LESSONS I— XXV SWEDISH GRAMMAR by A. LOUIS ELMOUIST Class _ELQall Rnnk Eg GopghtN?.. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; LESSONS I -XXV SWEDISH GRAMMAR by A/ LOUIS DLMQUIST PROFESSOR OF SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY THE ENTGBERG-HOLMBERG PUBLISHING CO. CHICAGO, ILL. 1913 NOTE. This advance copy of Swedish Grammar does not include the extensive account of the phonology (containing important matters not previously presented in any similar work), the various resumes, appendices nor vocabularies which will appear in the completed work. Copyright 1913 by The Engberg-Holmberg Publishing Co. CHICAGO, Ii.L. LC Control Number tmp96 031299 ©CU351154 toil LESSON I. GENDER. 1. The Swedish language has two genders, common and neuter. (r) Of common gender are names of living beings and most names of inanimate objects; as, gosse boy, flicka girl, lampa lamp, stol chair. (2) Neuter are all names of inanimate objects which are not of common gender; as, hus house, bord table. Note. — 1. A few names of living beings are neuter, by excep- tion; as, barn child, far sheep, bi bee. 2. Observe that "common", as here used, does not mean that a word may be either masculine or feminine, but simply that it is not neuter (non-neuter gender). 3. The distinction between neuter and common gender is purely grammatical, having nothing to do with sex. Observe, moreover, that while in English the names of inanimate objects are regularly neuter, they are in Swedish partly of common and partly of neu- ter gender. 4. Words of common gender which are names of living beings, are in most grammars, according as the sex is male or female, said to be of masculine or feminine gender, or they are called com- mon-gender masculines and common-gender feminines. Natural gender is, however, of very small importance, except as regards the use of the personal pronouns corresponding to "he" and "she". See \ 9. THE ADJECTIVE. 2. An adjective modifying a common-gender noun in the singular is left unchanged; as, bran stol brown chair, denna stol dr brun this chair is brown. 4 INDEFINITE ARTICLE I An adjective modifying a neuter noun in the sin- gular adds -/,■ as, brunt hits brown house, delta lius ar brunt 1 this house is brown. ,'). Especially in the case of the articles and many pro- nouns containing n, the neuter is formed by substitut- ing t for ?i\ as, denna, n. delta this. 4. SUMMARY: In adjectives, articles and pronouns, / is the sign of the neuter singular. THE INDEFINITE 'ARTICLE. 5. The indefinite article is: Common gender e?i 2 ) la, an Neuter ett ) Ex.: en slot a chair, en vacker lampa a beautiful lamp, ett hits a house, ett vackert bord a beautiful table. 6. Similarly possessive pronouns: Common miri 1 / . dinger / , . . -my, mine _.,, , your, yours (sing.) Neuter mitt \ y ' dill, ertv ,J v s J Note. — Observe that Swedish min and din, er represent both "my" and "mine", "yonr" and "yours", respectively. VERBS. 7. The present singular of the verbs vara to be, and ha{ya) to have: jag I am jag I have du, ni >ar you are d?i, ni \har you have han, ho7i, den, del } he, she, it is han y etc., J he has THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 8* The pronoun du (and its possessive din) is used 1 In Swedish, as in Latin, the predicate adjective is inflected. In German it is invariable. 2 In these words n is not written double even after a short vowel; see £™. I PRONOUNS 5 in familiar address, 1 i. e. in speaking to relatives, friends and children. The pronoun ni (and its possessive er) is more formal. Du and ni are both translated '.'you" 1 ; so din and er are rendered by "your." 9. Han he, and hon she, are used as in English. Den is used in referring to inanimate objects of common gender. Det is used in referring to inanimate objects of neuter gender. Both den and det are rendered in Eng- lish by "it". In brief: I han he . animate Common -l hen she ) I den ) . . v 7 I it, inanimate Neuter det ) 10- ORTHOGRAPHY, (i) Titles (see § 13, 2) are writ- ten with a small initial letter, except when used in direct address. (2) Ni (possessive er) is frequently capitalized in let- ters as a sign of respect. Also the pronoun of familiar address is sometimes capitalized. 11. OBSERVE THE PRONUNCIATION OF: min % din, han, hon, men, e?i, den, det. 12. ACCENT: (1) Swedish words of two or more sylla- bles have the grave accent (see§JgJJ); as, denna, detta, flicka, gosse, haver, vara, liten. Some words of two or more syllables, however, have acute accent. These ex- ceptions will be indicated in the following lessons under the heading ACCENT. The distribution of grave and acute accent in the various grammatical categories, as presented in each lesson, will also be considered. 1 In poetry, and in prose in the elevated stj'le, du and din are used in addressing any person. These pronouns are also employed in addressing the Deity. In these cases English uses the corresponding pronouns "thou" and "thine". 6 COLLOQUIALISMS I (2) Swedish words have the chief stress on the first syl- lable. Of all exceptions to this rule the accent will be designated 1 whenever such words occur, except in the exercises. (3) Frbken (§ JJJJj]|) has acute accent. lo. PRINCIPAL COLLOQUIALISMS. (1) In the spoken language denna (11. detta) is followed by the noun in the definite form; as, denna stolen, detta huset. In place of denna (11. detta) the spoken language usually, and the language of books sometimes, employs den ha'r (n. det ha'r), which is also followed by the noun in the definite form. With den ha'r, which means literally "the one here", compare the English "this here". (2) In books ni (possessive er) is regularly used as the formal pronoun of address in the singular. In the spoken language, however, this is not considered quite polite, and many people object to its use, though much less now than formerly. Instead of ni, the spoken lan- guage generally, and the language of books sometimes, employs the title of the person addressed, with or with- out the name. For er the genetive of the title is used. When the name does not follow, the definite form (see §§ 14, 15) of the title is used, which may be preceded by kerr (' ' Mr .' ' ) or fnt ("Mrs."). When the name follows, the indefinite form is used in the case of most titles; some, however, may have either defiaite or indefinite form, while others are always put in the definite forn. Ex.: Var bor herr Andersson nu f Where do you live now ? Vad sdger professorn (or herr professorn , or professor Ljungmark) om saken? What do you say about the matter? Hur g ani- mal dr redakfbrens son? How old, is your sou? When 1 In the following lessons the question of stress will not be treated under this heading, but in the lesson proper or in the foot-notes, whenever com- ment is necessary. I . . COLLOQUIALISMS 7 addressing a person whose name or title is not known, min herre, min fru and frbken are used in addressing respectively men, married women and unmarried women. To use simply herm and frun is considered somewhat vulgar. So as to avoid the use of these cumbersome titles, it is customary even for people of but slight acquaintance to agree that they will use the familiar pronoun du (possessive din) in addressing each other. (3) Inte is in the spoken language regularly used in- stead of icke. (4) Of the forms hava and ha, the spoken language uses only the shorter, while the written language uses either hava or ha. (5) On a colloquial use of the possessive pronouns, see § 41, 4. (6) In easy speech the final consonant sound is dropped in jag, och and ar, which are then pronounced respec- tively ja, a and a VOCABULARY. Note. — Gender is indicated in the vocabularies only in the case of neuter nouns, which are not nearly so numerous as those of common gender. It is important to remember which nouns are neuter. barn n. child flicka girl bi n. bee far n. sheep bord n. table gosse boy brim brown han lie den {n. det) it ha(va) {sing, har) have denna (n. detta) this hon she din (?i. ditt) {f ami liar) , your , hus ?z. house yours (sing.) icke not du f familiar), yoti {sing.) jag / en (?i ett) a, an lampa lamp er {formal), your, yours liten small 8 VOCABULARY I men but stol chair min (;/. mitt) my, mine stor large ill {formal), you vacker beautiful, pretty och aud var where pa on vara {sing, ar) ^ EXERCISE I. .4. i. Jag har ett stort bord. 2. Jag har en lampa pa mitt bord. 3. Den ar vacker. 4 Mitt hus ar stort, men det ar icke vackert. 5. Denna stol ar brim. 6. Hon ar en vacker flicka. 7. Er gosse ar stor. 8. Har ni en stol oeh ett bord? 9. Ar ert bord brunt ? io. Detta hus ar icke.ditt. 11. Ar din lampa vacker? 12. Var ar din gosse? 13. Har du ett hus? 14. Ar det vackert? B. 1. He has a table and a chair. 2. Is your {famil- iar) chair brown? 3. He is a large boy. 4. Have you {formal) a lamp on your table? 5. My house is beauti- ful, but not large. 6. This girl is beautiful. 7. Where is your {form.) house? 8. This house is mine. 9. It is not yours {fam). 10. Is your {fam.) lamp small? 11. Mine is large. 12. You {fam.) are a little girl. 13. Is your {form.) lamp beautiful ? 14. He has a beau- tiful house. 15. It is large. II THE DEFINITE ARTICLE LESSON II. THK DEFINITE ARTICLE. 14. The definite article is not a separate word as in English, but is an ending added to the noun; as, stol chair, stolen the-chair; hus house, haset the house. Its forms are: COMMON NEUTER Sing. -e?i, -n -et, -t > , / Plur. -?ta, -a, -e?i 15. The singular forms -en, -et are used chiefly with words ending in a consonant (see examples in § 14); -n, -t, chiefly with words ending in a vowel; as, Jiicka gir\,Jtie- ka?i the girl; gosse boy, gossen the boy; tike kingdom, riket the kingdom. In the plural there is no distinction of gender. The nature of the preceding sound determines which form of the article (-na, -a or -en) is to be used. Note. — Further details about the use and distribution of the various forms will be given in the following lessons. VERBS. 16- The present indicative of: INF. vara to be haiva) to have Sing. Jag, etc., dr jag, etc., liar Plur. vi ixro we are vi ha (havcu) we have / dren you are / han 1 {haven) you have de dro they are de ha (hava) they have 17. The present indicative active of regular verbs: INF. tala to speak skriva to write bo to live 1 This form is rare. io VERBS PRESENT TENSE II Sing, jag, etc., talat jag, etc w skriver jag, etc., bor Plur. vi tala vi skriva vi bo I taloi I skriven I bon de tala de skriva de bo 18. Only a few verbs, namely those whose infinitive does not end in a, are conjugated like bo. Except when compounded, these are monosyllabic. Observe that the inflectional endings consist only of a consonant (-r, -?i) . Compare the forms of bo with the shorter forms of ka(va). II). In all moods and tenses (not only in the present indicative) the second person plural of all verbs ends in -en or -n . However, this form is of very limited use (see § 23). 20- In the present indicative active, observe that (1) the singular ends in -r, which is preceded by -a or e, except in verbs of the type of bo; (2) in all verbs except those of the type of bo, the first and third persons plural end in a; (3) in all verbs, including those of the type of bo, the first and third persons plural are identical in form with the infinitive. But notice vara, pres. plur. dro, which is an exception. 21- The very common progressive and emphatic verb- forms of English are in Swedish rendered by the simple verb: he is writing J he does write > han skriver he writes ) Likewise in negative sentences and questions: he is not writing | , , . . . \ han skriver icke he does not write ) is he writing ) . . . , . - skriver ka?i l does he write j 1 Observe the inveited order of the questions, as in English. II PROXOINS II PRONOUNS. 22. Possessive pronouns denoting more than one pos- sessor: vdr, n. vart our, ours; er, n. e?i your, yours. 23- The plur. pronoun / is used only in the more ele- vated literary style. In other forms of style and in con- versation, ni (identical with the formal sing, pronoun ni) is used in place of /. Accordingly the verb-form / talen, etc., is used only in elevated style. The plur. ni takes its verb in the singular (ni ta/ar 1 , etc.), though the plur. verb (jiitala 1 , etc.) often occurs in literature. Note. — i. In the plural pronouns of the second person (/, ni, possessive er) there is no distinction between familiar and formal address. 2. As "you" "your" in English is the same in the singular and plural, so in Swedish the plurals ?ii, possessive er, are identical in form with (the formal) ni, er of the singular. 24 ORTHOGRAPHY: The pronoun / is capitalized. T*his distinguishes it from the preposition i (see the vo- cabulary). 25. PRONUNCIATION: Sverige, giva. 26 • ACCENT: (i) All dissyllabic forms which are the result of the addition of the definite article to mono- syllabic nouns, have the acute accent; as, hasten (from hast), stolen (sto/), brevet (Jbrev) , hnset (hus) . On the other hand observe the grave accent in gossen (from gosse) , blomman (blommd), riket (rike) . The plural forms of the article follow the same rule. Fcr illustrations, see the various declensions. (2) All verb forms of more than one syllable have the grave accent, in all tenses and moods, 2 except that the 1 For the sake of convenience these forms are not included in the verb- paradigms. The student should constantly bear in mind that these are the usual forms for the second person plur. Pronouns of the second person plur. are, however, by the nature of things, not of frequent occurrence. 2 A few verbs, however, which have acute accent in the infinitive, take this accent in all forms. See § 40, 3. 12 DEFINITE ARTICLE II present indicative singular ending in cr has 1 lie acute; as, sitter, skriver, giver. On the other hand talar, sitta, sittcu, etc., have the grave accent. (3) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, 1 not taking into account inflectional forms, eller and Sverige have acute accent. 27. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Iu the spoken language a plural subject is regularly followed by the singular fonn of the verb, the plural verb-form never being used. Ex.: vi talar, 7ii talar, de talar. Moreover, the pronoun / is not used in the spoken language (see § 23). (2) In place of giver, giva the spoken language reg- ularly uses ger, the literary language frequently ger, plur. ge, gen, ge. (3) In the definite form of the singular of neuters ending in a consonant, the spoken language of some parts of Sweden omits the final -t; as, hiise for huset. (4) In easy speech dem, the objective form of de (see § £)> i s i n some parts of Sweden used as subject; as, dom a for de dro. (5) In conversation de is pronounced di and mycket, my eke. (6) In easy speech rod is pronounced rb and till is pronounced te. VOCABULARY. Note. — It will be found most convenient to learn the gender of nouns by repeating and memorizing the definite form of the singular. blomma flower brev n letter bla blue de (plur. of han,hou, den.det) bo (sing, -r) live (=dweW) they 1 In the following lessons the acute accent will be indicated only ic the case of words occurring for the first time in each lesson. II DEFINITE ARTICLE 13 dar there mycket adv., very eller or plocka {sing, -ar 1 ) pick er your, yours rike n. kingdom gat a street rod red giva {sing, -er 1 ) £7Vw 33. Examples of the First Declension: gata street, kvinna woman. INDEFINITE DEFINITE INDEFINITE DEFINITE SING, gata * gat an kvinna kvinnan Gen. gatas gatans kvinnas kvinnans PLUR. gator gatorna kvinnor kvimwrna Gen. gators gatomas kvinnors kvinnoriias ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS. 34. An adjective modifying a noun of either gender in the plural adds -a to the original form; as, langa ga- tor long streets, gatorna aro langa the streets are long. 35. So also possessive pronouns when denoting posses- sion of more than one object: plur. mina, dzna, era (sing, and plur.), vara. 36. For the third person the genitives ham his, hen- nes her, hers, dess its (gen. of den, det), deras their, theirs, are used in place of possessive pronouns. These genitives, not being adjectival forms, are invariable, and take no ending when used with neuter or plural nouns. 37- The plural of demia is dessa these. 38- Adjective inflection summarized: COMMON NEUTER COMMON NEUTER Sing, unchanged -t stor large stort Plur. -a stora 1 Cf. § 43, note 1, (b). 2 Cf. \ 42, note 2. 16 FIRST DECLENSION ITI IV,). PRONUNCIATION: om\farg\sjunga. In genitives (as, sfo/s), where one of the consonants following the vowel is an inflectional ending, the vowel is not short, if long in the base-form. 40. ACCENT: (i) All forms of all words in the first declension have the grave accent, except that rosen (from ros) and vdgen (from v&g) have acute accent (see §JJ5-) So also toffel and its def. form toffeln. However, the plurals of these words, rosor, vdgor, toff lor, have grave accent. (2) The plural of adjectives has grave accent; as, I dug a, m in a, manga. (3) Verbs with the first syllable unaccented (as, bcrdtta) have acute accent in all forms in the greater part of Sweden. (4) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, bcra'tta, fagel and under have acute accent. 41. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Dessa, as the singular denna (n. detta), is in the spoken language followed by a noun in the definite form. Instead of dessa, the spoken lan- guage usually, and literature sometimes, employs de ha'r. Cf. § 13, 1. (2) The spoken language usually substitutes a prepo- sitional phrase for the genitive in the case of inanimate objects. See § jgj. (3) In the spoken language the use of the genitive dess is avoided. (4) In the spoken language the possessive pronouns are sometimes placed after the noun, which is in the definite form except in the case of words indicating rela- tionship. When used in the genitive case, the pronoun, and not the noun takes the ending -s; as, vdnnen min my friend, far min my father, bror mins b'dcker my brother's books. Ill PRONOI'NvS 17 VOCABULARY. Note. — The following words belonging to the First Declension have been given in previous vocabularies: blomma, fiicka, gata, kvinna, lampa. In the following vocabularies the declension is indicated by Arabic numerals. Words belonging to a declension not yet treated, are left uq lesiguated. The declension of these is indicated in the notes preceding the vocabularies in Lessons IV, VI, VII and VIII. bera'tta (sing, -ar) tell, relate larari'nna (1) (lady) teacher bok book manga plur., many (much) deras their, theirs om about, in, during dess its prinse'ssa (1) princess docka (1) doll ros (1) rose duva (1) dove, pigeoji saga (1) tale, story, fairy-tale flyga {sing, -er) fly sjunga (sing, -er) sing fura (1) fir-tree skog forest, tvoods fagel bird skola (1) school farg color syster sister gren branch toffel (1) slipper bans his under under hatt hat vag (1) wave henries her, hers vaxa (sing, -er) grow EXERCISE III. A. 1. En liten fagel sitter pa gren en och sjunger 1 . 2. Furorna aro stora 3. Duvan flyger till skogen. 4. Lararinnan ar i skolan. 5. Hon berattar en saga om en vacker prinsessa. 6. Blommorna vaxa i skogen. 7. Eararinnans syster ar i skogen och plockar 1 blommor. 8. Hennes fagel har en vaeker farg. Den ar bla. 9 Gossen sitter och skriver 1 i en stor bok. 10. Han skriver om Sverige. n. Dessa rosor aro roda. 12. Ar 1 In cases of this kind English omits the conjunction and xises a par- ticiple for the second verb. 1 8 FIRST DECLENSION III din dockas hatt brun eller rod? 13. Tofflorna aro under ert bord. 14. Aro vagorna mycket stora ? 15. Flickor- nas lararinna sitter och talar 1 om Sverige. 16. Blom* morna aro pa din lararinnas bord. B. 1. The girls' teacher is sitting under a large branch. 2. She is telling a story about a little bird. 3. Is the story beautiful? 4. Where do these roses grow? 5. Do many fir-trees grow in Sweden? 6. The girl's doll has a blue hat. 7. Have the teachers many flowers? 8. This wave is not large. 9. His slippers are red. 10. Are their pigeons flying to the woods? 11. Is the woman's letter on my table? 12. Your sister is speak- ing about the color of the book. 13. The girl's doll has a beautiful house. 14. My sister's teacher lives in their house. 1 See foot note p. 1' IV SECOND DECLENSION 19 LESSON IV. SECOND DECLENSION. 42. The Second Declension (plur. -ar) contains only nouns of common gender. To this declension belong: (1) A large number of monosyllabic nouns ending in a consonant; as, stol chair, hast horse. (2) A few monosyllabic nouns ending in a vowel; as, sj'd lake, a river. (3) Most nouns of common gender ending in unac- cented -e, -el, -en, -er\ as, gosse boy, fagel bird, socken par- ish, syster sister. (4) Nouns ending in -dom, -ing, -ling, -ning, -nung and a few other suffixes; as, sjukdom sickness, konung king, morgan morning, sommar summer, fjdril butterfly. Note. — 1. Nouns ending in unaccented -e drop this before add- ing -ar; as, gosse, plur. gossar. 2. Nouns ending in unaccented -el, -en, -er drop the vowel of the suffix before adding -ar; as, fagel, plur. faglar; socken, plur. socknar; syster, plur. systrar. 3. Also in a few other cases the vowel of a suffix is dropped before -ar; as, sommar summer, plur. somrar; morgon morning, plur. morgnar; a/ton evening, plur. aftnar; djcivul devil, plur. djavlar. 4. Moder mother, and dotter daughter, also modify the root vowel (see #2), plur. nibdrar, dottrar. 5. Moder is generally contracted to mor in the indefinite sing. — The plur. penningar money, is contracted to pengar (def. peng- ama). — Herre gentleman, becomes herr ("Mr.") when used before a proper noun 1 or before another title. — Konung king, has also the form kung. 43 DEFINITE FORM. The definite sing, adds -en or -11; the def. plur. adds na. 1 So also furste prince, but furst Bismarck: cf. § 22, note 2. 2h. 17. Who built the large yellow house? 18. They lived in this parish. 19. Were you (plur.) speaking German? No, we were speaking Swedish. 20. We bought the yellow birds in the city. 21. The high house is hers. Do you think that her house is pretty? 1 Cf. IN in exercise A. VI THIRD DRCLENvSION 29 LESSON VI. THIRD DECLENSION. 61. The Third Declension (plur. -er) contains nouns of both genders, but primarily nouns of common gender. Almost all neuter nouns of this declension are of foreign origin, as are also very many of the nouns of common gender. To this declension belong: (1) Many monosyllabic nouns (almost all of common gender) ending in a consonant; as, bok book, farg color, stad city, vein friend, vin (n.) wine. (2) Many polysyllabic nouns ending in various suffixes 1 ; as, hdndelse occurence, konstndr 3 artist, ma?iad month, bagerl' (n.) bakery, muse' am (n.) museum. Note. — 1. Nouns ending in unaccented -e drop this vowel before adding -er; as, biblioteka'rie librarian, plur. biblioteka'rier; hdndelse occurence, plur. hdndelser; fiende enemy, plur. fiender. 2. The few nouns of this declension that end in unaccented -el, -er drop the vowel of the suffix upon adding -er; as, muskel mus- cle, plur. muskier; neger negro, plur. negrer. 3. Nouns in -ium and -eum drop the ending -um before adding -er; as, laborato'rium laboratory, plur. laborato'rier; muse' urn, museum, plur. muse'er. 4. A number of words (chiefly monosyllabic) of this declension modify the root vowel (see \ "); as, hand hand, plur. hdnder; son son, plur. sbner; bonde peasant, plur. bbfider. 5. In a few words a long vowel of the singular is shortened in the plural; as, get goat, plu*\ getter; not nut, plur. nbtter. Some have both shortening and modification of the root vowel; as, bok book, plur. bbeker; fot foot. plur. f otter. 1 The commonest suffixes are: (1) common-gender, -else. -het. -skaj>, -ad. -unci. -nlir. besides a large variety of suffixes in words of foreign origin; (2) neuter -eri. -/. -e. -eum, -ium. 2 Konstnlir may also be pronounced with the stress on the final syllable. 30 THIRD DECLENSION VI 6. A few loan-words, especially all that end in -or, shift the accent in the plural; as do'ktor doctor, plur. dokto'rer; profe'ssor professor, plur. professo'rer. 7. Special attention is called to the fact that the Third Declen- sion contains a very large number of loan-words. Most common- gender nouns of foreign origin in Swedish, and some neuters, 1 take their plural in er. If polysyllabic, and most of the nouns of for- eign origin are polysyllabic, they are generally accented on some syllable other than the first; as, arme" army, biblioteka'rie libra- rian, konstna'r artist, profe'ssor professor, solda't soldier, bageri' n. bakery, muse' 11m n. museum. Accordingly, most common- gender nouns that do not accent the first syllable belong to the Third Declension. C)2 DEFINITE FORM. The definite sing, adds -en (-n) or -et (-/) according to the gender; the def. plur. adds -?ia. Note. — 1. Nouns in -el, -er, -or add -n; as, muskeln the muscle, negern the negro, profe'ssorn the professor. 2. Common-gender nouns ending in unaccented -e take -n; as, biblioteka'rie, def. biblioteka'rien; hand else, def. handelsen. Com- mon-gender nouns ending in an accented vowel take either -en or -n; as, arnie' army, def. arme'(e)n; fotografi' photograph, def. fotografi' (e)n. See \ 67 (1). 3. The very few neuters of this declension that have an un- accented vowel take -/; as, fdngelse 2 prison, def. fdngehet. Neuter nouns ending in an accented vowel take -et; as, bageri' bak- ery, def. bageri' et. 4. Nouns in -turn and -eutn drop the ending -um before adding -et: as, laborato'rium, def. laborato'riet : muse' um, def. muse'et. 63- Examples of this declension are; farg color, bok book, van friend, vin (n.) wine, manad month, hdndelse occurrence, muskel muscle, solda't soldier, doktor doctor, fotografi' photograph, bageri' (11.) bakery, museum (n.) museum. 1 Of the remaining neuters of foreign origin those ending in a vowel belong to the Fourth Declension, and those ending in a consonant, to the Fifth. 2 With very few exceptions, words with the suffix -else have common gender. See p. 29, foot-note 1. VI THIRD DECLENSION 31 INDEFINITE DEFINITE INDEFINITE DEFINITE Sing. farg fdrgen bok boke?i Pair. fiirger fdrgerna docker bbckerna Sing. van va?inen vin (n.) vinet Plur. v tinner vdnnerna viner vinerna Sing. manad manade?i hdndelse handelsen Plur. manader md?iaderna hdndelser hdndelserna Sing. muskel muskeln so Ida' t sol da' ten Plur. muskier muskler?ia solda'ter solda'terna Sing. do k tor doktorn fotografi' fotografi '(e)n Plur. dokto'rer dokto' rerna fotografi'er fotografi' erna muse'um (n.) ?nuse'et ?nuse er muse erna vanner, vdnnen. In Sweden Sing, bageri' (n.) bageri'et Plur. bageri'er bageri' erna 64. ORTHOGRAPHY: van, Upsala is frequently spelled Uppsala, 65. PRONUNCIATION, som, get. Observe the change of the vowel in quality as well as in quantity in not, nbtter. 66. ACCENT: (1) Monosyllables of the Third Declension ending in a consonant have acute accent in the def. sing.; as, fdrgen, boken, vinet. In the plural most of these have grave accent; as, fdrger, vdnner, s'bner. All nouns that modify or shorten the root-vowel of the singular in form- ing the plural (except shier) and a few other nouns have acute accent; as, booker, stiider, getter, nbtter. Hven bonde, w T hich in the singular has grave accent, has the acute in the plural, bonder; Many nouns have either grave or acute, generally in different localities; as, viner, saker. (2) Nouns accented on the last syllable in the indef. sing, have acute accent both in the def. sing and in the indef. and def. plural; as, solda'ten, solda'ter, solda'terna; fotografi' en, fotografi'er, fotografi' erna ; bageri'et, bageri' er y baoeri'erna. THIRD DECLENSION VI All nouns of the Third Declension ending 1 in -el, -cr have acute accent in all forms, indef. and def., both singular and plural; as, muskei, neger. (4) Professor has grave accent, but professo'rer acute. Doktor may have either acute or grave accent in the singular; in the plural it has the acute (dokto f rer) . (5) Museum and laborato' rium may have either grave or acute accent. (6) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, neger, muskei and Ame'rika have acute accent, and doktor, mu- se um and laborato' rium may have acute or grave. 67- COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Forms like fotografi en occur primarily in books, those like fotografi'?i primarily in the spoken language. Except in the case of those ending in -*", the shorter form is generally used also in literature. (2) Neuters ending in an accented vowel frequently have only -t in the def. form. (3) In easy speech brod is pronounced brb. — Hand s in easy speech pronaunced hann, which is used also as the def., for handen. — The def. sing, of mdnad is short- ened to mcinan, the plural to mdnar. VOCABULARY. Note. — The following nouns belonging to the Third Declension have occurred in previous vocabularies: bok, farg, son, stad, \an. arme' (3) army fot (3) foot bageri' ?i. (3) bakery fotografi' (3) photograph bibliotek n. library fangelse n. (3) prison biblioteka'rie (3) librarian for for, to bonde (3) peasant get (3) goat brod n bread hand (3) hand doktor (3) doctor handelse (3) occurrence dricka {sing, -er) drink konslnar 1 (3) artist fiende (3) enemy laborato'rium n. (3) laboj-atory I See page 29, foot-note 2. VI THIRD DECLENSION 33 nmse'um n. (3) museum profe'ssor (3) professor muskel (3) muscle pa on, in manad (3) month sak (3) things matter, affair neger (3) negro solda't (3) soldier nu now sora 1 who, whom, that, -which not (3) nut vin n. (3) wine ovan (3) {personal) enemy EXERCISE VI. A. i. Konungen bar manga soldater i armen. 2. De svenska bonderna ha icke manga getter. 3. Doktorn ocb konstnaren dricka vin. 4. Professorn, som du tala- de ora, ar pa laboratoriet. 5. Bibliotekarien ocb pro- fessorerna voro vanner, men nu aro de ovanner. 6. Ne- gern berattade bandelsen for fienderna. 7. Soldaterna kopte brod i bageriet. 8. Var voro notterna? 9. Stock- holm, Goteborg och Malmo aro svenska stader. 10. Bib- lioteket i Uppsala ar stort. n. Den tyska herrn har bade svenska och tyska bocker. 12. Fienden red till sta- den pa bondens hast. 13. Doktorn ar pa museet. 14. Fotografien ligger pa bordet. 15. Fienderna voro i sta- den en manad. 16. Musklerna i handerna aro icke stora. 17. Den sjuka kvinnan ar hos doktorn. 18. Bonderna ha icke manga bocker. 19. Negrerna i Amerika 2 bo i staderna. 20. Gossar och flickor tycka om fotografier. 21. Professorns bocker aro hos bibliotekarien. 22. Bage- rierna i denna stad aro icke stora. B. 1. The prison in this city is not beautiful. 2. The peasants picked nuts in the woods. 3. The professor was in the library and the doctor was in the laboratory. 1 Indeclinable relative pronoun. It can be used only substantively, but it may refer to nouns of either gender and number, and may be used as sub- ject or object. When a preposition is used, it regularly follows the relative (as generally in spoken English). '2 Ame'rika. 31 THIRD DECLENSION VI 4. The king has a horse which is very beautiful. 5. The birds are sitting on the girl's hand. 6. The soldiers are drinking wine. 7. The peasants are giving the enemies bread. 8. The boy's hands and feet are not large. 9. The professors are not in the city in the summer. 10. The enemy does not like our armies. 11. The librarian and the doctor are enemies. 12. The negroes are giving the boys nuts. 13. Do the women buy bread in the bak- eries? 14. Sweden does not have many large cities. 15. The artist and his friends were in the museum. 16. Is the photograph beautiful? 17. Where are the labora- tories? VII FOURTH DECLENSION 35 LESSON VII. FOURTH DECLENSION. 68 The Fourth Declension (plnr. -n) contains only neuter nouns. To this declension belong: (i) A few monosyllabic neuters ending in a vowel; as, bi bee, fro seed, knd knee. (2) Neuters ending in an unaccented vowel (chiefly -e); as, rike kingdom, apple apple, fbrh&' llande circum- stance, hjdrta heart, pia'?w piano. 69- DEFINITE FORM. The def. sing, adds -et or -t; the def. plur. adds -a 1 . Note. — 1. Nouns ending in an unaccented vowel take -t; as, apple, def. applet; hjdrta, def. hjartat; piano, def. pianot. Those ending in an accented vowel take -et or -t; as, knd, def. knd(e)t. See § 80 (1). 2. Of hjdrta heart, the indef. plur. hjdrtan is used also as def. plur. 70. Examples of this declension are: bi bee, apple apple, hjdrta heart, pia'no piano. INDEFINITE DEFINITE INDEFINITE DEFINI' Sing. bi Met apple applet Plur. bin bina dpplen dpplena Sing. hjdrta hjartat pia'no pia'not Plur. hjdrtan hjdrtan VERBS pia'non pia'nona 71. In Swedish, as in English, there is a great vari- ety of vowel change in the formation of the past tense of strong^efbs. 2 (See § 55 and note). The most nu- 1 Observe" that the resulting -na, while here embracing also the plural ending, is identical in form with the def. article of the plural in the first three declensions. 2 E. g. in English: run, ran; eat. ate; fall, fell; shoot, shot; break, broke; tear, tore; bite, bit; drive, drove; bind, bound; sing, sang; give gave. ;/> STRONG VERBS VII m ero ash- represented systems of vowel-change in Swedish are: PRESENT PAST PRESENT PAST CO"' e skriva write skrev (2) 7 a, plnr. n finna find fann, plnr . fitnno ( bjuda offer bjbd (3) *>y b J sjunga sing sjbng [flyga fly flog 72. All strong verbs that have i, u or y as root-vowel in the infinitive 1 (and in the pres. sing.), form their past tense according to the systems given in § 71. To this there are only two exceptions: giva give, past gav past plnr. gdvo, and Hgga lie, past lag. These two verbs, and those having in the infinitive some other root-vowel than i, u or y, form their past tense according to various systems. As each of the last named systems is represent- ed by only from one to three verbs, these can best be learned individually. 73- The past tense of all strong verbs is conjugated like skrev in § 55. Notice, however, that in system (2) the root-vowel of the past plur. differs from that of the past sing. This is the case also with a few of the verbs referred to in § 72; as, giva, past gav, past plnr. gdvo. Cf. var, plur voro in § 45. Sing, jag, etc., skrev fawn Plur. vi skrevo funno I skrev en funnen de skrevo funno NEGATIVES. 74. Swedish has three words meaning "not": icke, ej bjbd sjbng flog bjodo sjbngo flog bj'dden sjbng en flbgen bjodo sjbngo flog 1 For further illustrations see the note preceding the vocabulary of this lesson. VII FOURTH DECLENSION 37 and inte. The literary language 1 employs icke, frequent- ly interspersing ej. The spoken language regularly uses inte. 75. In place of ja yes, jo is used in answer to a question containing a negative. Of frequent occurrence is the expression jo vi'sst certainly, yes indeed. 76, POSITION OF NEGATIVES. In principal clauses the negative is placed after the finite form of the verb, as in English, but in subordinate clauses it is placed before the finite form. Ex. Han dr icke hemma. He is not at home. Hon sdger att han icke dr hemma. She says that he is not at home. 77- ORTHOGRAPHY: komma, kom, kommo. 78. PRONUNCIATION: lova, sova, saga, Holgersson, k?id, hjdrta, Frithiof. Observe the change of consonant sound in giva, gav. 79. ACCENT, (i) Monosyllables of the Fourth De- clension have acute accent both in the def. sing, and def. plur.; as, diet, bina. Words of more than one syllable have the grave accent in all forms (rike, riket, riken, ri- kena), with the exception of a few words (as, pia'no). (2) Of the words mentioned in this lesson, vatten, for- hdllande, ocksa and Frithiof have acute accent. 80- COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Forms like kndet occur pri- marily in the literature, those like kndt primarily in the spoken language. (2) In the spoken language hjdrtana is used as the def. plur. of hjdrta. (3) As the plural verb-forms are not used in the spo- ken language, this has no vowel-change such as that of satt, plur. sutto. (4) In the spoken language sa may be used for sade. 1 Prose. > s FOURTH' DECLENSION VII (5} lute is used instead of the literary icke and ty .^6) Aven is a literacy" Word 1 , in place of whicli ocksd, which also occurs in literature, is used in speaking. In easy speech med (pronounced ?na) is used. 'Aven is placed before the word it modifies, ocksd before or after, while vied, stands after its word. (7) lu easy speech god and trad are pronounced go, trd. VOCABULARY. Note. — "Rike", belonging to the Fourth Declension, has occurred in a preceding vocabulary. The strong verbs that have been given in previous vocabularies are: lida (past, led), rida (red), skriva (skrev), sitta (satt, plur. sutto), dricka (drack, plur. drucko), sjuuga (sjong), flyga (flog), giva (gav, plur. gavo), ligga (lag), komma (kom, 2 plur. kommo). arbeta (-ade) work jord (2) earth, ground arbete n. (4) work kna n. (4) knee barn n. 3 child lasa (-te) read bi 3 n. (4) bee lova (ade) promise bjuda (bjod) offer, invite lofte n. (4) promise da then, when minne n. (4) memory, remi- finna (fann, plur. i\ixmo)find ?iiscence fro n. (4) seed natt (3, plur. natter) night; forha'llande n. (4) circum- 0111 -en during the night; stajice, condition i natt 4 to-night god good naste n. (4) nest hem n. home; adv. , home pia'no n. (4) piano hjarta n. (4) heart resa (-te) travel, journey , go halla (holl) hold, keep sova (so\ 2 ) sleep 1 Another literary word with the same meaning is ock, which is placed after the word it modifies. 2 Observe that, while komma. and sova do not change the vowel in the past tense, they have the other characteristics of the strong verb. 3 See§l, note 1. 4 Never used with the meaning of "this evening", as is the Eng. to-night. VII FOURTH DECLENSION 39 saga, ^irregular; -er, past vatten n. water sade) say apple n. (4) apple trad ;/. tree aven also EXERCISE VII. A. 1. Han lovade att skriva, men han boll icke loftet. 2. Han arbetade om natlen och sov om dagen. 3. Konstnaren sade att han icke arbetade i dag pa morgonen. 4. Frona lago i jorden. 5. Duvorna flogo hem om aftonen. 6. Faglarna ha nasten i skogen. 7. Barnen funno nastena. 8. Forhallandena i Sverige voro svara, da Johansson reste till Amerika. 9. Bon- derna bjodo soldaterna brod och vatten. 10. Barn tycka om pianon. 11. Bockerna lago pa ditt bord. 12 Bar- nen sutto i skolan och laste om Nils Holgersson. 13. Fienderna lago i skogen och sovo. 14. Skrev icke professorn ett stort arbete om Sverige? 15. Vi tycka att pianot ar vackert. 16. Han sade att fageln icke var i ncistet. 17. Sade gossen att han icke tycker om att resa? 18. Gossarna drucko vatten. De gavo aven has- tarna vatten att dricka. 19. Sven sade att han icke tyc- ker om att plocka notter. B. 1. He says that the work is not difficult. 2. He liked to read good books when he was a little boy. 3. Did these good apples grow on this tree? 4. The nights were very long then. 5. Where did the boys rind the nuts? 6. The bees were sitting on the flowers. 7. The child was sitting on the doctor's knees. 8. Do bui-ternies have hearts? 9. Have you many books on your table? 10. The piano is both large and beautiful, ir. I thought that he came home this morning. 12. Do pigeons have nests in the woods? 13. The apples are good. 14. Tiie boys were reading Tegner's works in 40 FOURTH DKCLENSION VII school 1 . They like to read "Frithiofs Saga." 15. He had many reminiscences from Sweden to talk about. 16. Are the apples on this tree yours? 17. They prom- ised to work to-day. Did they keep this promise? 18. The seed is very large. 19. Birds like seeds. 20. The boy has a nest which he found in the woods. 21. His home is also yours. 1 In this case Swedish uses the definite form. VIII FIFTH DECLENSION 41 LESSON VIII. FIFTH DECLENSION. 81* In the Fifth Declension (plural without ending) the indef. plur. is identical in form with the indef. sing., except for the words in (3) below, which modify the root-vowel. Compare English "sheep", "swine", "deer". To this declension, which contains nouns of both genders (primarily neuters), belong: (1) Almost all neuters ending in a consonant; as, bord table, hus house, fdnster window, smultron wild strawberry, genus gender. (2) Nouns of common gender ending in -are and -ande; as, larare teacher, resande traveller, ordfdrande chairman. (3) A few nouns of common gender which have vowel- modification in the plural 1 ; as, broder brother, fader father, man man, gas goose, plur. broder, fader, man, gass. (4.) Nouns (chiefly of common gender) indicating measure 2 ; as, mil mile, fot 3 foot, turn inch, meter meter, kilo (11.) kilogram. Man has plur. man? when denoting a group of persons thought of as a whole; as, fern tusen man five thousand men. (5) Foreign nouns and names of peoples (common gender) ending in -er; as, bota'niker botanist, egy'ptier Egyptian. Note. — 1. The long vowel of the sing., besides being modified, is shortened in the plur. of gas, plur. gdss. 2. Broder and fader are generally contracted to bror and far in 1 Ct*. Eng: brother, brethren; man, men; goose, geese. 2 Cf. Eng.: "I put in ten ton of coal last month." 3 When fot does not indicate measure it follows the Third Declension, plur. fatter. When individuals are thought of, the plur. man is used. 4^ FIFTH DECLENSION viir the indef . sing. Words in -are, when used before a proper noun, drop the -e ; as, kejsarc emperor, but kcjsar Wilhelm. Cf. \ 42 note 5. $2. DEFINITE FORM. The def. sing, ends in -et (-/) or -en (-») according to the gender. The def. plur. ends in -en or -na. The plural form -eti is used for both genders when a consonant precedes, except that common- gender nouns ending in -er take -na. Also the nouns ending in a vowel take -na. Kx. broderna, bota 'nikerna , ordfbrandena . Note. — 1. Common-gender nouns ending in -e and -er take -n in the def. sing.; as, lararen, brodern, metern, bota'nikern. 2. The few neuters ending in an unaccented vowel take -t; as, kilot the kilogram. 3. Neuters ending in -us use the indef. sing, and plur. also as def. sing, and plur.; as, genus gender, indef. and def. sing, and plur. 4. Almost all neuters ending in -el, -en, -er drop the vowel of the suffix before adding the sing, -et or the plur. -en; as, hagel, hail, def. sing, haglet, def. plur. haglen; vapen weapon, vapnet, vapnen; fonster window, fonstret, fonstren. 5. Words in -are drop the e of -arena; as, lararna for lilrare- na. In books, but not in the spoken language, -ne is in this case frequently used to form the def. plural of nouns referring to per- sons of the male sex. This was the practice formerly more than now. Cf. # 43, note 5. 83. Examples of the Fifth Declension are bord (11.) table, smultron (n ) wild strawberry, fonster (n.) window, genus (n.) gender, larare teacher, ordforande chairman, bota'niker botanist, 6ro(de)r brother, man man, gas goose. INDEFINITE DEFINITE INDEFINITE DEFINITE Sing, bord (n.) bordet smultron (n.) smiUtronet Plur. bord borden smultron smultronen Sing, fonster (n ) fbnstret genus (n.) genus Plur. fonster fonstren genus genus I Vl'il FIFTH DECLENSION 43 INDEFINITE DEFINITE INDEFINITE DEFINITE Sing, larare lardren ordforande ordforanden Plur. larare lararna (lie) ordforande ordfdrandena Sing bota'niker bota'nikern bro(de)r brodern Plur. bota'niker bota' nikefna br'dder brbdema Sing, man mannen gas gasen Plur. man mannen gass gassen IRREGULARITIES IN DECLENSION. 84. A few common-gender nouns (chiefly monosyllab- ic) ending in various vowels, form their plural by add- ing -r; as, ko cow, plur. kor; sko shoe, skor; td toe, tar; hustru wife, hustrur. .The def. sing, adds -n; the def. plur. adds -na; as, kpn, korna, htistrun, hustrurna. 85. The two neuters bga and ora form their plural by dropping -a and adding on, plur. ogo?z, bro?i. The def. sing, adds -// the def. plur. adds -en; as, ogat, ogonen. 86. Some nouns form their plural in several (in most cases, in two) different ways; as, tyg (5 or 3); see also the examples in § 88. In some instances there is a dif- ference in meaning between the different plur. forms; as, ft, plur. /otter or fot\ man, plur. man or man (see § 81, 4, and foot-note 3). 87- Proper names ending in an s sound do not add -s in the genitive. In writing, however, an apostrophe is used to indicate the case; as, Joha'nnes (older and bib- lical form of Johari) John, Joha'imes' Evangel Hum The Gospel According to St. John. 88. FOREIGN NOUNS. Some loan-words retain their foreign plural; as, faktum fact, plur. fakta; exa'men exa- mination, plur. exa' mi?ia' ; neutrum neuter, plur. neutrer or ?ieutra; prono'men pronoun, plur. prono'men, prono 'miner 1 1 Notice the change of e to /, in accordance with Latin. 44 FIFTH DECLENSION VIII or prono'mina. Of these the indefinite form is used also as definite, both in the singular and plural. But those that also have Swedish plurals may take the definite article; as, iieu tret, prono'minet. Some foreign nouns, especially biblical names, retain their foreign genitive; as, Matte' us Matthew, Matte' i evan- ge'lium The Gospel According to St. Matthew; Paulus Paul, Pauli brev The Epistle of Paul; Kristus Christ, gen. Krisfi; Jesus Jesus, gen. Jesu. 89. ORTHOGRAPHY: man, mannen, man, mannen; hem, hemmet, hemmen; gas, but in the plural gass on account of the shortened vowel. 90. PRONUNCIATION: prono'men, neutrum, Pauhis, Egy'pten, egy'ptier, karl, exa'men, htm, fern, kilo, kejsare, evange'iium, genus, Wilhelm. Observe the change in conr sonant sound of gas, gass. 91. ACCENT, (i) In the fifth declension monosyllables of both genders that have more than one syllable in the def. form, have the acute both in the def. sing, and plural; as, huset, husen, (colloquial husena); mannen, 7?ia?inen; korna. Also nouns that have the stress on the last syllable, have the acute in the def. .sing, and plural; as, bibliote' ket , bibliote'ken (colloquial biblioie' kena) . (2) Words of more than one syllable with acute accent take this in all forms; as, fbnster (sing, and plur.),/2 English pa #/", &?, #?z engelsman (5; plur. -man) rik rich; rik pa rich hi, Englishman abou?idi?ig in feber (2) fever som as ficka (1) pocket till /.?/ varfor w/^ krona (1) crown, crowii vid at, by, in (= ^7 cents) yrke #. (4) /?W shortened: 1 Render "are they'' by "?/«/' COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES XII fa, plur., few forre smd 1 , plur. of Utcn , sm a r re small 136- A few adjectives employ a different root for the comparative and superlative: god good i bra good, well ) ddlig poor, bad elak bad, naughty ) ond angry, evil j gammal old cildre liten small mindre mycken much mer(a) manga, plur. many fiera{ e), fier battre mrre bast samst vdrst didst minst mest fiesta (-e) Note. — God, especially in the meaning "good tasting," and o?id, when it means "angry", may also be compared godare, go- dast, ondare, ondast. Also elak and, rarely, ddlig may take the forms in -are, -ast 137- A few comparatives and superlatives, chiefly such as designate place, have no positive. They are derived from stems not used as adjectives. In these the com- parative ends in -re, and in almost all the superlative ends in -rst. In frdmre, yttre and ovre a hard vowel has been modified. The principal ones are: bakre rear, posterior bakerst bortre farther borterst framre fore, anterior frdmst forre (-a) former f'drst hire inner innerst nedre lower, nether 7iederst undre lower underst yttre outer ytterst ovre upper bverst minst (see following paragraph) as com- (bak hind, back) (bort away, off) ( fram forward) {fore before) {in in) ( ned down) {under under) (ut out) (ova?i above) 1 Smd may also use mindre, parative and superlative. XII COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES '/3 So also {sedan, sen), comp. se(d)nare 1 latter, later, saperl. se(d)nasP latest, or sist last, latest. 138- The comparative is indeclinable (see § 128), hav- ing the same form for both genders and numbers, defi- nite and indefinite; as, en bdtti'e stol, ett bdttre /ius, bdttre sto/ar, de bdttre stolarna. When used as a noun after the prepositive article (cf. § 125), it takes -s in the geni- tive. Ex. : Den yngres arbete dr bast. The work of the younger is best. 139- When used as a predicate adjective, the super- lative has its original form (-ast, -st) and is invariable, being the same in both genders and numbers. Ex. Den- na Momma (detta ba?"n) dr vackrast. This flower (this child) is prettiest. Dessa blommor dro vackrast. These flowers are prettiest. When used attributively, or alone after the prepositive article, superlatives in -ast add -e 2 , those in -st add -a' 2 (or -e; see § 126, 8 b, c.) Ex.: Den vitaste blomman dr den vackraste. The whitest flower is the prettiest. Det sfbrsta huset dr icke alltid det bdsta. The largest house is not always the best. Ett sista for so' k a final trial, nasta mdnad next month. 140. All adjectives, though less frequently those whose comparative ends in -re, may express the comparative and superlative idea by mer(a) more, mest most, followed by the positive. Some adjectives, 3 especially polysylla- bles ending in -ad, -e, -se, -es, -isk, and all participles, both present and past, never take the endings of compari- 1 This word, which is opposite in meaning to forre, forst, should be care- fully distinguished from sen late, tardy, slow. comp. senare, superl. senast. 2 See § 126, 8, a. These forms of the superlative are really the defi- nite form of the adjective, but observe the extended use of the definite form of the superlative as illustrated in the examples. 3 All indeclinable adjectives, with the exception of those that end in -«. belong here. Also many that can be declined. 74 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES XII sou, using only mer(a), mest; as godhjartad kindhearted, mer(a) godhjartad, mest godhjartad; partisk partial, mer(a) partisk, mest partisk; ode desolate, mer(a) ode, mest ode. 141 The comparative and superlative are sometimes used absolutely, without any idea of real comparison, to denote a rather high degree and a very high degree, respectively. Also superlatives formed with mest can be so used, but rarely comparatives with mer(a). Superla- tives used absolutely may or may not be preceded by the prepositive definite article, but the following noun almost always has indefinite form. Ex.: en langre pro- mena'd a (rather) long walk; vied stbrsta nbje with the greatest pleasure; with weaker force, baste broder dear brother (friend). Det gjorde inte den minsta nytta. It didn't do the least good. 142. ORTHOGRAPHY: in, hire, innerst 143. PRONUNCIATION: ovan, fram, didst, h'dgst, grdvst, lagst, elak, partiskt. Observe the shortened vowel in stdrre, st'drst; fdrre, smiirre; also fdrre, yttre. In h'dgst there is change both in quantity and quality of the vowel. 144. ACCENT: (i) All dissyllabic comparatives formed with -re (or -rre) have the acute accent, except fdrre. Also the superlatives in -erst have the acute. Almost all such comparatives and superlatives modify the root- vowel, if this is hard. (2) The following words have acute accent: fdrsd'ka, promene'ra, partisk, Danviark, Finland, Oland. 145. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) Ned down, is used in books, but ner primarily in the spoken language. (2) Taga, sing, tager, is used in books, ta, tar primari- ly in the spoken language. (' 3 ) In easy speech med, dalig , ddligt, ond are pro- XII COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 75 nounced mix, ddli, ddlit, onn, respectively. — Grovt is pro- nounced groft, without change of the quality of the vowel. — Concerning Fi?ila?id and Oland, cf. § 132, 2. VOCABULARY. bortre farther dalig poor, bad do {irregular; pres. sing. past dog) die elak bad, naughty eniot against, to, toward fa plur. few noje n. (4) pleasure ond angry, evil; — pa angry at partisk partial, prejtidiced promena'd (3) promenade , walk promene'ra (-ade) walk, promenade forso'k n. {5) atte?npt, trial stilla (i?idecl.) still, quiet forso'ka (-te) try, attempt ta(ga) (tog) take grov coarse, thick, large hur(u) how lag low med with mycken much noga {i?idecl. ) particular, accurate namligen namely nara (i?tdecl.) near, close trang tight, narrow tung heavy ung young ut out; ga ut och ga go out for a walk ute out, out of doors an than annu still, yet ovre upper EXERCISE XII. A. 1. Oland och Gottland aro Sveriges storsta oar. 2. Ar du icke stolt over att 1 vara svensk? 3. Den lille gossen blev ond pa brodern. 4. Vara trad aro grovre an era. 5. Det ar battre att vara den forste an den siste. 6. Stockholm ar den storsta av Sveriges stader. 7. Vat- tern har endast en storre 6, namligen Visingso 2 . 8. Nu ar han fbrsiktigare, Darfor ar han aven friskare. 9. 1 When Swedish uses a preposition followed by att and the infinitive, English has a preposition with the gerund. 2 Pronounced Visingso'. 76 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES XII Sven gick med Olof till narmaste slad for alt 1 kopa en biittre hast. 10. Bade Sverige och Finland aro rikare pa sjoar an Danmark 2 och Norge 3 . n. Skomakaren bor i det bortersta huset. 12. Den sjuka ar samre i dag an hon var i gar. 13. Da Strindberg dog, var han Sveriges storste forfattare. 14. Karls aldsta syster och lians yngsta bror aro ute och ga. 15. Det roda hnset ar lagst. 16. De fiesta gossarna i skolan aro bade aldre och storre an Johan. 17. Skola vi icke ga ut och ga? 18. Den framste gossen ar storst. 19. Tog du icke en langre promenad i dag an i gar? 20. Han ar elak mot system, men annu varre mot den frammande gossen. 21. Sedan han kom hit ar han bade friskare och gladare. 22. De voro ute och promenerade hela kvallen. 23. Jag vill ha den oversta boken. B. 1. Your name is still longer than mine. 2. The highest trees are not always the thickest. 3. Glass is heavier than water. 4. In old cities the streets are often narrow. 5. The best butter is not too good. 6. The white doves are prettiest. 7. This chair is the heaviest that I have. 8. Do you think that your old house is more beautiful than my new one? 9. Sweden is larger than Norway, but Norway is more beautiful. 10. Now the days are longer than the nights, but soon the nights will be longest, n. These two apples are reddest. 12. How many names have you? Only two. Then I have more names than you. 13. His fever is worse to-day again. 14. These trees are smallest. 15. I shall come if the weather becomes better. 16. English has more neuters than Swedish. 17. They tried to become better, but they couldn't. 18. Do you wish to go out for a 1 For att with the infinitive denotes purpose. 2 Denmark. 3 Norway. XII COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 77 walk? 19. The black table is lower than the brown one. 20. This author thinks that his own books are the most interesting. 21. Their oldest daughter is only five years old. 22. Why is the shoemaker more particular with your shoes than with mine? 23. The lake became more quiet in the evening. 24. I thought I was old then, but now I am still older. ;S ADVERBS XIII LESSON XIII. ADVERBS. 14(>. Of most descriptive adjectives the form in -t can be used adverbially; adel noble, ddeli nobly; vacker beau- tiful, vackert beautifully, sot sweet, soft sweetly; mycket much, very. 14-7- Besides these adverbs there are a great many others, formed variously: i. Primitive adverbs and their compounds; as, nej no, nu now, heir here, bort away, off, /idri herein. Adverbs compounded with heir, deir, var are very numerous. Note. — i. Compound adverbs of the kind mentioned in § 147, 1 have the stress on the last syllable when they stand at the end of a declarative sentence; as, hciri', dtiri'. Otherwise the first syllable is stressed. 2. Pronominal adverbs compounded with a preposition are often used in place of a preposition followed by a pronoun. These com- pounds are, however, not used in referring to persons, and are used less freely in referring to a plural than to a singular noun. Ex.: Boken varom du talade dr intressa'nt. The book of which you spoke is interesting. Dxri har han rati. He is right in that. 2. Adverbs formed with various suffixes; as, -a {hem- ma at home); -e {ute out, out of doors); -an {redan al- ready); om (stundom at times); -deles {alldeles entirely); -ledes {saledes thus); -ligen (namligen namely); -hinda (annorlunda differently); vis {lyckligtvis fortunately). Note. — Some adverbs ending in -«, -e and denoting place where, are formed from adverbs denoting place to which; as, hem home, hemma at home; bort away, off, forth, borta away; ut out, ute out, out of doors; in in, inne within, in the house; upp up, uppe up; ned, ner down, nere down; fram forth, to the destination framme there, at the destination. 3. A number of adverbs, especially compounds, end in -s, which is really the genitive ending used adverb- XIII ADVERBS 79 iall\\ These are not felt as genitives. Ex.: alls, in the expressions alls icke or icke alls not at all; dels partly; hundratals by hundreds; hur da'gs (at) what time (literally, "how of the day"); Hggdags time to go to bed; halvvdgs half-way. In adverbial expressions of time the preposition i is in a few cases followed by an adverbial genitive in the indefinite singular. These expressions refer to the latest previous time of the kind denoted by the noun. Only certain words can be used this way, not, for example, vecka week, manad month, ar year. Instead of -s, the endings -as, -se are used in some words. Ex.: i son dags ( mandags, tisdags, onsdags, torsdags, fredags, Ibrdags) last Sunday (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Frida>', Saturday); i somras (hbstas, vintras, varas) last summer (autumn, winter, spring); i morse this (past) morning. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 148. Almost all adverbs formed by adding -t to the uninflected form of the adjective may be compared. Their comparative and superlative are the same as the comparative and superlative (uninflected form) of the corresponding adjectives; as, ddelt nobly, ddlare more nobly, ddlast most nobly; vackert beautifully, vackrare, vackrast; sbtt sweetly, sbtare, sbtast; h'bgt high, loudly, hbgre, hbgst; langt far, langre 1 , langst; mycket much, very, mera, mest, gott well, da I Ire, das I. Most of the indeclinable adjectives ending in unac- cented -a, that have forms of comparison, are also used as adverbs. Their comparative and superlative are the same as those of the corresponding adjectives; as, noga accurately, nogare, nogast; ndra near, ndr?n(a)re, narm(a)st; sakta slowly, sakfare, saktast. battre i bast hellre heist vdrre vdrst So COMPARISON OF ADVERBS XIII 149. Of other adverbs only a few can be compared: i. fort fast, quickly foriare fortast Hinge long, a long time langre 1 langst oft a often of tare oftast 2. The following employ a different root 2 for the com- parative and superlative: bra? well j vdl well 3 gdrna gladly ilia badly 3. The superlative forms given in § 137 are in the uninflected form used also as adverbs. Of sedan, both the comparative' and superlative forms are used as ad- verbs. 5 The same is true of forsl, of which the adverbial comparative is forr, and not for re. 150- EXPRESSIONS USED IN CONNECTION WITH THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Allt followed by a repeated (or single) com- parative is equivalent to the doubled comparative of English, denoting an increasing degree; as, den blev allt mindre och mindre it became smaller and smaller; allt st'drre och storre larger and larger. The adverbial "the", used with comparatives, is ren- dered by desto or dess, the correlatives "the . . the", by ju (followed by the normal order) — dess, desto or ju (inverted order); as, ju forr dess hellre the sooner the 1 Langre is the comparative of the adjective Itmg and of the adverbs langt far and Hinge long. 2 Adverbs ending- in -t that employ a different root for the comparative and superlative are included under § 148. 3 Bra is also used in the sense of "very", "rather"', "pretty". In this meaning it cannot be compared. 4 Blittre is the comparative of the adjectives god. bra, and of the adverbs gott, bra, vili- fy Cf. the foot-note to p. 137. The adverb to sen late; tardy, slow, is sent, senare, senast. XIII COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 8 1 better, dess bdttre so much the better. Observe also the phrase icke desto mindre nevertheless. Allra followed by the superlative is equivalent to the superlative with "of all", or "very" followed by the super- lative or the simple superlative, in English; as, den allra storsta boken the largest book of all, allra forst first of all, del allra bdsta the very best, den allra heligaste the most holy. Observe also the phrase de allra fleste most of t.hem. Equality is expressed by lika (likasd) — som (just) as — as, or, after a negative, sd — som so — as. Ex.: Johan ar lika gammal som Karl. John is as old as Carl. Han ar icke sd stor som Karl. He is not so large as Carl. Observe the phrase sd snart som mbjligt as soon as pos- sible. Som is omitted in a number of cases; as, sd fort du kan as soon as you can; sd mycket han vill as much as he wants to. A lower degree is expressed by mindre less, and minst least, with the positive, as in English. 151. ORTHOGRAPHY: fram, framme; hem, hemma; in, inne, ddrinne. Observe the small initial letter in the names of the days of the week {sbndag, etc.). 152. PRONUNCIATION: ovan, fort, lyckligtvis, hur da'gs, liggdags, halvvdgs, till db'ds, sondags, mdndags, etc. 153. ACCENT: (i) Dissyllabic comparatives ending in -re, and superlatives in -erst take the acute accent in the ca^e of adverbs as well as in adjectives. See § 144, 1. (2) Adverbial compounds (see § 146, 1 and notes.) take the acute accent when accented on the first syllable. (3) The following words have acute accent: vinter, sdledes and the names of the days of the week {sbndag, sondags, etc.) — Desto may have either acute or grave accent. 82 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS XIII K")4. COLLOQUIALISMS: I. In the spoken language oppc is used in place of uppe , as opp for upp. So ner is used for ned. but w/v has no alternative form. 2. Most adverbial compounds (see § 147, 1 and notes) are avoided in the spoken language. Dart liar du ratt is in the spoken language expressed det har du rati i. 3. Dcss, which is also very common in books, is gen- erally used in the spoken language in place of desto. VOCABULARY. Note. — In this and the following vocabularies, adverbs foimed from adjectives by adding -t will not be given, if the adjectives from which they are derived are already known. alldeles entirely hundratals by hundreds; hun- allra of all, very dreds of alls at all hur da'gs (at) what time allt more and more had in this annorlunda differently) host (2) autumn; i host this bort aivay, off autumn; i -as last auiumn borta away; da'r borta over ilia bad, badly there in in; in i into dels partly inne within, in the house; in- dess, desto the (adv.) ne i in; dar inne in their diiri in that within dod dead; (2) death; till dods ju the (adv.) to death, fatal liggdags bed-time fort fast, quickly lika, likasa (just) as fram forth, to the destination ; lyckligtvis fortunately — till up to lange long, a long time framme there, arrived, at the morse; i morse this {past) destination morning garna gladly, fain niojlig possible halvvags halfway mycket much XIII COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 83 ned, ner down nere down redan already ratt right; ha(va) ratt be right sakta (indecl.) slow; adv. slowly st undo tn at times sa so, thus saledes thus The days of the week are sbndag Sunday mandag Monday tisdag Tuesday sang (2) bed uppe up vecka (1) week varom about which {what) vinter (2) winter; i — this winter; i vintras last winter var (2) spring; i var this spring; i -as last spring val well torsdag Thursday fredag Friday lordag Saturday onsdag Wednesday EXERCISE XIII. A. 1. Borta bra, men hemma bast. 2. Faglarna sjongo vackert. 3. Sven och hans far gingo bort. Mo- dern och system voro hemma hela dagen. 4. Det blir snart host. 5. I sondags reste jag till Malino. Jag kom fram kloekan atta pa morgonen. Sa snart jag kom fram gick jag till min gamle van Nyblom. Lyckligtvis var han hemma, men han var annu ieke uppe. 6. Sjuk- domen ar ieke till dods 1 . 7. Darborta i det gula huset bodde vi i somras. Nej 2 , ar det uibjligt. 8. Vi voro ute och promenerade i onsdags kvall. 9. Den sjuke ar battre nu an han var i morse. 10. Ju mera gossen fick, dess mera ville han ha, 11. Om du talar saktare, sa blir det battre. Ja, jag skall forsoka tala sa sakta som mbjligt. 12. I dag rod, i morgon dod. 13. Hur dags var det, da du gick fran hem met? Kloekan var fern, 2 Nej here means "really". This is a frequent use. 84 COMPARISON OF ADVKRBS XIII tror jag. Och du var redan f ram me klockan alia? 14. Sigtuna iir en intressant liten stad som ligger vid Mala- ren halvvags mellan Stockholm och Uppsala. 15. Dar- inne sutto kvinnorna och drucko kafle. 16. Gamle Bjorklund dog i morse klockan fern. Han led lange av en svar sjukdom. Stundom blev den sjuke my eke t glad. Da ville han heist sitta uppe och beratta sagor for bar- nen. Saledes satt han uppe lange i gar kvall och talade med de sma. Till sist blev han trott. Det var da redan liggdags, och aven barnen gingo darfor till sangs. Men pa morgonen voro barnen anim icke uppe, da mamma kom in oeh sade att den gamle var dod. B. 1. We went to the woods last Tuesday {place first) , and picked flowers. 2. It was already five o'clock. 3. Tlje boys tried to walk faster, but they became more and more tired. 4. I didn't believe my friend when he said it, but he was right. 5. Mr. Johnson writes that conditions in Sweden are very different now to what they used to be 1 . 6. The weather was not at all beautiful last summer. It rained entirely too much. 7. The bird flew down from the tree. 8. When they came to their destination they were no doubt still more tired than we. 9. My house is just as large as yours, but it is not so beautiful. 10. The sooner you believe that I am right, the better. 11. I will be glad to go 2 with your friends. Fortunately I am not at all tired yet. At what time are they coming? 12. Your sister sings better now than before. 13. The boys sat in the house all day because it rained. 14. I came as soon as possible. 15. Did you come to your destination yesterday morning? 16. Old Johnson was the very best friend of the children. 17. The chairman spoke louder and louder. 18. They walked 1 Translate to what they used to be by "an forr". 2 Translate / will he glad to go by "jag gar garna". XIII ADVERBvS 85 farther to-day than yesterday, but it didn't take so long. 19. When it rained, the boys went into the house. 20. The woman went up to the table and took the money. 21. It is raining too much this spring. Last spring it didn't rain at all. VERBS XIV LESSON XIV. THE VERB. 155. It has been seen (§§ 48, 49) that Swedish verbs are divided according to the formation of the past tense into (A) weak verbs, and (B) strong verbs. (A) WEAK VERBS. While weak verbs in forming the past tense all have in common the addition of an ending containing a dental 1 consonant followed by e, yet they fall naturally into three groups: (I) those that have the tense-characteristic -de preceded by a; 2 (II) those that have only the tense-characteristic -de, which after certain consonants becomes -te; (III) those that double the d of the tense-characteristic. Verbs whose past tense ends in -ade (fa/ade) belong to the First Weak Conjugation, -de or -te (byggde, kbpte),to the Second Weak Conjugation, -dde {trodde), to the Third Weak Conjugation. (B) STRONG VERBS. These are characterized by vowel- change in the formation of their past tense, no tense-sign being employed. This group will be spoken of as the Strong Conjugation. 156. PAST PARTICIPLE AND SUPINE. Of weak verbs the common-gender form of the past participle can be found by dropping the final -e of the past tense, the neuter being formed by changing the -d {-dd) of the common-gender form to -t (-tt) . Those ending in -t are 1 See \ ZZZ- 2 This - a - belongs to the st^m, and so the tense-ending is in real- ity -de here, just as in the Second Weak Conj ligation. The ste-ns of the va- rious conjugations illustrated by the verbs mentioned on this page are: (I> tala: (.11) byge-- kof>: (HI) tro: (Strong) skriv. Observe that in the First and Third Weak Conjugations the stem is used as infinitive, while in the Second Weak Conjugation and in the Strong Conjugation, - a is added. XIV VERBS 87 not changed in the neuter. Its forms, then, are: (I) -ad, n. -at (talad, n. talat); (II) -d or -/, n. -/ (byggd, n. byggt; kbpt, n. kbpt); (III) -dd, n. -//( trodd, n. /r) kbpa kbper k'dptc kopt, u. kopt kopt III. fro tror trodde trodd, n. trott trott (B) Strong Conjugation: skriva skriver skrev skriven, n. skrivet skrivit FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION. 159- The First Weak Conjugation contains about five-sixths of all Swedish verbs, though most of the verbs that are most commonly used belong to other con- jugations. To the First Weak Conjugation belong: (i) Almost all weak verbs which before the -a of the infinitive have a consonant preceded by a hard 1 vowel; as, kalla call, bruka use, fraga ask. (2) All verbs having a vowel before the -a of the infinitive; as, roa amuse, f'drny'a renew. (3) Almost all verbs derived from other words by means of a suffix containing a consonant; as, gulna 2 turn yellow, from gid yellow; vidga widen, from vid wide. Note. — Most verbs of foreign origin belong to this conjugation. These are, however, not by far so numerous as are the nouns of foreign origin. Observe especially the verbs ending in -e'ra; as, stude'ra study, telefone'ra telephone. 100. Example of the active indicative of the First Weak Conjugation: kalla call. PRESENT PAST FUTURE jag , etc., kalla r kalla de ska 11 ka 11 a vi kalla kallade skola kalla 2 From many adjectives intransitive verbs can be formed by means of the suffix -na. These signify the entering into the condition or state indi- cated by the adjective, and are called inchoative or inceptive verbs; as, trottna become tired, gulna turn yellow, liardna become hard. Cf. English verbs with the suffix -en, which, however, have either transitive or intran- sitive meaning; as, "harden", "soften", ' widen", "whiten", "gladden". XIV REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 89 PAST kalladen kallade PAST PERFECT hade kallat hade kallat haden kallat hade kallat FUTURE skolen kalla skola kalla FUTURE PERFECT skall ha{ya) kalla t skola ha{va) kallat skolen ha{ya) kallat skola ha{ya) kallat Present perfect, ha(va) kal- PRESENT / kallen de kalla PRESENT PERFECT jag, etc., har kallat vi ha(va) kallat I ha(ve)n kallat de ha(va) kallat INFINITIVES: 1 Present, kalla. lat. SUPINE: kallat. Note. — The future perfect is formed by the auxiliary verb skola, followed by the present perfect infinitive. The future per- fect is rarely used, the present perfect being employed instead. PERSONAL AND REFLKXIVK PRONOUNS. 161. .PERSONAL PRONOUNS. In Swedish, as in English, the personal pronouns have a special form when used in the objective case. NOM. OBJ. jag viig du dig ni er Note. — De?i, det, as the English for the objective case. 162. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, both singular and plural, may also be used reflexively, referring back to the sub- ject. In that case they are translated "myself", "your- self ' ' , "ourselves' ' , ' 'yourselves' ' . Ex. : Skadade du dig f Did you hurt yourself? For the third person, however, a special pronoun sig NOM. OBJ. NOM. OBJ. han honom vi OSS hon henne j ?ii eder, er den, det de dent 'it", has no separate form 1 These forms of the infinitive are given here because they are used in the formation of compound tenses. Infinitives will be treated more fully in a later lesson. go REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS XIV is employed to convey the reflexive idea. Of this there is necessarily no nominative form. It is used in refer- ring back to a subject of either gender, singular and plural, and is rendered in English by "himself", "her- self", "itself", "one's self", "themselves". It thus corresponds to "sich" in German and "se" in Latin. Ex.: Gossen (djuret, gossama) skadade sig. The boy (the animal, the boys) hurt himself (itself, themselves). Note. — In translating from English into Swedish, the reflexive "himself", etc., must be carefully distinguished from the intensive pronoun "himself", etc., which in Swedish is an entirely different word, sj'dlv, n. sjdlvt, 1 plur. sjalva. Ex.: Han gick sjiilv. He went himself. Han byggde huset at sig sjiilv. He built the house for himself. *163. REFLEXIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: The possess- ive pronouns of the first and second persons may also be used reflexively, as in English. For the third person, how- ever, Swedish does not employ hans, he?ines, dess, deras, corresponding to the English "his", "her", "its", "their", but uses for all these 2 a special reflexive possessive pro- noun, denoting either one or more than one possessor, sin, n. sitt, plur., when denoting possession of more than one object, 3 si?ia. It thus corresponds in use to the Eatiu "suus", but not the German "sein", which is equivalent to the Eng. "his" and "its", it being used as these, both reflexively and non-reflexively. Ex.: Gos- sen skadade sin hand (sina hander) . The boy hurt his hand(s). De k'dpte sin hast i staden. They bought their horse in town. But observe: Gossen skadade hans hand 1 Neuter also without -t, especially in certain phrases; as, ar> s/'g- sjiilv, for sz& sjiilv. 2 Also for "one's", "hers", "theirs". 3 Observe that the sing, sin, n. siti may denote either one or more than one possessor, but only one object possessed. The plural sina may denote either one or more than one possessor, but the possession of more than one object. XIV REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 91 {hdiider). The boy hurt his (some one else's) hand(s). De kbpte deras hast. They bought their (some other people's) horse. Observe the difference in the manner of expression as well as in the meaning between: Johan har sin bok. John has his (his own) book. Johan har hans bok. John has his (some one else's) book. 164- PRONUNCIATION: sin, dem, honom , telefone'ra, djur, sjdlv, tjugu (^^IJaud ^B"), Stjdrnhbk, berg, hbjd, dnka, fattigt, byggt, sjdlvt. Observe the long quantity of the vowel in: lekte (past of leka) , g?ilna, hard, hard- na. In vitt, n. of vid, the vowel is shortened. 165. ACCENT. (1) In the greater part of Sweden verbs having the unaccented prefixes be-, for- take the acute accent throughout; as, berd' tta , fbrny' a . — Verbs end- ing in -e'ra have the acute accent. — For the accent of verbs in general, see § gj. (2) The following words take acute accent: heller y historia, historier, Fridolf, Henrik. Varifran has the acute when stressed on the first syllable ;framfbr, when stressed, on the first syllable, takes either grave or acute. 166. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) The omission of the auxiliary in the present and past perfect belongs prima- rily to the literary language. (2) In the spoken language the future perfect indica- tive is not used. (3) About fifteen words of the First Weak Conjuga- tion, almost all of which have / or n before the -a of the infinitive, may in the spoken language take the end- ings -te, -t and -t of the Second Weak Conjugation (cf. kbpte, kbpt, kbpt) instead of ade, -ad and -at in the past lense, the past participle and the supine, respectively; as, talte, tall, talt instead of talade, talad, talat. When these verbs are compounded, the shorter form is still 9* REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS XIV more common. All other forms of these verbs than those mentioned are regular. (4) In a large part of Sweden the past tense in -ade of the First Weak Conjugation drops -de in easy speech. Ex.: Ja tala te Johan i gar. {Jag talade till Johan i gar.) I spoke to John yesterday. Han svara inte. ( Han svarade icke.) He did not answer. (5) In the spoken language for is regularly used in place of the conjunction ty. (6) Instead of the objective forms of the personal pro- nouns in the singular, easy speech employs certain unac- cented (enclitic) pronouns: -en or -n for ho?wm and den (when this is used in the objective case), -' et or -7 for del, 'na for henne. The use of the forms -'« and -7 is similar to that of the corresponding forms of the post- positive definite article (see § 15). Ex.: Ja sag' en i gar kvdll. I saw him last night. Fick du't? Did you get it? Ja tror'na inte. I don't believe her. In some parts of Sweden these enclitic pronouns are used only in dialectic speech. (7) The use of a redundant personal pronoun is of fairly frequent occurrence in the spoken language. Ex.: Ty greve Henrik dr inte vacker, han. (8) In colloquial speech dem is pronounced dom; mig, dig and sig are pronounced as if .spelled maj\ daj, sdj. — In easy speech the objective form dent, pronounced dom, is in some parts of Sweden used in place of the nomina- tive de. Ex.: Dom a inte hemma nu. (De dro icke hem- ma nu.) They are not at home now. — In easy speech fattig, fattigt are pronounced fatti, fattit. — On the pro- nunciation of till, see § 331 . — In easy speech /iar, when used as auxiliary, is pronounced ha. XIV FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION 93 VOCABULARY. Note. — In this and the following vocabularies the conjugation of weak verbs will be indicated with Roman numerals: (I), (II), (III). Verbs belonging to the Strong Conjugation will be desig- nated by (STR.). The following verbs belonging to the First Weak Conjugation have appeared in previous vocabularies: arbeta, bera'tta, kosta, lova, promene'ra, regna, somna, svara, tala. roa (i) amuse se {irregular; pres. -r; past sag) see, look; se pa look at; se u't 3 look, appear sedan after, afterwards , ago; hill, berg n. (5) mountain rock bruka (i) use, be accustomed to back (2) brook dal (2) valley del 1 there djur n. (5) animal fattig poor f ram for 2 before, in front of fraga (1) question; (i) ask foray 'a (i) renew gulna (i) turn yellow gang (3) time; en gang once hav n. (5) sea, ocean hojd (3) height kalla (i) call, summon leka (il, -te) play mellan between, among, in the midst of morkbla dark blue plats (3) place for sedan ago sjalv self, himself, etc. skada (1) injury; (i) hurt strimma (1) streak, band, line stude'ra (i) study telefone'ra (i) telephone till adv., more, in addition timme (2) hour traffa (i) varifran 5 which vid wide vidga (i) widen at for, to ang (2) meadon anka (1) widow meet from where, from 1 On the use of this, see foot note 3, next page. 2 Accented "fra'mfor" or "framfo'r". 3 Predicate adjectives, and some other words are regularly placed be- ut he looks sick. When not stressed as, han ser ut genom fonstret //,• is tween these two words; as, han ser sjul on "ut"', this phrase means "look out" looking- out through the window. 4 Adverbs and adverbial phrases denoting time are placed between "for* and "sedan"; as. for tvA ar sedan two years ago: for lange sedan long ago. 5 Accented "va'rifran" or " varifra'n''. 94 FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION XIV EXERCISE XIV. Note. — All new words occurring in exercises A and B will be found in the vocabulary to each lesson. For unfamiliar words found in exercises C and D the general vocabulary must be con- sulted. Words in square brackets [ ] are to be omitted in translation. A. i. Barnens mor ar anka. Hennes man dog i vint- ras. 2. Gossen har arbetat hela dagen. Darfor har hans far lovat att giva honom en ny hatt och ett par vackra skor. 3. Det har regnat lialva veckan. Jag tycker att det ar nog nu. 4. Karl gav sina tva vackraste bocker at system. 5. Det roade dig val att traffa honom en gang till? 6. Nar lilla Greta hade varit ute och lekt lange nog, gick modern ut och kallade pa henne. 7. Doktorn sag pa barnet. Han sade att det sag mycket sjukt ut. 8. Den fattiga ankans lilla flicka brukade sjunga mycket vackert. 9. Telefonerade du sjalv? 10. Nar Erik studerat tyska ett par ar, kunde han tala det mycket bra. 11. Roade ni er i skogen? 12. Faren och korna aro ute pa angen. 13. Violanta 1 och Fridolf tyckte allra bast om att leka vid backen. 14. Nar de roat sig i vattnet ett par timmar, gingo de hem. 15. Vill du inte ha en kopp kaffe till ? - B. There 3 was once a poor widow who lived in a little house high 4 up on a mountain with her two little children, Fridolf and Violanta. The house was situated in the midst of large trees, but before it [there] was an open place from which they could look far 5 away across forests, fields and meadows, heights and valleys. 1 Viola'nta. 2 En kopp kaffe till another cut of coffee. 3 Observe: det ar there is, there are: det var there was, there -were. Compare the phrase, det firms there is, there are. These expressions with the verb in the singular may be followed by a noun in the singular or plural. 4 Use the form in t- of the corresponding adjective. 5 See gl48. XIV FIRvST WEAK CONJUGATION 95 But farthest 1 away they saw a dark blue streak, and that 2 was the ocean. C. Allaredan finns det 3 manga historier 4 om greve Henriks dumhet, och han ar inte mer an nagra och tjugu 5 ar gauimal. Man kan 6 tala om hur han under- lioll Anna Stjarnhok pa ett sladparti for nagra ar sedan. "Da ar vacker, du Anna," sade han. — "Du pratar, Hen- rik." — "Du ar den vaekraste i hela r Varmland." — "Det ar jag visst inte." — "Den vaekraste pa sladpartiet ar du i alia fall."-- "Ack, Henrik, det ar jag inte heller." — "Ja, men nog ar du vackrast i denna sladen. Det kan du da 8 inte neka. Nej, det kunde hon inte. Ty greve Henrik ar inte vacker, han. Han ar lika ful som dum. D. i. They used to relate many stories about her. 2. They thought that their own parish was the most beautiful in all Sweden. 3. I have promised to tell a story to the children. 4. When it had rained a whole week, I became tired of it. 5. The children had been amusing themselves at the river all day. 6. I saw both him and her yesterday. 7. He had built his house him- self. 8. He has promised me the book many times. Do you think that he is going to keep his promise? 9. The sea is dark blue. 10. It looks as if it is never going to rain again. 11. If he hasn't gone to sleep, I want to talk to him. 12. I asked my friend if he did not want to meet them once more. 13. If he has not answered, I shall write another 9 letter. 1 See \ 14-8. 2 Det. 3 See note 3 on page 94. 4 Histo'ria, def. histo'rien, plur. histo'rier, is an irregular noun of the Third Declension. 5 Nagra oeh tjugu ar some twenty odd years. 6 The use of "kan" here is idiomatic; translate, teotfe sometimes talk. 7 Here, as frequently, t be translated " all ". 8 When unaccented this word must be variously translated according to th- context. Here it means " surely ". 9 Cf. foot-note 2 on the preceding page. 96 SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION XV LESSON XV. SECOND AND THIRD WEAK CONJUGATIONS. 1()7. SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION. With very few exceptions, all verbs belonging to this conjugation have a soft vowel in the stem. 1 The past tense is formed by adding -de to the stem (see p. 66, foot-note 2) and the past participle (common- gender form) by adding -d. But after voiceless 2 consonants, the d of these endings becomes voiceless by assimilation, 3 past tense -te, past part, -/. Compare in Eng.: call, called; fear, feared; but laugh (pron. laf), laughed (prou. laft); bake, baked (pron. bakt). Accordingly this conjugation is divided irUo two classes: 4 a) Verbs whose stem ends in a voiced 2 consonant; these have -de, -d; as, bygga build, byggde, byggd; libra hear, horde, h'drd. b) Verbs whose stem ends in a voiceless 2 consonant; these have -te, -t; as, kbpa buy, kbpte, k'dpt; leka play, lekte, lekt; resa travel, reste, rest; v'dxa grow, vaxte, vaxt. So also a few 5 verbs with the stem ending in n; as, begy'nna begin. Note. — Verbs whose stern ends in d 6 or t preceded by a consonant 1 Most verbs belonging to this conjugation are derived from other words. Of these the stem-vowel is regularly modified, unless already a soft vowel; as, v'dlja choose, elect, from veil choice, election; kr'dna crown, from krona crown. By no means all Swedish verbs with soft stem-vowel belong to the Second Weak Conjugation. Especially noteworthy as exceptions are the verbs of the Strong Conjugation with £ or y as stem-vowel (see \ 178). 2 Concerning the meaning of this term, see \ S^Z . 3 Concerning assimilation, see § ~ " m - 4 Except for the past indicative and the past participle the inflectional forms are alike in both classes. 5 There are, altogether, five of these verbs, the others being bryna whet, kr'dna crown, rona experience, and synas seem, appear, of which last the end- ing will be discussed in a later lesson. A few r verbs with stem ending in / sometimes have -te: as, tala, endure, talde or taltr. 6 In every case preceded by n. XV SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION 97 do not add another d or t; as, sanda send, sdnde, sand (n. sant); gifta marry, gifte, gift. But verbs with stem ending in d or t preceded by a vowel take the regular endings; as, leda lead, ledde, ledd (n. lett); mota meet, mdtte, molt. 168- Examples of the indicative active of the Second Weak Conjugation are: bygga build, kbpa buy. PRESENT PAST PRESENT PAST jag, etc., bygger byggde kbper kbpte 77 bygga byggde kbpa kbpte I by g gen byggde? i kbpen kbpten de bygga byggde kbpa kbpte FUTURE: ska// (sko/a, sko/en, sko/a) bygga, kbpa. PRESENT PERFECT: har (hava, haven, hava 1 ) byggt, kbpt. PAST PERFECT: hade {hade, haden, hade) byggt, kbpt. FUTURE PERFECT: ska// (sko/a, sko/en, sko/a) ha(va) byggt, kbpt. INFINITIVES: bygga, ha{ya) byggt; kbpa ha(va) kbpt. SUPINE: byggt, kbpt. Note. — Verbs whose stem ends in r take no ending in the singular of the present indicative; as, hora hear, pres. sing, hor, not horer; gora do, gbr; lara teach, learn, lar. So also three verbs whose stem ends in /: td/a endure, tolerate, tdl; mala grind, mat; gala crow, gal. The plural is regular, hora, gora, lara, tdla, mala, gala. 169- IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND WEAK CON- JUGATION, (i) A few verbs add to the stem in the infinitive and in the pres. hid. ay, which does not reap- pear in the other tenses: 2 INFINITIVE PRESENT PAST 3 SUPINE skilja separate skiljer, skilja skilde ski/t sfbdja support stbd(J)er, x sfbdja sfbdde stbtt 1 Also the shorter forms may be used. 2 However, some verbs withy in the pres. inf. retain this throughout; as skonja discern, past sk'dnjde; h'dlja cover, past holjde. Others may retain it or lose it; as, sviilja swallow, svaljde, sometimes svalde. 3 The past participle of each verb can be found by dropping the final e of the past tense. oS SECOND WEAK CONJUGATION XV In most verbs of this kind a modified vowel of the infinitive and present indicative does not reappear in the oth^r tenses, the corresponding hard vowel being m:ed instead. The most important 1 of these are: gladja gladden glader? gladja gladde glatt smbrja grease, oil smorjer, smbrja smorde smart spbrya ask, hear spbrjer, spbrja sporde sport salja sell sdljcr, slilja salde salt valja choose valjer, vdlja valde valt vanja accustom vanjer, vanja vande vant (2) Also a few verbs without this j have in the infini- tive and present indicative a modified vowel which dees not reappear in the other tenses: gbra do, make gbr, gbra gjorde z gjort sdtta set, put sailer, sdtta satte satt Two verbs, in addition to changing the vowel, drop a consonant in forming the past tense; in the past parti- ciple and supine, however, the consonant reappears: lagga lay, pnt logger, lagga lade 4 lagt saga say sdger, saga sade* sagt One verb with i in the inf. and pres. ind. substitutes a for this in the other forms, also changing the con- sonant: bringa bring bringarf bringa bragte bragt 1 Tdras dare, with past tense tordes. is omitted here because its ending has not yet been treated. 2 Observe that glade?- omits they in the singular; some verbs, as, st'ddjer, are written with or without j. 3 On the insertion of j in the past tense, past participle and supine, see 4 Observe that in lagga, s'dga and hava the past part, can not be formed by dropping the SJ or ^ hjdlpa, saga, hastigt, sagt, lagt, bragte, bragt, trddgard. —Observe the changes in the pronunciation of g in saga, sagd, sagt. — In stbdja, stbdde, the quality as well as the quantity of b changes. (2) The addition of the endings de, d, ■/ to a con- sonant preceded by a long vowel does not cause this vowel to be shortened except when the resulting con- sonant combination is double d or t; as, leda, ledde, ledd, lett; gladja, gladde, gladd, glatt; stbdja, stbdde, sfbdd, stbtt; mbta, mbtte, mbtt; heta, hette. Exceptions are the irregular verbs hava, hade (sometimes hade), havd or havd, haft, and veta, visste. On the contrary, a few verbs have a long vowel in the past tense, past part, and supine, though that of the present is short: smbrja, smorde, smord, smort; spbrja, sporde, spord, sport; vdlja, valde, vald, valt; vdnja, vande, vand, va7it. So also in the past tense of lagga and saga, lade, sade, and in velat, the irregular supine of vilja. — In the Third Weak Conjugation the addition of endings containing double d or t causes the stem vowel to be shortened; as, sy, sydde, sydd, sytt; tro, trodde, trodd, trott. — In the word stbvel the vowel is usually short. 173- ACCENT. The following words have acute accent: begynna, stbvel; usually also trddgard. 174. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) In the spoken language gladja and stbdja are usually pronounced without the j, gldda, stbda. — Wherever possible, however, verbs with j in the present have it also in other forms; as, vdljde, vdljt; smbrjde, smbrjt. (2) Vilja is frequently pronounced villa, and velat as v ill at. IQ2 W E A K C NJ U G ATIONS XV (3) Iii easy speech kbpte and kbpt are pronounced with short vowel. (4) In many parts of Sweden medan is pronounced mann in easy speech. VOCABULARY. Note. — Verbs belonging to the Second Weak Conjugation that have -de in the past tense will be designated by (Ha), those with -te by (lib). The following verbs belonging to the Second Weak Conjugation have occurred in previous vocabularies: (Ha) bygga, saga, ha(va), kunna, vilja; (lib) forsoka, kopa, leka, lasa, resa, tycka. vaxa. The following verbs of the Third Weak Conjugation have occurred previously: bo, tro. begy'nna (nb) begin bringa (11b or 1) bring bat (2) boat bara (STR., bar, plur. buro) carry, bear, wear gala (11a) crow gifta (11b) marry; gifta sig 1 (med) be married {to) marry glad j a (na) please, give hjalpa (11b) help hora (11a) hear kail a (1) spi'ing kanna 2 (11a) know, feel led a (na) lead, guide leva 3 (na) live (= exist) lagga (na) lay, put; lagga sig * lie down , go to bed lara (11a) teach, learn;^ lara sig learn pleasure {to), cheer; gladja mala (11a) grind sig 1 (at) rejoice {at, in) medan while glomma (11a) forget mota 5 (11b) meet, encounter gora (ira) do, make ro (in) row liastigt rapidly, quickly sexton sixteen beta (nb) be called, be (one's) skilja (na) separate, disti?i- name o-uish 1 The reflexive pronoun here and in the similar cases below varies accord- ing as the subject is first, second or third person; as, jag gifter inig, du gifter dig, han, hon gifter sig, de gifta sig. 2 Distinguish between kanna and veta. 3 Distinguish between leva and bo. 4 Observe that ''learn" is either I'dra or lata sie. 5 Distinguish between mota and trijjFa. XV WEAK CONJUGATIONS I03 sniorja (jia) grease, oil tradgard (2) garden t orchard spitrna (STR-, spann, plur. tvatta (1) wash spunno) spin tala (11a) endure, tolerate, sporja (ua) ask, learn, hear bear stodja (ua) support, lean ull wool sy (in) sew vet a (ua, visste) know salja (ua) sell valja (ua) choose, elect sanda (na) send vanja (ua) accustom j-atta (11b) seat, set, put, place; satta sig sit down EXERCISE XV. A. 1. Den gamla salde ull och kopte sedan brod at sina sma barn. 2. Jag visste att de voro fattiga oeh forsokte darfor att hjalpa dem litet. 1 3. Nar han lart engelska, reste han till Tyskland for att lara sig tyskr. 4. Jag vet icke om jag kan vanja mig vid dessa forhall- anden. 5. Den gamle lararen hor inte vad du sager. Kan du inte tala litet hogre? 6. Vad har ni gjort i gkolan i dag? 7. Nar barnen lagt sig, satte modern sig pa en stol och laste i en bok. 8. Jag har vetat det lange. 9, De sn:a ha lekt i tradgarden hela dagen. 9. Jag har sport att han gift sig nied en rik anka. 10. Det lilla barnet ledde den blinde nar han var ute i staden. 11. Det glader mig att hora att du hade ratt. 12. Nar han rott baten ett par timmar, trottnade han oeh kunde inte ro langre. 13. Vad heter du ? — Jag heter Lina. 14. Han hade val glomt att de valt honom till ordfbr- ande. 15. Gossen har redan tvattat sig om handerna. -2 16. Berggren tal ieke att se sina ovanner. 17. Det gla- der mig att hora att du ar frisk igen. B. Up on the mountain where the house was situated 1 A little. 2 Washed his hands. 1 94 Wl'Ai; CONJUGATIONS --X-V [there] was a spring, which rapidly grew into 1 a brook. At this brook the mother washed the wool which sjje had spun, while the children played in the . water i; -,or, made small boats which they put down into the broolv When the children became larger, they began to help their mother, with her work. Fridolf carried water from the spring and worked in the orchard. Violanta learned to sew and spin. During the winter she sat in the house and spun, but when spring came her mother sent her with the wool that she had spun to the, brook, to wash it. She was now sixteen years old and a tall and beau- tiful girl. C. Han hade varit- i Munkeryd pa besok hos lag- mannens for nagra ar sedan. Ridande hade hau kommit, burit hog hatt, gula. byxor och blanka stovlar och suttit styv och stolt i sadeln. . Vid ankomsten gick allt vaj. Men da han skulle rida bort igen, hande sig, a att en av de nedha n gande kvistarna i bjorkallen slog ay honom 4 hatten. Han steg av, satte pa sig hatten och red ater fram under samma kvist. Ater blev hatten avslagen. Det upprepades 5 fyra ganger. Lagmannen gick till sist fram. till honom och sade: "Om bror skulle rida 6 pa sidan om kvisten nasta gang"? Femte gaugen kom han lyckligen .forbi kvisten. D. i. They were visiting friends in Stockholm. 2. I know who he is,- but I do not know him. 3. His brother died a few years ago. 4, One of the branches struck him in the eye and almost made him blind. 5. He put on his hat, and rode away once more. 6. Do 1 Till. 2 For the ending of the supine in strong verbs, see '",, 158. 3 It flattened. > .4- ICihtkeU o/T Hi* hat. ;" // '(is repeated* G Suttose you ride. XV AY EAK CONJUGATIONS i®5 you want me to repeat 1 what I said yesterday? 7. When I met them the first time they were walkiug on this side of the street. 8. Did you go past an old house with a red roof? 9'. When the peasant had sold the cow, he bought five goats. 10. 'The good' w6man went into the poor man's cottage and put two crowns on his table, ii. What was your father's name? 12. They sat in the cottage spinning all winter. 13. The branches of the birches are very pretty in spring. 14. If you sit down on the chair over there, I shall tell you the story. 15. He said that he had put the book on your table. 16. He did as well as he could. 17. T do hot know whether he has lived a happy life. i&. Have you learnt your lesson yet? 19. It began to rain after you had gone to bed. 20. Do you think that you can accustom yourself to the conditions in this country? 21. He hasn't much to be happy over. 21. Have you forgotten what you did? 1 Translate as if: "Do you wish that I shall repeat.., io6 STRONG CONJUGATION XVI LESSON XVI. STRONG CONJUGATION. 1 175. Learn 2 the principal parts of the following strong verbs arranged according to the vowel of the past sin- gular PAST SUPINE 3 bar, plur. buro burit s/car, plur. skuro skurit stal, plur. stulo stulit gai\ plur. gdvo givit bad, plur. bado bedit var, plur. voro varit INFINITIVE bar a carry skara cut stjala steal giva give bedja ask, pray vara be ( taga take K fara go, travel ( draga draw, pull s/d strike svar{j)a sw r ear ( komma come ( sova sleep ligga lie dta eat lata let, sound grata weep falla fall hal/a hold 1 Concerning the membership of the Strong Conjugation nothing further can be said than that, besides the individual verbs mentioned, it contains a number of verbs having /, u or y as root-vowel. See appendix, page JJ2I-. 2 The student is already familiar with the past tense of nine of these verbs. The brackets embrace the verbs that form groups with identical vowel-change throughout. 3 The form of the past participle will in almost all cases be clear from the supine. Further discussion of the past participle will be found in a later lesson. 4 Concerning the plur. kommo, see \ SZ- for drog s/og svor, plur. svuro kom 4 sov lag at lat grat foil mi tagit farit dragit s/agit svurit kommit sovit teg at citii latit grdtit fallit hallit XVI STRONG CONJUGATION 107 176- All other strong verbs 1 follow one of four sys- tems of vowel-change, arranged here according to the vowel of the present: (1) All strong verbs with i as root-vowel, except gtva 3 have i — e — z, as in bliva become blev blivit (2) All strong verbs with i as root- vowel, except Ugga, have i — a, plur. u, — 21, as in finna find (3) All strong u — o — 21, as in bjuda offer sjunga sing (4) All strong y — b — u y as in flyga fann, plur. funno verbs with u as bjbd sjbng verbs flog with as funnit root-vowel bjudit sjungit root- vowel flugit have have Note. — Observe that in some of the systems mentioned in §§177, 178, there are three different vowels, in most of the o.hers two, while komma and sova have one and the same vowel throughout. 2 When there are three different vowels: (a) The vowel of the past plur. differs from that of the past sing., but is the same as that of 1 Not taking into account a few verbs that may be either weak or strong (see \ 180, 4)', and which would belong under j} 177. Most such verbs are of relatively infrequent occurrence and many of them are in ordinary style used more in the weak than in the strong form. These will offer 110 difficult}- when met with, especially as most of them follow biira or taga, having as root-vowel d or a, Ex.: begra'va (Ha or Str.) bury; gala (Ha or Str.) crow; smulla (Ha or Str.) make a report, bang; sk'dlva (Ha or Str.) tremble; smdlta (lib or Str.) melt; /<^« (lib or Stp., past lo/n, luto, supine iujit) run. — Ob- serve also the irregular verb varda is the ending for the second person plural in all moods and tenses. 2 Except in the case of vara, pres. ind. plural dro. but subj. vare. The past tense is regular, subj. vore. 3 Ma is conjugated like the other verbs with accented final vowel, except that it does not add -r in the sing.; el. \ ^5- In form matte is its past tense (cf. \ ^^ ), but it is never used to express past time. •i In form skulle is the past tense of skall: cf. \ ES- Il6 THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVII vi ma (m&tte) a/ska, leva, fro, bliva, giva, std I man (m&tten) dlska leva, fro, bliva, giva, std de m& (m&tte) dlska, leva, tro, bliva, giva, sta 18,"). The forms of the past subjunctive art: I. II. III. STRONG IRREG. STR. blcvc gave stodc ~ , .... bleve pave stode Same as the past indicative. .. bl even gdve?i s tod en bleve gave stode In place of the past subjunctive the auxiliary skulle with the present infinitive may be used: tag, etc., skulle dlska, leva, t? r o, bliva, giva, std vi skulle dlska, leva, tro, bliva, giva, std I skullen dlska, leva, fro, bliva giva, std de skulle dlska, leva, fro bliva, giva. std 186. There is no present perfect subjunctive, the auxiliaries md, matte with the perfect infinitive being used instead; as, jag md (or matte) ha(ya) dlskat, etc. 187- For the past perfect subjunctive the foims of the past perfect indicathe are used; in place of this the auxiliary skulle followed by the perfect infinitive is very often employed; as, jag hade dlskat or jag skulle ka(va) dlskat, etc. USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 188 The use of the subjunctive is rather limited, auxiliaries 1 being employed in man}- cases where German and Latin would have the subjunctive. Even in most constructions wheie Swedish does employ the subjunctive, the auxiliaries followed by the infinitive aie used inter- changeably with this In the present terse the auxiliary 1 Also other auxiliaries than md, matte and skulle are used to express ideas that in German and Latin require the subjunctive. — The auxiliaries ma. matte, skulle are used extensively also in constructions where Swedish could not have the subjunctive. See Lesson XXI. XVII THE SUBJUNCTIVE 117 is more common than the subjunctive; in the past tense it occurs frequently in the case of some constructions, while others require the subjunctive and do not allow the substitution. The present and past subjunctive do not denote differ- ent kinds of time as do the corresponding tenses of the indicative. In the subjunctive both these tenses refer to present or future time. In general, the present sub- junctive is used of an action that may take place, the past subjunctive of one that cannot or is not likely to take place. The past perfect subjunctive refers to past time, and is used of an act that did not take place. 189. WISH. (1) A wish that can be realized is ex- pressed by the present subjunctive, or by the auxiliaries ma, matte with the present infinitive, matte imparting more vividness to the wish and implying fear that it may not be realized. As there is no present perfect subjunctive, a wish that may have been realized is ex- pressed by these auxiliaries with the perfect infinitive. Ex.: La?ige leve komingen. Long live the king. Ma det ga honom vdl. May he prosper. Matte det bli battre snort. I hope things will get better soon. Matte ingen olycka ha hant honom. I hope no misfortune has befallen him. Sometimes the past subjunctive is used to express a very vivid wish, which though possible, is less probable of realization. Ex.: O, att det ginge dem veil. I do hope they will prosper. (2) A wish that cannot be realized, or is not likely to be realized, is expressed by the past subjunctive when the reference is to pre ent time, and \>y the past perfect subjunctive when the reference is to past time. One of the expressions att, ack om would that, is very often used to introduce such wishes. Ex.: Ack, omjag vore ung nS THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVII igen. O that I were young again. Om han anda ginge mart. I do wish he would go soon. O, alt jag aldrig sett konom. O that I had never seen him. Ack, om jag bara hade vetat det. If I had only known it. 190. UNREAL CONDITIONS. In unreal conditional sen- tences (conditions contrary to fact) the verb both of the subordinate clause (the condition) and of the principal clause (the conclusion) is put in the past subjunctive if the reference is to present time, and in the past per- fect subjunctive if the reference is to past time. In the principal clause the auxiliary skulle with the infinitive is very often used in place of the subjunctive. 1 Ex.: Om du gave mig boken, sal bleve jag glad. If you gave me the book, I should be glad. Vore jag icke tr'dtt, sa ginge jag pa tea' tern. If I were not tired, 1 should go to the theater. Om jag hade pengar, sa skulle jag resa. I should go if I had the money. Jag skulle ha k'dpt huset, om det icke varit sa gammalt. I should have bought the house, if it had not been so old. The condition may be expressed by an adverbial phrase, or it may be omitted. Ex.: Med din hjdlp vore det mojligt. With your assistance it would be possible. I sa fall fore jag strax. In that case I should leave at once. Ett dussin av dessa skulle kosta mig fern kronor. A dozen of these would cost me five crowns. Closely related to these are hypothetical comparisons introduced by som (om) , sasom (om), lik(a)som (om) as if, just as if, which also take the past or past perfect subjunctive. Ex.: Du kommer som om du vore kallad. You are coming as though called. Han bar sig at som om han hade varit galen. He acted as if he had been crazy. 1 Observe that English regularly employs ''should" and "would" in the principal clause XVII THK SUBJUNCTIVE 1 19 191. MINOR USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. The sub- junctive is not of frequent occurrence except in the con- structions mentioned. Of the minor uses of the sub- junctive the most important is that in clauses expressing concession, in which case either the present subjunctive or via (not matte) with the present infinitive may be used. In referring to past time ma with the perfect infinitive is employed. Ex.: Det koste vad det vill. I don't care how much it costs. Komma vad som komma vill. Come what will. Det ma sd vara. It may very well be. Du ma gbra som du vill. You may do as you please. The expression vare sig. . . eller whether (either). . . or, originated in this way. Ex.: Jag gar vare sig ni gar eller icke. I shall go whether you go or not. Ingen liar kanner vare sig honom eller hans bror. Nobody here knows either him or his brother. 192- SUMMARY: SUBJUNCTIVE AUXILIARY ^ , 1 j Concession md Present 1 < Realizable wish ma, matte Past or past perf. Unrealizable wish Unreal condition, a) princ. cl. skulle b) subord. cl. s Hypothetical comparison 193- ORTHOGRAPHY: ensam, ensamma; anuaii, andra. 194- PRONUNCIATION: vdrld, dagakarl, djup, nojd, skogsbacke. — Observe the long quantity of the vowel in mogua, segla, udgra. In matte the vowel is shortened. 195. ACCENT. The following words have acute accent: tea'ter, funde'ra, tillsa ' minans. — Ocksa has the acute or grave. — Liksom may have acute accent, in that case with shortened vowel. 1 vSee I 1SS. 120 THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVII 196. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i) In the spoken language the use of the subjunctive is limited, while in easy speech it is rarely used. In place of the subjunctive the auxi- liaries or the indicative are employed. Ex.: Om jag fick, sd for jag vied samma. If I could, I should go this minute. Om jag var kung, sd skulle du bli drotining. If I were king, you should be queen. Ack, om jag jick gd ut. I do wish I could go out. (2) In place of the n. intet the spoken language em- ploys the form inget. (3) The words varje, sdsom, vare sig belong primarily to the literary language. (4) For ndgon and annan easy speech uses the short- ened forms nan and ann. (5) Concerning bara, see § VOCABULARY. ack 0/1, of alas mogen ripe annan {n. annat, plur. and mogna (1) ripe7i, grow ripe def. andra) other nagon {n. nagot, plur, nag- bara only, just ra) some, any; some one, bar n. (5) berry any one borja (1) begin o oh, o ensam alone ocksa also, too funde'ra (1) think, po?ider; olycka (1) misfortune — pa meditate about resa (11b) raise; resa sig rise, galen mad, crazy raise one' s self, get up hjalp help ropa (r) call out, shout, cry, handa (ua) happen, befall call ingen (n. intet, plur. inga) segla (1) sail no, no one, none skratta (1) laugh lik(a)som as just as slatt (3) plain liv n. (5) life stalle n. (4) place lycklig happy sucka (1) sigh XVII THR SUBJUNCTIVE 121 sasom as, like varje every, each tea'ter (2) theater varld (2) world tillsa'mmans together alska (i) love tyst silent, quiet underlig strange, curious, pe- culiar EXERCISK XVII. A. i. Om jag kunde, sa ville jag nog. 2. Jag gar Vare sig du vill eller icke. 3. Ack, om det snart bleve var. 4. Om jag vore kuug, sa skulle du bli drottning. 5. Gud give oss ett gott nytt ar. 6. Om det ieke blaste, sa skulle vi fara ut pa sjon och segla. 7. De sutto dar underligt tysta och sago ut over ha vet. 8. Korsbaren se ut som om de vore mogna, men de aro ieke goda. 9. D^t fitins ingen i hela varlden, som vet detta. 10. Om det icke vore vackrare pa andra stallen, sa skulle jag genast resa hem igen. 11. Var det nagot du ville saga? 12. Hade han bara gjort som jag sade, sa hade det varit battre bade for honom och andra. B. The mother and her children lived a happy life together in the little house up on the mountain. When the cherries had begun to ripen, Fridolf and Violanta were sitting together one day under the cherry-tree at the brook. "Listen, 1 sister," said the boy, "do you think that there is 2 any more beautiful place in the world than here?" — "I don't know," answered Violanta. — "But there are 2 none in the whole world who are as happy as we," said Fridolf. — "Well, 3 who knows?" answered Violanta. "We don't know how others are situ- ated." 4 — "But every day is happy with us, and all days 1 H6r du. 3 Ja. 2 Det firms. 4 Ha det. 122 THE SUBJUNCTIVE XVII are alike here." l — "Yes, all days are alike here," said Violanta and sighed. Just then- some ripe cherries fell down from the tree into the brook and floated away. "Whither are you sailing away? Whither are you sailing away?" cried Violanta. "To the wild waves of the sea. To the wild waves of- the sea," answered the berries and disappeared. Violanta got up and looked out over the extensive 3 land below her. The wind was blowing 4 over the plain, and farthest away she saw the dark-blue line. "The wild waves of the sea. The wild waves of the sea," Vio- lanta said 5 slowly. "I too want to go to them." Fridolf laughed. "You won't go away from mother and me and from our dear little home up here among the cherry-trees," he said. 5 Violanta did not answer, but Fridolf saw that there was something that she was pondering over. She began to be so strangely quiet and preferred to sit 6 alone at the brook and look out over the extensive land at her feet. C. Da hade han vant sig om och sett en gammal dagakarl, som stod bojd over sin spade. "Ar det du, som suckar sa djupt," hade herr Karl sagt. "Vad har du att sucka over?" — "J a g ma val sucka, som ska 7 ga har och arbeta i jorden dag ut och dag in," hade da dagakarlen svarat. Men herr Karl hade ett haftigt humor, 8 och han tyckte inte om att folk klagade "Har du inte annat att klaga over?" hade han ropat. "Jag sager dig, att jag skulle vara nojd, om jag finge ga och grava i Sormlands jord i all min tid." — "Matte det ga ers nade sa, som ni onskar," hade dagakarlen svarat. 1 Are alike likna varandra. 5 Invert in translating. 2 I rletsamma. 6 Salt heist. 3 Vid. 7 See § SUS- 4- Detblaste. S Hutno'r. XVII THE SUBJUNCTIVE 1 23 Men sedan sade folk, att herr Karl for det talets skull efter doden inte hade fatt ro i sin grav, utan var natt brukade komma till Stora Djulo oeh grava i sin lust- gard. Ja, nu fanns det varken slott eller lustgard mer darborta, utan dar de en gang skulle 1 ha legat, var det nu bara en vanlig skogsbacke. Men om nagon skulle ga genom skogen en mork natt, sa kunde det handa, att han finge syn pa lustgarden. D. 1. I should go with you if it were not raining. 2. May he never return. 3. I shouldn't be eating the cherries if they were not ripe. 4. You have nothing to complain about. 5. If I were not so old, I should be able to work more. 6. Would you be satisfied if he gave you a crown? 7. He used to come to the park every night. 8. He had no peace in his grave. 9. May you soon get well. 10. If it were dark, you would see nothing. 11. May no misfortune befall them. 12. If my parents permitted me, I should become a sailor. 1 Were said to. 1^4 THE PASSIVE XVII I LESSON XVIII. THE PASSIVE. 1!)7- The passive is formed by means of the addition of the ending -.9 to the corresponding active form. In the compound tenses this is affixed to the supine or in- finitive, and not to the auxiliary. The final -r of the singular of the present indicative is dropped before the -s of the passive. Examples of the passive inflection are: PRESENT: I. II. III. STRONG jag, etc., kallas kbpes tros bjudes vi kallas kbpas l tros bjudas l I kallens kbpens trons bjudens de kallas kbpas tros bjudas PAST: jag, etc., kallades kbptes troddes bjbds vi kallades kbptes troddes bjbdos I kalladens kbptens troddens bjbdens de kallades kbptes troddes bjbdos FUTURE: skall kallas, kbpas, tros, bjudas PRESENT PERFECT: har kallats, kbpts, trotts, bjudits PAST PERFECT: hade kallats, kbpts, trotts, bjudits FUTURE PERFECT: skall ha{va) kallats, kbpts, trotts, bju- dits INFINITIVES: kallas, ha{ya) kallats; kbpas, ka(va) kbpts, tros, ka(va) trotts; bjudas, ha(ya~) bjudits SI' PINE: kallats, kbpts, trotts, bjudits PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE: jag, etc., kalles kbpes bjudes vi kalles kbpes § 3 bjudes I kallens kbpens S ° bjudens de kalles kbpes ~ bjudes 1 Observe that the first aud third persons plural differ from the singular in the present indicative of the Second Weak Conjugation and the Strong Conjugation. XVIII THE PASSIVE 125 Or, ma (matte) kaUas, kopas, tros, bjudas. PAST SUBJUNCTIVE: I. II. III. STRONG Same as the past indicative. bj'ddes bj'ddes bjbdens bj'ddes Or, skulle kallas, kopas, tros, bjudas. Note. — 1. In the singular of the present indicative passive the e of the ending -es (Second Weak Conjugation and Strong Conju- gation) is very often dropped, unless the nature of the preceding sound makes this impossible or difficult; as, kdp(e)s, kdr(e)s, jinn(e)s; but, lases. 2. The past participle, though passive in meaning, does not take -s; on its formation and inflection see . 3. Agent is expressed by av by. 4. When no agent is expressed, Swedish sometimes uses the in- definite pronoun man one, they, people, and the active, where English would have the passive; as, man sciger or det sages it is said. See § Sjg . 198. The passive idea may also be expressed by means of an auxiliary combined with the past participle. The auxiliary is put in the form corresponding to that wanted for the passive. The past participle agrees with the subject in gender and number. 1 The auxiliary most used is bli{va) , which may be employed with all verbs. In the past singular, however, vart, from varda, 2 may be employed instead of blev; the other forms of varda are archaic. Durative verbs (see ) may take vara as auxili- ary. When bliva is used with such verbs it often calls attention to the beginning of the action. Vara empha- sizes its duration. 1 On the formation and inflection of the past participle see §jj »2Z< Zm- Care shoul d be taken not to confuse the past participle with the active supine; cf. § !!■'"—,. 'J See page ™, foot-note ™. [26 THE PASSIVE XVIII Note. — i. The auxiliary bliva, when used in the present, gen- erally expresses future time (see ). 2. The auxiliary- passive and the passive in -s are on the whole used interchangeably, without much difference in the shade of meaning. In the present tense, however, the s-form is the more common, except when the reference is to future time, in which case bliva is usually employed. Especially is the ^-passive regu- larly used in general statements, rules and directions. Ex.: Min klocka drages upp varje dygn. My watch is wound every twenty- four hours. Stold straffas med fdngelse. Theft is punished with imprisonment. Observe the use of this form also in recipes, where English employs the imperative: Applena skalas, skaras i bitar, och kamhusen tagas bort. Peel the apples, cut them in pieces and remove the cores. Note also: Fdrva'ras pa kyligt stalle. Keep in a cool place. 199- The forms of the auxiliary-passive are: PRESENT: ALL VERBS DURATIVE VERBS jag , du % han, hon, den blir bjuden, dlskad dr dlskad det blir bjudet, dlskat dr dlskat vi bli{va) bjudna, dlskade dro dlskade I bliven bjudna, dlskade dren dlskade de bli(va) bjudna, dlskade dro dlskade PAST: jag, etc., blev {vart) bjuden, dlskad var dlskad det blev {varf) bjudet, dlskat var dlskat vi blevo bjudna, dlskade voro dlskade I bleven bjudna, dlskade voren dlskade de blevo bjtidna, dlskade voro dlskade FUTURE: skall bli{va) bjuden, dlskad skall vara dlskad PRES. PERF.: har blivit bjuden, dlskad har varit dlskad PAST PERF.: hade blivit bjuden, dlskad hade varit dlskad and so on, in the other forms. Note. — The English expressions consisting of the verb "be" and the past participle are not always passives. We have passives in cases like the following: A large house is being built over there. How many houses are built annually in this city? If the knife is broken while in my possession, I shall pay you for it. The XVIII THE PASSIVE 127 farm was sold last year. Very often, however, "be" is an inde- pendent verb followed by a past participle used like any predicate adjective. Ex.: That house is built of brick. My knife is broken. The farm was already sold. The sheet of paper that you gave me was torn half-way across. His life was insured for fifty thousand dollars at the time of his death. These expressions correspond, not to the present, but to the present perfect of the active. In case of doubt as to whether a construction is passive, change it into the corresponding active construction; if the tense does not remain the same, it is not a passive. These non-passive construc- tions call attention to the fact that the act is completed and is not going on, that a result which has been reached remains in present time. If the past tense is used, the meaning is that the result which had been reached remained in past time. In the present perfect and past perfect, the meaning is that the result has been present or had been present, often with the implication that it is no longer there. [n Swedish these expressions are rendered by vara, correspond- ing to Eng. "be," and the past participle. In Swedish, and so in English, the resultive verbs (see ) are used in this way. Ex.: Brevet ar skrivet. The letter is written. Han ar sdrad. He is wounded. Huset var redan byggt. The house was already built. Observe, then, that the. Eng. "be" combined with the past participle of resultive verbs frequently has a meaning not passive, but that one and the same auxiliary is used in both cases. In Swedish, on the other hand, an entirely different word, bliva (or, in the past sing., vart) is used as the auxiliary of the passive. Vara, corresponding to Eng. "be" may be employed only in the case of durative verbs. 1 Vara with the past participle of resultive verbs does not have passive meaning. 200. SUMMARY: In English, PASSIVE NON-PASSIVE DURATIVE ' ' be " + past part . RESULTIVE "be" -+- past part. "be" + past part. In Swedish, IJUR.: - s, bliva {vart) , vara -\- past part. RES.: -s, bliva (vart),-\- past part. vara -\- past part. 1 As the number of transitive durative verbs is rather limited the passive use of the auxiliary vara is not of frequent occurrence. 128 THE PASSIVE XVIII 201. DEPONENTS. 1 Many verbs have s-forms with active meaning, (i) Of some verbs that have both active and passive forms used in the regular way, the .r-forms may also be employed in an active sense, but generally with so ne distinction of meaning from that of the active forms. .S-forms so used are called deponent forms. These are used absolutely, that is, without an object expressed. Most of them mean 'to harm" or "annoy" one in some way. Ex.: Han nyps. He's pinching me (some one). Jag bara narrades. I was just fooling. Den hdr hasten bits. This horse bites (is in the habit of biting people). Det branns. It's hot. (You'll burn yourself. It has the characteristic of burning anyone that touches it.) Jo- han slass. John is hitting me (some one). De slass for sitt la?id. They are fighting for their country. (2) In the case of many verbs there are no active forms, the s forms being the only ones used, and these always with active meaning. Such verbs are called depo- nent verbs. A number of these are even transitive, and may take an object. Ex.: andas breathe, hoppas hope, minnas remember, lyckas succeed. Note. — 1. A number of deponent forms and a few deponent verbs are used (in the plural) with reciprocal 2 meaning. Ex.: Hastarna bitas. The horses are biting each other. Vi hjalptes at. We helped each other. De mottes. They met. De klappas och kyssas. They caress and kiss one another. De brottas. They are wrestling. Karl och Johan slass. Carl and John are at blows. Some have reflexive meaning; as, gladjas 3 rejoice. When ambiguity would arise, the use t>f the s-forms as passives is generally avoided in the case of verbs that employ these forms more often with reciprocal or reflexive than with passive meaning. 1 On the participles of deponents, see § 216, note 2 and § 218, note 2. 2 These could be called reciprocal and reflexive deponents, to distinguish them from the other deponents. 3 This form is identical in meaning with the reflexive expression gVddja sis: see page SZ, foot-note. XVIII THE PASSIVE 129 2. Verbs of the Second Weak Conjugation and the Strong Con- jugation of which the j-forms may be used either with passive or active meaning, drop the e in the present singular (cf. § 197, note 1) when the sense is active, but almost always have -es when the sense is passive. See the examples above, nyps, bits, brdnns. 202. ORTHOGRAPHY: minnas, mindes; branna, brdnde. Observe the double ^ in slass. 203- PRONUNCIATION: djup, kylig , kyssa, kdrnhus, pipskaggig, tidigt, hastigt, karl (cf. Karl). — Observe the change of the vowel both in quantity and quality in slass, from sld, and vart, from varda; note also the change in the final consonant of varU — Ifra'n may be pronounced with the a long or short (with different quality). 204. ACCENT: (1) The following words have acute accent: forva'ra, tillba'ka, detsa'mma. — When stressed on the first syllable, framat may have either the acute or the grave accent. (2) The singular of the present indicative passive end- ing in -es usually has grave accent, but it may also take the acute. 205. COLLOQUIALISMS: (1) On the whole, the spoken language prefers the active construction to the passive. This is especially the case when the agent would be ex- pressed. When the agent is not indicated, the passive is more freely used, though the indefinite pronoun man often takes its place. (2) When the passive construction is used in the spoken language, the auxiliary-passive is generally em- ployed, while the s- forms with passive meaning are avoided. Particularly rare in the spoken language is the 5-form of the supine (present perfect and past perfect tenses) . (3) When s-forms occur in the spoken language, they usualty have reciprocal or active meaning. Indeed, the 130 THE PASSIVE XVIII spoken language uses deponent forms far more frequently than the literary language, especially those with active meaning. (4) Verbs having either -es or -.? in the singular of the present indicative passive, usually have -es in the writ- ten, but -s in the spoken language. Cf. . (5) In a large part of Sweden (but not in Gotaland) the auxiliary vart occurs very frequently in the spoken language, while in others it is not used. (6) In easy speech a long-root vowel is shortened when -.? (for es) is added in the singular of the piesent in- dicative; as, hops, bits, nyps, kbrs (sometimes), tros; cf. s/dss, in which the Shortened vowel is always used when this word has reciprocal or active meaning. (7) In eas} T speech tzdig, tidigt, hastig, hastigt are pro- nounced without the g; so also middag. — Fbrklade is in easy speech shortened to fbrkla (acute or grave accent). VOCABULARY. alltja'mt always, constantly, hoppas (1) hope continually klappa (1) knock, rap, clap, andas (1) .breathe caress; -s, dep. recipr. bita (STR.) bite; bitas bite kyssa ( 1 1 b) Hrc/ -s,dep. recipr. bred broad, wide locka (1) entice, tempt bredd (3) breadth, wideness lyckas (1) succeed; be success - bredvi'd beside fid brottas (1) wrestle, struggle langsam slow branna (na) burn (tr.) middag (2) mid day, noon, djup deep; n. (5) depth dinner folja (na) follow; foljas at minnas (11a) rcmember accompany each other, go mork dark together XVIII THE PAvSSIVK 131 narra (i)fool, deceive; -s, dep., soka (11b) seek, look for joke, trifle, fib tidig early nypa (STR.) pinch; -s, dep., tillba'ka back pinch tills until na (111) reach, arrive at tanka (11b) think; — pa sak (3) thing, matter think of skaka ( 1 ) shake ur out of, from; ut ur out of smaningom by degrees, gradu-vakna (1) awake ally viska (1) whisper springa (STR.) run vanta (1) wait, await, expect stiga (STR.) walk, step; stiga overa'llt everywhere upp get up susa (1) murmur, whisper, sough EXERCISE XVIII. A. 1. Du brukar aldrig ga sa har tidigt, 1 om jag minns ratt. 2 2. Vem blev vald till ordf orande ? 3. Kors- barstraden skakades av vinden. 4. Nar ban tyckte att han vantat lange nog, gick han hem. 5. Rom blev icke byggd pa en dag. 6. Ma han lyckas i allt. 3 7. Han sages vara sjuk. 8. Minns du vem det var som du talade till? 9. Jag blev narrad. 10. Om du vantar tills jag kommer, sa skola vi hjalpas at. 11. Fienden var nu slagen. 12. Jag hoppas att du gor sa gott 4 du kan. 13. Huset saldes i gar. 14. Gossarna slass. 15. Mid- dagen var redan aten. 16. Grenarna bojdes av vinden. 17. Kunde vi icke traffas pa nagot stalle i morgon for att talas vid om 5 de Mr sakerna? 18. Har han lyckats finna sin bok ? 19. Foljdes ni at till Stockholm? 1 As early as this. 4 See g 52- 2 Correctly, rightly. 5 To talk over. 3 Everything. i;2 THE PASSIVE XVIII 20. Varfor blev lian satt i fangelse? 21. Vi tnifTades pa teatern i gar kvall. 22. Vad sitter du och tanker pa? B. One morning wlien Fridolf and his mother awoke, Violauta was gone. 1 They looked for her everywhere, they waited from morning till 2 noon and from noon till evening, but she did not come. Then the mother went to the brook and asked it: "Can you tell me who 3 has enticed away my little girl?" — "The wild waves of the sea. The wild waves of the sea," sang the brook and hurried on. Then she lcoked up into the cherry tree and asked: "Will she never come 4 back? Will my child never come 4 back?" Then the cherry-tree shook its crown and whispered: "The wild waves of the sea. The wild waves of the sea." But then the mother and Fridolf wept, for the}^ felt 5 that they would 6 never again 7 see Violanta. Earl}- one autumn morning 8 Violanta had awakened. She got up and went out of the house quietly, and put her shoes on 9 outside. Then she began to run. She followed the brook until she reached the valley. There the brook flowed along more quietly. Gradually it grew in depth and width until it flowed as a broad river through the silent, dark forest, where the high trees soughed above it. Violanta ran beside it constantly. I will follow 10 it, she thought. I will follow 10 it wherever 11 it goes. Then I shall no doubt reach them at last, 12 the wild waves of the sea. C. "Jo, det ska 13 jag saga dig," sade gumman, "att min 8 Hnstmorgon. 9 Put on. tog pa sig. 10 Use present tense. 11 Vart. 12 Till sist. 13 See I ZZ2. 1 Borta. 2 ; ill. 3 Vem som 4 Use present tense. 5 Kande med sig. 6 Skulle. 7 Mera. XVIII THE PASSIVE 133 egen far en gang sag den. Han kom gaende 1 genom skogen en sommarnatt, och plotsligen sag han bredvid sig en hog tradgardsmur, och ovanfor den skymtade han de raraste trad, 2 som var 3 sa tyngda av blommor och frukter, att grenarna hangde langt ut over muren. Far gick helt sakta framat 4 och undrade var tradgarden hade komtnit ifran. 5 Da oppnades hastigt en port i muren, och en tradgardsmastare kom ut och fragade om far inte ville se hans lustgard. Karlen hade spade i hand och bar ett stort forklade som andra tradgardsmastare, och far skulle just folja honom, nar han kom att kasta en blick pa hans ansikte. Med detsamma 6 kande far igen den spetsiga pannluggen och pipskagget. Det var all- deles herr Karl, sadan far hade sett honom avbildad pa tavlor pa alia herrgardar, dar far hade arbetat. C. i. Your friend seems to be satisfied with his new work. 2. A large hole had been made in the corner. 3. When he returned the gate had been opened by an old man. 4. The chair has been painted at last. 5. Boys that fight are naughty. 6. English is spoken in America. 7. Do 3'ou know when these flowers were picked? 8. He will be hurt if he does not look out. 9. I hope that he will do it as well as he can. 10. They didn't remember who he was. 11. Does your neighbor's dog bite? 12. We'll meet again to-morrow, I hope. 7 13. He was struck by a bullet in the last war. 14. Shall we not help each other? 15. He is breathing very heavily. 16. Is he not ashamed now? 17. You have aged much. 18. In the evening we went to the theater together. 1 Present participle. 5 Ifra'n. 2 See I 141. 6 All at once. 3 See § 27, 1. 7 Invert. 4 Fra'mat or frama't. 134 COMPOUND VERBS XIX LESSON XIX. COMPOUND, REFLEXIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS. 200. COMPOUND VERBS. From the point of view of the relation between the components, verb-composition is of two kinds: (i) CLOSELY ATTACHED. Ex.: bera'tta relate, under- visa instruct, anga concern, omtala relate. Cf. in Eng., begin, understand, upset. The verb proper stands last, and the two components can not be separated by other words. The components are written together without intervening space, as one word. Except in the case of the prefixes be-, for- and ent-, the affix 1 is stressed, the verb proper having a secondary accent. (2) LOOSELY ATTACHED. Ex.: tala o'm relate, £yz a'n do, be allowable, tycka o'm like. Cf. in Eng., get off, set out, look over. The verb proper stands first, and the two components can be separated b) T other words. In writing, a space is left between the two components, as between two words. The stress rests on the affix, the verb proper being unaccented. 207- There are three types of compound verbs: (1) INSEPARABLE compound verbs are those whose components are always closely attached; the components cannot be separated by other words. Ex.: bera'tta relate, nndervisa instruct, anga concern. (2) SEPARABLE compound verbs are those whose com- ponents are always loosely attached; the components can be separated by other words. Ex.: tycka o'm like, ga a'n do, be allowable. Den ddr boken tycker jag visst icke o'm. I certainly do not like that book. Det gar nog an. That will do, no doubt. 1 The term "affix" includes both "prefix" and "suffix." XIX COMPOUND VERBS 135 (3) INVERTIBLE compound -verbs. Many compound verbs may have either the closely or the loosely attached form of composition, without change of meaning. The affix is stressed whether it precedes or follows the verb proper. Ex.: omtala or tala o'm relate, genomldsa or liisa ge'?iovi read through. In some cases, however, such verbs have figurative meaning when closely attached, but literal meaning when loosely attached. Ex.: Han avbrbt samta/et. He discontinued the conversation. Han brot a'v happen. He broke the stick. Note. — 1. In the past participle the components are always closely attached, in all types of compound verbs. Ex.: Han brot a'v kappen. Kappen ar avbruten. Alia tycka o'm honom. Han dr allmdnt (universally) omtyckt. But the supine does not show this peculiarity. Ex.: Han har brutit a'v kappen. Jag har alltid tyckt o'm honom. On the present participle of compound verbs, see page 143, foot-note. 2. Some separable compounds have the same components as inseparable compounds, but with entirely different meaning, being, in fact, different verbs. These are not included under the term "invertible" compounds. ~Ex.:utse elect, choose; se ut appear, look; anga concern; gd an do, be allowable; avgd depart, leave; gd a'v break (intr. ). Cf. Eng., overlook, look over; upset, set up. 3. Compound verbs having the loosely attached form must, when followed by a noun, be carefully distinguished from a simple verb followed by a prepositional phrase. The affix of the verb- compound is stressed, while the preposition is unaccented. Ex.: Ha?i brot a'v kappen. He broke the stick. Han bro't av brodet. He broke (a piece) of the bread. En sals innehdller alltid en sak, som man ta'lar om, och en sak, som man talar o'm. A sentence always contains one thing that one talks about, and one thing that one tells. 208. The following prefixes are always closely attached (inseparable): be-, bi-, ent , er-, for-, gen-, har-, miss-, sam-, um-, und-, van-, veder-, a-. Adverbs and prepositions may be either closely or loosely attached (inseparable, separable or invertible). 136 COMPOUND VERBS XIX Adjective compounds are usually invertible; as, rbdmala or mala rod paint red. Some, however, are inseparable; as, godkanna approve. Noun compounds are usually inseparable; as, radfraga consult. Some, however, are invertible; as, aktgiva or giva a'kt pay attention. Note. — Care should be taken not to confuse the unaccented prefix for- (always closely attached) with the accented affix fore- y fore (closely or loosely attached). Ex.: forstd understand, forest a manage, be imminent. 209 Compound verbs do not differ in their inflection from simple ve r bs, except as indicated above. A synop- sis of the iuvertible verb omtala, tala om relate, is here given. CLOSELY ATTACHED LOOSELY ATTACHED Pres. jag omtalar talar om Past omtalade talade om Future shall omtala shall tala om Pres. Perf. liar omtalat har talat om Past Perf. hade omtalat hade talat om Fut. Perf. shall ha(ya) shall ha(va) talat om omtalat S-PASS1VE: Pres. omtalas tolas om Past omtalades talades om Future shall omtalas shall tolas om Pres. Perf. har omtalats har talats om Past Perf. hade omtalats hade talats om Fut. Perf. shall ha {y a) om- shall ha(va) talats om talats AUXILIARY-PASSIVE: Pres. blir omtalad 1 Past blev omtalad 1 Observe that the auxiliary passive, being formed with the past parti- ciple, has no loosely attached forms. XIX REFLEXIVE VERBS 137 AUXILIARY-PASSIVE : Future skall bli{ya) om- talad Pres. Perf. har blivit o?ntalad Past Perf. hade blivit omtalad Fut. Perf. skall ha{ya) blivit omtalad REFLEXIVE VERBS. 210. A reflexive verb is one that has as object a reflexive pronoun (see § 162), that is, a pronoun refer- ring back to the subject; the subject is both the doer and the recipient of the action. Reflexive verbs are used much more extensively in Swedish than in English. They are most conveniently divided into two groups: (1) REFLEXIVE FORMS. Any transitive verb whose sense permits may be used with reflexive meaning, through the addition of the reflexive pronouns; as, tvinga sig force one's self, skada sig hurt one's self. Frequently the verb has a developed meaning when used in the reflexive form. Particularly often does the reflexive form have the intransitive meaning correspond- ing to the transitive meaniug of the non-reflexive forms. In these cases English almost always uses merely an intransitive verb, 1 without the reflexive pronoun. In many verbs the English idiom differs from the Swedish also in other respects. Examples of difference in idiom are: gifia sig marry (intr.), be married; glddja sig rejoice; tvdtta sig wash (intr.), wash one's self; bbja sig bend (intr.), stoop; lagga sig lie down, go to bed; satta sig sit down, be seated; befinna sig be, do (intr.), fare; la?-a 1 Many English verbs are either transitive or intransitive; as, bend, move, change, turn. As this is much less frequently the case in Swedish, care must be taken not to transfer the English idiom to Swedish, incor- rectly. 138 REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL VERBS XIX learn; erinra sig remember; fbrky'la sig catch a cold; klada sig dress (intr.), dress one's self; rora sig move )intr.); ondra sig change (intr ); akta sig take care, be on one's guard; v'anda sig turn (intr ); skyndd {sig) burr)-. (2) REFLEXIVE VERBS. Some verbs are not used ex- cept reflexively, that is, tliey are never used without a reflexive pronoun; as, begi'va sig betake one's self; misstaga sig be mistaken; f'orha'sta sig be over hasty, act under the impulse of one's first feelings; tilldi'aga 1 sig occur, take place. Note. — 1. There is no reflexive passive. 2. The intensive pronoun sjalv (see \ 162, note) may be used with the reflexive pronouns. 3. Swedish sometimes uses the ending -s to express the reflexive idea (see § 201, note 1); as, gladjas (= gladja sig) rejoice; nar- tnas (= narma sig) approach; skdmmas be ashamed. 211. The inflexion of these verbs is regular: PRESENT PAST jag misstager mig miss tog mig d?i misstager dig misstog dig 11 i misstager er misstog er /ian, hon, den, det misstager sig misstog sig vi misstaga oss misstogo oss I miss tag en eder misstog en eder de misstaga sig misstogo sig FUTURE J a S ska// misstaga mig PRES. PERF. jag har misstagit mig PAST PERF. jag hade misstagit mig FUT. PERF. jag shall ha (va) misstagit mig RECIPROCAL VERBS. 212. The reciprocal idea is expressed by the plu- ral verb-forms of transitive verbs in the active, followed by the reciprocal pronoun vara'ndra each other. Ex.: 1 Tilldraga attract, with entirely different meaning, is, however, not reflexive. XIX IMPERSONAL VERBS 139 De dlskade vara'ndra. They loved one another. Vi kunna icke fbrsta! vara'ndra. We can not understand each other. Note. — In a number of verbs Swedish uses the ending -s to express the reciprocal idea; see § 201, note 1. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 21H. Impersonal verbs are in Swedish used more ex- tensively than in English. They are of various types: (1) Verbs referring to the phenomena of nature; as, det regnar it is raining, det snbar it is snowing, det fryser it is freezing, det dskar it is thundering, det blaser it is windy, det ar varmt it is warm, det ar mbrkt it is dark, det ar sommar it is summer. (2) A large variety of other expressions: as, det knac- kar somebody is knocking, det ringer there is a ring, det r'dr sig something is moving, det gdller concern, be at stake, det bar av go. (3) In the case of many verbs, some of these even intransitive, the passive may be used impersonally. Ex.: Det dansades hela natten. There was dancing the whole night. Men runt ikring soves, angslas av oroliga sinnen, anas av hjdrtan som langta. Och det grates mot brngott, som kan tats vied spetsar, och det skrattas i drbmmar . . . 1 But round about people are sleeping, there is worrying by restless minds, foreboding by hearts that long. And some are weeping against pillows that have been bordered with lace, and some are laughing in their dreams . . . Note. — Det is also used as an expletive, anticipating the sub- ject of a verb, corresponding to Eng. "there." In Swedish, the verb is always put in the singular, irrespective of the number of the following noun. Ex.: Det var en gang e?i liten gosse, som . . . There was once a little boy who . . . Det syns ansikten bakom fonsterrutorna. Faces appear behind the window-panes. Hade 1 This passage quoted from Levertin, vol. Ill, p. 207. i-j-o IMPBRSONAL VERBS XIX det hdnt ndgotf Had anything happened? Det hade fallit myckct sno Much snow had fallen. Note especially the expressions dct finns (more rarely, det gives) and dct dr, deno ing mere existence. Det dr is more definite than dct Juins. Ex : Dct finns manniskor, som ic/ce hava ndgot sam- vctc. There are people who have no conscience. Har finns det sd myckct att titta pd. There is so much to look at here. Det fanns fartyg af manga olika slag. There were ships of many different kinds. Jag undrar om det finns levande varelser ddr. I wonder if there are are living beings there. Det dr ingenting a mi at att gora an . . . There is nothing else to do than . . . Dct dr manga, som tro det. There are many who believe that. Det var en gang tre pojkar-som gingo i samma skola. There were once three boys who attended the same school. 214- ACCENT: Verbs containing the unaccented pre- fixes be-y for-, ent- usually have the acute accent; as, befinna, begi'va, forky'la, forha'sta, f'drstd'. 215. COLLOQUIALISMS: (0 In the case of invertible compounds the written language on the whole prefers the closely attached form, 1 while the spoken language regularly employs the loosely attached form. (2) Very many inseparable compound verbs belong pri- marily to the written language; this is the case especially with many of the verbs containing the prefixes named in § 208 (beginning), which are of foreign origin. (3) In the spoken language vara'nn is frequently used in place of vara'ndra. EXERCISE XIX. Note. — Beginning with this exercise, the general vocabulary must be consulted for unfamiliar words and idioms. And the river grew and grew. At last it reached a large lake, and hurled itself into its waves. Violauta 1 Even in the written language the closely attached form of invertible compounds is in most styles less common now than formerly. XIX COMPOUND VERBS 141 followed the shore of the lake. At the opposite end of the lake, the river caine forth again, stronger and fresher, as if it had gathered new strength from its water. But here there was 1 a mill. High up on the stairs above the wheels stood the miller himself. He was round and white as a flour-bag, and beside him stood his three little children, round and white as freshly-baked wheat- rolls and with eyes black as raisins. When the miller caught sight of the girl who came running, he called to her: ' 'Whither away, 2 little girl, so early in 3 the day?" — "To the wild waves of the sea," answered Violanta, and ran on. — "O wait a little and calm yourself," cried the miller. "No waves can be wilder than the waves in the river, but I have never- theless forced them to turn the mill-wheels and grind the grain. And you may be sure things are jolly here. 4 There is dancing 5 and work 5 the whole day." Violanta stopped. She heard the mill-wheels rumble and clatter. She heard people laughing 6 and singing 6 in the mill. "If you want to enter 7 my service," said the stout miller, "you shall get plenty of food and drink, and a new dress for s Christmas." — "What's the dress- goods like?" 9 asked Violanta. — "You can see 10 that then," answered the miller and laughed. Violanta entered 11 the service of 1 " 2 the miller. The wheels went night and day. Bag after bag of the very whitest flour was carried up. The miller was just as 1 Use a form of "ligga". 6 Use infinitive. 2 For away vise the impersonal 7 Komma i. "det bar av." 6 Till. 3 Pa. 9 What's . . . like, hurudant fir. 4 Du ma tro att har gar det lus- 10 Can see, far se. tigt till. 11 Tog. a Use impersonal passive. 12 Hos. 142 COMPOUND VERBS XIX friendly and good as be was stout, and his wife was still more friendly, and still more fat. The only ones who did not work were the little chil- dren. The}- sat on the flour bags most of the time eat- ing 1 wheat-rolls, played at hide-and-seek among the flour-bags, or stood looking 1 at the mill wheels. 1 Do not use participle in Swedish. XX PARTICIPLES 143 LESSON XX. PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE. 216- PRESENT PARTICIPLE. The present participle 1 ends in -ande, but verbs whose infinitive ends in an accented vowel have -ende; as, talande, kopande, finnande; but troende, seende. The present participle is indeclinable (see § 128), but it takes -s in the genitive when used as a noun; as, en dbendes sista ord the last words of a dying person. When employed as an adjective, the present participle may be compared by means of mer^a), mest. Note. — 1. The verbs kava, bliva, bedja, taga, draga employ only the longer form (see §178,2) in the present participle. 2. The present participle of deponents ends in -ande (-e?ide), but a few take the ending -andes when not used attributively. Some have no present participle. Ex.: Minnandes sitt Wfte infann han sig, ehuru han cir en aldrande (from dldras) man. Remembering his promise, he came although he is getting well along in years. Also a few verbs that are not deponents take -andes in certain expressions. Ex.: Han kom akandes. He came driving. 217- The present participle is used: (1) As an adjec- tive, attributively or predicatively. As is the case with many adjectives, so some adjectival participles can be used adverbiall}'. Ex.: De funno ett sovande barn. They found a sleeping child. Hon sag pa honom med en forskande och djup blick. She looked at him with an enquiring and penetrating glance. Kblden dr bitande. The cold is piercing. Han talade svenska flytande. He spoke Swedish fluently. m (2) As an adverbial modifier of the predicate. Ex.: Hon gick tiggande kring landet. She went about the country 1 In the case of compound verbs .only the closely attached form can be employed when the present participle is used attributively; in other cases the loosely attached form of composition is possible. 1 41- PARTICIPLES XX begging. Hon bad grdtande om en slant. Weeping, she asked for a piece of money. Han svarade skrattandc. He answered laughing. De kommo akande i en droska. They came riding in a cab. Jag foil av vagnen och blev liggandc i dikcf, tills folk horn och hjiilpte mig. I fell off the wagon and lay (remained l>ing) in the ditch until people came and helped me. Note. — i . Where English uses the participle to tell the circum- stances under which the act of the main verb takes place (time, cause, concession, etc.), Swedish usually employs a clause instead. Ex.: Being ill, I decided to stay at home. Emedan jag var sjuk, beslutade jag att stanna hemma. 2. After the verbs hora and se, Swedish does not use the parti- ciple, as English may do. Ex.: Jag horde dem tala. I heard them talking. — On the use of the infinitive in Swedish, where Eng- lish idiom requires the verbal noun, see § 220, 2. 3. As English uses the participial ending -ing, so Swedish em- ploys -ande, -ende in the formation of verbal nouns. Det var ett fasligt springande fram och tillbaka. There was an awful running back and forth. 218- PAST PARTICIPLE. In weak verbs the past par- ticiple can be found by dropping the -e of the past indicative; on the formation of the past part, of strong verbs, see § 156, and page rJJ, foot-note jj. Past parti- ciples are inflected like adjectives. See § 126, 8, a. Note. — 1. Transitive verbs, both durative and resultive, have the past participle, which has passive meaning. Also intransitive resultive verbs have the past participle; its meaning is active. The meaning of the past participle varies as follows: Transitive resultive action completed, passive: funnen Transitive durative action going on, passive: disk ad Intransitive resultive action completed, active: kommen Intransitive durative no past participle. 2. Most deponents have no past participle. 3. On the supine as connected with the neuter of the past participle, see § 156. 219- The past particle is used like an .adjective. Ex.: XX PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE 145 Var alskade konung. Our beloved king. Segern dr vu?i- nen (cf. § 199, note). The victory is won. Note especially its use in forming the auxiliary-passive; see §" 198. Note. — The past participle of resultive verbs, both transitive and intransitive, denotes an action as completed (see § 218, note 1). In § 199, note, we have seen the past participle of transi- tive resultive verbs used in a passive sense with vara, to denote a result attained in the past as remaining in the present. The past participle of intransitive resultive verbs may be used in an active sense (cf. § 218, note £) with vara, to denote a result attained in the past time as remaining in the present. Ex.: Han var redan gdngen. He was already gone. Varen dr kommen. Spring is here. S&ngen dr tystnad. The singing has ceased. Blomman dr vissnad. The flower is withered. Ar han dnnu icke aterkom- men? Has he not returned yet? (Isn't he back yet?) Anga- ren ar sjunken. The steamer has gone down. INFINITIVE. 1 220. The leading differences between Swedish and English in the use of the infinitive are: (1) Swedish much more frequently uses the infinitive without att to. (a) A number of Swedish verbs are followed by the infinitive (as object) without att, while the corresponding English verbs employ "to". Ex.: Han dmnade komma. He intended to come. Jag hoppas trdffa honom i morgon. I hope to see him to-morrow. (b) Many Swedish verbs are followed by the infinitive with or without att, while the corresponding English verbs require "to"; as, /ova promise, synas seem, appear, tanka intend, bbrja begin, bedja ask, bnska wish. (2) Swedish in several constructions employs the in- finitive where English has the verbal noun: 1 The future infinitive, which is of rare occurrence, is formed by means of the inf. skola. followed by the pres. inf.; as, skola tala, etc. — The perfect infini- tive has been given in the paradigms under the various conjugations. 146 INFINITIVE XX M >3t prepositions can be followed by att and the infinitive when the subject of the infinitive is the - as that of the leading verb. 1 The English idiom requires a preposition with the verbal noun, and sometimes the in- finitive with "to" (but without a preposition' 2 ). Ex.: Han gick ford/ utan att ha/sa. He passed without greeting. Du far valja emellan att sitta stilla och att bli id. You may choose between sitting still and being dismissed. Genom att vara sparsam, blir man rik. One becomes rich through saving. Jag ar stolt over att vara svensk. I am proud of being Swedish. Jag trbtinade via 1 att viinta. I became tired of waiting. Jag ar glad over att vara hem ma /gen. I am glad to be at home again. Han strlivar ejter att bl/va rik. He is striving to become rich. (b) When Swedish has the infinitive depending on a noun, English frequently uses the verbal noun, preceded by the preposition "of." Also after adjectives English sometimes uses the verbal noun. Ex.: Jag hade n'ojet (att) mottaga ert brev. I had the pleasure of receiv- ing your letter. Konsten att bli rik. The art of becom- ing rich. Boken ar icke vcird att lasa. The book is not worth reading. (c) A number of English verbs may be followed either by the infinitive or the verbal noun; a few are regularly followed by the verbal noun. Swedish idiom in all such cases requires the infinitive. Ex.: Han undvek att svara mig. He avoided answering me. Hon har upphbrt att 1 When the subject of the infinitive is not the same as that of the leading- verb, Swedish uses after the preposition att that, and a finite form of the verb. Ex..- Och utan att jag mlirkte det. sVdto sig mina ogoh. And my eyes closed without my noticing it. 2 Cf.. however, in English: ''There is nothing to do except to go along." "He is about to go.'" XX INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE 147 sjunga. She has ceased singing (to sing). Han har slu- tat att arbeta. He has stopped working. Note. — I. Swedish sometimes uses the infinitive in indirect statement, where English idiom requires a clause. Ex. : Jag tror mig hava raft. I believe that I am right. Han sager sig hava I id it mycket. He says that he has suffered much. Jag anser mig uppfylla ruin skyldighet. I feel that I am doing my duty. Jag tyckte mig hora e7i stdmma. I thought that I heard a voice. B:>th Swedish and English employ the infinitive when the main verb is passive, but Swedish does not use att to. Ex.: Han sades hava lid it mycket. He was said to have suffered much. 2. In Swedish, as in English, purpose is frequently expressed by the infinitive with att to, when the subject of the purpose clause is the same as that of the main verb. In Swedish, however, the preposition for is usually placed before att. Ex.: Jag har kotnmit hit for att tala med dig otn ett och annat. I have come here to talk to you about a few things. Da reste han sig upp for att gd. Then he got up to go. 3. Concerning the exclusive use of the infinitive in Swedish after the verbs se och hora, see § 217, note 2. 4. Concerning the split infinitive, see § 116. IMPERATIVE. 221- Second person singular. The mere stem of the verb is used (see page 86, foot-note 2). Its forms are accordingly: (1) tala, (11) hop, (in) tro, (STR.) jinn. First person plural: I at (or latoin) oss tala, k'dpa, tro, finna. Second person plural. This is identical with the cor- responding form of the indicative: talen, kofien, tron y Jinn en. It occurs chiefly in the elevated style; outside of this the singular imperative is used also for the plural. Note. — i. The imperative of the passive can not be used. Depo- nents (see § 201) add -s to the forms given in § 221; in the forms that have an auxiliary, the -^ is added to the dependent infinitive (cf. § 197). 2. Formerly all Swedish verbs except those whose infinitive ends in an accented vowel had the ending -om in the first person plu- 148 SYNTACTICAL REMARKS XX ral of the imperative. This is now used chiefly in the ecclesiastical style, being archaic. Only lata, employed as auxiliary in the first person plural imperative, may now end in -om; even this has archaic associations, however, the singular Idt generally being used instead. SYNTACTICAL REMARKS. 222. PAST FOR PRESENT. Swedish sometimes uses the past tense of the verb vara, where English idiom requires the present. This use of the past tense empha- sizes the first impression, which is already past. Coming to something which one considers beautiful one could say: Det var vackert. That is beautiful. (How beauti- ful!) Further examples are: Det var utmarkt. That is fine. Det var roligt att du kan komma. I am glad you can come. Det var da besynnerligt att jag inte kan jinna boke?i. It is strange that I can't find the book. Det var roligt att g'bra er bekantskap. I am glad to make your acquaintance. Note. — On the use of various tenses, see §§ in, i and 160, note. 223. PROGRESSIVE. Swedish does not, like English, have a special way of expressing the progressive idea (see § 21). But when the idea of continued action is very prominent, Swedish uses hdlla pa or hdlla pa med be engaged in, be occupied with, with att and the infinitive of durative verbs. Ex.: Han haller pa (med) att dta. He is just eating. Han holl pa att mala /inset. He was engaged in painting the house. Han haller pa att raka sig. He is just shaving. Note. — 1. When employed with resultive verbs, hdlla pa means "be near," and the idea is not progressive; in this use hdlla pd med does not occur. Ex.: Gossen haller pa att drunkna. The boy is near drowning. Jag holl pd att glomma det. I was near forgetting it. Han holl pa att bryta av sig benet. He was near XX SYNTACTICAL REMARKS 1 49 breaking his leg. Jag holt pa att tappa klockan. I was near dropping the watch. 2. To emphasize the progressive idea Swedish sometimes places before a verb another durative verb such as sitta, std, ligga, con- necting the two verbs with och. Ex.: Han ligger och sover. He is sleeping. Jag satt och skrev, da du kom. I was writing when you came. Nu star du och pratar dumheter. Now you are talk- ing nonsense. Vad sitter du och tanker pa f What are you thinking of? In the spoken language also halla pd may be so used. Ex.: Han halter pd och ater. He is eating. 224. COLLOQUIALISMS: (i)The present participle is less used in the spoken than in the literary language, espe- cially in the construction mentioned in § 217, 2. The spoken idiom prefers hon gick och tiggde to /ion gick tiggande. — The verbal noun in -ande, -ende is of com- paratively limited occurrence in the spoken language. The past participle is on the whole less employed in the spoken than in the literary language, except in the use mentioned in § 199, note, and in the auxiliary- passive, which is in the spoken language usually em- ployed in place of the ^--passive. (2) The infinitive in indirect statement is not used in the spoken language, which employs instead an indicative clause introduced by att that. (3) In the spoken language various expressions are used with the imperative to make it sound less harsh. Ex.: G'dr det, sd dr du snail. Please do that. Also, om jag far be if I may ask, is so used. Note also: Var sd god och g'dr det. Var snail och gbr det. A question may take the place of the imperative. Ex.: Vill nz vara sd god och g'dra detf (4) The use of the past for the present (see § 222) belongs primarily to the spoken language. (5) On the colloquial use of hdller pa och see § 223, note 2. 150 PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE XX EXERCISE XX. Violanta was a strong and powerful girl who worked cheerfully, 1 and all liked her. On Saturday evenings when the work of the week was finished and the wheels stopped, the people got permission to dance on the lawn above the fall. The miller's servant played the fiddle. He played faster and faster, to see how lightly Violanta could whirl about and how high she could jump, and then he laughed and said: "I believe you are swifter than the mill-wheels themselves." When Christmas came, all the people got their pay and in addition a Christmas present. Violanta got a pair of new shoes and also the dress-goods which the miller had promised her. [During] the entire Christmas pericd things were lively 2 in the mill. There were visits 3 from other mills, and all the boys that came were anxious 4 to dance with Violanta. She was so young and beautiful, and could dance like a whirlwind. The miller's servant had to bring out 5 the fiddle all the time, fi but while he played his eyes followed Violanta, and every time she went past him, he sent a friendly word after her. Then it happened one evening when Violanta was dancing, that her braid fell down. She ran aside 7 to braid it again, but when she came past the miller's serv- ant, he cried out: "Well, 8 look at the wild waves of the sea." — "What do you mean by 9 that?" asked Vio- lanta and stopped. — "I mean only that your locks -are fluttering and rolling like the waves of the sea," he 1 Med liv och lust. 6 Standigt. 2 Gick det muntert till. 7 Sin Tag. 3 Detkombesok. 8 Nej. 4 Ville garna. 9 Med. 5 Had to brine out. maste fram med. XX PARTICIPLES, INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE 15* said. But his words reminded Violanta of something that shi had forgotten, and after that evening she was not as before. She went to her work more quietly, and no longer danced with the same joy. 1 When spring came, Violanta often went down to the lawn above the fall and sat down on the little bench under the large blooming bird-cherry trees. While she sat there alone one evening, the miller's servant came walking and asked that he might sit beside her on the bench. 1 Med samma lust. is- AUXILIARIES XXI LESSON XXI. AUXILIARIES. 225. Several Swedish auxiliaries have somewhat more complete forms than those of English, particularly in the perfect system. The difficulty is thus in a number of instances due to the English rather than the Swedish idi- om. Most of the auxiliaries have a weak past tense, be- loning to the Second Weak Conjugation (see § 169, 5) Their inflection is more or less irregular. In several instances, forms that have endings characteristic of the past tense are used with present meaning. 226. Hava (for conjugation, see § 169, 5, and § 170, note 1) is in the present system used with the supine to form the tenses of the perfect system. See § 156. Note. — As an independent verb hava means "have," "possess." 227- Vara (see § 175) may be used with the past participle of transitive durative verbs to form the auxi- liary-passive. See § 198. Note. — 1. Vara is also employed as an independent verb, meaning "be." Note especially its use with the past participle of resultive verbs, both transitive (see § 199, note) and intransitive (6ee § 219, note). 2. There is also a verb vara, conjugated according to the First Weak Conjugation, meaning "last." Ex.: Stormen varade i fern dagar. The storm lasted five days. Sa lange det varar. As long as it lasts. Det varade ej lange innan jag mdrkte detta. It was not long before I noticed this. 228. Bli(va) (see §§ 113, 176, 1) is employed with the past participle of transitive verbs, to form the auxiliary- passive. See § 198. Note. — 1. The forms of bliva may be united with the present participle of some verbs of position; as, bliva liggande fall prost- rate, come, to lie (there), remain (lying there); bliva sittande get stuck, stick, remain seated, keep one's seat; bliva stdcnde stop, come to a stand, remain standing. XXI AUXILIARIES 153 2. As an independent verb bliva means "become," "remain." Ex.: Han blir nog frisk. He will get well, no doubt. Han blev strax ond. He at once became angry. Bliv ddr du dr. Stay where you are. Huru lange blir du hdr? How long are you going to stay here? — Note especially the expression lata bli, used with att and the infinitive or independently of an infinitive, mean- ing "cease," "leave off." Ex.: Lat bli. Don't. Lat bli del ddr. Stop that. Lat bli mig. Let me alone. Lat bli att lata. Stop talking. Don't talk. 229- Varda (see page 107, foot-note), may be employed in the past sing., in place of bliva, with the past participle of transitive verbs, to form the auxiliary-passive. See § 198. Note. — The past singular is also used as an independent verb, but is also in this case limited to certain localities (cf. § 205, 5). Ex.: Han vart ond. He became angry. 230. Skola, pres. ska//, skola; past skulle, supine sko/at. It denotes: 1. Futurity. The present of skola is used with the present and perfect infinitive of verbs, to form the future and future perfect tenses; see §§ no, 160 and note. The past of skola followed by the present infinitive frequently denotes time as future to a definite time in the past. 1 Ex.: Vi skulle just g a till bords, da du kom. We were just going to sit down to table when you came. 2. In the principal clause of a conditional sentence skul/e followed by the infinitive may be used in place of the past subjunctive. See § 190. In this and the follow- ing uses skulle does not refer to past time. 3. Will. Ex.: Vad s kail jag gbraf What shall I do? Jag skall ha del, trots honom. I will have it in spite of him. Han skall, antingen han vill eller inte. He shall, whether he wants to or not. Jag skall aldrig gbra sa vier. I will never again do that. 1 Such past future time may he past, present or future to the present time, 154 AUXILIARIES XXI 4. Duty, obligation: Du skall vara radd om din hdlsa. You ought to take good care of your health. Det skulle du inte ha gjort. You should not have done that. Ni skulle ha svarat lionom, aft . . . You should have answered him that . . . Man skulle straffa lionom. He ought to be punished. 5. Reputation, general opinion: Hon skall vara mycket rik. She is supposed to be very wealthy. Han skall hava rest till Amerika. He is said to have gone to x\merica. 6. Other uses: Han sade alt han skulle komma igen. He said that he would come back. Om jag skulle raka honom ... If I should meet him . . . Om han skulle fa veta det, sa bleve han ledsen. If he should find it out, he would feel bad. Xote. — i. Swedish idiom prefers ski-. lie ha vantat (cf. English) to hade skolat vdnta should have waited. 2. Skola may also be used independently of an infinitive. Ex.: Jag skall hem. I shall go home. Jag skall till staden i morgon. I shall go to town to-morrow. Vart skall du han ? Wnere are vou going? Vad skall du med den dcir boken? "What do you want that book for? Vad skulle han dar? What business had he there ? 231- Ma, matte (does not refer to past time): 1. Ma and matte are used to express a wish, in place of the allt, visst. XXI AUXILIARIES 157 237- Bora, pres. bbr, bora; past borde; supine bort. Borde almost always 1 denotes the same kind of time as bbr. This word denotes: 1. Duty, propriety: Du borde skiimmas. You ought to be ashamed. Man bbr hdlla sitt Vbjte. One should keep his promise. Han borde ingen mat fa. He ought not to get an>' food. Bbr jag gbra detf Ought I to do that? 2. Expectation, calculation: Tdget bor vara har om fyra minuter. The train should be here in four minutes. (A little later) Nu borde det vara heir. Now it ought to be here. Note. — Swedish idiom prefers borde ha vdJitat (cf. English) to hade bort vanta. Ex.: Han hade bort gora (or borde ha gjort) det. He ought to have done it. 238. Lata (see £ 175) is used: 1. In the form /at (or latom) with the infinitive, in the first person plural of the imperative. See § 221. 2. Permission: Jag /at honom ej gbra det. I didn't let him do it. Lat hojiom sova. Let him sleep. Lat viig se. Let me think. Lat det vara. Let the matter rest. Never mind. Lat set vara. Granted. Very well. Lat vara att . . . What though . . . Cf. lata b/i; see § 228, note 2. 3. "Cause some one to do a thing." Ex.: Jag har /atit dig vanta. I have kept you waiting. Jag har /atit sy mig en rock. I have had a coat made. Jag lat laga roc- ken. I had my coat mended. Note. — There is also a verb lata, conjugated in the same way, meaning "sound." 239. Komma (see § 175) expresses: 1. Futurity, with att and the infinitive. See S in, 2. 2. "Happen to," almost only in the past tense. Ex.: Han kom att gd fbrbi. He happened to pass by. 3. "Cause some one to do a thing." Ex.: Han kom 1 Except sometimes in subordinate clauses. 158 AUXILIARIES XXI mig ait fro den dar histo'rien. lie got me to believe that story. Noic. — As an independent verb it means "come." 240. Fa (see £ 178) expresses: 1. Permission. Kx.: F&r jag gaf May I go? Far man rbka hart Is smoking permitted here? (Lit.: May one smoke here?) Det far du icke. No, you must not. 2. Necessity: Du far stanna hemma. You will have to stay at home. Man far tala mycket har i varlden. One has to put up with a great deal in this life. Sum gosse fick han ofta svalta. As a boy he often had to starve. Han kommer a ft fa vlinta. He will have to wait. — Also fa /or aft 1 is used in the same meaning. 3. With the infinitive of the verbs libra, se, veta it denotes the beginning of the action of these verbs. Ex.: fag fick veta det i gar. I found it out yesterday. Vi fa se. We shall see. Sd snart jag far se Jwnom. As soon as I see (catch sight of) him. 4. "Cause some one to do a thing." Kx : fag fick honom inte att saga eit ord. I couldn't get him to say a word. Note. — As an independent verb it means "get," "receive," "obtain." EXERCISE XXI. At first he sat there for a long time and was silent, as if it were hard for him to come out with that which 2 he wanted to say, but at last it came. He then asked Violanta humbly whether she would not be able to love him a little, and become his wife. If Violanta promised to become his wife, he would prom- ise to make her whole life as happy as a dance. "Why, 3 1 Fa lov may also, especially in questions, mean "gret permission." Ex.: Far jag lov '< May I? Om jag far lov. If I may. 2 That which, varl. 3 Vi tva aroju . . . XXI AUXILIARIES 1 59 we two are as [if] made 1 for each other," he said. Vio- lauta seemed surprised, almost a bit frightened. She had never thought that she and the miller's servant were as [if] made for each other. But when she looked at his face and saw how sincerely he meant it, she asked him to come early the next morning 2 to the same place, and she would give him her answer. And with that he would have to be satisfied. 3 Early the next morning before the sun was yet up, Violanta went down to the lawn at the river. She bent down over the waves so that the foam blew into her face. 4 "Whither are you hurrying away?" she whispered. "Whither are you hurrying away?" — "To the wild waves of the sea. To the wild waves of the sea," answered the river and rushed on. — "Oh, yes," said Violanta aloud and spread out her arms. "I too am going there." And then she tied her kerchief about her hair and began to run as fast as she could along the narrow path which led through the pastures along the river. When the sun rose, also the miller's servant rose, and went down to the lawn at the fall. Not finding Violanta there, 5 he smiled and thought: "She'll come, all right. The sun has just risen." He sat there until the noon- day sun glowed on the water, and when she still was not to be seen, he sighed and thought: "She will come, no doubt. The sun has not yet set." But when the sun at last set, he wept and thought: "She will never come." Aud she never came. 1 Use form of "skapa" (i).