c. 15, June 4, 1840. These acts together comprise the present state of the tithe law in England. In regard to Ireland a greater diffi- culty has long existed. The statute 2 Will. IV. c. 41, June 1, 1832, reciting that a combination against the payment of tithes had, for some time, existed in certain parts of Ireland, authorises the lord-lieutenant to advance £60,000 for the purposes of this act, for one year, and defines the mode of its appropriation. It also makes special enactments for vindicating the authority of the law. It being f(mnd impossible to enforce these enactments, and enormous arrears having accumulated, the subject was again brought before parliament in 1834 and following years. At length the Irish tithe composition act passed, 1 and 2 Victoria, c. 109, Aug. 15, 1838, which abolishes compositions for tithes in Ire- land, and substitutes rent-charges, pay- able by persons having a perpetual in- terest in the lands subject thereto, &c. This act is amended by 3 Victoria, c. 13, May 19, 1840. TITIAN, TiTiANO Vecelli, a cele- brated Italian painter, was born at Ca- dore, Venice, in 1477, or in 1480, ac- cording to Vasari and Sandrart. He studied with Giorgione, and learned his method of blending and uniting the colours. The reputation of Titian rose continually; every new work contributed to extend his fame through all Europe ; and he was considered as the principal ornament of the age in which he flou- rished. The variety of works executed by this illustrious artist, at Rome, Venice, Bologna, and Florence, as well as those which are to be seen in other cities of Italy, in England, Spain, Germany, and France, illustrate his fame. His finest performances are, a Last Supper, pre- served in the refectory at the Escurial in Spain, and Christ crowned with Thorns, at Milan. He died of the plague 1576, at 99 years of age. TITLES, as an appellation of dignity or rank given to princes and persons of distinction, was not so common among TOB 826 TOD the ancient Greeks or Romans as they are in modern times. Till the reign of Constantine the title of Illustrious was never given except to those who were distinguished in arms or letters ; but at length it became hereditary in the fa- milies of princes. Henry IV. had the title of "Grace" conferred on him; Henry VI. that of "Excellent Grace;" Edward IV. that of "High and Mighty Prince;" Henry VII., " Highness." Henry VIII. first assumed the title of " Highness, " and afterwards that of "Majesty." The title of majesty was first given him by Francis I. in their interview in 1520. Charles V. was the first king of Spain who assumed the same title. TITUS Vkspasianus, the Roman emperor, the son of Vespasian, was born A.D. 40 ; took Jerusalem in 70. He was a great lover of learning, and com- posed several poems. Domitian, his brother, poisoned him in 81, aged 41. TIVERTON, Devonshire, is a place of considerable antiquity, and v/as con- sidered, in 1612, the chief woollen ma- nufacture in the west of England ; but the introduction of Norwich stuiFs, in 174.5, occasioned its decline. TLAXCALLA, or Tlascalla, re- public, Mexico, was formerly a kingdom, the inhabitants of which, at the invasion by Cortes, were the enemies of Mexico. After the conquest, Cortes obtained a grant of this kingdom from Charles VI., and it was consequently exempt from duties to the crown of Spain. TOBACCO, the dried leaves of the nicotiana tabacum, a plant indigenous to America, but which succeeds very well, and is extensively cultivated in most parts of the Old World. Its intro- duction into Europe dates only from the early part of the l6th century. Seeds of the plant were sent, in 1560, from Portugal, to Catherine de' Medici, by Jean Nicot, the French ambassador in that country, from whom it has received its botanical name. It was first intro- duced into England by the settlers who returned, in 1586, from the colony which it had been attempted to found in Vir- ginia, under the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh. But it made its greatest pro- gress in this country after the foundation of the colony at James Town in Virginia in 1607. James I. attempted, by re- peated proclamations and publications, some of them couched in very strong terms, to restrain the use of tobacco. During the earlier part of the reign of Charles I., the trade was monopolised by the crown. This was not, however, of long continuance, and totally ceased at the breaking out of the civil war. In 1643 the Lords and Commons im- posed a moderate duty, which, it was supposed, would occasidn its culture to be abandoned; but, in 1652, an act was passed, prohibiting the growth of tobacco in England, and appointing commis- sioners to see its provisions carried into effect. This act was confirmed at the Restoration, by the statute Charles II. c. 34, which ordered that all tobacco plan- tations should be destroyed. This did not, however, extend to Ireland ; and, of late years, the cultivation of tobacco made considerable progress in that country. Tobacco was first subject to the ex- cise laws in 1789- It appears from the oflSicial account, that the consumption of duty-paid tobacco in Great Britain has increased from about 8,000,000 lbs. in 1789, to 16,214,000 lbs. in 1833 ; the duty has fluctuated during the same period from Is. Zd. to 4s. and 3s. per lb. The excise regulations on tobacco under^ went a change in 1840 ; 3 and 4 Vict. c. 18, July 3, discontinues the excise survey on tobacco, and provides other regulations in lieu thereof. By this statute nine previous acts are repealed wholly or in part. Tobacco is extensively cultivated in Mexico, but only for home consumption. Under the Spanish government, the tobacco monopoly was established in 1764. Previously to 1820 the cultivation and sale of tobacco were subjected to the same sort of monopoly in Cuba as in I\Iexico ; but, at that period, the trade was thrown open. In 1828 the declared value of the tobacco exported from Cuba amounted to 868,000 dollars. At present, the total real value of the exports of tobacco from Havannah, and other ports, is nearly 2,000,000 dollars. TOBACCO Pipe Makers' Com- pany, London, incorporated 1663. TOBAGO, island. West Indies, the most southern of the Carihbee islands, v/as discovered by Columbus in 1498. It was taken by the English from the Dutch, 1672; retaken by them, 1674. Taken by the French June 2, 1781, and retaken by the English, 1793 ; again, June 30, 1803, and confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1814. TOD, Lieut-Colonel James, the 5 N TOM 826 TON annalist of Rajpootana. To him belongs the praise of having set one of the first examples of the study of Indo- Grecian antiquities, which is now prosecuted with so much diligence and success in India. His disquisition on Greek, Parthian, and Hindoo medals, is a monument of learned investigation, which has merited the ap- plause of scholars. He for some time officiated as librarian of the Royal Asiatic Society. He died November 17, 1835, aged 53. TOKAY, town, Hungary, owes the superiority of its wines partly to the climate, partly to the care taken in the selection of the grapes, and in the pre- paration of the wine. The vineyards were destroyed by a hail-storm, 1808. TOLEDO, city, Spain, is a place of antiquity, and was successively governed by Goths, Moors, and kings of Castile. It was formerly the seat of several meet- ings of the Cortes, and of a number of church'councils. The university, formerly in repute, was suppressed in 1807. TOLENTINO, town. States of the Church, is remarkable for a treaty of peace concluded between Buonaparte and the papal court in 1797, and for some actions between the Austrians and Neapolitans in 1815. TOLL, a tax or custom paid for the passage through rivers, roads, &c., was first paid by vessels passing Stade on the Elbe, 1190; was first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341. The first appointment of a toll on highways took place in 1346, for re- pairing the highways of Holborn, Gray's- inn-lane, and St. Martin's-lane. Toll- gates, or turnpikes, were used first in England 1663. By 1 and 2 Will. IV. c. 25, Sept. 22d, 1831, cattle going to and from pasture, and from being farried, are exempted from turnpike tolls, except at gStes within six miles from London. TOLSON, Richard, lieutenant-ge- neral in the army, born at Tilbury Fort, Oct. 1746, was a celebrated officer of his day, having served at the battles of Pon- dicherry, Oct. 1778, and was wounded ; Bangalore, in 1791. and wounded ; Serin- gapatam, in 1791 and 1792; Malacca, Aug. 17, 1795 ; afterwards governor of it. He died June 12, 1815. TOMBUCTOO. SeeTiMBucToo. TOMLINE, George, prelate and writer, born 1750, died 1787. TOMPION, Thomas, eminent En- glish watch-maker, died 1669- TONE, Theodore Wolfe, distin- guished in the history of the civil war in Ireland, was born in Dublin, in 1763. In 1787 he entered his name in the books of the Middle Temple, and as soon as his terms were completed was called to the bar. During the Irish rebellion he wrote the declaration of the first club of United Irishmen ; became an active par- tisan of the Catholic committee in Dub- lin ; and was a principal pamphleteer, messenger, and negotiator, in every tur- bulent scene that occurred in that dismal period. In 1794 he was involved in the treason of Jacksonand Hamilton Rowan, in consequence of which he embarked for the United States in 1795. He was the projector of the French expeditions of Hoche and Humbert to Ireland, and was taken after a desperate resistance, by a squadron under Sir John Borlase Warren. Finding that he was ordered for execution he inflicted on himself a mortal wound in the gaol of Dublin in 1796. TONGATA BOO, island. South Pacific ocean, the largest of the Friendly islands, was discovered by Tasman, the Dutch navigator, in 1643. It has since been visited by Cook in 1773 ; in 1777, by Perouse ; and by the missionary ship '• Duff," in 1797- Several missionaries were left on the island, but they were in danger of their lives in the wars which broke out. Three of them were mur- dered at the instigation, it is said, of a felon who had escaped from Botany Bay. Capt. Waldegrave, R.N., recently visited this island, and Mr. Williams the mis- sionary, in 1833; when a great improve- ment had taken place. Since the mur- der of the missionaries, others have been established on the island, who have suc- ceeded in instructing and civilizing the inhabitants. TONNAGE AND Poundage granted to the kings of England for life, 1465. TONQUIN. See Tunquin. TONTINE, a species of increasing annuity, on which money is borrowed, either for the service of the state, or for erecting public works. The first at- tempt to raise money for the public service on this kind of interest was in 1693. It did not succeed, only £108,100 being advanced out of a million intended to be raised. In 1757, an attempt was made to raise a loan by a tontine scheme ; and in 1765, a tontine formed part of a project for funding navv and victualling bills ; but these TOR 827 plans were unsuccessful, and the tontine formed in 1789, which was the last at- tempt to raise a public loan in this way, experienced a similar fate. TOOKE, John Horne, author of " Epea Terventa, or Diversions of Purley/'born 1736, died March 18, 1812. TOPLADY, Aug. M., an eminent divine, born 1740, died 1778. TORIES, a political faction in Britain, opposed to the Whigs. The name of Tories was first given to a sort of banditti in Ireland, and was thence transferred to the adherents of Charles I. by his ene- mies, under the pretence that he favoured the rebels of Ireland. The Tories, or cavaliers, as they were also called, had then principally in view the political interest of the king, the crown, and the church of England ; and the round-heads, or Whigs, proposed chiefly the maintain- ing of the rights and interests of the people, and of Protestantism. But the names Whig and Tory were but little known till about the middle of the reign of King Charles II. in 1678, when the whole nation was first observed to be divided into Whigs and Tories, on occa- sion of the famous deposition of Titus Oates : the appellation of Whig was given to such as believed the plot real ; and Tory to those who held it fictitious. See Britain, p. 143. The terms have been continued to the present day to designate the two great political parties into which this country is divided. TORONTO, capital of Upper Canada. York, the former name was recently changed to the original Indian name of the place, Toronto. It contains the principal buildings and public offices of the province. York (now Toronto) was twice captured by the Americans in April and August 1813; and it became the scene of conflict during the civil war in Canada, having been taken and re-taken in Dec. 1837- TORRICELLI, Evangeliste, an illustrious Italian mathematician and philosopher, born at Faenza, in 1608. He composed a treatise on motion, which brought him acquainted with Galileo. He greatly improved the art of making telescopes and microscopes, but he is best known for finding out a method of ascertaining the weight of the atmo- sphere by quicksilver, in 1642. He pdblished " Opera Geometrica," 4to., 1644; and died in 1647. TORTOISESHELL is extensively TOU used in the manufacture of combs, snuff- boxes, &c., and in inlaying and other ornamental work. Before the opening of the British intercourse with India, the greater part of the tortoiseshell which eventually found its way to Europe was first carried to Canton. ' It is still an article of trade from that city ; the value of the tortoiseshell exported by British ships, in 1831 and 1832, amounted to 19,017 dollars. At present, however, Singapore is the chief mart, the exports from it in 1831 and 1832, having amount- ed at an average to 208 piculs. TORTONA, town, kingdom of Sar- dinia, was a place of considerable strength until dismantled by the French 1799. TORTOSA, town, Spain. It was called by the Romans, Dordosa. The garrison surrendered to the French, Jan. 1, 1811. TORTURE, as inflicted on persons to force them to confess the crimes laid to their charge, by the law of England, was at one period employed; but has been abolished in most civilized coun- tries. In Sweden, by order of the king, 1786; in Poland 1776; in France, by edict, Aug. 25, 1780. TOULON, a fortified city and sea- port of France, capital of the department of Var, has long been the scene of naval expeditions. In 1706 it was bombarded by the allies, both by land and sea, by which. almost the whole town was re- duced to a heap of ruins. In 1721 it experienced the dreadful ravages of a pestilence. In 1793 it capitulated, in the name of Louis XVII. to the British, who, not finding the place tenable, evacu- ated it the same year, after having de- stroyed the arsenal, &c. The city signed an act of submission to Louis XVIII., July 23, 1815. TOULOUSE, a city of France, capi- tal of the department of Upper Garonne, the most considerable city in France, next to Paris and Lyons. It was the- capital of the Tectosages, who made many conquests in Asia and Greece. It was next a Roman colony, and after- wards the capital of the Visigoths, who destroyed the superb amphitheatre, of which there are still some remains, and other Roman monuments. It was taken by the allies in 1814, after an obstinate battle fought between the British under Lord Wellington, and the French under Soult. The British were successful, but suffered severely. TOW 828 TRA TOURNAMENT, or Tourney, a martial sport or exercise which the an- cient cavahers used to perform, to show their bravery and address. It is said that they were instituted by Henry, Emperor of Germany, in 919- Instan- ces of them occur among the Enghsh in the reign of King Stephen, about 1140; but they were not much in use till Richard I.'s time, towards the year 1189, after which period these diver- sions were performed with extraordinary magnificence in the tiltyard near St. James's, Smithfield, and other places. They made the principal diversion of the 13th and 14th centuries. At length, however, they were found to be often productive of fatal eflfects, which gave the popes occasion to forbid them, and, as the age of chivalry gradually passed away, the princes of Europe concurred in discouraging and suppressing them. An attempt to revive them has been re- cently made. See Chivalky. TOURNAY, town, kingdom of Bel- gium, province of Hainault, on the river Scheldt, the Civitas Nerviorum of the Romans. It was taken in 1792 by the French, who v/ere obliged to abandon it in 1793, but re-entered it again, on the conquest of Flanders, ia 1794 ; they however delivered it up to the allies in 1814. TOURNFORT, Joseph, botanist, born 1656, died 1708. TOURS, town, France, department of Indre, was the scene of the repulse of the Saracens, by Charles Pvlartel, in 732 ; and in subsequent ages, its castle, built on a rock, served more than once as a place of refuge for the royal family in times of commotion. Near the city is Plessis-les-Tours, a palace, built by the profligate and superstitious Louis XL, who died here in 14S3. TOWER OF London, built 1078; walled in 1099. . TOWER of the Winds, at Athens, built A.c. 550. TOWER, Leaning, at Pisa, built 1174. TOWNLEY, Charles, whose noble collection of sculpture, known as the Townley, in the British Museum, died 1805. TOWNSEND, Joseph, divine and writer, and founder of the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, died 1816. See Deaf AND Dumb. ^ TOWNSHEND, Lord John, a states- man and privy councillor, was educated at Eton; and afterwards at Cambridge. In 1780 he was elected one of the representa- tives of that university in parliament. His adherence to the party of Mr. Fox lost him his seat at the general election of 1784. In Feb. 1806 his lordship was appointed joint paymaster-general of the armj', and a lord of trade and planta- tions ; and was sworn a privy councillor. He retired from those offices early in the following year. He died Feb. 25, 1833, aged 76. TRADES' Unions, societies of artisans formed in London and other large towns in 1833; the ostensible object of which was to keep a check on their employers. The persons who conducted these pro- ceedings in London, were to give notice to those in the country, who were to act upon their instructions. Every person, on becoming a member, bound himself by an oath, administered in the most solemn manner, not to disclose anything which might take place among them. In March 1834, 3000 workmen in the woollen manufacture struck at Leeds, in consequence of the determination of the masters to employ only those who would relinquish the trades' union. April 21a large body of trades' unionists, estimated at about 30,000, assembled at Copenhagen Fields,London, and marched thence in procession to Whitehall, to deliver to the secretary of state a peti- tion to the king, said to be signed by 265,000 persons, in behalf of the Dorches- ter convicts. Lord Melbourne declined to receive a petition so delivered ; and the multitude quietly dispersed. The peti- tion was afterwards presented by a depu- tation, and was then received. The same and following years the workmen in London and several large towns struck for increase of wages, and for some time were supported by the unions to the great injury of themselves and the public. Among others were the cotton spinners of Glasgow, who had long been noted for the violent and arbitrary proceedings of their confederary. The subject was at length brought before parliament in 1838. In the house of commons, Mr. Wakley, on Feb. 13, moved for a select committee to inquire into the constitution, practices, and effects of the association of operative cotton-spinners of Glasgow and its neighbourhood. Mr. O'ConneD moved, by way of amend- ment, for a select committee to inquire TRA into trades' unions and combinations generally in the United Kingdom. After some discussion Mr. Wakley expressed himself well satisfied to leave the question in the hands of her majesty's ministers. TRAFALGAR, cape, Spain, on the coast of Andalusia, near the straits of Gibraltar, remarkable for the victory ob- tained by the British fleet, under Lord Nelson, over the French and Spanish fleets, Oct. 21, 1805, in which Nelson lost his life. The British squadron con- sisted of 27 ships, three of them sixty- fours. The enemy's line consisted of 33 ships of which IS were French, and 15 Spanish, commanded by Admiral Villeneuve. The British commander- in-chief, in the " Victory," led the wea- ther column, and the " Royal Sovereign," Admiral CoUingvvood, the lee. The action began at twelve o'clock, by the leading ships breaking through the enemy's line; the commander-in-chief about the tenth ship from the van, the second in command about the twelfth from the rear, leaving the van of the enemy unoccupied ; the succeeding ships breaking through in all parts a-stern of their leaders, and engaging the enemy at the muzzles of their guns. The conflict was very severe ; but at length the Bri- tish gained the victory ; 19 ships of the line, of which two v/ere first-rates, were taken. During the action. Lord Nelson in the " Victory" made the well-known telegraphic signal of " England expects every man to do his duty." TRAGEDY, introduced at Athens, about A.c. 490. The first contest for the prize, 469- See Drama, TRAJAN, the Roman emperor, suc- ceeded Nerva, a.d. 98 ; went on an expe- dition to the East, against the Parthians, 106 ; erected his column at Rome, 114 ; subdued Assyria, 115 ; died 11/. TRANQUEBAR, Danish settlement of Hindoostan, in the province of Car- natic. The first Danish vessel arrived on the coast of Coromandel in 16 16, where they were kindly received by the Tanjore raja, from whom they piu-chased the village of Tranquebar. The settle- ment did not prosper; and in 1624 they surrendered up their charter and pro- perty to King Christian IV., in payment of a debt they owed him. By the un- fortunate rupture between England and Denmark in 1807, the Danes were de- prived of all their settlements in India; but Tranquebar has since been restored. 829 T RE TRANSYLVANIA, principality of the Austrian empire, was known to the Romans by the title of Dacia Consularis Mediterranea. On the eruption of the northern hordes it became subject suc- cessively to the Goths, Huns, Alans, &c. For some time it was ruled by a prince of its own, hut it fell undei; the power of the kings of Hungary, and was governed by a deputy. In 1541 it was again separated from Hungary, and re- mained an independent province till 1699, when its last prince gave it up to Aus- tria. The government is aristocraticfd, and since 1722 rendered hereditary to the princes of Austria. TREBISOND, a city of European Turkey. After the capture of Constan- tinople by the Latins, in 1203, it became the seat of an empire extending from the mouth of the Phasis to that of the Haiys. It surrendered, however, to Mahomet 11. The trade has lately been considerable. The opening of the Euxine to European vessels, and the policy of Russia in shutting out the trade from its own ports by high duties since 1832, have given to Trebisond an importance which it did not formerly possess. In 1832, 9189 packages passed through Trebisond for Tabreez, and it is believed that, of these, full 8000 consisted of British manufactures. In 1834 about 12,000 packages, valued at £600,000, were im- ported into Trebisond, and forwarded for Persia. In 1835 the number had increased to nearly 20,000, valued at near a million sterling. TRENT, city, Austria, in the Tyrol.. It is famous for a council, which was held here for 18 years. It was as- sembled by Paul III. in 1545, and con- tinued by 25 sessions till the year ] 563, under Julius III. and Pius IV., in order to correct, illustrate, and fix with per- spicuity the doctrines of the chiirch. The decreeG of this council, together with the creed of Pope Pius IV., contain a summary of the doctrines of the Roman catholics. Trent was taken by the French in 1796, who were repulsed by the Aus- trians in the same year. TREVES, town, Prussia, was fre- quently a royal residence under the Franks. It was subsequently received into the German empire, and continued during many centuries under an ecclesi- astical government. The university was founded in 1454, and greatly extended in 1722. After 1794 it was converted by T R I 830 the French into a central school, to which its Prussian possessors have lately given the name of Gymnasium. Treves re- mained in the hands of the French from 1794 to 1814. TRIBUNES among the ancient Ro- mans, magistrates chosen out of the commons to protect them against the oppressions of the great. The tribunes of the people were first established a.c. 495. Military tribunes were created, with consular power, a.c. 443. TRICHINOPOLY, town, Hindoo- Stan, was the capital of a Hindoo prin- cipality until 1736, when Chundah Saheb acquired it by treachery, but lost it to the Maharattas in 1741. From these depredators it was taken in 1743, by Nizam ul Mulk. In 1749 it devolved by inheritance to the Nabob Mahomed Ali, who was taken under the protection of the English. It sustained a memorable siege by the French and their native allies, which lasted from 1731 to 1755; but the extraordinary military talents displayed by Lawrence, Clive, Kirk- patrick, Dalton, and other officers, com- bined with the heroic valour of the Bri- tish grenadiers, preserved the city, and established the British candidate on the throne of the Carnatic. TRIESTE, sea-port town, Austria, built near the site of the Roman colony, Tergeste; and there are some remains of the aqueduct which brought water to it, six miles distant. The town first came into the possession of the Austrians in 1382. In 1719 it was made a free port by the Austrian government. In the revolutionary war it was seized by the French, but retaken by the Austrians, April 14, 1797. TRIMMER, Mrs. Sarah, author of various works on education, died 1810, aged 69. TRINIDAD, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, opposite the coast of Cumana, was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and taken possession of by the Spaniards in 1588; but it was not till 1783 that measures were adopted for its settlement. In 1797 the island capitulated to the British under Sir Ralph Abercrombie^ and from this period the population and produce have greatly increased. The slaves on this island were emancipated in 1838, and the most recent accounts notice, as a subject of congratulation, the immense and very advantageous difference between the position of the TRI planters of this colony on the Ist of Ja- nuary, 1840, and the 1st of January, 1839. Since then the conduct of the labouring population has been most steady and satisfactory, TRINITY. The word first applied to the persons of the godhead, 150; festival instituted about 828. Trinity act passed to exempt from penalties persons deny- ing the doctrine of the Trinity, 1813. TRINITY Sunday, a festival an- ciently kept, and still observed by the Romish church, in honour of the Holy Trinity. Its observance was enjoined by the council of Aries, a.d. 1260; and Pope John XXII. in 1334, ordered it to be kept on the Sunday next after Whit- sunday, as at present. TRINITY House, society of, incor- porated by Henry VIII. in 1515, for the promotion of commerce and navigation, by licensing and regulating pilots, and ordering and erecting beacons, light- houses, buoys, &c. A similar society, for the like purposes, was afterwards established at Hull ; and also another at Newcastle-upon-'Pyne in 1537. The corporation was confirmed in 1685 in the enjoyment of its privileges and pos- sessions, by letters patent of the 1st of James II. It is governed by a master, 4 wardens, 8 assistants, and 31 elder brothers; Prince Albert was admitted to the latter honour in 1841. This society has still the power of erecting light- houses, &c., on the several coasts of the kingdom. See Lighthouse. The ancient hall of the Trinity House at Deptfoid, where the meetings of the brethren were formerly held, was pulled down in 1787, and an elegant building erected for the purpose in London, near the Tower. The gross revenue, under the management of the Trinity House, amounts to about £135,000 a-year ; but the nett revenue is rather under half that sum. TRIPLE Alliance, a treaty of al- liance ratified between the States-General and England, against France, Jan. 28, 1668, for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known as the triple alhance. — Another, called the Triple Al- liance of the Hague, between France, England, and Holland, to oppose the designs of Cardinal Alberoni, the Spa- nish minister, Jan. 4, 1717. 1 TRIPOLI, one of the Barbary states, I north of Africa. It includes the country TRO 831 .TUN colonised by the Greeks, and celebrated by them under the name of Cyrene, the capital of which of the same name is now in ruins. See Cyrene. This country was early subject to the power of the Saracens, and in the reign of Charles V. it was occupied for a short time by the knights of Malta, who were driven out by Solyman. It depended on the Ottoman Porte till 1713, when it was erected into an independent state. The natives are a fine race, active and hardy, but they are severely oppressed by the pacha. In 1828 disputes arose with Naples, in consequence of a quarrel with the pacha. His highness had offered some insult to the Neapolitan flag, and as he refused to give redress, a Neapolitan squadron was dispatched to Tripoli to exact it by force, which bombarded the town, August 23, without making any useful impression. On the 29th, the admiral got under weigh, abandoning the expedition, and Naples settled her quarrel with the pacha by a convention, October 28. TRIPOLIZZA, town, kingdom of Greece, capital of the Morea. During the late Greek war, Tripolizza, after being occupied by the Ottoman army till October, 1821, was taken by storm by the exasperated Greeks ; the town was nearly destroyed, and 6000 Moslem inhabitants or soldiers were massacred, with circumstances of peculiar barbarity. TRIQUET, M., the celebrated florist and seedsman, of Paris, to whom we owe, at least, 200 new varieties of the tulip, died 1838. TROMP, Van, the Dutch admiral, born 1597 ; killed in an engagement with the English fleet, under Monk, July 29, 1653. See Britain. TROPPAU, principality of the Aus- trian empire. The congress of Troppau was held here, Oct. 20, 1820. TROY, a celebrated city of antiquity, and the capital of Troas, was built on a small eminence near Mount Ida, and the promontory of Sigaeum, at the dis- tance of about four miles from the sea- shore. The kingdom began a.c. 1546 ; the city was built 1480 ; rebuilt and so named 1341. It was taken by the Greeks and burned to the ground, in the night between June 11 and 12, a.c. 1184. TROYES, town of France, depart- ment of Aube. By the treaty of Troyes between England, France, and Burgundy, 1420, it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and, after the death of Chailes, should inherit the crown. The French were driven out of Troyes by the allied armies, March 4, 1814. TRUCK System, a practice that for- merly prevailed, particularly in the minirtg and manufacturing districts, of paying the wages of workmen in goods instead of money. Having been very extensively abused, and loudly and justly complained of, a bill was, in consequence, intro- duced for its suppression by Mr. Little- ton, which, after a great deal of oppo- sition and discussion, was passed into a law, 1831, 1 and 2 Will. IV. c. 32, It is entitled "An act to prohibit the payment, in certain trades, of wages in goods, or otherwise, than in the current coin of the realm." TRUE Sun newsj)aper. The prin- ter and proprietors were, at the prosecu- tion of the attorney-general, found guilty of two seditious libels, tending to excite the people to resist the payment of the assessed taxes, Feb. 6, 1834. TRUMBULL, Jonathan, Ameri- can statesman, died 1809. TRUMBULL, John, American poet, born 1750, died 1831. TRUSLER, Dr. John, compiler, au- thor of the "Historian's Vade Mecum," born 1735, died 1820. TRUXILLO, Peru, chief town of a district, was founded by Pizarro in 1535. It was ruined by an earthquake Dec. 1759. TUCKER, Dean, celebrated for his commercial sagacity, and author of " Elements of Commerce," " Directions forTravellers,"&c.,bornl7l2, died 1799. TUILERIES, palace of, at Paris, begun in 1564. The front of the palace consists of five pavilions, connected by piles of building, extending more than 1000 feet. The gardens are always open to the public, and are the principal pro- menade of this part of the town. TULA, town, European Russia, south of Moscow, was founded in the l6th century, and was made a bishop's see in 1799. It was desolated by fire, which destroyed 9 churches and 670 private dwellings, besides manufactories and markets, July 11th, 1834. TULL, Jethro, the author of several improvements in husbandry, died 1741. TUNBRIDGE Wells, a town in Kent, much resorted to, on account of T U R 832 T U R its chalybeate waters, discovered in 1606. general, in the reign of Louis XIV., born Towards the end of the I7th century, 16II, killed 1675. the walks and assembly rooms were TURGOT, A. R., statesman, born arranged according to their present form. 1727, died 1781. About 1687 substantial buildings were TURIN, city, north of Italy, and the erected. Queen Anne gave a stone basin seat of the Sardinian monarchy, is of for the spring, whence it was subse- remote date. It belonged successively quently called the Queen's well. to the Romans, the Lombards, to Char- TUNIS, city and territory, Northern lemagne, the marquesses of Saluzzo, and Africa, one of the Barbary states. This the jirinces of Savoy, who made it the country was formerly a monarchy. The capital of their states. In 1798 the city was taken by the Emperor Charles French army took this cit)'', seized all the v., and restored to its king, that had strong places of Piedmont, and obliged been banished in 1535. In 1574 Tunis the king and his family to remove to the became a republic under the jjrotection island of Sardinia. In 1799 the French of the Turks. The city is situated in a were driven out by the Austrians and bay, about 10 miles south-west from the Russians, but shortly after, the city and site of the ancient Carthage. A few of all Piedmont surrendered to the French, the public cisterns, &c., are all that re- In 1814 it was delivered up to the allies, main to point out where Carthage stood, who restored it to the king of Sardinia. See Carthage. TURKEY, empire, extending over the TUNNEL. See Thames Tunnel, south-east of Europe, and the contiguous TUNQUIN, or ToNauiN, kingdom, parts of Asia and Africa. The Turks, India beyond the Ganges. Formerly or Turkmans, were originally a tribe of independent, but at ])resent compre- Huns, who about the 7th century began bended in the Cochin-Chinese empire, to raise a new empire in Asia. About Tunquin, together with Cochin-China, 800, issuing from an obscure retreat, they Cambodia and Siampa, anciently formed obtained possession of a part of Armenia, part of the Chinese empire, but in called from them Turcomania; but in the the 13th century, they threw oflp the 13th century, being harassed in their yoke. The Tunquinese princes gradu- new possessions by other Tartar tribes, ally assumed a greater degree of inde- retreated to Asia Minor. Their domi- pendence, and about 1553 subdued nions were united under Othman, or Cochin-China. About 1774 a revolt Osman, who assumed the title of sultan, began, and after a sanguinary warfare of and established his empire at Prusa, in 28 years, terminated with leaving the Bithynia, about 1300. empire as it at present exists. Tunquin His successors extended their con- was finally conquered by Chaimg Shaung, quests over the adjacent parts of Asia, the Cochin-Chineseemperor.about 1800, Africa, and Europe. Adrianople was and has ever since been ruled by a vice- taken by them as early as 1360. The roy, delegated from the seat of govern- succeeding reign was that of Bajazet I., ment. See Cochin-China. which is memorable in Turkish history. TUNSTALL, Cuthbert, bishop, di- See Bajazet. In 1453 Constantinople vine, and statesman, born about 1474, was taken from the Greeks, and became died 1559. the capital of the Turkish empire. See TURBINE, an hydraulic wheel of this Constantinople. name, recently invented by M. Fourney- The following is a list of the emperors ron, and first noticed in England about of Turkey from this time : — 1838. It is worked by water pressure, Mahomet II 1451 and is stated to have excited much Bajazet II 1481 interest in Germany. It is said, that a Selim 1 1512 turbine, only thirteen inches in diameter, Solyman I 1520 worked on an axle, under a vertical Selim II 1566 pressure of water of 1 18 yards, revolved Amurath III 1574 2300 times in a minute, and expended Mahomet III. ...» 1595 only 46 grains troy of water per second ; Achmet 1 1603 yet reahzed a power which, estimated Mustapha I I6l7 in steam^ would be equal to that of 60 Osman, or Othman II I6I8 horses. Mustapha I., restored 1623 TURENNE, a renowned French Amurath IV 1623 , m TUS 8S3 TYR Ibrahim 1640 duke till it became extinct in l737j when, Mahomet IV 1649 by arrangements between France and Solyman II 1687 Austria, their place was filled by the Achmet II I691 Duke of Lorraine, who was raised to the Mustapha II I695 imperial throne. Upon the flight of the Achmet III 1/03 grand duke, in 1799, Tuscany was erect- Mahomet V 1730 ed by the French into the kingdom of Osman, or Othman II 1754 Etruria, but in 1807 was transformed Mustapha III 1757 into an appendage to the crown of Italy. Achmet IV., or Abdul Hamed. . . 1774 In 1814 it was restored, and Ferdinand, Selim III 1789 the grand duke, returned to his dorai- Mustapha IV 1807 nions. Mahomet VI 1808 TUSSER, Thomas, author of " Five Mahmoud II 1808 Hundred Good Points in Husbandry," Abdul Medjid 1839 died 1580. After the battle of Poltava, in 1709, TWINING, Rev. Thomas, transla- and the retreat of Charles XII. of Swe- tor of "Aristotle's Poetics," died 1804. den into Turkey, the czar, Peter the TYCHO Brahe. See Brahe. Great, advanced against the Turkish TYLER, Wat, the author of the re- frontier; he was, however, obliged to bellion in the reign of Richard II., killed sign the treaty of Pruth, which stipu- 1381. lated the surrender of Azoph and some TYNDALE, translator of the Bible, other fortresses. The Turks have since for publishing of which he was burned experienced many reverses, and recent at Augsburgh, 1536. events, particularly the loss of Greece in TYNEMOUTH Castle and Pri- 1828, and the cession of large tracts of ory, Northumberland, built 700. territory to Russia, since that time, have TYRE, the principal city of Phoenicia, shown the instability of their power in and the most celebrated emporium of Europe. See Greece, and Russia. the ancient world, was founded by a 1832. Commencement of hostilities colony from Sidon, the most ancient of with Mehemet Ali, for an account of the Phoenician cities, about a.c. I690. which, see Egypt, and Syria. The commerce and navigation of Tyre, 1839. July 1, Sultan Mahmoud If. probably attained their maximum from died, in the 54th year of his life, and about . a.c. 650. At that period the the 31st of his reign ; and was succeeded Tyrians were the factors and merchants by his son, Abdul Medjid, born April of the civilized world. Tyre was be- 20, 1823. Dec. 21, the first grand sieged and taken by Nebuchadnezzar, council held at Constantinople, for the a.c. 572. It was also attacked by purpose of discussing a new code of Alexander the Great, and taken a.c. laws, the Code Napoleon to form the 332. basis of the new legislation. In the time of the Romans it conti- 1840. July 15, the convention be- nued still a mighty city, and during the tween England, Austria, Russia, and first centuries of the Christian era, was Prussia, for settling the affairs of Tur- distinguished for its zeal in the cau^ of key and Egypt, signed at London. Christianity. During the crusades, it TURKEY or Levant Company, became the subject of contest between incorporated 1581; confirmed by char- the Saracens and Christians. In 1289 ter 1605 ; abolished by 6 Geo. IV. c. 33. it fell finally into the hands of the former, TURNER, Dr. William, the first since which time it appears that its ruin EngHsh botanist, died about 1550. may be dated. All that now'remains is TURNER'S Company, London, in- a small village, called Sour, consisting corporated 1604. of about 60 families, who live on the TURNPIKE. See Toll. produce of their little grounds and a TUSCANY, grand duchy, Italy, was trifling fishery. in the possession of the Romans between TYROL, mountainous district of the 700 and 800 years, until overrun by the Austrian empire, formed in the earliest barbarians in the 5th century. In the ages part of the ancient Rhaetia. In the 13th century, the continued divisions disorders that followed the downfall of led to the ascendency of the Medicis. the Roman empire, it was divided into This family ruled with the title of grand a number of petty lordships, which all 5 o UNI 854 UNI acknowledged the supremacy of the an- cient princes and dukes of Bavaria. On the fail of the house of Guelf, in the 12th century, the Tyrolese became subjects of the empire. In the contests of the French revolution, it was invaded by Buonaparte, but the treaties of peace in 1797 and in 1801, left Tyrol in the un- disturbed possession of the Austrians. It was overrun by the French and Ba- varians in 1805 ; and by the treaty of Presburg was given to Bavaria. In 180^ it was ceded to Italy, but was restored to Austria in 1814. TYRWHITT, Thomas, English writer, born 173Q, died 1786. U. UDINA, Giovanni da, born 1494, died 1564; celebrated for having been the reviver of stucco work. UKRAINE, country, south-east of Russian-Poland, was the scene of re- peated invasions, of which that by Charles XII. of Sweden in 1709, ter- minated in the fatal battle of Poltava. ULLOA, poN Antonio, mathema- tician, born 1716, died 1795. ULM, town, kingdom of Wirtemburg, is well known in the wars of Germany. After the battle of Blenheim in 1704, it sustained a siege ; in 1800 it was the scene of military manoeuvres, and in 1805, the errors of General Mack led to the surrender of an Austrian army. In 1802, Uhn was ceded to Bavaria, and in 1810 it was transferred to the kingdom of Wirtemburg. ULYSSES, king of Ithaca, the son of Laertes, and father of Telemachus, was one of those heroes who contributed most to the taking of Troy; he flourished A.c. 1149. UMMERAPOORA, (called by the natives Amarapura, or the city of the immortals,) for some time the capital of the Burman empire, was built in 1783, with the materials of the houses (chiefly wood) which were transported from Ava, the ancient capital, to which the seat of government was restored in 1819. UNCTION, the act of anointing, or rubbing with oil, was practised by the ancient Christians in the first century, in compliance with the precept of St. James, chap. v. Extreme unction in the Romish church was in common use in 450. UNIFORMITY, Act of. See Act. UNITED Provinces. See Hol- land. UNITED Service Cl •?, instituted 1828. UNITED States of America con- sisted originally of colonies from Great Britain and Ireland, which have been, established at different periods and under various circumstances. The settlement and progressive growth of the separate colonies extends from 1607 to 1776, over a period of 170 years. Of the 13 colonies, whose delegates signed the declaration of independence, 12 were settled in the 17th century, and others underwent alterations before the establishment of the Union, as follows: — Virginia, settled 1607. New York, by the Dutch, 1614 ; occu-- pied by the English 1664. Plymouth, 1620 ; incorporated with Massachusetts in 1692. Massachusetts, 1628. New Hampshire, 1623. New Jersey, by the Dutch, 1624; occupied by the English in 1664. Delaware, by the Dutch, 1627 ; occupied by the English in 1664. Some Swedes settled here in 1638, but they were conquered by the Dutch, and most of them left the country. Maine, 1630;, united with Massachusetts in 1677, afterwards erected into an independent state in 1820. Maryland, 1633. Con- necticut, 1635 ; settled with Massachu- setts. New Haven, 1637; united with Connecticut in 1662. Providence, 1635 i Rhode Island, 1,638, united and called Rhode Island, 1644. North Carolina, 1650; a distinct colony in 1729. South Carolina, 1670. Pennsylvania, 1682. Georgia, 1733. In 1630 the number of English colonists in North America did not exceed 4000;, in I66O, it was not less than 80,000, and had therefore in- creased twenty-fold in the short space of 30 years. In 1701 the population of the colonies is estimated to have been about 262,000. After a long struggle with the diffi- culties of their situation, by patient per- severance and industry they began to flourish and increase in wealth and population. In these circumstances, they UNI 835 UNI fefecame involved in the disputes with the mother country, which terminated in their separation. The Americans formed a congress, which, in 1776, disclaimed all dependence on the mother country. The French king entered into an alliance with them in 1778-, and the colonies> powerfully assisted by France, were suc- cessful. In 1781 the contest was finally closed by the surrender of Cornwallis, at Yorktown, to the combined French and American forces under Washington and Rochambeau, October 10. In the following year, a treaty was concluded between Holland and the United States; and after long protracted negotiations, a definitive treaty of peace with Great Britain was signed September 23, 1/83. Denmark, Spain, Sweden, and Russia, had previously recognised the United States as a sovereign power. In consequence of the public debt and distress brought on by the war, the country was becoming a prey to anarchy, when a convention, composed of dele- gates from the several states, met at Philadelphia, May 1787, for the purpose of revising the articles of Confederation> and, under the presidency of Washing- ton, agreed on a federal constitution September l7, to be proposed to the people in state conventions, which was the basis of the federal government esta- blished in 1789. The states subsequently admitted into the union were, Vermont, separated from New York, 1791; Ten- nessee, from North Carolina, 1796; Kentucky, from Virginia, 1799; Ohio> formed from lands north-west of the Ohio, which had been ceded to the general government by the states to which it belonged, 1802; Louisiana, from Louisiana purchase, 1812; Indiana, from North-west Territory, 1816; Mis- sissippi, from Georgia cession, 1817 5 Illinois, from North-west Territory, 1818; Alabama, from Georgia cession, 1819; Maine, separated from Massa- chusetts, 1820; Missouri, set off from Louisiana purchase, 1820. Since then the following territories have been added to the Union: Florida, 1821; Michigan, Arkansas, and Columbia ; Wisconsin Territoiy, 1826; Iowa Territory, &c. During the reign of Buonaparte, in order to counteract the imperial decrees and British orders in council, the Ame- rican government laid an embargo, pro- hibiting the exportation of every article from the United States (Dec. 1807), and thus entirely annihilating theilr foreign commerce. At the same time, all trade and intercourse with France and England were prohibited by act of congress. In June, 1812, war was declared against Great Britain, and was continued, with various success, for three years, during which the Americans attempted, without success, the conquest of Canada, and the British were repulsed in several attacks upon the maritime cities. The successes of the Americans by sea were more brilliant. Peace was finally con- cluded at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. The change in European affairs, pro- duced by the peace of Paris in 1815, and the events of the American war, contri^- buted to introduce a considerable change in the policy of the American govern- ment. Since that period, foreign poli- tics have had little influence in the country ; manufacturing industry has been developed to an astonishing degreej and taken under the protection of the government ; internal improvements — the construction of roads and canals — have been pushed with wonderful vigour ; the acquisition of Florida in 1821 has given a more secure southern boundary to the republic ; new states have been admitted into the Union^ and years of peace and prosperity have developed the resources of the country. 1841. The line of boundary in the north-eastern quarter of the United States, between the state of Maine and the British provinces of New Brunswick and Lower Canada, has been, for some years, a subject of elaborate negotiation, and is not yet settled. The excited feelings of the border inhabitants, together with the destruction of the Caroline steamer, threaten to become a subject of serious national controversy. INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENTS OP THE UNITED STATES. George Washington, two terras, eight years, 1789—1793. John Adams, one term, four years, 1797- Thomas Jefferson, two terms, eight years, 1801—1805. James Madison, two terms, eight years, 1809—1813. James Monroe, two terms, eight years^ 1817—1821. John Quincey Adams, one term, four years, 1825. Andrew Jackson, tv/o terms, eight years, 1329—1833. Martin Van Buren, March 4, 1837* UNI 836 UTR UNIVERSITY, London. The plan of this mstitution began to be enter- tained by Mr. (now Lord) Brougham, about 1816, and it was begun under his auspices. The funds for the erection of the building and for the other expenses of the establishment, were raised by shares of £100 each, the proprietors of which were formed into a joint stock company. In December, 1825, a council was elected by the shareholders to conduct the affairs of the institution, among whom were found the names of some of the most distinguished noblemen and gentlemen in the kingdom. During the year 1826, a piece of ground was purchased at the expense of £30,000 in Gower-street, Bedford-square. By the end of February, 1827, the whole of the 1500 shares having been filled up, on April 20, 1827, the first stone was laid, with the usual ceremonies, by his royal highness the duke of Sussex. A special general meeting of proprietors was held at the Crown and Anchor Tavern in the Strand, on May 30, 1827, when Leonard Horner, Esq., F.R.S., was installed with the title of warden. 1828. The university was opened for the reception of students, after which introductory lectures, as preparatory to the several courses, were delivered by the professors. 1834. Application having been made to the government for a charter of in- corporation, the privy council heard Dr. Lushington in support of the applica- tion, and Sir Charles Wetherell in oppo- sition, April 25 and 26. 1835. Dec. 2. A special general meet- ing of the proprietors was held to con- sider a proposal of government to incor- porate the university as a college, and " to grant similar charters of incorpora- tion to such other bodies as may apply for them ; and to create a board of men, eminent in science and literature, to be termed ' The London University,' whose duty would be to examine all can- didates from such incorporated colleges, and grant degrees, except degrees in divinity." After some discussion, the proposition of government was assented to by the proprietors assembled. 1840. Feb. 26. Annual meeting of the proprietors of University College. It was stated that the number of pupils, during the session, was 1 005, and the amount of fees paid £14,162. UPHAM, Edward, bookseller, at Bath, author of " Rameses," an Egyp- tian tale, and " Karmath," an Arabian tale, &c., died Jan. 24, 1834. UPHOLDERS' Company, London, incorporated 1627. URAL, or OuRAL Mountains, a lofty and extensive range, which forms the country north of Asia and Russia in Europe. On the banks of the river Holwa, which flows from the Ural, a battle was fought in 1472, the conse- quence of which was, that these coun- tries fell under the dominion of Russia. This range is rich in mineral products. The first working of the mines in the Ural range began near the river Nizza in the year 1623. Latterly they have been very productive. See Gold. URBINO, town, Italy, States of the Church, was the birthplace of the fa- mous Raphael. It surrendered to the Austrians, July 10, 1799. URUGUAY Republic, South Ame- rica. See Banda, Oriental. USHER, James, archbishop of Ar- magh, theological writer, born 1581, died 1656. USURY, an unlawful contract upon the loan of money, to receive the same again with exorbitant increase. It has been restrained by various statutes, viz., in 1275 and 1341. By statute 12 Anne, St. 2. c. 16, 1714, all contracts for taking more than five per cent, per annum in- terest, are in themselves totally void. This has been continued, except with regard to bills of exchange. See Bills. UTRECHT, city, kingdom of Hoi- land. The university was founded in 1630. The Union of Utrecht was formed by Holland, Utrecht, Zealand, Friesland, and Guelderland,Jan. 22, 1579, by which the republic of Holland was constituted. Overyssel joined in 1580, and Groningen in J 594. The treaty of Utrecht was signed by Spain, July 13, 1713. The town surrendered to the French, Jan. 18, 1795, but was afterwards restored. V AC 837 VAN V. VACCINATION, or Vaccine Ino- culation, partially introduced by Dr. Jenner in 1796, and first communicated to the world in his treatise, published in June, 1798, entitled, " An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolse Vaccinae," &c. The result of his farther experience was also brought forward in subsequent publications in the course of the two succeeding years, and experi- ments afterwards made by him in con- nection with Dr. Pearson, Dr. Willan, and others. Dr. Jenner received £10,000 for the discovery from parliament, 1802. A public society called the "National Vacchie Establishment " for the pro- motion of it was instituted in 1809- The following facts from the reports, at different periods, will evince the proper estimate to be formed of the practice. 1829. The correspondence of the esta- blishment with various parts of the world, is stated to warrant the conclu- sion, that there is no increase in the pro- portion of cases of small-pox after vacci- nation, and that the efficacy of the vaccine lymph is not weakened or deteriorated by transmission through any number of sub- jectsin the courseof any numberof years. 1831. The estabhshment has fur- nished the means of protection to the army and navy, to every county in Eng- land and Scotland, to Ireland, to the colonies, and to several of the capitals of Europe; and nearly 12,000 of the poor of the metropolis and its immediate neighbourhood were vaccinated in the course of the year. 1840. The act 3 and 4 Vict. c. 29, passed this year, is designed to extend the practice of vaccination, and conse- quently to diminish as far as possible the mortality occasioned by small-pox. From the records of the registrar-gene- ral's office it appears, that the number of deaths by smallpox in the two years and a half ending December 31, 1839, were 30,000, being on an average about 12,000 per annum. The above act will prevent these evils, by prohibiting inocu- lation with the small-pox, and making provision for the extension of gratuitous vaccination with the cow-pox to persons of every class. VAILLANT, Francis, the African traveller, died 1824. VALCKNAER, Louis Caspar, Dutch philologist and critic, born 1715, died 1785. VALENCIA, province east of Spain, was early conquered by the Romans, and, at a subsequent date, by the Goths, from whose hands it fell into those of the Moors. The latter established" the kingdom of Valencia in 7l3, and re- tained it under several vicissitudes of fortune until 1238, when it was united to Arragon. It continued to preserve its privileges till the early part of the 18th century, when it was obliged to conform to the laws of Castile. The ca])ital of the same name was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, and lost again two years after. In 1811 it was taken by the French under Suchet. VALENCIENNES, city, France, de- partment of Nord, belonging to the Netherlands until 1677, when it was taken by the French. It was l)esieged by the allies from May 23 to July 14, 1793, when the French garrison sur- rendered it to the combined army under the command of the duke of York. It was retaken by the French 1794. VALERIUS Flaccus, author of the "Argonauts," lived in the first century of the Christian era. VALERIUS Maximus, author of " Anecdotes of Great Men," flourished in the first century of the Christian era. VALMONT De Bomare, J. C, na- turalist, born 1731, died 1807. VALOIS, Henry De, French writer, born 1603, died I696. VALTELINE, lordship, Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. On July 20, 1620, there was a general massacre of the pro- testants in this territory. VANCOUVER, George, English navigator, born 1750, died 1798. VANDALS, originally a Gothic na- tion, first began to be troublesome to the Romans in the reign of M. Aurelius and Lucius Verus, about 166. Began their kingdom in Spain 412, passed into Africa, and took Carthage, which began their kingdom in that quarter, 439, VAN S38 VEN became masters of Sicily 454 ; their king- dom finished by Belisarius 634. VANDER-MONDE, the mathema- tician, born 1735, died 1796. VANDERVELDE, Adrian, cele- brated painter, born 1639, died 1672. VAN Diemen's Land, island in the Southern Ocean, separated from New Holland by Bass' Straits. It was dis- covered by Tasman in 1633, and Capt. Cook called here in 1777 for supplies. It has been since visited by different navigators, and latterly British colonies have been established here. For a long period this island was thought to be a peninsula of the vast territory of New Holland, its insularity being only de- monstrated in 1798 by Mr. Surgeon Bass and Lieutenant Flinders. 1804. It was regularly taken posses- sion of by the English, with a view of forming a penal settlement for persons convicted in Sidney, and was originally dependent on New South Wales. After various surveys of the river Derwent, the present site of Hobart Town was decided upon for head-quarters. In 1813, Lieu- tenant-colonel Davy arrived from Eng- land as lieutenant-governor ; and it was about this time that the importance and value of the colony began to be de- veloped. About 1821 the tide of emi- gration set in from England, and the natural consequence was an extension of the colony within itself in every shape. 1825. Van Diemen's Land was de- clared by the king in council indepen- dent of the colony of New South Wales, the chief authority being vested in a lieutenant'governor and council inde- pendent of the control of the ruling powers at Sidney. The statute 9 Geo. IV. c. 83, 1828, continued by 2 and 3 Victoria, c. 70.— Aug. 24, 1839, pro- vides for the government of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, and empowers the local legislatures to make rules for the better administration of justice. The commerce of Van Diemen's Land is very considerable, and is rapidly in- creasing. The customs duty collected in the colony exceed £71,000 a-year, and the whole ordinary revenue is about £100,000, The arrivals in 1835 were 234 ships, burden 55,833 tons. VANDYCK, Sir Anthony, portrait painter, born at Antwerp 1599, died 1641 . VANE, Sir Henry, (the younger,) a statesman, born 1612, beheaded 1662. VAN EYCK, Hubert, paihter> founder of the Flemish school, born 1366, died 1426. VAPOUR Cave, at Pyrmont, dis- covered to have similar effects to the Grotto del Cane in Italy, and the Poison Valley in Java, 1733. VARILLAS, Ant., historian, born 1624, died I696. VARRO, Terentius, author of " De Re Rustica," died a.c. 28, aged 88. VASCO De Gama. See Gama. VATER, John Severinus, an emi* nent philologist, born 1771, died 1826. " VATICAN, the name of a celebrated palace at Rome, erected by different archi- tects at different eras. It was begun about the end of the fifth, or the beginning of the sixth century, and rebuilt, increased, and altered by various pontiffs, from that period down almost to the present time. The library was founded in 1448. VATTEL, the author of the " Law of nations," died 1767. VAUBAN, MareschalSeb., French engineer, and improver of the art of forti- fication, died 1707, aged 74. VAUGELAS, Claud, French writer, born 1585, died 1650. VEGETIUS, the author " De Re Militari," flourished in the fourth cen- tury. VELLIUS Paterculus, author of the " History of Rome," lived in the first century of the Christian era. VELLUM, invention of the art of writing upon skins, ascribed to Eumenes, king of Pergamus, the contemporary with Ptolemy Philadelphus, who began to reign A.c. 281. VENDEE, La, department west of France, memorable for the resistance made to the republican army in 1793, 1794 and 1795. La Vendee was also the scene of some sharp fighting in 1815, and again in 1832, when, excited by the duchess of Berri, it resisted the govern- ment. See Berri. VENICE, a city of Italy, and a long time the capital of a territory of the same name. The first inhabitants were the Veneti. They were conquered by the Gauls, and made a kingdom about a.c. 356; conquered for the Romans by MarceUus, 221. The city had its origin when Attila, afterwards king of the Huns, ravaged the north part of Italy, the inhabitants retired into the islands of the Gulf of Venice, on which the city was founded in 421. VER 839' VET The government, at first democratic, fell progressively into the hands of the aristocracy, the official head of the exe- cutive power first bearing the title of doge or duke in 697- About 1247 the government became a settled aristocracy, which was the period of the greatest relative power of the Venetians. In 1508 the territorial possessions of the republic were threatened by the formi- dable coalition, well known under the name of The League of Cambray, and Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in the kingdom of Naples. After the French revolution, the re- public observed a cautious neutrality. But nevertheless the state was over- turned in 1797, by the treaty of Campo Formio. It remained subject to Austria till 1805, when it was annexed to the French kingdom of Italy ; but in 1814 it returned definitively under the power of Austria, and with its neighbouring territory it was constituted a govern- ment and delegate of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. VENN, Henry, divine, bom 1725, died 1797. VENTILATORS first invented by the Rev. Dr. Hales, 1740. VERDE IsLtANDS. See Cave de Verde. VERMONT, one of the United States, North America, was originally claimed by New Hampshire acd New York ; and its political condition was, for a consi- derable time unsettled ; but the people, preferring to have a separate government, formed a constitution in 1777, which was organised in 1788, and in 1791 "Vermont was admitted into the Union. VERNET, Joseph, a celebrated ma- rine painter, born 1712 died 1789- VERNON, Admiral, British naval commander who took Porto Bello, died 1757, aged 73. See Porto Bello. VEROCCHIO, Andrew, a Floren- tine, who first found out the method of taking likeness in plaster of Paris, born 1432, died 1488. VERONA, ancient city, Lorabardo- Venetian kingdom.* Julius Caesar esta- blished a colony here. On the decline of the empire, it experienced the fate of the other towns in the north of Italy. It was taken by Charlemagne in 774; be- came subsequently a free town ; fell, in the course of time, under the sway of leading families; and in 1405, was \mit^d to the territorial possessions of Venice. With these it enjoyed many ages of peace and tranquillity, until 1796, when Italy was invaded by the French. It was then added to the king- dom of Italy. In 1814 it was ceded to Austria, and in 1822 the members of the holy alliance met here to deliberate oa the aflFairs of Europe. VERONESE, Paolo^ celebrated Ita- lian painter, bom 1532, died 1588. VERSAILLES, town, France, depart- ment of Seine and Oise, has been long the occasional residence of the court. Louis XIII. built a hunting seat here in 1630, which Louis XIV. enlarged into a magnificent palace. It was the usual residence of the kings of France till 1789^, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it to Paris. VERTOT, author of the " History of the Roman Republic," died 1735. VESALIUS, AND.REW, anatomist, born 1514, shipwrecked 1564. VESPASIAN, Titus Flavius, the Roman emperor, conquered the Isle of Wight 43. Began the first Jewish war 66 ; died 79. VESPUCCIUS, Ambrico, a Floren- tine, discoverer of the West Indies, and who by art and contrivance has assumed the honour of giving his name to the New Continent, to the disparagement of the diseoveFer, Columbus, died after 1497. VESTA, planet, discovered by Dr. Olbers, March 29, I807. VESUVIUS, volcanic mountain, south of Italy, eight miles south south-east of Naples. It is nearly 30 miles in circuit at the base, and about 3700 feet high. The eruption in the year 79, under Titus, was accompanied by an earthquake, which overturned several cities, particularly Pompeii and Herculaneum, and proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist: 250,000 peo- ple were destroyed. The following are the dates of the principal eruptions from that period: a.d 203, 272, 472, when all Campania was destroyed; 512, 685, 993, 1036, 1043, 1048, 1136, 1506, 1538; at Puzzoli, 1631, 1632, when 4000 per- sons and a large tract of land was de- stroyed ; 1660, 1682, 1694, 1701, 1704, 1712, 1717, 1730, 1737, 1751, 1754, 1760, 1766, 1767, 1770, 1771, 1779, 1785,1786, 1787, 1794, 1810, 1814, 1816, 1819i and partial ones in 1838 and 1839. The per- manent effect of the eruptions has been to lower the height of the summit. VETERINARY Art was attended to VIE 840 VIN by the ancients. Xenophon is the oldest veterinary writer on record. In Eng- land, until the reign of George I., the medical care of horses was confided en- tirely to the farriers. In the early part of the 18th century the art was revived. A veterinary college was established at St. Pancras, near London, in 1792, since which time a great number of veterinary surgeons have been dispersed in the army and throughout the country, to our great national advantage. VICE-CHANCELLOR of Eng- land, office of, created 1813. VICTORIA, Alexandrina, queen of England, was born at Kensington, May 24, 1819; attained her majority May 24, 1837. Her coronation was ce- lebrated June 28, 1838. See Corona- tion. 1840. Feb. 10. The marriage of her majesty with Prince Albert was solem- nised at St. James's Chapel. The day was celebrated in the metropolis and throughout the country by a general holiday and illumination. June 10. Attempted assassination of her majesty, by a young man named O.xford. See Oxford. Nov. 21. The Queen gave birth to a daughter at Buck- ingham Palace, at two p.m. The chris- tening of the infant Princess Royal took place Feb. 10, 1841, (the anniversary of the queen's marriage,) in the throne- room of Buckingham Palace. The king of the Belgians was present on the occa- sion. The duke of Wellington officiated as sponsor on the part of the duke of Saxe Coburg and Gotha, who was pre- vented from being present. The other sponsors were the Queen Dowager, the duchess of Gloucester, the duchess of Kent, the king of the Belgians, and the duke of Susse.T. The Queen Dowager named the royal child — " Victoria Ade- laide Mary Louisa." VICTUALLING Office instituted Dec. 10, 1663. VIDA, a modern Latin poet, died 1566. VIENNA, (Vindobona of the Ro- mans,) city, capital of Austrian empire, was long the head quarters of a Roman legion. In 791 Charlemagne attached it to his dominions. It was captured in 1484, by the Hungarians, under their king Matthias, who resided in it till his death, after which it was restored to Austria. In 1529 the Turks destroyed the suburbs. In 1633 it was attacked by the Turkish army, but repulsed under the government of Sobieski. In 1805 Vienna surrendered to the French, but was given up by the peace of Presburg. In 1809 it again surrendered to the French, but was restored on the conclu- sion of peace, in 1813. VIETA, eminent French mathemati- cian, died 1603. VILLA Franca, town, Italy, king- dom of Piedmont and Sardinia. It was taken by the French in 1705, by the French and Spaniards in 1744, and by the French in 1792. VILLARS, Marshall, French gene- ral, died 1734, aged 79. VINCE, Rev. S., the astronomer, died 1822. VINCENNES, town, France, depart- ment Seine. Its castle, built in a re- mote age, was a country residence of the royal family, but since Louis XIV. re- moved the court to Versailles, it has been used as a state prison. It was here that the unfortunate duke d'Enghien was shot in 1804. VINCENT, Sir John Jervis, Earl St. a distinguished naval officer, was born at Meaford, in Jan. 1735. In April 1766 he was made post-captain; rear- admiral of the blue, Dec. 1790; vice- admiral, April 1794; admiral, Feb. 1799; and admiral of the fleet, July, 1821. Tiie celebrated battle off Ca])e St. Vin- cent took place Feb. 14, 1797. Soon after this, Sir John Jervis was created a peer, by the title of Baron Jervis of Meaford, and Viscount and Earl St. Vin- cent. He died 1823, aged 89. VINCENT, St., island. West Indks, one of the windward Caribbees. The original inhabitants were Caribs, a war- like race, supposed to have been a colony from North America. It was long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763, the French agreed that the right of it should be ceded to the English. This was followed by the reduction of the island by the French, who restored it in 1783. It was almost desolated in 1812, by an eruption of the Souffrier moun- tain, which had continued quiet for nearly a century before. VINCENT, William, D.D. head master of Westminster school, died 1811. VINCI, Leon Da, celebrated Italian painter, born 1452, died at Paris in the arms of the king of France, 1520. VINER, Richard, English divine, and author of the " Abridgment of VOL 841 VUL English Law," in 24 vols, folio, died 1757. VINTNERS' Company, London, in- corporated 1437. VIOLINS, invented about 1477, and introduced into England by Charles II. VIRGIL, or PuBLius Virgilius Maro, the most excellent of all the Latin poets, was the son of a potter of Andes, near Mantua, where he was born, A.c. 70. He studied first at Mantua ; then at Cremona, Milan, and Naples ; whence, going to Rome, he acquired the esteem of the greatest wits and most illustrious persons of his time. He turn- ed his attention to pastoral ; and his first performance, entitled " Alexis," is sup- posed to have been written a.u.c. 709. The celebrated eclogue, entitled "PoUio," was composed a.u.c. 714. His yEneid was written when he was in his 45th year. He died at Brundusium, A.c. 19. VIRGINIA, one of the United States of North America. The first permanent English settlement formed in America was in 1607, on James river, in this state. In l66l the laws of England were adopted as provincial laws. The colonists suffered great injury in 1673, from the Dutch squadron which ravaged the coast, and also from insuaections, which broke out in 1675 and 1676. In 1754 Colonel Washington surprised and took Fort du Quesne; but was after- wards obliged to yield to superior force. Virginia showed great opposition to the arbitrary measures of the British go- vernment in 1765 and 1769. The con- stitution of this state was formed in 1776, and amended by convention Jan. 14, 1830. VISCOUNT, the first in England, Feb. 12, 1440. VISIGOTHS. See Goths. VITRUVIUS, the Roman architect, flourished a.c. 135. VOLCANIC Island formed in the Mediterranean, off the coast of Sicily, Sept. 1831. Discovery of a new group of volcanic islands about 180 miles to the west of Valparaiso, February 12, 1839. VOLNEY, Count, author of the " Ruins of Empires," born 1757, died 1820. VOLTA, Alessandro, whose dis- coveries in physical science are among the most important of the last century, was born at Como, Naples, Feb. 18, 1745. Having finished his studies, he was ap- pointed, in 1774, to a professorship in his native city ; and, in 1779, to one at the university of Pavia, which, during a quarter of a century, was the theatre of his labours and his glory. At the end of this period, 1804, he was permitted to retire, on condition that he should continue to give some lectures every year. Volta's principal discoveries and inventions were as follows : — The per- petual electrophorus ; a description of which he wrote in June 1775. The vol- taic pistol and lamp, invented in 1777- The eudiometer in the same year. The voltaic pile, 1800. See Galvanism. He died March 1827.. VOLTAIRE, Francis Arouet De, the celebrated French author, was born at Paris, Feb. 20, 1694, and flourished in the reign of Louis XIV. He had early imbibed a turn for satire ; and, for some philippics against the government, was imprisoned almost a year in the bastile. When about 18 he pubhshed " The League," by which the author gained only enemies and mortification. His " Lettres Philosophiques," abounding in indecent witticisms against religion, having been burnt, and a warrant being issued for apprehending the author in 1733, Voltaire withdrew. His tragedy of " Mahomet " was first acted in 1741. "Merope," played two years after, 1743, gave an idea of a species of tragedy, of which few models had existed. Through the interest of Madame d'Etiole, after- wards marchioness of Pompadour, he was appointed a gentleman of the bed- chamber in ordinary, historiographer of France, and in 1746 became a member of the Academy of Sciences. In 1749 the king of Prussia gave Voltaire an invitation to live with him, which he accepted in August 1750. He after- wards retired to the castle of Ferney in France, about a league from the lake of Geneva. Wearied at length, however, with his situation, he came to Paris about the beginning of the year 1778, where he wrote a new tragedy called " Irene," He died in 1780, in his 86th year. VOSS, J. H., the German translator of the "Ihad and Odyssey," died 1826. VOSSIUS, Isaac, Greek scholar, born 1618, died 1688. VULGATE Bible. See BiBLE,p.lOO. 5 p WAL 84-2 WAL w. WAGER OF Battle, old law of, re- pealed 1819. WAITHMAN, Robert, alderman, and one of the representatives of the city of London. When he became of age, he entered into business as a linen-draper, and commenced his political career about. 1792. In 1818 he obtained his election as one of the representatives in parlia- ment of the city of London. In 1820 he attained the honour of the shrievalty; and in October, 1823, he was chosen lord mayor. In 1826 he was re-elected as member for the city, and continued to obtain his re-election without diffi- culty. He died Feb. 6, 1833, aged 70. WAKEFIELD, Rev. Gilbert, di- vine and critic, born 1756, died 1801. WAKEFIELD, Priscilla, author of " Mental Improvement," &c., born 1751, died 1832. WALACHIA, or Wallachia, pro- vince European Turkey, was unknown in authentic history until its invasion and conquest by the Romans, in the reign of Trajan. On the decline of the empire, it alternately fell into the pos- session of the Greek emperors and the barbarians. In the 13th and 14th cen- turies it was in some degree subject to Hungary. It was ceded to the Turks by the treaty of Belgrade in 1739, and remained sul)ject to the Porte till the breaking out of the Greek insurrection, when it was for a short time occupied by the Russians, but was restored to the Turks by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829- WALCHEREN, island, kingdom of Belgium, province of Zealand, was taken by the British in July, 1809, with a view to the destruction of the ships and arsenal at Antwerp ; but abandoned December following. WALDENSES, a sect of reformers, who derived their origin from Peter Waldo, a merchant of Lyons. About 1160 he began to oppose the Roman church, and to instruct the multitude in the doctrines and precepts of Christianity. After his death, in 1179. the Waldenses were scattered aliroad in many parts of Italy, France, and Germany; but one of their principal divisions occupied the valleys of Piedmont. In most of their retreats, popish vengeance pursued them, with but few intervals of respite, for a long succession of years. The first general attack was made on them about 1400. Another massacre was the con- sequence of a bull, published by Inno- cent VIII., 1487. In 1561 a fierce and formidable attack was made on the valley by the Piedmontese forces. In 1655 a more determined and systematic effort was made by a combined force of Sa- voyards, French, and Germans, under the command of the Piedmontese gene- ral, the marquess di Piannezza. At this period the government of England was in the hands of Oliver Cromwell, who afforded them his protection. The next persecution of the Waldenses was that of 1685, when the duke of Savoy threw into prison 14,000, v.ho had, in simple reliance on his good faith, put them- selves into his power. Again the pro- testant governments of Europe interfered. From thfs period the Waldenses conti- nueil to exist and to increase in numbers and strength in Piedmont. From 1800, when that country submitted to France, till 1814, the Waldenses were placed on the same footing with other subjects, and emerged from the state of slavery under which they had groaned for ages. Though far from enjoying the privileges to which they are entitled, they are, at length, allowed a reluctant and restricted toleration. WALES, principality. Great Britain, anciently subdivided into petty states, but now wholly incorporated with Eng- land. When Julius Csesar invaded Bri- tain, A.c. 54, this country was called Cambria, and inhabited by Siiures, Di- raetae, and Ordovices. Upon the retire- ment of the Romans, intestine feuds convulsed and rent this province. In 843 Roderic the Great united the states into one principality, and ruled over his new kingdom. He was fol- lowed by a line of Welsh princes, who were continually at war among them- selves. During the continuance of these domestic feuds, in 1091, the sul)jugation of Wales was effected, by the enterprising spirit of Robert Fitzhamon, a Norman WAL 843 WAR baron. This was the origin of a new and iinusu'5,1 government, named that of the lords marchers. From this time the history of Wales, as an independent nation, hastens to a close; and at the death of Llewellyn ap Gryffydh in 1282, it may be said to have become extinct. The entire conquest of the principality was completed by Edward I. in 1282 ; but his policy permitted the enjoyment of as much freedom as was consistent with English laws. His humane intentions were, however, frustrated by the despotic lords marchers, whose power continued until the 27th of Henry VIH., when sub- stantial relief was afforded to this op- pressed district, by a statute which esta- blished the administration of the laws upon a more solid and unimpeachable foundation, and was the original of what was called the great session of Wales. This system of judicature continued in operation until the year 1831, when the Welsh jurisdiction was totally abolished, and the counties attached to the Oxford and western circuits, according to the convenience of position, and included henceforth in the great sessions of Eng- land and Wales. See England. WALES, New South, British co- lony, established on the eastern coast of Australia, or New Holland, so named by Captain Cook who discovered it in 1770. The first penal settlement was formed at Botany Bay in 1788. See Botany Bay. But as neither the bay nor the land afforded shelter to commerce, orders were immediately given for the removal of the fleet to Port Jackson, and on Feb- ruary 7, a regular form of government was established at Sidney Cove. The boundary of the New3 South Wales territory extends coastwise between the parallels of lat. 36° and 28° S., or about 500 miles along the sea-shore. The portion within whicli land may be selected was fixed by a government order, dated Sidney, October 1829, and com- prised 34,505 square miles, or 22,083,200 acres. The British settlements in this quarter contain the towns of Sidney, the capital ; Paramatta, Windsor, Liverpool, Newcastle, &c. The settlements in Van Diemen's Land were also formerly in- cluded in New South Wales. See Van Diemen's Land. Since the establishment of the colony, many expeditions have been undertaken with a view to explore the inteiior, par- ticularly under the direction of Major Mitchell, the surveyor-general of the co- lony, in 1835, 1836, and 1838. At Port Philip a town named Melbourne has been founded at the north eastern angle of the bay, and is rapidly increasing. 1840. The statute 3 and 4 Victoria, c. 62, Aug. 7, declares that it shall be lawful for her majesty, by letters patent, to erect into a separate colony any islands which now are, or which hereafter may be, comprised within, and be depen- dencies of, the colony of New South Wales, &c. WALKER, Rev George, author of the " Petition for acknowledging Ame- rican Independence," which Burke said he would rather have been the author of than of all his own compositions, died 1807, aged 72. WALKER, Sir Patrick, F.R.S., Ed. F. L. S., a zealous entomologist, who possessed the most extensive entomolo- gical collection in Scotland, died 1838. WALL, William, divine, born 1646, died 1728. WALLACE, Sir William, eminent Scotch general and patriot, born 1276, executed 1305. WALLER, Edmund, English poet, died 1687, aged 81. WALLIS, John, mathematician and divine, born 1616, died 1703. WALMER Castle, Kent, built 1539. WALPOLE, Horace, earl of Ox- ford, author of the " Castle of Otranto," &c., died 1797, aged 80. WALPOLE, Sir Robert, earlof Ox- ford, born 1674 ; committed to the Tower 1712 ; took his seat in the house of peers, Feb. 11, 1741-2; died 1745. WALSINGHAM, Sir Francis, the statesman, died 1590. WALTHAM Abbey, built 1062 j cross built 1292. WALTON, Brian, bishop of Chester, editor of the Polyglot Bible, died 1661. WALTON, Isaac, " the common father of all anglers," and the biogra- pher of Dr. Donne, Sir Henry Wotton, Hooker, and Herbert ; and author of the '* Complete Angler, or Contemplative Man's Recreation." He was born 1593 ; died 1683. WALWORTH, lord mayor of Lon- don, who killed Wat Tyler with the city mace, 1381. WARBECK, Perkin, the pretender to the English throne, executed Nov. 1499. W A RBURTON, William, a learned WAS 844 WAT English bishop, was born at Newark, in Nottinghamshire, Dec. 24, 1698. The first pubhcation which rendered him afterwards famous, appeared in 1736, under the title of the "Alliance between Church and State." The " Divine Lega- tion of Moses" was- first pubhshed in Jan, 1737-8. In 1754 he was appointed one of his majesty's chaplains in ordi- nary, and in the next year was presented to a prebend in the cathedral of Durham. In 1760 he was advanced to the bishopric of Gloucester. He was the author of many other valuable works. He died in 1779, in his 81st year. WARDROBE, Great, in Scotland- yard, London, established 1485. WARSAW, city, capital of Poland. Praga, one of its suburbs, is memorable for the assaults made on it in 1794, by the Russians under Suwarrow, who, in November took it by storm, massacred the inhabitants, and nearly reduced it to ashes. In 1796 they delivered the city up to the king of Prussia. In 1806 the French occupied this place ; and by the treaty of Tilsit, the city, with this part of Poland, was given to Saxony, to be held under the title of the duchy of Warsaw. The Russians, however, overran it in 1813, and took possession of the city. In 1833, after the memorable struggle of the Poles for hberty, it fell entirely under the power of Russia. WARTON, Rev. Dr. Joseph, author of the " Essay on the Life and Writings of Pope," &c. died 1800. WARTON, Rev. Dr. Thomas, au- thor of the " History of English Poetry," &c. died 1790. WARWICK, market town, Warwick- shire. Its origin may be referred to the Saxon heptarchy, when Warremund, a Mercian chief, founded a fortress here. It was destroyed by the Danes, and restored about 913 by Ethelfleda, the daughter of king Alfred. After the Norman conquest the town was encom- passed with walls, and the castle enlarged and rebuilt. This edifice is one of the most complete and magnificent examples of the baronial architecture of the mid- dle ages. In the reign of Edward I. the fortifications were repaired by Guy Beau- champ, earl of Warwick; and in tlie civil war, under Charles II., the castle was garrisoned for the parliament. WASHINGTON, George, the cele- brated commander of the American army, was bom in 17.32, in Virginia. In 1755 he served as a volunteer in the un- fortunate expedition of General Brad- dock. When the disaffection of the Americans to the British government had become genera], he was appointed a dele- gate from Virginia to the congress which met at Philadelphia on October 26, 1774, and soon after to the command of the American army. He was at length raised to the presidency of the congress, in which important character he contri- buted greatly to the success, and finally to the independence of his country. Washington resigned the presidency in 1796, after having published a farewell address to his countrymen. From this time till the month of July, 1798, he lived in retirement at his seat of Mount Ver- non. He died Dec. 14, 1799, in his 68 th year. WASHINGTON, city and capital of the United States. The foundation of the north wing was laid in the presence of General Washington in 1798, and that of the centre in 1818. The city was incorporated by an act of congress, passed on May 3, 1802. Washington was taken by the British, and the principal buildings destroyed by fire, Aug. 24, 1814. WATCHES invented at Nuremberg, in Germany, 1477 ; first used in astro- nomical observations 1500. Watches first brought to England from Germany 1597; spring pocket ones, invented by Hooke, 1658. WATER, formerly considered as a simple elementary substance, in the 18th century was found to consist of 85 parts of oxygen gas, and 15 of hydrogen gas. The experiments which led to this dis- covery were made in 1776, by M. M. Macquer andSigaud de la Fond; in 1781, by Dr. Priestly and Mr. John Warltire ; and in 178.3, by M.M. Lavoisier, De la Place, Watt, &c. Supply of Water. — London was very ill supplied before the New River water was introduced into the city. Water was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 21st Henry III. 1237. It took near 50 years to complete it ; the whole being finished, and Cheapside conduit erected, in 1285. An engine was erected at Broken-wharf, to convey water by leaden pipes, 1594. The New River was brought to Lon- don from Amwell, in Hertfordshire, at an immense expense, by Sir Hugh Mid- dleton, in 1614. See New River Cut. ©H®. ^^!m^IHIIW(S'T@M. Xaitorr, ■ Biatiahe^ ty JDmmas S^riJ. taiemosler Saw: '^^ WAT 845 WAT The city was supplied with its water, by conveyances of wooden pipes in the streets, and small leaden ones to the houses. The New River company was incorporated 1620. The water companies of London, and the houses and buildings supplied by them in 1834, were — The New River. . . 70,140 The East London . 4d,421 The West Middlesex . 16,000 The Chelsea . . . 13,892 The Grand Junction . 8,780 The Lambeth . . . 16,682 The South London . . 12,046 The South wark . . 7,100 The average per day supphed by the whole is 28,774,000 gallons. WATERFORD, city, Ireland, in the province of Munster. The foundation is attributed to the Danes, and dated 879. Richard H. was crowned here 1399 ; and in the reign of Hemy VIL the city was augmented and considerable privileges bestowed upon it. The see of Waterford was established some time in the 11th century. The cathedral with an organ of the value of 1200 guineas was destroyed by fire, Oct. 25, 1815. WATERLAND, Daniel, English divine and writer, born 1683, died 1740. WATERLOO, village, Belgium, cele- brated for the signal victory obtained by the British under the duke of Welling- ton, with their allies, over the French under Buonaparte, June 18, 1815. In this well-known battle, the day was ob- stinately contested by some of the finest troops, headed by two of the most cele- brated generals the world has ever pro- duced. During the battle, the duke of Wellington presented himself in person in situations of the greatest danger, and repeatedly led on his own troops, ex- claiming, " We must not be beat ; what would they say in England?" At seven o'clock in the evening, and at a critical time, when the day was almost lost, on the arrival of Prussian reinforcements the whole line of battle was ordered to move forwards, while the duke in person led on the centre. The attack was irre- sistible. " All is lost !" issued from all parts of the French army ; they fled in all directions; and the emperor with his suite galloped off the field. This impor- tant battle terminated the military career of Buonaparte, as well as the contest which had for many years desolated Eu- rope. WATERLOO Bridge. See Bridge, p. 129. WATERMAN'S and Lighterman's Company, London, incorporated 1550. WATERSPOUT, an extraordinary and very formidable phenomenon fre- quently observed at sea, and sometimes, though more rarely, seen on land. A terrific one burst upon Mount St. John, in Cumberland, Aug. 23, 1749. A very destructive one, occurred near Aix, in the department of Mount Blanc, France, Julys, 1809- A waterspout burst on the Clidagh mountains, county of Kerry, in Ireland, by which a large district was torn up, and nine persons lost, Aug. 4, 1831. WATER- WORKS. See Water. WATSON, James, tried for assault- ing a patrol on the night succeeding the Spafields riots, in 1816, and acquitted, Jan. 21, 1817: tried for high treason in connection with these riots, and ac- quitted June 16, 1817. See Spafields. WATSON, Richard, a distinguished British prelate, was born at Haversham, in Westmoreland, in August, 1737. He was admitted a sizar of Trinity College, Cambridge, in November, 1754, where he greatly improved himself in Greek and Latin, and made considerable pro- ficiency in mathematics and natural phi- losophy. In 1764 he was unanimously elected professor of chemistry on the death of Dr. Hadley. In 1771 he was made regius professor of divinity, and in 1782 he obtained the bishopric of Llandaff. During the whole course of his hfe Bishop Watson continued the strenuous advocate for civil and religious liberty. He died July 4, 1816, highly respected for the integrity of his political career, and bequeathing to his succes- sors a handsome fortune. WATT, James, celebrated engineer and improver of the steam-engine, born 1735, died 1819. See Steam-engine. M. Arago, in a recent communication, says of him, " There are few inventions, among those so admirably combined in our present steam-engines, which are not the development of some of the ori- ginal ideas of Watt. In addition to his principal inventions he proposed ma- chines without condensation, in which, after having acted, the steam is dispersed in the air. The operation of the prin- ciple of expansion in machines, with several cylinders, was also one of his projects. He suggested the idea of WEI pistons, which should be perfectly steam- tight, although composed exclusively of metal, and of the indicator, a small appa- ratus so constructed that it accurately exhibits the state of the steam, in rela- tion to the position of the piston," &c. WATTS, Dr. Isaac, a learned and eminent dissenting minister and poet, was born at Southampton in 1674. In 1690 he was sent up to London for academical education under the tui- tion of the Rev. Thomas Rowe ; and in 1696 was himself engaged as tutor to the son of Sir John Hartopp, hart., at Stoke Newington. He began to preach in 1 698 ; and after officiating as an assistant to the Rev. Dr. Isaac Chauncy, he succeeded to his pastoral charge in 1702, and continued to preside over that church as long as he lived. He died in 1748. His " Lyric Poems," his " Psalms and Hymns," and his " Divine Songs for Children," are a suf- ficient proof of his poetical talents. His " Logic and Philosophy" have been also much admired. WAX Chandlers' Company, Lon- don, incorporated 1484. WAYNFLETE, William, prelate and statesman, died I486. W^EAVERS' Company, London, in- corporated 1164. WEBBE, Samuel, musical com- poser, born 1740, died 1817. By a course of self-education, he made himself master of the Latin, French, Italian, Ger- man, and Hebrew languages. WEDGEWOOD,JosiAH, whose skill in the manufacture of the finer earthen- wares gave birth to an important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic, died 1795, aged 64. See Thermo- meter. WEEVER, John, author of "Ancient Funeral Monuments of Great Britain," died 1632. WEIGHTS AND Measures. The balance was used from the remotest an- tiquity. The principal standards used in the ancient world were, the cubit of the Jews, from which their other mea- sures of length, capacity, and weight were derived ; and the foot of the Greeks and Romans. In England, a standard of lineal measure was introduced by Henry I., who ordered that the yard should be made of the exact length of his own arm, and that the other measures of length should be raised upon it. This standard was more fully established in 846 . WES 12'7 in the reign of Henry III., and re- gulated in 1492 in the reign of Henry VII.,' and it has been since maintained without any sensible yariation. In 1742 the Royal Society had a yard made, from this standard, a copy of which, made in 1760, having been examined by a com- mittee of the house of commons, was declared by the act 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, June, 1824, to be the standard of lineal measure in Great Britain, from and after May 1, 1825, subsequently extended to Jan. 1, 1826. The measures of capacity were found to be, at the period of passing the late statute, in the greatest confusion ; and a considerable change has consequently been made in them. The wine gallon formerly amounted to 231 cubic inches, the corn gallon to 268 "8, and the ale gallon to 282. But these are superseded by the imperial gallon, which contains 277274 cubic inches, or 277i very nearly. The statute above mentioned, 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, continues in force with some modifications by 4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 49, and 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 63, Sept. 9, 1835. This last act abolishes all local or customary measures, prohibits the practice of selling by heaped mea- sure, &c. WELLS, city and bishop's see, So- merset, stands at the base of the Mendip Hills, near the source of the river Ax. Here Ina, king of Wessex, in 704, founded a collegiate church. In the reign of Edward the Elder, it was made the see of a bishop. In 1007 John de Villula removed the see to Bath : this circumstance gave rise to disputes, but by the mediation of the bishop, it was decided that the episcopal title should, in future, include both cities. The ca- thedral church, which is situated at the eastern extremity of the city, is a mag- nificent cruciform edifice, chiefly in the decorated pointed style. WENTW^ORTH. See Strafford. WERNER, the author of the " Wer- nerian System of Geology," born 1750, died 1820. WESLEY, Rev. John, founder of the sect of Methodists, was bom in 1703. In 1713 he was entered a scholar at the Charterhouse, and became a fellow of Lincoln-college, Oxford, about 1725; took the degree of master of arts in 1726, and was joint-tutor with the Rev. Dr. Hutchins, the rector. While at college he associated with a few of hia fellow- WES students, in a more than common strict- ness of religious life, by which they acquired the appellation of Methodists. In 1735 he embarked for Georgia, to preach the gospel to the Indian nations in the vicinity of that province. He returned to England in 1737. He preached his first field-sermon at Bristol, on Api'il 2, 1738, from which time his disciples have continued to increase. In 1741 a serious dispute took place between him and Mr. Whitfield, in consequence of which they separated. Mr. Wesley chiefly resided, for the remainder of his life, in the metropolis, occasionally tra- velling through every part of Great Bri- tain and Ireland, establishing congrega- tions in each kingdom. He died March 2, 1791. See Methodists. WEST, Benjamin, artist, born 1738, died 1820. WEST, Dr. Gilbert, translator of Pindar's Odes, died 1756. WEST, James, the antiquarian, died July 2, 1772. WESTHAM Abbey, Essex, founded 1154. WESTMINSTER, city, Middlesex, the residence of the monarch, the seat of the parliament and of the high courts of justice, and constituting with London and Southwark, the metropolis of the British empire. On the dissolution of its abbey, in 1541, Henry VIII. erected it into archbishopric. It had, however, only one prelate, for Edward VI. soon after dissolved it ; and the abbey is now only a collegiate church. WESTMINSTER Abbey was built by Ethelbert of Kent, on the site of a temple of Apollo 914; rebuilt 1065; again rebuilt 1269; made collegiate 1560; towers built 1732 ; north porch repaired 1750; injured by fire July 17, 1803; complete restoration commenced 1810. WESTMINSTER Hall, built by William Rufus, 1098 ; rebuilt 1399, by Richard II.; roof repaired 1748; the scaffolding erected for the trial of the rebels sold by the duke of Ancaster for £400, Sept. 13, 1748. The hall beau- tified and repaired 1782 : went through a general .repair in 1802 at the expense of £13,000. WESTMINSTER Medical So- ciety, estal)lished 1773. WESTMINSTER School founded 1070; again by Queen Elizabeth 1560. WESTMINSTER, Matthew of, ancient historian, died about 1380. 847 W H A WESTON, Rev. Stephen, author of the "Conformity of the European and Oriental Languages," died 1830. WESTPHALIA, formerly a circle of Germany, containing a duchy of the same name. This duchy, belonging in former ages to the dukes of Saxony, was in the 11th century transferred to the archbishop of Cologne. On the secu- larization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse-Darmstadt. At the peace of Lune- ville, all the parts of Westphaha on the west of the Rhine were ceded to France ; and in I8O6, when the confederation of the Rhine was formed, the circle itself was suppressed. In 1808 the French emperor erected the remainder into a kingdom, in favour of his brother Je- rome. After the battle of Leipsic, in 1813, this new kingdom was overrun by the allies, and the government over- thrown. The territory now belongs to Prussia. WEXFORD, town, Ireland, province Leinster, founded by the Danes. On May 4, 1170, the English wrested the town from the Danish occupants, after a spirited siege of four days. Cromwell besieged this place in 1649, and having obtained admission through the treachery of James Stafford, put the garrison, con- sisting of 2000 soldiers, with Sir Edward Butler the governor, inhumanly to death. WHALE. The balaena mysticetus of Linnaeus, or the common whale, now rarely found except within the Arctic circle, at a former period was not unfre- quently met with on our coasts. One was driven ashore in the Humber, 1570; one on the coast of Norfolk, 1751 ; one near Berwick, 1752; 13 were driven ashore in a storm on the coast of Eng- land, Feb. 1762 ; one was killed above London Bridge in Sept. 1781; one 19 feet long was killed at Execution Dock, Aug. 1796 ; one was killed at Hull, Nov. 1797 ; another in the Thames, Sept. 1799; and another at Leith the same month; one exhibited to the popu- lace near London Bridge, March 1 809 ; several were driven on the beach at Lewis, Scotland. April 25, 1832. WHALE Fishery. The Norwegians occasionally captured the whale before any other European nation. The Bis- cayans were the first people who prose- cuted the whale fishery as a regular commercial pursuit. They carried it on with great success in their own seas in the r2th, 13th, and 14th centuries. In 1261 WHA 848 WHI a tithe was laid upon the tongues of whales imported into Bayonne, they being then a highly esteemed species of food. In 1388 Edward III. relinquished to Peter de Puayanne a duty of £6 ster- ling a whale, laid on those brought into the port of Biarritz, to indemnify him for the extraordinary expenses he had incurred in fitting out a fleet for the service of his majesty. The whales gra- dually became less numerous in the Bay of Biscay, and at length ceased almost entirely to frequent that sea. The voyages of the Dutch and English to the Northern Ocean, in the 16th cen- tury, laid open the haunts of the whale in that quarter. When in its most flourishing state, towards the year 1680, the Dutch whale fishery employed about 260 ships, and 14,000 sailors. The English whale fishery was origi- nally carried on by the Muscovy com- pany and other associations, whose efforts were unsuccessful. But the legislature having resolved to support the trade, granted, in 1732, a bounty of 20s. a ton to every ship of more than 200 tons burden engaged in it. This premium being insufficient, it was raised, in 1749, to 40s. a ton, when a number of ships were fitted out. The late war having entirely annihi- lated the Dutch whale fishery, in conse- quence of the encouragement given by the government of England, it was after- wards prosecuted with greater success than at any previous period. At the termination of the war, in 1815, there were 134 valuable ships and about .5800 seamen engaged in the Northern fishery, and about 30 ships and 800 men in that to the South. Since then the fishery has greatly fallen off", and in 1830, of 87 ships that sailed for Davis's Straits, no less than 18, or 22 per cent, of the whole, were totally lost. WHARTON, John, English divine and historian, died 1694. WHARTON, Philip, Duke of, declared a traitor, April 3, 1729; died May 31, 1731. WHARTON, Richard, F.R.S., was a barrister-at-law, and was elected mem- ber of parliament for the city of Durham 1802 — 6, 1807 — 12. He was sometime chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means ; and afterwards joint secretary of the treasury. He was the author of " Observations on the Authenticity of Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia," 1800, 4to., and other works. He died Oct. 21, 1828. WHARTON, William, the astrono- mer, born 1667, died 1752. WHEAT. See Corn Laws, WHEELWRIGHTS' Company, in- corporated 1670. WHIG, a name of reproach given by the court party to their antagonists for resembling the principles of the Whigs, or conventiclers in Scotland about 1 678. See Tories. WHISTON, William, an eccentric English divine and philosopher, was born in 1667. He became chaplain to Dr. More, bishop of Norwich, in 1694 ; and in this situation he published his first work, entitled a " New Theory of the Earth," &c. In the beginning of the 18th century he was made Sir Isaac Newton's successor, in the Lucasian professorship of mathematics at Cam- bridge ; he also published several scien- tific works, explanatory of the New- tonian philosophy. About 1710 he was known to have adopted Arian principles, and he was deprived of his professorship and banished the university. On his expulsion from Cambridge he settled in London, where he continued to write and propagate his sentiments. He died in 1762, at the age of 95. WHITAKER, Rev. J., author of the " History of Manchester," &c., bom 1735, died 1808. WHITBREAD, Samuel, eminent political character, died by his own hand, when in a state of mental derangement, July 6, 1815. WHITBY, Rev. Daniel, author of the " Paraphrase and Commentary on the New Testament," born 1638, died 1726. WHITE, Henry Kirke, the dis- tinguished youthful poet, died in St. John's College, Cambridge, I8O6, aged 21. WHITE, Gilbert, naturahst, born 1720, died 1793. WHITER, Rev. Walter, author of " Etymologicon Magnum," died 1832. WHITFIELD, George, founder of the sect of Calvinistic Methodists, was born 1714, and entered at Pembroke College, Oxford. Here he distinguished himself by his regular attention to re- ligious duties. Having made himself universally known in England by hia labours, he embarked for America in 1739. After a long course of peregrina- WIC 849 WIL tion he returned to England, and erected two very extensive buildings for public worship at Tottenham-court Road and Moorfields. In America, however, which always engaged much of his attention, he was destined to finish his comse; and he died at Newberr)% about 40 miles from Boston in New England, in 1770. See Methodists. WHITGIFT, Archbishop of Can- terbury, born 1530, died 1603. WHITEHALL, Westminster, built by Cardinal Wolsey 1545; injured by fire 1690; consumed Jan. 4, 1697-8; gateway pulled down and carried to Windsor, 1748. WHITEHEAD, Paul, the poet, who bequeathed his heart to Lord de Spenser, as a testimony of gratitude, and which bis lordship deposited in a magnificent mausoleum at his seat. West Wycombe, Bucks, died 1774. WHITSUNTIDE, festival instituted 813 WHITTAKER, Rev. T. D., antiqua- rian, born 1759, died 1822. WHITTINGTON, Sir Richard, rose from a low station, and was thrice lord mayor of London. He died in 1377. WICKLIFFE, John, the celebrated English reformer, was born about 1324, in the parish of WycliflF, near Richmond, in Yorkshire. He was educated at Ox- ford, first in Queen's and afterwards in Merton College. In 1361 he was chosen master of Baliol Hall, and in 1365, constituted warden of Canterbury Col- lege, afterwards Christchurch. In 1367 he was ejected by the regulars; the eject- ment was confirmed by the pope, which gave rise to his opposition to the papists. About 1370 he published a defence of Edward III. against the pope, which was the cause of his introduction at court. He was presented by the king to the rectory of Lutterworth in Leicestershire, and in 1375 he obtained a prebend in the church of Westbury in Gloucester- shire. In 1377 a bull was sent over to the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, ordering them to secure this arch-heretic, and lay him in irons ; but protected by John, duke of Lancaster, he eluded the prosecution. In 1382 he published "Sixteen Conclu- sions," in which he ventured to ex])ose the grand article of transubstantiation. These being condemned by the chan- cellor of Oxford, he was expelled the university. He now retired to his living at Lutterworth, where he finished his translation of the Bible. In 1383 he was suddenly struck with a palsy ; a repeti- tion of which put on end to his life in December 1384. WIELAND, C. M.,the German poet, born 1733, died 1800. WIGHT, Isle of, county, ftants. In the beginning of the fifth century it was conquered by the Saxons ; was afterwards annexed to the kingdom of Wessex; but in 7S7 it was captured by the Danes. King John retired hither to make preparations for renewing the war with his barons, after they had compelled him to sign Magna Charta, It was taken by the French, July 13, 1377. WILBERFORCE, the eminent phi- lanthropist and promoter of the aboli- tion of the slave-trade, was born Aug. 24, 1759, at Hull; entered St. John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. 1781, M.A. 1788. In 1780 he was returned as one of the representatives of his natiA'^e town ; and, at the election of 1784, he was re-elected. It was at the particular solicitation of Mr. Clarkson that he was first induced to interest him- self on the subject of slavery. See Slavery. Mr. Wilberforce was elected without opposition, for the county of York, at the elections of 1790, 1796, 1802, and 1806, and, after a severe con- test, at the election of 1807. In 1812 he retired from the representation of Yorkshire, and was elected for Brara- ber. He finally retired froin his senatorial duties in 1825. He was the author of several works, particularly an " Appeal to the Religion, Justice, and Humanity of the Inhabitants of the British empire, in behalf of the Negro-slaves in the West Indies." He died July 29, 1833, aged 73 ; and was interred in Westminster Abbey, on August 3. The funeral, which was a public one, was attended by a considerable number of the most dis- tinguished public characters. In 1841 a statue of him, by Joseph, was placed in the abbey on the north side near the transept, forming one of the ornaments of that venerable cathedral. WILKES, John, member of parha- ment for Aylesbury, and author of a reputed libel on the ministry in 1763, for which he was prosecuted. April 30, he was arrested by order of the secretary of state, which began the controversy between him and the administration, relative to seizure of papers, &c., and led 5 Q WIL 850 WIL to the abandonment of general warrants on the part of government. He died Dec. 26, 1797, aged 70. WILLIAM I., of England, originally duke of Normandy, a descendant of Canute, born 1027 ; invaded England 1066; was crowned at Westminster, Dec. 29, 1006; died at Hermentrude, near Rouen, in Normand}^, 10S7 ; was buried at Caen. WILLIAM II., son of the preceding, born 1057; crowned at Westminster Sept. 27, 1087 ; was killed by accident as he was hunting in the New Forest, by Sir Walter Tyrrel, Aug. 1100, aged 43 ; was buried at Winchester. WILLIAM III., i)rince of Orange, born Nov. 4, 1650; created stadtholder, Julys, 1672; married the princess Mary of England, Nov. 4, 1677 ; landed with his army at Torbay, in England, Nov. 4, 1688 ; was crowned with his queen, April 11, 1689; died March 8, 1702; was buried at Westminster. WILLIAM IV., fourth son of George III., born Aug. 21, 1765 ; entered the' navy, under the late Admiral Rodney, Dec. 29. 1780 ; was created duke of Clarence, May'20, 1789; married Princess Adelaide LouisaTheresa Caroline Amelia, eldest daughter of George Frederick Charles, late duke of Saxe Weiningen, July 11, 1818; succeeded his brother, George IV., June 26, 1830; was crowned Sept. 8, 1831 ; died at Windsor, Jime 20, 1837; was buried in St. George's chape), Windsor. WILLIAM OF Malmsbury, English historian, flourished 1140. WILLIAM OF PoiCTiERS, first trou- badour, died 1126. WILLIAMS, George, M.D., fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, re- gius professor of botany, keeper of the RadclifFe library, and one of the dele- gates of the university press. Died Jan. 17, 1834. WILLIAMS, Helen Maria, a lady of some celebrity as a writer, author of " Sketch of the Politics of France ;" " Sketches of the State of Manners and Opinions in the French Republic." She died Dec. 15, 1827. WILLIAMS, Rev. Dr. Daniel, founder of the library in Red-cross street, died 1716. WILLIAMS, Sir Charles Han- BURY,^ English historian and poet, died 1759. WILLIAMS, Rev. John, late emi- nent missionary to the South Sea islands, was born about the year 1792. After being designated to the work under the patronage of the London Missionary Society, he became actively engaged in the mission to the South Sea, in 1817; he discovered the island of Rarotonga in 1823. See Rarotonga. After labour- ing with great success for 18 years among these islanders, Mr. Williams returned to England in 1835 in order to recruit his health. Here he suggested the idea of pur- chasing a competent vessel to be engaged in the same service, and, when his health should permit, of embarl^ing again for the Southern Ocean. As soon as he had made this known, which was about 1836, the plan was patronised by many bene- volent and influential individuals, and was ultimately attended with success. He embarked for the South Sea in 1838, and was massacred at the island of Erro- roanga, one of the New Hebrides, on Nov. 20, 1839. WILLIS, Dr. Thomas, eminent English physician, &c., died 1675. WILLOUGHBY, Francis, English natural historian, died 1672. WILLS, to demise lands, were first permitted under restrictions, by Henry VIII. ; all real property was also subject to the same regulations generally at the Restoration. The statute 1 Vict. c. 26, July 3, 1837, entitled an "act for the amendment of the laws with respect to wills," repeals the statutes of wills, 32 Hen.VIII. c. 1, and 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. c. 5, and 22 of the statute of frauds, 29 Car. II. c. 3, &c. This important statute, founded on the report of the real property commissioners, has etf'ected several useful alterations in the old law of testamentary disposition. It has ma- terially simplified and rendered uniform the former intricate and diversified rules of execution of various forms of wills. WILMOT. See Rochester. WILNA, city, Russia, in Lithuania. It is the see of a Greek metropolitan and a Catholic bishop. Its university, established in 1570, was new-modelled by the Russian government in 1803. Wilna was entered by the French, June 28, 1812. The French were driven from it by the Russians, Dec. 10, 1812. WILSON, the American ornitholo- gist, died Aug. 23, 1813. WILTON, borough, Wiltshire, is of great antiquity. In 871 a most sangui- nary battle was fought here between WIN 851 WIN King Alfred and the Danes. In 1003 it was burnt by Sweyn, king of Denmark, who laid waste all the western counties of England. In 1579 it was visited by Queen Elizabeth, and, in 1603, the court resided here for a short time. WILTSHIRE, inland county of Eng- land. Dviring the Saxon heptarchy, it was included in the kingdom of Wessex. In the seventh century, a contest for power occurred between the kings of Wessex and Mercia. In 1003 Sweyn, king of Denmark, ravaged the southern part of this county, plundered and de- stroyed the towns of Wilton and Sarum, and, in 1017, Edmund Ironside van- quished the Danes on the south-western borders of the county, and subsequently defeated their king, Canute, at Sherston, westward of Malmsbury. WINCH, Nathaniel, an excellent British botanist, author of " An Essay on the Geographical Distribution of Plants through the Counties of Northum- berland, Cumberland, and Durham;" and of a very elaborate " Flora of Nor- thumberland and Durham," died 183S. WINCHCOMB Monastery, Glou- cestershire, founded 800. WINCHESTER, city, county South- ampton, was founded at a period of re- mote antiquity; was called by the Britons Caer Gwent, or White City. The Ro- mans styled it Venta Belgarura ; the Saxons gave it the name of Wintance- astre, now altered into Winchester. Vortigern, about 448, made Winchester his metropolis ; and, after the conquest of this part of the island by Cerdric, it became the capital of the kingdom of the West Saxons. After the Norman con- quest, Winchester was frequently the residenceof the sovereign, and here took place the coronation of William Rufus. King John held a parliament or great council at Winchester in 1203, and his son Henry, afterwards Henry III., was born here. The parliamentary general. Sir William Waller, took possession of the castle, but towards the end of 1643 it was recaptured by the royalists. WINDHAM, William, statesman and orator, born May 14, 1750, died June 4, 1810. WINDOWS. Before the use of glass became general, which was not till towards the end of the 12th centurj"-, the windows of Britain seem generally to have been composed of paper, pro- perly prepared with oil The window- tax was first enacted, I696; increased Feb. 5, 1746-7 ; again 1763-1778 ; again commuted for a tax on tea, Oct. 1, 1784 ; increased 1797; again, 18(>2 and 1808; and reduced 1823. By 3 Victoria, cap. 17, any window or lights which any person shall have made or opened since April 5, 1835, under the provisions of 4 and 5 Will. 4. c. 73, are still exempt from duty. Agreeable to the act, 3 Vict, passed June 6, 1840, houses having not more than seven windows, are entirely exempt from the duty on windows. W^INDSOR, Berks, owes its impor- tance, and probably its origin, to the royal castle or palace, which has been the favourite residence of some of our most distinguished sovereigns. The Norman conqueror kept the festival of Whitsuntide here in 1071. Henry I. enlarged Windsor Castle considerably, and built a chapel, where, in 1122, he celebrated his marriage with his second queen, Adelais of Lorrain. Additions were made to the fortifications by Henry III. Edward III. was born here. In the civil war between Charles I. and the parliament, Windsor Castle was garri- soned by the troops of the latter, and in 1648 it became the prison of the mis- guided monarch. Charles II. caused the castle to be well repaired and richly furnished. George III. frequented Wind- sor more than his immediate predeces- sors, and, under his direction, St. George's chapel was completely repaired ; and George IV. made great improvements. The new gateway, which is called King George IV.'s, was externally completed in 1826. Other improvements, projected in his reign, were continued in the reigns of W^illiara IV. and Victoria. Prince Albert's new riding-house was completed in 1841. W^INE. The art of expressing and fermenting the juice of the grape appears to have been practised from the remotest antiquity. The wines of Lesbos and Chios among the Greeks, and the Faler- nian and Cecuban among the Romans, have acquired an immortality of renown. Wine was first made in England 1140; in Flanders in 1276. Port — the wine most commonly used in England — is produced in the province of Upper Douro, in Portugal ; and is shipped at Oporto, whence its name. The Oporto wine- company was founded in 1756, during the administration of the Marquis Pom- bal. The entire and absolute disposal of WOL 852 WOO the wines raised in this district was ))laced in the hands of the company ; who were further authorised to fix the prices to be paid for them to the culti- vators, to prepare them for exportation, and to fix the price at wliich they should be sold to foreigners. In 1833, 2,596,530 gallons of port were retained for con- sumption in the United Kingdom. The Ojjorto company was abolished by a de- cree, dated Lisbon, May 30, 1834. WIRE, invented at Nuremberg 1351. Wire mills were invented in Germany, 1563. The first erected at Skeen, by a Dutchman, 1663. WIRTEMBERG, or Wirtemburg, kingdom, Germany, forms part of the old circle of Suabia; was erected into a kingdom by Napoleon in 1805, who made great additions to it by the terri- tories taken from Austria. In 1813 the allies having engaged to serve the king, received his support to invade France. WISHART, George, martyr, died 1546. WISTAR, Gaspar, celebrated Ame- rican anatomist, l)orn 1761, died 1818. WITCHCRAFT. The belief that cer- tain persons were endowed with super- natural power, and that they were as- sisted by invisible spirits, is very ancient. Witchcraft was universally believed in Europe till the l6th century, and even maintained its ground with tolerable firmness till the middle of the 17th. In the reign of Henry VII., a woman was executed for this supposed crime by the sheriff of Devon ; 600 were executed for it in France, 1609 ; Grandiere, a priest of London, was burnt for bewitching a whole convent of nuns, 1634; 20 old women were executed in Bretagne, 1654 ; five persons were burnt as witches at Paisley, in Scotland, 1697; and nine were burnt in Poland, 1775. WITHERING, William, M.D., au- thor of " Botanical Arrangement," &c., born 1741, died 1799- WITHERSPOON, John, an eminent American divine, born 1722, died 1794. WITNESSES. See Examination OF Witnesses. WOAD, IsATis, or Glastrum, a plant from which the dyers obtain blue colouring matter: first cultivated in Eng- land 1582; the fi.xing of this .colour discovered 1753. WOLCOT, Dr., who assumed the name of Peter Pindar, the author of " Odes," &c., born 1738, died 1819. WOLFE, James, a celebrated British general, was born at Westerham, Kent, in 1726. In 1758 he was present as a brigadier- general at the siege of Louis- burg. The fame which he here acquired pointed him out as the most proper per- son to command the army destined to attack Quebec, where he gallantly fell September 13, 1759. WOLLASTON, William Hyde, M.D., an eminent philosopher, was born Aug. 6, 1766. He received his acade- mical education at Caius College, Cam- bridge, where he proceeded, M.B., 1787, and M.D. 1793. He first settled at Bury, St. Edmund's, where he commenced practising as a physician ; but with so little success that he left the place in dis- gust, and removed to London. Although almost every branch of science occupied him at different times, chemistry was that to which he seemed to have been most ardently devoted. He invented a very ingenious method of determining the properties and constituents of very mi- nute quantities of matter. Dr. Wollas- ton was elected a fellow of the Royal So- ciety in 1793, and was elected second secretary, Nov. 30, I8O6. His commu- nications to the " Philosophical Transac- tions" which were very numerous, com- menced in 1797, and terminated in 1820. He was also the author of numerous scientific communications to the Royal Society, &c. He died December 22, 1828. WOLSEY, Thomas, celebrated eccle- siastic and statesman, is said to have been the son of a butcher at Ipswich. He studied at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he became acquainted with the learned Erasmus ; and in 1500 became rector of Lymington in Hampshire ; he was afterwards made chaplain to King Henry VIII. Having gradually acquired an entire ascendency over the mind of that monarch, he successively obtained several bishoprics, and at length was made archbishop of York, lord high chancellor of England, and prime mi- nister ; and was for several years the arbiter of Europe. Pope Leo X. created him cardinal in 1515 As his revenues were immense, his pride and ostentation were carried to the greatest height. His ambition to be pope, his exactions, and his political delay of Henry's divorce, at length occasioned his disgrace. He died in 1530. WOOD, Anthony, eminent anti- woo 853 WRE quarian, author of the " History and Antiquities of Oxford," was born 1632, died l6y5. WOODFALL, William, printer, the first man who reported the parhainentary debates from memory, and who reported them on the night of the proceedings. He died Aug. 1, 1803. WOOLLEN Manufactuue. This has always ranked as an important branch of national industry; and, until it was recently supplanted by the cotton manufacture, was decidedly the most important in England. Before the 10th century there are no notices of the manu- facture ; and from the 10th to the 13th they are but few and imperfect. It is certain, however, that the manufacture of broad cloths was established soon after the year 1200. Edward HL invited over Flemish weavers, fullers, dyers, and others, and shortly after, or in 1337, an act was passed prohibiting the wear of any cloths made beyond sea, and inter- dicting the export of English wool. Foreign wool began to be imported in small quantities in the 13th century. The manufacture was early introduced into Yorkshire, In 1533 an act was passed, 34 and 35 Henry VIII. c. 10, enacting that none shall make coverlets in Yorkshire, but inhabitants of the city of York. It was enacted, nearly at the same period, that the manufacture should be restricted in Worcestershire, to Wor- cester and four other towns. Norwich soon after became the principal seat of this branch of the manufacture. In 1614 a great improvement took place in the woollen manufacture of the west of Eng- land, by the invention of what is called medley or mixed cloth, for which Glou- cestershire is still famous. Towards the end of the I7th century, the value of the wool shorn in England was estimated at £2,000,000 a year. The value of the woollen manufactured goods now annually produced in England and Wales is said to be £18,000,000. WOOLWICH, Kent, situated on the southern bank of the Thames, owes its present importance to a dock constructed in 1512 in the reign of Henry VIII., said to be the most ancient establishment of the kind in England. In the reign of George I. a foundry for cannon was erected on Woolwich Warren, from which circumstance originated the foundation of the arsenal, and the institution of the Royal Mihtaiy Academy in 1741, which. with other establishments connected with the army and navy, have raised the town to a state of great prosperity. Woolwich arsenal, stores, &c., were burnt to the value of £200,000, May 20, 1802; white hemp storehouse burnt down July 8, 1813. For an account of casting at the arsenal see Cannon. WORCESTER, city, England, was destroyed during the early invasion of the country by the Danes; and in 894, it was rebuilt by Ethelred the son-in-law of Alfred the Great. A royal castle was erected here shortly after the Norman conquest. The city suffered in the con- tests which occurred in the reigns of John, Henry III., Henry IV^ &c. In the civil war under Charles I. it was garrisoned by the royahsts. After the execution of Charles I., the ill- concerted expedition of Charles II. was terminated by the victory gained over his forces by Ohver Cromwell near this place, August 22, 1651. WORKSOP, market town, Notting- hamshire. In 1460 a battle took place here between the forces of the duke of York and those of the duke of Somerset, which ended in the defeat of the latter. WORMS, city of Hesse Darmstadt. Here Luther appeared before the diet in 1521. It was taken by the French in 1689, and again in 1792, but restored in 1794. WOUVERMANS, Philip, an emi- nent Dutch painter, born 1620, died 1668. WRAXALL, Sir Nathaniel, author of the "History of France," died 1831. WRAY, Daniel, Enghsh antiqua- rian, died 1783. WRECK. See Shipwrecks. WREDE, Field-Marshal, Prince, celebrated general and minister of state, hereditaty councillor and inspector-gene- ral of the kingdom of Bavaria, was born at Heidelberg in 1767. In 1805 he served with the army against Austria. At the head of the Bavarian array he entered France in 1814, and, when peace was concluded, he was elevated to the rank of prince. He died December 12, 1838. WREN, Sir Christopher, one of the most eminent architects of his age, was born in 1632. He studied at Wad- ham College, in Oxford, where he took the degree of master of arts in 1653. In 1657 he was made professor of astro- nomy at Gresham College, London, which he resigned in ) 660, on his being YAR 854 YOR chosen to the Savilian professorship of astronomy in Oxford. He was next year created doctor of laws ; and in 1G63 was elected fellow of the Royal Society. In 1665 he travelled into France, to ex- amine the most beautiful edifices there, when he made many curious observa- tions In 1663 he was made surveyor- general of his majesty's works ; and from that time had the direction of a great number of public edifices. He built the theatre at Oxford, St. Paul's cathedral, the monument, &c. He died in 17'23. WYATT, James, architect, died Oc- tober 1813. WYCHERLY, William, poet, born 1640, died Jan. 1, 1715-16. WYKEHAM, William of, eminent English prelate, bishop of Winchester, founder of New College, Oxford, died 1404. WYNDHAM, Sir William, states- man, born 1687, died 1740. X. XAVIER, Francis, Baron De Zach, author of the astronomical work entitled "Recueil," born 1754, died 1833. XENOCRATES, a celebrated Grecian philosopher, born at Chalcedon in the 95th Olympiad. He was a disciple of Plato, and supported the credit of the Platonic school by his lectures, his writ- ings, and his conduct. He lived to the first year of the 1 l6th Olympiad, or the 82d of his age, when he lost his life by accidentally falling, in the dark, into a reservoir of water, XENOPHON, an illustrious philo- sopher, general, and historian, was born at Athens 82d Olympiad. He entered the army of Cyrus, and after his death, acquired great glory by the prudence and firmness with which he conducted back the army through the midst of innumerable dangers, into their own country, an account of which is related by him in his "Retreat of the Ten Thou- sand." He died at Corinth in the first year of the 105th Olympiad. XERES De La Frontera, town, Spain, province of Andalusia. On a plain adjoining to this town the famous battle between the Moors and Goths was fought in 711, in which the Goths were com- pletely defeated, and their empire over- turned. XIMENES. Cardinal De, bishop of Toledo and prime minister of Spain, was born at Torrelaguna, in Old Castile, in 1437. He erected a famous univer- sity at Alcala; and in 1499 founded the college of St. Ildephonso. In 1507 Pope Julius II. gave him the cardinal's hat, and King Ferdinand V. entrusted him with the administration of affairs. In 1509 he extended the power of Spain by taking the city of Oran in the king- dom of Algiers. King Ferdinand dying in 1516, left Cardinal Ximenes regent of his dominions ; and the Archduke Charles, who was afterwards the Em- peror Charles V., confirmed that nomi- nation. During his administration he vindicated the rights of the people and of the crown against the exorbitant power of the nobility, but afterwards fell into disgrace. He died in 151", in his 81st year. Y. YARMOUTH, sea-port, Norfolk, in the reign of William I. was a royal de- mesne. In 1583, at the time of the alarm from the Spanish armada, a castle stood in the middle of the town. In 1664, in the reign of Edward VI., when a rebellion against the government took place in Norfolk, under Ket, the insur- gents furiously assaulted this place, but they were repulsed. Not far from the jetty a naval pillar was erected in 1817, in commemoration of Admiral Lord Nelson. YELLOW Fever raged in the West Indies with uncommon mortality in 1794; at Santa Cruz, Teneriffe, 1200 died of it, February, 1811. YEOMEN OF the Guards, first in- stituted Oct. 30, 1485. YORK, county, England. After the invasion of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons, it formed the principal part of the king- dom of Deira, but the Britons retained the sovereignty, till about 560, when, in 617, Deira was united with the northern kingdom of Bernicia, under the name of YOR ^5 YPR Northumbria. This kingdom, after un- dergoing various revolutions, was ra- vaged by the Danes, under Inguar and Hubba in 867, and sul)sequently colo- nised by that people. The Danes in- vaded ^liis part of the country in 993, and again in 1093. In 1138, Yorkshire was ravaged by the Scots under their king, David I., who, however, was com- pletely defeated at Northallerton. In 1347 David II., of Scotland, having made an incursion into Yorkshire, was, on his retreat, defeated and taken prisoner at Ne\iirs Cross, near Durham. During the conflicts between the royal houses of Lancaster and York, battles were fought at Wakefield and Towton. The civil war, under Charles I., commenced in Yorkshire, by the unsuccessful attempt of the king to gain possession of Hull in 1642. Subsequently battles were fought at Guisborough, Selby, and Marston Moor. YORK, city and archbishopric, county of York, is very ancient. The emperor Adrian resided here in 124 ; Severus died in this city in 212. Here also the emperor, Constantius Chlorus, died in 307. In 1138 David L, of Scotland, besieged York, but was repulsed by a body of forces commanded by the bishop of Durham. In the beginning of the reign of Richard I. a terrible massacre of the Jews took place in this city. In 1252 Alexander III., of Scotland, came to York, with a large retinue, to cele- brate his nuptials with the daughter of Henry III. Parliaments were held here in 1297, 1298, 1299, 1314, 1318, 1322, 1328, 1332, 1335, and 1336. Richard II. in 1389, visited York to settle some dis- putes between the ecclesiastics and the civic magistrates. The city having been made a royal garrison, was besieged in 1644 by Sir Thomas Fairfax, and after the battle of Marston Moor, York was surrendered to the parliamentarians. In this city was ratified the treaty of com- promise between the English pai-liament and the Scottish army, Jan. 1, 1645. York was made the see of a bishop under Pauhnus, who converted the Nor- thumbrians to Christianity in 627. The cathedral church, a most magnificent structure, dedicated to St. Peter, was erected principally in the 13th and 14th centuries. The building having been destroyed by fire in the reign of Stephen, it was partly re-erected by Archbishop Roger, about 1170; but the principal part of the existing structure was built in the reign of Edward I., the nave being begun at that period, but it was finished about 1330, by Archbishop Mellow. Archbishop Thoresby rebuilt the choir in 136l,andin 1370, the central to w;er was also rebuilt. A richly ornamented stone screen separates the nave from the choir, which last mentioned beautiful portion of the building narrowly escaped entire de- struction, in consequence of its being set on fire, Feb. 2, 1829, by Jonathan Martin, who being arrested, a judicial investiga- tion of the affair took place, when it ap- peared that he was insane, and he was consequently consigned to Bedlam for hfe. In 1832 the damage occasioned by the fire had been completely repaired, and the choir restored in exact confor- mity with its former appearance, under the direction of Mr. Srairke. On May 20, 1840, another fire, broke out which, entirely destroyed the roof of the nave, and a considerable portion of the south- west tower. YORK, New. See New York, p. 674. YORKE, Philip, earl of Hardwicke,. born 1690, died 1764. YORKE, Philip, second earl o£ Hardwicke, author of "Athenian Let- ters," born 1720, died 1790. YOUNG, Arthur, the agriculturist^ author of the " Farmer's Calendar," &e.,, died 1820. YOUNG, Dr. Edward, the distin- guished author of the "Night Thoughts,"' was born at Ujjham in Hampshire, in* 1684. He was matriculated into All- Souls College, Oxford. His poem, called " The Last Day," was published in 1704. This was soon after followed by " The Force of Religion, or Van- quished Love," which introduced him to the best society. In 1730 he obtained the living of Welwyn in Hertfordshire. After publishing sevej-al other poems, he died at Welwyn, April 12, 1765, regretted by all, and was buried under the altar- ])iece of that parish church. Y'PRES, town, kingdom of Belgium. In 1793 and 1794 it was exposed to bom- bardment from both French and allies. It surrendered to the French under Mo- reau, June 17, 1794, with 6000 men and 100 cannon, &c. It remained in their hands until the overthrow of Buonaparte in 1814. Z I N 856 ZUI Z. ZACH, Baron De, a celebrated as- tronomer of Hungary, born 1754, died 1833 ZARAGOSA. See Saragosa. ZEALAND, New, in the Pacific Ocean, discovered by Tasman in 1642, by many supposed to make part of the southern continent till 1770, when the country was circumnavigated by Captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, called by the natives Tavai and Eaheinomauwe. In 1814 a mission was commenced in New Zealand, which, in 1819, was visited by Mr. Marsden, under the patronage of the church mis- sionary society, when a tract of land, consisting of 13,000 acres, was pur- chased from one of the chiefs, and the missionaries were settled on it. in 1832 four church mission stations had been established, and the natives were under a regular course of education. In 1839 the New Zealand company was instituted, under the auspices of which a promising colony has been established. The first vessel with settlers reached Port Nichol- son, Feb. 1, 1840. The islands are now under British sovereignty. ZENO, founder of the sect of the Stoics, was born about a.c 300. He died at the age of 98, and the Athenians, at the request of Antigonus, erected a monument to his memory in the Cera- micum. ZEPHANIAH,the prophet, flourished A.c. 641. ZEUXIS, a celebrated painter of an- tiquity, flourished about a.c. 400. ZIMMERMAN, John George, M. D., author of " Solitude," born 1728, died 1795. ZINC, or Spelter, a metal of a bril- liant white colour, with a shade of blue. The word zinc occurs, for the first time, in the writings of Paracelsus, who died in 1541 ; but the method of extracting it from its ores was not known till the early part of the last century. Zinc is produced in the province of Yunan, in China, and, previously to 1820, large quantities of it were exported from that empire to India, the Malay Archipelago, &c. But about that time the free traders began to convey European spelter (prin- cipally German) to India cheaper; and it has entirely supplanted the latter in the Calcutta market. ZINZHIS Khan. See Genghis Khan. ZINZENDORFF, Count Nicholas Lewis, founder of the Hernhutters, or sect of Moravian co-operatives, who lived together in common at Hernhutt, died 1748, aged 70, ZODIAC, Signs of the, invented by Anazimander, a.c. 547. ZOOLAS, or Zoolus, a numerous and powerful tribe of Caffres on the east coast of South Africa. In 1824 a small English colony was founded at Port Natal, with full encouragement from Chaka, the CafFre chief. See Natal. ZOOLOGICAL Society, formed in 1826; incorporated 1829. Gardens, Re- gent's-park, instituted 1826; improved in 1830 and 1831. ZOROASTER, the founder of the religion of the Magi, flourished 1066. ZOSIMUS, author of the "History of the Roman Emperors," flourished A.c. 400. ZUINGLIUS, Ulricus, an able and zealous Swiss reformer, was born at Wildehausen in 1487, and ofiiciated as preacher at Zurich from the beginning of 1519 to 1523; he preached not only against indulgences, but against other articles of the Romish church. He dif- fered from Luther on the subject of church government, which caused a dis- pute with his countrymen. Both sides had recourse to arms ; when Zuinglius, who began as a preacher, died in arms as a soldier, in 1531. the end. 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