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JVledieval and JVlodern 
 rlistory 
 
 ITS FORMATIVE CAUSES 
 AND BROAD MOVEMENTS 
 
 BY 
 
 J. A. Dewe, A.M. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE COLLEGE OF ST. THOMAS 
 ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA, U. S. A. 
 
 WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE, Publishers 
 31-33-35 West Fifteenth Street, New York City 
 
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 y 
 
 UBHARY of CONGRESS 
 
 Two Codes Recetved 
 
 SEP 3 »90^ 
 
 CopynftH Btrtry 
 
 CUS% ^TfjL, L, 
 
 COPY a. 
 
 Copyright, 1907 
 By HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Every text-book, and especially a text-book of Medieval and 
 Modern History, should have some individuality of its own to 
 which it is important at the outset to call the reader's atten- 
 tion. 
 
 It was once remarked by Lord Acton that a student of his- 
 tory should direct his attention to the discovery of fundamental 
 causes and of general laws, and not merely to the phenomena 
 of events or even a series of events. This suggestion has been 
 followed by the writer of the present treatise. He has not 
 confined his narrative to the movements of armies or to the 
 sequence of political events; it has been his purpose rather to 
 impart a sound knowledge of the nature of institutions and 
 of the economic, social, and religious causes of historical events. 
 He has also attempted to give clear ideas of the broad move- 
 ments of history and of the relations of such movements. By 
 this means the writer has hoped to make the study of history 
 as truly scientific as are the subjects of chemistry or astron- 
 omy, in which all phenomena are constantly traced to certain 
 general laws. 
 
 Closely connected with this treatment of the subject matter 
 of history is the importance attached to the inter-action of 
 Church and State, which is here so often insisted upon that it 
 has been thought proper to place at the end of the book a list 
 of all those sections which deal with this relation of ecclesiasti- 
 cal and political elements. 
 
 It is hoped by this means to enable the student more fully 
 to comprehend the existing ecclesiastical and secular institu- 
 tions, and to mak'e him better able to use his knowledge of 
 the past so as to interpret the present and to forecast the future. 
 
 These purposes can be accomplished only when the student 
 
PREFACE 
 
 sees that all events', however un-related by time and place, are 
 brought into harmonious relation by constant and universal 
 laws. 
 
 Special attention has been given to the treatment of English 
 history. It is of the highest importance that Americans 
 should become familiar with the main facts in the history of 
 the English people, especially of the growth of their consti- 
 tution and laws, which explain so much that is to be found in 
 the Constitution and custom of the Republic of the United 
 States. The usual practice of introducing large splashes of 
 English history into the middle of chapters in a work on gen- 
 eral history, is a great hindrance to logical continuity. This 
 difficulty has been obviated by placing at the end of certain 
 chapters sections dealing entirely with English history. 
 
 Finally the author frankly acknowledges that he has given 
 a fuller consideration to the affairs of the Church and its re- 
 lations to the State than is to be found in most histories of 
 the medieval period. This has been done advisedly. Church 
 and State were the two chief inter-acting forces of the Middle 
 Ages and their history serves to explain in large part the pres- 
 ent political and social condition of the nations in Europe. It 
 is believed that this very feature will make the book highly 
 acceptable to many institutions of learning and of great value 
 to the sfcneral reader. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Introduction. The Dawn of Medieval History .... i 
 
 II. Tile Barbarian Invasions 12 
 
 III. Great Leaders of the Middle Ages 21 
 
 IV. The Saracens . 38 
 
 V. Carolingian Dynasty 51 
 
 VI. Carolingian Dynasty (concluded) 63 
 
 VII. Feudalism and Monasticism 72 
 
 VIII. Parallel Development of France and Germany .... 83 
 
 IX. Saxon Kings 91 
 
 X. Salian Emperors and Investiture Contest loi 
 
 XI. Continuation of Contest Between Empire and Papacy . . 114 
 
 XII. Important Movements of the Middle Ages 134 
 
 XIII. Development of France 165 
 
 XIV. The Hundred Years' War 183 
 
 XV. The Renaissance 206 
 
 XVI. Review of the Leading States of Europe 229 
 
 XVII. Character of the Modern Period 260 
 
 XVIII. Italy the Center of Foreign Politics 269 
 
 XIX. Rivalry Between Francis I and Charles V 279 
 
 XX. The Reformation ; 289 
 
 XXI. Catholic Reformation 310 
 
 XXII. Revolt of the Netherlands 321 
 
 XXIII. Thirty Years' War^ 331 
 
 XXIV. France Previous to the Reign of Louis XIV .... 346 
 XXV. Age of Louis XIV 364 
 
 XXVI. War of the Austrian Succession 385 
 
 XXVII. Seven Years' War and Colonial Expansion of England . 394 
 
 XXVIII. Rise of Russia and Partition of Poland 403 
 
 XXIX. The French Revolution 412 
 
 XXX. Napoleon Bonaparte 436 
 
 XXXI. Unification of Germany and Italy 450 
 
 XXXII. Progress of England 465 
 
 XXXIII. Developments and Progress of the Leading States of 
 
 Europe 476 
 
 XXXIV. Some Typical Features of the XIX Century .... 496 
 
MEDIEVAL 
 AND MODERN HISTORY 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 THE DAWN OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY 
 
 1. Condition of the Roman Empire. — From the first cen- 
 tury of the Christian era down to the middle of the third, 
 Roman power and civiHzation had diffused peace and pros- 
 perity through the civilized world. Rome, under the unifying 
 authority of her emperors, had been increasing outwardly and 
 strengthening herself within. The provinces that had been 
 conquered by the Roman republic were united to the imperial 
 city by the powerful ties of a just and sympathetic adminis- 
 tration. The provincial governors, w^ho, by their tyranny and 
 extortion, had alienated the inhabitants of the provinces, were 
 degraded from the power that they had so much abused. Un- 
 der the direct personal control of the emperor, taxes were 
 quickly lessened and the people rejoiced in their political privi- 
 leges and rising material prosperity. 
 
 2. Extent of the Roman Empire. — The Roman empire 
 had also gained in extension. The conquest of Gaul had 
 been fully completed, and under the emperor Claudian and 
 his succes.sors England also had been brought under Roman 
 rule. From the borders of Persia in the east to the w^hite 
 shores of England in the west, and from the German forests 
 
 I 
 
2 INTRODUCTION 
 
 in the north to the plains of Africa in the south, the eagles 
 of the Roman standard floated peacefully and powerfully. 
 Roman civilization, Roman literature, and above all, Roman 
 law with all its justice and majesty, reigned everywhere su- 
 preme. 
 
 3. The German Frontier. — There were, however, two 
 frontiers beyond which the power of Rome had failed to es- 
 tablish itself. Between the Rhine and the Elbe were the Ger- 
 mans — wild, fierce, and barbarous, but, as we gather from 
 the commentaries of Caesar, possessing some rudimentary no- 
 tions of government and order. They retained all the bodily 
 strength and physical prowess of barbarism, and in their 
 sovereign assemblies of the people, we see the germs of the 
 highest type of civilized government. In vain had the trained 
 Roman soldiers, under skilled officers, crossed the Rhine and 
 even established military outposts and forts in the heart of 
 the enemy's country. They had never succeeded in main- 
 taining their position, and before the end of the reign of 
 Tiberius it was recognized that the Rhine was a natural and 
 an unyielding frontier. 
 
 4. The Eastern Frontier. — There was also in the east a 
 frontier which had been a successful barrier to the march of 
 Roman power. Already, in the time of Csesar, the Romans 
 under Crassus, had received a severe defeat at the hands of 
 the Parthians, and the combined forces of Roman arms and 
 Roman diplomacy had failed to efifect the conquest of the 
 Parthian empire or to influence its civilization. 
 
 Danger therefore threatened the Roman power both on the 
 east from the Parthians and on the north from the Germans. 
 But the greater peril was from the Germans who were in all 
 the vigor of a new and rising civilization, and whose natural 
 restlessness was increased by over-population and the pressure 
 of other wild tribes to the eastward. 
 
ROMAN DECAY 3 
 
 5. Decay of the old Roman Character. — Rome might still 
 have survived these perils, had there not been at work other 
 disintegrating forces — forces invisible indeed, but on that 
 account the more insidious and destructive. 
 
 The real strength of a nation lies not in its armies, but in 
 the virtue and fortitude of its citizens. Mars, who had been 
 from time immemorial the favorite god of the Roman people, 
 was the deity presiding over war and agriculture, and the cor- 
 responding typical virtues of the early Roman were the stern 
 fortitude of the soldier, and the simplicity of the shep- 
 herd. The result was a type of character distinguished by 
 that honest manliness which places its constant trust in the 
 " truth that prevails." But this character was fast being un- 
 dermined. How far the introduction of Greek civilization, 
 then in its decadence, was responsible for this, it is hard to say. 
 The actual causes of Roman decadence seem to have arisen 
 from within. The education of the Roman youth was no 
 longer what it had been. The severe, almost unlimited 
 authority of the father over the child had been relaxed partly 
 by law, partly by custom. The family was no longer the 
 training-school of the virtues of fortitude and respect for 
 authority. The foundations of self-reliance and vigorous 
 initiative were removed, and, on the other hand, the manifold 
 temptations of an advanced and luxurious civilization were 
 multiplying. Consequent upon this was the decay of disci- 
 pline in the Roman army. The family was the recruiting 
 ground of the state, and the defects of the one soon became 
 the defects of the other. So unruly had the Roman legions 
 become, that they made and unmade even the emperors them- 
 selves. 
 
 6. Political Decay. — In addition to these social causes of 
 decay, there were others of a political character. 
 
 The Roman empire was not only large and unwieldy, but 
 
4 LyTRODLCTlON 
 
 it embraced many peoples, of different racial characteristics. 
 It is admitted in our times that the influences of physical en- 
 vironment have done much to make th^ English, the French, 
 the Germans, and the other modern European nations what 
 they actually are; the sajne forces must certainly have been 
 at work in the Roman empire exerting a strong disintegrat- 
 ing influence. Moreover, the constitutional machinery at 
 home was inadequate to deal with the new problems constantly 
 arising in ever>- part of the empire. Even if there had been 
 a network of telegraph lines connecting the ruling emperor 
 with his far oft' subjects, the task of government would have 
 been ditticult. Xor could a hierarchy of officials cope with the 
 difticulty, where the material distance between the members 
 of the hierarchy was so great. One link, indeed, there had 
 been between the emperor and the lowest of his subjects, and 
 that was the worship of the divinity of the emperor. Odious. 
 indeed, must have been the personality of such a tyrant as 
 Xero. yet when he walked from his palace into the temple of 
 Castor and Pollux and stood between the statues of the twin 
 gods, the human element, for the time being, was swallowed 
 up in belief that he was the descendant of the gods, and that 
 after death he himself would be deified. The religious element 
 which sanctioned the payment of divine homage to the 
 emperor, contributed for a considerable length of time to im- 
 perial prestige and influence. But various causes w ere now 
 undermining the sacred element, the authority of the emperor. 
 F'aith in the old pagan gods was fast declining. Jupiter. 
 Mars. Mercury, and other familiar names no longer repre- 
 sented veritable deities, but rather abstract entities or empty 
 philosophical conceptions exening no active influence on the 
 minds of the people. With the decay of religious belief, came 
 also the decay of imperial prestige. 
 
 It was evident that the Roman Empire must soon either 
 undergo some radical alteration, or cease to exist. 
 
DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE 5 
 
 7. Imperial Succession. — The danger was brought to a 
 head by the want of any recognized rule of imperial succession. 
 Constitutionally, the office of emperor was elective, not heredi- 
 tary. The election was theoretically in the hands of the 
 Roman people, but practically it was in the hands of the sol- 
 diers, and the subject of their choice was either some favorite 
 general, or some one who had endeared himself to them by the 
 length of his purse. At every new succession there arose dis- 
 turbances and seditions. 
 
 8. Division of the Empire. — But in the year 284 a re- 
 forming emperor appeared, who strove not only to cope with 
 the immediate evil, but also to organize the empire on a new 
 and more durable basis. The plan of Diocletian was to give 
 strength to the imperial organization by a process of division. 
 There were to be two emperors instead of one — to be called 
 Augusti ; and thus the name, Augustus, became a title of 
 office and not, as formerly, a title of honor. These two em- 
 perors had separate spheres of jurisdiction, one presiding over 
 the eastern, the other over the western part of the empire ; a 
 division suggested mainly by geographical conditions. Dis- 
 putes regarding succession were to be avoided, by authoriz- 
 ing each emperor to choose an assistant called a Csesar, who 
 was to have the natural right of succession. 
 
 9. Prefectures and Dioceses. — This process of division 
 was carried into still further detail. The whole empire was 
 divided into four prefectures, ruled over by their respective 
 prefects. First, the prefecture of Gaul, including England, 
 ruled by a resident prefect at Treves ; second, the prefecture of 
 the east, including Syria and Egy^pt ; third, the prefecture of 
 lUyria; and fourth, the prefecture of Italy, which included 
 northeastern Africa and the Islands. These four prefectures 
 were subdivided into dioceses, and these again into provinces, 
 
6 INTRODUCTION 
 
 which were now more numerous and smaller, than the prov- 
 inces tliat had previously existed. The names province and 
 diocese are familiar to most people as names of ecclesiastical 
 di\-isions. and it is interesting to note that these names were 
 first used by Diocletian in designating the dilterent units of 
 civil administration, and that they were afterwards incor- 
 porated into the ecclesiastical system by the Church. 
 
 There have been writers who have attributed to this process 
 of division the dissolution of the Roman empire. But the 
 exnls which had to be overcome were overwhelming, and there 
 can be no doubt that a hierarchy of officials, bound by ties of 
 fidelity to a central ruler, was the best form of government 
 that could have been devised at the time. 
 
 Moreover, it was clearly an attempt to render the centraliz- 
 ing influence of the imperial authority as powerful as possible. 
 Local liberty and local govenmient were curtailed, and the 
 emperor, at the head of a vast body of officials, conducted the 
 administration of all. The goveniment was in fact bureau- 
 cratic. It was like the government of Louis XI\' in France, 
 or like that of the emperor of Russia at the present day. ad- 
 ministered by officials who carried out a vexatious and minute 
 system of taxation, and who often interfered with local tra- 
 ilitions and private affairs. This system, with its economic 
 evils, tended to defeat the attempts of the emperor at re- 
 fonn. 
 
 10. Diocletian's Policy Towards the Christians. — Diocle- 
 tian made a mistake in his policy toward the Christians. 
 They had become a power throughout the empire. It is true 
 that Christianity had been a prohibited religion from the time 
 of Domitian: yet the attitude of the emperors had been gen- 
 erally that of passive opposition, while Hadrian and Antoni- 
 nus had even tolerated the Christians. \Miat persecution 
 there had been was local in its effect, and arose from a cer- 
 
THE EMPEROR CONSTANTINE 7 
 
 tain vaj^ue class prejudice. By the time of Diocletian, 
 Christianity had assumed an importance that seemed to de- 
 mand some definite policy on the part of the state. The 
 settled purpose of Diocletian was to restore the imperial pres- 
 tige. But the doctrines of the Christians militated against 
 the belief in the divinity of the emperor, which had contrib- 
 uted so much to establish this imperial prestige. The result 
 was the Diocletian persecutions, which were pursued with a 
 systematic and relentless ferocity unparalleled in the history of 
 the Church. The persecution, however, failed in its purpose. 
 
 11. The Emperor Constantine. — Among the first to rec- 
 ognize the futility of seeking to exterminate a large body of 
 men scattered over so large an area and constantly multi- 
 plying by fresh conversions, was Constantine, who ascended 
 the imperial throne in 307 A. D. This date is memorable, not 
 only for the emperor's recognition of Christianity, but also for 
 his further attempts to keep together an empire on the verge of 
 disssolution. He saw that the Christian religion was too wide- 
 spread, endowed with too much vitality, to be crushed, while, 
 on the other hand, it might serve as a new and enduring link 
 between the scattered portions of the empire. Moreover, his 
 own conversion to the Christian faith dictated a policy not 
 only of toleration, but of practical support. 
 
 12. Establishment of Christianity. — The most conspicu- 
 ous feature perhaps of the reign of Constantine was the out- 
 ward and visible progress of the Church, which was directly 
 attributable to his fostering care. He compensated as far as 
 possible all who had been persecuted on account of their 
 Christianity. He gave the sanction of the law to all manu- 
 missions of slaves made in the churches. He released the 
 Christian clergy from certain odious political duties, and the 
 Christian churches from the payment of taxes. The new 
 
8 INTRODUCTION 
 
 city of Constantinople, which was called after him, was dedi- 
 cated to the Virgin. And the crowning triumph of his ortho- 
 doxy was the first universal council of Nicea, held under 
 his special auspices. This council set forth the principal 
 tenets of the Christian faith, and condemned the theory of 
 Arianism. 
 
 Though this policy of assimilating instead of seeking to 
 destroy the Christian religion, was thus opposed to the policy 
 of Diocletian, yet it was certainly directed toward accom- 
 plishing the ulterior end of that policy. 
 
 13. Change of the Imperial Residence. — The republican 
 atmosphere of Rome was hardly suited to an emperor with 
 ideas of a strong, central government. About the year 328 
 he began to build a new town on the site of the old Greek 
 town of Byzantium. There he could be far removed from 
 the trammelling traditions of the dual system of govern- 
 ment instituted by Augustus, in which the senate was sup- 
 posed to be a partjier with the emperor. Apart, from these 
 considerations, the new capital was in a position of great 
 natural strength, and from it the emperor could strike more 
 easily at his enemies, the Persians in the east, and the Goths 
 in the north. 
 
 14. Magnificence of Constantinople. — The new city soon 
 began to rival the old in the size and splendor of its new 
 buildings. It soon became the center of a new style of 
 architecture, called Byzantine — a style which was prevalent 
 in Italy up to the fifteenth century, and survives still in 
 Russian architecture. Its chief features are the round arch, 
 the circle and the cross, the various ornamental shapes of 
 the capitals of the pillars, the abundance of large spaces with 
 mere surface ornament, and the combined use of rough stone 
 work with more precious materials. The most conspicuous 
 
IMPERIAL POWER 
 
 examples of this style are the Church of Santa Sophia, erected 
 by Justinian in Constantinople itself, and the Church of St. 
 Mark's in Venice. 
 
 15. Display of Imperial Power. — But the material beauty 
 of the new city and its imposing magnificence were but a re- 
 flection of the moral and social splendor that Constantine 
 
 The Catlicdral of St. .Mark 111 \"enice. I'irst built in 813; destroyed by fire in 976 
 and rebuilt in 1071. The main edifice is Byzantine, but Gothic additions were 
 made in the 14th century- and Renaissance alterations in the 17th century. TSie 
 material is brick encrusted with delicately colored marbles richly carved. 
 
 introduced into his new court. The senate that he formed 
 and the two consuls were such only in name, and were mere 
 appendages of imperial dignity. The emperor w^as the sole, 
 supreme lord and master; his wish was law, and all other 
 dignity or importance was derived only from personal con- 
 tact with him, and from personal service duly rendered. In 
 this as in other matters, with the exception of his attitude 
 towards the Christians, he was carrying out the policy of 
 
lO INTRODUCTION 
 
 Diocletian. The process of division was still further de- 
 veloped, and he decreed that after his death, the empire should 
 be divided among his three sons. 
 
 1 6. Failure of Imperial Power. — AH the efforts, however, 
 both of pagan Diocletian and Christian Constantine were 
 fruitless. The Roman empire was too vast. The problem 
 of governing such widely scattered people of different races 
 and provincial characteristics was too much for any policy. 
 Even if some constitution had been constructed suitable in 
 theory, the Roman people had already lost those virtues that 
 had given to Rome the reins of power and dominion. 
 
 And while the Roman empire was becoming internally 
 weaker every day, it was from without subject to violent 
 attacks. In the north there were the German tribes, a 
 people young and vigorous in body and in spirit; and dur- 
 ing the third and fourth centuries these German tribes, whom 
 Caesar and succeeding emperors had failed to subdue, poured 
 down upon the Roman Empire. They did not, however, 
 wholly destroy it, but united their rough tribal traditions of 
 liberty and justice to all that was best in the Rome of the 
 past. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 General condition of the Roman Empire in the third century 
 — Extent of the Roman Empire — Decay of the Roman Empire 
 arising from moral, political and religious causes — Reforms of 
 Diocletian and his persecution of the Christians — Reforms of 
 Constantine and his patronage of the Christians — Constanti- 
 nople ; Byzantine architecture — Failure of imperial attempts to 
 maintain the empire. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 DuRUY, Middle Ages; Robinson, Readings in European History; Dill, 
 Roman Society to the last of the Western Empire; Bury, Later Roman 
 Empire; West, Ancient History to the Death of Charlemagne ; Gibbon, 
 Decline and Fall of the Roman Emprie; Crevier, Histoire des Empereurs, 
 
GENERAL REFERENCE 1 1 
 
 Romains depuis Auguste a Constantin; Morey, Roman Laiv; Hodgkin, 
 Tlicodosius; Jones, Civilization During the Middle Ages; Adams, Civil- 
 ization During the Middle Ages; Montesquieu, Considerations sur Ics 
 Causes de la Grandeur des Romains ct de leur decadence; Bryce, Holy 
 Roman Empire; Hodgkin, Theodoric ; Oman, Dark Ages; Alzog, 
 Church History; Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 
 
 17. The German Invaders. — The German tribes who be- 
 gan to move in the direction of the Roman Empire occupied 
 Scandinavia and the land that Hes between the Rhine on the 
 west, the Vistula on the east, the Baltic on the north, and 
 the Danube on the south. 
 
 The Germans were divided into three great branches. 
 First, the Northern Germans, who were afterwards known 
 as Northmen and later as Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes; 
 second, the West Germans, who included the Franks and 
 Saxons, and third, the East Germans, who were further sub- 
 divided into Goths and Vandals. 
 
 18. Character of the Germans. — Tacitus, a Roman writer 
 who died about 115 A. D., gives a graphic description of the 
 manners, customs, and political constitution of the West Ger- 
 mans. He says that in personal appearance they were re- 
 markable for their size, red hair, and general ferocity of as- 
 pect. From him we also gather that their chief occupations 
 were cattle-raising, agriculture, hunting, and war. Like 
 the peasants in the Russian villages of to-day. they held their 
 land in common, making a redistribution of it every year. 
 They paid great reverence to the priest, who was very often 
 the father of the family, and whose permission was required 
 before anyone could be punished. Though they were ad- 
 dicted to drinking and gambling, they showed a strong sense 
 of justice and truthfulness, and the followers of the chiefs 
 were remarkable for their courage and devotion to their lead- 
 ers. 
 
 12 
 
THE GERMAN TRIBES 1 3 
 
 19. Government of the German Tribes. — Even among 
 these barbarous and idolatrous peoples might be seen the 
 germs of most of our modern governments. They had 
 kings who were sometimes chosen from particular families, 
 but who, owing to the limitation of their authority by the 
 popular will, w^ere the representatives of the tribes rather 
 than its rulers. The practical and legislative work of gov- 
 ernment seems to have been carried on mainly by assem- 
 blies. The most important business was dealt with by the 
 assembly of all the fighting men of the tribe, while things 
 of lesser moment were discussed by the assembly of the 
 chiefs. Even in the smaller units of local government it 
 was the assembly of the people that held the reins of 
 power. 
 
 This description given by Tacitus of the West Germans 
 might be fairly applied to all Germans. For the different 
 tribes of the Saxons, Franks, Goths, Vandals, and the others 
 did not live absolutely separate from one another. Though, 
 very often wars broke out between them, the tribes, as 3. 
 general rule, tended to mingle together and unite, rather than 
 to separate. 
 
 20. Movements of the German Tribes. — The first tribes 
 to come in contact with the Roman Empire were the Goths. 
 Already in 10 1 B. C. they had assumed a threatening atti- 
 tude, but were beaten by the Roman general Marius at the 
 battle of Vercellae ; nor did their restlessness afterwards seem 
 to have caused much alarm in Rome. By 150 A. D. the 
 Goths had migrated to the south, as far as the Black Sea 
 and the lower course of the Danube. There they divided 
 into two branches, known as the East and the West Goths. 
 It was at this time that the German and the Roman seem to 
 have come into close communication. Gothic slaves were 
 kept in many Roman households and were admitted into po- 
 
14 THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 
 
 sitions of -civil and military importance. Colonies of Goths 
 were invited to settle in the Imperial provinces of Italy in 
 order to replenish the diminishing population, and some seem 
 to have received grants of land on condition of military serv- 
 ice. With each successive victory of the Romans over the 
 Goths, the number of these colonies seems to have increased, 
 and they soon assumed a permanent character of some im- 
 portance, the chief of the colony deeming himself a Roman, 
 and controlling the financial and judicial business of the 
 colony. 
 
 21. Roman Influence Upon the Germans, — But if the 
 
 Gothic element filtered into Italy, it is equally true that Ro- 
 man elements of civilization penetrated into the interior of 
 the lands occupied by the Goths. Roman travelers, Roman 
 exiles, and Roman merchants spread everywhere the knowl- 
 edge of Roman customs and usages; and what was still more 
 important, Roman missionaries introduced among the Goths 
 the knowledge of the Christian faith. But not all the Goths 
 became Catholic Christians. Many of them were Arians ; 
 that is to say, they believed that the Second Person of the 
 Holy Trinity was made by the Father, and that He was in- 
 ferior to and dependent upon the Father. 
 
 From the Visigoths, Arianism soon spread to other Ger- 
 man tribes, such as the Ostrogoths, Burgundians, and 
 Vandals. This was mainly owing to the energy of the 
 Arian emperor, Valens, and even when an orthodox emperor, 
 Theodosius, afterwards commanded them to accept the Ni- 
 cene Creed, they refused for political reasons. 
 
 22. Invasion of the Visigoths. — About the year 395, the 
 Visigoths again became very restless. A considerable 
 number of them, under a leader called Alaric, cherished the 
 idea of a national independence. They were discontented 
 
INVASION OF THE VISIGOTHS 15 
 
 with the arrangement by which the Roman emperor had 
 allowed them to settle on the land south of the Danube, 
 without being" pei-mitted to have kings of their own. In 395 
 Alaric became their king and this was the signal for revolt. 
 They marched to Constantinople, which they failed to take, and 
 then went through Thrace and Macedonia to Greece. When 
 they had reached Corinth, the emperor sent against them 
 Stilicho, the son of a Vandal chief. No battle took place 
 and a compromise was reached whereby the Visigoths were 
 allowed to settle in Illyria. Even Illyria, however, was un- 
 suited to the development of their national independence, and 
 under Alaric they invaded Italy in 401. Again Stilicho was 
 sent against the enemy, and an indecisive ba^itle was fought at 
 Pollentia, in North Italy. In 408, Alaric, in combination 
 with another very able leader, Athaulf, renewed the invasion 
 of Italy, and about two years afterwards, the city of Rome 
 was betrayed by the treachery of some Gothic slaves into the 
 hands of Alaric. ]\Iuch has been said regarding" the vio- 
 lence and cruelty of the Goths on this occasion, but contem- 
 porary writers deny that so much fury was shown by the 
 Goths. One writer says that great respect was shown to the 
 churches in Rome, and that the Goths even went in pro- 
 cession to St. Peter's. 
 
 23. The Visigoths leave Italy.— The occupation of Italy 
 by the Visigoths did. not last long. A few years after the 
 death of Alaric, they migrated to Spain, which had been 
 already appropriated by the Vandals and the Suevi. The 
 Visigoths found it convenient to make an active alliance 
 with the Roman emperor, and waged war upon the Vandals 
 and Suevi with such gratifying success that in 415 the em- 
 peror allowed the Visigoths a district in the south of France, 
 while in 466 Spain was formed into a Visigothic kingdom 
 under Euric. 
 
1 6 THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 
 
 24. The Vandals, who had been driven out of Spain, 
 crossed into Africa, and wherever they went, spread havoc 
 and desolation. They numbered between fifty and eighty 
 thousand, and under Genseric, their king, persecuted the 
 Church with even greater ferocity than Diocletian. Con- 
 temporary historians, however, attest the firmness and con- 
 stancy of many of the faithful during those trying years. 
 Many faithful Christians must have been consoled during 
 that trying period by the exhortations of St. Augustine, 
 who in his book entitled " The City of God, " while dwelling 
 upon the confusion and horror of those troublous times, ex- 
 horts his fellow-Christians to lift up their eyes to the Eternal 
 City of God, whither they were hastening, and where alone 
 they could enjoy true peace and tranquility. 
 
 25. Odoacer in Italy. — We have seen that the Vandals 
 were driven out of Spain by the Visigoths, who had just mi- 
 grated from Italy. Though the Visigoths so soon abandoned 
 their conquests, the Romans were not long left in peace. The 
 place of the Visigoths was taken by the barbarian merce- 
 naries, belonging to different tribes. The leader of these 
 fierce and rude soldiers was Odoacer, himself a German, 
 though it is not known to what particular tribe he belonged. 
 At that time, the emperor of the West was a mere boy 
 of the name of Romulus Augustulus; he was unable to 
 oppose any resistance to Odoacer, and was compelled to 
 appear before the senate and resign. From the Ro- 
 man point of view, however, this did not mean the distruc- 
 tion of the Western Empire; if anything it meant the re- 
 storation of its unity under the emperor of the East, 
 who was then Zeno, reigning at Constantinople. Odoacer 
 recognized the supremacy of Zeno, and through the Roman 
 senate, begged for the honorary title of " Patricius," and to 
 be invested with the government of Italy in the Emperor's 
 
THE HUNS 17 
 
 name. The request was neither granted nor refused. 
 Odoacer assumed the title himself, and under his assumed 
 administration peace and order were partially restored to 
 Italy. But the success of Odoacer was not permanent. He 
 and his barbarian mercenaries in 488 were attacked by the 
 Ostrogoths under Theodoric, the ablest of all the Gothic rul- 
 ers. Theodoric gave out that he was acting under a com- 
 mission of the emperor Zeno, invaded Italy, defeated Odoacer 
 at the battle of Verona, and with the help of the orthodox 
 bishops, made himself supreme in northern Italy. In 493, 
 during the celebration of the treaty of peace, Theodoric 
 caused Odoacer to be basely murdered, and was thus enabled 
 to take possession of all Italy, which remained in the hands of 
 the Ostrogoths for nearly ninety years. 
 
 26. Invasion of the Huns. — The movement of the Visi- 
 goths into Italy and their migration into Spain and Southern 
 Gaul, the devastation of Africa by the Vandals, and the long 
 occupation of Italy by the Ostrogoths, were the three con- 
 spicuous events in connection with the movements of the 
 Gothic tribes. But during these migrations there took place 
 an invasion of a new and outside character. Between 444 
 and 450, the Huns under Attila invaded Europe. 
 
 The Huns were Mongolians — of the same race as the 
 Tartars and the Chinese, and a French historian of the 
 middle of the nineteenth century succeeded in proving this 
 fact by evidences drawn from Chinese sources. The Huns 
 soon became, what they were afterwards called, " The Scourge 
 of Europe. " These small, dark men, with big heads and 
 flattened noses, feeding on raw flesh and absolutely without 
 pity, filled both Roman and German with horror. The sav- 
 age invaders soon reached Gaul, and at the battle of 
 Chalons-sur-Marne (451) was decided the question whether 
 the Aryan family was to retain its supremacy in Europe, or 
 
i8 
 
 THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 
 
 whether it should give way before the Mongohan invader. 
 In that great battle, under Aetius the Roman, and Theodoric, 
 the future king of the East Goths, the different families of 
 the Aryan race met together and fought side by side against 
 the common foe. Attila was beaten, and the wave of Tartar 
 invasion rolled back to the lands of northern Italy. Verona, 
 Mantua, and other cities were already destroyed. Many of 
 the inhabitants of the mainland in their despair fled to the 
 
 Pope Leo turning back Attila from Rome. 
 
 islands of the delta of the river Po, and this gave origin to 
 the City of Venice, which in future times, owing to its sub- 
 sequent commercial prosperity, came to be called " Queen of 
 the Adriatic." Attila then went to Milan and Pavia, which 
 he treated with unusual clemency, and was soon on his way 
 to Rome. But the savage warrior who feared no natural foe, 
 feared the heroism of virtue and majesty of supernatural in- 
 fluence. Already in Gaul he had been turned away from the 
 city of Troyes by the awe-inspiring presence of Lupus, the 
 
RETREAT OF ATT 1 LA I9 
 
 bishop of that city, and now on his way to Rome he was met 
 by Pope Leo the First, who successfully warned him not to 
 continue his journey to the " Eternal City." According to 
 tradition, the admonitions of the saintly pontiff were intensi- 
 fied by the apparition of the apostles St. Peter and St. Paul, 
 who threatened the barbarian with instant death if he failed to 
 comply. Attila, after signing the treaty, retired beyond 
 the Danube and his death took place in 453. The in- 
 vasion of the Huns was a mere episode in the history of 
 Europe, and if we except the foundation of Venice, produced 
 no lasting result. It certainly interfered very little with 
 the remarkable process that was going on at that time 
 
 — the blending together of the Roman and the German ele- 
 ments. 
 
 The best way of arriving at a clear idea of this process, and 
 of giving some sort of unity to the very confused history 
 of this period, is to examine the lives of the few typical men, 
 who, each in his own way, represent all the important move- 
 ments of those times. These are Theodoric the Great, Clovis 
 in Gaul, Justinian in the Eastern Empire, and Pope Gregory 
 the Great. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Position of German tribes — Character of the Germans and 
 their political organization — Migrations of the German tribes 
 
 — Communication between Roman and German civilization — 
 Arianism among the Goths — Gothic invasion of Italy — The 
 Visigoths leave Italy — The Vandals in Africa — Odoacer in 
 Italy — Ostrogoths invade Italy — Invasion of the Huns — 
 Four prominent types of this period. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Oman, The Dark Ages; Villari, The Barbarian Invasions of Italy; 
 HoDGKiN, Theodoric ; Bury, The Later Roman Empire (a Glimpse of Hun 
 Life) ; Priscus, E.vcerpta de Lcgalionibiis ; Geffrey, Augusti, Rome, et 
 les Barbares; Orosius, Historiaruni, Lib. IL in Migne; Tacitus, Ger- 
 
20 THE BARBARIAN IM'ASIOXS 
 
 mania; Ozanam, Etudes Gcnnaniques; Glmmere, Gcnnanic Origins; 
 Des Gugnes, Histori dcs Huns; C.«sar, Gallic War. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 27. Character of Theodoric. — Theodoric after slaying 
 Odoacer became master of Italy ; so important was his reign 
 that its history is practically the history of the East Goths. 
 
 In his own person he typified the blend of the German and 
 of the Roman. He was a lover of German independence, 
 and at the same time, a profound admirer of Roman civiliza- 
 tion. It was the constant aim of his policy to bring together 
 German vigor and Roman culture, to harmonize in one char- 
 acter the best characteristics of both races. The breadth of 
 his political views, the far-sightedness of his policy in the 
 toleration of those whose opinions differed from his own, 
 made him the most accomplished statesman of the times. 
 
 28. Administration of Theodoric. — Theodoric fixed his 
 imperial palace at Ravenna, and from there ruled his Gothic 
 
 and Roman subjects. In the edict which he issued he settled 
 the legal affairs of his Roman subjects, by applying the prin- 
 ciples of Roman law. While, however, he was willing to up- 
 hold the best elements of Roman civilization, he was careful 
 to reserve the power of the sword for his own race, who thus 
 lived as a military aristocracy in the midst of a conquered 
 people. 
 
 The administration of Theodoric gave to Italy a season of 
 peace and prosperity. The clouds of foreign invasion and 
 internal trouble that had so long darkened the land were 
 dissolved, and Italy became once more a land of sunshine. In- 
 dustry and commerce again flourished. The battered walls 
 of Rome were repaired, the Via Appia, or, Appian Way, was 
 
 21 
 
2.2 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 restored, and the marshes of the Campagna were drained. 
 Every place bore witness to his activity. The restoration of 
 old buildings and the construction of new ones, the re-opening 
 of mines and the establishment of factories, and above all, the 
 care with which he fostered the art of agriculture, showed 
 his recognition of the importance of material and economic 
 prosperity. 
 
 29. Cassiodorus and Boethius. — Nor was he unmindful of 
 the advancement of learning. Though he himself was unable 
 to read, he became a patron of men of letters. Cassiodorus, 
 his prime minister, was a man of letters and an historian. The 
 most celebrated of the works of Cassiodorus are his history 
 of the Goths in twelve books and his treatises on logic, gram- 
 mar, music and astronomy. Among his religious works is 
 an exposition of the Psalms. Another great man of letters 
 patronized by Theodoric was Boethius, who as consul also de- 
 voted a great part of his time to the service of the common- 
 wealth. Boethius had studied eighteen years at Athens, ac- 
 cjuainting himself with literature, philosophy, and mathe- 
 matics. His writings were numerous and varied. Amongst 
 them were commentaries upon Aristotle, and a treatise on 
 music. His fame traveled so far that the king of the Bur- 
 gundians visited Rome, not only to view the wonders of that 
 city, but to talk with Boethius. 
 
 30. Theodoric's Foreign Policy. — But the fame of Theo- 
 doric as a patron of letters fades before the originality and 
 vastness of his political genius. He not only conceived the 
 idea of building up a Gothic Roman empire in an independent 
 Italy, but he also tried to bring about a confederation of Ger- 
 man states ; in fact he seems to have been the first to dream of 
 a united Germany, a dream that was only realized in the time 
 of Bismarck. One great instrument in the carrying out of 
 
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FOLICV or- IHEODOklC 23 
 
 this policy of Thtrxk/ric was to establish marriage rtl&tiom, 
 tiCtween hirmelf and the different German trifles. Hi* %i*ter, 
 for txurmyU:, was given in marriage to the king o£ the Bar- 
 gundians, while his two '-'; . were married re»p'^ 
 
 to the king of the West O ... i to the future kin^; , 
 
 iJurgundians. Even the distant Franks in the Xorth were 
 not left out, for he himself married the sister of Chlodowig, 
 their chief, Xot content with this, h-: ":di- 
 
 ator between warring German trit^es, r eir 
 
 common origin and of the dttty of peace and mutual good will 
 
 31. Theodoric's Attitude Towards Beligion, — The char- 
 acter and ability, howe^*'er, of Theo<loric were not crowned 
 with any final success. The great obstacle in the way of his 
 pfAicy of unity was his rtligion, Theodoric was an Arian, 
 while the bulk of his subjects in Italy were orthodox Cath- 
 olics. At first he tried to conciliate those who differed from 
 his own creefl, but the severe measures passed by the emperor 
 Justin (S^3) ^^ ^^^ East against the Arians embittered his 
 mind, and he retaliated by persecuting the orthodox Christians 
 in Italy. 
 
 On ascertaining that the emperor together with some 
 memljers of the Roman senate was engaged in a conspiracy 
 against him, he began to suspect e^/'en those who had been his 
 most trusty confidents. Among these was Boethius, who was 
 suspectefl of being one of the chief conspirators. Boethius 
 was thrown into prison, and it was during his captivitj.' that 
 he wrote the celebrated " Consolation of Philosophy," a work 
 that was afterwards translated into Anglo-Saxon by King 
 Alfred the Great. After t^^o years' captivit}.-, Boethius was 
 put to death, and in the following year. Sv-mmachus. his 
 father-in-law, shared the same fate. Theodoric himself died 
 in 526, Not only w^ere his dreams of a united Germany 
 dashed to the ground, but even the Ostrogothic empire in 
 
24 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 Italy was swept away so completely that even the very name 
 of Ostrogoth in Italy went into oblivion. 
 
 32. Character of the Franks. — We now turn to another 
 barbarian type, differing in intensity from that presented to 
 us by Theodoric. The East Goths, owing to their close prox- 
 imity to Rome, had quickly picked up the elements of Roman 
 civilization, but the Franks in the North were more removed 
 than other Germans from such humanizing influences. Of all 
 the German tribes, the Franks were the most anti-Roman, and 
 the most tenacious of all the good and bad qualities of un- 
 adulterated barbarism. Their original home was in middle 
 Germany, in a district called Franconia, situated between the 
 Main and the Rhine, and from there they moved into Belgic 
 Gaul in the northeast part of France. Though Belgic Gaul 
 was in the possession of Rome, it was not so fully Roman- 
 ized as the lower and more southern parts ; and thus the 
 Franks, unlike the Goths, had not lost any of their barbaric 
 beliefs and customs. They still clung to their pagan deities 
 and still kept up their old habits of martial savagery. Occa- 
 sionally, however, circumstances brought the Frank into touch 
 with the other nations. On the battlefield of Chalons, when 
 the scattered members of the great Aryan family united 
 against the wave of Hunnish invasion, we hear of a Frankish 
 king called Merovic, who fought under Aetius, and this 
 Merovic became the mystic source of the Merovingian 
 house. 
 
 33. Conquests of Clovis. — It was in the reign of Clovis 
 (481) that the Franks began to form a united nation, ambi- 
 tious of territorial conquest, but their method of acquiring 
 Roman territory differed considerably from the method 
 adopted by the other German tribes. They did not give up 
 their old homes like the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, and their 
 
CONVERSION OF THE FRANKS 25 
 
 movements ought rather to be called expansion than mi- 
 gration. 
 
 In the year 486 Clovis defeated Syagrius, the Roman dele- 
 gate of the Eastern emperor. The capital of the jurisdiction 
 of Syagrius was at Soissons, about 100 miles north of Paris. 
 The defeat of Syagrius enabled Clovis to extend his power as 
 far south as the river Loire, and his marriage with Chlotilda, 
 a Catholic princess of Burgundy, secured him the good will 
 of the Burgundians. Clovis in 496 turned his arms against 
 the tribe of the Alemanni, a German people living in the neigh- 
 borhood of the Black Forest. At some place in Alsace (the 
 precise locality is unknown) a decisive victory (496) gave the 
 province of the Alemanni into the hands of Clovis. Its main 
 importance consists in its being the indirect cause of the con- 
 version of Clovis to the Catholic faith. When the issue of the 
 battle was still uncertain, Clovis made a vow to become a 
 Christian, if God would give him the victory. Clovis did not 
 break his promise, and the consequences of his conversion 
 were most momentous. 
 
 34. Effects of the Conversion of the Franks. — The Franks 
 were the only German tribes that, on leaving paganism, 
 adopted the orthodox form of Christianity. It was no wonder 
 that Pope Anastasius II rejoiced at the news and urged 
 Clovis to be a loyal son of Holy Church. Soon between the 
 Franks and the Pope an alliance was made of such an intimate 
 character that it eventually lead to the foundation of the Holy 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 Clovis was instructed in the Christian faith by St. Remigius, 
 bishop of Rheims, by whom he was also baptized on Christ- 
 mas day, 496. He was then anointed and crowned king, the 
 ceremonial for the occasion being borrowed partly from the 
 liturgy supplied by the Book of Kings and partly from Byzan- 
 tine sources. The first political fruits of this conversion were 
 
26 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 fresh conquests.. Clovis turned his eye to the lands south of 
 the Loire and determined to wage war on the Arian Visigoths 
 whom he regarded as heretics and enemies of the Church. 
 Between 507 and 511 he drove the Visigoths to the other side 
 of the Pyrenees; all the land that remained to them in Gaul 
 being a small strip in the South. 
 
 35. General Aspects of Clovis' Work. — The conquests of 
 Clovis were more permanent than those of Theodoric, for 
 there was no religious obstacle to prevent the blending of 
 German and Roman elements. Though he does not seem to 
 have had any definite policy, and though his achievements 
 seem to have been suggested more by the circumstances of the 
 moment than anything else, yet his conquests and his con- 
 version laid the foundation of the great Prankish Empire. 
 Towards the close of the sixth century, the Pranks had ex- 
 tended their power over what now corresponds to the Prance 
 and Belgium of our times, together with part of Western 
 Germany as far as Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 In 511 Clovis died at Paris, and regarding his possessions 
 as purely personal, distributed them among his four sons — an 
 example which was followed by later Merovingian kings and 
 which lead to the ultimate division of the Prankish realm into 
 Neustria, the West Kingdom, with its capital at Paris, and 
 Austrasia, the East Kingdom, with its capital at Aachen, or 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 36. Justinian. — The Emperor Justinian affords a type of 
 an altogether different character. Around him are grouped 
 the most remarkable events of the Eastern Empire and the in- 
 fluences of that empire on Western Europe. 
 
 The immediate predecessor of Justinian was his uncle, the 
 emperor Justin, a peasant of Illyria, an able soldier and a suc- 
 cessful general. He w^as void, however, of the rudiments of 
 
RIVAL FACTIONS 2y 
 
 learning' and was glad to avail himself of the assistance of 
 the youthful Justinian for whom he had procured a wide and 
 liberal education at the University of Athens. 
 
 Justinian succeeded to the imperial throne in 527, i\.. D., 
 and by the wideness of his interests, and his skill in choosing 
 his instruments accomplished many things and with conspicu- 
 ous success. 
 
 37. The " Greens " and " Blues." — Perhaps the most diffi- 
 cult of his tasks was the restoration of internal peace and 
 tranquillity. The obstacle to this had all along been the con- 
 test between the two rival factions labeled respectively the 
 Greens and the Blues. The Blues were loyal to the emperor 
 and orthodox, the Greens were devoted to a rival claimant to 
 the throne and were heretics. From very early times there 
 had been in Constantinople different parties who were named 
 after different colors worn originally by rival contestants in 
 the circus ; soon these parties became rallying centers for all 
 the opp(.)sing elements in the empire; and the colors became 
 symbols of opposing strife, not only in the state, but also in 
 religious affairs. 
 
 Justinian's attempt to cjuell the disorder occasioned by these 
 factions only had the effect of causing them to combine against 
 himself. So desperate was his condition that he was on the 
 point of fleeing from Constantinople, and was only deterred 
 by the insistence of his wife Theodora, who persuaded him to 
 .remain and fight for his throne. He followed her advice. 
 The rioters were completely subdued and the city was soon 
 entirely at the mercy of the emperor. 
 
 38. Conquests of Belisarius and Narses. — Justinian then 
 tried to recover from the Germans the provinces that had 
 been snatched from the empire. In 533 he sent a powerful 
 army under Belisarius into Africa in order to crush the king- 
 
28 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 dom that had there been set up by the \'andals. The task was 
 rendered easier by the fact that the orthodox Christians of 
 the African province were badly disposed toward their Vandal 
 rulers and welcomed Belisarius as a deliverer from the fetters 
 of heretical bondage. On the feast of St. Cyprian, the great 
 African Saint. Belisarius entered the walls of Carthage in 
 triumphal procession, after which Gelimer, then king of the 
 \'andals. was beaten and the old province of Africa was re- 
 stored to the empire. 
 
 Belisarius then crossed over into Italy and began to subdue 
 the East Goths. Xaples and Sicily fell into his hands, and 
 even Rome surrendered. But the Ostrogoths rallied against 
 the invader. Belisarius. owing to insufficient support from the 
 emperor had to be recalled and his place was taken by another 
 able general, called Xarses. who in 552. at the battle of Ta- 
 gin:e. completely crushed the East Goths. The whole of Italy 
 for a time thus fell under the emperor's control, but large 
 portions of this conquest fell away. The only permanent ele- 
 ment of it was the district round Ravenna. This was called 
 the Exarchate of Ravenna, from the word " exarch '" which 
 was the title of the prefect that ruled it in the name oi the 
 emperor at Constantinople. 
 
 Even the \\"est Goths in Spain did not escape the attention 
 of Justinian. A Greek army was sent into Spain and con- 
 quered an important strip of territory on the southeast coast. 
 
 39. Affairs in the East. — At home. Justinian tried to pro- 
 mote the industrial strength and prosperity of the country. 
 But unfortunately one of his ministers. John of Cappadocia. 
 largelv neutralized his efforts in this direction. Owing to the 
 baleful activity of this individual, the provinces, especially 
 Lvdia and Cilicia were laid under heavy taxation ; the state 
 post was abolished, and trade was hampered by the imposi- 
 tion of heavy duties on all exports and imports. 
 
CODIFICATION OF THE LAW 29 
 
 In religious matters Justinian exercised a strong active 
 influence. He himself was an orthodox Catholic and did his 
 best to put down heresy and paganism. One conspicuous act 
 of this policy was the closing of the University of Athens. 
 Although some of the greatest Catholic writers had been 
 educated there, yet it was certainly a place of refuge for the 
 old pagan traditions. Most of the professors were pagans, 
 and in spite of isolated instances, its general spirit was an- 
 tagonistic to the spirit of Christianity. 
 
 40. The Codification of the Roman Law. — The crowning 
 achievement of the reign of Justinian was the codification of 
 Roman Law ; that is to say, he brought into some sort of unity 
 its scattered fragments. These fragments may be classified 
 as follows. 
 
 (a) The Tzvelve Tables of the Lazv. 451 B. C. These 
 form the first instance of written law in Roman history, and 
 were drawn up in answer to a demand of the people who re- 
 sented the uncertainty and hardship arising from a lack of 
 fixed standard of justice. 
 
 (b) TJie Resolutions of the People. In the early days of 
 the Roman republic the plebeiscita or resolutions of the 
 people occupied the most important place in legislation. 
 When however the Senate by degrees assumed the real con- 
 trol of legislation, then the 
 
 (c) Seuatus Consul fa or decrees of the senate occupied 
 the more important position in the Roman code of laws. 
 
 (d) P rectors' Edict. Besides these sources of Roman 
 law there were the decisions of the Prsetors which practically 
 correspond to our judge-made law. The laws of the Tables 
 were meant only for Roman citizens. But as Rome enlarged 
 her possessions, she found herself brought more and more 
 into contact with strangers. Disputes sometimes rose be- 
 tween these strangers and Roman citizens. Rome was un- 
 
30 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 willing to allow them the privilege of being tried by her own 
 laws so she devised a code of law specially adapted for such 
 cases. Already she had noticed that other nations had cer- 
 tain common elements of jurisprudence; so she grouped these 
 together and applied to them the name Jus Gentium or Law 
 of Nations. This closely corresponds to what philosophers 
 call natural law. A special praetor was appointed every year 
 to administer this law% and the edict which he pronounced on 
 his entry into office also formed part of the Roman code. 
 
 (e) RcspO)isa rnidcntum. These were the opinions of 
 Roman lawyers. In "those days a clever lawyer would be 
 visited by crowds of clients who put to him all sorts of ques- 
 tions on cases both real and imaginary. His answers to these 
 questions soon occupied the same position, as the case law does 
 in our times. 
 
 41. The Justinian Code. — It is evident that in such a num- 
 ber of laws, drawn from so many different sources, there must 
 have been a great number of contradictions and inconsist- 
 encies, and it was in order to remove these, as well as to make 
 some classification, that Justinian ordered an eminent lawyer. 
 Tribonjus, to collect and arrange all these scattered fragments 
 of the law. The work was successfully accomplished. The 
 laws themselves were arranged into one ordered group called 
 the Justinian Code. The opinions and decisions of lawyers 
 and judges were arranged into another group called the Pan- 
 dccta, and the laws which were issued afterwards by Justinian 
 himself were allotted a distinct place by themselves, and called 
 the NovcUcc. A treatise called Institutes was also prepared 
 on the general principles of Roman Law. 
 
 This work of Justinian was of supreme importance and re- 
 mains even to our own times. It was adopted by all the Latin 
 nations, and even occupies an important place in the codes of 
 the Southern States of America, in fact had the Justinian 
 
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 
 
 31 
 
 code appeared earlier, it might even have been adopted by the 
 Teutonic nations. 
 
 42. Byzantine Architecture.— Besides the codification of 
 Roman law, there is still another evidence of the wide rano-e 
 of Justinian's mind, and that is the numerous buildings of 
 the Byzantine style of architecture that rose during his reign. 
 
 
 Sii^MX 
 
 Church of St. Sophia. Built by Justinian in 538 on the site of a church founded 
 by Constantine, it was made into a mosque by the Turks after the capture of Con- 
 stantinople in 145.1. The diameter of the central dome is 107 feet. The four 
 towers are of Moslem origin. From the balconies, the Muezzin, or priest calls the 
 people to prayers. 
 
 What the Acropolis has done for Athens, and the Temple of 
 Jupiter for Rome, that the church of St. Sophia in Constan- 
 tinople has done for Justinian and the Eastern Empire. It 
 is a standing symbol of original genius and distinct national 
 character. St. Sophia is cruciform in shape and surmounted 
 in its center by a huge dome. No expense was spared in its 
 materials : marble, granite, and porphyry being brought from 
 Egypt and other places. The size of the dome alone may be 
 
3^^ GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 estimated from the fact that it is lighted by forty windows. 
 The example of St. Sophia soon introduced the Byzantine 
 stvle of architecture into other parts of Europe. Even at the 
 present dav this style is still used in Russia and reminds the 
 traveller of the greatness of that Byzantine empire in which 
 Justinian played such an important part. 
 
 Gregory the Great 
 
 43. The Lombards in Italy. — The same period of history 
 tliat saw the destruction of the East Gothic kingdom in Italy 
 and the death of Justinian, witnessed also the successful in- 
 vasion of Italy by the Lombards. L'nlike the East Goths, 
 who settled dowTi peaceably in the country they occupied, the 
 Lombards wandered restlessly alx>ut the peninsula spreading 
 ruin and devastation wherever they went. Those of them 
 who were not pagans were Arians, and all were bitterly hos- 
 tile to the Catholic Church. Failing to take the whole of 
 Italv. thev eventually settled in certain definite localities form- 
 ing a Lombard kingdom, the capital of which was Pavia, the 
 residence of the Lombard kings. The great plain of Lom- 
 bardv takes its name from them. They also had extensive 
 possessions in the middle of Italy, the most important of these 
 being the duchies of Benevento and Spoleto. 
 
 44. Rising Influence of the Church. — The Lombard inva- 
 sion considerably weakened the Roman element in Italy and 
 caused great misery and confusic>n. Amidst the anarchy of 
 the times it was the Catholic bishop that still maintained the 
 traditions of law and order, and it was mainly owing to his 
 auspices that the city still remained the center of government 
 and administration. 
 
 45. Rise of Western Monasticism. — There was also an- 
 other influence that tended to increase the influence of the 
 
RISE OF WESTERN MONASTICISM 33 
 
 Church, and that was the rise of monasticism. The essence 
 of the rehgious life consists in taking the three vows of pov- 
 erty, chastity, and obedience, and even from ApostoHc times 
 there were men who had embraced such reHgious Hfe. Up 
 to the fifth century the home of religious life had been in the 
 East. There the monks lived in solitude and extreme asceti- 
 cism. Though they were subject to the rule of a superior, 
 there was no community life, each monk living retired apart 
 in his own little cell. But the monastic system when intro- 
 duced into the West, assumed a different character and one 
 that was more suited to the requirements of the people. In 
 the year 480 at Nursia in the Sabine Hills, was born St. 
 Benedict who may be called the founder of Western Monasti- 
 cism. When he reached the age of fourteen he became dis- 
 gusted with the vanities and dangers of the world, and sought 
 refuge in the solitude where he might spend his time in re- 
 flection and prayer. Others attracted by the fame of his vir- 
 tues gathered around him and thus was formed a religious 
 community. 
 
 It became necessary to organize these aspirants after re- 
 ligious perfection, and St. Benedict drew up a rule contain- 
 ing seventy-three articles. The rule was mainly an abridg- 
 ment of the counsels of Christian doctrine and was adapted to 
 the needs of a community life. Some sort of hierarchy was 
 established. The first in authority was the abbot : next to 
 him came the pri(jr, and below the prior was the dean, who 
 had jurisdiction over ten monks. 
 
 46. Early Career of Gregory. — One of the most distin- 
 guished members of the order was St. Gregory the Great. 
 Born of a noble and wealthy family, and conspicuous for his 
 virtue and ability he soon rose to high office in the state and 
 even became pr?etor of Rome. The pope was so impressed 
 with his prudence and skill that he was sent as nuncio to the 
 
34 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 court at Constantinople. When Gregory returned after the 
 honorable fulfillment of his mission, he joined the monks at St. 
 Benedict of whom he soon became abbot. His past experience 
 was therefore exceedingly wide and varied. His experience 
 of civil life and his knowledge of ecclesiastical diplomacy and 
 his profound acquaintance with the religious life made him a 
 most worthy successor to Pope Pelagius. 
 
 47. Gregory's Temporal Administration. — Gregory as 
 pope was at the same time governor of Rome, and his adminis- 
 tration was firm and prudent. He put down disorder, im- 
 proved the condition of the Roman people, and handed on a 
 tradition of political government. With the revenues de- 
 rived from his property, Gregory managed not only to pro- 
 vide for the defense and other needs of Rome, but also to 
 make a monthly distribution of money and bread to the poor. 
 The good effects of his administration were quickly seen not 
 only in Rome but throughout the Papal Dominions, which ex- 
 tended into Sicily, Dalmatia, Gaul, and Sardinia. These pos- 
 sessions were cultivated by tenants who wTre bound to the 
 soil, and had to pay taxes in money or in kind. Each sepa- 
 rate estate was governed by an overseer, and over these offi- 
 cials Gregory exercised an untiring vigilance. 
 
 48. Gregory's Spiritual Activity. — But it is the spiritual 
 activity of Gregory that chiefly contributed to the splendor of 
 his reign. With high-minded energy he devoted himself to 
 the interests of the Church. While he was yet abbot he had 
 noticed certain Anglo-Saxons standing in the forum at Rome, 
 and inquiring into their origin wished to go himself to Brit- 
 ain in order to convert their countrymen, and was only pre- 
 vented by the insistence of the pope himself. But when 
 Gregory ascended the papal chair he sent St. Augustine to 
 England, and thus ultimately brought about the conversion 
 
GREGORY THE GREAT 35 
 
 of that country to the faith. St. Augustine landed (597) on 
 the shores of Kent, converted Ethelbert, the king of Kent, 
 together with a great number of the king's followers, while 
 Paulinus, one of St. Augustine's companions, introduced 
 Christianity into the North of England and prepared the way 
 for the missionary labors of the Irish saints. The light of 
 faith kindled by St. Gregory soon spread from England to 
 Germany. English missionaries, of whom St. Boniface was 
 most conspicuous, labored with untiring energy among the 
 heathen Franks and Saxons. 
 
 Pope Gregory also converted the Lombards in Italy. This 
 he did mainly through the instrumentality of Queen Theode- 
 bunda whose royal influence was not exerted in vain. 
 
 Even the Visigoths and the Suevi in Spain were brought 
 into the true fold by the unlimited zeal of Gregory. 
 
 49. His Organization of the Church. — But the spiritual 
 activity of Pope Gregory is perhaps still more interesting in 
 its general influence on the Church. He was careful to pro- 
 mote the strictness of religious life by providing that none 
 should take the vows before the age of eighteen, and that lay 
 administrators should take charge of the property of reli- 
 gious. He strove to tighten the reins of ecclesiastical disci- 
 pline over the general body of clergy and was careful to 
 enforce on them the rule of celibacy. Also for the guidance 
 of the clergy in their sacred duties he wrote a work called 
 " Cura Pastoralis " which was afterward translated into Ene- 
 lish by King Alfred. 
 
 It was Pope Gregory that chiefly organized the splendid 
 ceremonial of Catholic ritual in the West, and that collected 
 and arranged the so-called Gregorian music and established 
 it by authority. Nor was Gregory unmindful of the uses 
 and attractions of literature. While there were some in the 
 papal Curia wdio knew Greek, Gfegory himself, in spite of 
 
36 GREAT LEADERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 his mission to Constantinople, seems to have been ignorant 
 of that language ; yet both he himself and his attendants were 
 well versed in the most polished forms of Latin literature, 
 and his care for the education of the young is shown in his 
 erection of orphan asylums and schools for the poor. 
 
 50. Character of Gregory. — The type presented to us by 
 St. Gregory is perhaps more interesting than the other three 
 that we have been considering, because it presents so many 
 varied aspects, and, more than all, because the purity of his 
 motives was beyond suspicion. He realized in his life what 
 he himself describes in one of his epistles, " my honor is the 
 honor of the whole Church, my honor is to behold the bishops 
 filled with single-minded and earnest energy. Then only do 
 I feel that I enjoy true honor, when the honor due to all is 
 denied to none." The glory of God and the exaltation of His 
 Church was the chief end of all his actions. 
 
 It was such characters as that of Gregory that, thriving in 
 the soil of monasticism, saved Europe from utter barbarism 
 during the perils that threatened her from internal anarchy 
 and from the invasion of the Saracens. It was this spirit 
 of religious fervor that slowly broke down the walls that di- 
 vided society and that stirred the Christians of Europe to take 
 up arms against the enemy that in a short time was to threaten 
 the existence of civilized society. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Character of Theodoric — His policy and administration — 
 Cassiodorus and Boethius — Theodoric's foreign policy — 
 Theodoric's attitude towards the Church — Character of the 
 Franks — Conquests by Franks under Clovis — Franks embrace 
 orthodox form of Christianity — Clovis' conquests of the Visi- 
 goths — Character of Justinian — Difificulties that he had to 
 fight — ^ Justinian's conquests in Africa and in Italy — Justinian's 
 home and commercial policy — His attitude towards religion — 
 Justinian's code, what it contained and its importance — Byzan- 
 
TOPICAL SUMMARY 2>7 
 
 tine architecture under Justinian — The Lombard invasions — 
 Confusion in Italy — Chief preserver of order is the Bishop — 
 The Benedictine monks — Character of Pope Gregory the Great 
 — Pope Gregory's administration of Rome and of the papal 
 states — Conversions of the English, the Germans, the Visigoths 
 and the Lombards — Gregory's care for the spiritual improve- 
 ment of the Church — His patronage of the arts and letters. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 ViLLARi, Invasions of Italy; Munro and Sellery, Medieval Civilisation; 
 Gibbon, Decline and Fall; Oman, Byzant'me Empire; Harrison, The 
 Byzantine Empire in the Early Middle Ages; Procopius, De Edificiis 
 Domini Justiniani; Emerton, Introduction to the Study of the Middle 
 Ages; Henderson, Select Historical Documents; Hatch, Early Organisa- 
 tion of the Christian Church; Hodgkin, Theodoric; Translations of 
 Letters of Cassidonis; Sergeant, The Franks; Adams, Growth of the 
 French Nation; Hadley, Introduction to Roman Law. 
 
CHAFTFR IV 
 
 5x. N; . V ; V / \\>st. — AKmh the nn>f that 
 
 there rvx-ii : \ . . ■''-.: \\^^ vkr?t«>e\i t\^ hax^f a §Tfat <^- -^ 
 in $hs|«r 5^ 'Jx' \\>$t. Alrt^adv there h*vl V . 
 
 :j5.^t*e coijiw>iwicitk>n betw^^en the dviluatiott of the Ea^i 
 ; .>£ tbe \Ve$t. The w^r? bet\\^ee?\ the IVrj^aiv?; ami 
 
 5, V V vVx>^ the t^MJixljitkMx ot the Gneek Orw^ial eiiipsr^ by 
 Ak-xjij^^kr the Oif^eat, a«d the actixSty ot the R<>5i\a« ei«per- 
 •or? are ^^iiWk^u prcy>t$ that the tvro dvili2atio«v? wieiti' not 
 xdvvlh" s^ Aiv5 iv-w theT>e n^jse in the K;a5^ a j^w re- 
 
 %x^x. w . . ,<he<T hrate t^Mv^e >!6en>ev3 likely ;tT vm^ iin>e 
 ty> o>\^rwhe3ra the vrhoJe of Ewr<>5^. 
 
 5a> Tlie AnfeHA Pi»un$ul3L — v:^, 
 «ex\^ nv'\>en*etxt. Thi?; d^:>ir>a ^.:> a p. -. . . \ . ; > .^^ av 
 $>q\»T>e t«^te§ m e>cte«t. Jind sittiated hetw^ewt Fversia, Eg\-pt, 
 aix! SxTii. It <eo«i;a>^ toar the nv>>t part ot a lanje plateau 
 t^'- ' -%"Tt3im pUaoe? ik^?Joe?>3>5 abruptly to the $iea. It cv«- 
 t. - - * roe*ik>\\^ jvaln^ tr^eiJs and spsoe^ and one part of 
 k fe the ho«ne of the swiftes? I^>eev5 of hors>e$ and carads^ Tbe 
 iiihabiitai«t$ ai>e S-waiiv, that i:? to sax*, they beicvi^ to the 
 $aane race a>: the Jew^ thiX^ their langnage <fiffiers fivMn die 
 J<exiri<h b3'^:tj^§t'. At the tin>e wheal Mohammedanism ap- 
 peared they had no ors^aniaevl states^, hat Kved a:? >scattered 
 tnbe$ bet\\>e>e« whon^ rfje mam, pef)Hq»$ the only sosonnw of 
 conwBwnicai^i^ \ca? the caravansv cr companies: of n*M>chants, 
 that traveicvi together for ^rr^eater sjecmity, TT>eir ne)%;ion 
 w^ij; a cntiow^ n^evJley of hehefs. hro«^;ht together from dif- 
 
 ;^55 
 
A NI:W r I.I.I f:iON 39 
 
 fcrcnl sources. Slur-worship, ( tn-.i-M mytholoj(y, and fraj<- 
 iiHMjts of riirisfi;iij lr,vlit,ion, all fouu'l plaa: in their worship. 
 
 53. Early Life of Mohammed. — It was in this country in 
 ihc y<;ar 570 A.J>>. that .Vlohaint/jcd was Ix^rn. His parents 
 died when he was still very younj^, and his early youth was 
 pa-.,f:d nudr-r the rare of his uncle, who treaterl him kindly, 
 hut who seems to have done little to procure for him the rudi- 
 ments of a liheral education. In fact, he a^uld neither re;id 
 nor write. His chief oa:upation was that of a shepherd boy. 
 
 At fifteen years of ajje he entered the service of a rich 
 widow called Kadijah, 'i'his proved to l>e the turninj( point 
 fjf his career, ile acquired money and influence, and what, 
 was i>erhaps still more imix^rtant, leisure to tjea^me a day- 
 drcainc-r. 
 
 54. A Ncv/ Religion. — 1 Ic began to have visions, and 
 even fjrcamcd that the Archanj^el <^iahriel apj>eared trj him 
 and made certain revelations. Soon, these <'lay-dreams and 
 supjjosed revelations coalesced into a kind of systematic creed 
 whose monotheistic nature was opposed to the relig^ious cus- 
 toms of the town of Mecca in which he lived and which cer- 
 tainly tended to weaken the influence of the priests of the 
 idolatrous worship, 'ihe result was that the people of Mecca 
 rose against him, and he was compelled, in 622, to fly to the 
 town of -Medina, 'ihis flight afterwards Ijecame famous in 
 history and is called the Ilegira, Mohammed, however, did 
 not remain long in exile. He returned to Mecca with an 
 armed force anrl made himself master not only of the city, 
 hut also of the whole of Arabia, 
 
 55. Doctrines of the Koran. — Mohammed now l>egan to 
 write down the revelations that he claimed to have received. 
 These formed a book called the Koran, which not only con- 
 
DOCTRINES OF THE KORAN 4 1 
 
 tains the religious and moral code of the Mohammedans but 
 also regulates all their civil, legal, and military affairs. 
 
 The chief doctrines of ^Mohammed were simple, and were by 
 no means original. He upheld the doctrine of one God, but 
 without distinction of Three Persons, and taught that Abra- 
 ham, Moses, and Christ were alike messengers of divine reve- 
 lation of which he himself was the fullest exponent. Re- 
 demption, justification, and grace found no place in the creed 
 of Mohammed, but the doctrine of future reward and pun- 
 ishment was taught in a material and sensual fashion. 
 
 One very important characteristic doctrine of the IMoham- 
 medans was fatalism. They believed that a certain given 
 result was bound to take place not by providential action of 
 efficient causes, but by an express pre-determination of destiny. 
 Such a doctrine necessarily had great influence upon their po- 
 litical and military character. It gave to them a certain stoi- 
 cism and fortitude in the midst of the most trying events and 
 gave to them in war a violent recklessness which few could 
 withstand. 
 
 56. Externals of Mohammedanism. — The practices of the 
 Mohammedans have, in common with those of other false re- 
 ligions, this characteristic, that they regard mainly the ex- 
 ternals of religion and pay very little heed to the conditions of 
 true interior sanctification. Prayer five times a day, alms- 
 giving both of money and goods, the obligatory yearly fast 
 during the month of Ramadan and optional fasts during the 
 year, and at least one pilgrimage to Mecca during the course 
 of one's life-time — these were the chief of their pious prac- 
 tices. Their private life was regulated by precepts, some of 
 which were rather austere. Intoxicating liquors are forbid- 
 den, and some extended the prohibition even to the use of 
 coffee, on account of its disturbing influence on the imagina- 
 tion. Certain games of chance were also forbidden. Broth- 
 
42 MOHAMMED AND THE ARABIAN CONQUESTS 
 
 erly charity was inculcated, widows and orphans were to be 
 protected, and slaves to be treated with consideration. 
 
 The most objectionable practice in the Mohammedan reli- 
 gion was polygamy. In this Mohammed himself set an evil 
 example by marrying no fewer than seventeen wives, but he 
 strove to restrain the practice among his followers by limit- 
 ing the number to four. 
 
 57. Spread of the New Religion. — The creed of Moham- 
 med soon became the dominant religion in Arabia, and Mo- 
 hammed himself became at once both pope and king of the 
 now united nation of Arabia, which had become a theocratic 
 state, that is, a state which is also a church. But the enthusi- 
 asm inspired by the personality of Mohammed did not confine 
 itself to Arabia. Conquest and expansion became the key- 
 note of his policy, and the Mohammedan invasion soon 
 reached the borders of the Greek and Persian empires. 
 
 Mohammed, however, did not live to see the full achieve- 
 ment of these successes. He died in 632, and Abu Beker was 
 elected as his successor. Abu Beker was less of a visionar)' 
 than Mohammed, but endowed with greater practical energy. 
 In a very short time the revolts that had arisen in Arabia on 
 the death of Mohammed were crushed, Syria was overrun and 
 when Abu Beker died in the full tide of conquest, his place 
 was quickly taken by Omar who completed the conquests of 
 Beker and planned others even still more extensive. 
 
 58. Foreign Conquests. — Syria was now completely sub- 
 jugated; indeed, the lax and indolent character of the Syrians 
 made them an easy prey for any invaders, while its riches af- 
 forded a temptation hard to resist. Syria at that time was a 
 large and populous country, with many rich cities. The capi- 
 tal was Antioch, called on account of its affluence and splen- 
 dor, " The Crown of the East." Not only was it a celebrated 
 
MOHAMMEDAN CONQUESTS 43 
 
 emporium, but it was also one of the earliest centers of Chris- 
 tianity, and was also a patriarchate. From Syria the tide of 
 invasion swept over the Holy Land. Jerusalem was taken 
 and on the platform of one of its temples was erected a 
 mosque, called after Omar, " The Mosque of Omar." This 
 is an eight-sided building, with beautiful porches and brilliant 
 mosaics, and under the dome of the building is the sacred 
 rock on which it was believed that Abraham was about to sac- 
 rifice Isaac. 
 
 Omar then turned his arms against the Persians, whom 
 he defeated with almost as much ease as the Syrians. The 
 chief religion of the Persians was Zoroastrianism, one of 
 whose chief practices was till quite recently supposed to be 
 fire-worship. Many of the Persians fled to India, and their 
 descendants are now called Parsees. 
 
 The wars of conquest did not stop even here. In 634 
 Omar was hesitating in his mind whether he should attack 
 Egypt. Amron, his able general, was already on the fron- 
 tier. Omar sent him a letter bidding him to return. But 
 Amron, guessing its contents, refrained from opening the let- 
 ter till he had crossed the frontier. Egypt soon fell, and 
 with it was also taken Alexandria, the center of intellectual 
 and commercial activity, the home of the Jewish philosophy, 
 the city of Philo, of Origen and Clement. Christianity was 
 almost entirely stamped out, the Copts alone retaining some of 
 the traditions of the ancient faith. 
 
 It soon became evident that Europe itself would soon be- 
 come the next object of attack, and Spain was the first country 
 to bear the brunt of the invasion. Spain at that time was in 
 a feeble condition. The Visigoths had become corrupt and 
 feeble, the kings were destitute of ability and all was in a 
 state of division and anarchy, the bishop alone still remain- 
 ing the upholder of law and order. A certain Count Julian, 
 through motives of revenge invited the Arabs to cross over 
 
44 MOHAMMED AND THE ARABIAN CONQUESTS 
 
 into the country. The invitation was accepted. Tarik, the 
 Arab chief, lead his troops over to Gibraltar; at the battle of 
 Zeres, King Roderick was slain, and in 701 Spain as far as 
 the Pyrenees, fell into the hands of the Arabs. 
 
 In the early part of the eighth century Mohammedanism 
 had reached its furthest limits of conquest. In addition to 
 the territories already mentioned, it had obtained possession 
 of the islands of the Mediterranean, including Cyprus, while 
 swarms of Arabian pirates infested the whole of the Medi- 
 terranean, and even Constantinople itself was in danger. 
 
 59. Decline of Mohammedanism. — But fortunately for 
 Western civilization Arabian Mohammedanism began to de- 
 cline. All great movements are generally followed by a re- 
 action, and this is especially the case where the success of 
 such movements depend a great deal upon emotional enthu- 
 siasm. This was the case with Mohammedanism. The per- 
 sonal influence of Mohammed had produced much the same 
 kind of emotional fervor as we see in some of our new mod- 
 ern religions. But when Mohammed and the able leaders 
 who succeeded him had passed away a reaction set in, and 
 the " faithful " were not so willing to extend the " cause " or 
 to expose their heads on the field of battle for the certainty 
 of entering more quickly into the possession of their heavenly 
 reward. 
 
 Even this, however, hardly suffices to account for the rapid 
 decline of Arabian Mohammedanism. There were also po- 
 litical causes at work. We have seen that the wise and 
 statesmanlike Abu Beker who succeeded Mohammed was him- 
 self succeeded by Omar. Omar was followed by Othman, 
 an old man and capable of very little energy. When Othman 
 died in 655, Ali succeeded. Though Ali had been the earliest 
 and most enthusiastic disciple of Mohammed, he was pre- 
 vented from succeeding earlier, owing to the enmity of Mo- 
 
HAROUN-AL-RASCHID 45 
 
 hammed's favorite wife. Even now the claims of Ali were 
 disputed, and Islam became divided into two camps, one of 
 which upheld while the other rejected the claims of Ali. 
 Soon these two great factions were at rivalry with one an- 
 other. In the West there arose a line of Caliphs called the 
 Ommiades, and in the East there was the line of Abbassides, 
 the centre of whose power was at Bagdad in Persia. And 
 shortly after this there arose also (929) another line of 
 Caliphs in Cordova in Spain, and again another in Cairo, 
 called the Fatimites, claiming descent from Fatima, the 
 daughter of Mohammed. 
 
 60. The Dynasty of the Abassides. — Perhaps the most il- 
 lustrious of these great rival dynasties was that of the xA.b- 
 bassides in Bagdad. Haroun-al-Raschid is perhaps the most 
 brilliant representative of his line. His name has been 
 made famous in the Arabian Nights Tales. Though some 
 writers have exaggerated the moral goodness of his charac- 
 ter, yet he was an able and a very learned man, who tried to 
 administer justice in some sort of ready fashion. He was 
 also a skilful organizer, and succeeded in establishing an 
 elaborate machinery of government in which boards, or com- 
 mittees of men, played a very important part. There were, 
 for example, boards of trade, finance, and correspondence. 
 Later on, under the successors of Haroun, there seems to have 
 been introduced a strong feudal element. Provinces were 
 granted to soldiers on condition of their collecting the reve- 
 nue; out of this they had to provide for their own personal 
 expenses, and after paying the troops, had to remit a certain 
 sum of money to the court at Bagdad. Then the practice 
 crept in of allotting towns or districts to the members of the 
 ruling family, with all the jurisdiction of feudal lords. 
 
 Under the Abassides dynasty, Bagdad became famous for 
 its wealth and magnificence. It grew into a city of marble 
 
46 MOHAMMED AND THE ARABIAN CONQUESTS 
 
 palaces, full of costly furniture and gold and silver orna- 
 ments, while cathedral mosques of huge structure and quaint 
 styles, and marble fountains of ever-flowing water added 
 splendor and variety to the appearance of the city. Culture 
 and refinement were also present. There were public li- 
 braries, and booksellers' shops, and such social pastimes as 
 music and chess gave dignity even to lighter hours. 
 
 6i. Rise of the Turks. — But even this, the most learned, 
 the most civilized portion of the Mohammedan world was now 
 threatened by a new and terrible enemy. This was the Turks, 
 who were inhabitants of Turkestan, in Central Asia, and who, 
 on account of their race and barbaric characteristics, were very 
 different from the Arabian Mohammedans whom they were 
 destined to conquer. At first the caliphs found it convenient 
 to hire troops of these soldiers to ward off foreign invasions. 
 But soon these mercenaries acquired complete control. They 
 managed to dwarf completely the central power; they made 
 and unmade caliphs as they pleased, on one occasion setting 
 up four caliphs and deposing them for sheer sport. It was 
 not long indeed, before these Turkish tribes became complete 
 masters of the Mohammedan world. 
 
 62. Invasion of Europe Checked. — But some years before 
 the Arabian world began to suffer from the aggressions of 
 the Turks, it also suffered two very severe checks from the 
 Christians. In 720 the Arabs invaded Constantinople but 
 were expelled with great loss, partly owing to the strong 
 walls that had been erected by Justinian, and partly owing to 
 the strength and energy of the Isaurian dynasty, then reign- 
 ing at Constantinople. Again in 732, near Tours, in the 
 south of France the Arabian invaders were crushed by 
 Charles Martel, the leader of the Prankish hosts. These two 
 battles had the effect of preventing the Arabs from pouring 
 over Europe. 
 
MOHAMMEDANISM CHECKED 47 
 
 Their power, however, was not altogether destroyed. 
 They became a formidable naval power in the Mediterranean. 
 They attacked even Rome, and it was on account of their pres- 
 ence that the Leonine walls were built by Pope Leo IV, about 
 850. These walls enclosed that part of the city which is west 
 of the Tiber, containing the Vatican, Castle of St. Angelo, 
 
 t 
 
 iyih ,^. 
 
 A 
 
 
 J 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 
 ' "' . " 
 
 Rm 
 
 ^.- 
 
 1 
 
 ^S 
 
 B^^^S»», ^ 
 
 ^ ■'„■%■ W" 
 
 ^- *viriw*»- -■ :^ i 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■| 
 
 wm^' 
 
 jk 
 
 J^l^^ 
 
 ""^^m^^^^U 
 
 ^m 
 
 H 
 
 Bi^k^^s^^l 
 
 K 
 
 ^.^-^■'' 
 
 w 
 
 ^% 
 
 s 
 
 
 P 
 
 f 1 
 
 
 .:/^::£^ 
 
 Luokiiig across the Tiber toward the west. The round structure is the castle of St. 
 Angelo, while in the background are seen St. Peter's and the Vatican. 
 
 and a district called the Borgo — the whole of this enclosed 
 space being sometimes called the Leonine city. 
 
 But by the ninth century Arabian Mohammedanism began 
 rapidly to decline. The decay of its enthusiasm, the aggres- 
 sions of the Turks, the checks that it had received at the hands 
 of the Christians, and its own internal divisions, soon ac- 
 complished its complete overthrow. 
 
 63. Mohammedan Culture. — In estimating the effects of 
 Arabian Mohammedanism we must not forget that though 
 
48 
 
 MOHAMMED AND THE ARABIAN CONQUESTS 
 
 it was a lower type of civilization than the European, yet it 
 had important results on European culture and mental prog- 
 ress. It spread the study of philosophy, law, rhetoric, mathe- 
 matics, and philology, and it was partly through them that 
 the study of Aristotle became so wide-spread throughout the 
 Church. To the Arabs we are indebted for our knowledge 
 of Algebra, and for the use of the Arabic numerals. In 
 
 A part of the Hall of the Ambassadors in the Alcazar at Seville. The arches, col- 
 umns, and ornamentation are characteristic of the Moorish, or Arabesque, style 
 of architecture. 
 
 medicine and in chemistry they made a good beginning, and 
 many substances, such as alcohol and nitric acid, were dis- 
 covered by them. Their liberality of taste seems to have 
 been almost unlimited, and the immense number of manu- 
 scripts in the library of Madrid, written on all sorts of sub- 
 jects sufficiently testifies to the extent of their knowledge. 
 Indeed, the most celebrated schools of learning in Europe 
 
EFFECT OF ARAB INVASION 49 
 
 were Arabian, and were frequented even by Christian schol- 
 ars, among the most noteworthy of whom was Gerbert, who 
 afterwards became Pope Sylvester II. 
 
 64. The Unity of European Nations was greatly promoted 
 by the invasion of the Saracens. Nothing is so powerful as 
 foreign invasion to knit society together. On the field of 
 Chalons all the groups of the great Aryan family fought side 
 by side, and on France especially the effect of this union was 
 soon to become apparent. The invasion of the Saracens gave 
 to its ruler, Charles Martel, the opportunity that the war 
 with the Persians gave to Alexander the Great. It enabled 
 him to submerge intestine strife under the plea and necessity 
 of leading the nation against a common foe. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Contact between civilizations of East and West — Arabia — 
 Early years of Mohammed — His conquest of Arabia — The 
 doctrines and practices of Mohammed — Successor of Mo- 
 hammed — Mohammedan conquest of Syria, Palestine, Persia, 
 and Egypt — Mohammedan invasions of Europe — Moral causes 
 of the decline of Mohammedanism — Political causes of the 
 same — ■ The rival dynasties of Mohammedan caliphs — Great- 
 ness of the dynasty of the Abassides — Grandeur of the city 
 of Bagdad — Turkish invasion and conquest of Arabian Mo- 
 hammedanism — Disasters suffered in Europe by the Arabian 
 Mohammedans — Contribution of Arabian Mohammedanism to 
 Western civilization, learning, and culture. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 MuiR, Mohamuicd ; Gilman, Saracens ; Lane Poole, Speeches and Table 
 Talk of Molwmmcd ; Amur Ali, the Sfirit of Islam; Smith, The Bible 
 of Islam; Piggott, Persia, Ancient and Modern; Adams, Civilisation Dur- 
 ing Middle Ages; Duruy, Middle Ages. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 
 
 65. Changes in the Prankish Kingdom. — In the previous 
 chapter we saw how Charles Martel defeated the Arabian in- 
 vaders near the town of Tours, — an event that brings into 
 prominence a new dynasty that was now arising to greatness 
 among the Franks. 
 
 The old Merovingian dynasty, that had derived so much 
 splendor from the achievements of Clovis, was now fast de- 
 clining. It is true that the possessions acquired by him were 
 extensive, but there prevailed among the Prankish chieftains 
 the disastrous tradition that a father's territorial possessions, 
 even if he be a king, should be divided among all his children. 
 The result was continual quarrels and divisions, and the de- 
 struction of national unity. At the same time, the old Prank- 
 ish chieftains had lost a great deal of that martial energy^ and 
 barbaric virility that had been such a large element of their 
 success. 
 
 66. Dagobert I. — Only one or two names seem to stand 
 out from the long line of mediocrities. Dagobert I reigned 
 from 628 to 639, and for a brief space restored unity to the 
 kingdom. He was a great lover of order and justice, and 
 was a conspicuous patron of the Church. He reduced to 
 writing the customary laws of the kingdom, and built the cele- 
 brated abbey of St. Denis which became the historic burial 
 place of after kings of Prance. His reign also saw the en- 
 largement of the frontiers of Prance, which now extended 
 from the Weser in the East to the Pyrenees, and from the 
 Western Ocean to the frontiers of Bohemia, 
 
 51 
 
52 THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 
 
 67. Mayors of the Palace Assume Royal Power. — But 
 Dagobert died in 638, and his successors soon lost all the 
 substance of kingly power. This passed into the hands of 
 the prime ministers of the king, who were called the Mayors- 
 of the Palace. These soon usurped all real authority. The 
 decline of the power of the nominal authority was also com- 
 plicated by the division between the eastern and the western 
 part of Gaul, called respectively Austrasia and Neustria. The 
 eastern part was farther removed from Roman inHuences, 
 and was much more barbarous and German in character than 
 the western district. Open warfare soon broke out, and in 
 689, at the battle of Testry, near Soissons, it wag decided 
 that the leadership belonged to Austrasia, whose Mayor of 
 the Palace, Pippin, now began to rule both Austrasia and 
 Neustria. 
 
 68. Pippin, wdio thus held the reins of supreme power in 
 nominal subjection to his king, further strengthened the po- 
 sition of his family by foreign conquests, and more than all, 
 by an alliance with the Church. He conquered Swabia and 
 Bavaria, two nations of Southern Germany, and he took care 
 to make Christianity follow in the wake of his victorious 
 arms. The most pious and zealous bishops were invited from 
 distant countries to evangelize the conquered. Among these 
 were Willibroad, " Apostle of the Frisians," who founded the 
 see of Utrecht, and Boniface, " Apostle of Germany," who 
 founded the see of Maintz. Together with these bishops were 
 also a great number of monks, most of them from Ireland, 
 which was already rich in the Christian faith and its virtues. 
 
 69. Charles Martel. — Pippin was succeeded by Charles 
 Martel, a stronger man than even Pippin had been. It was 
 Charles Martel that defeated the Arabians at the battle of 
 Tours, and he still continued Pippin's policy of co-operating 
 
PIPPIN AND POPE STEPHEN 53 
 
 with the Pope, now Gregory II, by striving to spread Chris- 
 tianity in central and southern Germany. 
 
 70. Pippin II. — Charles Martel died in 741, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Pippin, who made the most of the strong 
 position that had been left him by his father. In 751 he felt 
 that he could now throw off all disguise and assuine even the 
 outward appearance of kingly power, an appearance which 
 still remained in the line of Clovis. He accordingly asked 
 the Pope whether it was not better that the man who had the 
 real power should not also have the title. The reply was af- 
 firmative. Childeric was formally deposed, his long hair 
 (the symbol of power) was cut off, and he himself quietly 
 put into a monastery, while Pippin was hailed king of Franks. 
 
 71. Close Alliance with the Pope. — This formal sanction 
 of the Pope gave great influence and prestige to the new dy- 
 nasty thus founded by Pippin, and now there began to be 
 drawn still more closely those bonds of alliance between 
 France and the Papacy that were destined to have such im- 
 portant results in after history. Pope Stephen was sorely 
 pressed by the Lombards, who, after making many conquests, 
 even marched on Rome. So great was the danger that the 
 Pope, to his own great risk, crossed the Alps and implored 
 in person the protection of Pippin. The request was soon 
 granted ; Pippin overcame the Lombards and forced them to 
 restore the rights and possessions of the Church of Rome 
 " donated to St. Peter, to the Church and to the Roman Re- 
 public " (754). These possessions comprised the exarchate of 
 Ravenna, and the territory of Bologna and Ferrara, all which 
 ultimately went to form a substantial part of the Papal States. 
 
 The intervention of Pippin is important because it showed 
 that now the king of the Franks, not the Eastern emperor, 
 was the real protector of Italy, and it thus emphasized the 
 
54 THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 
 
 growing estrangement between the Eastern and the Western 
 Churches. Considerable friction had already been caused 
 by the very different views that they held regarding the wor- 
 ship of images. The Catholic Church upheld this worship 
 as good and lawful, while the Eastern Christians rejected it 
 as idolatrous. Even at the present day the Greek Church is 
 conspcuous -for its denial of the worship of images, only 
 pictures being seen in its sacred buildings. 
 
 72. Charles the Great, — Pippin died in 768, and Charles, 
 his eldest son, succeeded to Austrasia and Neustria and a part 
 of Germany, while Carloman, the younger son, succeeded to 
 Burgundy and southern Gaul. But Carloman soon died, and 
 Charles then became sole ruler over the undivided Frankish 
 monarchy (771)- 
 
 The personality of Charles is supremely interesting, not 
 only on account of all that he did, but because he blended in 
 himself such different abilities of a very high order. He was 
 a theorizer and a man of action. He took a keen interest in 
 such academic studies as Latin, Music, and German gram- 
 mar, and at the same time, could organize all the details of 
 practical government. He could return from a long and sav- 
 age campaign and issue instructions for the holding of synods 
 and the conduct of the clergy. 
 
 73. Conquests of Charles. — His foreign policy was firm 
 and vigorous and the key-note of it was expansion — ex- 
 pansion however within reasonable limits. After subduing 
 the turbulent Franks and curbing the insubordination of his 
 vassals he entered on a series of campaigns against the Sax- 
 ons, who were the fiercest and most untractable of the German 
 tribes. Eventually the Saxons under their leader Wittekind, 
 were completely vanquished and the column of Irmin, a sym- 
 bol of their national unity and strength, was taken and trans- 
 
§^JJ If 
 
 5 a H= I I II Is 
 
CHARLEMAGNE CROWNED EMPEROR 55 
 
 ferred to a monastery. Charlemagne, acting against the ad- 
 vice of his clerical council, tried to convert the Saxons to 
 Christianity by force, with the result that the desired process 
 of conversion was retarded rather than hastened ; and it was 
 only in spite of great difficulties that churches were erected 
 and bishoprics established. Among these bishoprics were 
 those of Osnabruck, Munster, Bremen, Verdun and Halber- 
 stadt, all of which, even up to our own times, have held an 
 important position in lay and ecclesiastical history. 
 
 74. Coronation of Charles as Emperor. — There were wars 
 also in Italy. In 798 there had been a revolt in Rome against 
 Pope Leo III, on acount of certain criminal charges that had 
 been made against him. The Pope fled to Charlemagne and 
 begged to be reinstated in his authority at Rome. Charle- 
 magne, while emphatically announcing the principle " that 
 it was the right of the Pope to judge princes, and not theirs 
 to judge him," acceded to the request. The Pope returned to 
 Rome, accompanied by Charlemagne's officials. Charle- 
 magne himself followed later, and on Christmas Day, 800, 
 Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the Romans. 
 
 The meaning of this important act is threefold. First, it 
 lead to the establishment of what was called " The Holy Ro- 
 man Empire of the German Nation." Hitherto, the different 
 Germanic tribes had been at constant warfare with one an- 
 other. There had Ijeen no theoretic basis of union and cen- 
 tralization. This was now supplied, at least during Charle- 
 magne's time, by the recognition of a superior and universal 
 power. Second, it meant the withdrawal of the Romans from 
 their allegiance to the Eastern imperial court. For this a 
 justifiable pretext had been already found in the crimes and 
 cruelty of the Empress Irene, who had dethroned and blinded 
 her son Constantine VI. Third, it meant a still closer union 
 between church and state — a union that was beneficial to 
 
56 THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 
 
 the Church on account of the protection it afforded in turbu- 
 lent times, and beneficial to the state for the incentive that 
 was given to culture and intellectual progress. Voltaire him- 
 self says " If at this time the kingdom of Charles alone pos- 
 sessed some measure of culture, it is probably to be ascribed 
 to the fact that the emperor had made a journey to Rome." 
 
 75. Extent of Charles' Domains. — Charles was now master 
 of the greater part of Europe. Besides France itself, his 
 empire included more than half of modern Germany, three- 
 fourths of Italy, while on all the exposed frontiers, tributary 
 states were set up which were strongly fortified and which 
 served to protect what had already been won. His court soon 
 became the centre of intercourse with foreign nations. Irene 
 and her successors had at first stormed and raged and had re- 
 fused to recognize him. But Charlemagne was so concilia- 
 tory that by 813 he secured the recognition of his imperial 
 dignity by the Eastern court, was greeted by its ambassa- 
 dors as " Imperator " and " Basileus." With Ofifa, king of 
 Mercia (the middle kingdom of England) Charlemagne kept 
 up friendly relations, and later on, adopting a different policy, 
 aided in building up the power of Wessex (the southern 
 kingdom of England) against that of Mercia. Charles even 
 corresponded with the Caliph of Bagdad, giving and receiving 
 in return courtesies and presents. 
 
 76. Charles' Domestic Policy. — Charles' domestic policy 
 still maintained at least the forms of the old Teutonic demo- 
 cratic institutions. The principle that all should deliberate 
 and discuss matters of great moment, while the chiefs should 
 deal with less important business, was still recognized. Twice 
 in the year, in autumn and in spring, a general parliament was 
 held of all the free men. The popular element of these meet- 
 ings, however, has often been exaggerated, and in any case, 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF CHARLEMAGNE 57 
 
 Charles often issued special laws of his own, called capitu- 
 laries, which were less formal in appearance, but effected sub- 
 stantially any change or reform that he desired. 
 
 77. Units of Administration. — In order to extend his per- 
 sonal rule and supervision into e\-ery part of the land, he also 
 instituted a class of officials, all dependent upon him. Round 
 his own person, and forming his household, or palatium, were 
 the great nobles and clerics who formed a kind of permanent 
 council of state. Then there was the count (graf) who in 
 the emperor's name administered a great district, called gau, 
 which corresponded to our modern county, the dukes, who 
 fulfilled military functions, and the marchiones, or markgrafs, 
 who were the counts of border districts. While in order to 
 put a check on all these different officials, special commis- 
 sioners were sent out in pairs, one generally being a clergy- 
 man. They constituted not only a court of appeal, before 
 which even high offenders could be arraigned, but they at- 
 tended to such things as taxation, discipline of the army and 
 e\en the good conduct of the clergy. 
 
 78. Connection of Church and State. — In the whole of 
 this system a very prominent part was taken by the Church. 
 This, however, is not surprising when we remember that the 
 clergy then possessed" all the culture and refinement of the 
 age. And so, not only in the palatium was there a large 
 body of clergy called chaplains, who, under the archchaplain 
 or chancellor, performed a great deal of the general admin- 
 istration, but even throughout the scattered units of the em- 
 pire, ecclesiastics shared in all important civil and legal busi- 
 ness. Nor w^as this arrangement purely one-sided, for the 
 state was allowed to help in the administration of the affairs 
 of the Church. The election of bishops, the holding of 
 synods and carrying out of their decrees, the institution of 
 
58 THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 
 
 diocesan visitations — all these were considered to be matters 
 pertaining to the jurisdiction of the Church as well as of the 
 state. 
 
 Charlemagne as a soldier and as a statesman well deserves 
 the title of Great. But he is deserving of another kind of 
 interest, on account of the refinement and wide liberality of 
 his tastes. 
 
 79. Patronage of Learning. — He formed his court 
 into a palace-school called " Schola Palatina," and to this 
 school he drew many of the most renowned scholars of the age. 
 Among these were Peter of Pisa, Paul the deacon of the Ab- 
 bey of Monte Casino, and above all, the great English Al- 
 cuin, formerly head master of the school of York. Many 
 scientific treatises and literary writings testify to the ability 
 of the scholars of these schools, and to this period of intel- 
 lectual activity we owe some of the best Latin Hymns, such 
 as the " Crudelis Herodes," written for the feast of Holy 
 Innocents, " Veni Creator Spiritus," and others. In all these 
 schools Latin was studied with great zeal, and great attention 
 was paid to the classic authors. The insistence which they 
 placed on the necessity of good Latin made all the more per- 
 ceptible the difference between the written and spoken Latin, 
 so that the latter soon became a distinct dialect of its own, 
 which eventually developed into modern French. 
 
 Besides science and literature, Charles also took a keen in- 
 terest in music. Priests were invited over from Italy to give 
 lessons in singing, and the Organ was for the first time intro- 
 duced into Gaul. 
 
 Architecture also received a fresh impetus during the reign 
 of Charlemagne. 
 
 Charles was also interested in building. He built great 
 palaces for himself at Aachen, Maintz and Nymeguen. He 
 also erected many beautiful churches, the most noteworthy 
 
DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 
 
 59 
 
 being the church of Aachen, in which he was buried. Most 
 of the architects of these buildings were Itahans, and were 
 invited over from Italy. 
 
 The Cathedral at Aachen (Aix-La-Chapelle). The round part of the structure was 
 built by Charlemagne who was buried directly beneath the dome. The rest of the 
 cathedral, in the Gothic style of architecture, was added in the fourteenth century. 
 
 The death of Charlemagne in 814 ended one of the most 
 remarkable reigns of history. He not only founded a mighty 
 empire, and extended in many ways the domain and influence 
 
6o THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY 
 
 of the Church, but he gave a lasting impetus to the culture of 
 learning and art, and the spread of civilization. 
 
 80, Conquest of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons. — Between 
 the years 449 and 577, the Britons, who were the ancient in- 
 habitants of England, were driven from their ancient home 
 by certain tribes from Germany, chief among whom were the 
 Saxons. These tribes brought over with them all their an- 
 cient political institutions and in a few years set up a number 
 of kingdoms, each governed by its own king and Witan. By 
 degrees, however, three out of these several kingdoms acquired 
 the first position — they were, the kingdon of Northumbria 
 in the north, the kingdom of Mercia in the centre, and the 
 kingdom of Wessex in the south. Fierce wars broke out be- 
 tween the three kingdoms, each striving in turn to become ih^ 
 supreme power in England. At first Northumbria took th& 
 lead. Its kings Aethelric, Aethelfrith, Edwin, Oswald and.- 
 Oswi were great soldiers and strong rulers, and not only kept 
 Mercia in check, but also extended the Northumbrian borders 
 both west and north. Northumbria also was the first to ac- 
 cept Christianity after the conversion of Kent, and became 
 famous for its saintly bishops and such learned scholars as 
 Venerable Bede and St. Alcuin of York. But by the year 
 685 the power of Northumbria had declined, and Mercia, un- 
 der its two able kings, Penda and Offa, took the lead. The 
 triumph of Mercia, however, was even more shortlived than 
 that of Northumbria. It became weakened by intestine 
 strife, and in 828 Egbert of Kent, hitherto an exile at the 
 court of Charlemagne, saw that the hour had come. Rapidly 
 marching northward, he asserted the supremacy of the south- 
 ern kingdom of Wessex over both Mercia and Northumbria 
 so that now the king of Wessex became virtually the king of 
 all England. The warring Saxon kingdoms were at last 
 united and the English nation established. 
 
TOPICAL SUMMARY 6l 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Decay of the Merovingian dynasty — Importance of the reign 
 of Dagobert — Mayors of the palace — Rivalry between Neus- 
 tria and Austrasia — Conquests made by Pippin I and the con- 
 versions that followed — Charles Martel conquers the Saracens 
 — Pippin II and his alliance with the papacy — Coronation of 
 Pippin II as king of the Franks — Personality and character of 
 Charlemagne — Charlemagne's conquests — Charlemagne 
 crowned emperor by Pope Ixo III — Meaning of the Holy 
 Roman Empire under Charlemagne — Extent and influence of 
 Charlemagne's empire — Charlemagne's domestic policy — Pub- 
 lic meetings of the free-men — His system of local government — 
 Charlemagne's connection with the church — The Schola Pala- 
 tina — Charlemagne's patronage of learning and arts. Conquest 
 of England by the Saxons — The Heptarchy becomes three 
 great rival kingdoms. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 EiNHARD, Life of Charlemagne; Nombert, History of Charles the Great; 
 West, Alcuiii and the Rise of the Christian Schools; Bryce, Holy Ro- 
 vian Empire; Hodgkin, Charles the Great; Bede, Ecclesiastical History of 
 England; Kitchin, History of France; Emerton, Medieval Europe; Rob- 
 inson, Readings in European History; Mullinger, Schools of Charles 
 the Great; Green, A Short History of the English People. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY CONTINUED 
 
 8i. Reign of Louis the Pious. — Charlemagne had only- 
 one son, Lonis, snrnamed the Pious, on account of his be- 
 nevolent disposition. The year before Charlemagne died, 
 Louis was made colleague in the empire and on Charle- 
 magne's death in 814, he at once succeeded to the throne. 
 
 The reign of Louis illustrates one of the many general 
 tendencies that go to the formation of history. A great or- 
 ganization that is the result not of gradual growth of circum- 
 stances but of the individual work of some great genius, fre- 
 quently dissolves when the genius that has created it has 
 passed away. What took place on the death of Charlemagne 
 is an example of this : Louis was utterly destitute of the 
 commanding qualities of his energetic father, and it was not 
 long before the disintegrating forces of different races, lan- 
 guages, and customs began to show themselves. Moreover, 
 the Germans, who constituted the main element of the empire, 
 were for the most part factious and turbulent soldiers, i.nd 
 were opposed to the continuance of any authority. The main 
 interest of the reign of Louis centres in his relations with the 
 Church. Pope Stephen IV, who succeeded Pope Leo III, set 
 out for France and crowned Louis at Rheims. The newlv- 
 crowned emperor then did his best to further the interests of 
 the Church, by correcting the many abuses that had crepi in, 
 and by encouraging the institutions that now seemed most 
 helpful for this purpose. 
 
 82. The Canonical Life. — Already in Charlemagne's reign. 
 Bishop Chrodegang of Metz, seeing the dangers to which 
 
 63 
 
64 CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY— CONTINUED 
 
 secular priests were subject, tried to establish among his 
 clergy the canonical life. Ecclesiastics who lead this kind of 
 life dwelt under the immediate supervision of the bishop, and 
 led the common life, reciting their office in choir, eating in 
 the same dining-room and sleeping in the same dormitory. 
 Such communities were found not only in Cathedral churches, 
 but also in the larger parishes, and this gave rise to collegiate 
 churches. It was evident that the clergy, who thus lived in 
 communities, w^ere likely to be more devoted to their duties, 
 and were safer from the dangers arising from contact with 
 the world, than if they were living singly. 
 
 83. The Western Benedictines. — Besides the canonical 
 life there was also the religious life, and this became, even in 
 a higher degree, the great mainstay of the discipline and fer- 
 vor of the Church. During the middle ages all great move- 
 ments of reform had some connection with the religious 
 orders. We have seen how in Italy, at the time of Pope 
 Gregory the Great, St. Benedict of Nursia founded the great 
 order of Western Benedictines, and now about two centuries 
 later, another St. Benedict, the St. Benedict of Aniane, intro- 
 duced a similar reform into France. Louis the Pious had 
 such confidence in him that he entrusted to his supervision all 
 the convents of Western France. The rule adopted by St. 
 Benedict was substantially the same as that of St. Benedict of 
 Nursia, only that it was supplemented here and there in order 
 to meet the altered needs of time and locality. This combina- 
 tion of the old rule and the supplementary regulations became 
 known as the " Concordia Regularium," and soon acquired 
 almost as much fame as the original rule of St. Benedict of 
 Nursia. 
 
 84. Division of the Carlovingian Empire. — In the mean- 
 time, the political condition of the empire was far from satis- 
 
TREATY OF VERDUN 65 
 
 factory. The elements that composed it were far too differ- 
 ent in character, and even during the reign of Louis the Pious, 
 there were signs of pohtical disintegration. When Louis 
 died in 840, open war at once broke out. Louis had divided 
 the empire among his three sons Lothair, Charles, and Louis. 
 Lothair, being the eldest, soon claimed the whole of his 
 father's possessions, but Charles and Louis asserted that ac- 
 cording to the principles of Prankish tradition the empire 
 ought to be divided equally. In the struggle that ensued, 
 Charles relied for support on Prance, while Louis turned for 
 aid to Bavaria. At the battle of Fontenay near Auxerre, 
 Lothair was defeated, and had to withdraw to Aachen. A 
 little later he suffered another defeat, and seeing it was bet- 
 ter to sacrifice the whole in order to make sure of a part, he 
 offered to come to terms and to make some amicable division 
 of the empire. Li 843, at Verdun, was signed the famous 
 treaty of partition. By this treaty Lothair as emperor was 
 permitted to have his share in such a way as to secure him- 
 self in possession of the two capitals Aachen and Rome. He 
 accordingly acquired a long strip of territory extending from 
 the North Sea to Italy, the upper part of it being bounded on 
 the left by the Rhone and the Saone, and on the right by the 
 Rhine, though these rivers must not be taken as the exact 
 frontiers. All the territory west of this strip w'as allotted to 
 Charles, while the territory to the east went to Louis. 
 
 C5. Results of the Treaty of Verdun, — The treaty of Ver- 
 dun seemed the death-blow to the unity of the empire, but 
 from another point of view it brought almost uncalculable 
 benefit to the peoples of Purope. The western and the east- 
 ern divisions became respectively Prance and Germany. It 
 ^^ as the treaty of Verdun that allowed each of these two na- 
 ti()ns to start on its own course of development. Prance with 
 its romance tongue, its brilliant imagination, and precise sub- 
 
66 CARLOriXGIAN DYXASTY— COXTl.WED 
 
 tlety of thougrht. Germany with its vigorous acx-^nts and ro- 
 bust character and thoroughness — both received their start 
 from this memorable treaty of ^3. 
 
 So. Alter History df the Middle Kingdom. — The division 
 of the middle kingdom also occupied a very important place 
 in after European politics. Not only did it cause continual 
 strife between France and Germany, who were lx>th anxious 
 to absorb it into their own territories, but the upper part 
 soon began to split up into important duchies, each with an 
 eventful history of its own. In the southern part there be- 
 gan to reigrn king's of Burgimdy. First there was the king- 
 dom of Franco-Turan Burgundy, including the southern part 
 of Savoy, and a part of Switzerland, then there was the king- 
 dom of Cis-Juran Burgundy, including the northern part of 
 Savoy and also part of Switzerland. Finally these two king- 
 doms were united together to form a new kingdom of Bur- 
 gn^mdy, or Aries, which, with the exception of the Swiss por- 
 tion, gradually became annexed to France. The northern 
 portion of the middle kingdom went by the name of Lor- 
 raine, and soon divided into L'pper and Lower Lorraine, or 
 Brabant. In the early stages of existence. Upper Lorraine 
 belonged to Germany, but in the seventeenth century- it was 
 annexeil by France, which, however, had to cede a portion of 
 it to Germany after the war of 1871. 
 
 S7. Weakening of the Empire, — But however important 
 the treaty of \'erdun may have been in determining the after 
 history- of Europe, it served to emphasize the weakness of the 
 empire as a whole. The little duchies and small provinces 
 that were as many separate kingdoms began to assert ac- 
 tively their own local independence. Even kings over limited 
 areas found it extremely diffiailt to assert any central au- 
 thoritv. In those times good roads were an absolute neces- 
 
THE NORTHMEN 67 
 
 sily for kccpin;:^ np llic iicrcssary coinmunicatiV^n Ijctvveen the 
 center of ^^'■(n'eniinent aiul llic cjtitlyin^ jjarts, and wliat ^ood 
 roads had been constructerl Ijy the Komans harl unfortunately 
 been alUnved to decay. I'hen, ag'ain, in the middle a^es the 
 kin^s had to contenrl aj:^ainst the difficulties arising from 
 scarcity of money. Without a well-filled treasury they could 
 scarcely maintain an efficient civil service, or keep up a large 
 standing army in order to repress the insubordination of lo- 
 cal magnates. 
 
 88. Foreign Invaders. — 'Jhcse causes of disintegration 
 were sufficiently powerful in themselves, and just at the 
 critical time there appeared anr^lier flanger of an external 
 kind. This was the invasions of fierce anrl irresistible bar- 
 barians. 1^^-rjm the south came the Saracens, who terrorized 
 southern Italy and h'rance; frr;m the east came the Slavs and 
 Hungarians, who were continually harassing the German 
 territories, and from the north came the Northmen and the 
 Danes. Of all the invaders these were the most terrible. 
 The cause of their migration seems to have been j^artly that 
 which jM-oduced the great migrations in Europe itself. The 
 rudeness of the climate and .scantiness of the soil, combined 
 with increasing population, drove them to seek for places 
 where they might enjoy a more easy and toleraljle existence. 
 Also a political process was going on that tended in the same 
 direction. Great kingdoms were rising and threatening to 
 take the place oi the smaller kingdoms, each governed by its 
 jarl. The people of these smaller kingdoms therefore eagerly 
 sought for new homes where they might enjoy their old local 
 independence. 
 
 89. Settlements of the Northmen. — Norway lead the way, 
 and soon the little ships of the bold Norwegian pirates 
 scoured the remotest seas. The Shetland islands, situated to 
 
68 CARLOVINGIAX DYNASTY— COXTIXUED 
 
 the north of Scotland and Iceland with its volcanoes and 
 glaciers were the first halting places of these restive pil- 
 grims. Thev next traveled farther to the west, and dis- 
 covered Greenland, a name supposed to have been given this 
 land in order to attract settlers from Iceland. Others again 
 went to the North American continent, which from its fer- 
 tilitv was called Vineland. And wherever they went they 
 seem to have retained their old traditions of pett^y isolated 
 kingdoms, each enjoying absolute independence of the rest. 
 
 It was not long before other and more favored spots at- 
 tracted swarms of these adventurers. Those went to the ex- 
 treme north of Scotland, called Sutherland, from the North- 
 man's point of view. Thence they extended their way down 
 the southwest of Scotland, along the \\'elsh coast, even as 
 far as the fiords of Pembrokeshire. No country seems to 
 have been safe from their ravages. Gliding in their light 
 boats up the Seine and Loire, Garonne and Rhone, they 
 spread terror wherever they went. Even Paris at one time 
 seemed likely to fall into their hands. Of the French settle- 
 ments perhaps the most famous was that of Normandy, made 
 into a duchy by Rollo, who was its first duke. But even the 
 southern parts of Europe were not considered too remote. 
 Spain was attacked and the fair cities of Italy were laid 
 waste. 
 
 Another stream of migration started from Sweden. The 
 leader was Rurik who became the reputed founder of the 
 Russian monarchy. 
 
 go. Results of these Invasions. — These invasions seemed to 
 put back civilization by at least two hundred years. The 
 bonds of society were loosened, and complete anarchy would 
 have destroyed entirely the work of Charlemagne, were it not 
 for certain forces that seemed to have been providentially 
 brought into existence for the salvation of Europe. 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT 69 
 
 91. England; Reign of King Alfred. — The period roughly 
 co\-ered h\ the ninth century saw the ascendancy of the house 
 of W'essex, and a condition of constant warfare with North- 
 men and Danes. The most important king over Wessex dur- 
 ing this period was Alfred, surnamed the Great. He was cel- 
 ebrated as a statesman, as a writer, and as a general. As ad- 
 ministrator, he enforced submission to the legal jurisdiction of 
 the local courts, supervised the conduct of officials both secular 
 and lay. compiled a code of laws, and rebuilt schools and 
 monasteries. As a writer, his chief works were the transla- 
 tion of the Ecclesiastical History of England by Bede, inter- 
 spersed with reflections of his own, so that history now be- 
 comes no longer a mere chronological work, but a continuous 
 literary narrative. He also wrote a translation of the " Con- 
 solation of Philosophy" by Boethius, and of the "Pastoral 
 Care " by Pope Gregory. Alfred was also a soldier, and after 
 a series of great battles succeeded in preventing the Danes 
 from obtaining the complete conquest of England. His most 
 conspicuous means of defense was the organization of the 
 national militia, by which one-half of each shire was always in 
 readiness for military service, and his orginazation of an 
 English fleet with ships of improved model — so that Alfred 
 has been styled by some the " Father of the English Navy." 
 However, in spite of Alfred's genius and activity, he did not 
 succeed in expelling the Danes altogether. By the peace of 
 V>>dmore (878) the northern and eastern parts — about one-^ 
 half of England were left to the Danes, who in their gov- 
 ernment used their own laws and institutions. This dis- 
 trict was called the Danelagh (Dane Law), and to this day 
 certain names both common and proper, remind one of this 
 Danish occupation. The general result of these Danish in- 
 vasions and settlements was to add fresh vigor and virility 
 to the Saxons of Britain and to intensify rather than to destroy 
 the old English political and legal institutions; for both the 
 
70 CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY— CONTINUED 
 
 invaders and the invaded were of one blood, and their social 
 order and customs were inherited from the same parent in- 
 stitutions. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Immediate successors of Charlemagne — Character of the 
 reign of Louis the Pious — His relations with the Church — 
 Founding of canonical congregations — Monasticism reformed 
 by St. Benedict of Aniane — Division of the empire between 
 the three sons of Louis the Pious — Treaty of Verdun and 
 its importance — Future history and divisions of the middle 
 kingdom — Empire attacked by savage invaders — Causes of the 
 wanderings of the Northmen and Danes — Countries explored 
 or visited by the Northmen — Results of these invasions — Su- 
 premacy of the kingdom of Wessex — Importance of the reign 
 of Alfred the Great — Alfred as administrator, writer, and sol- 
 dier — His organization of the army and of the fleet — Treaty 
 of Wedmore with the Danes — Results on England of the Dan- 
 ish invasions. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Henderson, Germany; Emerton, Medieval Europe; Adams, Civilhation ; 
 DuRUY, Middle Ages; Church, Beginning of Middle Ages; Boyesen, TJie 
 Study of Norzuay; Sharon Turner, History of the Anglo Saxons; 
 Kemble, Saxons in England; Henderson, Historical Documents; Chaillis, 
 The Viking Age; Keary, Vikings in Western Christendom; Hughes, 
 Alfred the Great; Plummer, Alfred the Great. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 FEUDALISM AND MONASTICISM 
 
 92. Two Saving Forces. — 'I'he j)()litical disinteg'ralion <>f 
 tlic luiipire, and the invasions of the Danes seriously threat- 
 ened tlie ^■ery existence of European civiHzation. lUit in the 
 sn])renie hour of need there appeared certain forces that not 
 only undid in great measure the lun'(^c wrought l)y the Danes, 
 but also compensated to a considerable extent for the internal 
 damage wrought by political disunion and petty strife. 
 
 These forces were feudalism and monasticism. I'^eudalism 
 furnished society with a means of defense against foreign 
 invaders, and did away with political anarchy, while monas- 
 ticism kept alixe the light of learning, and maintained those 
 spiritual ties of brotherhood upon which society so much de- 
 pends. 
 
 93. The Nature of Feudalism. — Eeudalism may be de- 
 fined as a system of society based on land tenure. In its com- 
 \-)\ete form it combines political rights with ownership of land 
 on a large scale. In other words, a man is a judge, an ad- 
 ministrator or a general only because he happens to have a 
 certain f|uantity of land. In more general terms feudalism 
 may be defined as a system of political organization connected 
 with tenure of land and obligation of military service. Thus 
 the main peculiarity of feudalism is that land was held bv its 
 owner on condition of his performing certain duties, especially 
 duties of a military nature. The person to whom these duties 
 had to be rendered might be the sovereign or he might be some 
 one in subjection to the sovereign. 
 
 The origin of feudalism is rather obscure. Already in the 
 
 72 
 
FEUDAL INSTITCTlOyS 73 
 
 later times of the Roman Empire there had existed a practice 
 of granting out portions of land to small tenants on fulfilment 
 of certain conditions. These tenants were tied to the soil, but 
 so long as they fulfilled the required conditions, they could not 
 be driven away from their holdings. Then we have also seen 
 how among the Germans the young warriors pledged their 
 fidelity to some popular chieftain who in turn gave to them 
 the support of his patronage and protection. These things, 
 namely, the hokling- of land on the fulfilment of certain obli- 
 gations, and the relationship between a warrior and his chief- 
 tain, when existing separately were not sufficient to constitute 
 feudalism, but when they were combined tlie result was 
 feudalism. 
 
 94. The Elements of Feudalism. — An analysis of the na- 
 ture of feudalism will re\eal its three principal elements. 
 
 First, the personal element, or vassalage. This was the 
 relation existing" between the dependent and his lord. In 
 order to receive protection from some one more powerful than 
 himself a man would commend himself to the protection of 
 some lord. A person who thus " commended himself " be- 
 came a vassal. This process of commendation consisted in 
 the oath of homage and fealty, by which the dependent prom- 
 ised to be the vassal of his lord, and to be faithful to him. 
 
 Secondly, the real element, or benefice. This consisted of 
 some piece of land that was rented out to the vassal in return 
 for personal service. In the infancy of feudalism it is prob- 
 able that the vassal was bound to attend his lord in war for 
 any length of time that his services might be required. But 
 in time the vassal gradually assumed a more independent po- 
 sition, and the period and nature of the service came to be 
 strictly defined either by law or custom. Besides military 
 service, the vassal might be called on to perform other duties ; 
 such as sitting in court with the other vassals in order to try 
 
74 FEUDALISM AND MONASTICISM 
 
 his fellow vassals, and to make certain money payments. 
 Three of these payments were almost universal and were 
 called ordinary aids : to ransom his lord's person from cap- 
 tivity, to provide a dowry for the marriage of the lord's eld- 
 est daughter, and to pay toward the expense of knighting the 
 lord's eldest son. 
 
 The third political element of fuedalism was immunity. 
 Already in Anglo-Saxon times the king granted out what was 
 called sac and soc, by which was meant that certain estates 
 were exempted from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts. 
 Also under the Merovingian kings, certain grants of land 
 were declared free from the obligation of market and custom 
 duties. Later on, a grant of land made by a king or a very 
 powerful lord was accompanied with an express grant of ju- 
 risdiction, both civil and criminal, over his immediate tenants. 
 
 95. Concrete Elements of Feudalism. — These three ele- 
 ments convey some general abstract idea of the system of 
 feudalism, but there are certain concrete details that may serve 
 perhaps better than anything else to form a living picture of 
 what feudalism really meant for that society where it was gen- 
 erally adopted. The chief institutions of feudalism are the 
 noble, the tournament and the castle. 
 
 The Noble in medieval times was a holder of land for 
 which he rendered services that were not usually performed 
 by the low^er classes of society. He was also supposed to be 
 possessed of substantial means. The nobles were of various 
 grades. There were dukes, counts marquises, and simple 
 knights. But there was not that definite rank assigned to each, 
 such as we find in our own times. In general, we may say that 
 those who held lands directly from the king belonged to the 
 highest rank, while at the bottom of the hierarchy of nobles 
 stood the knight. There was an almost immeasurable dififer- 
 ence between the knight and the person who was outside the 
 
MEinill'AL INSTITUTIONS 75 
 
 ranks of the nobility. The knight was generally a person of 
 gentle birth, and he had to undergo some sort of an appren- 
 ticeship as page to some superior lord before he could receive 
 the honor of knighthood. He was also supposed to be bound 
 by a high code of honor and manly virtue. 
 ^ The Tournament was a species of combat in which the 
 combatants fought not necessarily out of enmity or to wipe off 
 jsome stain of disgrace, but merely to exhibit their own per- 
 sonal prowess. The tournament was usually held at the invita- 
 tion of some prince. Competitors were invited from distant 
 lands. The game was regulated by most minute rules, and the 
 highest personages in the land would preside and distribute the 
 prizes. Owing to the frequency Ayith which hatreds and strifes 
 occured during these games, and the degrading influence they 
 were supposed to exert on the spectator, the Church, from 
 the middle of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, did her best to stop these spectacular exhibitions. She 
 severly forbade any person to engage in them under pain of 
 excommunication, and denial of Christian burial to such as 
 lost their lives in the contest. 
 
 The Castle was a walled enclosure with a tower or towers 
 strongly constructed so as to serve as a place of safety. Round 
 the castle there was generally a ditch or moat. The thick and 
 massive walls surrounding the castle were furnished with small 
 projecting towers at th.e top called bastions. The entrance 
 gate was flanked by two tov^ers. .\11 the doors, windows and 
 staircases were generally very small and narrow. The strong- 
 est part of the castle was the donjon, or keep, which in Anglo- 
 Saxon castles was attached to the walls, but in Norman castles 
 was often separate from the rest of the structure. Such build- 
 ings often served as places of defense to the whole country in 
 the vicinity. Little towns and villages would cluster for protec- 
 tion round the castle, whose owner in return sometimes en- 
 joyed considerable jurisdiction. 
 
y6 FEUDALISM AND MONASTIC ISM 
 
 Another result of feudalism was the formation of cavalry; 
 not that this was any new thing, hut under the influence of 
 feudalism it assumed a new and very strategic importance. 
 Most of the tournaments were fought on horseback, and the 
 strength and agility of the horse, as well as the skill of the 
 rider, were ^^•onderfully de\-eloped l)y constant exercise. 
 
 96. Benefits of Feudalism. — A consideration, however 
 brief, of the spirit of feudalism and the institutions to which 
 it gave rise will soon show that scarcely anything else could 
 have been so well adapted to meet the confusion and danger of 
 the troublous times of the ninth and tenth centuries. The 
 usual ties of authority and social concord were rapidly weaken- 
 ing, and for these feudalism substituted new ties that brought 
 together every member of society, the highest and the lowest. 
 0\'er all was the king', the chief land-owner, and as such, the 
 chief possessor of jurisdiction; under him were the more im- 
 portant tenants, bound to him by their oaths of fidelity and 
 homage; then under these tenants again were sub-tenants 
 bound to their immediate lord by ties equally stringent. Even 
 the Church was not outside this hierarchy, for the great 
 majority of church lands were granted to ecclesiastics on con- 
 dition of their performing" spiritual services for those who 
 thus became their over-lords and protectors. Society was thus 
 knit firmly together by the uni\'ersal and indissoluble ties 
 which were furnished by feudalism. But feudalism did more 
 than this. It furnished the material means of self-defense. 
 When barbarian invaders were scouring the land in every di-' 
 rection it became a matter of supreme necessity that through- 
 out the country there should be certain strongholds where 
 the advance of the enemy might be firmly withstood, and the 
 mediaeval castle thus fulfilled a very important function. At 
 the same time it was necessary to follow or to pursue and 
 harass the enemv, much in the same wav as the Boers harassed 
 
78 FEUDALISM AND MONASTICISM 
 
 the invading English. Here the feudal cavalry did very im- 
 portant service. It is not too much to say that feudalism 
 saved society both from its own disorders and from the hos- 
 tile attacks of external aggressors. 
 
 97. Monasticism. — But feudalism was not the only safe- 
 guard of society. There was another that acted rather on the 
 mind and soul of society, that prevented society from lapsing 
 into the mental darkness of barbarism and at the same time 
 kept alive those interior virtues upon which, more than any- 
 thing else, depend the existence and stability of society. This 
 second safeguard was monasticism, which asserted itself in 
 the celebrated Cluniac reform. 
 
 98. Decline of the Old Orders. — The reform of Benedict 
 of Aniane during the early Carlovingian period had un- 
 fortunately been followed by a reaction. Great numbers of 
 pastors had fallen off from the high ideals of their profession 
 and were leading worldly lives. The decrees of the Pontiffs 
 against certain clerical transgressors sufficiently testify to the 
 evils of the times. Thus, although as the historian Hase ad- 
 mits, there were still many ecclesiastics eminent for their vir- 
 tue, yet there were others who stood very much in need of a 
 reform, and the necessary impetus in this direction was given 
 by the Cluniac movement of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth 
 centuries. 
 
 99. Rise of the Monks of Cluny. — The monastery of Cluny 
 was founded by Duke William of Acquitaine in 910. Under 
 the spiritual guidance of Berno, their first superior, the monks 
 of Cluny soon became famous for their piety and learning. In 
 their silence, their choral recital of the canonical hours, in their 
 rigorous penances, they were a shining beacon to the other re- 
 ligious institutions of the period. 
 
THE CLUNIAC REFORM 
 
 79 
 
 The Cluniac reform differed in various ways from previous 
 movements of a like nature. 
 
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 The Monastery of Cluny, at Cluny, 26 miles southwest of Chelous-sur-Saone. A large 
 part of this splendid abbey was destroyed in 1789 when the monks were driven out. 
 
 upon the Holy See. To some extent such subjection has always 
 been held necessary if a community wishes to acquire the stat- 
 us of a religious body. But previous to the Cluniac movement 
 the bishop had also enjoyed a certain amount of jurisdiction, 
 
8o FEUDALISM AND MOXASTICISM 
 
 For example, he could send the parish priest to perform certain 
 duties in the monastery, or he could visit the monastery in or- 
 der to c(jrrect certain al)uses. But the monks of Cluu}- were 
 declared hv I 'ope Alexander II, to be entirely exempt from 
 episcopal jurisdiction and this privilege was extended to all the 
 foundations connected with Cluny. 
 
 Second, its organic formation differed considerably from 
 the other Benedictine institutions that had preceded it; hither- 
 to, monastic institutions had lived an independent life of their 
 own, quite separate from any parent community to which they 
 owed their existence. This was a disadvantage. Experience 
 shows that no matter how pious the founder of an order may 
 be, or how great the zeal and enthusiasm of its early follow- 
 ers, a reaction sooner or later sets in, and not even an Apos- 
 tolic Visitor is always able to correct the abuses that follow. 
 But Cluny was furnished with an excellent safeguard in this 
 particular. The daughter communities of the abbey of Cluny 
 \\ ere made strictly dependent up(jn their Burgundian parent. 
 All local self-g"o\-ernment was delegated to a prior, appointed 
 by tlie abbot, to whom he was held responsible. By this ar- 
 rangement a unit}' of discipline and co-operative action were 
 secured and abuses in any of the daughter communities could 
 be corrected by the parent house. 
 
 100. The Effects of the Cluniac Movement were consid- 
 erable and far reaching. It tightened the bonds of unity be- 
 tween the different nations of Christendom. Monasteries re- 
 ceived postulants from all parts of the world, and kings would 
 often benefit religious foundations in far distant lands. One 
 instance of this we find in the rich presents made by the king 
 of Castile to the abbey of Cluny. 
 
 The Cluniac monastery w.is also a house t»f intellectual life. 
 All abbots of Cluny. from .St. 0(1(^ to Peter the Venerable 
 were distinguished for their l<)\e of literature and zeal for ed- 
 
ARCHBISHOP DUN ST AN 8 1 
 
 iication while from the " Customs " of Cluiiy arranged by the 
 holy monk Udahc we gather that what is now done by the poor 
 schools of the state was then done by the monks of Cluny. 
 
 But perhaps the crowning merit of the Cluniac movement 
 was that it helped the pope in his herculean task of reforming 
 the clergy, and through them the laity. For at a time when 
 the pope in the performance of this task was abandoned by 
 so many of the episcopate and lower clergy, the monks of 
 Cluny stood forth valiantly as the champions of reform. 
 
 loi. Consolidation of England Under Archbishop Dun- 
 stan. — The tenth century saw the completion of the Anglo- 
 Saxon kingdom under the firm guidance of the first ecclesias- 
 tical statesman that figures on the pages of English History. 
 This was Archbishop Dunstan. the minister of King Eadgar. 
 His administration was national rather than provincial. Both 
 Englishman and Dane were treated alike and admitted to the 
 highest offices of state. Dunstan was also careful to revixe 
 education and to impro\e the zeal and sanctity of the clergy. 
 Under his auspices communities of the new Cluniac form of 
 Benedictinism were introduced into England. England also 
 progressed from the commercial point of view. She entered 
 into wider negotiations with foreign countries, and now for- 
 eign ships might be seen sailing up the Thames and merchants 
 from distant parts might be seen bargaining in the streets of 
 London. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMIMARY. 
 
 Feudalism defined and described — Origin of Feudalism — 
 Chief elements of feudalism — \'assalage — Benefice — Immuni- 
 ty — Important institutions of Feudalism — Aristocracy of feu- 
 dalism — Different kinds of knighthood — Tournament — Castle 
 — Cavalry — New political ties introduced by feudalism — 
 Means of defence furnished by feudalism against the Danes — 
 Monasticism the second saving element of society — Origin of 
 the Cluniac movement — Exemption of the Cluniac monks from 
 
82 FEUDALISM AND MONASTICISM 
 
 episcopal jurisdiction — Daughter communities made dependent 
 upon the parent community — Effects of the Cluniac reform 
 — Administration of Archbishop Dunstan — Monasticism intro- 
 duced into England — Foreign trade of England widely ex- 
 tended. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Emerton, Introduction to Middle Ages, Chapter XVI; Seignobos, 
 Feudal Regime; Tout, Empire and Papacy; Aluy, Lectures on Feudalism; 
 LucHAiRE, Manual dcs Institutions Francoises; Cheyney, Introduction to 
 the Industrial and Social Life of England; Seebohm, English Village 
 Community; Andrews, The Old English Manor; Lacroix, Military and 
 Religious Life; Fisher, History of the Christian Church; Stevens, Con- 
 tinuation of Dugdale's Monasticism ; Alzog, Church History; Green, 
 History of England, page 55 to 6j ; also Acta Sanctorum of the Bollan- 
 dists, torn IV, 344-384; Chalmers, Biographical Dictionary. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 PARALLEL DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE AND GERMANY 
 
 102. Decay of the Carlovingian Empire. — We have seen 
 that the treaty of Verdun meant the disintegration of the 
 empire and the weakening of the Carlovingian house. It was 
 not long- before the process reached the critical stage. The 
 division that had fallen to Lothair containing the two capitals, 
 Aachen and Rome, soon divided into the following branches : 
 Upper and Lower Lorraine in the north, the kingdom of 
 Burgundy lower down, and in the south the kingdom 
 of Italy — all these were governed by feeble kings and 
 were reduced to a wretched condition by anarchy and 
 petty local oppression. In France and in Germany also there 
 Mrere disunion and strife, local magnates waxing strong 
 against the central authority of the king. Only once indeed 
 did there appear to be some restoration of the old Carlovingian 
 power. This was during the reign of Charles the Fat, son of 
 Louis of Germany. In default of other rightful heirs, he was 
 crowned emperor in 88 1, and in 885 became king of France. 
 Thus, for a short time, the whole of the old Carlo\ingian Em- 
 pire, with the exception of Provence, a little government in 
 southeastern France, became united under one Carlovingian 
 sovereign. But Charles the Fat proved an incapaljle ruler. 
 When the Danes invaded Paris he bribed them to transfer 
 their attack elsewhere, and so great was the indignation of 
 his nobles that he was deposed in 887. 
 
 This meant the sudden disruption of the empire. Instead of 
 three kingdoms there now appeared seven: namely. Italy. 
 Germany, Lorraine, France, Navarre, Cis-Juran and Trans- 
 Juran Burgundy. But amidst this debris of fallen kingdoms, 
 
 83 
 
84 r.lRALLEL DEJ-ELOPMEXT OF FRANCE AND GERMANY 
 
 there might be seen in France and Germany certain construct- 
 ive elements which in different ways and at different periods 
 were to build up two powerful nations. 
 
 103. Rise of Hugh Capet. — The relations between Hugh 
 tlie Nassal count of Paris, and Louis IV now began to assume 
 a striking resemblance to the relations between the mayor of 
 the palace and the decaying Merovingian monarchs. In both 
 cases the result was the same, and in both cases it was the 
 pope who gave the signal for the revolution. Pope Silvester 
 II declared that " he who is king in deeds and in fact should 
 also be king in title." 
 
 The real power had indeed drifted entirely into the hands 
 of Hugh. Not indeed that this was any fault of Louis. Louis 
 had shown himself an able ruler, and had displayed consid- 
 erable military ability. It was the new system of feudalism 
 that was responsible for the change. Hugh, the duke of the 
 French, was by far the most powerful landowner in the king- 
 dom, and as we have already seen, the feudal landowner as 
 such enjoyed political jurisdiction. 
 
 104. Hugh Helped by the Church. — Besides feudal sup- 
 port there was also the support of the Church. Not only the 
 pope, but also the French bishops under Archbishop Adalberon 
 of Rheims were on the side of Hugh Capet. There were also 
 the great ecclesiastical fiefs, some of the most influential be- 
 ing situated in Normandy. All these were naturally devoted 
 to Hugh Capet. 
 
 One might easily fall into the temptation of exaggerating 
 Hugh's position. In fact he was recognized as king only bv 
 a part of France. In the south he had great difificulty in 
 asserting his claims. In Aquitaine, the decrees ran " until 
 there should be a king" ; nor was he recognized in Poitou and 
 Brittany. But the accession of Hugh is important as starting 
 
riiE PRi-xcii I'h'orixciis 85 
 
 a form uf dynastic goxerniiient that was t(j rule I'rance for 
 many centtiries. 
 
 105. The Different Provinces of France. — In order to qain 
 a clear idea of the exact position of lln^h lapet. and in order 
 to understand frequent geoL^raphical allusions it will he help- 
 ful if we consider the principal provinces of l-'rance at that 
 time, starting from the northeast. 
 
 Normandy was situated in the extreme northeast of France, 
 n^he latter Carlovingian kings had allowed the Northmen to 
 settle on this territory on con'dition that Roller, their leader, 
 should embrace Christianity. The whole country had become 
 considerably Christianized, and at the time of Hugh there 
 were some important ecclesiastical benefices that tended to up- 
 hold the influence of the king. One (hike. William of Xor- 
 mandy. became famous as conqueror and king of England. 
 
 Flanders was the district lying between the rixers Somme 
 and Scheldt. Part of it was dependent upon the empire, and 
 part of it upon France. It soon Ijecame the nest of important 
 towns such as Cdient and l^)ruges. These (nved their origin 
 to the Scandinavian invasions that f<Trced the ])eople to cluster 
 together for protection, l-'landers, owing to its position and 
 fertile soil, soon became remarkable for its commerce and 
 manufactures. 
 
 Brittany is that part of France which together with the Span- 
 ish coast encloses the Bay of Biscay. It contains a very strong 
 Celtic element. As early as 284 some of the Britons in 
 England pursued by the Saxons went over to Brittanv, and 
 these, as well as later migrations gave the proxince its name. 
 For some time Brittany was under Normandy, but after the 
 Xormans were dri\-en r)ut. it fell imder the kn-dship of the 
 French kings, but it did not become a part of the French 
 monarchy till the thirteenth centurv. 
 
 Maine and Anjou. — These two countships alst^ play an im- 
 
86 PARALLEL DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE AND GERMANY 
 
 portant part in history. Maine, whose chief town was Le 
 Mans, lay between Normandy and Anjou, which were heredi- 
 tary enemies. Like most buffer states it fell a prey to one of 
 the contending parties and in 1063 was conquered by the 
 Duke of Normandy. Later it was united with Anjou. The 
 countship of Anjou (its capital was Angers) became famous 
 for giving to England a line of able kings called the Angevin 
 Dynasty, the most prominent of whom was Henry IL 
 
 Blois and Champagne. — These were also two countships 
 which though situated far apart were connected by marriage. 
 Champagne is noted for its two towns of Troyes and Rheims. 
 The former was important for its trade and is said to have 
 given its name to Troy weight, while the latter was already 
 known as a famous ecclesiastical centre. The house of Blois 
 also gave to England a king in the person of Count Stephen. 
 
 The southern provinces of France afford rather a striking 
 contrast to the northern provinces. In the southern prov- 
 inces, the Romance element prevailed and showed itself not 
 only in the character but also in the smoother speech of the 
 inhabitants — their dialect being called the langue d'oc in 
 contradistinction to the harsher dialect of the northern called 
 the langue d'oui. Political differences also accompanied the 
 racial differences. In the south, the feudal system lasted 
 longest and was constantly opposed to the centralizing mo- 
 narchical power of the north. 
 
 Burgundy was situated to the southwest of France. The 
 various territories covered by this name have already been 
 pointed out. In building up the power of the Capetian kings, 
 Burgundy occupied very nearly the same position as Nor- 
 mandy. It contained a great many religious benefices whose 
 powerful influence tended to curtail the power of the dukes 
 and to increase the power of the king. 
 
 Aquitaine was situated between the rivers Loire and Ga- 
 ronne. The dukes of Aquitaine were over-lords of all the 
 
AFFAIRS IN GERMANY 87 
 
 lands between the Loire and the Pyrenees. In the twelfth 
 century it belonged temporarily to France but in 11 52 by the 
 marriage of Henry II. of England with Elinor the heiress 
 of Aquitaine the province became an English possession and 
 remained such for a considerable time. 
 
 Poitou, Guienne and Gascony were districts situated on 
 the west coast of France, south of Brittany. These provinces 
 like Aquitaine also became English possessions. Both Gas- 
 cony and Guienne were important on account of the great 
 trade with England. It was from them that during the 
 middle ages she obtained most of her wine and salt. 
 
 Toulouse lay to the east of Gascony. Its counts ruled over 
 all the lands of southern France not subject to Aquitaine, 
 and their jurisdiction covered such important towns as Nimes 
 and Narbonne. 
 
 Such were the principal fiefs of France at this period. 
 The early Capetian kingdom seemed only one amongst 
 many; but it had on its side kingly power, and the influence 
 of the great ecclesiastical estates. Partly by force, partly 
 by diplomacy and the natural sequence of events the Capetian 
 monarchy gradually absorbed into itself also its rival neigh- 
 bors. 
 
 106. Affairs in Germany. — A similar process of develop- 
 ment was also taking place in Germany. Arnulf, Duke of 
 Carinthia in the southeast, had been mainly instrumental in 
 procuring the deposition of Charles the Fat. Arnulf, in 887 
 was then left in possession of the German crown. After a 
 fairly prosperous reign in the course of which he beat the 
 Danes near Louvain and secured an acknowledgment of his 
 independence from Burgundy, Italy and the West Franks, 
 he died in 899. His son Louis the Child succeeded, and dur- 
 ing this reign were established the four great duchies of 
 Germany which rivaled in importance the great fiefs of the 
 Prankish kingdom. 
 
88 PARALLEL DEJ-ELOFMENT OF FRANCE AND GER}[ANV 
 
 107. The Chief Duchies of Germany. — These duchies were 
 Saxony in the northeast of Germany, Franconia in the west, 
 Swabia in the south, and Bavaria in the southeast. Though, 
 from the territorial point of view there was Httle difference 
 in power among the (hichies, yet the Saxon duchy was cer- 
 tainly the strongest. Not only was it free from the ener- 
 vating influence of decayed Roman civilization and still in 
 full possession of the old vigorous Teutonic polity, but its 
 position was such as to foster all the martial virtues and a 
 strong government. It was a border state, and being con- 
 stantl}' threatened b}- the Danes and \A'ends the struggle 
 for existence braced up its whole political life. 
 
 108. Conrad I. — Prankish tradition however still prevailed, 
 and on the death of Louis the Child, the nobles of Franconia, 
 Saxony, and Swabia elected Conrad, Duke of Franconia, as 
 king Conrad I. Their choice was certainly justified by the 
 qualities of the one whom they elected. But new^ circum- 
 stances often mar the reigns of very able rulers. Conrad 
 had almost insuperable difificult}' in asserting his authority 
 in the German duchies outside his own, and at the same time 
 he was continually harassed by the invasions of the Danes. 
 He himself perceiving that on the one hand he had not the 
 old prestige of the Carlovingian kings and on the other that he 
 had not sufficient compensating material power advised his 
 brother Eberhard not to claim the throne when it became 
 vacant but to waive his right in behalf of Henr^' of Saxony. 
 
 109. Henry the Fowler. — \\7hen therefore Conrad I died 
 in 918 the kingly power passed to Henry the Fowler of 
 Saxony. There was little doubt that Henry was the fitter 
 man to succeed. His personal gifts w^ere unquestionable. 
 As statesman and as w-arrior he was unrivaled, and the tem- 
 porary union of Saxony and Franconia, as well as the vigor- 
 
KixG cxrr IX exglaxd 89 
 
 ous supremacy oi the Saxon duchy, were circumstances that 
 strongly counted in his favor. 
 
 no. Danish Rule in England. — The same period that saw 
 tlie rise of the Ca|)etian dynasty also saw the complete suhjec- 
 ti(^n of Engianfl t<i Danish rule. Under the great Danish 
 king, Cnut. luigiand was brought together in still closer 
 unity. His iron rule crushed out all provincial differences, 
 and although he created the four great earldoms of Mercia, 
 Northum1)erland. Wessex, and East Anglia. yet they were 
 ke])t in close dependence upon the crown. Under his rule the 
 condition of the people underwent a change for the better. 
 The lower class of servile or semi-servile laborers w-as im- 
 proved until it attained almost complete freedom, while on the 
 other hand the old native baronage was reduced to a lower 
 le\el by the intrusion of the foreign baronage. A strong 
 middle class was thus gradually coming into existence and this 
 tended to diffuse general comfort and prosperity. At the 
 srmie time the roving spirit of the Danes tended to promote 
 trade and intercourse with foreign nations. Not only Scandi- 
 navia but now even Russia and Constantinople exchanged 
 their wares for those of the English merchants. 
 
 Cnut died in 1035 and with him ended the best period of 
 Danish rule in England. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Rreak-up of the old Carolingian Empire — Successors of 
 Charles the Fat of France — Gradual approach of Count Hugh 
 to the royal power — Hugh declared king by Sylvester H — 
 Hugh's power resting upon feudalism and royal power — Chief 
 provinces of France — Xormandy — Flanders — Brittany — 
 Maine and Anjou — Rlois and Champagne — Southern Provinces 
 
 — Burgundy — Aquitainc. Poitou, Guienne and Gascony — Polit- 
 ical development in Germany — The four great national duchies 
 
 — Election of Conrad I. Duke of Franconia, as king — Henry 
 the Fowler the first of the Saxon kings — England brought into 
 closer unity under the Danish king Cnut — The four great earl- 
 
90 PARALLEL DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE AND GERMANY 
 
 (lonis in dependence on the crown — Condition of the middle 
 and of the lower classes — Expansion of English trade. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 KiTCHiN, History of France ; Suger, Life of Louis VI ; Adams, French 
 Nation; Tout, Empire and Papacy; Sismondi, Histoire des Francois; 
 Henderson, Germany; Emerton, Europe; Fisher, Medieval Empire; 
 Lavisse, Political History of Europe; Green, Conquest of England; 
 Powell, and Tout. History of England. 
 
 i 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE SAXON KINGS 
 
 111. Rule of Henry the Fowler. — The secret of the success 
 of Henry the Fowler's reign lay in this that he recognized 
 and made the best of accomplished facts. He saw that the 
 days of the personal rule of the Carlovingian kings were over, 
 and that he must now reign as a feudal king. He therefore 
 governed Germany only through the dukes and exacted from 
 these dukes only the performance of feudal duties. 
 
 He succeeded in improving greatly the internal condition of 
 Germany. One of the great features of his reign was the erec- 
 tion of walled towns that served as healthy centers of social in- 
 tercourse and growing' civilization. Within these towns, fairs 
 and markets were held, and gradually out of the more con- 
 densed population there came to be formed a large and power- 
 ful citizen class. He also improved the condition of the army, 
 h'or not only did he insist on a better training of the soldiers, 
 hut he also formed a strong cavalry corps — a great in- 
 novation, for hitherto the Saxons had fought on foot. 
 
 The internal strength of the kingdom soon enabled him to 
 deal firmly with foreign enemies. In 924 he defeated the 
 Slavs and took Brandenburg, one of their chief strongholds. 
 In 933 he was equally successful against the Danes and took 
 from them a strip of land that afterwards became known as 
 the Duchy of Schleswig. 
 
 The victorious career of Henry the Fowler was ended by 
 his death in 936. He was then succeeded by his son Otto I. 
 
 112. Otto I had a very different character from that of 
 his father. Henry the Fowler had adopted a policy that was 
 quite in harmony with existing facts. But Otto was am- 
 
 91 
 
92 THE SAXON KINGS 
 
 bilious and tried lo re\ert to the old Carlovingian idea of 
 supreme personal authority. To do this it was necessary to 
 secure the active support of the Church; and the first step in 
 this direction was the crowning of Otto with great pomp and 
 solemnity at the old capital of Aachen. He then endeavored 
 to create a school of clerical statesmen into wdiose hands were 
 entrusted the most important concerns of state. 
 
 113. Personal Rule of Otto. — Unlike his predecessor. Otto 
 I . was not content to govern the German people through the 
 great dukes, but he determined to introduce his own personal 
 government into every province of Germany. He therefore 
 reduced as much as possible the pow-er of the local magnates 
 and distributed the most powerful duchies among his own 
 relatives and personal friends. Thus he made his brother 
 Henry Duke of Bavaria. Then after defeating his faithless 
 son-in-law Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, he made over the duchy 
 to his brother Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne, while Suabia 
 W'as entrusted to Otto's eldest son Ludolph. Nor was he 
 content with this; he appointed Counts Palatine throughout 
 the different duchies who, like the Carlovingian " missi 
 dominici " represented in the local districts the interests of 
 the crown. 
 
 114. Foreign Affairs. — With regard to foreign invasions 
 no contrast is to be found between the reigns of Henry the 
 Fowder and Otto I. When the Hungarians renewed their 
 aggressions he inflicted upon them a crushing' defeat on the 
 Lech river near Augsburg (955). He was also successful 
 against the Slavs, and the Bohemians. And in order to 
 lessen the dread of future invasions he established all along 
 the east frontier a line of small border-lands or marches, that 
 were thoroughly fortified. One of these in the southeast of 
 Germanv afterwards became Austria. 
 
OTTO THE FIRST 93 
 
 The most notable element of Otto's foreign policy was his 
 interference with Italian affairs. Italy at that time was hope- 
 lessly divided among contending factions. Fhe I'upe. the 
 Greeks, the Duchess of Bene\'ento and Spoleto, the Saracens 
 and the Lombards — all these were living upon Italian soil, 
 leading an existence of strife and rivalry. Berengar. the last 
 of the Lombard kings, died, and the succession was dis- 
 puted between Lothair. King of Aries, and Berengar of Ivres 
 in Piedmonte. During the contest. Lothair died leaving a 
 widow called .\delaide. Otto soon saw his opportunity of 
 intervention. He settled the dispute b}' crossing the frontier, 
 and marrying Adelaide. Then without being formally 
 crowned, he became the \irtual king of Italy. 
 
 115. Otto's Relations with the Church then enabled him 
 to strengthen still further his position in Italy. The most 
 important archbishoprics of Germany were those of Cologne. 
 BesauQon. and Trier in \\est German}', and Mainz. Salzburg, 
 and Aquileia, on the eastern side of Germany. Nearly all 
 these had very extensive jurisdiction. Cologne, for example, 
 had jurisdiction over all the Xetherlands. But Mainz had the 
 most extensive jurisdiction of all. embracing central and north 
 Germany. It had also control oxer the bishopric and towns 
 that Otto had set up in the east marks of Germany. Circum- 
 stances now made it desirable that these marks should be 
 held together by a greater unity of local jurisdiction and Otto 
 determined to set up another archbishopric at Magdeburg 
 which should have jurisdiction over all these eastern marks. 
 The Archbishop of Mainz, who was rather worldly-minded, 
 opposed this curtailment of his spiritual power and Otto saw 
 that he would have to fall back on the assistance of the Pope. 
 It so happened that just at this time Pope John XII was 
 particularlv in need of the assistance of the emperor. The 
 pope, through the influence of the duke of Tuscany, had sue- 
 
94 THE SAXON KINGS 
 
 ceeded in raising himself to the papal throne. But Berengar, 
 the hereditary enemy of Tuscany, was exercising great 
 tyranny over the papacy and the Church. Otto crossed the 
 Alps by the Brenner pass, entered Rome and sealed an al- 
 liance with the papacy by getting himself crowned emperor 
 in 962. A few days after, the emperor, by way of return, 
 issued a diploma securing to the pope the possession that 
 had been granted to the Holy See by Constantine and suc- 
 ceeding princes. 
 
 116. Otto I Crowned as Emperor. — This crowning of the 
 emperor by the pope marks a new phase in the history of the 
 Italian Roman Empire. The empire was still supposed to be 
 in substance what it had been under Charlemagne, but in 
 reality it had become greatly altered. Territorially, it em- 
 braced only Germany and Italy, and the emperor's rule in 
 Italy was only intermittent. But to many of Otto's succes- 
 sors, it recalled the memory of what had been in the past and 
 had an important efifect upon their general policy. It pre- 
 vented their concentrating their energies upon their own Ger- 
 man territory, and by arousing ambitious ideas of a universal 
 empire, caused them to neglect the practical and more urgent 
 task of forming at home a united Germany. 
 
 Such disastrous results, however, did not show themselves 
 at once. Owing to the support of the pope, Otto's power was 
 now so firmly established in Germany, that he succeeded in 
 his design of creating a separate archbishopric at Magdeburg. 
 In fact, Otto's reign seemed to have realized all the advan- 
 tages without the disadvantages of the German Italian Em- 
 pire. 
 
 117. Otto the Second succeeded in 983. As the son of 
 Adelaide and the husband of Theophano, daughter of the 
 Greek emperor, his interests were already more Italian and 
 
OTTO THE SECOND 95 
 
 Greek than Teutonic. His mind was highly imaginative and 
 he dreamed of an empire that should extend far beyond the 
 boundaries of his native Germany. 
 
 Italy became the main scene of his activity. When the 
 popes were being deprived of their liberty of action by the 
 powerful Crescentius he marched to Rome and forced 
 Crescentius to withdraw to the seclusion of a monastery. 
 AX'hen the Mohammedans Avere threatening the Lombard 
 duchy of Benevento, he hastened to its assistance and drove 
 off the in\-aders. He even tried to get possession of the 
 Greek territories in Italy that had been promised to him as 
 the marriage dowry of Theophano, and a number of towns 
 in the south of Italy fell into his hands. 
 
 118. Political Tendencies Under Otto. — Nor was the pol- 
 icy of Otto II altogether unsuccessful. At first, Germany 
 seemed to be growing on the same lines of unification as under 
 Otto I. There was still the original tendency to break up 
 large political units into smaller ones, more dependent on the 
 royal power. Already, even under Otto I, a considerable 
 strip of land that had previously been dependent on Saxony, 
 was placed under a separate ruler, Gero, and allowed con- 
 siderable independence. 
 
 This progress, however, depended entirely on the personal 
 activity of the emperor. When he began to occupy himself 
 exclusively with Italian affairs the strong local units of Ger- 
 many, each tending away from the central government in 
 order to revolve in its own sphere, began to cause serious trou- 
 ble. Not only did the petty dukes, counts and ecclesiastical 
 magnates seize the land, but a fatal want of cohesion also 
 showed itself, that brought about powerlessness to resist for- 
 eign invasions. The Slavs and the \A'ends renewed their in- 
 vasions with greater success than before. Two bishoprics on 
 the eastern frontier were devastated and the town of Ham- 
 burg was destroyed. 
 
96 THE SAX OX K/XGS 
 
 Amidst these rexerses in (iennany Otto was suddenly vis- 
 ited Avith a fatal disease from which he died in the vear 
 
 Otto III, son of Otto II, was only three years old at his 
 father's death and determined attempts were made by the 
 duke of Bavaria to upset the succession. Had it not heen for 
 the fidelity of the greater part of the clergy, Otto would un- 
 doubtedly ha\e been ousted. He became therefore greatly 
 dependent upon the clergy. When his mother. Theophano, 
 who had acted as regent, died, the council of regency consisted 
 mainly of clerics who moulded his mind in their own way. 
 Otto's training soon showed itself when he came of age, as 
 well by his cosmopolitan ideas as Ijy his devotion and the 
 goodness of his life. 
 
 1 19. Otto III Interferes in the Papal Elections. — When 
 in 996, Otto set off to Rome for his imperial coronation, the 
 Holy City was a prey to two contending factions. On the 
 one hand there were the partizans of Crescentius who sup- 
 ported a papal nominee of their own, and on the other hand 
 there was the opposite party that wanted a German pope. 
 On arriving at Ravenna he met an embassy that had been sent 
 to him from Rome in order to consult him as to the new^ pope. 
 He at once named his own nephew Bruno. The Roman 
 clergy and laity willingly followed the suggestion, and elected 
 Bruno, who took the name of Pope Gregory V. This elec- 
 tion of the first German pope that ever sat on the chair of 
 Peter at once brought about a most useful harmony between 
 the empire and the Church. 
 
 The new pope, however, did not live long. His life of 
 sanctity and usefulness was cut short by an early death in 
 999. In the election of his successor. Otto III again played 
 a very important part. His influence placed on the papal 
 throne Gerbert, a Frenchman, a native of Aurillac in 
 
OTTO HI IN GERMANY 97 
 
 Aiivergne, who, assuming" the name of Silvester 11, became 
 (999) the first French Pope in the history of the Church. 
 He was a man of great learning, and at the University of 
 Cordova in Spain had acquired a proficient acquaintance with 
 scientific sul)jects. He had also taken part in European poli- 
 tics, and it was his interxention in behalf of the rising Cape- 
 tian house that brought him into contact with Otto \\ of 
 Germany. When Hugh Capet was made king, (jerbert w'as 
 made Archbishop of Rheims. which diocese he afterward ex- 
 changed for that of Ravenna. Both these positions he had 
 filled with conspicuous prudence and firmness and it would 
 have been hard to find a more fit candidate even for the papal 
 throne. 
 
 120. Otto's Failure in Germany. — A great contrast to 
 Otto's achievement in Italy was his failure in Germany. 
 There it had become plain that an imperial policy meant 
 constant friction with the best interests of the German na- 
 tion. The Germans had been used to see in the character of 
 their rulers rugged simplicity and hard acti\ity. and their 
 traditional sense of what was fitting was marred bv Otto's 
 conduct in Italy. He had also added to the offense by assum- 
 ing more than oriental etiquette. Clad in loose, long, flowing 
 robes, he was only approacliable through a long series of of- 
 ficials, while Rome itself was placed under the control of 
 officials whose authority was partly papal, partly imperial. 
 Together with these signs of imperial domination Otto had 
 also shown a disregard for Teutonic interests by setting up a 
 separate archbishopric in Poland, and thus recognizing its 
 indej^endcnce in Germany. 
 
 The disturbed condition of affairs in Germany necessitate<l 
 the immediate presence of the emperor, but directly he turned 
 his back upon Italy, the southern provinces of Italy rose in 
 revolt. While the storm was thus at its height, Otto III died, 
 
98 THE SAXON KINGS 
 
 conscious that his ambitious schemes had all ended in failure 
 (1002). 
 
 121. Successors of Otto III. — The two immediate suc- 
 cessors to Otto III. were Henry II and Conrad II. Both of 
 these kings were shrewd, practical men. They abandoned 
 the visionary schemes of the Ottos, and leaving Italy to its 
 fate tried to consolidate the greatness of Germany on local 
 lines. 
 
 Henry II has been sometimes called Henry the Pious and 
 King of Priests on account of his sympathy with the clerics. 
 But his clerical sympathies were A^ery different from those of 
 Otto. He left the papacy alone and tried to conciliate rather 
 the German clergy, whom he hoped to make an efficient 
 counterpoise to the power of the nobles. The policy of 
 Henry II succeeded in restoring order and strength to Ger- 
 many. His appreciation of the limits of his power, his 
 knowledge of the relation between the means and the end, 
 prevented him from indulging in those schemes that had been 
 so fatal to his predecessors. 
 
 Henry II died in 1024 without issue and then there quickly 
 rose the question of succession. The troubles of the times 
 made immediate action absolutely necessary, and the nobles 
 at once met together in order to choose a candidate. The 
 method of the election was interesting. It seems to have de- 
 pended not so much upon hereditary principles as upon the 
 personal qualifications of who should succeed. The object of 
 their choice was Conrad of Franconia, who then became the 
 founder of the Franconian or, Salian, dynasty. 
 
 122. Return of the Anglo-Saxon Dynasty in England. — 
 
 The tyranny and oppression of Cnut's successors made the 
 Danish rule unbearable to the nation. Earl Godwin saw 
 that the Danish cause was hopeless and on the death of 
 
THE SAXON RESTORATION 99 
 
 Harthacniit he procured a reversion of the succession to the 
 Anglo-Saxon line. Edward, son of King Ethelred, was then 
 in exile, but was speedily recalled and made king. Edward's 
 rule was remarkable for its firmness and clemency. He him- 
 self, on account of his eminent sanctity, has been surnamed 
 the Confessor, while Godwin, his minister, was a man of 
 consummate caution, vigilance and industry. But the law- 
 lessness of Godwin's relations brought about his fall and 
 exile. After one year of exile, Godwin was recalled but 
 died soon after, lea\ing his son Harold as successor to the 
 post of minister. Harold, like his father, showed a re- 
 markable talent for government and organization. Revolts 
 were at once put down, justice was firmly administered and 
 commerce extensively promoted. It was not difiicult to fore- 
 see the result. While Edward was slowly sinking to the 
 grave, Harold drew nearer to the throne, and when Edward 
 died in 1066, Harold immediately succeeded him as Harold 
 
 n. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Reign of Henry the Fowler — Walled towns as centers of 
 civilization — Henry's defeat of the Slavs — Otto I — His alli- 
 ance with the Church — His extending the royal power by 
 making his relatives rulers of the provinces — His victories 
 over the Slavs and Bohemians — Otto's interference in Italy — 
 His obtaining a new archbishopric at Madgeburg — Is crowned 
 emperor by Pope John XII — Meaning of the new empire — 
 Its results on Germany and Italy — Otto II's ambitious schemes 
 
 — He divides up the larger political units of Germany into 
 other smaller and more dependent ones — Otto II's absence in 
 Italy causes troubles — Otto III — His training and ideals — 
 Otto III interferes in Rome and sets up Gregory V and after 
 him Sylvester II — Otto Ill's unpopularity and his failure in 
 Germany — Disturbances in Italy and in Germany — Failure of 
 Otto III — Henry II's reign — His moderation and his success 
 
 — In England, reign of Edward the Confessor — Administration 
 of Godwin — Accession of Harold to the throne. 
 
lOO THE SAX OX KINGS 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Freeman, Holy Roman Empire; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire; Tout, 
 Empire and Papacy; Henderson, History of Germany; Emertox, Europe; 
 Alzog, Church History; Powell and Tout, History of England; Green, 
 History of English People. 
 
 i 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 SALIAX EMPERORS AND THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 
 
 123. Conrad II. — The two first Salian Emperors were Con- 
 rad II and Henry III. Both of these men were well versed 
 in practical politics, and were gifted with remarkahle energy 
 of character — a (|uality that counted for much in the Middle 
 Ages. \\ hile they had no very high ideals, yet they aimed 
 at what was possible of achievement and knew how to turn 
 present mo\ements to their own advantage. 
 
 Conrad II succeeded both in enlarging the boundaries of 
 his German Kingdom and in consolidating its internal great- 
 ness. In speaking about the different kingdoms that went 
 under the name of Burgundy, we have seen that there were 
 two kingdoms called respectively Cis-Juran and Trans-Juran 
 Burgundy. In the year 933 both these kingdoms were united 
 under the name of the Kingdom of Aries. The king of 
 Aries was now old and childless, and some provision had to be 
 made regarding the succession. By a friendly arrangement, 
 the kingdom was allowed to go to the German Empire and 
 so in 1032 the Empire received this important addition to its 
 territories. The importance of this acquisition can be meas- 
 ured only when considered in relation with the politics of the 
 times. The Arelate kingdom was one of the great centers 
 of the Cluniac movement, and thus it tended to increase the 
 Cluniac movement already begun in Germany. France be- 
 came more isolated from general European politics and the 
 German emperor had a freer hand in Italy. Though the 
 emperor had little personal control over his new possession, 
 the sympathies of the Arelate nobles were mainly German. 
 The emperor exercised what jurisdiction he had by means of 
 
 lOI 
 
I02 THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 
 
 a chancellor whose seat of power was at Treves — thus re- 
 minding us of a similar institution in the government of 
 Italy — which was ruled by the chancellor at Cologne. 
 
 124. Alliance of Emperor and People. — Perhaps the most 
 signal proof not only of the good fortune but of the adroit 
 statesmanship of Conrad is the way in which he increased the 
 power of the crown at the expense of the great feudal nobles. 
 The question had arisen as to whether the estates of the lesser 
 tenants should be handed down from father to son, as was 
 the case with the estates of the great feudal vassals. The 
 greater nobles, in order to strengthen their own power re- 
 fused to admit the hereditary principle in regard to the lower 
 tenants. But Conrad posed as the protector of the lower 
 vassals. He insisted that their estates should be hereditary, 
 and thus gained a great diplomatic victory. For the ex- 
 tension of the hereditary principle not only strengthened the 
 dynastic hold over the empire but it also secured to the em- 
 peror the unswerving allegiance of the great mass of fighting 
 men throughout the country. 
 
 Conrad II died in 1039 and he was succeeded at once by 
 his son Henry III. 
 
 125. Henry III. — Under Henry III the empire rose to its 
 greatest strength. Germany became in effect the leading- 
 nation of Europe and the controller of its destinies. 
 
 The internal strife that had marred the early greatness of the 
 emperors was now over, while as yet there appeared no symp- 
 toms of the terrific struggle that was shortly to take place 
 between the Empire and the Church. 
 
 126. Synod of Sutri. — The most striking event of Henry 
 Ill's reign was the synod of Sutri (1046) at which two out 
 of three rival popes were deposed, while in the midst of 
 
 I 
 
THE NORMANS IO3 
 
 tumult Henry succeeded in securing the election of a candi- 
 date of his own. 
 
 The new pope was a German bishop noted for his piety 
 and learning. He assumed the title of Clement H and his 
 reign soon put an end to some of the scandalous disorders of 
 his predecessors. Lest the support of the emperor might in 
 any way prejudice the future independence of the Church he 
 insisted on presenting himself to the Roman people for elec- 
 tion. 
 
 This intervention of the emperor put an end to the evil 
 domination of the counts of Tusculum in Church affairs, 
 h'rom now, the wearers of the tiara were at least no longer a 
 disgrace to Christendom. Under the influence of the Ger- 
 man emperor, there were elected popes of distinguishd piety 
 and ardent zeal for the betterment of the Church. One of 
 these was Pope Leo IX. This able pontjff strove to exericse a 
 strong personal supervision over the remotest parts of Chris- 
 tendom, and his visits to h'rance and Germany remind one of 
 the imperial progresses of some of the later emperors. 
 
 127. Normans in Italy. — The Normans, as we have al- 
 ready seen, had obtained a firm settlement in the north of 
 France. Being fond of adventure and inclined to piety they 
 took a great delight in making pilgrimages. It thus came 
 about that a number of Normans went on a visit to the 
 sanctuary of St. Michael in southwest Italy. T^ie delightful 
 climate and rich soil prolonged their stay. After a life of 
 some years of exciting adventure they were allowed by the 
 duke of Naples to settle down in the town of Aversa, near 
 Naples (1030). 
 
 128. Alliance Between the Pope and the Normans. — It 
 
 was not long befcMT the Normans extended their territory. 
 In alliance with the Greeks they succeeded in taking Sicily 
 
T04 THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 
 
 from the Saracens. The victory had the effect of violently 
 dissolving the alliance, the Greeks claiming the exclusive 
 glory of the victory, and as a consequence, the exclusive ap- 
 prt)priation of its spoils. The angry Normans then by way of 
 compensation took possession of Apulia, and this province was 
 ruled in succession by three able .dukes of the noble house of 
 Hauteville. Acquisitions of this kind, however, were not 
 likely to go unchallenged. Both Henry III and Pope Leo 
 IX advanced in the direction of Cirtella with a body of Ger- 
 man soldiers. Again the Normans were victorious, but re- 
 specting, in their hour of victory, the dignity of the supreme 
 Pontiff whom they had made prisoner, they fell on their 
 knees before him and implored forgiveness. He readily par- 
 doned them and an alliance between the papacy and the Nor- 
 mans was soon effected — an alliance that was destined to be 
 in after times the main support of the papacy in its hour of 
 direst need. 
 
 129. Reform of Papal Elections. — 11ie next process in 
 strengthening and making more independent the position of 
 the papacy was an alteration made in the method of holding 
 papal elections. Up to 1059 the election of the pope had been 
 in the hands of the emperor and of the Roman people. Such 
 a method of election was attended with great abuses, for the 
 Roman people formed a very unwieldy and disorderly mass 
 of electors, while the emperor might or might not be in- 
 fluenced by worldly motives. 
 
 Nicholas II in 1059 applied a remedy by decreeing that in 
 future the College of Cardinals should alone constitute the 
 electoral body. 
 
 Thus the papacy by the altered method of holding the papal 
 elections as well as by its close alliance with the Normans was 
 ]i1aced in a stronger and more independent positi(^n. The 
 papacy had indeed owed much to the patronage of the emper- 
 
DETAILS OF THE QUESTION 105 
 
 ors, but it now gave signs of being able to lead a more iso- 
 lated and independent life; at the same time, circumstances 
 were already tending to bring about a complete rupture be- 
 tween the empire and the papacy. The ill-defined relations 
 between Church and State, and the confused notions resulting 
 from the Holy Roman Empire were mainly responsible for 
 this, but the immediate question which formed the battle cry 
 of both sides was the question of investiture, that is whether 
 the bishop or the temporal lord was to invest a newly made 
 l)relatc with the spiritual insignia of his ofiice. 
 
 130. The Investiture Contest. — In tracing the history of 
 the Investiture Contest it will be helpful to consider first of 
 all the more general issues at stake, for it was these more 
 than the specific question of investiture that brought about the 
 conflict. 
 
 Up to the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Church and 
 State had been conceived as forming one society. But now 
 both Church and State began to assert in a most distinct way 
 their own separate existence. In the conception of the Holy 
 Roman Empire they had been loosely and erroneously con- 
 sidered as forming one society. But in the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries, the element of distinction between the two 
 societies loomed into view. It was a common occurrence for a 
 man to be a bishop, and yet, as holding a large fief, be an im- 
 portant factor in the state. At once the question was bound to 
 rise: " W'liich society is to claim the bishop and fief-holder? 
 L'nder whose jurisdiction does he come? Under that of the 
 Church or of the State? "' 
 
 Such was the general complexion of the contest between 
 the Church and Empire in the early middle ages and this brief 
 account of the question at issue will enable us to appreciate 
 with greater clearness the more detailed description of the 
 several points that were raised. 
 
 f . '^ 
 
I06 THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 
 
 131. Details of the Questions Between Church and State. 
 
 — First, there was the reform of the Church. The holders of 
 spiritual benefices often led careless and worldly lives, think- 
 ing more of the temporal emoluments of their offices than 
 of its serious responsibilities. A reform was imperatively 
 urgent. Yet any reform if carried out would involve the 
 freedom of the German bishops and abbots from their de- 
 pendence on the emperor. They might, it is true, become 
 more' clerical, but in their exclusive regard for the interests 
 of the Church they would be apt to ignore the political in- 
 terests of their imperial patron. 
 
 Closely connected with the general reform of the clergy was 
 the question of clerical celibacy. This had already been pre- 
 scribed by very ancient statutes. But the observance of the 
 law seems to have been generally lax. Feudalism had cer- 
 tainly been an impediment rather than a help to its observ- 
 ance. The bishop or prelate that held a great fief naturally 
 desired to keep the fief in the hands of his own family, and 
 marriage was the most efficient means for this purpose. The 
 position of the prelate in consequence was considerably de- 
 graded. Ignoring the spiritual side of his office, he tended to 
 regard himself as a mere feudal magnate. 
 
 The third and most immediate point at issue between the 
 Church and State was that of investiture. Who was to invest 
 a newly made prelate with the ring and crozier, the sacred 
 symbols of his office? The Church regarding him as her 
 officer claimed that she alone could do this, while the State 
 looking to his capacity as a holder of land insisted that this 
 was her right. This more than anything else was a question 
 of positive fact, and it had the effect of bringing to a head 
 the discord that had been raised by the general aspect of the 
 situation. 
 
 132. Character of Gregory VII.— In 1056 Henry III died 
 and his son Henry IV succeeded, and during his reign Pope 
 
GREGORY AND HENRY IV 
 
 107 
 
 Gregory VII ascended the papal throne. Gregory's personal 
 appearance was dwarfish and insignificant, and his utterance 
 was affected by a slight stammer, but within there was a soul 
 distinguished by singleness of principle and indomitable 
 energy of character. Like all great minds his whole life was 
 swerved by one dominant idea and that idea was the exalta- 
 tion of God's Church upon earth. It was Gregory's imselfish 
 devotion to this great object, together with the high integrity 
 of his private life, that made him 
 the most prominent man of his 
 times. 
 
 He at once made clear the po- 
 sition of the Church in the matter 
 of investiture. He forbade under 
 pain of excommunication any 
 bishop or abbot to receive investi- 
 ture from a lay ruler, and under 
 like penalties he forbade any lav 
 ruler to presume to invest any 
 spiritual officer with the insignia 
 of his spiritual office. 
 
 A kin 
 
 investing a bishop by giving 
 him the crosier, or pastoral staff. 
 
 133- Contest Between Gregory VII and Henry IV. — The 
 
 resulting contest was sharp and made both emperor and pope 
 fight with all the weapons at their command. But it soon be- 
 came clear that the pope's position was the stronger of the 
 two. There were on his side the Saxon nobles who, being 
 disaffected toward the emperor took the side of the pope; 
 there was in France, Germany, and Italy the eminent array 
 of the supporters of the Cluniac reform, all of them devoted 
 adherents of the central jurisdiction of the papacy. There 
 was the Countess Mathilda who held an enormous estate in 
 Tuscany, and finally the Normans, who ever since the al- 
 liance with Pope Leo IX, had been faithful supporters of 
 
To8 THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 
 
 the pope. Henry's position in Germany was soon made in- 
 tolerable by the pope's violent activity. He saw that re- 
 sistance was useless and hastening across the Alps went 
 to Canossa. one of Mathilda's castles where the pope was 
 now staying-. \\\i\\ every sig^n of abject submission he sub- 
 mitted to the Holy Father. Gregory received him pater- 
 nally, absolved him from his faults and restored him to his 
 kingdom. 
 
 This reconciliation, however, was very far from settling the 
 question. Henry's abject submission united the German no- 
 bles against the papacy. In fact, even at the present day 
 the sentence " Be sure we shall not go to Canossa " en- 
 graved on Bismarck's monument at Harzburg bears witness 
 of Germany's enduring memory of the humiliation she had 
 once undergone. Moreover, the reconciliation was too in- 
 definite. 
 
 134. Temporary Defeat of the Papacy. — Hie contest broke 
 out again, and this time the odds were more equal. Henry 
 found in Germany many adherents of his cause, while in Italy 
 he was supported by a strong faction bitterly hostile to the 
 pope. In 1084 the armed forces of Henry beat those of the 
 pope. Gregory was besieged in the castle of St. Angelo, and 
 Guibert, Archbishop of Ravenna, was enthroned in his place. 
 But in the hour of peril the pope was rescued by his Norman 
 friends under Robert Guiscard, and Gregory was able to with- 
 draw into exile where he died uttering these words : " I 
 loved justice and hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile." 
 The position of the papacy, however, was now gradually re- 
 trieved when Urban II became pope, in 1088. His first act 
 was to put down the antipope Clement III. He then succeeded 
 in bringing about a marriage between the senventeen year old 
 prince of Bavaria and the Countess Mathilda and thus effected 
 a union between the papal forces in Germany and those in 
 
CONCORDAT OF WORMS 109 
 
 Italy. Skilful diplomacy also won over to the papal side the 
 hitherto anti-papal district of Lombardy. And even these 
 local triumphs fade in importance when l'rl)an II at the 
 Council of Piacenza in Italy and Clermont in France invited 
 the whole Christian world to take ])art in the crusade against 
 the Turk. In the midst of these papal triumphs Henry IV 
 died, conscious that the best fruits of his previous victories 
 had l)eeen lost. His successor was his son who became 
 Henry \ ( 1 \of)). 
 
 135. Renewal of the Contest. — Thoui^h Henry \' during 
 his father's reign had taken the part of the pope, he now re- 
 verted to liis father's policy and insisted on the secular rights 
 of investiture. The pope, Pascal II, sternly upheld the 
 rights of the Church and thus we enter upon the second phase 
 of the investiture contest. The result was a compronu'se in 
 which the pope, on condition of receiving the right of in- 
 vestiture, agreed to surrender to the emperor all the Church 
 lands saving his own. Tliis compromise was praiseworthy 
 in essence, but it implied ideas of separation of Church and 
 State that were ahead of those times. In any case it was 
 bound to offend the great Inilk of the clergv, who saw their 
 own temporal interests tlms la\ishh' surrendered while the 
 p(^pe retained possession of his own lands. 
 
 136. Concordat of Worms. — Again, therefore, was the con- 
 test renewed, and the third and last phase of the investiture 
 question was the celebrated Concordat of \\^orms (1122), be- 
 tween Henry V and Calixtus II, one of the successors of 
 Pascal II. The terms of the celebrated concordat were as 
 follows: The emperor surrendered to the pope the right of 
 investing with the ring and crozier; he also surendered the 
 right to aj^i^oint bishops and abbots; on the other hand the 
 pope conceded that the bishops and abbots should, be ca- 
 
no THE ISiESTITlRE QVESTIOX 
 
 nonicaiiy ciecietl in pre^^enoe of the eiiii-»eror or of his repre- 
 sentative, that contested elections were to be decided by the 
 enn>eror. and that the investiture of new prelates with their 
 civil and judicial functions should rest w ith the enii>eror. 
 
 The compromise endetl satisfactorily the question of in 
 vestiture. The double and misleadiuii; siiiiiitioance of the 
 s;ime s\-mbols were removed. The Church was to ctMifer the 
 ring" and staff as her s\nnlx^ls. while the State was to receive 
 the oath of homage and fidelity as her symlx^ls. 
 
 137. The Broad Question Between Church and State. — 
 The concordat of \\ onus, however, only settled one of the 
 many difficulties between Church and State. In fact, the in- 
 vestiture contest is only a minor issue t>f the great bri>ad 
 question that is ever present — is the Church in the State or 
 is the State in the Church. All along the frontiers of both 
 Church and State are constant fierce recriminations and at the 
 bottom of all disputes lies the unhappy igiiorance of what 
 really i^ertSi.tis to God and what really pertains to Caesar. 
 The contest between the empire and jxaixicy was stx^n to break 
 out more fiercely than ever, though fought out on other 
 grounds, 
 
 138. William I of England. — During the contest lx?tween 
 the Salian emi>erors and the pc^pes, England was conquered by 
 the Normans. Duke William of Xonnandy laid claim to the 
 English crown, alleg-ing that he had l>een promised the succes- 
 sion by King Eilward. He crossed over into England with a 
 [x-twerful anny and at the battle of Hastings in Sussex defeated 
 the Saxon forces, while Harold himself was slain. Duke Will- 
 iam then marched on London and presented himself for elec- 
 tion. There he was welcomed with loud acclamations from 
 his new subjects and the crown was placed on his head by 
 Archbishop Ealdred (1066). 
 
FEUDAL SYSTEM IN ENGLAND III 
 
 139. His Political Organization. — William's militar)' valor 
 and rapid movements soon brought the entire kingdom 
 into subjection, and he soon organized his new conquest with 
 masterly skill. The English soil was parcelled out among 
 his followers on condition of their performing the usual feudal 
 service. He thus formally established in England the feudal 
 system that in the Anglo-Saxon times had already existed 
 in the war companions, or "thegns," of the king, and in the 
 folk lands that had been granted out as a reward for military 
 service. But the feudalism which William introduced was 
 very different from that on the continent. He would not 
 allow the under-tenants to hold their lands on the condition of 
 fealty and allegiance to their immediate lord only, but insisted 
 that all the tenants should take an oath of homage and al- 
 legiance directly to him. He thus managed to keep within 
 modest bounds the power of the greater barons, who on the 
 continent tended to develop into ind^endent sovereigns. 
 
 In order to make his authority still more secure he revived 
 the old English courts of justice. The political administra- 
 tion was taken out of the hands of the feudal barons, while 
 the supreme jurisdiction of the King's Court upheld the king's 
 claim to be the sole fountain of justice. 
 
 Even the Church was made dependent upon the crown. 
 Many of the old Saxon bishops had become worldly-minded 
 and William filled their places with X'orman prelates, many 
 of them eminent for their piety and zeal. The only Anglo- 
 Saxon bishop allowed to remain was St. Wulstan of 
 Worcester. 
 
 140. Church Organization.— The fact that the new Xorman 
 prelates were foreigners, unacquainted with the dialect of the 
 country, made them very dependent upon 'the king and sub- 
 servient to his policy. Moreover, lest their jurisdiction should 
 tend to exceed convenient limits, William effected a complete 
 
112 THE INVESTITURE QUESTION 
 
 separation between the civil and ecclesiastical courts. From 
 henceforth all ecclesiastical cases were to be tried in purely 
 eccleciastical courts, and the bishops were no longer to sit by 
 the side of the lay judges in civil courts of justice. 
 
 Under William's successors, William II and Henry I the 
 king's power became less absolute. The revolt of Robert, 
 Duke of Normandy, and of many other of the barons, as well 
 as the firm attitude of Archbishop Anselm, considerably lim- 
 ited the power of William II. The same causes w^ere also at 
 work during the reign of Henry I and he, by his own de- 
 liberate actions, hastened the advance of a constitutional gov- 
 ernment. His marriage with the Saxon princess Matilda 
 tended to blend the Saxon with the conquering Norman ele- 
 ment, and his charters of freedom to some of the great Eng- 
 lish towns gave to the townsmen the rights of electing their 
 own magistrates, administering justice by their own law offi- 
 cers, and managing trade concerns through their own guilds 
 or commercial corporations. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Reign of Conrad II — His acquisition of the kingdom of Aries 
 — The importance of this acquisition — Conrad II makes the 
 estates of the lesser nobles hereditary — Reign of Henry III — 
 Synod of Sutri in which Clement II is made Pope — Pontificate 
 of Leo IX and his alliance with the Normans — • The Pope's 
 authority strengthened by the papal legates — Pontificate of 
 Nicholas II — The election of Popes now entrusted to the car- 
 dinals — Origin, functions and position of the cardinals — Be- 
 ginning of strife between the empire and the papacy — General 
 causes of misunderstanding between Church and state — Mean- 
 ing of the investiture contest — Gregory VII becomes Pope and 
 the struggle begins - — • The Pope's position is the stronger — 
 Henry IV goes to Canossa — Death of Gregory VIII in exile — 
 Urban II holds councils at Piacenza and at Clermont — Revival 
 of the struggle between Henry V and Pascal II — Compro- 
 mise between these two — Final settlement of the question by 
 the Concordat of Worms between Flenry V and Calixtus II — 
 Conquest of England by Duke William of Normandy — Differ- 
 
GENERAL REFERENCE II3 
 
 ence between the feudalism introduced by William and that on 
 the continent — William keeps up the old courts of justice — 
 Changes made in the Church in England — Importance of the 
 reign of Henry I. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Tout, Empire and Papacy; Henderson, History of Gennany; Lea, 
 Sacerdotal celibacy in the Christian church; Alzog, Church History; 
 Emerton, Medieval Europe; Dante, de Monachia; Henderson, Select 
 Documents; Vincent, Age of Hildehrand; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire; 
 BowDEN, Life and Pontificate of Gregory VH ; Creasy, Decisive Battles 
 of the World; Freeman, Norman Conquest; Macy, English Constitution; 
 Gardiner, Student's History of England; Taswell-Langmead, English 
 Constitutional History, p. 45 to 61 ; Stubbs, Select Charters, pages 79, 80 
 and 55. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 CONTINUATION OF THE CONTEST BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND 
 
 PAPACY 
 
 141. The Papal Position Strengthened. — The Concordat 
 of Worms was far from settling finally the long quarrel be- 
 tween Church and State. It had not yet solved the great ques- 
 tion whether the emperor or the pope was the chief ruler in 
 the Holy Roman Empire. 
 
 The course of events, however, had made the position of 
 the pope relatively much the stronger. Besides the help of 
 the Countess Matilda and of the Normans in Italy, he had 
 also had at his command the widespread influence of the re- 
 ligious orders throughout Christendom. For while ecclesias- 
 tics tended to become worldly and thus weaken the Church's 
 influence, new religious orders were arising that tended to 
 make the Church the champion of learning atid upright liv- 
 ing throughout the world. Some of these new institutions 
 followed the old lines of the Cluniac movement, only they 
 insisted on greater penance, and more prayer and recollection. 
 Others again while not withdrawing the clerk altogether from 
 contact with the world strove to surround him with some of 
 the safeguards of the religious life. 
 
 142. The Cistercians. — Amongst the orders that followed 
 the lives of the old Cluniac movement the most important 
 were the Cistercians and Carthusians. 
 
 The order of the Cistercians was founded by Robert of 
 Moleme. He, with a few faithful followers, settled down at 
 Citeaux near Dijon. There they were soon joined by St. 
 Bernard of Foutaines. The extraordinary sanctity of this 
 
 114 
 
THE CISTERCIANS II5 
 
 man soon attracted numerous folloAvers. Want of space soon 
 compelled them to found some new homes elsewhere, and in 
 TI15 St. Bernard at the head of a numerous band of follow- 
 ers, moved to Clairvaux, leaving behind at Citeaux as abbot 
 the Englishman, St. Stephen Harding. 
 
 The leading features of the Cistercian order are the rigor- 
 ous practice of the rules of 
 the C 1 u n i a c foundation. 
 Their poverty was such that 
 even their very churches, the 
 vestments and adornments 
 had to be as simple as pos- 
 sible. Towers and belfries 
 were prohibited. In fact, at 
 the present day wherever ex- 
 ists the remains of a Cister- 
 cian church with a belfry, 
 the probability is that the 
 church was built in later 
 times, when the order was 
 decadent. Their discipline 
 and penances were of the 
 severest nature and their 
 obedience extended to the 
 minutest detail. What time 
 remained from prayer was 
 chiefly spent in manual la- 
 bor. The country that was 
 occupied by the Cistercians thus soon became opened up in a 
 remarkably short space of time ; marshes were drained and 
 converted into fields and rich pastures. Soon the Cistercian 
 order became noted for its agricultural wealth, and the " Cis- 
 tercian wool " afterwards became an important feature of 
 England's commerce with Flanders. 
 
 Saint Bernard. 
 
Il6 CONTEST BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND PAPACY 
 
 143. The Carthusians. — Another order founded on very- 
 much the same hues was that of the Carthusians, founded 
 by St. Bruno. In the stiU famous monastery of the Grande 
 Chartreuse in Dauphiny he gathered round him his early en- 
 thusiastic disciples. The discipline and severe penances remind 
 one of those of the Cistercians, but a peculiar feature was the 
 blending together of the eremetic and cenobitic ideals. The 
 Cistercians led a community life, but the Carthusians lived in 
 individual privacy. Each member had his own little cell 
 where he worked, prayed, slept, and dined apart from his 
 brethren. Owing to this arrangement, the buildings of the 
 Carthusian order are generally of immense size, and are 
 threaded with long cloisters. 
 
 Both the Cistercians and Carthusians differed in one re- 
 markable respect from the old Cluniac foundations. Their 
 daughter houses were allowed a certain control over the par- 
 ent house. General chapters of the whole order were held 
 and these had jurisdiction to correct any abuses that might 
 exist in the parent house. Thus not only did the government 
 of the order become more democratic but a greater safeguard 
 was instituted against the introduction of relaxation. 
 
 144. The Canons. — We must now consider some of the 
 religious institutions of another kind. It came to be recog- 
 nized that instead of finding one's salvation by entire separa- 
 tion from the world and its dangers the same end might be 
 as readily accomplished by remaining in the world and work- 
 ing for the temporal or spiritual welfare of one's neighbor. 
 With this view were founded about the ninth century numer- 
 ous congregations of regular canons. Not that the cononical 
 life was any new idea. St. Augustine of Hippo had already 
 established a little community of priests in his own house- 
 hold, and bishop Chrodegang of Metz had introduced the* same 
 custom into his diocese. Not, however, till the time of St. 
 
FREDERICK BARBAROSSA WJ 
 
 Norbert of Premoiitre in 1120 did the movenieiiL assume a 
 wide importance. He became the founder of the Austin 
 canons who ahnost rivaled the Cistercians in popularity. The 
 canons, like ordinary clerics, preached, heard confessions, and 
 went thr()Ug"h the ordinary routine of parochial work. At the 
 same time by means of their community life and their obedi- 
 ence to a superior they managed to keep up the spirit of 
 recollection and the practice of the interior virtues. 
 
 All these different orders gave great help and strength to 
 the Church. ]\[oreo\er. the popes that now reigned were 
 men of aljility and determination and eminently fitted for the 
 closing scenes of the great struggle between themselves and 
 the empire. 
 
 145. Frederick Barbarossa. — The death of Henry V in 
 1 125 ended the Franconian dynasty, and with the interval of 
 a single reign a new dynasty was placed on the German throne 
 in the person of Frederick I, surnamed Barbarossa or Red- 
 beard. The Hohenstaufen dynasty became remarkable for 
 its strong- emperors. Frederick was perhaps the ablest and 
 most famous of them all. In personal appearance he was tall 
 and majestic, while his powers of statecraft and his extraor- 
 dinary dexterity in using' favorable opportunities placed him 
 in a more commanding position in the two countries of Italy 
 and Germany than had been the case with any of his prede- 
 cessors. He abandoned a purely local German policy and 
 determined to assert himself in Italy. He quickly consulted 
 the eminent jurists of the time, chiefly from Bologna, in 
 order to find out the full extent of his rights. His rights, or 
 regalia, as they were also called, were declared to be the 
 suzerainty over certain cities and lands, the power to appoint 
 magistrates, to collect tolls, to coin money, to impose an extra- 
 ordinary war tax, and to enjoy all the proceeds from fisheries, 
 and from salt and sil\-er mines. The emperor's power was 
 
Il8 CONTEST BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND PAPACY 
 
 also extended to such towns as could not produce formal proof 
 of independence. 
 
 146. Rise of Italian Towns. — It was this last clause that 
 brought about strife between the emperor and his Italian sub- 
 jects. The towns had now begun to assume an important 
 place in medieval history. They had become centers of com- 
 merce and industry, and had begun to rival the monasteries 
 as homes of culture and refinement. At first, the cities had 
 been mainly under the control of the bishops. But later the 
 citizens had aspired to some share in the government. Often 
 by brute force, sometimes by judicious diplomacy many of 
 the cities succeeded in removing their government from epis- 
 copal into municipal control. Naturally, the richest and most 
 influential citizens got into office and this often caused inter- 
 nal strife, but all would unite against any invasion of their 
 common privileges. 
 
 147. War Between Frederick and the Towns. — Freder- 
 ick's assertion of the regalia over many of the Italian towns 
 at once set Italy aflame. Both sides found partisans in the 
 struggle. The nobles some years previously would have 
 stood against the emperor, but now they rallied round him 
 against the towns who had also rebelled against their juris- 
 diction. The pope and the clerical party, on the other hand, 
 sided with the towns against the emperor. Thus it happened 
 that most of the towns were Guelf and most of the nobles 
 were Ghibelline, though there were exceptions. The family 
 of the Orsini, for example, w-as Guelfic, and Pavia was Ghi- 
 belline. 
 
 Milan was foremost in resisting the emperor's claims. It 
 absolutely refused to receive the podesta who was the supreme 
 magistrate, generally foreign, appointed by the emperor. 
 Other cities soon followed the example. Frederick turned all 
 his forces against the city of Milan. After three year's siege 
 
THE LOMBARD LEAGUE 
 
 119 
 
 it was taken and destroyed. One interesting episode of the 
 siege was the removal of the reHcs of the Three Kings of the 
 East from Milan to 'the Cathedral at Cologne, where they 
 still remain. 
 
 148. The Lombard League. — After this the cities at once 
 formed a league for greater defense, called the Lombard 
 League (ti68). Its energy and spirit of co-operative enter- 
 prise are still visible in the town of Alessandria, which they 
 
 -... _uy of Milan. 
 
 named after Alexander III, the pope who so zealously 
 espoused their cause. In 11 76 was fought the decisive battle 
 of Legnano which produced more tangible results than most 
 battles of the middle ages. The emperor was completely 
 beaten, and after a temporary truce made at Venice the treaty 
 of Constance was signed. By the terms of this treaty the 
 emperor was forced to recognize Alexander III as pope and 
 practically to give back to the towns their old rights of mu- 
 nicipal self-government. 
 
I20 COXTEST BETWEEX THE EMPIRE ASD PAPACY 
 
 Besides these immediate results, the pope was placed in a 
 still more influential position, and the middle class of Italy 
 had made an important step in asserting- the position in Euro- 
 pean politics. 
 
 149. Success of Frederick in Germany. — Frederick's de- 
 feat, however, did not mean complete failure. In Italy he 
 had only failed to gain something new% and now in Germany 
 he succeeded in humbling his rival the Guelfic Duke of Ba- 
 varia, Henry the Lion. A chance quarrel Ijetween the duke 
 and the Bishop of Halberstadt was Frederick's opportunity. 
 He interfered in the quarrel, and after crushing his old rival, 
 dismembered his dominions. Its Alpine districts were taken 
 aw^ay and set up into the new duchy of Styria, wdiile the rest 
 of Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach, one of Freder- 
 ick's followers. Flenry himself received by way of compen- 
 sation a small tract of land round Brunswick, which after- 
 wards became the Duchy of Brvmswick. 
 
 Barbarossa also secured a great diplomatic triumph by 
 marrying his son Henry to Constance, heiress to the Norman 
 kingdom of Sicily. The pope was thus likely to find himself 
 menaced with the power of the Hohenstaufens both on the 
 north and on the south. 
 
 150. Henry VI. — In 1190 Barbarossa died and his son 
 Henry VI succeeded, who, in spite of his ability, again demon- 
 strated the utter incompatibility of a united German and Ital- 
 ian policy. His Sicilian subjects, headed by Count Tancred, 
 revolted against their would-be German sovereign. After a 
 long and bitter struggle Henry VI succeeded in enforcing his 
 claim, but e\'en then his German subjects would never con- 
 sent to recognize any permanent unitMi between Germanv and 
 Italy. 
 
 Upon the death of Henry VI (1197) the long and bitter 
 
INXOCEXT THIRD 121 
 
 contest between the empire and papacy reached its crisis. 
 The strongest of the popes and the strongest of the emperors 
 now enter the hsts and displayed the fuU force of their power. 
 The pope was Innocent III and the Emperor was Frederick 
 II, as yet a minor of only three years of age. 
 
 151. Innocent III ascended the thrune at the age of thirty- 
 seven in all the vigor of manhood, endowed by natnre with 
 all the talents of a ruler and possessed of uncommon erudi- 
 tion. He was also a man of lofty aims and able to interest 
 himself in the remotest concerns of Christendom. His po- 
 litical sagacity was extraordinary, and yet he was also a spir- 
 itual man and seems to have had at heart the genuine wel- 
 fare of the Church. Under him, the political influence of the 
 papacy achieved the summit of its greatness. Innocent made 
 and unmade an emperor of Germany, successfully rebuked 
 the king of France for adultery, so completely humbled John, 
 King of England, that he resigned his crown and received 
 it back again as a fief from the pope. Xo kingdom seemed 
 too remote for his activity. He reduced the kings of Portu- 
 gal and Aragon to a state of \'assalage, and finally even inter- 
 fered with the government of the new Slavonic kingdoms. 
 
 152. Innocent's relations with the Empire show very 
 clearly the enormous influence which he must have had in 
 Europe. At the entreaty of Constance he had consented to 
 act as guardian to the infant son of Henry II, promising to 
 uphold his authority in Sicily. And well did the pope fulfill 
 his promise. He not only successfully put down the turbulent 
 barons, but also organized a successful go\-ernment through- 
 out the entire prox'ince. 
 
 153. Innocent's Spiritual Activity. — His spiritual activity 
 was almost as many-sided as his political activity. It was he 
 that patronized the new orders of the Friars that now came 
 
122 COXTESr BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND PAPACY 
 
 into existence, and it was he again that held the celebrated IV 
 Lateran Council. The importance of this council is seen 
 from the decrees that it passed. The heresy of the Albigenses 
 in the south of France was condemned; the whole life and 
 discipline of the Church was brought up to a higher plane, 
 paschal communion and confession was made obligatory, bish- 
 ops were commanded to set up free schools, to teach poor 
 scholars grammar and theology ; and what had an important 
 influence on the judicial system in England, the old fashioned 
 trial by battle and by ordeal were condemned.^ 
 
 At first Innocent was determined not to allow the king- 
 doms of Germany and Southern Italy to become united under 
 one head, for he would be thus exposing himself to the power 
 of the Hohenstaufen house both on the north and on the 
 south. 
 
 The German barons were of the same mind, though for 
 different reasons. But in Germany itself there were two 
 rival claimants, Philip of Suabia, a Ghibelline, and Otto of 
 Brunswick, belonging to the Guelfic faction. An appeal w-as 
 made to the pope, who naturally decided in favor of Otto of 
 Brunswick, the leader of the Guelfic party (1209). 
 
 154. Innocent Interferes in German Affairs. — But Otto in 
 power soon showed himself very different from Otto in a 
 state of dependency. Not content w'ith his German posses- 
 sions, he strove to drive out Frederick II from Sicily and se- 
 cure that kingdom for himself. Instantly both France and 
 the pope tried to dethrone the ambitious Otto. Germany was 
 roused by French and papal emissaries into such a state of 
 disaffection that it deposed Otto, and the pope, in order to 
 
 1 The trial by combat consisted in deciding the guilt or innocence of a 
 person on the merits of a doubtful case by an appeal to arms. Trial by 
 ordeal consisted in establishing the guilt or innocence of a person by 
 such processes as walking on red-hot coals with impunity, or swallowing 
 a morsel without choking. 
 
 1 
 
FREDERICK SECOND 1 23 
 
 avoid the immediate dangers that threatened the Holy See, 
 accepted Frederick II as emperor in Germany, only stipulating 
 that Germany and Sicily should not be indissolubly united.^ 
 
 Innocent III died (12 16) and with his death we enter upon 
 the last phase in the great contest between the empire and the 
 papacy. 
 
 155. Frederick II. — The death of Innocent left. Frederick 
 II the strongest man not only in Germany but also in Chris- 
 tendom. Perhaps no emperor had ever held a stronger posi- 
 tion than did Frederick during the few years after Innocent's 
 death. It even seemed likely that the imperial dream of a 
 united Italy and Germany might be realized. Both Germany 
 and South Italy were in the emperor's actual possession. The 
 only barrier was the papal states that lay in between, and this 
 barrier showed even more how impossible it was to reconcile 
 the interests of Church and papacy. 
 
 156. Character of Frederick. — Frederick was the man, if 
 any to bring about the desired result. Though his personal 
 appearance was stunted and insignificant and his baldness and 
 short-sightedness hardly accorded with his claims to imperial 
 dignity, yet he was the first emperor who seemed to have 
 stepped beyond the boundaries of his age. It is curious to 
 note that his views regarding personal cleanliness seem to 
 have shocked some of the conservative clerics of the time who 
 complained that he took baths on Sunday. In religious mat- 
 ters he was the first to practice toleration, permitting all re- 
 ligions in the kingdom of Sicily, though this policy shows a 
 striking contrast to his policy in Germany. 
 
 157. His erudition was liberal and little short of marvel- 
 ous. He spoke Latin, French. Italian, German, Greek, and 
 
 ^ The issue was decided at the battle of Bouvines (1214), when the 
 papal forces helped by France crushed the united arms of Otto and 
 King John of England, 
 
124 CONTEST BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND PAPACY 
 
 Arabic. His court was the center of culture and retinement 
 and to it flocked learned scholars from many parts of Chris- 
 tendom, among- whom were Michael Scott who translated 
 many of Aristotle's works, and also Leonard of Pisa who 
 introduced Arabic numerals from the East. He himself was 
 an author and was hailed by Dante as the " Father of Italian 
 poetry." He was the first sovereign to found a royal uni- 
 versity, w'hich he did at Naples, and he also founded a med- 
 ical school at Salerno. His taste for geology also led him 
 to establish a geological garden for didactic purposes. Nor 
 was he merely an antiquarian or a man of abstract erudition. 
 There are few men in history who have showed such mas- 
 terly powers of organization. By his own unaided genius, he 
 built up in Sicily an administrative system that rivaled the 
 best elements of English government and jurisprudence. 
 
 Such was the emperor who was destined to fight out the 
 last act of a Ions: and bitter strusfSfle. 
 
 '&>&' 
 
 158. Strife With Honorius III. — When Frederick had 
 been made emperor by Innocent III he had promised two 
 things, first, to disassociate himself from the Italian kingdom 
 over which he was to make his young' son Henry ruler, second, 
 to embark on a crusade against the infidel. It was the non- 
 fulfilment of this promise that caused the first friction .be- 
 tween himself and the papcy. Honorius III succeeded Inno- 
 cent III. Honorius had been an ardent supporter of the 
 emperor, but Frederick when congratulated on the succession 
 of such a pope remarked : " I have only lost a friend, no 
 pope can be a Ghibelline." 
 
 159. Crusade of Frederick II. — Honorius III urged Fred- 
 erick to undertake the crusade and the better to secure this 
 did not press immediately the question of the Sicilian king- 
 dom. But Frederick still refrained from the crusade and he 
 
CRUSADE OF FREDERICK II 1 25 
 
 Still called himself king of Sicily. At last Honorius excom- 
 municated him and prepared to renew the hostile league be- 
 tween himself and the Italian cities — a league that had al- 
 ready been so disastrous to Barbarossa. In 1127, Honorius 
 III died and Gregory IX succeeded. He was already an old 
 man, but of strong will and imperious energy. Frederick 
 sailed from Brindisi for the crusade but returned in three 
 days with a plea of sickness. It is probable that the excuse 
 was real, for Frederick now had an interest in the crusade. 
 He had married Isabella of Brienne and thought he had some 
 claim to the kingdom of Jerusalem. But the pope soon placed 
 him under the ban and foiled his departure till the ban was 
 removed. However, Frederick on his recovery ignored the 
 ban, sailed for the Holy Land and by skilled diplomacy 
 achieved a most signal triumph, procuring for the Christians 
 the Holy Land of Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem, 
 h^rederick, howe\'er, did not forget his own interests, for he 
 had himself crowned king of Jerusalem. 
 
 On Frederick's return he found that during his absence, the 
 pope had been stirring up Germany against him. But Fred- 
 erick's speedy return quelled the uprising and the p<jpe. taken 
 by surprise, was only too glad to make with Frederick the 
 treaty of San Germano in 1230. 
 
 160. Frederick's Activity in Sicily. — Frederick was then 
 free to turn his attention to Sicily, o\er which he had not re- 
 lincjuished his regal title. Perhaps in no sphere of activity 
 did Frederick so well display the modern element of his 
 genius as in the " Constitutions of the Kingdom of Sicily." 
 He entirely swe]it away the old feudal system. For the petty 
 jurisdiction of the barons, he substituted his own kingly au- 
 thority, instead of the feudal dues was introduced a system 
 of direct taxation, while the petty judicial functions of the 
 barons were replaced by a system that closely resembled the 
 
126 CONTEST BETWEEN THE EMPIRE AND PAPACY 
 
 judicial system of England in one stage of its development. 
 Even the representative system was introduced, each estate of 
 the realm being represented by its own general court. 
 
 i6i. Frederick's Failure in Germany. — But Frederick's 
 triumph in Italy meant the downfall of his prospects in Ger- 
 many. While he succeeded in establishing his monarchy in 
 Sicily the cause of local independence asserted itself in Ger- 
 many. In fact, a number of causes, individually powerless 
 but collectively overwhelming, were fast bringing about the 
 downfall of the once powerful house of Hohenstaufen. The 
 enmity of the popes, the adverse activity of the friars, the 
 turbulence of the barons at home and the onward progress of 
 the city states of northern Italy proved irresistible. The em- 
 peror struggled on to the last but his aged frame was no 
 longer able to stand the storm and he died in 1250. 
 
 162. Results of Frederick's Failure. — The death of Fred- 
 erick not only closes the greatness of the Holy Roman Empire, 
 but was accompanied with momentous results for future Eu- 
 ropean politics. 
 
 1. The chance of forming a united Germany was deferred 
 indefinitely. For the only animating principle that was likely 
 to bring and to keep together its component parts was now 
 removed. From now the map of Germany presents a con- 
 fused medley of petty kingdoms, duchies, principalities, and 
 bishoprics, each leading a separate independent life. 
 
 2. The same condition also obtained in Italy. The history 
 of Italy now becomes the history of independent city states. 
 Even at the present day visitors cannot but notice how each 
 Italian town seems to have a distinct type of its own — so 
 different from many of our American cities of which you 
 may with truth say that if you have seen one you have 
 seen all, Even the inhabitants, of the towns seem to have an 
 
HENRY II OF ENGLAND I2y 
 
 individuality and a distinct type and tradition of their own. 
 .Vnd all this is accounted for by the past history of Italy — 
 the failure of the emperors to assert their unifying influence in 
 Italian politics. 
 
 3. There was one section of society that seemed to have 
 come out of the contest with success. That was the middle 
 class. Both in German}- and Italy the middle class assumed 
 an important position in politics and with them rested in a 
 great measure the shaping of the destinies of Western Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 163. English History of the Period. — In 1 154 while h^red- 
 erick Barbarossa was reigning in (lermany, a new dynasty of 
 kings was estal)lished in England 1)\' the accession of Henry 
 II of the house of Anjou. Henry II had much of the abil- 
 ity and many of the organizing powers of the German emper- 
 ors, but unlike them he had not to cope with such overwhelm- 
 ing difficulties. The reign of Henry II marks the fullest 
 extent of English possessions in l^rance. Erom his parents 
 he inherited Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, and by his 
 marriage with Elinor of Aquitaine he inherited the provinces 
 of southwest hrance. Indeed the whole of the western half 
 of Erance belonged to England. Henrv II .also asserted his 
 claim to the possession of Ireland, and in i i(S5 an English set- 
 tlement was definitely established in the eastern part of Ire- 
 land, a district that was henceforth known as the English pale. 
 
 164, Henry II and the Church. — The chief features of 
 Henry's reign are his relations with the Church and his per- 
 fection of the ]:)olitical system. The separation of the Church 
 from the lay courts had been provocative of great abuses; a 
 cleric when committing a crime could not be punished 
 straightway, but had to be degraded and only after a second 
 crime could any punishment be inflicted. By the constitu 
 
The mur 
 
 der of St. Thomas a Becket in Canterbury Cathedral. 
 
HENRVS ADMINISTRATION 129 
 
 tions of Clarendon all this was done away with and clerics 
 were made amenable to the civil courts of the realm, it being 
 enacted that they should be under the jurisdiction of the 
 ecclesiastical or of the lay court according to the ciuality of the 
 offense that they had committed. St. Thomas a Becket, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, strongly opposed this,, and the re- 
 sult was a serious quarrel between himself and the king, in 
 the course of which he was murdered in his own cathedral by 
 four knights who thereby thought to do the king a service. 
 
 165. Henry's Temporal Administration. — The best part of 
 Henry's administration was his judicial work. Tlie assizes 
 of Clarendon and of Northamjiton provided for the defence 
 of the people from thieves and murderers. Towns and 
 boroughs were made responsible for the prevention of crime; 
 while in the repression of crime, the jury system was for the 
 first time practically and definitely introduced. But in Hen- 
 ry's time the jurors, unlike our modern jurors were supposed 
 to be- acquainted with the facts of the case and character of 
 tlie accused person, wliile the jurors also acted as judges. It 
 is from the jurors in the latter capacity that we have our 
 grand jury who still indict criminals for crime. In the 
 thirteenth century, after the prisoner had been judged guilty 
 Ijy the jury, he was forced to undergo a further trial by or- 
 deal, which we have already explained. Then when the 
 Fourth Lateran Council abolished the trial by ordeal, another 
 jury was established instead called petty jury and it is this 
 that gave rise to our ordinary jury. 
 
 Henry II also improved in other ways the administration 
 of justice. He divided the kingdom into six districts and 
 the king's justices visited these at stated times. At first their 
 main duties were financial, but later on these duties were en- 
 trusted to other officials, and the judges became what they 
 are to-day. 
 
King John signing the Great Charter. 
 
THE GREAT CHARTER 131 
 
 166. Richard and John. — Henry II was succeeded by his 
 two sons, Richard I (1189) and John (1199). Both of them 
 for different reasons were bad kings. Richard was excki- 
 sively preoccupied with his crusading expeditions and with 
 his French possessions, for which purpose he laid heavy bur- 
 dens on the people, while John tried to make himself a despot. 
 The expenses of the kingdom were undoubtedly heavy, but 
 John tried to meet them by imposing direct taxes as well as 
 by raising the ordinary feudal rexenues. In addition to this 
 the subject was often unjustly deprived of his life and liberty. 
 
 167. The Great Charter. — The barons headed the opposi- 
 tion to the king. Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, like 
 Lanfranc and Anselm, also stood forth as the champion of the 
 popular liberties. The result was the signing" of the Great 
 Charter, the first bulwark of English liberties. This docu- 
 ment is important as being the first written law to show forth 
 the fundamental elements of the English Constitution. From 
 henceforth none were to be " seized, or imprisoned or dispos- 
 sessed or outlawed or in any way brought to ruin, except by 
 lawful judgment of their peers or by the law of the land." 
 Every man was to be entitled to justice without delay, and 
 above all, outside the then customary feudal aids no tax was 
 to be imposed save by the consent of the common council of 
 the realm. This last clause gave to the people the legal power 
 of the purse and was the chief weapon in their constitutional 
 war against future despotic kings. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Foundation of new orders — Origin of the Cistercians — The 
 spirit and rule of the Cistercians — Influence of the Cistercians 
 — Origin of the Carthusians — Peculiar features of the Carthu- 
 sian order — Congregations of regular canons — Union of mo- 
 nastic spirit with the active life — Rise of the new Hohenstauffen 
 dynasty in Germany — Character and policy of Frederick I — 
 Growing power of the Italian towns — Strife between Frederick 
 
J 32 COXTEST BETWEES TtlE EMPIRE AXD PAl'ACY 
 
 I and the Italian towns — The Guelphs and GhibeUines — De- 
 struction of Milan — The Lombard League — Battle of Legnano 
 and Treaty of Constance — Frederick's policy in Germany — 
 Marriage of Prince Henry with Constance — Reign of Henry 
 VI — Pontificate of Innocent III — His character — His spirit- 
 ual activity — The IV Lateran Council — His political activity 
 all over Europe — Frederick II becomes emperor — His appear- 
 ance and character — His different policy in Germany and in 
 Italy — Struggle between Frederick II and Pope Honorius III 
 and Pope Gregory IX — Frederick's crusade — Political changes 
 made by Frederick in Sicily — Frederick's failure in Germany — 
 Cicneral results of the activity of the emperors — Reign of Henry 
 
 II in England — Extent of English possessions in France — 
 Conquest of Ireland — Henry's intervention in Church matters 
 and his c[uarrel with St. Thomas a Becket — Assizes of Claren- 
 don and Northampton — Origin of the Grand Jury and the 
 Petty Jury — Henry's legal arrangements — Reigns of Richard 
 I and of John — Signing of the Magna Charta. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Jessupp, Coming of the Friars; Stokrs, Bernard of Clairvaux; Fisher, 
 History of the Christian Church; Alzog, Church History; Milman, Latin 
 Cliristianity; Dugdale, Monasticism; Stephen, Translation of " Histoire 
 des ordrcs monastiques" ; Henderson, History of Germany; Balzani, the 
 Popes and the Hohenstaufen; Emerton, Medieval Europe; Tout, Empire 
 and Papacy; Freeman, Historical essays; Adams, Civilisation during 
 Middle Ages; Pastor, History of the Popes; Barry, the Papal Monarchy; 
 Raumer, History of the House of Hohenstauffen; Green, History of 
 England; Stubbs, Select Charters,' pp. 135 to 159, also pp. 296 to 306; 
 Ramsay, Angevin Empire; Archer, Crusade of Richard I ; Green, His- 
 tory of England; Barrinton, Magna Charta. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 Tlie Crusades 
 
 1 68. Strife of East and West. — iMen during the ancient 
 history of Greece and Rome there had been some contact be- 
 tween the eastern and western civihzations. The wars be- 
 tween Persia and Greece marked the attempt of the eastern 
 type of civilization to encroach upon the West and even in 
 the later history of Rome we find the continuation of this con- 
 flict in which each of the contending parties seemed unable 
 to overthrow and absorb the other. During the middle ages 
 there was also a contest between the East and West, but a 
 contest of a different character. 
 
 169. Religion Cause of Dispute. — The immediate cause of 
 dispute was now no longer political but religious. We have 
 already seen that the Saracens had possessed themselves of 
 Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and the other Holy Places sanctified 
 by our Lord's earthly presence. On the occasion when Omar 
 took possession of Jerusalem he made a treaty with the Chris- 
 tians, the terms of which were so humiliating to the con- 
 quered that chronic discontent was sure to be the result. The 
 treaty provided that the Christians were to build no new 
 churches and were to allow the Turks to enter the old ones: 
 no cross was to appear on the outside of the buildings, and 
 church bells were only to toll. The pilgrims who frequented 
 the holy places were subjected to great humiliations and an- 
 noyances. 
 
 170. Political Causes. — To these grounds of religious com- 
 plaint, might he added others of a political nature. The 
 
 134 
 
CAUSES OF THE CRUSADES 135 
 
 Turk's political creed was one of aggression^ and expansion, 
 and Constantinople being the outpost of Christendom was 
 placed in very great danger. During the pontificate of Urban 
 II the emperor made earnest solicitations to the Pope, for as- 
 sistance, and even the orthodox Christians of Europe were 
 beginning to see that the interests of the heretic Greek w^ere 
 practically identical with their own. 
 
 171. Other Causes of the Crusades. — While the danger 
 that threatened Europe and the Church was very real, there 
 were also certain internal conditions that made the great bulk 
 of the people respond heartily to any invitation to go out and 
 fight the East. The two chief professions at that time were 
 those of the monk and of the soldier. Those who were not 
 monks were more or less soldiers, and were filled with the 
 fighting spirit of adventure. Moreover, the war against the 
 heathen must have seemed to many a good chance of escap- 
 ing from those monotonous caste distinctions of medieval 
 society, whereby each individual had to walk exactly in the 
 profession of his father and to pursue the occupations of that 
 particular section of society in which he happened to have 
 been born. The crusades, in other words, not only appealed 
 to the love of adventure but they also held out a new hope of 
 bettering one's condition and of raising oneself to w^ealth and 
 distinction. Each man had some prospect of escaping from 
 that deep rut in which his life would have otherwise have been 
 spent. 
 
 172. The Period of the Crusades. — Men were therefore 
 eager to fight the heathen, and during the middle ages, from 
 the eleventh to the thirteenth century, there was constant war- 
 fare going on between the Christian and the Turk. The nine 
 crusades that are recorded were only emphatic stages of 
 this conflict, when greater numbers than usual went out to 
 
136 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 the East, and certain important definite results were accom- 
 plished. 
 
 173. The First Crusade took place during the reign of 
 Urban II. Nothing shows more clearly the growing influ- 
 ence of the papacy than the fact that during the fierce investi- 
 ture contest with Henry IV, the pope was able to promulgate 
 throughout Christendom the first great crusade. Pope Urban 
 II first of all held a council at Piacenza, at which there ar- 
 rived messengers from the Greek emperor imploring aid. He 
 then held a second council at Clermont in France before a 
 great concourse of enthusiastic people, and on this occasion 
 Urban proclaimed the crusade. The appeal was not in vain. 
 Thousands there and then took up the cause and donned the 
 red cross, the sign of their agreement, and in a short time, 
 owing to the eloquence of Peter the Hermit, the movement 
 spread throughout all France. 
 
 174. Character of the First Crusade. — During the first 
 crusade, however, the great sovereigns of Europe took no 
 part. The real leaders of the expedition were the four great 
 feudal nobles of the second rank. Chief among these was 
 Godfrey de Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, who spoke fluently 
 both the' French and Teutonic dialects, and who, on account 
 of his unsullied character, the unselfish character of his mo- 
 tives, and his political sagacity was looked up to as the chief 
 leader of the expedition. Next in social influence, since he 
 was the brother of the king of France, came Hugh, Count 
 of Vermandois, who had endeared himself to many by his 
 genial temperament. Robert, Count of Normandy, was con- 
 spicuous for his bravery and was hardly surpassed in this re- 
 spect even by Tancred, his companion in arms, the hero of 
 Tasso's poem, " Jerusalem Delivered." The orator and 
 chairman of the meetings of the war council was Stephen, 
 Count of Blois, a man of eloquence and practical sagacity. 
 
THE FIRST CRUSADE 1 37 
 
 These were the chief leaders, and under them were a host 
 of lesser knights. 
 
 Upon their departure for the Holy Land the crusaders had 
 to undergo certain rites and ceremonies, all calculated to pu- 
 rify the conscience and to rouse the loftiest ideals. The knight 
 hefore his departure had to settle the affairs of his soul, to 
 renew his baptismal vows, to swear to champion the innocent 
 and oppressed ; he also commended himself to our Lady, who 
 in the chivalric language of that period became to him " Notre 
 Dame." 
 
 175. The Beginnings of the First Crusade were not suc- 
 cessful. The vanguard of the army consisted of an unorgan- 
 ized multitude of men, women, and children under Peter the 
 Hermit. The wanton aggressions and disorders of the crowd 
 drew upon them the hostility of the king of Hungary, through 
 whose dominions they had to pass, and even when after many 
 sufferings and delays they reached the Holy Land, they were 
 completely cut to pieces by the Saracens. 
 
 176. The Main Body of the army met with better success. 
 After pursuing different routes, the leaders with the several 
 forces arrived at Constantinople. Alexius, the emperor, be- 
 gan to repent of his invitation, for he soon saw that the cru- 
 saders might deem the conquest of an heretical prince like 
 himself a useful preliminary to the real object they had at 
 hand. In fact the enormous numbers of the crusaders and the 
 uncertain character of their motives were quite calculated to 
 fill him with alarm and suspicions. But his diplomacy was 
 equal to the occasion. He dexterously maneuvered the pas- 
 sage of the crusaders across the Bosphorus in such a way that 
 they were not all together on one side, but so that some would 
 be on the eastern bank and others on the western. He even 
 persuaded their leaders to take an oath to deliver to him as 
 supreme over-lord all the territory that they might conquer. 
 
138 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 177. Foundation of European Principalities in Eastern 
 Lands. — When the crusaders arrived at the Holy Land a 
 series of great battles was fought. Nicsea was taken in 1097, 
 and through a secret compromise between the Greek emperor 
 and the Saracens, was delivered into the emperor's hands, 
 much to the vexation of the Latins. Then Antioch w^as taken 
 in spite of its impregnable position on Lake Ascalon, and 
 this fell into the hands of Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard. 
 Of all the leaders of the crusaders Bohemond seems from the 
 very first to have been the least disinterested. On the way to 
 Jerusalem another leader of the crusaders also managed to 
 secure personal possession of part of the spoils. This was 
 Baldwin, Count of Flanders, who took possession of and 
 founded the principality of Edessa. Raymond of Toulouse, 
 who had also hoped to get Edessa, compensated himself with 
 the principality of Tripoli on the coast. 
 
 178. Capture of Jerusalem. — At length the crusading army 
 arrived at Jerusalem. The difficulties of taking it were great, 
 owing to the scarcity of food and water in the surrounding 
 district, and the want of the necessary besieging materials. 
 But in two months' time the town fell, mainly owing to the 
 timely arrival at Jaffa of vessels with supplies from Genoa. 
 
 179. The Kingdom of Jerusalem. — The crusaders organ- 
 ized their conquest into what was called the Latin Kingdom 
 of Jerusalem. The constitution which they formed is inter- 
 esting as affording the purest type of feudal government that 
 had ever existed. Feudalism elsewhere had to contend 
 against certain extraneous elements, but here the crusaders 
 were enabled to reproduce their feudal institutions on per- 
 fectly fresh ground. 
 
 180. Constitution of the New Kingdom. — God f rev. who 
 had been elected king of Jerusalem by the successful army, was 
 
THE SECOND CRUSADE 
 
 139 
 
 supreme over-lord. Under him were the greater feudatories 
 of Syria, TripoH, Edessa, and Antioch, and under these again 
 were the lesser fiefs. Justice was administered in three 
 different courts : first, in the high court of the barons pre- 
 sided over by the king himself; second, in the court of the 
 burgesses, which met the needs of the popular element, and 
 
 The capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders. 
 
 third, in the Syrian court intended for the use of the native 
 Christians. 
 
 The foundation of the Latin kingdom, however, did not 
 
 meet with much solid success. The old quarrel between tht 
 
 lurks and Arabs, which had partly accounted for the success 
 
 of the first crusade, had been healed. Soon Edessa was taken 
 
 and the whole Latin East was threatened. 
 
•I40 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 i8i. A Second Crusade in 1147 was then preached, this 
 time by St. Bernard. Two large armies were equipped and 
 commanded respectively by Conrad III of Germany and Louis 
 VII of France. Conrad III, who went on ahead, met with 
 a crushing defeat, and had to retreat to Antioch, where Louis 
 VII had just arrived with a French army. The two kings 
 made a fatal mistake which at once compromised the suc- 
 cess of the crusade. They attacked Damascus, whose ruler 
 was inclined to be neutral in the contest, and this at once 
 had the effect of making him throw in his cause with the 
 other Saracens. Conrad soon thought it advisable to return 
 to Germany, and Louis followed him in a year's time without 
 anything substantial being" accomplished. 
 
 182. The Third Crusade, in 1187, differed from the two 
 preceding ones in that it was not originated by the Church, 
 but by the State. Philip Augustus, king of France, Richard, 
 King of England, and Frederick Barbarossa, emperor of Ger- 
 many, were the chief leaders of the movement. Frederick 
 Barbarossa was the first to start and after successfully evad- 
 ing the treachery of Isaac Angelus, then emperor at Constanti- 
 nople, successfully reached Cilicia. There the old emperor, 
 through imprudently bathing in a rapid river, lost his life, 
 and the German army without a leader was soon dissolved. 
 The kings of France and England went to the Holy Land 
 by Naples and Sicily. During the journey, Richard slightly 
 deflected from his course in order to wrest the island of 
 Cyprus from the Greek prince Isaac, who was suspected, with 
 reason, of being friendly with the Saracens. 
 
 The third crusade did not fulfil all the anticipations that 
 were entertained of it. There were many romantic exploits 
 and much individual valor was displayed, in fact, the third 
 crusade more than any other has become the theme for the 
 novelist. But, unfortunately, the misunderstandings between 
 
CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE 14I 
 
 the French and the English were ahnost more serious than 
 the quarrel between the Christians and the Saracens. Philip 
 returned to France disconsolate and disgusted, and Richard 
 continued the contest single-handed. His diplomacy rather 
 than his victories succeeded in procuring from Saladin, the 
 magnanimous leader of the Saracens, permission for Chris- 
 tians to visit the holy places unmolested. 
 
 183. The Fourth Crusade, in 1198, took place in the reign 
 of Innocent IIL It was originated by Fulk of Neuilly, who 
 was warmly supported by the Pope. The commander-in- 
 chief at first was Count Theobald, but owing to his early 
 death, the Italian Boniface of Montferrat was appointed to 
 the dignity. Other important personages were Louis, Count 
 of Blois, Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and Simon de Mont- 
 fort, afterward so renowned in English history, and finally 
 Geoffrey of Villehardouin, from whose written records we 
 derive most of our information concerning the expedition. 
 
 The old difficulty of transporting the crusaders was met 
 by an active alliance with the Venetians. The Venetians sup- 
 plied the necessary ships and provisions, while the French 
 agreed to pay in return 85,000 marks of silver and to allow 
 the Venetians an equal share of the conquest. 
 
 184. The Crusaders Take Constantinople. — But certain 
 events at Constantinople diverted the expedition from its orig- 
 inal course. The brutal and unpopular Isaac Angelus had 
 been deposed by his older brother Alexius, and was blinded 
 and confined in a dungeon (1195). Another Alexius, the 
 son of Isaac Angelus, appeared in the French camp, and ap- 
 pealed for help. Boniface of Montferrat, now the com- 
 mander-in-chief, and Dandolo, the Doge of Venice, undertook- 
 to restore Isaac. Constantinople was taken mainly through 
 the seamanship of the Venetians, and Isaac was reinstated on 
 
142 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 the throne. Young Alexius, however, found it difficult to 
 make good the rich promises with which he had persuaded 
 the crusaders to help him. The grievous taxes laid on the 
 people and the plunder of their churches made them revolt. 
 Events then moved with startling rapidity. Isaac died sud- 
 denly, his son Alexius was strangled, and an adventurer, 
 Alexius Ducas, had himself made emperor under the title of 
 Alexius V. The Christians now made a second attack on 
 the city, and after a fierce onslaught succeeded in taking it 
 in April, 1204. Alexius V was killed, and the crusaders 
 avenged themselves by a wholesale pillage and massacre. 
 Another Latin kingdom was now set up at Constantinople, 
 and the Franks and Venetians divided the spoil between them- 
 selves. A Frenchman, Count Baldwin of Flanders, became 
 emperor; a Venetian, Thomas Morosini, became patriarch of 
 the new orthodox empire. Boniface was made king of Thes- 
 salonica, while the Venetians not only obtained possession of 
 a considerable quarter of Constantinople itself but they also 
 acquired important settlements in Greece, especially on the 
 Peloponnessus, together with nearly all the coast-land and 
 islands including the Ionian islands and the Cyclades. 
 
 The Fourth crusade thus accomplished a great deal in 
 changing the map of Europe, but as regards the professed ob- 
 ject of the crusade, namely the recovery of the Holy Land, 
 the results were practically nil. 
 
 185. The Fifth Crusade (1217) was undertaken by Fred- 
 erick II, whose reign we have already reviewed. Strange to 
 say, this prince, whose orthodoxy was so often under sus- 
 picion, and who at the very time of the crusade was under 
 sentence of excommunication, succeeded in accomplishing 
 much more than any of his predecessors. After skilled nego- 
 tiations, he made a treaty with the Sultan by which most fav- 
 orable terms were granted. Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Jer- 
 
END OF THE CRUSADES 1 43 
 
 iisalem were restored to the Christians, the only condition be- 
 ing that the mosque of Omar should still be allowed to remain 
 in the hands of the Saracens. 
 
 186. The Last two Crusades were practically fought out 
 by St. Louis of France alone. The old crusading spirit had 
 died out and even the recapture of Jerusalem by the Turks 
 failed to rouse Europe. In 1249, St. Louis at the head of an 
 army attacked the enemy in Egypt. The issue soon showed 
 that the place of campaign was ill-advised. The Christians 
 found themselves in a desert and difficult country, cut off 
 from the basis of supplies. They were soon surrounded by 
 the enemy. Resistance was hopeless and the whole army had 
 to lay down its arms, Louis himself being taken prisoner but 
 shortly afterward released. However, in 1270 Louis again 
 took the cross and this time directed his forces against Tunis, 
 a place almost as inaccessible as the other. Listead of be- 
 sieging it he became besieged in his own camp and fell a vic- 
 tim to the plague in the August of 1270. 
 
 187. Results of the Crusades. — The crusades brought 
 about a revolution in the general condition of society. They 
 loosened the connection between the landowner and his hold- 
 ing, a connection that was greatly responsible for the stereo- 
 typed form of medieval society. Vast multitudes of men by 
 coming into contact not only with the East but with other 
 continental nations had their ideas suddenly enlarged. So- 
 ciety thus became less localized, less medieval and more ready 
 for the great changes of the sixteenth century. 
 
 The crusades were also the occasional cause of new reli- 
 gious orders that for several years played an important part 
 in European life. 
 
 188. The Military Orders.— It was during this time that 
 the military orders were established. Hitherto the monk 
 
144 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 and the soldier had been two separate types, but now they 
 were blended into' one. While taking the three vows of 
 poverty, chastity, and obedience, they also undertook, when 
 duty required, to fight the heathen. 
 
 The two chief of these military orders were the Hospi- 
 tallers and the Templars. The Hospitallers were founded 
 by Raymond Le Puy in 1130, and as soon as their monastic 
 life was begun, adopted the rule of St. Augustine. Their 
 special work of charity was to look after the safety and com- 
 fort of the pilgrims to the holy places. After the capture of 
 Jerusalem they took up their residence in Cyprus. From 
 there they went to Rhodes, and finally in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury settled down in Malta, where they remained until the 
 Napoleonic wars in 1798. It was from there that we have 
 the Maltese cross of four-tailed arrow points, still a substan- 
 tial feature of the British flag. Even now there exists in 
 Brandenburg, a branch of the order and is recognized by the 
 King of Prussia. 
 
 The Templars were founded about the year 11 28. Their 
 chief duty was to protect pilgrims on their way to the holy 
 places. Their habit consisted of a white mantle, upon which 
 was embroidered a large cross. A great number of their 
 foundations called temples, soon sprang up all over Europe. 
 In each of these there were three distinct groups of knights, 
 simple men at arms, and chaplains. In London at the present 
 day, the Temple Church is part of one of these old establish- 
 ments, while in Paris, the temple where Louis XIV was 
 imprisoned for a time before his execution also belonged to 
 the same order. 
 
 189. Effect on Commerce. — Perhaps the most remarkable 
 way in which the crusades reacted on Europe was in the 
 promotion and expansion of commerce. Contact with new 
 lands and with the new productions of the East increased 
 
RESi'LTS OF THE CRUSADES 145 
 
 the range of men's wants and suddenly widened the markets. 
 Spices, perfumes, and precious stones were much in demand, 
 wdiile judging from the treaties of that time cloves seem to 
 have become a necessary article of diet. The trade routes 
 from the East converged at Venice and thence went up the 
 rivers Danube and Rhine to the cities of north Germany. 
 Venice especially pi"ofited by this. Like Genoa and Pisa, she 
 had had trading quarters in most of the Eastern cities and 
 the fourth crusade gave her important possessions in Con- 
 stantinople. \'enice soon became a great maritime empire, 
 the coins of all countries found their way there, and at 
 Venice was started the first bank that in any way resembles 
 our modern l)ank. It was merely a bank of deposit, but it 
 prepared the way for the bank of Genoa which also traded 
 with the capital of its customers. Thus to the crusades we 
 are partly indebted for the earlier introduction of our bank- 
 ing system. 
 
 190. Heraldry. — .\s another result of the crusades may 
 be mentioned the introduction of the art of heraldry. It 
 l)ecame necessary to distinguish the different orders of 
 nobles and knights, and for this purpose a court of heraldry 
 was established. During the 13th century, in France 
 there was such a court, governed by an official who bore 
 the title of " king-at-arms," the same title as that worn by 
 the present chief of the college of heralds in London. Ap- 
 propriate coats of arms were invented and a complicated lan- 
 guage put together such as could be understood only bv the 
 initiated. 
 
 191. Rise of Free Towns. — The period of the crusades is 
 also the period of the rise of the towns. The weakening of 
 the ties between the landlord and the soil tended to lower 
 the condition of the feudal baron, and the growth of com- 
 
146 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 merce tended on the other hand to give greater importance 
 to centers of commercial activity. 
 
 The rise of towns during the middle ages must no doubt 
 all times and in all countries, such causes for example as in- 
 crease of population, a certain restlessness brought about by 
 be attributed to the same general causes that are at work in 
 
 A view in old Nuremburg. 
 
 greater civilization, and the need for defence and mutual in- 
 tercourse. But in addition to these general causes the towns 
 were very often the result of deliberate intent. For example, 
 Freiburg, or " Free Town," was founded by Duke Berthold 
 of Zahringen, who summoned the future citizens together, 
 and distributed among them their freeholds round what was 
 intended to be the future market-place. 
 
THE FREE TOWNS 147 
 
 192. Government of the Towns. — The government of these 
 towns was at first in the hands of the lord of the town, whether 
 bishop or prince, and at first each inhabitant had to contribute 
 personally the dues that had to be paid to his' over-lord. But 
 gradually there crept in the custom of making the whole 
 town collectively responsible for these dues, so that they 
 were paid direct to the over-lord, not by the individual but by 
 the body that represented his interests. This change, \vas 
 perhaps not of much financial importance, yet it emphasized 
 the growth of the corporate life of the town, and prepared 
 the way for the assumption by this representative body of 
 other and more important political rights. Partly by violence, 
 partly by commuting the ordinary feudal obligations for cer- 
 tain fixed payment the town generally managed to acquire 
 practical independence and self-government. 
 
 193. Trade Guilds. — This government, how^ever, did not 
 reside in the general body of the citizens, but in the hands of 
 the trade guilds, which were associations of members belong- 
 ing to the same trade for such purposes as self-defence, regu- 
 lation of the hours of labor, of the wages that w^ere paid, and 
 of the cjuality of the goods sold. These guilds were also in- 
 surance societies, and a member w'ho became sick or who fell 
 into misfortune could always rely upon his guild for help. 
 Nor were these associations merely financial. They were 
 hallowed by certain traditions and by a spirit of reverence 
 on the part of the members. 
 
 The guilds were of two kinds, merchant guilds, and craft 
 guilds. The merchant guilds were the first to appear, and 
 consisted of those traders that had a greater amount of cap- 
 ital and who were engaged in the more extensive financial 
 enterprises. Since the town was pre-eminently a trading 
 center the members of these guilds were the most important 
 among the citizens, and it was they wdio first of all acquired 
 
148 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 control of the affairs of the town. But by degrees those who 
 by wealth and position did not belong to the merchant guilds 
 began to form certain associations of their own. These were 
 the craft guilds, 'and their organization greatly resembled that 
 of the merchant guilds. 
 
 The entire trade of the city was regulated entirely by these 
 trade guilds, and every one who wished to enter a certain 
 trade had to follow strictly certain regulations. His first 
 position was that of apprentice. For a certain number of 
 years, depending upon the difficulty and importance of the 
 trade, he spent his time in learning the trade and received no 
 wages. At the end of this period of probation he became a 
 journeyman, and as such he could earn wages, but could not 
 carry on business by himself; he was still forced to work for 
 some master. Finally he became a master-workman and 
 could set up a shop on his own account. 
 
 The local feeling and tradition that resulted from corporate 
 town life were exceedingly strong. In the same way that the 
 knights formed among themselves a caste of so distinct a 
 type that there was, for example, a far stronger feeling of 
 sympathy between an English knight and a French knight 
 than between an English knight and an English peasant, so 
 it was with the people of the towns. A tradesman from Lon- 
 don would be considered a foreigner in the town of Bristol, 
 and the towns either singly or associated, would often wage 
 petty wars entirely on their own account. 
 
 194. Political Power of the Towns. — When, therefore, the 
 towns rose to the height of their power they began to play an 
 important part in the history. of Europe. Already the league 
 of towns in northern Italy decided the contest between pope 
 and emperor in favor of the former. And there were also 
 other leagues. Perhaps the most important of all was the 
 Hanseatic League, which was a union of the German towns 
 
INFLUENCE OF TOWNS 149 
 
 chiefly in the interests of trade. ]\Iany of the existing towns 
 in Germany belonged to this league. Lubeck was considered 
 the capital towai of the league, but other towns like Cologne, 
 Brunswick, and Hamburg were important centers. The 
 league had also important settlements in other countries. In 
 London, the Steelyard, near London bridge, was one of these 
 settlements, and another could be found as far east as Nov- 
 gorod — still one of the most commercial towns of Russia, 
 and celebrated for its annual fair. The Hanseatic League 
 soon acquired great political importance. Its ships practi- 
 cally policed the seas and its men of war conveyed the mer- 
 chant vessels from port to port. It was able to defy even the 
 strongest of nations. It warred successfully against England 
 and w^as able to dictate to that country its own terms, while 
 in a war against Denmark it succeeded in procuring that in 
 future all new Danish monarchs must obtain the sanction of 
 the league previous to ascending the throne. 
 
 195. Civilizing Effects of Towns. — This power that was 
 exerted by the leagues of the towns was generally beneficial 
 to Europe. It secured the triumph of law and order. When 
 large towns all over the continent were engaged in important 
 financial transactions it became necessary that there should 
 be a universal and efficient code of law that might settle dis- 
 putes and uphold credit, and in this direction the towns were 
 constantly using their influence. The code of law they used 
 was the Roman law codified by Justinian, which was excep- 
 tionally strong on its commercial side and soon found favor 
 throughout Italy and the other parts of Europe. 
 
 The towns also exercised an important indirect influence 
 through their economic activity. Owing to the widening of 
 markets, and the greater intercourse between distant parts, 
 money began to assume a greater importance as a common 
 means of exchange. This meant a gradually weakening of 
 
150 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 the essential elements of feudalism. A landowner would 
 often accept money instead of material services and this of 
 itself tended to place the tenant in a more independent posi- 
 tion, while the sovereign of a country would often adopt a 
 similar policy on a larger scale. Thus by degrees the king 
 instead of relying for the defence of the kingdom on the mili- 
 tary service of his tenants began to depend upon a system of 
 taxation which secured to him the permanent services of a 
 large standing army. 
 
 196. Rise of the " Third Estate." — Finally the rise of the 
 towns meant the rise of a third element in the political power, 
 namely the third estate. Hitherto there had been only the 
 
 . two estates, namely those of the clergy and of nobility. But 
 now^'*t^ 4Jc:ople7 -owing to the rising importance of commerce 
 and money, acquired a share in controlling the destinies of 
 the nation. Nor were they unfit for the task before them. 
 The inhabitants of the cities and of the towns were quite 
 abreast of the learning of the times in its most practical 
 forms. In nearly every city and town there were schools, 
 mostly conducted by lay teachers, in which reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic were taught, and also the elements of Latin, 
 history, and geography. At first there were no special 
 buildings set apart for schools, the instruction being given 
 in the church or some municipal building. But towards the 
 close of the fifteenth century, the schoolhouse formed a con- 
 spicuous feature of the town. The education that was given, 
 though simple, seems to have been thorough, and in some 
 cities, like Venice, the inhabitants seemed to have attained a 
 high standard of classic and philosophic culture. 
 
 197. The Universities. — The twelfth century was remark- 
 able for its intellectual movements. Until that time educa- 
 tion was of a narrow and stereotyped character. Beside the 
 
SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES 151 
 
 city and town schools, which were of later origin, there were 
 the monastic, the cathedral, and the parochial schools. These 
 schools were almost exclusively in the hands of the clergy, and 
 the education given was primarily for ecclesiastical purposes. 
 Seven years were spent in the study of the seven liberal arts ; 
 these were divided into the trivium, consisting of Latin gram- 
 mar, logic, and rhetoric, and the quadrivium, consisting of 
 arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. 
 
 198. Schools of Knighthood, — It would, however, be un- 
 fair to consider the education of the early middle ages as 
 being either purely ecclesiastical or academic. The school in 
 which the knight was brought up laid particular stress on 
 things that might be overlooked by the ordinary cleric. A 
 healthy physique, a just appreciation of the courtesies of life, 
 and an acquaintance with one's native tongue, were the chief 
 elements of knightly education. Much stress seems to have 
 been laid upon what we consider as quite the modern side of 
 our educational system. The questions of feudal law and 
 practice were also made familiar to the young knight. 
 
 igg. The Rise of the Universities, — During the twelfth 
 century, however, there took place a revolution in the educa- 
 tional life of Europe. The purely local element became quite 
 subordinate and there came to be founded large associations 
 of teachers and scholars, assembled from all parts of the 
 world, and forming distinct corporations of their own called 
 universities. These universities enjoyed distinct rights of 
 self-government, which were afterwards generally secured to 
 them by letters patent from the pope or from some temporal 
 prince. Usually the administration of the affairs of the uni- 
 versity was entrusted entirely to the students who could even 
 regulate the length of the hours of lecture and had jurisdic- 
 tion to punish any of their body who had committed any 
 
152 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 offence. The universities were extremely democratic in their 
 principles. No distinction was recognized save that of learn- 
 ing, and the wealthiest prince associated with the poorest 
 prince on an equal footing. Perhaps there was no agency so 
 potent as that of the universities in breaking down the barriers 
 of class distinction created by medieval society. 
 
 Most of the universities at their rise seem to have acquired 
 fame owing to proficiency in some branch of knowledge; 
 much in the same way as students at the present day are 
 drawn to one or other of the German universities in order to 
 join in the benefits of specialization in some particular 
 branch, so students would flock from remotest parts of Chris- 
 tendom in order to sit at the feet of some great doctor, 
 learned in some particular branch. The most important sub- 
 jects that then constituted the final end of university teaching 
 were medicine, law, and theology, and to these three subjects 
 corresponded the three universities of Salerno, Bologna, and 
 Paris. 
 
 200. University of Salerno. — Most monasteries in the mid- 
 dle ages had a little library of medicine and their novices 
 were also instructed in the rudiments of this science. The 
 medical school at Salerno had already achieved wide-spread 
 celebrity. Under Frederick II it had acquired an existence 
 of its own apart from the monastery and obtained such im- 
 portant recognition that none were allowed to practice medi- 
 cine without a license from its doctors. It is also interesting 
 to observe that even at Salerno general culture was not neg- 
 lected, since previous to entering upon the medical course, 
 three years had to be spent in the study of humanities. 
 
 201. University of Bologna. — The most important univer- 
 sity in Italy was that of Bologna, which became the most 
 famous law school of Europe. We have already seen that 
 
THE UNIVERSITIES 1 53 
 
 the towns made imperative the use of some common code of 
 law and that the code in question was that of the Roman law 
 edited by Justinian. Irnerius, a jurist under Countess Ma- 
 tilda, became famous at Bologna for his lectures on law, and 
 soon Bologna became the central law school of Europe, its 
 law_yers teaching and expounding the civil law in almost 
 every town of Christendom. But besides the civil law there 
 was also the study of church or canon law, and in ecclesias- 
 tical circles one sure way to distinction was by becoming an 
 eminent canonist. The chief compilation of canon law, was 
 Gratian's decrees, which became the recognized code in ec- 
 clesiastical jurisprudence. Gratian himself who compiled the 
 work, also lectured at Bologna and thus became the rival of 
 Irnerius. It must be admitted that the study of canon law- 
 was by far the more practical of the two ; for the empire, 
 from which emanated the civil theory, had become a mere 
 theory, while the papacy and the church councils, from which 
 issued the canon law, were yet living facts. 
 
 202. University of Paris. — While the university at Sa- 
 lerno was distinguished for its study of medicine, and that at 
 Bologna for the study of law, the University of Paris became 
 famous as the central theolog'ical school of Christendom. 
 Unlike most of the other universities, the Paris University 
 was an association of the teachers only, and did not comprise 
 the students, probably owing to the youth of those who at- 
 tended. 
 
 In the University of Paris there were four faculties — those 
 of theology, canon law, medicine and arts. The arts were 
 divided into the old-fashioned trivium and quadrivium and 
 were considered a necessary preliminary to any of the other 
 faculties. The instruction consisted of lectures and disputa- 
 tions. In each faculty there were three degrees — Bachelor, 
 Licentiate, and Doctor or Master. For the M. A. a course 
 
154 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 of three years and a minimum age of twenty-one years were 
 required, while five years was the condition for the first degree 
 in theology. Over each faculty there was a dean. The gov- 
 erning executive consisted of the deans of the four faculties 
 who met in congregation and were presided over by the vice- 
 chancellor. Another term, familiar to those acquainted with 
 Oxford University, was that of Proctor. This official in the 
 Paris University was responsible for the good conduct of the 
 students, who were divided into groups according to nation- 
 alities, each group being governed by its own proctor. 
 
 203. Schools of Theology in the Church, — The man who 
 more than any other inaugurated the greatness of the Paris 
 University was Peter Abelard. In all ages of Church's his- 
 tory there have been within the fold of the Church two dis- 
 tinct schools of thought. There is the conservative school of 
 thought that clings to the old beaten paths of tradition, and 
 there is the liberal and progressive school which, while not 
 professing to reject in any way the essentials of Christianity, 
 yet tries to deal with spiritual problems from the most modern 
 and progressive point of view. The leaders of this liberal 
 party are often men of genius, but are apt to incur suspicion 
 since many of them have deviated from the strict path of 
 orthodoxy. Peter Abelard was one of these. He not only 
 taught the importance of reason even in religious matters 
 but he went still further, and making an abuse even of that 
 system of reason which he taught denied the doctrine of trin- 
 ity. His two chief opponents were St. Norbert and St. Ber- 
 nard, the leaders of the conservative school. Eventually, he 
 was condemned by the pope. He then retired to Cluny where 
 he died after recanting his errors. But Abelard's disciples 
 still kept up the reputation of the University of Paris for 
 learning and eloquence. Arnold of Brescia, who taught the 
 practical consequences of Abelard's doctrines, also became ob- 
 
THE FRIARS 1 55 
 
 noxious to authority, and after leading the revolutionists of 
 Rome against the pope was condemned to death as a heretic. 
 But there were others among Abelard's disciples, equally fa- 
 mous but who were regarded as champions of orthodoxy. 
 Amongst these was Peter the Lombard, the celebrated author 
 of " The Sentences." 
 
 There is little doubt but that the clerical element predomi- 
 nated in the University of Paris, and even in many other 
 places the clerical element was closely connected with the 
 growth and constitution of the uni\-ersily. 
 
 204. Friars and the Universities. — At Paris and Oxford, 
 this was largely owing to the struggle that arose over the 
 pri\ileges and claims of the new mendicant orders of the 
 Franciscans and of the Dominicans. Many of the university 
 statutes and regulations trace their origin to the desire of de- 
 fining exactly the relations of the friars with the university, 
 and the collegiate system itself can be traced back to the col- 
 leges of the older religious orders. 
 
 205. The Importance of the Friars as a connecting line be- 
 tween the Church and the university affords a luminous il- 
 lustration of the more general work done by the friars dur- 
 ing the later middle ages. Until then, the religious life 
 strictly so called, had affected the world only indirectly. The 
 monk, v.-hether he belonged to the Cluniac type or to the later 
 reformed congregations of the Cistercians or Carthusians, was 
 absolutely secluded from the world and he could only affect 
 it by his prayers and the power of his example. On the other 
 hand, the canons, though assuming religious vows, and at 
 the same time living in the world, did not practice that severe 
 poverty and complete renunciation that characterized the 
 older monk. Anyhow their work was that of the ordinary 
 ministry of the church, and they were confined to one particu- 
 
156 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 lar locality. There were yet no missionaries strictly so called, 
 and yet some activity of this kind had become absolutely 
 necessary. Moreover, something else was needed besides the 
 routine life of the canon regular. The demand for some new 
 kind of spiritual activity was supplied by the friars who w^ere 
 wandering missionaries, practicing the most complete renun- 
 ciation, and yet mixing in the spirit of fraternal love with all 
 men, the highest and the lowest, the richest and the poorest. 
 
 All-Sours College at Oxford. 
 
 206. The Franciscans. — The first of the orders of the 
 friars was that of the Franciscans, named after their founder, 
 St. Francis. St. Francis was born in 1182 and w^as the son 
 of a travelling merchant. His early years were spent in a 
 careless life taken up wdth the cares and pleasures of the 
 world, but heavy afflictions fell upon him and caused him to 
 enter into himself and to lead a new life. He abandoned all 
 his worldly goods and gave himself up to a life of penance 
 
THE FRANCISCANS 157 
 
 and self-denial. The fame of his sanctity soon drew others 
 around him and thus was formed the nucleus of the new order. 
 At first there was no attempt at any fixed and definite organ- 
 ization. The association that was formed was merely the re- 
 sult of a providential evolution, and its members in many 
 things only copied the virtues of the previous existing orders. 
 Prayer, fasting, mortification, obedience were all practiced 
 by the Franciscans to a ver}^ high degree. There were, how- 
 ever, two characteristics in which the Franciscans considerably 
 differed from the other religious foundations. These were 
 their corporate poverty and their personal service to man- 
 kind. 
 
 207. Peculiar Characteristics of the Franciscan Order. — 
 Hitherto, individual poverty had been deemed sufficient. 
 While the individual monk must both in spirit and in reality 
 deprive himself of all worldly treasure, the monastery itself, 
 the association of monks, might hold any amount of property. 
 The results of this distinction were bad. Abbeys and priories 
 in the pursuit and management of vast estates easily lost 
 tb.eir fer\()r, and the sense of corporate ownership was emi- 
 nently detrimental to the spirit of poverty. Francis and his 
 followers now even renounced corporate wealth, and preferred 
 to depend for their subsistence upon the daily alms of the 
 faithful. 
 
 Besides this heroic practice of poverty the Franciscans 
 were also distinguished by the readiness with which they en- 
 gaged in all works of charity both spiritual and temporal. 
 Far from claiming any exemption from episcopal jurisdiction 
 they placed themselves entirely at the disposal of the bishops, 
 who might use them in diocesan and parochial work according 
 as they thought fit. Many of the secular clergy objected to 
 the presence of the friars but the friars maintained that their 
 purpose was merely to perform those duties that were omitted 
 
158 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 either owing' to the deficiency of the pastors or to the negli- 
 gence of those in charge. 
 
 Besides ordinary practical work, the friars held what would 
 be called missionary revivals. Wandering through the public 
 roads and streets, they collected round them large crowds to 
 whom they preached with simplicity and earnestness the truths 
 of faith. Besides all this the Franciscan was a philanthropist 
 He usually dwelt in the poorest part of the city in order to 
 console and minister to his poor brethren, and his presence 
 was most familiar w'here fever or leprosy was claiming its 
 victims. 
 
 208. Franciscan Rule. — In the year 12 10 St. Francis drew 
 up a rule for his order. It contained forty-five precepts of 
 which tw^enty-seven were obligatory under pain of mortal sin 
 and eighteen under pain of venial sin. Among the precepts 
 of the first class the following are the important : The prohibi- 
 tion of the use of money, the recitation of the Divine Office, 
 and the performance of certain fasts throughout the year. 
 After the completion of the rule, St. Francis went to Rome 
 to seek the approval of the pope, then Innocent III. At first, 
 the pope refused to see him, but after a dream in which the 
 pope saw^ the tottering walls of the Lateran supported by the 
 friars, he admitted Francis to his presence and by word of 
 mouth solemnly approved of the order. 
 
 The rule was of the simplest kind and made no provision 
 for a hierarchy of officials nor for those minute details that 
 are so necessary in any large body of men in order to secure 
 permanent harmony and cohesion. St. Francis had always 
 dreaded anything like the stereotyped rule that w-as found in 
 the other orders. The abuses of formality and officialism that 
 had so often resulted, were fatal to real spirituality, and he 
 preferred to let the relations betw^een the memliers of the 
 order, as well as the routine of its daily life flow naturally 
 
THE FRANCISCANS 1 59 
 
 from virtuous impulses. No doubt, this theory is sound for 
 a small body of known and reliable men, but when it came to 
 be applied to a large body of men of different characters and 
 dispositions it soon became evident that there was also needed 
 some system of method and organization. 
 
 209. The Conventuals. — There were two men who speedily 
 came into prominence as modifiers of the original rule of St. 
 Francis. These men were Brother Elias of Cortona and Car- 
 dinal Ugolino who afterwards became Pope Gregory IX. 
 They not only prescribed a more minute and definite rule for 
 the government of the order but also introduced some modi- 
 fications into Francis's complete system of corporate poverty, 
 by permitting the erection of churches and convents. This 
 party among the Franciscans came to be known as the Con- 
 ventuals, and they were always bitterly opposed by the stricter 
 part called the Observants who clung to the original simplicity 
 and absolute poverty of St. Francis. 
 
 210. Third Order of St. Francis. — Not long after the 
 foundation of the order of Franciscans cr Grey Friars, as they 
 were sometimes called from the color of their habit, a new 
 branch of the same order was founded called the Third Order 
 of St. Francis. Its members were allowed to live in the world 
 and fulfil their ordinary avocations but were obliged to 
 undergo one year's novitiate, perform certain fasts and ab- 
 stinences, and to practice certain virtues. Some of the most 
 distinguished persons in Medieval History belonged to the 
 Third Order, among whom were the Emperor Charles IV, 
 St. Louis of France, Elizabeth, queen of Portugal, and 
 Christopher Columbus. But it was chiefly the middle class 
 that enrolled themselves among its members, and thus the 
 Third Order soon acquired political importance. It had a 
 considerable number of members scattered throughout the 
 
l6o IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 towns of Italy who naturally championed the cause of the 
 Pope against that of the emperor Frederick II. 
 
 211. The Dominicans. — The next great order of friars 
 after the Franciscans was that of the Dominicans, called from 
 their habit the White Friars. 
 
 St. Dominic was born in Spain in 1170. When twenty- 
 eight years old, he became a canon regular, and soon after- 
 ward accompanied his bishop to France. During his stay 
 there he became profoundly impressed with the growing power 
 and influence of the Albigensian heresy. In order to prevent 
 the extension of this heresy in southern France, he founded a 
 religious institution in Toulouse consisting of zealous preach- 
 ers who by the fire of their charity might convert the heretics 
 and confirm those who were wavering in the faith. He drew 
 up a rule which consisted partly of the rule of St. Augustine 
 and partly of certain constitutions of his own. In 12 17 the 
 rule was solemnly approved by Pope Honorius III and the 
 new order became known as the order of Friars Preachers. 
 
 212. Spirit of the Dominican Order. — The spirit of the 
 new order was from the very first different from that of the 
 Franciscans. It was essentially academic, and aimed at reach- 
 ing the heart not so much through the emotions as through 
 reason and conviction. The Dominicans soon came in close 
 touch with the universities. Both at Paris and at Cologne 
 the Friars Preachers occupied the most important chairs. At 
 the latter city, Albertus Magnus astonished everyone by the 
 depth of his knowledge and the wideness of his erudition. 
 But his fame was soon eclipsed by one still greater, the great 
 St. Thomas of Aquin, whose Summa Theologica traversed 
 the whole range of philosophy and theology. 
 
 213. Intellectual Labors of the Friars. — It was not long 
 before the Franciscans also imitated the Dominicans in the 
 
 1 
 
SCHOLASTICISM l6l 
 
 intellectual labors. The names of Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus, 
 and William Ockham spread the fame of the Franciscan 
 school at Oxford throughout Christendom, while at the same 
 time there also grew up a school of Franciscan literary writ- 
 ers whose works are full of mystic piety and pregnant with 
 deep emotion. The two hymns, the " Stabat Mater " and the 
 *' Dies Irae " made so familiar by musical genius were written 
 by Franciscan friars and are worthy to be placed on a level 
 \\ ith the " Panga Lingua " by St. Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 The general influence of the friars on the universities and 
 on the general state of culture in Europe can scarcely be over- 
 estimated; not only did the study of theology assert for itself 
 a very important place in the curriculum of studies but the 
 whole method of learning underwent an alteration. 
 
 214. Scholasticism which was the fashion of learning in- 
 troduced by the friars derives its peculiarity not so much from 
 the subject matter which was wilder than most people think 
 as from its method. Great stress was laid on clear and 
 forcible reasoning, while accuracy of expression and mental 
 force of analysis and subtlety of distinction were cultivated to 
 the fullest extent. Even the beginnings of modern science 
 owe a great deal to the mental training imparted by the early 
 scholastics. 
 
 From another point of view, the influence of the friars was 
 beneficial in promoting the study of the vernacular. Sermons 
 were given to the people in their native language, sermons 
 that were often conveyed with great force and eloquence of 
 style, while a great number <if religious poems often revealed 
 to the people hitherto unsuspected beauties even in the ordi- 
 nary vehicle of daily speech. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Contact between Eastern and \\^estern civilization — Immedi- 
 ate causes of dispute between Turks and Christians — General 
 
1 62 IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 causes of the crusades — Beginning of the First Crusade — 
 Character and leaders of the First Crusade — Advance of the 
 First Crusade and its contact with the Eastern Emperor — Bat- 
 tles of the First Crusade — Foundation of the Latin kingdom of 
 Jerusalem — Second Crusade — Its origin, leaders, and failure 
 — Character and leaders of the Third Crusade — Practical re- 
 sults of the Third Crusade — Fourth Crusade — Its origin and 
 Leaders — Capture of the city of Constantinople — Foundation 
 of the Latin kingdom of Constantinople — Fifth Crusade — Its 
 origin, leader, and importance — Sixth and Seventh Crusades — 
 Failure of Louis VII — General results of the crusading move- 
 ments — Changes in society — New military orders — Changes 
 in commerce and trade — Introduction of the art of heraldry — 
 General and particular causes of the rise of the towns — Grow- 
 ing financial and political importance of the towns — Merchant 
 guilds and craft guilds — Regulation of the guilds — Corporate 
 life in the towns — Important leagues of the towns — Commer- 
 cial law started by the towns — The weakening eflfect on feudal- 
 ism caused by the towns — The rise of the third estate — Char- 
 acter of the schools of the medieval period — Elements of 
 knightly education — Revolution in the educational system — 
 Rise of the universities — Their specialization in certain branches 
 — • The medieval school at Salerno — Law school at Bologna — 
 University of Paris — Its constitution, faculty, and nature of its 
 degrees — Peter Abelard, and the liberal school — Influence of 
 the friars in the universities — St. Francis, the founder of the 
 Franciscans — Nature of corporate poverty — Franciscans ready 
 for any work of charity — Rule of St. Francis and its approval 
 by Pope Innocent III — Bro. Elias and Pope Gregory IX — 
 The Observants and the Conventuals — Third Order of St. 
 Francis — St. Dominic founder of the Dominican order — Dif- 
 ference between the Dominican and Franciscan spirit — Writ- 
 ings of the friars — Rise of scholasticism — Influence of the 
 friars on the Vernacular. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Tout, Empire and Papacy; Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades; 
 Gray, the Children's Crusade; Lane Poole, Saladin; Cox, Crusades; 
 Oman, Art of War, hook VI, chapter VI; Oman, Byzantine Empire; 
 MiCHAUD, History of Crusades; Lecky, History of European Morals: 
 Pears, Fall of Constantinople; Joinville, Memoirs of St. Louis; Alzog, 
 Church History; Perry, St. Louis; Jones, Civilization during Middle 
 Ages; Ashley, Economic History; Green, Town life in Fifteenth Cen- 
 
GENERAL REFERENCE 1 63 
 
 tury ; Zimmern, The Hanse Toivns; Stubbs, Select Charters, p. 108; 
 Green, History of English -People ; Cross, The Guild Merchants; Laurie, 
 Rise and Constitution of the Universities; Rashdall, Universities of 
 Europe in Middle Ages; Mullinger, University of Cambridge ; Compayre, 
 Abelard and the Origin of the Universities; Jessupp, Coming of the 
 Friars; Sabatier, St. Francis of Assisi; Green, History of the English 
 People; Alzog, Church History; Wharton, History of English Poetry; 
 Gro. Leo, Spirit of Perfection; Milman, Latin Christianity ; Jean d'Ibe- 
 line. Livre dcs Assises et Usages du Royaume de Jerusalem. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 
 
 215. Centralizing Influences in France. — During the con- 
 test between the empire and the papacy France had been slowly 
 growing into a united nation, and while both Germany and 
 Italy had ended by being hopelessly split into independent 
 provinces the Capetian dynasty was bringing together the 
 separate dukedoms of France by the unifying influence of 
 royal power. In France, as elsewhere, the crusades had 
 tended to lesson the power of the feudal barons and to 
 strengthen proportionally the centralizing power of the king. 
 At the same time, various concurrent causes were fast building 
 up the internal greatness aftd prosperity of France. The uni- 
 versity of France, which had a levelling and unifying influence 
 on all classes of French society, the rise of the towns, the 
 growth of commerce which bettered the condition of the 
 people, and the wandering friars, who by their sermons and 
 writings w^ere hastening the spread of one common vernacular 
 — all these causes were able to exercise their own influence 
 without being constantly neutralized by constant sedition and 
 warfare. 
 
 But even so the results would not have shown themselves 
 so quickly if there had not been one definite line of policy 
 adopted by a succession of sagacious and able monarchs, 
 
 216. Difficulties of the Early Capetian Kings, — The posi- 
 tion of the early Capetian king was difticult and complicated. 
 Even in his feudal domain he was not supreme master, for the 
 minor barons were constantly striving to assert their inde- 
 pendence of roval authority. Against the castles of these 
 
 165 
 
1 66 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 
 
 recalcitrant nobles the king had a very small force at his dis- 
 posal, since he had neither a standing army nor any definite 
 sonrce of revenue with which to hire soldiers. Naturally 
 matters were still worse outside the king's own personal do- 
 main. The power of the great feudatories in the north and 
 south was almost equal to his own and if they had acted 
 together he would have been absolutely powerless. Nor was 
 this -all. At least one-half of French territory was in the 
 hands of the hostile English. During the reign of Henry II. 
 all the western part of France was in English hands, and 
 France was even cut off from communication with the western 
 seas. However, even supposing all these difiiculties were al- 
 ready surmounted there was still wanting some machinery of 
 government by wdiich both legally and constitutionally, with- 
 out friction, the royal power might exercise itself in the dif- 
 ferent parts of the kingdom. 
 
 The task therefore which confronted the French kings was 
 of a threefold nature, first, to assert their power in their own 
 personal domain, secondly, to absorb into the royal domain the 
 powerful independent feudatories, and thirdly, to build up the 
 machinery of monarchical government. 
 
 217. Louis VI. — The first part of the task was undertaken 
 successfully by Louis VI (1108-1137). Though greedy and 
 sensual, he was a strenuous fighter and had sufficient political 
 sagacity to choose and trust able ministers. He lead a series 
 of expeditions gainst the brigand barons, and completely 
 crushed Flugh du Puiset who w^as the most formidable of his 
 enemies. One by one the hostile castles that had prevented 
 free intercommunication were taken, and commerce was able 
 to follow its lawful routes. By degrees the subjugation of the 
 nobles lead to a change even in the internal administration of 
 the kingdom. The assembly of turbulent nobles could now be 
 dispensed with, and Louis could entrust the power of adminis- 
 
PHILIP AUGUSTUS 1 67 
 
 tration to officials entirely dependent upon himself. Among 
 these were the able Suger and three brothers of the name of 
 Garlande. 
 
 Louis had also the help of the clergy and of the common 
 people, whose interests had suffered at the hands of the baro- 
 nial oppressors. Even in Louis's time the commercial move- 
 ment was in evidence, and by giving a large number of 
 charters, he made himself the patron and protector of the 
 towns. A happy instinct thus enabled him to avoid the mis- 
 take made by Barbarossa, who only a few years later by try- 
 ing to bar the irresistible wave of commercial progress, found 
 his cherished projects in Italy completely shattered. 
 
 218. Philip Augustus. — This prudent policy of Louis VL — 
 a combination of political sagacity and martial activity was 
 continued under his successors, especially Philip Augustus 
 ( 1 180-1223). Even more than Louis, he posed as the pro- 
 tector of the commercial classes against the barons, while the 
 promotion of foreign commerce raised the towns to a position 
 of even greater importance. It was under Philip Augustus 
 that Paris, the central town of the royal domain, became the 
 important city that it is to-day. Even its material plan and 
 greatness dated from that time. Then, as now, in the center 
 was the Isle of the Seine on which were situated the Cathedral 
 of Notre-Dame; on the right bank of the same river was the 
 University with its famous residential colleges, while on the 
 left were the residential and mercantile quarters. 
 
 Besides consolidating the royal power within the borders 
 of its own domain, the next step was to absorb into the French 
 monarchy the lands of the large outside fiefs, and especially 
 the huge western territory occupied by the English. The ac- 
 complishment of this more ardous task was brought about 
 partly by a combination of circumstances, but perhaps still 
 more by the adroit policy of the French kings. 
 
1 68 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 
 
 219. Relations With England. — The one great mistake 
 made by Louis VI after the loss of his able minister Suger had 
 been the divorce of his wife Elinor of Aquitaine, which meant 
 not only the loss to himself of that duchy but also the gain of 
 it to England, owing to the marriage of Elinor to Henry IT. 
 Indeed, if it had not been that Henry's hands were kept busy 
 by his quarrels with St. Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, by difficulties in Scotland, and by the turbulence 
 of his own sons, the English encroachments on French soil 
 might have gone on to an indefinite extent. But besides 
 these weak points in the enemy's armor, the death of Louis 
 VI raised to the throne the able Philip Augustus who even 
 better than Louis VI. knew how to grapple with the difficul- 
 ties of the situation. 
 
 There were constant c[uarrels between Henry II and his 
 sons, and PhiHp used these for his own advantage. He allied 
 himself with Henry's son, the future Richard I., who had been 
 entrusted by his father with the duchy of Aquitaine. The 
 united forces of the French king and of the rebellious son 
 drove Henry II back into Normandy, where he died — his 
 end being hastened by grief and shame at the treachery of his 
 own children. Then when Richard became king, Philip in- 
 trigued with John, the brother of Richard. Here, however, 
 he received a partial check owing to the warlike ability of 
 Richard. But when Richard died and his brother John suc- 
 ceeded then the most favorable opportunity of all presented 
 itself. John's own foul and unscrupulous character, his sup- 
 posed murder of his nephew Arthur of Brittany, his marriage 
 with the betrothed bride of one of Philip's vassals, his quarrel 
 with the powerful Innocent III, and more than all, the dis- 
 putes between himself and his barons (over such questions 
 as taxation and the liberty of the subject) gave Philip an 
 overwhelming advantage. Before the end of John's reign, 
 Maine, Anjou, and Touraine had passed from English into 
 
HERESIES IN THE SOUTH 1 69 
 
 French hands and the death of Elinor also severed the tinal 
 tie between the duchy of Aquitaine and England. Only the 
 southwestern provinces still remained faithful, perhaps for 
 commercial reasons, for Guienne and Gascony were mainly de- 
 pendent upon England for their trade in salt and wine. 
 
 The personal domain of the kings of France now for the 
 first time surpassed all the others in extent and importance, 
 and Philip was in possession of ample means for extending 
 his power o\er the other feudatories of France. 
 
 220. Influence of the Heresies in the South. — In this again 
 the French king was helped by outside circumstances. It was 
 in the south of France that the old feudal spirit of inde- 
 pendence was strongest and that the nobles were mostly in op- 
 position to the king, and it was precisely here in the enemy's 
 stronghold that fortune mostly favored the royal cause. The 
 Albigensian heresy, like the heresy of the Catharites and Pata- 
 rini was an ofifspring- of Arianism. Its doctrines were vari- 
 ous and hard to define, but its rejection of the authority of the 
 Church marked it out for evident condemnation. The coim- 
 try of Toulouse especially was infected with this heresy and 
 even Count Raymond of Toulouse was at first one of its zeal- 
 ous adherents. Pope Innocent III sent preachers into the 
 province to try and extirpate the heresy by force of persuasion 
 and argument. Init in \ain. and furthermore Raymond was 
 suspected of ha\ing cimnixed at the murder of one of the 
 papal representatives. A crusade was now proclaimed in 
 1208, and the leader of the crusading forces was Simon de 
 Montfort. The heretic and anti-monarchical barons were sub- 
 dued, RayuKjnd was driven out of his province, and Simon 
 himself did homage to the king of France for the conquered 
 territory. Only for a time did Raymond manage to regain 
 possession of his domiiiion. In <he coitrse of another crusade, 
 preached by Honorius III, the French king Louis VIII man- 
 
I70 
 
 THE DEl'ELOPMENT OF FRANCE 
 
 aged to secure possession of a good part of Languedoc while 
 the ruin of the local barons meant the future triumph of 
 l''rench monarchy. 
 
 221. The Royal Appanages. — It now remains to be seen 
 how the direct action of the French kings helped to absorb the 
 great feudal states into the French monarchy. There was in 
 fact only one practical course to pursue and that was to grant 
 to the members of the royal family certain districts, called 
 appenages, to rule over and, and after thus providing them 
 with wealth and influence to bring about marriage connections 
 between these royal children and the heiresses of the outside 
 feudatories. To have tried to accomplish this result by force 
 oi conquest would have been exceedingly risky, whereas this, 
 though a slower policy, was surer in its aim. Much has been 
 said against this distribution of appenages among the royal 
 children, but on the whole the king was yet scarcely strong 
 enough to govern personally his vast domain, and on the other 
 hand, if the royal children were still left in their old condition 
 of penurious weakness and inferiority it would have been dif- 
 hcult to bring about these marriages which were the best means 
 for bringing eventually into the French monarchy so many of 
 the vast feudatory estates. 
 
 Already by the will of Louis VIII, Robert, his second son, 
 had been made Count of Artois, Alphonse, his third son, 
 Count of Poitou, and Charles, the youngest son, Count of 
 Anjou and Maine. In 1229, during the reign of Louis IX, 
 it was provided by the treaty of Meaux that Raymond, Count 
 of Toulouse, should be allowed to retain his country on con- 
 dition that he married his daughter and heiress to the afore- 
 said Alphonse, Count of Poitou. After a successful marriage 
 had thus been arranged for Count Alphonse, Charles of Anjou, 
 the youngest son, contracted a marriage with Beatrice, daugh- 
 ter of Ravmond, Count of Provence, and this circumstance 
 
UNIFICATION IN FRANCE l/l 
 
 also secured to the royal house the possession of a rich estate 
 in the south. It was not long before Northern influence and 
 manners completely invaded the hitherto separatist land of the 
 South. Even in the very language and in the architecture of 
 the country the change made itself felt, the Langue d'oc being- 
 supplanted by the harder dialect of the Lange d'oui, and the 
 Romanesque style of building yielding to the pointed arch and 
 flying buttress of the Gothic style of the North. 
 
 222. Louis IX pursued the same policy as Louis VITI. 
 Appenages were granted to Louis' two younger sons. Peter 
 became Count of Alencon and Robert became Count of Cler- 
 ment-en-Beauvaisis. The usual successful marriage soon fol- 
 lowed, and Robert, by marrying the heiress of the great 
 Bourbon feudatory, extended the influence of the Capetian 
 house in the east of France. 
 
 We may sum up by saying that the matrimonial policy of 
 Louis Vin. and of his son Louis IX. succeeded in drawing 
 into the French monarchy all the lands of Auvergne, Toulouse 
 and Provence in the south of France, and the important 
 Bourbon state in the east. At the same time, the immediate 
 practical results were seen in the reduction of the hitherto inde- 
 pendent power of the bishops and nobles, the curtailment of the 
 local autonomy of the towns, and the general establishment of 
 law and order. In the east, the kings of France had in the 
 Bourbon estates a convenient means of checking the danger- 
 ously growing power of the Duchy of Burgundy. 
 
 223. Internal Consolidations of France. — We now come 
 
 to the third and last step in the growth and consolidation of 
 the French Monarchy and that was the establishment of some 
 machinery of government by which the royal jurisdiction 
 might be exercised in the vast acquisitions that had been thus 
 made by the Capetian House. 
 
172 THE DEJ'ELOPMENT OF FRANCE 
 
 Here also, we find a remarkable continuity in the policy of 
 the French kings. They all seemed to have agreed on the 
 following points : to bring the towns within the sphere of royal 
 influence by a judicious mixture of firmness and royal patron- 
 age, to curtail the local power of the clergy and nobles and 
 bring them into subjection to the crown, to carry on the ad- 
 ministrative business of the country through a hierarchy of 
 royal officers, and finally to make the king the actual supreme 
 source of all authority, legislative, political, and executive. 
 
 224. Development of Administrative Machinery. — Already 
 during the reigns of Louis VI and Louis VII royal judges 
 were sent to administer justice throughout the kingdom, while 
 local officers, called prevots, administered the king's estates. 
 Under Philip the Second this system was improved and ampli- 
 fied. It was found that the prevots, like the local sheriffs in 
 England, could not always be trusted, so new officers were 
 appointed called Baillis, wdio were superior in authority to the 
 prevots. Under Philip II, the towns also were brought as 
 much as possible within the sphere of royal influence by the 
 granting of charters and by other signs of royal protection 
 and favor. 
 
 It w^as not. however, till the time of Louis IX (1220) that 
 the administrative machinery seems to have arrived at ma- 
 turity. Important developments now took place both in the 
 local and central system of government. Since the Baillis 
 had shown themselves liable to the same defects as the prevots, 
 tending to become independent local magnates, new royal of- 
 ficers were appointed called enquesteurs. Their duties re- 
 sembled those of the Carolingian Missi Dominici. They had 
 to inquire into and to correct the abuses of local officials, and 
 they thus formed a connecting link between the circumference 
 and the center of the constitutional system of government. 
 The restraints that in consequence of the reports of the en- 
 
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 1 73 
 
 questeurs, were imposed on the baillis not only testify to 
 previous abuses but also show the settled policy of the king to 
 make the local officer dependent wholly upon him. The bailli 
 was forbidden to marry anyone in his bailiwick, to surround 
 himself with his relatives or give office to them ; he was 
 ordered to hold court regularly and in person, and to send to 
 the king a report of the proceedings, while before assuming 
 office at all, he was required to take oath that he would pre- 
 serve the rights of the king and the local liberties of the 
 place. 
 
 225. Central System of Government. — With regard to the 
 central system of government, an increased area of jurisdic- 
 tion and the more complicated work that it entailed brought 
 about a corresponding division of labor. We have already 
 seen this in England, where the legislative body became com- 
 pletely severed from the judicial, which was then subdivided 
 into the courts of King's Bench, Exchequer, and Common 
 Pleas. A similar process now took place in France. Up to 
 this time the king had been helped in his w^ork of govern- 
 ment by a council that attended indiscriminately to all sorts 
 of business, whether legislative, financial, or judicial. But 
 now, for obvious convenience, this council was divided into 
 three distinct bodies, each with a separate jurisdiction of its 
 own, but all three depending upon the king. First, there was 
 the Council proper, or Grand Council, wdiich had to perform 
 many of those legislative and executive duties that now per- 
 tain to the American Congress and Cabinet; second, there was 
 the Parliament (parlcmcnt) which was really a high court of 
 justice constituting a supreme court of appeal ; third, there 
 was the treasury, the gois iies comptes, corresponding to the 
 treasury department at Washington, that took charge of and 
 manipulated all the financial business of the kingdom. By 
 these various devices the king prevented the bailli from in- 
 curring any obligations other than those to himself. 
 
174 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 
 
 226. Influence of Louis IX. — This framework of the 
 French constitution under Louis IX was evidently constructed 
 not only with a view to good government but also with the 
 design of making the royal power the center and fulcrum of 
 the administration in all its branches. The same design was 
 kept in view in the other measures of Louis' reign. While 
 always a zealous defender of the true interests and rights of 
 the Church, he was equally careful that bishops and other 
 clerics should keep within their own proper sphere and should 
 fulfil their duties as ordinary citizens by paying taxes and 
 by being amenable to the civil law. Perhaps it was partly 
 the same policy that lead him to show such preference to the 
 mendicant friars above the other clergy, entrusting to the friars 
 many important duties and appointing one of them as his own 
 confessor — a position that in France was for a long time 
 of considerable political importance. Then again, even in 
 financial matters, Louis contrived to weaken the independence 
 of localities and strengthen the central position of the crown. 
 Hitherto, the right of coinage had been allowed to a great 
 number of little provinces, the result of which was a great in- 
 convenience to travelers passing from one province to another; 
 Louis remedied this by decreeing that the king's coinage should 
 be legal tender everywhere. Naturally, the local coinages 
 tended to die out, and one common coinage took their place — 
 a process which constantly symbolized far and wide the king's 
 power and hastened the commercial unity of the kingdom. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that in all these reforms the 
 character of the king himself was a most important factor. 
 His evident uprightness and sense of justice conciliated many 
 who would otherwise have been bitter opponents; even if 
 some of his measures struck at the private interests of parties 
 and individuals, it was universally recognized that he was 
 actuated by a sincere desire to promote the general welfare of 
 the kingdom. 
 
 \ 
 
POSITION OF FRANCE 175 
 
 227. Philip III. — The poHcy of Louis IX was continued 
 under his successors, though certain portions of it were more 
 emphasized than others. PhiHp III (1270), his immediate 
 successor, still further lessened the power of the nobles and 
 increased the number of appeals to the parlement. He also 
 reduced the political privileges of the Church. In France, as 
 in England, the immunity given to clerical offenders had pro- 
 duced grave abuses; this immunity he now restricted, and in 
 the matter of taxes and the public contributions he forced the 
 Church to take a greater share in bearing the financial burden 
 of the ordinary citizens. 
 
 228. Philip IV. — Under Philip IV (1285) an important 
 addition was made to the general council of the realm. In 
 1302 there were summoned for the first time representatives 
 from the towns, thus adding to the two estates of the clergy 
 and nobles a third estate, that of the people. The immediate 
 object of the king in doing this was merely to secure money 
 more easily. It was only, however, the accident of circum- 
 stances that prevented the Third Estate from playing the same 
 important part that it did in England, and at the time of the 
 French Revolution the Third Estate actually did realize its 
 possibilities in becoming the mstrument by which the balance 
 of power might be transferred from the classes to the people. 
 
 229. Position of France in Europe. — On the whole, France 
 during the middle ages had been singularly favored. She 
 was able to hold aloof from the struggle between the empire 
 and the papacy, and, as we shall see, was able to act as me- 
 diator. The menace from the foreign English rule had been 
 lessened by the quarrels between the English king and his 
 sons and by the discord between the king and his barons. 
 The danger from the independent southern provinces had 
 been greatly neutralized by their heretical tendencies that 
 
176 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 
 
 alienated from them the sympathies of orthodox Christians, 
 and last, but not least, a long succession of French kings had 
 adhered to the lines of a prudent and far-sighted policy. 
 
 It now remains to consider a few episodes which throw 
 light upon the corresponding influence of France in Europe, 
 and which, at the same time, will form connecting links be- 
 tween the history of France and that of the rest of Europe. 
 
 230. Action of France in the Investiture Contest. — We 
 
 have already seen that France took no part on either side dur- 
 ing the investiture contest. We might add still further that 
 she even played the honorable part of an intermediary. It 
 was the French king that suggested to the emperor the advisa- 
 bility of the compromise arrived at in the Concordat of 
 Worms. He pointed out to the emperor that in France no 
 harm had resulted from allowing the Church the right of in- 
 vestiture with the sacred symbols, provided the state handled 
 the ceremonial that pertained to the lay side of the ecclesiastical 
 benefice. Again some years afterwards, during the bitter 
 struggle between Frederick II and the papacy, it was a king 
 of France, Louis IX, that not only adopted a position of strict 
 neutrality but strove to reconcile both pope and emperor. 
 
 When France did positively interfere in European politics, 
 she assumed a strong and dignified position. When Pope 
 Innocent III was deposing by force the recalcitrant Otto of 
 . Germany, France arrayed itself on the side of the pope, and 
 the combined French and papal forces inflicted upon Otto his 
 irretrievable defeat at Bouvines in 1214. 
 
 231. Friction Between France and the Papacy. — About 
 eighty years afterwards, in 1294, France reversed her policy 
 of alliance with the papacy and became its open antagonist. 
 The serious friction that rose between France and the papacy 
 was rendered almost inevitable by the very nature of things. 
 
THE POPES AT AVIGNON 1 77 
 
 During the feudal age the local French clergy had necessarily 
 enjoyed an almost complete exception from the burdens that 
 were laid on the other citizens, but as France became one 
 solid united nation this peculiar position allowed to the clergy 
 became a stumbling block. The immediate cause of trouble 
 was the question of taxation. The king alleged that the 
 clergy, like other citizens, ought to bear the burdens as well 
 as the privileges of citizenship, while the clergy naturally 
 pleaded the peculiarity of their position as officers of the 
 Church, and the force of precedent. The pope upheld the 
 clergy in their resistance. \\'hen Philip IV demanded one- 
 fifth from both clergy and laity alike, the clergy were able to 
 fall back upon the decree clericis ad laicos which forbade any 
 churchman to pay to any temporal ruler any part of the 
 Church's possessions. But it soon became evident who was 
 likely to get the best of the 'struggle. The king had almost 
 the unanimous support of his own kingdom, both the lawyers 
 and the States General approving of his action. Nogaret, the 
 king's ambassador, and some of the Colonna family who were 
 hostile to the pope besieged Boniface VIII at Anagni. Boni- 
 face w^as overpowered, made prisoner, and after being grossly 
 maltreated died a few weeks after. 
 
 232. The Popes at Avignon. — His successor Benedict II 
 lived. only one year, and in r304, when the papal throne again 
 became vacant. Philip thought he would settle the question 
 definitely by procuring the election of a French pope. The 
 bishop of Bordeaux was accordingly elected. He assumed 
 the name of Clement V (1305). Events soon justified Phil- 
 ip's choice. Partly owing to the condition of anarchy pre- 
 vailing at Rome, partly owing to the king's personal wish, the 
 pope found it convenient to transfer the papal court to France. 
 At first he had no fixed residence, but eventually he settled 
 down at Avignon, in southern France, a. place which remained 
 
.a n 
 
 E-E 
 
 o 
 
 c o 
 
 S to 
 ■P M , 
 
 
SIMON DE MONTFORT 1/9 
 
 a papal possession even down to Napoleonic times, and still 
 interests the eye of the tourist with the remains of the old 
 papal palace. The popes continued to reside in France for 
 about seventy years from 1304 to 1377, an exile which is com- 
 monly called the Babylonian Captivity. 
 
 233. Position of the Papacy in France. — The pope's posi- 
 tion then was something like what it is to-day in Italy. Avig- 
 non was as much his as the Vatican palace belongs to Pius 
 X, but men constantly suspected the pope of French influence. 
 While no one nowadays would dream of suspecting Piux X 
 of being under the influence of the Italian government, yet 
 there were circumstances that justified the suspicions of the 
 people of the fourteenth century. The king's domineering 
 proclivity was well know^i, and the revocation of many of 
 Boniface's decrees, together with the suppression of the Temp- 
 lars (an act which, however, was justified by the abuses that 
 had arisen in that order) could clearly be traced \o the influ- 
 ence of the French court. 
 
 234. Development of Representative Government in Eng- 
 land. — The de\'elopment of England was contemporaneous 
 with that of France and was carried out in some respects on 
 the same lines. Under Henr}' III. the successor of the wicked 
 king John, an important progress in the condition of the 
 House of Commons took place. As yet onh- the barons and 
 knights had attended Parliament. In 1265 Earl Simon de 
 Montfort, son of the Simon who had crushed the Albigenses, 
 summoned also citizens from each borough. This recognition 
 of the third estate resembled that which took place in France 
 in the time of Philip the Fair, but produced far more impor- 
 tant results, lasting indeed all during English History. At 
 first, it meant little more than the right of granting taxes, 
 for the higher clergy, the barons, and citizens still sat apart, 
 
l8o THE DFJ'ELOPMENT OF FRANCE 
 
 while the citizens were at lirst timid in asserting their voice; 
 but when in the course of time the knights and burgesses sat 
 and dehberated together then the presence of the burgesses 
 perhaps more than anything else contributed to the formation 
 of democratic popular government in England. 
 
 235. Edward I. and the Parliament of 1295. — When Ed- 
 ward I, the English Justinian, ascended the throne in 1272, 
 the English constitution became in germ all that it is to-day. 
 In the House of Commons, not only both the lesser knights 
 and the burgesses attended Parliament, but the knights, who 
 had hitherto been regarded as mere local deputies for pur- 
 poses of taxation, now- took part in the general work of gov- 
 erning the country. In 1295 Edward I introduced a further 
 innovation of his own. The lower clergy were requested to 
 send to the House of Commons representatives of their own. 
 The clergy, however, steadily refused to avail themselves of 
 this privilege. Even when the clerical representatives were 
 sent they preferred to sit aloof and vote their own taxes in 
 their own assemblies called convocations. Ultimately these 
 convocations lost not only all political power, but even their 
 right of separate self-taxation, and the minor clergy sank back 
 among the general body of electors. Still the Parliament of 
 1295 will ever be famous since it was then that the knights 
 of the shire assumed a constant share in the administrative 
 business of the country. 
 
 236. Judicial System of Edward I. — In the political sphere, 
 Edward I completed the reform of Henry II. He subdivided 
 still further the functions of the administration of justice. 
 He constituted himself and his council into a supreme court 
 of appeal, a court that afterwards gave rise to the judicial 
 powers of the Privy Council, and especially to the important 
 powers of the chancellor, the presiding judge of the court of 
 
THE TAxtr^i^ I'OilER l8l 
 
 chancery, with its juriscHction over widows and orphans, and 
 power to deal with cases not included in the scope of the com- 
 mon law. 
 
 237. No Tax Without the Consent of the People. — During 
 this reign the grand principle was again formally recognized 
 that the king could not impose any fresh tax without the con- 
 sent of his people. When Edward had been violating in this 
 matter the provisions of the Magna Charta, he not only sol- 
 emnly begged pardon of the people in the House of Commons, 
 but issued a charter in which he asserted that all such un- 
 warrantable taxes in the past would not be used as a precedent 
 and that he would impose no fresh tax without the consent of 
 his faithful commons. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Rising greatness of France under the monarchy — Difficult 
 position of the early Capetian kings — Threefold task of th 
 Capetian kings — Reign of Louis VI — His subduing the in- 
 subordinate barons — His patronage of commerce and of the 
 towns — Reign of Philip Augustus — Paris the great capital of 
 France — Philip's wise policy obtains for France part of the 
 English possessions — Outside circumstances help the king to 
 extend his power over the South of France — The royal policy 
 of granting appana.q'es and its consequences — Reign of Louis 
 IX — He pursues the same policy of granting out appanages — 
 Immediate results of this policy during Louis IX's time — Con- 
 tinuity in the policy of the French kings also shown in perfection 
 of the local system of government under Louis VIII and Louis 
 IX — Parallel between the division of functions in the English 
 and in the French courts of justice — Relations between the 
 king and the church — The king's influence over financial matters 
 — Reason of the power of Louis IX — Administration of Philip 
 HI — Important addition made by Philip IV to the General 
 Council of the Realm — Most important episodes in French 
 foreijs:n policy — French intervention in the quarrel between the 
 empire and the papacy — Philip IV quarrels with the Pope over 
 the question of clerical taxation — Pope takes up his residence 
 at Avignon — Results of this on French and European politics 
 
1 82 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE 
 
 — Reign of Henry III in England — Under the administration 
 of Simon de Montfort important changes made in parHamentary 
 representation — Reign of Edward I — The clergy summoned to 
 Parliament — Gradual decline of the political power of convoca- 
 tion — Edward I completes the judicial reforms of Henry U — 
 He signs the charter admitting the principle that no taxes should 
 be imposed without the people's consent. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 KiTCHiN, History of France; Adams, French Nation; Bissey and 
 Caspey, History of France; Tout, Empire and Papacy; Hutton, Philip 
 Augustus; Emerton, Medieval Europe; Duruy, History of France: 
 Perry, St. Louis; Pastor, History of the Popes; Tosti, Storia di Boni- 
 facio VHI ; Wiseman, Essays on various subjects, pp. 452, 453 and pp. 
 4g4, 4Q§; Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional History; Tout, Edward 1; 
 Gardiner, Student's History of England; Hutton, Simon de Montfort. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR 
 
 238. Character and Causes, — The Hundred Years' War 
 from 1338 to 1 45 1 was fought between England and France. 
 Its after effects on this internal history of the two kingdoms 
 and its widespread area give to it a considerable importance 
 in European history. Not only was the very identity and ex- 
 istence of England and of France at stake, but soldiers from 
 distant parts parts of Europe took part in the war, enlisting 
 themselves on one side or on the other. 
 
 The main cause of the Hundred Years' War was the fact 
 that there were English possessions on what was geograph- 
 ically French soil. The English channel was clearly the 
 natural frontier between the two countries, and yet the im- 
 portant provinces of Gascony and Guienne were in the hands 
 of the English. A struggle thus became inevitable and it 
 only remained for some definite hostile act on either side to 
 bring to a head the mutual jealousy and suspicion of the rival 
 nations. 
 
 It was natural that France, being constantly provoked by the 
 sight of an alien occupation of her own soil should strike the 
 first blow. Profiting by the insubordinate attitude of Scot- 
 land towards Edward I of England, her over-lord, France 
 found a pretext for an open quarrel in the long outstanding 
 rivalry between the French and English seamen, a rivalry 
 which culminated in an open sea fight. Philip the Fair laid 
 the blame on the English, and as suzerain of Edward sum- 
 moned him to appear before his court. Edward, being pre-oc- 
 cupied with the Scots sought a brief delay by temporarily ced- 
 ing into Philip's hands the province of Guienne. But this only 
 
 183 
 
1 84 I'HE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 
 
 made the intentions of the French King still more evident, 
 for at the end of the forty days of cessation Philip refused to 
 give up the province that had been thus temporarily ceded. 
 
 France had chosen rightly her own time for starting the 
 war, as for several years from that time the strength of Eng- 
 land was diminished by the struggle for Scottish independence. 
 So frequently did France strike at England through Scotland 
 that Scotland became nicknamed the " apron " of France. By 
 supplying Scotland with arms, money, and men, France was 
 able to exercise a check on the policy of England and to lessen 
 her capacity for war. 
 
 239. England's Allies on the Continent. — While the main 
 purpose of France during the war was to assert her terri- 
 torial integrity, it was the natural interest of England to keep 
 within the sphere of her influence the Duchy of Guienne, 
 with which England had such an important trade in wine, and 
 especially to secure the permanence of her wool trade with 
 Flanders. England was mainly an agricultural country and 
 her chief produce was w^ool ; Flanders was essentially a manu- 
 facturing country and possessed the art of working up the raw 
 wool into excellent cloth. Thus, as far as England was con- 
 cerned, the war was mainly a commercial war; it was fought 
 for motives of trade, and her most important ally, Flanders, 
 was attached chiefly by considerations of commercial ad- 
 vantages. 
 
 240. Battles of Sluys and Crecy. — The war was fought out 
 chiefly in France ; it was there that the decisive battles were 
 w'aged -and that the most disastrous effects of the war were 
 felt. The \'ictories during the first campaign were all on the 
 side of the English. At the battle of Sluys (1340), Edward 
 III, with his comparatively smaller fleet, successfully demon- 
 strated the superior efficiency and generalship of the English 
 
BATTLE OF POITIERS I«5 
 
 iiavv. and w hen he landed in France, the decisive engagements 
 were again ah in his favor. It is true that Edward was 
 compelled to withdraw from his intended march on Paris, 
 owing to the too evident superiority of the enemy's numbers 
 and also that he was compelled to retreat gradually before 
 the French army, but when Edw^ard at the village of Crecy 
 (1346) turned round and faced the enemy, his victory was 
 complete and overwhelming. No doubt he was helped by 
 certain natural advantages. His army was posted on a rising 
 slope and he was fighting on ground of his own choice; also 
 a sudden storm had wetted the strings of the Genoese archers 
 on the French side; but the real cause of success was of 
 deeper significance. The battle Avas a contest for superiority 
 betw-een the French feudal cavalry and the English yeoman 
 archers, and the result was the death-blow of what was the 
 essential material support of feudalism; the mounted horse- 
 man had been the very type of the material strength of feudal- 
 ism but the battle of Crecy proved that he was no match for 
 the humble archer. The use of artillery, observed for the 
 first time at Crecy, though doing little to determine the im- 
 mediate fortunes of the day, yet foreboded what was destined 
 to shatter forever both the feudal horseman and the feudal 
 castle. 
 
 241. Poitiers. — Soon after this battle the town of Calais, 
 an important sea-port town, was taken by the English and in 
 the year 1347 operations on a large scale were again started 
 in France. Again the English won an important battle, this 
 time at Poitiers in a more southern part of France. The 
 English army \vas lead by the Black Prince, the king's eldest 
 son, already conspicuous for his valor at Crecy. On this occa- 
 sion also the English army was in retreat, being pursued by 
 a superior force, and again the English were able to fight 
 in a strong position of their own choosing. The French army 
 
1 86 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 
 
 had to fight its way around through a narrow lane where its 
 very numbers only tended to its greater confusion, and a 
 sudden attack by the English cavalry on the flank quickly de- 
 cided the battle. The French King himself was taken cap- 
 tive, together with a great number of the French nobility 
 (1356). 
 
 242. Treaty of Bretigny. — The result was the treaty of 
 Bretigny (1360), by which the English king ceded to France 
 the northern provinces, but was confirmed in the more impor- 
 tant possession of the southern Duchy of Aquitaine. By the 
 same treaty the English king also renounced his claim to the 
 throne of France, a claim which was scarcely made in serious- 
 ness, but rather with a view to strengthen the alliance between 
 himself and Flanders. 
 
 But the English occupation of French territory, which was 
 the original cause of the war, still continued and nine years 
 afterward hostilities were again resumed, which finally drove 
 the English from .the soil of France. 
 
 243. Renewal of the War. — The grievous taxes imposed 
 by the English government upon the southern provinces caused 
 a revolt, which was made all the more serious by their evi- 
 dent sympathy with France rather than with England. The 
 lords of Aquitaine appealed to King Charles V of France, who 
 eagerly took up their cause. The English army was now con- 
 siderably handicapped both by the illness of the Black Prince, 
 and by the severity of the winter climate, and in a short time 
 the victory of a Spanish fleet over an English fleet completely 
 cut off any communication between the English contingent in 
 France and its base of supplies. Resistance became hopeless, 
 and by the end of Edward Ill's reign all that England still 
 retained in the south of France were the two towns of Bor- 
 deaux and Bayonne. 
 
JOAN OF ARC 187 
 
 244. Agincourt and the Treaty of Troyes. — In a few years' 
 time, however, the madness of the French King Charles VI 
 and the bitter strife between the two great poHtical parties of 
 the Burgundians and Armagnacs, headed respectively by the 
 Duke of Burgundy and by the Duke of Orleans, furnished a 
 favorable opportunity to England's desire for revenge. The 
 King of England, at that time was Henry V (1413-1422), a 
 man of great energy and warlike ability. In 141 5 he sailed 
 for the Norman coast, captured Harfleur and marched into the 
 heart of France. On the field of Agincourt (1415) he en- 
 countered the French host. As usual the English army was 
 favored by its more favorable position and the French cav- 
 alry plunging through the miry ground soon became thrown 
 into confusion ; the English army, on the other hand, had suc- 
 cessfully compensated for its inferiority of numbers by mass- 
 ing itself in a narrow space between two woods, where it 
 could be safe from a flank attack. The French were com- 
 pletely overthrown, and in 14 17, after a brief rest in England, 
 Henry V renewed the invasion of Normandy, took its capital 
 Rouen and made with the French King the treaty of Troyes. 
 By the terms of this treaty, Henry V was recognized as regent 
 of France, and as its future sovereign, while the close alliance 
 between the two countries was still further cemented by the 
 marriage of Henry V with Catharine, the eldest of the French 
 princesses. 
 
 245. Joan of Arc. — This brilliant success was destined to 
 be the last that was to wait on the English arms. In the year 
 1422, only two years after the treaty of Troyes, Henry V 
 died, and English France was governed by the Duke of Bed- 
 ford acting as regent for King Henry VI, a minor. The 
 military genius of the Duke of Bedford was nearly equal to 
 that of Henry V, but all his efforts to retain France were 
 baffled by the renewed enthusiasm that inspired the French by 
 
l88 THE HUNDRED YEARS' JVAR 
 
 the appearance of Joan of Arc, surnamed the Maid of Orleans. 
 She proclaimed herself as one sent by Heaven to redeem 
 France from the hands of the invader. The sanctity of her 
 life and the immediate fulfilment of her predictions gave force 
 to her words. The French army was saved from its de- 
 moralization and a wave of patriotism swept over the country. 
 In 1429 she raised the siege of Orleans, and triumphantly led 
 the French army through Troyes up to the gates of Rheims, 
 where Charles VII was solemnly crowned as King of France. 
 Her mission was thus accomplished, but she was not per- 
 mitted to retire to her beloved retirement. She unfortunately 
 fell soon after into the hands of the English, and on a charge 
 of sorcery was burned in the market place of Rouen. 
 
 246. The Lancastrian Experiment in Normandy. — The 
 Duke of Bedford recognized as an accomplished fact the 
 hopelessness of retaining the great bulk of the former English 
 possessions. He wisely determined to concentrate in Nor- 
 mandy the scattered fcMxes and energy of the English. Noth- 
 ing, indeed, could be more interesting and plausible than what 
 is called the Lancastrian Experiment in Normandy, which 
 was an attempt to convert Normandy into a thoroughly Eng- 
 lish province. Not only was the French element driven out of 
 the sea-port towns, but the English system of parliamentary 
 representation, of administration of justice and local by-laws 
 were all introduced, while the new university at Caen, still in 
 existence, promised to become a center of English culture. 
 But the experiment failed. The whole s}"stem was too arti- 
 ficial, and Normandy, which was at first English in its tastes 
 and sympathies, began to change its temper and to wish for 
 absorption into the neighboring French territory. 
 
 247. English Driven out of France. — By the year 1435 
 it became clear that all chances of any English occupation of 
 
The Capture of Orlenns 
 
I90 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 
 
 l^^rench territory were lost. The genius of the Duke of Bed- 
 ford was powerless against the overwhelming force of circum- 
 stances. Burgundy, which had also been such a faithful ally 
 of England, now under Philip the Good formed an alliance 
 with the King of France, the feeble efforts of Talbot Earl of 
 Shrewsbury to retain Gascony were foiled by the superiority 
 of the French army, and to crown all, the Duke of Bedford 
 found himself without any support from the home govern- 
 ment. The same great cause that had weakened France and 
 invited the Hundred Years' War now showed itself also in 
 England. As France had been torn asunder by the contend- 
 ing factions of the Burgundians and Orleanists, so now in 
 England there began to appear the beginnings of those two 
 factions who were shortly to plunge England into all the 
 horrors of the civil wars of the Roses, and effectually to pre- 
 vent her from regaining the territory she had lost abroad. 
 
 About the year 1453, the Hundred Years' War between 
 England and France drew to a close, and the only fragment 
 that was still left of the once powerful possessions of Henry H, 
 was the little town of Calais. This remained English for 
 about a hundred years more and at the present day still bears 
 evidence of the lateness of the English occupation. 
 
 248. A survey of the Hundred Years' War seems to reveal 
 a contradiction between the facts of that war and the result. 
 Nearly all the great battles were won by the English, and 
 yet the fruits of the struggle were all in the hands of the 
 French. In a long war of conquest, however, a succession of 
 brilliant victories do not always spell success. Perhaps when 
 they are won by the people whose territory is invaded, as in 
 the Greek- Persian wars, they may do so, but to ensure success 
 to the invader something more than isolated brilliant victories 
 is required. All during the campaign the English had to fight 
 far away from their base of supplies, from which they were 
 
ROYAL POWER STRENGTHENED 19I 
 
 sometimes altogether cut off, and they hail to contend against 
 the French spirit and sympathies of the land they were trying 
 to occupy. The madness of the French king and the existence 
 of two mutually hostile political parties in France at first fav- 
 ored England, but these accidental circumstances soon passed 
 away. Indeed, the incapacity of the weak-minded King Henry 
 VI and the quarrel between the houses of York and Lancaster 
 in the Wars of the Roses seemed exactly to revert the condi- 
 tion of things in favor of France. 
 
 249. Results. — The Hundred Years' War had the im- 
 portant result of hastening the internal development of France 
 and England. In France many of the old feudal houses be- 
 came extinct at the disastrous battle of Crecy, Poitiers, and 
 Agincourt, and on the other hand, there began to be formed a 
 royal standing army, which with the permission of the States- 
 General in 1439 w^as raised by the king and supported by a 
 general tax called the " taille." This, of course, meant the 
 lessening of the power of the feudal nobles on the one hand, 
 and on the other it meant the strengthening of the royal power 
 which finally became absolute. 
 
 In England the Hundred Years' War also had the effect of 
 weakening the power of the barons, a great many of whom 
 with their retainers perished on the fields of France. But it 
 would be scarcely true to sa}^ that the power of the king was 
 correspondingly increased. Indeed, the Hundred Years' War 
 with its consequent burden of taxation and its ultimate series 
 of disasters contributed materially to the overthrow of the 
 royal House of Lancaster, while the power of the people, ow- 
 ing to economic effects of the war, received a fresh impetus 
 in the direction of a democratic government. We must now 
 turn to consider the rise of another European state that was 
 soon to assert for itself an important and an abiding place in 
 the pages of history. 
 
1 9-' THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 
 
 250. Rise of the House of Hapsburg. — While the Hundred 
 Years' War was rapidly shaping the future destinies of France 
 and England, certain important movements in Germany were 
 laying the foundation of the greatness of the two houses now 
 reigning in Germany proper and Austria. It was during this 
 time that the House of Hapsburg quitted its ancestral seat in 
 Switzerland in order to acquire the Austrian dominions, and 
 connected with this was the circumstance of the rising great- 
 ness of the House of Hohenzollern. 
 
 251. Method of Imperial Election. — When the Hohen- 
 staufen dynasty in Germany came to an end there ensued an 
 interregnum of twenty years, during which time no German 
 king obtained general recognition. In 1257 there took place 
 a double election that brought into prominence the changing 
 character of the electoral body. Originally the electors were 
 the nobles and ecclesiastics, but since the number of these grew 
 unwieldy it was thought better to entrust the task of election 
 to a small committee consisting of the three archbishops of 
 Cologne, Maintz, and Trier, and of the four secular leaders 
 of Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia, and Suabia. Later, how- 
 ever, owing to the changes that had taken place in the national 
 duchies of Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia and Siiabia, the Ba- 
 varian vote was by 1257 exercised by the Count Palatine of 
 the Rhine, the Franconian vote by the Margrave of Branden- 
 burg, while the Suabian vote w^ent to the King of Bohemia, 
 who represented the Slav nationality. Thus the seven elec- 
 tors in 1257 were three archbishops already named, and the 
 four lay rulers of Brandenburg, the Palatinate, Saxony, and 
 Bohemia. 
 
 Some of these electors chose as king Richard, Duke of Corn- 
 wall, brother of Henry III of England ; the others chose Al- 
 phonse of Castile. As might be expected, neither candidate 
 had any real authority, though Richard, owing to his wealth 
 
RUDOLPH FIRST 1 93 
 
 derived from the mines of Cornwall, and to the support of the 
 Pope had the stronger position of the two. On the death of 
 Richard, Pope Gregory X, one of the few strong popes of this 
 period, secured a fresh election and in 1273 Rudolph, Count 
 of Hapsburg, was elected. The election was opposed by King 
 Ottokar of Bohemia, but Rudolph defeated him and confis- 
 cated his possessions. He allowed Bohemia proper to return 
 to Ottokar's son, but Austria and Styria he added to his own 
 personal hereditary possessions. From that time to now, Aus- 
 tria, with its capital Vienna, has always remained the seat and 
 centre of the House of Hapsburg. 
 
 252. Rudolph I was also the founder of the policy of his 
 house, lliis policy consisted in abandoning all l^topian 
 schemes of a world-wide empire and resting content with the 
 consolidation of his own personal dominions in Germany. 
 
 The imperial title, however, did not remain constantly with 
 the Hapsburg House. On the death of Rudolph in 1292, the 
 electors chose Adolph of Nassau, and although he was set 
 aside six years after and succeeded by Albrecht I, the son of 
 Rudolph, yet on Albrecht's death the succession again went 
 outside the Hapsburg House. This time it was the houses of 
 Luxemburg and Bavaria that alternately supplied candidates 
 for the imperial title, and it was not until Albrecht H, in 1438, 
 that the imperial title finally reverted to the House of Haps- 
 burg. 
 
 253. Imperial Succession and Policy. — Between 1308, the 
 date of Albrecht's death and 1438 the date of the return of 
 the Hapsburgs to imperial power, the following in succession 
 were the most imporant emperors : — Henry VH of the house 
 of Luxemburg, Lewis of Bavaria and Charles IV of Luxem- 
 burg. The reign of Henry VII was signalized by the revival 
 of the old dream of a universal imperial domination. He was 
 
194 THE HUNDRED YEARS' IJ'AR 
 
 a man of talent and determination and there was a chivalric 
 side to his character which prompted him to hsten to the stron.t;- 
 appeals from Italy that he should intervene and restore order 
 to that land so torn asunder by internal strife and petty 
 tyranny. It was to him, indeed, that Dante addressed these 
 words : " Come to see your Rome which weeps, widowed and 
 alone and calls out day and night : ' My Caesar, wherefore 
 does he not attend me! ' " Henry VII listened to the appeal, 
 but his brief success in the north of Italy was cut short by his 
 sudden death in 13 13. His successor, Lew-is the Bavarian, 
 spent most of his time in the same policy of Italian interven- 
 tion, and his presence in Italy only brought into still clearer 
 light the reluctance of the Germans to interfere outside of 
 Germany, and the silent disregard of the Italians for the indi- 
 vidual who aimlessly moved about in their midst. 
 
 254. The Golden Bull. — In 1347 the imperial crown re- 
 verted again to the House of Luxemburg in the person of 
 Charles IV. f^erhaps the event which most memorizes the 
 reign of this king is his issuing the Golden Bull in 1356. This 
 document definitely confirmed the powers of the seven electors 
 and attempted to put into a constitutional form the respective 
 rights and relations of the king and the princes. 
 
 255. Policy of Charles IV. — Owing to the marriage of his 
 father with the Bohemian princess Elizabeth, Charles IV was 
 also the hereditary ruler of the kingdom of Bohemia, and soon 
 showed towards it great partiality. He extended its frontiers 
 so as to include Silesia and Moravia, and greatly enriched its 
 capital Prague, w^here he founded the first university of Ger- 
 many. In other respects, however, the policy of Charles IV 
 was marked either by failure or by apparent weakness. His 
 intervention in Italy was attended by even greater humiliations 
 than in the case of his predecessors. It is said that some- 
 
RISE OF SWITZERLAND 195 
 
 times one single situation can throw more light than many 
 words of explanation — and surely the sight of an emperor 
 locked up in the palace of Sienna and verging on starvation 
 sufficiently illustrates the impotence of the emperor in Italy, 
 and the contempt for him entertained by the Italians. Charles 
 also failed to preserve to the empire the old kingdom of Bur- 
 gundy and is particularly to be blamed for not coming to the 
 help of the Knights of the Teutonic Order, who were the most 
 faithful defenders of German Eastern frontier. 
 
 256. Rise of the House of Hohenzollern. — Charles IV. 
 died in 1378 and was succeeded by the emperors \\'enzel. 
 Rupert of Palatinate, and Sigismund of Luxemburg. None 
 of these reigns was remarkable in itself, but in the reign of 
 Sigismund an accident prepared the way for the future great- 
 ness of the House of Hohenzollern. Sigismund had acquired 
 Brandenburg by right of inheritance, and being overwhelm- 
 ingly in debt to Frederick of Hohenzollern he handed over to 
 him the duchy of Brandenburg. Brandenburg thus became 
 the political cradle of the House of Hohenzollern and under 
 their firm and sagacious diplomacy it eventually developed 
 into the kingdom of Prussia. 
 
 257. The Swiss Confederation. — The death of Sigismund 
 in 1438 meant the final restoration of the imperial title to 
 the House of Hapsburg. The original home of the Haps- 
 burgs was the castle of Hapsburg in the southeast of Suabia. 
 near the line of railway which now runs from Olten to Zurich. 
 The forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden were 
 under the jurisdiction of the Hapsburgs. In 1291 the ab- 
 sence of the Hapsburgs in their new Austrian possessions 
 seems to have loosened their hold upon their Swiss possessions, 
 for at that time the three cantons above mentioned threw off 
 their allegiance to the Hapsburgs and assumed independent 
 
196 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 
 
 political rights. Nor were they content with merely throw- 
 ing off the feudal yoke of their over-lords, for they even en- 
 croached upon surrounding territory. The Hapsburgs in vain 
 protested by force of arms. At the battle of Morgarten 
 (1315), the Hapsburg Austrian army received a severe defeat 
 at the hands of the rebels, who, being afterwards joined by 
 other cantons, were thus able to form the nucleus of what 
 eventually became the Swiss Confederation, the first of pres- 
 ent day European republics. 
 
 258. Difficulties of the Austrian Government. — The Haps- 
 burgs themselves were not long, in recognizing the hopelessness 
 of the task of keeping under subjection a people territorially 
 so distant and in sympathy so alien to their rule. When Al- 
 brecht II succeeded vSigismund in 1438, he made no attempt 
 to reclaim their allegiance, but confined himself to the con- 
 solidation of his new hereditary dominions. These were al- 
 ready sufficiently extensive ; not only the Archduchy of Aus- 
 tria proper, but also Bohemia and Hungary were under his 
 sway. Such extended dominions, however, brought \vith 
 them special inconveniences. It is always a hard and danger- 
 ous task to rule over different populations settled on different 
 soils. During the fifteenth century there began that contest 
 between the Teutons in Austria and the Slavs in Hungary 
 and Bohemia that even to this day is the most serious menace 
 to the House of Austria. 
 
 This element of civil discord was, as in the case of the 
 Albigenses in France, complicated by religious dissent. John 
 Huss, born in 1369, was a popular preacher in the Slav lan- 
 guage. While still professing himself to be a faithful son of 
 the Church he tried to propagate the doctrines of \\"ycliff. He 
 was summoned before the IV Council of Constance (1414) 
 and was condemned and executed as a heretic. His followers 
 after his death organized themselves into a fierce religious-po- 
 
PEASANT INSURRECTION 197 
 
 litical party and greatly added to the discord already existing 
 among the discordant races. 
 
 259. Insurrection of the Peasants, — During the reign of 
 Edward III, there hegan to appear in England two very im- 
 portant movements that were destined to have far-reaching 
 consequences on the political and religious life of England. 
 
 The first of these movements was the insurrection of the 
 peasants. There were many causes that made the English 
 peasant profoundly discontented. The Statute of Laborers in 
 compelling the laborer to work at a given rate was a galling 
 injustice, and the restriction put upon the movements of labor- 
 ers also greatly interfered with the natural course of trade and 
 inflicted great hardships. The old feudal dependence of the 
 serf-laborers upon the landlord was also a grievance. Hith- 
 erto, they had been obliged to perform certain fixed services 
 as a rent for their small holdings, but now they began to assert 
 their right to pay their rent in the form of money. Then 
 there were other grievances, such as the heavy taxes and mar- 
 ket tolls, the selfish monopoly of the guilds, the growing 
 wealth of foreign merchants,* and capitalists who were settling 
 in the kingdom. 
 
 All these causes combined together to produce the famous 
 peasant rising of 1381. The want of cohesion, however, 
 among the rebels, the selfishness of their leaders, and the 
 firmness of Richard II saved the situation, but the rising 
 marked a step forward in the progress of the common people. 
 Although the insurrection was suppressed, we find that shortly 
 afterwards, most of the serfs were allowed to pay their rent 
 in money, and the condition of the peasant in regard to other 
 classes of society, w^as considerably improved in dignity and 
 comfort. 
 
 260. Spread of Lollardry.— Closely connected, but not 
 identified with the peasants' revolt, was the spread of Lol- 
 
198 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 
 
 lardry. The Lollards were a religious sect that had flourished 
 in Germany, and the term Lollard was afterwards applied to 
 all those who in any way concealed erroneous religious views 
 under the guise of piety. In England, there rose about the 
 same time as the revolt of the peasants, a considerable section 
 of men who held very advanced views regarding the Church 
 and society, and ultimately taught doctrines that were utterly 
 at variance with essential teachings of the Church. 
 
 261. William Wycliff. — The founder and head of this new 
 religious movement in England was William Wycliff, rector 
 of the small parish of Lutterworth in Leicestershire. He first 
 began by preaching the necessity of reform, especially in re- 
 gard to the excessive wealth of the clergy. He also advanced 
 an opinion that all authority is derived from grace and that 
 therefore, no one enjoyed real authority, unless, he were in a 
 state of grace. This theory which appears at first so start- 
 ling, was reduced to a mere shadow by certain distinctions and f 
 by the fact that his doctrine of dominion founded on grace, 
 was only a theory and did not hold in practice since the Chris- 
 tian must in any case always obey by reason of the obedience 
 that he owes to God. Further than this, such a doctrine if 
 put into practice would result in nothing less than the complete 
 subversion of the entire existing political and social order of 
 things. 
 
 262. New Heresies of WyclifT. — It was not long however, 
 before Wycliff altogether abandoned his position as a son of 
 the Church and denied such essential doctrines as those of the 
 Real Presence, indulgences, worship of the saints, and the au- 
 thority of the pope. At the same time that Wycliff thus ap- 
 peared as a revolutionist in the Church, his followers, by the 
 unrestrained zeal of their discourse caused the Wycliffian 
 movement to be identified with the peasants' rising. It was 
 
GROWTH OF ENGLISH LIBERTY 1 99 
 
 his wandering" priests that stirred up the people by declama- 
 tions about the equality of man and the unlawfulness of cer- 
 tain money making trades. The result was that W'ycliffism 
 incurred the suspicion and displeasure of both the spiritual 
 and the temporal powers. 
 
 A\'ycliff, however, continued the contest and with his new 
 weapon of pamphlet writing, continued to assert his favorite 
 doctrines. It is evident that his writings had rui effect for 
 Lollardry still continued even after his death, lender Henry 
 IV, was passed the statute " de heretico comburendo," which 
 aimed at the destruction of the Lollards. Alany of them were 
 thus either killed or silenced, but the tradition of the move- 
 ment kept alive a certain political hostility to the papacy, an 
 hostility which was fanned by the sight of the immense wealth 
 of the Church and was an omen of the final separation of Eng- 
 land from the Church during the reign of Henry VHI and 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 263. Growth of English Liberty. — During all these years 
 the English Constitution had been slowly perfecting its sys- 
 tem of representative government. The abuses that had 
 weighed upon the people under the Xorman and Angevin 
 kings had been substantially removed. The personal despot- 
 ism of the king, unlawful and arbitrary imprisonment, excessive 
 taxation, interference with the rights and privileges of the 
 people, had been s\\e])t awa\-. Owing to the alliance bctw'een 
 the people and the barons, who at first worked from unselfish 
 motives, the incon\-eniences that resulted from an excessive 
 central authority were on all sides considerably lessened. 
 
 We have already seen that under Edward I Parliament had 
 asserted successfully the doctrine that no taxes should be im- 
 posed sa\-e by the common consent of all the people of the 
 realm. When Edward II dared to govern in violation of the 
 constitutions of the realm, he was deposed by act of Parlia- 
 
200 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 
 
 inent. Under the reign of Edward III the following princi- 
 ples were definitely established : first, that all taxation with- 
 out the consent of Parliament is illegal ; second, that both 
 houses, namely. Lords and Commons, must concur in legisla- 
 tion ; third, that the Commons may inquire into and amend 
 the abuses of administration. Even in our times these prin- 
 ciples form the very foundation of the democratic constitution 
 of England and the Cnited States, and the same may be said 
 of the rights that were secured to the House of Commons 
 under Richard II. These rights were: first, that no taxes 
 could be levied or laws enacted without its consent; second, 
 the inspection and control of the entire government ; third, 
 examining the public accounts and declaring to what purpose 
 the public funds should be put ; fourth, the right of impeach- 
 ing offenders, i. e., accusing them before the bar of the House 
 of Lords. Besides these fundamental and all-important rights 
 which still remain to the House of Commons, the two Houses 
 managed to acquire other rights closely connected with safe 
 and easy despatch of business, such rights, for example, as 
 freedom from arrest (except for treason, felony, or breach of 
 peace), freedom of speech and the right to decide disputed 
 elections. 
 
 264. Theory and Practice of the English Constitution. — 
 
 There is no doubt but that in practice the apparatus of consti- 
 tutional government was in these times thoroughly democratic. 
 The power of the people was fully recognized, and had al- 
 ready become an accepted axiom. In this regard nothing can 
 be more instructive than to compare the legal theory in the 
 twelfth century regarding the royal power, with the legal 
 theory which prevailed in the fourteenth. Bracton, the early 
 exponent of English law, maintained that the will of the 
 prince was law, while Chief Fortescue, who was Chief Jus- 
 tice in 1442, declared that the king derived his power from the 
 people. 
 
WARS OF THE ROSES 201 
 
 Yet, in spite of all this there were grave defects which al- 
 most completely neutralized the benefits that might have been 
 expected from a state of things so democratic in practice and 
 in theory. Some of these defects, indeed, exist even in our 
 own time. First of all the people were not really represented 
 at all, and the voice of the all-powerful Parliament was not 
 really the voice of the nation. The system of representation 
 was unfair and inade(|uale. The south of England was al- 
 lowed to send up far more representatives than the north and 
 the work of electing was often engineered by small groups of 
 powerful magnates. Worse than all, only persons worth forty 
 shillings a year were allowed to elect members of Parliament 
 This restriction had the effect of disfranchising the rising small 
 farmers who now formed a great part of the English middle 
 class. Indeed, the people of those times might utter the same 
 complaint as in our own times that the reins of political power 
 were really in the hands of small groups of men. 
 
 Then again the judicial part of the system was subject to 
 the same evil influences. Powerful barons would try to per- 
 vert the course of justice by appearing in the court with bodies 
 of armed retainers at their backs. 
 
 However, about the middle of the fifteenth century the evil 
 w-as brought to a crisis and was partly ended by the Wars of 
 the Roses, during which the great barons engaged each other 
 in deadly combat and thus so weakened their own position that 
 they could no longer engross the enjoyment of political power. 
 
 265. The Wars of the Roses were caused by the deadly 
 rivalry existing between the Hc^use of York and the House of 
 Lancaster. Henry VI, of the House of Lancaster, was then 
 reigning, and the weakness of his character furnished a fitting 
 opportunity to Richard Plantagenet. Duke of York. Richard 
 laid claim to the throne by the title of his more ancient descent, 
 but liis claim, however plausible, was scarcelv valid in the 
 
202 THE HUNDRED YEARS' JVAR 
 
 face of the fact that the House of Lancaster was niHns^- by 
 consent of the Enghsh Parhament, which even from the times 
 of the Enghsh Witan could make and unmake kings. How- 
 ever, so much discontent was caused by Henry's w-eak govern- 
 ment and by the turbulence of the nobles that Richard thought 
 he could successfully appeal to the people's craving for a strong 
 and settled government. 
 
 This sanguinary struggle began in 1454 and lasted 
 about thirty-five years, though only two out of these years were 
 spent in hard fighting. Battles were fought and won on both 
 sides and were characterized by great slaughter and merciless 
 brutality. The decisive battles were the battle of Wakefield 
 (■'-1460), in which the Duke of York, w^as slain and his faction 
 routed, the battle of St. Albans (1461), in which the king was 
 utterly routed and after being deposed by Parliament, was 
 succeeded by Edward IV, son of the slain Duke of York. 
 Then came the battle of Towton (1461J, in which the Lan- 
 castrians suffered an irretrievable defeat, and the position of 
 Edward IV on the throne was finally secured. Even when 
 the Earl of Warwick, who had been Edward's main sup- 
 porter, turned against him and entered into an alliance with 
 the Lancastrian leaders, Edward was still triumphant and at 
 the battle of Tewkesbury (1471) again beat the Lancastrians, 
 while Margaret, the Queen consort of Henry IV, was taken 
 captive, and Henry VI himself perished in the tower. 
 
 266. Results of the Wars of the Roses. — The Wavs of the 
 Roses were fought almost exclusively between the great 
 barons and their retainers. The great middle class had 
 scarcely taken any part in them. The loss of life there- 
 fore had fallen almost exclusively on the barons and their 
 retainers. The balance of power now remained between the 
 king on the one hand, and the common people on the other. 
 But the people were not yet alive to their changed position 
 
ILLEGAL TAXES 203 
 
 and so the iinuiediate effect <.)f tlie Wars of the Roses was to 
 make the king absolutely supreme. In fact, it seemed as 
 though the dial of history had received a setback to the 
 despotism of the Norman and Angevin kings. All classes 
 of the community were dependent upon the king alone. The 
 churchmen looked to him for the protection of their lands, 
 the trading classes for the security of their property. Nor 
 had the king any need to make the Parliament a partner in 
 the functions of governing, for previous grants as well as 
 the confiscated estates of the Lancastrians had already filled 
 the royal treasury. 
 
 267. Edward IV. — Much, however, depended upon the 
 character of himself, and Edward IV under a light and a 
 gay exterior concealed profound political ability and deter- 
 mined ambition. He soon acted up to the situation. He re- 
 duced the functions of Parliament to registering lists of at- 
 tainers against the Lancastrians. Then when his extrava- 
 gance necessitated more money he not only asked for one- 
 fifteenth of each person's movable goods no less than five 
 times during the space of five years, but he also resumed the 
 old feudal dues, and even fell back on benevolences, or forced 
 gifts. In legal matters he was equally despotic. Lie intro- 
 duced a severe treason act by which writings and even 
 abstention from action might be used as evidence of con- 
 structive treason, and above all the odious use of torture was 
 again introduced. 
 
 268. Royal Despotism Only Temporary. — And yet if we 
 
 go below the surface, the evil was but temporary in its char- 
 acter. It was easier for the people to fight against the 
 tyranny of one man than against the tyranny and misrule of 
 many nobles with powerful bodies of men at their back. The 
 despotism of the Yorkist kings, and the Tudor kings who 
 
204 THE HUNDRED YEARS' JVAR 
 
 succeeded them was not an unmitigated evil ; it introduced 
 order where there had been chaos and gave to England a 
 strong foreign poHcy, while the ground was also cleared for 
 that great struggle between the king and the people which 
 ended in procuring for England all the blessings of free 
 constitutional government. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Importance of the Hundred Years' War — Remote and imme- 
 diate causes of the Hundred Years' War — Motives of the two 
 countries in going to war — Battles of Sluys and Crecy — Battle 
 of Poitiers — Treaty of Bretigny — The war renewed in the 
 South of France — English reverses — Arrival of Henry V, who 
 wins the battle of Agincourt — English invasion of Normandy — 
 Treaty of Troyes — Duke of Bedford as regent in France — 
 French success under the Maid of Orleans — Account of the 
 Lancastrian experiment in Normandy — English slowly driven 
 out of France — End of the Hundred Years' War — Survey of 
 the Hundred Years' War — Its results in France and England. 
 Origin of the House of Hapsburg — Changes made in the Ger- 
 man electors — ■ Rudolph founder of the greatness of the House 
 of Hapsburg — Henry VII of Luxemburg — His intervention in 
 Italy — The same policy continued by Lewis the Bavarian — The 
 failure of this policy — Reign of Charles IV — His extending the 
 boundaries of Bohemia — His failure in Italy and elsewhere — 
 Attitude of the Forest Cantons towards the House of Hapsburg 
 
 — Battle of Morgarten — The German and Slav element in the 
 Austrian dominions — John Huss and the IV Council of Con- 
 stance — Weakening of the royal power in England and rise of 
 democratic government — The various rights and privileges suc- 
 cessfully asserted by Parliament — Democratic advance even in 
 legal theories — ■ Serious defects in the representative system — 
 Defects in the judicial system — Causes of the Wars of the Roses 
 
 — Battles of St. Albans, Towton and Tewkesbury — Important 
 political results of the Wars of the Roses — Rise of royal des- 
 potism under Edward IV — A strong basis of democratic power 
 still remains. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Oliphant, Troissart's Chronicles; Ashley, Joan of Arc; Edivard HI 
 and his ivars; Adams, Growth of the French Nation; Nineteenth Cen- 
 
GENERAL REEERENCE 205 
 
 TURY, article by AJks. Maxwell — Scott, in Joan of Arc; Trevelyan, Eng- 
 land in the A,KC of Wycliffc; Hassall, The Erench People; Whitman, 
 Austria; Buchekn, IVilliam Tell; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire; Poole, 
 Illustrations of the Elistory of Medieval Thought; Hugg and Stead, 
 Switzerland; York-Powell and Tout, History of England; Gardner, 
 Houses of Lancaster and York; Smith, Troublous Days of Richard II; 
 Church, Henry V ; Stubbs, Constitutional History of England; Lord 
 Brougham, England under the Llouse of Lancaster; Gardiner, Edition of 
 the Paston Letters; Letters and Papers illustralive of English Wars in 
 France during Henry \'I (Ed. by Stevens); Bebier, Lettres et Memoirs 
 d'Etat des rois, Princes et Amhassadeitrs de Francais I et Henry II; 
 Paradin, Histoire de notre temps; Ward, House of Austria; Chronicles 
 of Enguerrand; Histoire de Charles VI, by Juvenal des Ursing (Ed. by 
 Buchoii) ; Lc Recoucz'rement de Nonnandie (Ed. by J. Stevenson) ; 
 Chroniquc du Rcligieux de Saint Denis ; Journal d'un Bourgeoise de Paris. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE RENAISSANCE 
 
 269. Meaning of the Term Renaissance. — The Avord Re- 
 naissance means literally a re-birth and is used in the historical 
 sense to denote the great mental, social, and moral revoln- 
 tion that began in the fifteenth centnry. dnring the bloodshed 
 of the Hnndred Years* War. There is a contradiction be- 
 tween the hteral meaning and the actnal nse of the word. 
 By the renaissance, or re-birth, writers generally mean the 
 revival of the study of the ancient classics. But the move- 
 ment denoted by the term renaissance meant much more than 
 this. It meant a complete revolution in the ideas of men. 
 For a few hundred years the individuals composing medieval 
 society had been thinking, living, and acting along certain 
 fixed and definite lines. Families from one generation to 
 another Jiad pursued the same line of trade; certain fixed 
 courses of studies were prescribed in the universities and 
 colleges; the arts of sculpture, painting, and music had been 
 confined to certain rigid lines, and even in the world of 
 philosophical and religious thought there were certain fixed 
 traditions beyond which none x'entured to stir. Medie\-al life 
 had been moving in ruts from which il was suddenly lifted 
 with terrific jolts. It is true that many at the time of the 
 Renaissance began to cultivate the study of the ancient clas- 
 sics, but this was only one section of the great movement. 
 
 The eyes of men seem to have been suddenly opened, and 
 their sympathies brought into touch with a new world re- 
 vealed to their gaze. A corresponding restlessness seems 
 to have agitated their inmost being. Not only the classics 
 but the most abstract problems of science now drew their 
 
 206 
 
STUDY OF THE CLASSICS 207 
 
 attention. Not only architecture and painting but even the 
 lesser accomplishments came in for a share of attention. 
 Music, dancing, the art of conversation — all these seemed to 
 open out fresh possibilities of Ijeauty and enjoyment. In 
 fact, the whole life of man underwent a kind of transforma- 
 tion which touched even the smallest actions of daily life. 
 
 Having described the Renaissance movement as a whole, 
 we may now take up in detail its main branches, which are as 
 follows : hrst, the revival of the classics ; second, the im- 
 petus given to \ernacular literature; third, architecture and 
 sculpture; fourth, painting and the lesser arts. 
 
 270. Exclusive Study of the Letter of the Classics. — It 
 
 would be a great mistake to suppose that the study of the 
 classics -was altogether neglected even during the worst periods 
 of the middle ages. The Latin authors, like Cicero and 
 Seneca, were studied, and there is evidence to show that 
 Virgil and Ovid were in frequent use. Moreover, copies of 
 the classic writings were made at the cost of a great amount 
 of time and labor. But the Latin authors were studied not so 
 much for wdiat they said as for the manner in which they said 
 it. The worldly shrewdness of Horace, the fervor of patriot- 
 ism and the beauty of nature as portrayed in the lines of 
 Virgil, and the restless questionings of Cicero and Seneca — 
 all these were lost sight of and the attention was fixed mainly 
 on the verbal text. Students sought for the art-form only 
 and not for the art-content. To them, the vocabulary, the 
 methods of sentence construction, or at most skilfulness of 
 argument, \\ere supposed to be the only and best fruit of 
 studying tlie ancient authors. 
 
 With regard to the study of Greek it must be admitted 
 that there was a general ignorance of even the written text. 
 Onl\- here and there would the study be pursued by some 
 isolated scholar. 
 
2o8 rilE RENAISSANCE 
 
 271. Excessive Specialization. — The study uf the classics, 
 therefore, during the middle ages failed to receive the interest 
 and support that it deserved. And yet in the universities, 
 there could be found a great deal of mental activity, for 
 distinguished professors still lectured and were listened to by 
 bands of eager students from most distant parts. The root 
 of the evil was that there was too much specialization. Gen- 
 eral culture was neglected, and t(jo early and too much atten- 
 tion was paid to certain lucrative studies, as theology and 
 law. Perhaps the same evil of specialization may be said to 
 exist even in our time, when the classics are beginning to be 
 ignored and the more lucrative subjects of science and en- 
 gineering are receiving paramount attention. 
 
 272. Study of the Classics for Culture. — The movement 
 that took place during the end of the middle ages meant the 
 abandonment of specialization for broad general culture, in- 
 cluding, of course, the study of the classics. And so from 
 thenceforth we find the Latin authors studied because they 
 seemed to bring one into actual contact with the world in all 
 its beauty and attractiveness. Now it was through the Latin 
 authors that men were brought back to nature and the deej) 
 problems of life. Rich ladies of the time, such as the duchess 
 Elizabeth Este, would sing Virgil's lines to impassioned 
 music, and men would discourse in urgent tones the pagan 
 ideas regarding the immortality of the soul. No doubt this 
 sympathy with the ideas and emotions of pagan authors was 
 accompanied by special danger. But amongst the advocates 
 of the new classic learning we must distinguish carefully two 
 classes, b'irst, those who merely wanted to expand the study 
 of the classics, not di^•erging, however, from the old lines of 
 thought and of education. Second, there was the pagan school 
 that wished to sub\'ert altogether the hitherto accepted order of 
 things. The first was the Christian school of humanists; the 
 
GREEK LEARNING 20g 
 
 second was the pagan school, and fortunately this was con- 
 fined only to Italy. But even in Italy there was a considerable 
 number who belonged to the Christian school. Dante, the 
 greatest of Italian poets, and withal an orthodox son of the 
 Church, and overflowing with faith in the supernatural, was 
 one of those most intimately affected by the influence of Virgil, 
 To Virgil he addresses these words : " Thou art my author 
 and my master thou." And Dante during his awful journey 
 through the Inferno surrenders himself completely to the 
 guidance of this illustrious pagan. 
 
 273. The Study of Greek, — The study of Latin therefore, 
 may be said to have undergone a revival inasmuch as not 
 only the letter of the text but the spirit began to occupy a 
 large share of attention. But the revival of the study of 
 Greek was still more complete, for here even the letter of the 
 text had been practically forgotten and was now again restored 
 in Italy and spread over all Europe. 
 
 274. The Causes of Enthusiasm for Greek Learning. — 
 
 Various causes contributed to the enthusiasm for Greek 
 learning. No doubt, the capture of the Greek capital, Con- 
 stantinople, by the Turks, sent out a great number of Greeks 
 exiles who wandered all over Europe spreading with them the 
 knowledge of Greek. But even before this date, there were 
 professors of the Greek language who enjoyed great repute 
 and popularity. Florence was then the great center of Greek 
 culture. There, under the influence of the first magistrate, 
 Lorenzo the Magnificent, learned Greeks like Demetrius 
 Chalcondyles taught the letter and imparted the logical 
 beauty of the Greek tongue to throngs of eager students, and 
 it was at this sacred fire that were lighted the torches that 
 spread throughout the rest of Europe an enthusiasm for 
 Greek. 
 
2IO THE RENAISSANCE 
 
 275. Study of Greek in England. — In England, however, 
 the reception of the Greek cuhure, was exceedingly slow and 
 reluctant. The universities especially seemed unwilling to 
 open their doors to the movement. The fact was that while 
 thev were conscious that the intellectual future was intimately 
 connected with the enthusiastic cult of the Greek authors, they 
 feared it was something that they could not easily assimilate. 
 
 The first Englishman who studied Greek was William 
 Selling, Prior of Christ Church, and it was he who after- 
 wards inspired such propagandists as Linacre, Grocyn, and 
 Latimer. It was at Oxford that the first formal lectures 
 on Greek w^ere delivered by the able Grocyn and Linacre. 
 Then Cambridge followed the example, mainly owing to the 
 zeal of Bishop Fisher, the same bishop who under Henry 
 VIII was martyred for his denial of the supremacy of the 
 king over the Church. At Cambridge the study of Greek 
 was perhaps slower but more secure than at Oxford, and it 
 was in Cambridge that was founded the first professorship 
 of Greek. Among the most noted professors was Erasmus 
 from Rotterdam, who had been invited to England by More 
 and Colet, and who speedily became one of the most zealous 
 champions of the new study. 
 
 The new movement, however, did not make its way without 
 meeting bitter opposition. Even to this day the rival party 
 names Greeks and Trojans of the public school boys recall 
 the days of the early sixteenth century when the himianists 
 had to fight their w'ay against the " Trojans." the nickname 
 given to the sworn foes of Greek culture. There even took 
 place a short reaction in the direction of the old learning. 
 But the Church zealously upheld the new movement and 
 Cardinal Wolsey, the king's chancellor, even made the study 
 of Greek compulsory at Oxford University. Much of the 
 opposition sprung from the deep-rooted English conservatism 
 and its aversion for more outward brilliancy. But when the 
 
NATIONAL LIFE 
 
 211 
 
 universities saw that the new Greek cnhure was producing 
 not only leaves but good solid fruit, they no longer resisted 
 but placed themselves at the head of the movement. Their 
 acceptance of the humanistic revival was thus deliberate and 
 being more restrained produced more solid and durable re- 
 sults than in those countries that were guided rather by the 
 passionate instinct of the movement. 
 
 276. Patriotism and the 
 Universities. — The ardent 
 love of nature and intense 
 curiosity regarding' the deep- 
 est problems of life that 
 brought about the revival of 
 the classics also gave rise to 
 vernacular literatures. Na- 
 tional character like individ- 
 ual character tends t(^ ex- 
 press itself in its own way. 
 Before the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, national life had been 
 dormant. Nations had been 
 so busied with the actual 
 problems of political exist- 
 ence that they had little time 
 to <hink oi anything else. 
 But the Renaissance meant 
 the rise of the national consciousness, the rise of an intense 
 and ardent patriotism of a reflexive kind. From this point 
 of view, therefore, it resembled the Augustan Age, the writers 
 of which seem so brimful of the majesty and pathos of their 
 native Italian life. This was especially the case in England 
 where Spenser and Shakespeare were basking in the rays of 
 Elizabethan greatness and it was not absent even in Italy 
 though there it was not so dominant. But besides this vein 
 
 Erasmus, the most famous Greek and Latin 
 scholar of his time. Born at Rotterdam 
 about 1467; died 1526. 
 
212 THE RENAISSANCE 
 
 of patriotism, which gave a peculiar character to each native 
 production, there were always peculiarities of national char- 
 acter which prompted each nation to adopt its own views of 
 the problems of life. 
 
 In Italy the movement in the direction of a vernacular litera- 
 ture concentrated itself round the names of three great writ- 
 ers, Petrach, Dante and Boccaccio. 
 
 277. Petrarch was born at Arezzo in Italy, in the year 1304, 
 His father belonged to the same political party as Dante, and 
 both were banished at the same time. Petrarch even from 
 his earliest years showed signs that the fever of the renais- 
 sance was in his ver}^ blood. When still in his teens he loved 
 to read the sonorous sentences of Cicero, though unable to 
 grasp their meaning, yet his ear w^as charmed by their stately 
 flowing rhythm. The early promise was not nipped in the 
 bud, and when Petrarch came to maturity he appeared as the 
 foremost pioneer of Latin culture and rendered invaluable 
 service by his zeal in discovering the most correct edition of 
 the ancient authors. 
 
 But Petrarch will be remembered not only for the work 
 which he prized most but for that which he held in least 
 esteem. His Italian poems and especially his sonnets, were 
 steps in hitherto unknown paths of literature. His use of the 
 Italian vernacular revealed to his countrymen the peculiar 
 beauties of their own tongue as a vehicle of literary ex- 
 pression, and his sonnets, the first of this species of literary 
 composition, had a far-reaching influence on the vernacular 
 writers of other countries. 
 
 278. Dante, the greatest of Italian poets, born in 1265, 
 perceived to the full the boundless possibilities of the tongue 
 of the people. His " Divina Commedia " not only lifts him 
 up to the rank of the world's greatest poets, but reveals at 
 
DANTE AND BOCCACCIO 
 
 213 
 
 the same time the inexhaustible beauties of expression, 
 flexibihty, strength and majesty of the Itahan vernacular. 
 The very variety and breadth of knowledge shown in this 
 master poem, its acquaintance with philosophy, theology, and 
 even science, sufficiently demonstrates that the popular tongue, 
 despised by Petrarch, and admired by Dante, was adapted to 
 the expression of any thought in any branch of knowledge. 
 To Dante belongs the honor 
 of being the first literary 
 architect to discern the na- 
 ture of a hitherto rejected 
 material and of creating out 
 of it an unrivaled master- 
 piece — a masterpiece that 
 has successfully borne trans- 
 lation into nearly every 
 European tongue and that 
 touches the chords that vi- 
 brate deepest in the heart of 
 man. 
 
 279. Boccaccio. — \\'hat 
 Dante was in the field of 
 verse Boccaccio was in the 
 field of prose ; his Decam- 
 eron or " Hundred Tales " 
 
 being the earliest prose work written in pure Italian. Boccac- 
 cio was also enamored with the new classic learning, but 
 unfortunately his morals sometimes sank below the precepts 
 of even the Latin philosophers whom he so much admired. 
 His want of restraint appears even in his writings and the 
 Decameron is sometimes marred by the grossest details. In 
 his later years, however, he repented, and the sober serious- 
 ness of his later writings testify to the change in his heart. 
 
 Dante. 
 
214 THE RENAISSANCE 
 
 The " Divina Commedia " became the favorite subject of his 
 discourses, and his commentary on the Inferno, though less 
 brilHant than the Decameron, has been much esteemed. 
 
 280. Influence of the Italian Renaissance on English Lit- 
 erature. — The names of Petrarch and Boccaccio ought to be 
 interesting even to EngHsh readers, since the wave of Italian 
 Renaissance affected English life and literature. The pioneers 
 of the Renaissance of the English A'ernacular. such men as 
 Wyatt, Surrey, Spenser, and Shakespeare, either learned di- 
 rectly from Italian models, or showed that they had been 
 affected by contact with Italian scenery, life, and manners. 
 The Italian Renaissance gave to English writers new forms of 
 expression, and greater precision and polish. It did some- 
 thing still more and created for the English poet an altogether 
 fresh atmosphere. But the English writers were not servilely 
 dependent on the Italian. They had the sense to shake off the 
 defects of their originals. Indeed, the petty conceits, the com- 
 plex imagery and artificiality of some of Petrarch's produc- 
 tions were distasteful to the English mind. The earlier Eng- 
 lish writers like Wyatt may sometimes have been too much 
 under sway of foreign influences, but men like Spenser and 
 Shakespeare entirely transmuted the original by the magic 
 glow of their own peculiar genius. The writings of the 
 palmy days of the English Renaissance throb with the very 
 intensity of national feeling and patriotism. The greatness 
 of England's queen, the victories of the English naval heroes, 
 and the carrying of the English flag beyond the seas, all com- 
 bined to arouse national consciousness and pride. Even the 
 very style is purged of foreign dross. In Spenser we find 
 not only the peculiar charm and beauty of antique English, but 
 the very dantiest and choicest words and modes of expression. 
 While Shakespeare is the first writer since the Old English 
 Period to assert with overwhelming power the grandeur and 
 
RENAISSANCE ART 21 5 
 
 rugged strength of the u\d Teutonic spirit, he was more 
 English than even Dante was Itahan. His whole work is an 
 epic of the English nation, and it is in him that we find the 
 English character in all its length and breadth. 
 
 281. The Renaissance and the Art of Painting. — It was 
 
 in the art of painting that the Renaissance found its fullest 
 and richest expression. The very essence and root of the 
 whole movement of the Renaissance was a passionate desire 
 to be brought into touch with the world of the senses, a world, 
 however, that needed to be idealized and suffused with the 
 glow of imagination. For this purpose no art seemed to be 
 so adequate as that of painting. In the picture the real 
 world seems recreated with intensified color and form. 
 
 In Italy, there rose various schools of painting each with 
 special characteristics and merits of its own. This was only 
 the natural result of the political condition and past history 
 of Italy. Political life there had no one common center but 
 several centers. Each city had a special political and social 
 life of its own. It was only natural therefore that this indi- 
 viduality of each city should also call forth individuality of 
 artistic expression. The different schools of Italian painting 
 are well known and their specimens are found in every 
 museum. A partial acquaintance therefore with their history, 
 characteristics and foremost exponents might reasonably be 
 demanded of any student of history. 
 
 282. The Florentine School. — This was the chief school 
 of Italian painting. It is distinguished for its high moral 
 feeling, its adequate treatment of historical subjects, and the 
 utter truthfulness that pervades every detail. In the material 
 composition of its pictures we find a remarkable power of ex- 
 pressing movement, and for imparting to the figures a con- 
 spicious grandeur and dignity of expression. Perhaps the 
 
2l6 THll RENAISSANCE 
 
 most well known of the painters of this school was Fra 
 Angelico, whose pictures occupy such prominent place in the 
 National Gallery of London, the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, 
 and above all, in St. Mark's Convent in Florence. Experts 
 may perhaps complain of a certain want of science and a 
 visible weakness in portraying rapid movement or niceties of 
 anatomical form, but these defects are more than compensated 
 by his wonderful variet}' of human expression, and for his 
 angels which are of the ver}- purest types. 
 
 The Siennese School is noted for the beauty of its female 
 heads, also for its clear and transparent coloring. There 
 may not perhaps be much originality in the g'rouping of the 
 figures, but on the other hand, there is expressed great depth 
 of feeling. The " Assumption of the Blessed Virgin " by 
 Matteo, in the National Gallery of London, admirably illus- 
 trates these different traits of the Siennese School. 
 
 283. The Umbrian School. — The style of this school, 
 though occasionally somewhat marred by mere prettiness and 
 even affectation, yet surpasses in real excellence the style of 
 the cjther schools. The Perugian branch contains perhaps the 
 best and most representative men of the L'mbrian School of 
 painters. This school took its rise in the very cradle of re- 
 ligious enthusiasm, in the spot made venerable by the labors 
 of St. Francis and his friars. And as the Franciscan move- 
 ment gave -rise to an outburst of Christian song and Divine 
 melodies so also it called into existence a new^ and exalted 
 style of painting. Purity of soul, fervent longings, and en- 
 tire abandonment to enthusiastic tenderness are its predomi- 
 nant traits. 
 
 284. Pietro Delia Francesca (1415), in his "Baptism of 
 Our Lord " was one of the earliest to body forth the highest 
 qualities of the new school. In him we find material skill of 
 
VENETIAN ART 217 
 
 the highest order. His mastery of the laws of aerial per- 
 spective, and his acquaintance with the properties of light and 
 shade are manifest even to the untrained. The same picture 
 is also suggestive of the most intense realism and subjective 
 emotions. The sense of beauty, however, in some people 
 might be offended by his peculiar type of heads, wdiich with 
 their broad faces, wide nostrils, and meeting eyebrows rather 
 resemble the eastern type of features. 
 
 285. Perugino was born in 1446 and from many points of 
 view is even a still abler exponent of the principles of the Um- 
 brian school. He was past master in all the technical quali- 
 ties of painting. His perspective could scarcely be improved. 
 A peculiar grace and softness pervades every line of his work. 
 Nothing could ever surpass the beauty of his heads, that ex- 
 press either radiant youth or any form of ardent expression; 
 even in depicting mere material things, he shows himself 
 thoroughly proficient in his employment of color. His limita- 
 tions must be sought for in other Avays, perhaps his inability 
 to deal with dramatic subjects, and a certain monotony of ex- 
 pression. An altar piece in St. Dominic's Church, at Fiesole, 
 and a picture of a Madonna with two saints, at Cremona, are 
 best illustrative of his method of treatment. 
 
 286. The Venetian School. — Venice, in art, as in manv 
 other things, occupied a unique pc^sition in Italy. Venice had 
 been always more or less under Byzantine influence, and she 
 had always opposed any opposite tendencies. Pictures of the 
 Venetian school therefore are easily discernible by peculiar 
 melting softness, and Iw the long and easy lines of their 
 drapery. Venice was also extremely aristocratic in character 
 and her paintings display a corresponding love for splendor 
 and elegance. 
 
 Among the foremost painters of the Venetian school are 
 
2l8 
 
 THE RENAISSANCE 
 
 the two brothers, BarthoU)meo and Antonio Vivarini. 
 Bartholomeo especially had a powerful and original mind, 
 such as would be likely in any art to strike out on new lines. 
 
 The Venetian school displays some of the characteristics 
 of the later style of Renaissance painting. Its colors are 
 unique for their fluidity and transparency and it also set the 
 fashion for a new material in the art, by the use of oil colors. 
 Another feature of distinction in the Venetian schc^ol is its 
 more abundant use of accessories, especially the landscape 
 
 
 'fl 1191 '^^^^ 
 
 f-^jW 
 
 !» -!"*-*•«> - ^as^san^w 
 
 -r^t^^ :i^s^ ■--s^Sf«E35P*^'a|:r'?-'-T?i'«-"'*'*«« 
 
 
 
 The Last Supper. 
 
 which now assumes a dominant position. It is also fond of 
 introducing such accessories as angels singing or playing on 
 musical instruments or bearing festoons of flowers. 
 
 287. The Lombard School. — Leonardo de Vinci, born in 
 1452, is the giant exponent of this school. Though touched 
 by the classic movement he was no servile imitator of the an- 
 tique and he well knew how to imitate nature without sacrific- 
 ing his own originality or independence of imagination. It 
 is said that genius consists in taking pains, and Leonardo 
 seems a fit example of the definition. It was not the sudden 
 stroke of inspiration that made him great so much as his un- 
 
RAPHAEL AND TITIAN 2ig 
 
 tiring labor at retouching and correcting. His masterpiece 
 is the " Last Supper," still on the wall of the refectory in the 
 Convent of St. Maria della Grazie, in Milan. This picture is 
 sadly battered by time and damp, but the mind at once fills 
 up all the gaps, and discerns the full intention of the author. 
 The whole composition is marvelous for its simplicity and 
 truthfulness of details. 
 
 The above are the principal schools of Italian painting, but 
 outside these, there are certain great artists who, being of tran- 
 scendent genius, have developed quite an individuality of their 
 own. 
 
 288. Raphael, born in 1483, was a disciple of Perugino, 
 and shows in his paintings all the tender sentimentality of the 
 Umbrian school. Together with this, he also exhibits mar- 
 velous individuality of character and a careful study of de- 
 tail. His Madonnas are numerous and show that he was in- 
 fluenced by more than one school of Italian art. His 
 " Coronation of the Virgin " in the Vatican breathes the spirit 
 of the Umbrian school. But two other pictures of the Ma- 
 donna, one at Munich, the other at Berlin, show clear traces of 
 Florentine influence. It must be admitted that there is rather 
 a loss of spirituality, but on the other hand he gains in ac- 
 cession of technical strength. 
 
 His most famous works are the frescoes in the stanze, or 
 living rooms of the Vatican, at the time of Leo X. Amongst 
 them are the famous allegories of the " Disputa " and " School 
 of Athens." They show his marvelous gift of reducing ab- 
 stract thoughts to vivid, concrete imag'es, and while retaining 
 the beauties of the old style somewhat foreshadow the im- 
 provements of the new. 
 
 289. Titian ( 1477) though reared in the Venetian school 
 soon developed traits of his own. We still see in his pictures 
 
J JO mil Ri:\.iiss.i.\\i: 
 
 the gorgeous cokuing and stalely tonus iit" the \ euetiau 
 school hut there are other excellences as well. There is a 
 great deal o\ onlinary human enjoyiuent to he derived (vom 
 his pictures. There iua\ he less o\ the exaltetl and snhlinie. 
 hut there is more that is in sympathy with dur e\ cry da\' lite, 
 lie lo\ed to i>aini agreeahle landscapes, the heauty of women, 
 the tlignity of ntan. and the artlessness of childhood. Two 
 of his ver\- celehratcd pictures are kept in the Louvre (lallery. 
 and one o\ them. '" Peter Martyr." shows an extraordinary 
 pi.>w er oi representing sudden and \ ii.'>lent actum. 
 
 290. The Basilica Type of Architecture. — Intil the time 
 of the Renaissance the two styles o\ architecture that pre- 
 vailed in hauope were the Romanesque an^l the tu'tthic. The 
 RiMuanesque style hail hegun in itafy ahout the se\enth cen- 
 tury. It was essentially an altered and adapted form oi the 
 old Roman Ikisilica style. The main features i>f the Basilica 
 st\"le arc alrcad\- sutticiently familiar in such chinxhes as St. 
 Paul uithout the walls, and of St. Agnes in Rome. The 
 orilinary featm-f of the Ikisilica is its shape — that of an oh- 
 long rectangle. Running up the middle is a hroad central 
 na\e separated fnnn the aisles h\- rows of columns. This 
 during pagan times terminated in a raised tribune at the end 
 iif the hnikling where the Praetor, or Roman judge, used to 
 sit. Naturally, this part o\ the building was altered to suit 
 Christian worship. Instead of the juilge. the Christian altar 
 was the center of attention and this was jilaced in the tribune 
 which stood iHit of the main portion of the building and was 
 co\ered with a semicircular \ault. 
 
 291. Romanesque Style. — It was from this Basilica style 
 that the Romanesque style directly sprang. But both the 
 materials and even tlie shape of the Basilica style became con 
 siderablv altered. The vaulted roofs were constructed of 
 
Titan's IVtcr Mriityr. 
 
222 
 
 THE RENAISSANCE 
 
 solid masonry, while stone or brick piers were used for the 
 columns. By degrees, even the sanctuary end of the building 
 became so altered in length as to make the whole resemble the 
 shape of the Latin cross. Other new features were the use 
 of buttresses, or architectural supports, to the wall, and mas- 
 sive round arches. There still remained some elements of the 
 old Roman style but these became so modified and added to 
 
 The church and leaning tower at Pisa. The former was built in t^ie iith century. 
 The tower, which is of white marble, 178^ feet high, was begun in 11 74 and 
 finished in 1350. From its sLimmit Galileo first determined experimentally the 
 laws of falling bodies. 
 
 that the net result is entirely new and original. A fine ex- 
 ample of the Romanesque is the church at Pisa in Italy with 
 its leaning bell-tower. 
 
 292. Influence of Renaissance on Architecture. — The Ren- 
 aissance moN-ement affected architecture as it affected other 
 art by returning directly or indirectly to the models of classic 
 antiquity. Unfortunately, this seems to have been the only 
 
BRUXFJJJiSCni .IND BRAM.INTR 223 
 
 art that in consequence suti'ered any detriment. Many of the 
 early innovators indulged in servile imitation of Roman out- 
 ward forms and ornaments without realizing the inward 
 thought and principle from which they first rose. However, 
 the new style did contain elements of beauty, and various 
 artists strove not unsuccessfully to combine the merits of 
 the old style with the new needs of modern ci\ili- 
 zation. Naturally, Florence with its love of the beautiful 
 in all its forms and its capacity for individuahsm lead the 
 way. 
 
 The main characteristic of the new style was the different 
 use to which its columns were put. In the Greek and Roman 
 style, the column was merely for purposes of decoration ; the 
 walls were of such intrinsic solidity that the^' disdained any 
 outward support. But in the Renaissance style, the column 
 became a necessary support to the building. 
 
 293. Brunelleschi. — The first pioneer of the Renaissance 
 style was Brunelleschi, born at Florence in 1379. He spent 
 a long time in Rome where he studied the ancient styles, and 
 on his return to Florence he constructed for himself an en- 
 tirely new design. The greatest monument of his is the 
 cupola over the Cathedral in Florence. In the order of time 
 this is the first of all great cupolas and in the order of 
 merit, it is surpassed only by that of St. Peter's. 
 
 294. Bramante. — Another and still greater exponent of 
 the new style is Bramante, \\ho was in architecture what 
 Leonardo de Vinci and Raphael were in the world of paint- 
 ing. Like Brunelleschi he spent a considerable time in Rome 
 in the exclusive study of the monuments of antiquity. The 
 most important sphere of his labors being the numerous frag- 
 ments in Hadrian's villa, fragments of which now for the 
 most part are scattered throughout the different world mu- 
 
_'_>4 'f'l^i'' l^l'->^-\lSSASCll 
 
 seunis. It is unfortunate that only fragments remain of the 
 work of his genius. The present Cathedral of St. Peter's 
 was begun by him. but subsequent changes introduced by 
 Michael Angelo and his successors completely altered the 
 original design. If r)ramantc had (Uily been permitted to 
 finish what he had begun. St. Peter's instead of seeming 
 smaller than it actually is. would have appeared even greater. 
 Another adxantage would ha\e been that the aisles would 
 have stretched without interruption frcun i>ne end of the 
 l)uilding to the other. 
 
 295. Renaissance and Domestic Architecture. — The Re- 
 naissance style also introduced important changes e\-en into 
 domestic architecture. The houses of this period had t(^ serve a 
 twofold purpose, for while being* intended to serxe as places of 
 habitation they might occasionally ha\e to be tiu-ned into 
 temporary fortresses. This explains the massi\eness of the 
 walls an<l the narrow lower windows of the house of this 
 period. .Also, (luite peculiar features were the courtyard in 
 the center of the building stu-rounded b\- a columnar .arcade. 
 and the external staircases. 
 
 Tlie wa\c of this new mo\cment affected architecture all 
 over Europe In Prance there rose the Chateaux (»f Blois 
 and Chaumont. while the Motel des hualides in Paris and 
 certain pc^rtions of the Pou\re atford gotnl specimens of the 
 style. In (aManany. too. castles and palaces were built in the 
 same st)le ; — the castle <"<{ 1 leidelbei'g with its picturesque 
 ivy-colored walls being still one of the most imposing ruins 
 of Germany. 
 
 Even in England the Cathedral of St. Paul in London 
 shows the inihicnce of the Renaissance style. The exterior 
 front with its two stories, is classical in fcMan and the modern 
 reredos follows the Italian Renaissance style with its pe- 
 culiar blend of classicism and emotionalism. 
 
 I 
 
 li 
 
77/71 PIS AMI AND DONATniJ.O , 225 
 
 296. Renaissance Influence on Sculpture. — There seems 
 to be some difference of opinion as to how far the influence of 
 classic antiquity is responsible for the remarkable merit of 
 the sculpture of the Renaissance. It certainly does not seem 
 very apparent in any of the finer qualities of execution. Per- 
 haps it would l)e truer to say that the Renaissance sculptors 
 were influenced only indirectly by the classic element. They 
 certainly created an entirely new style — a style which was at 
 once hig'hly intellectual and intensely emotional. 
 
 297. The Pisani. — The first artists to appear of this type 
 were the Pisani. Indeed, Nicholas Pisani was the fcjunder of 
 the new school. He was born in 1205 and soon showed signs 
 of great talent. At the age of fifteen he was employed by 
 Frederick 1 1 in some very important work, and haioro. long 
 specimens of his genius w^ere multiplying in such towns as 
 Pisa, Siena, and C)rvieto. His great gift seems to have been 
 the handling of delicate subjects, and the representation of 
 beautiful figures. lUit the "Last judgment" in the Cathe- 
 dral at Siena showed that he also not unsuccessfully dealt even 
 with subjects recjuiring grandeur of conception and forcible de- 
 tails. - 
 
 298. Donatello. — An artist tliat appealed perhaps still 
 more to the po])ular imagination was Donatello, born in i3<^f). 
 Like many other sculptors of the time he also practiced the 
 professions of painting and architecture; but he specialized in 
 sculpture. He seems to have been a man gifted with keen 
 intelligence and energy of imagination and it is these two 
 <|ualities that tend to give to his work such intense indi- 
 viduality. His creations like those of Shakespeare are real. 
 There is little doubt that what endeared him most both to the 
 medieval and modern mind was his .statue of St. George, the 
 type of knight sans pcur et sans rcprochc. In this statue are 
 
226 
 
 77//: RnN.-iJSS.IX'Cli 
 
 vividly portrayed the inimorlality of youth and strength of 
 purity. The quiet but firm attitude, the expression of alert- 
 ness, and the ardent glance — all call to mind the associations 
 that cluster round the memory of St. George. 
 
 229. Lucca dela Rob- 
 bia, — But of all the sculp- 
 tors of this period there is 
 none whose productions are 
 so universal as those of Luc- 
 ca della Robbia. The very 
 name recalls to one's mind 
 the new material that was 
 invented by him and called 
 after his name. This mate- 
 rial consisted of ordinary 
 terra cotta covered over 
 with a peculiar kind of var- 
 nish which imparted both 
 hardness a n d durability. 
 But even from the point of 
 view of form and artistic 
 beauty Lucca was pre-emi- 
 nent as is shown by his two 
 works in the g-allery at Flor- 
 ence and by " The Corona- 
 tion of Our Lady " at Sien- 
 na. The simplicity of his 
 composition and strong emo- 
 tionalism cannot but impress even the ordinary beholder. 
 
 300. Michael Angelo. — Last in the list of sculptors, but 
 perhaps first in merit comes Michael Angelo. For grandeur 
 and sublimity none are his equals. In his works there is a 
 startling titanic force that holds the imagination spell-bound. 
 
 Statue of Moses by Michael Angelo 
 
TOPICAL SUMMARY 227 
 
 Silent force and power was what he learned to express. His 
 statues of Moses, of Lorenzo de Medici, and of David suffi- 
 ciently illustrate some of his remarkable powers. He had, it is 
 true, some defects, defects that more than the merits seem to 
 have drawn the attention of his imitators. Such for example as 
 the affected attitude of some of his figures, and also here and 
 there a deficiency of taste. But these are more than coin- 
 pensated by his originality of invention and his complete 
 mastery of the principles of his art. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Definition of the Renaissance — The extent of its influence — 
 Method of the study of the classics during the middle ages — 
 Excessive specialization in the studies — Change in the meth- 
 ods of the study of the classics — The new classes of humanists 
 
 — Italy the center of Greek culture — Greek introduced into 
 England — Opposition in England to the study of the Greek — 
 Causes of \^ernacular literature — Patriotisni blended with the 
 rise of vernacular literature — Petrarch — Dante — Boccaccio — 
 The English Renaissance writers borrowing from the Italian writ- 
 ers — Influence of the Renaissance on the art of painting — 
 Causes of the different schools of painting in Italy — Florentine 
 school — Siennese School — Umbrian School — Venetian School 
 
 — Lombard School — Raphael — Titian — The Basilican and 
 Romanesque schools of architecture — Influence of the Renais- 
 sance on architecture — Characteristics of the new style — 
 Brunelleschi, Bramante — Influence of Renaissance even on do- 
 mestic architecture — Examples of the new style — Influence of 
 Renaissance on Sculpture — The two Pisani — Donatello — 
 Lucca della Robbia ■ — Alichael Angelo. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Symonds, Short History of the Renaissance in Italy; Burckh.ardt, Civ- 
 Cambridge, Modern History; Armstrong, Renaissance; Lorenzo de 
 Midici and Florence in the Fifteenth Century; Burckh.krdt, Renaissance 
 C.A.MBRIDGE, Modem History; Armstrong, Renaissance; Lorenzo de 
 Medici and Florence in the Fifteenth Century; Burckh.a.rdt, Renaissance 
 in Italy; Sheran, Handbook of Literary Criticism; Robinson and Rolfe. 
 Petrarch; Arnold, Manual of English Literature; Putnam, Books and 
 their Makers; Pater, Renaissance; Woltmann and Woerman. Hislory 
 
228 THE RENAISSANCE 
 
 of Painting; Vasaki, Lives of Seventy of the Most Eminent Painters, 
 Sculptors and Architects; Lubke, History of Art; Grimm, Life of 
 Michael Angelo ; Loyard, Italian Schools of Painting in Italy; Symonds, 
 Michael Angelo; Freeman, Italian Sculpture of the Renaissance; Paul 
 Van Dyke, Renaissance Portraits; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica; Henri De- 
 LABORDE, Etudes sitr les Beaux Arts en France ct en Italic (Paris) ; 
 Dejol, De rinflnence du Concile dc Trent sur la litterature et les Beaux 
 Arts chez les Peuples Catholiqucs. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 France 
 
 301. Political Union. — We ]iave seen that the Hundred 
 Vears' War had a remarkable regenerating effect on France. 
 The old local barriers and prejudices were submerged under 
 the necessity of fighting a common foe. The feudal spirit be- 
 gan to die out with the slaughter of the barons and there now 
 appeared instead the virtue of patriotism. The mission of 
 Joan of Arc had indeed been triumphantly accomplished. 
 
 But France, though liberated, had still to be consolidated 
 and organized, and this task was reserved for another maiden 
 whose name ought not to be forgotten. When Charles VH 
 after the peace of Arras relapsed into indolence and vice, it 
 was Agnes Sorel that aroused him from his bed of vice in 
 order to live over again for the good of France. He dis- 
 missed his base favorites and assembled round him good and 
 sagacious counsellors — men like Etienne Chevalier, of dis- 
 tinguished administrative capacity, or like Jacques Coeur, 
 whose large fortune enabled Charles to make his final success- 
 ful stand against the English. 
 
 302. Triumph of the Monarchy.— At the same time, the tri- 
 umph of h^rance meant also the triumph of the monarchy. 
 The whole strength of the nation was at the king's disposal. 
 By the end of Charles VH's reign we find all the great means 
 of government entirely in his hands. The large standing 
 army was his, and it was his agents that collected the tax for 
 the support of the army. The laws that were made on so 
 
 229 
 
230 REl'IEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 great a scale and unifurmity now began to emanate entirely 
 from royal authority. 
 
 303. Louis XI. — Charles VII died in 1461 and was suc- 
 ceeded by his eldest son Louis XI. The name of Louis 
 XI has been made familiar both by novelist and dram- 
 atist.' He was a man of strange and violent contrasts. 
 He was brave, yet abjectly superstitious; a man of far-reach- 
 ing foresight, yet sometimes blind to what was under his very 
 feet ; able to mould the destinies of France and of Europe, yet 
 exhibiting the most extraordinary meanness both of mind 
 and of character. 
 
 And yet this man with his supple and sagacious cunning 
 managed to lay the foundations of royal despotism. He had 
 spent his youth in the Dauphiny and had there studied to 
 some purpose the devious ways of Italian diplomacy. The re- 
 sult was shown in his set purpose to obtain his ends by 
 artifice rather than by force. 
 
 304. Conflict With the Nobles. — The greatest difficulty 
 he had to meet rose from the powerful and independent 
 nobles whom he had grievously offended. In the fourth year 
 of his reign they revolted against him. The ringleaders 
 were the Dukes of Burgundy and Brittany, the Counts Du- 
 mont and Foix. The Duke of Burgundy from his vast pos- 
 sessions and great influence \\as regarded as the commander- 
 in-chief. The number of insurgents was superior to that of 
 the royal forces, but Louis had the advantage of some pieces 
 of artillery still in those days a new invention. An inde- 
 cisive battle was fought at Monte I'Lery. Louis then en- 
 tered Paris, the capital, and partly by flattery, partly by bribes, 
 won over the Parisians to his side. It was not long before 
 Louis, 1)}' the same artful diplomacy, succeeded in foiling his 
 adversaries. He negotiated separately with each one of them, 
 
BURGUNDY 23 I 
 
 and eventually the towns on the river Somme were his only 
 loss. 
 
 305. Power of the Duchy of Burgundy. — But the failure 
 of the coalition of the nobles only brought into prominence 
 Louis' most deadly enemy. This was Charles Duke of Bur- 
 gundy. By the end of the fifteenth century the Duchy of 
 Burgundy had arisen to an eminence that might well excite 
 the ambitions of so ardent a temperament as that of Charles 
 the Bold. The Duchy of Burgundy had been given to 
 Philip the IV, son of John II. To this, Philip was able 
 to add by marriage Flanders and Artois. Nor was he con- 
 tent with the good fortune of circumstances, but he also ac- 
 quired the important and flourishing provinces of Brabant, 
 Holland, and Zealand. 
 
 306. Policy of Charles the Bold. — When Philip died and 
 Charles the Bold succeeded to his father's vast dominions he 
 soon found that the policy of Burgundian expansion meant 
 open opposition to the policy of the French monarchy — a 
 policy of intense centralization. It was for this reason that 
 Charles headed the league of the Public Weal against Louis 
 and even when the league fell to pieces he still continued the 
 opposition. But the energy of Charles was no match for the 
 quiet diplomacy of Louis. The two pivots upon which the 
 success of Charles' policy rested were an alliance with the 
 English and the marriage of his daughter with Charles of 
 Guienne, Louis' brother. But the English were bought off 
 by Louis and the intended marriage was frustrated by the 
 death of Charles of Guienne and the consequent reversion of 
 the Duchy of Guienne to the French crown. 
 
 The French policy of Charles of Burgundy thus fell to the 
 ground. But Charles sought for some compensation by a 
 strong German policy. Some of Charles' possessions lay in 
 
232 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 Germany and he now sought to build out of them a mighty 
 empire. But here again he was foiled. His interview with 
 the emperor Frederick III, by whom he had hoped to be 
 crowned king, came to a ridiculous termination. But by a 
 peculiar irony of fate it was the Swiss, whom Charles so 
 much despised, that dealt the death blow to all his schemes. 
 
 307. Defeat and Death of Charles. — While Charles was 
 besieging the town of Neuss on the Elbe, the Swiss invaded 
 Burgundy. The insult filled him with a thirst for revenge. 
 Hastily taking the field against them, he was badly defeated at 
 the two battles of Granson and Morat. Still undaunted he tried 
 to recover the town of Nancy, capital of Lorraine, and in 
 doing so received a fatal wound. 
 
 The removal of Charles (1477) relieved Louis of the great 
 obstacle to his schemes of expansion and centralization. Be- 
 fore his death he succeeded in annexing to the French crown 
 the Duchy of Burgundy on the East, and the province of 
 Roussilon in the southwest, which gave France a strong 
 frontier on the side of the Pyrenees. His foreign policy also 
 scored a success in his alliance with the Swiss, now a power- 
 ful military nation 
 
 308. Social Progress. — The reign of Louis, in spite of his 
 own personal defects, was also advantageous to the internal 
 prosperity of the kingdom. He improved the means of com- 
 munication by constructing canals and roads, he endowed 
 universities and in many places established printing presses. 
 Promotion was made possible to the lower classes of society 
 and important offices were not the monopoly of noble blood, 
 but were made dependent upon talent and ability. 
 
 309. Charles VIII. — Louis died in 1483 and was succeeded 
 by Charles VIH, a boy little more than thirteen years old. 
 
GERMAN DISUNION 233 
 
 The guardianship of the king's person, together with the 
 task of government, devolved upon his sister Anna of Beau- 
 jeu, a talented woman who ably guided the monarchy through 
 many dangers, until the king became of age. 
 
 Gcnuany 
 
 310. German Disunion. — During the later middle ages, 
 (iermanv as a state had no existence. The term " The Ger- 
 manics "" used by the French would have been far more ap- 
 propriate. It was split up into an indefinite number of petty 
 duchies and principalities, each governed by its own separate 
 ruler. Sometimes even a single castle and a village nestling 
 at its foot would constitute a separate state, asserting for itself 
 all the prerogatives of sovereignty. 
 
 At first sight there would seem to be certain elements 
 which if taken advantage of might have brought about the 
 unity of these petty states into a united nation. " There w^as, 
 first of all, the emperor, wdio had all the majesty and prestige 
 that could possibly be derived from long ages of custom and 
 veneration. But unfortunately the energy of the emperor had 
 been generally wasted on fruitless schemes in Italy, or in ex- 
 panding the personal hereditary possessions of the House of 
 Hapsburg. Moreover, there appeared no emperor endowed 
 with any dominating personality like, for example, Bismarck, 
 who by sheer force of will could bring together the scattered 
 units of the empire. Another possible element of unity was 
 the German diet, in which were assembled the seven electors, 
 the princes of the empire, lay and ecclesiastic, and the repre- 
 sentatives from the towns. But here also the diet, or parlia- 
 ment was more a name than a reality. Its methods of pro- 
 cedure were tedious and cumbersome. Most of the time was 
 spent in discussing titles of precedence and empty formalities, 
 while the real business w^as neglected. 
 
234 REJ'IEIV OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 311. Frederick III. — Such was the condition of the empire 
 when F'rederick III succeeded to the crown. He was a man 
 whose personal appearance harmonized with his inward char- 
 acter. He had stoHd, heavy features, with a protruding 
 underHp, and he was slow and heavy in all his actions. 
 Energy and force of initiative seem to have been wanting in 
 him, and he was adverse to undertakings involving extraor- 
 dinary effort. His minister w^as Caspar Schlick, whose 
 merits w^ere above his fame. Yet even he scarcely did more 
 than conceal the incompetence of his master. 
 
 Some effort, however, was made to promote the social and 
 material prosperity of the empire, and even to render more 
 easy its much needed unity. The greater and lesser estates 
 were brought together into circles, while the members of the 
 ecclesiastical orders were united with those of the knights and 
 of the cities into provincial diets. At the same time there 
 was established among the cities something that resembled a 
 co-operative system. 
 
 But these efforts were apparently unavailing. The groups 
 were formed but there was in them no interior organic life. 
 The experiment somewhat resembled that of certain chemists 
 who tried to form a living body by merely bringing together 
 certain inanimate elements. 
 
 312. Results of German Disunion. — It was not long before 
 the evil results of German division became apparent. Italy 
 had already gone from its sphere of influence, the Swiss 
 Cantons had already revolted from their Hapsburg rulers, 
 while the Teutonic Knights were rapidly losing their territory 
 in northeast Germany to Poland, and, more than all. impor- 
 tant possessions in the west had been ceded, either voluntarily 
 or by force, to France and Burgundy. 
 
 313. Efforts at Reform,— In the face of these dangers 
 everyone was disposed to blame the emperor and a cry arose 
 
MAXIMILIAN 235 
 
 for a reform. The emperor turned a deaf ear, either because 
 he would not or could not adopt any practical expedient, and 
 so the task of reform devolved upon the estates. Only one 
 important step was the result. This was the Suabian League 
 in 1488, formed of princes, knights and citizens, who consti- 
 tuted a board of arbitration to decide disputes. 
 
 Perhaps the most tangible success of Frederick's reign was 
 the success with which he looked after the interests of his 
 own family. He used his privilege as emperor to give to the 
 house of Hapsburg the dignity of the archdukedom, while the 
 marriage of his son Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy added 
 considerably to the territorial possessions of his house. 
 
 314. Maximilian. — Frederick III died in 1493 ^"^ was 
 succeeded by Maximilian. 
 
 The personality of Maximilian is interesting. Physically, 
 he was endowed with great strength which was gracefully set 
 off by the modesty of his bearing. He was a man of wide 
 tastes and many accomplishments. He loved fine scenery and 
 literature, and did his best to promote all branches of knowl- 
 edge. It is said that he even pawned a valuable jewel in 
 order to aid a journey of scientific discovery, and so untiring 
 and widespread were his efforts that he might even be said to 
 have founded throughout Germany a society of history and 
 archaeology. Much also might be said of his own mental 
 proficiency. At the present day in the Venice Library can 
 still be seen some of his works on such subjects as history, 
 genealogy, heraldry, battle-arms, and architecture. Together 
 with all this he w^as a thorough linguist, conversing fluently 
 in no fewer than seven tongues. 
 
 315. The Administration of Justice. — Under the guidance 
 of his minister Eberhard, he tried to bring about greater union 
 in Germany by dividing Germany into ten circles. This was 
 
236 REJ'IEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 clearly in imitation of the Suabian league, and unfortunately 
 was attended by the same negative results. 
 
 Whatever internal reform was effected in Germany during 
 his reign must be attributed mainly to the action of the Es- 
 tates under their leader Berthold of Mainz. A general tax 
 called '* The Common Penny " was imposed, the amount of 
 the tax depending upon the proportion of population in each 
 place. The Supreme Court of Justice which hitherto had fol- 
 lowed the emperor from place to place, thus delaying the ad- 
 ministration of justice, now met ah\ays in one definite lo- 
 cality. Even the very members of this Court were to be ap- 
 pointed by the diet, no longer by the emperor. The only 
 influence still retained by his imperial majesty was his ap- 
 pointment of the President of the Court. 
 
 Even these reforms, however, did not produce the desired 
 effect. If the emperor had been willing to co-operate heartily 
 in this diminution of his powers, there would still have re- 
 mained the root cause of the entire evil, namely, the disunion 
 of Germany. The Council of Regency which was then formed 
 and entrusted with the chief executive power likewise pro- 
 duced little practical result. The chief difficulty was not the 
 misgovernment or tyranny of Maximilian so much as the 
 paralyzed condition of the different German states. 
 
 316. Foreign Policy of Maximilian. — The importance of 
 ]\Iaximilian's reign is to be found chiefly in his foreign 
 policy. By his own previous marriage to Mary of Burgundy 
 he had already secured Franche-Comte and the Nether- 
 lands. Another marriage was soon destined to procure for 
 his House still greater advantage. In 1496 his son Philip 
 married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, 
 a union which prepared the way for the succession of Maxi- 
 milian's grandson, Charles V, to the most powerful throne 
 in Europe. 
 
ITALIAN HISTORY 237 
 
 317. Personal Traits. — Maximilian died in 15 19. He was 
 
 one of the most interesting of the members of the Hapsburg 
 family. He was full of activity, always devising new 
 schemes. There was also a peculiar vein of medieval de- 
 ^•()ti()n in his character, for which among S(j many other things 
 he managed to find room. For example, in writing to his 
 daughter Mary, he hopes that when he has passed away he 
 will become a canonized saint and that she will have the 
 consolation of worshipping before his shrine. His most im- 
 portant schemes sometimes fell through in a way which quite 
 brought out the want of business-like grit in his disposition. 
 He was even visiting the town of Inspruck in the Austrian 
 Tyrol for the purpose of carrying out some important state 
 business. Suddenly he was compelled to take his departure 
 from sheer inability to defray his hotel expenses. 
 
 Yet the character of Maximilian is attractive even in its 
 quaintness, and he W'ill always remain as the most important 
 landmark dividing off the medieval from the modern history 
 of the House of Hapsburg. 
 
 Italy 
 
 318. Peculiar Characteristics of Italian History. — The his- 
 tory of Italy during this period bears rather a striking re- 
 semblance to the history of Ancient Greece. In Greece, there 
 was no one individual state but a collection of small city 
 states ; so in Italy there was no common rule or government 
 extending over the whole land but merely a collection of city 
 states. And these, like human beings, had an intense indi- 
 viduality of their own. Each city state had its own past 
 history and peculiar environment, its peculiar sympathies and 
 repulsions, and each followed its own particular calling or pro- 
 fession. ]\Iilan, for example, was a banking city, Padua and 
 Bologna were mere university centers, while Venice devoted 
 
238 REVIEW OP THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 whatever energy was left over from politics to matters of 
 trade and commerce. 
 
 Each city had also its own peculiar form of government, 
 and even the same magistrates w-ent by different names in the 
 several cities. Even foreign politics showed a marked contrast 
 in the different cities. The northern cities for example were 
 more or less ruled by a German policy, Florence and the center 
 of Italy were alternately sw^ayed by a French and an anti- 
 French policy, while the South was under the constant pres- 
 sure of divising new means of defence from the Turks. 
 
 319. Leading Cities. — Out of the multitude of Italian 
 cities there w-ere five that in importance tow'Cr far above the 
 rest. These were Milan, Venice, Florence, Rome, and 
 Naples. So great was their political influence, and so exten- 
 sive was the territory that fell under their jurisdiction that 
 they practically monopolized the general trend of Italian poli- 
 tics. Peace was preserved between them by a sort of balance 
 of power. The states of Naples, Florence and Milan form- 
 ing a coalition among themselves ; Rome and Venice forming 
 a dual alliance. Such was the harmony resulting from this 
 balance of power that the expression '' Two stringed Lyre of 
 Italy " became proverbial. 
 
 So absolutely individual were these cities and so important 
 were they that an Italian history of this period w^ould be quite 
 inadequate if it did not deal with each one of them in suc- 
 cession. 
 
 320. Milan, the capital of the great LombarcHan plain was 
 the most northern state of Italy. From the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century Milan was ruled by the family of the Vis- 
 conti. At first their government depended, at least in form, 
 upon the sanction of the people, but gradually the veil was 
 lifted and the government appeared what it was — a despot- 
 
RULERS OF MILAN 239 
 
 ism pure and simple. The framing of laws, the declaration 
 of war or peace, the manipulation of the revenue — all these 
 and other acts of sovereignty pertained exclusively to the 
 Visconti. 
 
 321. Gian Galiazzo Visconti was the ablest man of his 
 family, and in 1395 received from the emperor Wenceslas the 
 
 title of Duke of Milan and Count of Pavia. Even as a boy, 
 he had been sedate and thoughtful, and now that he had ar- 
 rived at man's estate, he showed a remarkable capacity for 
 ruling. He organized powerful armies, established an elabo- 
 rate hierarchy of paid officials and inaugurated a well-bal- 
 anced system of keeping accounts. 
 
 He had also had a curious scheme for drying up the lagoons 
 of Venice in order that he might thus cripple his most dan- 
 gerous rival in the North. 
 
 322. Francesco Sforza. — Gian Galiazzo was succeeded by 
 his son Philip Varca who, however, died without issue and 
 thus prepared the way for Francesco Sforza, who founded a 
 new dynasty. Francesco Sforza was a military adventurer of 
 no mere common type. He soon established himself firmly 
 in the government of Milan and managed to secure the sup- 
 port of Louis XI of France and of Cosmo de Medici of 
 Florence. After the death of Francesco Sforza, the govern- 
 ment of the city and duchy of Milan for a short time came into 
 the hands of Francesco Simonetta, previous secretary to 
 Francesco Sforza. During this interregnum the Sforzas 
 were exiled. But in 1479. Ludovico Sforza, whose cunning 
 was ecjual to his ambition, managed to secure the support of 
 Florence and of the Pope, and thus regain for himself and 
 family, the government of Milan. 
 
 323. Venice. — We have already seen that Venice, owing 
 to her geographical position, takes a peculiar place in Italian 
 
240 
 
 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 history. Her separation from the mainland tended to exclude 
 her from taking" any part in Italian politics except in so far 
 as it was necessary to save her subject possessions on the 
 mainland, from being seized by the rapacity of Milan. At 
 the same time, her powerful fleet and the numerous possessions 
 that were still left to her after the fourth Crusade, dictated to 
 her an imperial and commercial policy. 
 
 324. Her Form of Government was at first a republic. 
 
 A bird's-eye view of Venice. The city was founded on some small islands in the 
 Adriatic by refugees during the invasion of Attila (p. 18), and gradually devel- 
 oped into a great maritime power. 
 
 under the presidency of the doge, who was elected for life. 
 But it quickly assumed an oligarchic character. The people 
 who spent their time in commerce were naturally unwill- 
 ing to entrust the distracting afifairs of state to professed 
 politicians. In 1142 the election of the doge was transferred 
 from the people to the Grand Council. This Council, which 
 was at first a representative one, speedily became the monopoly 
 of a few noble families who took their places in it by heredi- 
 tary right. 
 
 During the fifteenth century, the government became still 
 
VENICE AND FLORENCE 241 
 
 more oligarchic. The famous Council of Ten now began to 
 hold the reins of the government. At first it was a court of 
 supreme judicature, and then by degrees it acquired control 
 of the entire domestic and foreign policy of Venice. 
 
 325. Commercial Greatness of Venice. — It was under the 
 two doges Tommaso Alocenigo and Francesco Foscari that 
 Venice became most flourishing and powerful. 
 
 During the time of Tommaso Mocenigo she was the center 
 of the world's commerce. The trade routes from the East to 
 the West converged in Venice and thence passed up the rivers 
 Rhine and the Danube to the northern countries of Europe. 
 Her factories were found all over the Levant, in Constanti- 
 nople and in Egypt. Indeed, Venice practically monopolized 
 the great part of the carrying trade of the world. 
 
 326. Political Position of Venice. — When Francesco Fos- 
 cari succeeded jMocenigo in 1425, \"enice began to enter the 
 vortex of Italian politics and at first with conspicuous suc- 
 cess. At the expense of Alilan. her rival, she accjuired the 
 provinces of Brescia, Bergamo, and Cremona. This success 
 of Venice, however, was accompanied by disadvantages. It 
 drew upon her the jealousy and hostility of certain other 
 powers of Italy. Moreover, it diverted her attention from 
 the Turks who were her real enemies and \\ere menacing her 
 colonial possessions and commerce upon which her prosperity 
 so much depended. 
 
 And yet Venice still remained a great power, and at the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century was an important factor in 
 general European politics. 
 
 327. Florence, like Venice, was a republic, but of a very 
 different kind. While the republic of Venice slowly devel- 
 oped into an oligarchy, the republic of Florence after a series 
 
242 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 of many changes and revolutions, submitted to a despotic 
 form of government. Even then the people of Florence 
 seemed to regard their state as something to be continually 
 experimented upon. 
 
 328. The Albizzi. — It generally happens that when a great 
 deal of executive power is allowed to remain in the hands of 
 the people, they are apt to be swayed either by political fac- 
 tions or party leaders. This was the case at Florence. The 
 family of the Albizzi managed to get into their hands the 
 exclusive control of the entire machinery of government. It 
 is true that the general assembly of the people were still sum- 
 moned in the public square, but they were generally swayed by 
 the strongest factions of wire pullers. 
 
 Under the leadership of Albizzi, Florence was signally for- 
 tunate. Not only were its two great enemies, Gian Galliazzo 
 Visconti of Milan and Ladislaus, King of Naples, carried off 
 by the plague, but Arezzo, Livorno, and even Pisa fell into 
 its hands. 
 
 329. Family of the Medici. — In 1434, Cosimo de Medici, 
 a princely merchant, overthrew the administration of the Al- 
 bizzi and seized the reins of power. He seems to have real- 
 ized that the continuance of his power rested upon the good 
 will of the lower orders, and his rule was distinguished for its 
 prudence and moderation. He was a great patron of the 
 liberal arts. Not only did he establish at Florence a learned 
 academy for the explanation of the Platonian philosophy, but 
 he formed a most valuable collection of Latin, Greek, and 
 Oriental manuscripts that afterwards became the nucleus of 
 the Laurentian Library. 
 
 Cosimo de Medici died in 1464 and was succeeded by his 
 son Pietro, who after a short reign of only five years, died in 
 1469. He was succeeded by his son Lorenzo, surnamed the 
 Magnificent. 
 
LORENZO DE MEDICI 243 
 
 330. Lorenzo the Magnificent is in every way the most 
 brilliant representative of the Medici family. Both in poli- 
 tics and in the world of letters he found opportunities for dis- 
 playing his signal ability. 
 
 His first endeavor was to continue the old triple alliance 
 between Florence, Milan, and Naples, as a counterpoise to 
 the power of Venice and Rome. But in this he nearly suf- 
 fered a disappointment. A quarrel broke out between Lor- 
 enzo and Pope Sixtus IV over the appointment of an arch- 
 bishop of Pisa. This quarrel seemed to have furnished a 
 favorite opportunity to the Florentine family of the Pazzi, 
 who had always been bitter foes of the Medici. A conspiracy 
 was formed to murder Lorenzo and his brother JuHano. The 
 conspiracy was crushed and the archbishop of Florence, who 
 was suspected of being an accomplice, was executed. There- 
 upon, Pope Sixtus IV formed an alliance with Naples for the 
 overthrow of Lorenzo. For a time, Lorenzo was in imminent 
 danger. But, fortunately, a coolness sprung up between the 
 Pope and Ferdinand of Naples, and the alliance between 
 Naples, Florence, and Milan was restored. 
 
 331. Patronage of Letters. — Lorenzo was now more pow- 
 erful than ever and his court was the most splendid in Europe. 
 He could now employ his peaceful leisure in making Florence 
 the home of culture and art. The Laurentian Library, so 
 called after him, was endowed with most valuable manuscripts 
 brought from the East by John Lascares. The art of print- 
 ing was quickly recognized by him and used for the accurate 
 reproduction of many of the classic authors. And when after 
 the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, a great number 
 of Greek exiles arrived in Florence, he founded an academy 
 for the express purpose of spreading a knowledge of the Greek 
 language. " This academy," Roscoe says, " was another 
 Trojan horse from which so many illustrious champions have 
 
244 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 sprung, spreading the knowledge of the Greek tongue 
 throughout ah the countries of Europe." 
 
 332. Savonarola. — The reign of Lorenzo was also famous 
 for a great moral revival, which was brought about by the 
 burning eloquence of Savonarola. This man, who has been 
 the subject of many opposite views, was a Dominican monk 
 of St. Mark's Convent, Florence. He preached so earnestly 
 against the vices and frivolities of Florence that vast numbers 
 reformed their lives, and became enthusiastic in the cause of 
 religion. 
 
 But Savonarola was not a mere religious revivalist. He 
 was a politician as well, and became the leader of the demo- 
 cratic party against the aristocratic party headed by the 
 Medici. In 1499, Piero de Medici was expelled by the demo- 
 cratic party who formed a government of their own under a 
 general legislative assembly. Savonarola, however, was 
 fiercely opposed by the Franciscans. At length, it was ar- 
 ranged that the sanctity of Savonarola and his claims should 
 be proved by the fiery ordeal. A fire was built in the market 
 place, and Savonarola and one of his rivals, a Franciscan 
 monk, were to walk through the blazing faggots. When they 
 arrived at the place of trial, Savonarola proposed and insisted 
 that the Franciscan should walk through the fire bearing in his 
 hands the consecrated host. This demand both astonished 
 and incensed the populace, who concluded, not unnaturally, that 
 Savonarola was seeking to evade the ordeal. 
 
 From that time, his influence waned. His excessive zeal 
 also complicated his position at Rome. Not content with 
 preaching in general against the popular abuses, he also in- 
 veighed against the corruptions of the clergy and of the papal 
 court, at that time presided over by Alexander VI. 
 
 333. Death of Savonarola. — The enemies of Savonarola, 
 both in Florence and in Rome, became more active than ever 
 
THE PAPAL STATES 245 
 
 and a commission was appointed to try him. He was found 
 guilty of heresy and of disturbance of the pubHc peace, and 
 was accordingly condemned to death at the stake, a sentence 
 which was carried out in 1498. 
 
 Even to this day, the memory of Savonarola is strong at 
 Florence, and crowds of curious gazers visit with veneration, 
 the little cell that he occupied at the con\ent of St. Marks, 
 and his character is still the sorry subject of acrimonious dis- 
 putes. There are some who call Savonarola the fore-runner 
 of Luther. But this epithet is hardly fair. In all the essen- 
 tials of Catholic doctrine, Savonarola was orthodox, and his 
 denunciation of abuses in high places is only one accidental 
 point of resemblance between him and Luther. 
 
 \\> might, perhaps, sum up the character of this man by 
 saying that though his private life was estimable, and his zeal 
 productive of great good, yet his interference in politics and 
 his unrestrained denunciation of abuses brought about his 
 ruin. His death was the real penalty not of heresy, but of 
 rashness and of the spirit of meddling interference. 
 
 Lorenzo died in 1492, leaving three sons, Pietro, Gio- 
 vanni and Juliano. Pietro succeeded his father and Giovanni 
 afterwards became famous as Pope Leo X. 
 
 The Papal States 
 
 The Papal States of Rome had begun to occupy a consider- 
 able extent of territory. It comprised the Marches, Ro- 
 magna, and Lmbria. besides the province of Rome, and had 
 come to be recognized as a kingdom. During the absence of 
 the popes in France, the actual authority of the pope in the 
 Papal States had greatly diminished. A great number of 
 cities in the Roman territory were allowed to be placed under 
 the government of papal legates, who by degrees practically 
 assumed a sovereign independent authority. 
 
246 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 334. The Conciliar Movement. — Another very important 
 cause of the temporary dechne of the power of the popes was 
 the great ConciHar Movement of the sixteenth century. Dur- 
 ing the middle ages, the pope had held the reins of supreme 
 power, but a serious dispute over the succession to the papacy 
 attracted the minds of men to another source of authority — 
 namely, the Councils of the Church. 
 
 The Conciliar Movement first looms into importance after 
 the death of Pope Gregory XI, which took place shortly after 
 his return to Rome from his exile at Avignon, in 1378. A 
 double election then took place. For, while the Roman popu- 
 lace selected and demanded Pope Urban VI, who like them- 
 selves, was an Italian, the Cardinals elected another pope, 
 Clement VII, who would be willing to resume his pleasant 
 and gay abode at Avignon. 
 
 335. Council of Pisa. — Under these circumstances, there 
 seemed only one way out of the difficulty, and that was, to 
 summon a general Council. The University of Paris, the 
 center of Catholic theological learning, also advocated the 
 same proposal. The result was the Council of Pisa, held in 
 1409. At this council, both the popes were deposed and a 
 new pope was elected, who dying one year afterwards, was 
 succeeded by John XXII. 
 
 336. Martin V. — There were now three rival popes, a cir- 
 cumstance which made the summoning of another Council 
 once more inevitable. In 1414, was assembled the Council of 
 Constance, which in numbers, in the interest it excited, and 
 in the questions with which it had to deal, marks the cul- 
 minating point of the Conciliar movement. At this Council, 
 all the three popes were dethroned, and Martin V was elected 
 as the new pope. 
 
 The election of the new pope and the practical termination 
 of the schism was only one of the important tasks assumed by 
 
CON CI LIAR MOVEMENT 247 
 
 the council. The next step was the reformation of the many- 
 abuses in the -Church. For this purpose, various concordats 
 were made between the Church and the various nations, while 
 the pope himself executed some very important decrees on 
 reform, especially on such important matters as simony and 
 clerical deportment. 
 
 The good work effected by the council of Constance, un- 
 fortunately carried with it the seeds of great danger to the 
 unity of the Church. The important part taken by the Coun- 
 cil in ending the schism led many persons to believe that the 
 authority of a general Council was superior to that of the 
 pope himself. The pope, however, condemned this opinion 
 and declared that it was unlawful for anyone to appeal from 
 the judgments of the Apostolic See, or to reject its decisions 
 in matters of faith. 
 
 337. Council of Basel.— How great was the danger, could 
 be clearly seen a few years later when the Council of Basel 
 even deposed Pope Eugene IV, who refused to acknowledge 
 its authority and thereupon elected an anti-pope. This pro- 
 ceeding had the effect of causing a reaction. The more mod- 
 erate party now rallied to the side of the pope, and from 
 this time, the Conciliar Movement began to decline. Perhaps 
 its formidal)le recrudescence appears in France under Louis 
 XIV, when, as we shall see, the Gallican Church claimed that 
 a council was higher in authority than the pope. 
 
 338. Provincial Councils. — Besides the general councils 
 already described, another element of the Conciliar move- 
 ment was the influence of the provincial councils. Examples 
 of these are the councils of London, and of Prague, which 
 condemned the doctrines of \\'ycliff. In fact, the idea of 
 personal authority seems for a time to have been generally 
 weakened, until the climax was passed in the Council of Basel, 
 
248 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 By the time of Nicholas V, the spiritual authority of the 
 pope re-asserted itself, and peace was restored to' Christendom. 
 In Rome itself, however, the pope had great difficulty in as- 
 serting his temporal authority. 
 
 339. The Great Schism. — When Pope Gregory XI did 
 return to Rome, after the seventy years' exile in Avignon, 
 there broke out the great schism which did even more harm 
 than the Babylonish captivity. Three rival popes disputed 
 among themselves for the possession of the tiara. There had 
 indeed been rival popes before, but there had been little doubt 
 as to who was the real pope. It was not so in the present 
 case. Even eminent jurists were puzzled to decide between 
 the claimants since the question depended so much upon posi- 
 tive fact — whether or not the election of Pope Urban VI, 
 had been a forced one and therefore invalid. 
 
 340. Nicholas V. — The schism was finally healed by 
 Nicholas V, who was elected Pope in 1447 after Eugenius 
 IV. He prevailed upon the anti-pope to resign in his favor. 
 Peace was thereby restored to Christendom. But the Pope 
 still had difficulty in reasserting his temporal authority in 
 Rome. An attempt was made to revive the independence of 
 Rome against the Pope. But the firmness of Nicholas suc- 
 ceeded in crushing the movement and Stephen Porcaro, the 
 ringleader, was taken and executed. 
 
 The reign of Nicholas V meant not only the restoration of 
 papal authority in Rome but also the progress of learning 
 and of the arts. His collection of books and manuscripts as 
 well as the translations that he had made of Greek and Latin 
 authors, culminated in his crowning achievement — the 
 foundation of the Vatican Library — now one of the largest 
 libraries in the world. Also the material appearance of Rome 
 was improved by the erection of many sumptuous buildings. 
 
SUCCESSION OF POPES 
 
 249 
 
 Nicholas V died in 1455 and was succeeded by Calixtus 
 III the chief poHtical event of whose reign was the victory 
 achieved by the Christians over the Turks at Belgrade. He 
 died in 1458 and was succeeded by Pius II. 
 
 341. Pope Pius II. has been called, and not without reason, 
 the most humane and lovable of the popes of the Renaissance. 
 The elegance and refinement of his mind and his gifts of 
 
 St. Peter's at Rome, the largest church in the world, covering about 4 acres. The 
 Palace of the Vatican adjoining it on the north covers 13^ acres. The grandeur 
 of these two structures is chiefly due to the work of Pope Nicholas V, and the 
 genius of Michael Angelo and Raphael. 
 
 poetry and eloquence endear him to the student, but to the 
 Christian he is still more interesting on account of the sanc- 
 tity and earnestness of his life. His character had even a 
 touch of the heroic, and the spectacle of the aged pontiff en- 
 deavoring to lead in person the reluctant forces of Christen- 
 dom against the Turk may well excite the admiration of pos- 
 terity. 
 
 342. Paul III.— With the death of Pius II came the ad- 
 vent of four popes who, one after the other, seemed by the 
 
250 • REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 successive increasing worldliness of their character, to have 
 incurred the censure or at least the suspicion of posterity. 
 Paul II who came to the papal throne in 1464 displayed an 
 excessive fondness for money and extravagant display. Yet 
 he was not without some zeal for the good of the Church, as 
 was shown in his endeavors to correct abuses. He was also 
 one of the first to see the demoralizing influence of the ex- 
 treme followers of the humanistic movement, and acted with 
 severity towards certain persons who tried to introduce pagan 
 rites and ceremonies. 
 
 343. Sixtus IV (1471) was a man whose character con- 
 sisted of violent contracts and extremes. Of him we may 
 say with truth there was no mediocrity, either of virtue or 
 of badness. The partiality that he showed towards his rela- 
 tives, the vengeful spirit that he showed towards his enemies, 
 and his unscrupulousness in many matters brought upon him 
 the odium of his contemporaries. And yet he was not utterly 
 void of ecclesiastical activity and some compensating qualities. 
 Lovers of art will gratefully remember his patronage of 
 Michael Angelo, Raphael, and others, and philanthropists will 
 praise his attempt to end the disputes between Christian 
 princes, 
 
 344. Innocent VIII (1484) was also notorious for his 
 love of money, and under his reign ecclesiastical affairs seem 
 to have received less attention than during the time of his two 
 predecessors. 
 
 345. Alexander VI succeeded Innocent VIII in 1492, and 
 this pope perhaps more than any other seems to have incurred 
 the blame of posterity for the badness of his private life. So 
 conflicting are the opinions of modern historians, and so con- 
 tradictory is the evidence of even contemporary writers of 
 
ALEXANDER VI 25 1 
 
 his time that even the impartial observer must experience a 
 great difficulty in forming a just estimate. It is true that 
 Italian writers living in his age, describe him as a monster 
 of wickedness, but on the other hand, we find that many of 
 those who elected him were remarkable for their sanctity of 
 life and shrewd insight into character. Of the most serious 
 crimes alleged against him there is no evidence. We may 
 perhaps, sum up the character of Alexander VI in the words 
 of a French writer wdio says : " The more attentively and 
 thoroughly original documents of the history of that period 
 are studied the more clear will it become that the memory 
 of Alexander VI has been fearfully calumniated. True 
 criticism has long since cleared the name of Alexander VI of 
 the charge of poisoning and of the other horrible crimes that 
 had been groundlessly imputed to him by the revengeful jour- 
 nalists and scandal-mongers of that age and country. The 
 implacable hostility of the reformers and the resentment of 
 France because of the political attitude of Alexander VI have 
 also contributed not a little to blacken his memory." 
 
 Though not the monster that some would have him to be, 
 yet Alexander VI certainly showed too great discrepancy be- 
 tween his private life and the dignity and sanctity of his office. 
 
 346. Naples and Sicily. — The kingdom of Naples presented 
 a very strong contrast to the rest of Italy. Ever since its con- 
 quest by the Normans in the twelfth century it had retained 
 a very strong element of feudal government. It also differed 
 from the other Italian states in having been so long under 
 different foreign rulers. 
 
 347. French Rule.— In the thirteenth century the king- 
 dom of Naples and Sicily was governed by Manfred, repre- 
 sentative of the Ghibelline or anti-papal party in Italy. Pope 
 Urban IV, in order to crush this powerful rival offered the 
 
_\;- REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 kingdom of Naples and Sicily to Charles, Count of Anjou and 
 brother of Louis IX. Charles, who was full oi ambition, 
 gladly accepted the offer and took possession of the gift by 
 armed force. The French, however, did not remain long 
 in possession. On Easter Monday evening. ijSj. there took 
 place what is called the Sicilian X'espers. that is to say the 
 French were expelled from Sicily by the rebel inhabitants and 
 the crown of Sicily was offered instead to the House of 
 Aragon. 
 
 348. Division of Naples and Sicily. — The kingdom of 
 Naples and Sicily thus became divided and remained so till 
 the death of Joanna II, the last heir of the House of Anjou 
 in 1435. During her lifetime, she had named king Alfonsus 
 of Aragon as her successor. Her choice, however, was very 
 unpopular and she was forced to change the name of Alfonsus 
 for that of Rene of Anjou. A contest took place between the 
 two rival claimants. Partly owing to the duke of Milan, who 
 supported Alfonsus. and partly to the treachery of Rene's 
 generals, Alfonsus succeeded in ousting his rival, and in 1442 
 he took possession of Sicily. Thus the two kingdoms of Na- 
 ples and Sicily were once ag-ain united under one monarch. 
 
 3^9. The Reign of Alfonso was characterized by peace, 
 order, and justice. Literature and the arts beg"an to flourish, 
 hitherto neglected lands were placed under cultivation, anil 
 all were united in praise of Alfonso the Magnificent. 
 
 350. Rival Claims. — When, however. Alfonso died in 
 145S there was discord again. To his son Ferdinand the late 
 king had left the kingdom of Naples, and to his brother John 
 he had left Sicily, \*alencia, and Sardinia. 
 
 It will be remembered, however, that the House of Anjou 
 for several years had reigned in Naples. The claim of the 
 House of Anjou was again revived in the person of Rene le 
 
SPAIX 253 
 
 Bon, who owing to infirmity resigned his pretensions to his 
 son John of Calabria. But the House of Anjou failed to 
 establish its claim mainly on account of the jealousy of Louis 
 XI of France. Ferdinand I was thus secured in the posses- 
 sion of Naples. The French claim still lingered, but the 
 kingdom of Naples on the whole remained faithful to the 
 House of Aragon. In any case the sentiment of the other 
 rulers of Italy was quite against any French domination in the 
 South of Italy. 
 
 Spain 
 
 351. Spanish Kingdoms. — During the early and later mid- 
 dle ages, the whole energy of Spain had been directed to the 
 great contest with the Moors. But at the time that she was 
 succeeding in expelling the Moors there began to be formed 
 certain Christian kingdoms which continually increased in size 
 and importance. 
 
 By the middle of the fifteenth century the most important 
 of these kingdoms were as follows : Navarre in the north- 
 WT.st, Castile and Aragon in the center, Portugal in the east. 
 and the Moorish kingdom of Granada in the south. All 
 these kingdoms were quite distinct from one another. Each 
 had its own tongue, national sentiment, past laws and tradi- 
 tions. It was only in the fifteenth century that there began 
 to appear certain formative influences which with extraor- 
 dinary rapidity brought these scattered kingdoms together 
 into one solid and powerful state. 
 
 352. Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella. — The immediate 
 cause of the rapid union of Spain was the marriage between 
 King Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. Of this 
 union, the ultimate results were the conquest of Granada from 
 the Moors, the acquisition of Navarre, and even for some time 
 the annexation of Portugal. 
 
 It was the policy of Ferdinand to establish in the two king- 
 
254 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 doms of Castile and Aragon a strong central government. 
 This he did by first weakening these elements in the state that 
 were most opposed to the royal authority. 
 
 353- Opposition to Union. — First there was the feudal 
 element. The nobles still enjoyed a considerable amount of 
 private jurisdiction and they still formed the fighting strength 
 of the country. Ferdinand sought to diminish this impor- 
 tance of the nobility by forming a standing army at the ex- 
 pense of the state. At the same time he increased throughout 
 the land, the power of the law courts, and all offenders, no 
 matter of what rank, were punished with equal severity. 
 
 Another element that tended to thwart the growing power 
 of the crown was the Cortes. These Cortes were assemblies 
 of representatives of the Spanish nation. At first, only the 
 higher classes of the people were represented, but as the towns 
 gradually rose in importance, these also were allowed to send 
 representatives. Naturally the kings viewed the Cortes with 
 distrust and jealousy, and even in the early part of the fifteenth 
 century the kings of Castile had succeeded in reducing the 
 popular power of the administration. King Ferdinand con- 
 tinued this policy by reducing the power of even the higher 
 orders of the Cortes, namely of the nobles. 
 
 354. Means of Extending the Royal Povi^er. — One of the 
 
 most powerful means by which Ferdinand strove to expand 
 the authority of the crown was by means of the Inquisition. 
 This began in the twelfth century when the bishops and their 
 assistants constituted a court of inquiry to find out and punish 
 heretics. It was further developed in the thirteenth century 
 by Pope Innocent III, and reached its full growth in the 
 fifteenth century. But even at this time the Inquisition did 
 not deal with heretics and apostates merely as such, but only 
 when they boldly and publicly taught their doctrines to others. 
 The inquisition that was established in Spain differed con- 
 
 I 
 
FERDINAND AND ISABELLA 255 
 
 siderably from the general inquisition of the Church. This 
 was in its organization and purpose a rehgious institution 
 whereas the Spanish inquisition was a national political or- 
 ganization. Its aim was to increase the power of the crown 
 and to set up some power in opposition to that of the nobility. 
 It is true that its main ostensible object was to crush heresy, 
 but the real interest was to reach at persons who were sus- 
 pected of treason. 
 
 Not only was Ferdinand singularly successful in his home 
 policy, but in his relations with foreign powers he managed 
 to form important connections with nearly all the chief coun- 
 tries of Europe. By his wife Isabella he had four daughters : 
 Isabella, Joanna. Catharine, and Mary. Isabella and Mary 
 married into Portuguese houses, and thus prepared the way for 
 the temporary annexation to Spain of the kingdom of Port- 
 ugal. Joanna married Philip, son of Maximilian of Ger- 
 many. Catharine was wedded to Henry VIII of England. 
 Of these marriages the most important was that betw^een 
 Philip and Joanna, since Charles, their son, ultimately be- 
 came sole ruler of Spain and the Hapsburg possession. To 
 these vast possessions in Europe were added the newly dis- 
 covered lands in the western continent. It was the treasures 
 of Peru and IMexico that supplied the " sinews of war " for 
 Spain on the continent of Europe. 
 
 355. Cardinal Ximenes. — This success of the royal house 
 was brought about chiefly by the skill of the distinguished 
 minister. Cardinal Ximenes. He was one of the first of the 
 brilliant clerical statesmen for which the sixteenth century be- 
 came so famous. He was a saintly and humble man, sin- 
 gularly free from greed of money or power. He was also a 
 statesman of consummate ability, and by his prudence and 
 firm decision in arduous movements, no doubt contributed more 
 than any other man to the future greatness of his country. 
 
256 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 England 
 
 356. The Tudor Dynasty.— The fifteenth century saw in 
 England the estabhshment of the Tudor dynasty in the person 
 of Henry VII (1485). He was a man whose character very 
 niucli resembled that of Louis XI of h'rance. except that he 
 lacked some of the latter 's most odious qualities. He was 
 exceedingly cunning and shrewd, and he did his best to con- 
 tinue the policy of royal despotism begun by Edward IV. 
 
 Already, the old feudal nobility, which had been such a 
 rival of the royal power, had been greatly diminished by the 
 Wars of the Roses, and Henry VII sought to diminish the 
 power of even those nobles that remained. A statute was 
 passed which enacted that no nobleman should be allowed 
 to keep more than a certain number of retainers, also the 
 offices of state, instead of being distributed among the no- 
 bility were now entrusted to persons of the middle class w-ho 
 were naturally more dependent upon the king. 
 
 357. Ways of Raising Money. — Parliament, the great safe- 
 guard of the liberties of the people was summoned as seldom 
 as possible. In order to get money for carrying on the gov- 
 ernment, Henry VII was obliged to have recourse to other 
 sources. He resorted to benevolences or iorced gifts of 
 which the only good thing that can be said is that the money 
 was extorted from the rich and not from the poor. Perhaps 
 the most grievous of Henry's financial methods was the in- 
 fliction of huge fines for offenses committed under obsolete 
 statutes. 
 
 358. Court of Star Chamber. — One important legal feature 
 of Henry VII's was the institution of the Court of Star Cham- 
 ber. This was a revival of the old criminal jurisdiction of 
 the king's permanent council of state. The object of it is 
 
COURT OF STAR CHAMBER 257 
 
 made sufficiently clear from the words of ^^lorton, Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, who speaking in the king's behalf, says as fol- 
 lows : " The true way is to stop the seeds of sedition and re- 
 bellion in the beginning, to devise, confirm, and quicken good 
 and wholesome laws against riots and unlawful assemblies 
 of people and all combinations and federations of them by 
 liveries, tokens, and other badges of factious independence; 
 that the peace of the land may by these ordinances, as by 
 bars of iron, be solidly bound in and strengthened, and all 
 force both in court, country and private houses be suppressed." 
 It is true that this statute aimed at the unruly nobles. But 
 the expedient was dangerous, and it lead to great abuses under 
 future kings, for the prisoner was not tried by jury or accord- 
 ing to the methods of the common law. 
 
 359. Henry VIII. — Henry VH died in 1509 and w'as suc- 
 ceeded by his second son the infamous Henry VHI, under 
 whose reign the despotism of the Tudors w^as destined to 
 reach its most odious extremes. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Effects of the Hundred Years' War on France — Important 
 aid rendered by Agnes Sorel — Growing power of the monarchy 
 — Character of Louis XI — He subdues the rebellions of the 
 nobles partly by force, partly by diplomac\- • — Contest between 
 Louis XI and Duke Charles of Burgundy — Failure of the 
 French policy of Duke Charles — The German policv of Duke 
 Charles and its failure — Success of Louis XI foreign policv — 
 Louis XI succeeded by Charles VIII — Disunion of Germany — 
 Forces that made for and against German unity — Character of 
 Frederick III — His attempts to introduce order and unity — 
 Failure of these attempts and consequent losses in Italy — Forma- 
 tion of the Suabian League — Territorial expansion of the Haps- 
 burg dominions — Reign of Maximilian — His character and ac- 
 complishments — Reforms accomplished by the estates under 
 Berthold of Maintz — Effect of those reforms — Success of Max- 
 imilian's foreign policy — Character of the separate cit\' — States 
 of Italy — Their political independence and isolation — Five 
 
258 REVIEW OF THE STATES OF EUROPE 
 
 prominent city states — Milan and the power of the Visconti — 
 Administration of Gian GalUazzo Visconti — Francesco Sforza, 
 founder of a new dynasty — Venice and her pecuhar position — 
 The power centered in the Grand Council — Administration of 
 Tommaso Mocegno — Expansion of Venice under the doge 
 Francesco Foscari — the Republic of Florence ascendency of 
 the Albizzi — Successful rivalry of the Medici — Cosmo de 
 Medici — Lorenzo the Magnificent — Quarrel between Lorenzo 
 and Sixtus IV — The court of Lorenzo — Rome — Extent of 
 Papal States — Evils of the Great Schism — Nicholas V heals 
 the Schism — Pius II — His learning and piety — Paul II — 
 Sixtus IV — Innocent VIII — Alexander VI — Observations on 
 the supposed wickedness of the popes — Peculiar feudal govern- 
 ment of Naples and Sicily — The Sicilian Vespers — Rivalry 
 between French and Spanish claimants — Reign of Alphonsus — 
 Ferdinand I secured in the possession of Naples — The most 
 important kingdoms of Spain — Union of Castille and Arragon 
 — Policy of Ferdinand — The power of the nobles and of the 
 cortes is lessened — Nature of the Spanish Inquisition — Its dif- 
 ference from the church inquisition — Ferdinand's successful 
 foreign policy — Character of Henry VII of England — He sub- 
 dues the power of the nobles — Influence of Parliament is re- 
 duced — Institution and nature of the court of the Star Cham- 
 ber — Accession of Henry VIII. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Philip de Commines, Memoirs; Lodge, Close of Middle Ages; Kitchin, 
 History of France; Duruy, History of France; Keik, History of Charles 
 the Bold; Adams, Groivth of the French Nation; Masson, Medieval 
 France; Henderson, History of Germany; Menzel, History of Germany; 
 Leger, Austria-Hungary; Janssen, History of German People at the 
 Close of the Middle Ages; Tuttle, History of Prussia; Oliphant, 
 Makers of Florence ; Pastor, History of the Popes; Armstrong, Lorenzo 
 de Medici; Symonds, Age of Despots; Duffy, Tuscan Republics; Brown, 
 Venetian Republics ; Alzog, Ecclesiastical History; Robinson, Readings 
 in European History; Watts, Christian Recovery of Spain; Prescott, 
 History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella; Hume, The Spanish 
 People; Irving, Conquest of Granada; Lea, History of the Inquisition of 
 the Middle Ages; York-Powell and Tout, History of England; Stubbs, 
 Constitutional History of England; Letters de Rois, Reines et autres Per- 
 sonages des Cours de France et Angleterre depuis Louis VII jusqua 
 Henry IV (ed. of Champollion-Figeac) ; Calendar of State Papers re- 
 lating to English Affairs (in Archives of Venice) ; Varchi, Storia 
 
GENERAL REFERENCE 259 
 
 Fiorentina; Leonetti, Papa Allcsandro VI, Bologne; Bramante, Storia 
 di Paulo IV. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 CHARACTER OF THE MODERN PERIOD 
 
 360. Nature of the Division Between Medieval and Mod- 
 ern History. — Medieval history is supposed to end and mod- 
 ern history, to begin during the sixteenth century. And yet 
 it would be a mistake to draw a hard and fast line between the 
 two periods. Certain principles and forces that were existent 
 during the middle ages still continued and exist to-day. 
 Moreover, certain _^ features that we consider essentially mod- 
 ern, could be found even in the medieval period. There is 
 always the medieval man, and there is always the modern 
 man, only that as time advances one or the other of these 
 two may predominate. In every period of history there are 
 the mystics and the idealists, and there is no age in which 
 one cannot find some men that prefer to deal with solid, ma- 
 terial facts. 
 
 And yet historians not without reason draw a distinction 
 between medieval and modern history. For during the six- 
 teenth century there appeared new forces which began to di- 
 vert the history of civilized races into entirely new channels. 
 The effect which the Renaissance had in lifting the majority 
 of men out of their old habits of thought and action, the 
 recent doctrine of balance of power in Europe, the remarkable 
 changes in the economic condition of Europe, and the re- 
 ligious restlessness that characterized the age — all these 
 tended to transform in many ways the action of the great 
 drama of history. 
 
 361. Characteristics of Modern History. — We find, for 
 example that the geographical area of historical movements 
 
 260 
 
MODERN HISTORY 26 1 
 
 was considerably narrowed. Whereas, in medieval times such 
 movements as feudalism and the struggle between empire and 
 papacy practically covered the whole area of Europe ; we find 
 that the movements of modern history are pent up within local 
 areas. It is true that such movements as the Reformation 
 took place in many parts of Europe. But they now assume 
 distinctly different types, according to the nature of the state 
 in which they take place. 
 
 We shall also find in modern history a greater number of 
 dramatic positions and a better field for heroic action than 
 during the medieval period. For the separate states had by 
 the fifteenth century attained to a stronger individual life. 
 Each had its own individual ambitions and policy and the clash 
 of interests became more frequent and violent. 
 
 Also the threads of connection in modern history differ 
 from those of medieval history. The empire and the papacy 
 formed the two important threads of connection running all 
 through the medieval period, from Constantine down to the 
 papal captivity at Avignon. But in modern history it is the 
 balance of power that forms the main connecting thread. 
 There is no time in modern history in which we do not find 
 political combinations between European powers tending by 
 their even balance to preserve the equilibrium and peace of 
 Europe. 
 
 Such in general is the difference between medieval and mod- 
 ern history. It will now be helpful to consider in detail some 
 of the altered conditions of human society that appear in the 
 fifteenth century. 
 
 362. Geographical Changes. — The fifteenth century had 
 been remarkable for important geographical discoveries. As 
 early as 1433 Prince Henry of Portugal had discovered the 
 Madeiras and the Azores in the Atlantic, and what was still 
 more important, the western coast of Africa. After this, at- 
 
262 MODERN PERIOD 
 
 tempts were made to circumnavigate the wliole of the African 
 continent, and in 1487 Batholomew Diaz, also a Portuguese, 
 rounded the Cape of Good Hope. But this event was not 
 followed by any important result. The honor of accomplish- 
 ing the complete journey to India by going round the south 
 coast of Africa w^as reserved for Vasco de Gama, who having 
 been entrusted with a fleet for that purpose by the king of 
 Portugal, arrived at the Malabar coast of India in 1498. 
 
 363. Discovery of America. — Spain then took the lead in 
 voyages of discovery. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese 
 sailor, obtained from Isabella of Castile the ships and money 
 with which to explore the western routes of the Atlantic. He 
 thus stumbled in 1492 upon the continent of America, which 
 was added to the Spanish possessions. The continent, how- 
 ever, was not named after Columbus, but after Amerigo Ves- 
 pucci, an Italian navigator who was believed by some to have 
 been the first to touch American soil.' This, however, was 
 an error and arose partly from the fact that Vespucci deliber- 
 ately antedated his first voyage making it out to be in 1497 
 instead of 1499 — though there is no evidence to show that 
 Vespucci had designed that the continent should be named 
 after him. What really procured him this honor was the 
 circumstance that his accounts of the voyage considerably pre- 
 ceded those of his fellow-discoverer, Columbus. 
 
 The results of these and of other less important discoveries 
 had a lasting effect on the history of Europe. Hitherto the 
 Mediterranean had been the chief scene of the sailor's activi- 
 ties, now it was the wide ocean. From another point of view 
 it was one step further in the mighty progress of civilization 
 from the east toward the west. 
 
 364. Change of the Old Trade Routes. — At that time, 
 Europe was dependent upon the East for most of the luxuries 
 
D EXPLORATIONS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 rD 17th CEXTURIES 
 
 40" tast 60 
 
COMMERCE 263 
 
 of medieval life, for such things, for example, as the finer 
 kinds of glass and porcelain, rare woods and dyes, perfumes, 
 drugs, and especially spices. All these articles of commerce 
 were conveyed from the East to the West by well known trade 
 routes. These trade routes converged upon Venice, and then 
 followed the Danube and the Rhine to the towns of northern 
 Europe. The Mediterranean towns thus became the general 
 marts and clearing houses, and it was upon this commerce 
 that Venice and other Italian cities depended for their enor- 
 mous profits and wealth. But now the blockage of the old 
 trade routes by the aggressions of the Turks combined with 
 the discovery of a new trade route to India and the East, in 
 such a way as to cause a most rapid decline in the power of the 
 old Mediterranean cities. And not only these, but the cities 
 on the Rhine as well began to share in the general depression 
 of trade. 
 
 On the other hand, the countries bordering on the Atlantic 
 experienced a corresponding increase of commercial prosper- 
 ity. The fleets of England, France, Spain, and Holland grew 
 in size and strength. Between England and Holland espe- 
 cially there quickly sprang up a keen rivalry for the carry- 
 ing trade of the world. 
 
 Widening of the Markets. — The markets became suddenly 
 widened. Till now trade had been carried on only within 
 certain small areas, or at most, only on certain lines. Man- 
 ufacturers for example, would cater only to the town in which 
 they lived, and commercial operations were confined to certain 
 classes of goods. But now the manufacturers would seek for 
 customers in the most distant parts of the world, and instead 
 of small retail dealers, large companies were formed that 
 carried on business on a hitherto unprecedented scale. 
 
 365. Rise of Diplomacy. — Some kind of diplomacy had 
 always been in existence even from the earliest times. For 
 
264 MODERN PERIOD 
 
 there had always been the need of drawing up treaties and ar- 
 ranging alhances offensive and defensive between different 
 nations. Also there was the necessity for certain persons to 
 act as messengers between one state and another. Hence we 
 read in ancient history of envoys being sent from the Persians 
 to the Greeks, and in later times, from the Jewish people to 
 the Romans. But it was only in the fifteenth century that 
 diplomacy began to flourish as an art, and that resident am- 
 bassadors began to make their appearance. 
 
 The custom of employing resident ambassadors seems to 
 have begun with the kings of Poland and Sweden, while the 
 Knights of St. John also had the same officials under the title 
 of procurators. Rome itself early adopted the practice of 
 sending out to the different courts of Europe her Cardinal 
 legates and her nuncios — the last being often simple laymen. 
 
 366. Venetian Diplomacy. — But of all the states it seems 
 to have been Venice that brought diplomacy to perfection as 
 an art. Her extensive trade naturally placed her in unceasing 
 contact with other states and there speedily arose the neces- 
 sity of employing permanent officials who might represent her 
 interests in foreign parts and collect useful information. By 
 the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries her ambassadors were to 
 be found in every court of Europe. All eyes were turned 
 towards Venice as the one great center of diplomatic activity. 
 Foreign states often got information about one another's 
 movements through Venice. The number of important let- 
 ters and other documents collected in the archives in Venice 
 became enormous and at the present day, form a most valuable 
 treasury of information to the historian and antiquarian. 
 
 The Venetian ambassadors themselves were men of ripe 
 experience and distinguished for sagacity and tact. Only 
 nobles were admitted to the diplomatic profession, and they 
 had to be past the age of thirty-eight. One useful regulation 
 
ART OF II AR 265 
 
 was that no ambassador should remain at the same court more 
 than three years. This, no doubt, arose partly from the sus- 
 picions of the Venetian government, but it was also owing to 
 the desire of widening the experience of the diplomatic staff. 
 
 367. The Art of War. — The art of war as well as that of 
 diplomacy underwent inii)ortant transformations. 
 
 Till now, the chief fighting strength of an army consisted 
 in its cavalry. During the middle ages, the man on horse- 
 back was generally a synonym 'for a person of gentle birth. 
 In fact there were strong points of resemblance between the 
 old Roman eques or knights and the medieval horseman or 
 knight. They were men of skill and ability and contrasted 
 forcibly with the boorish dimensions of the foot soldier. By de- 
 grees, however, the condition of the medieval horseman declined. 
 Not only was there sometimes a difficulty in finding men of 
 noble birth to fill vacant places, but the fighting value of the 
 horseman considerably diminished. Custom had made his 
 armor ridiculously heavy. He was like a moving castle, and 
 if he happened to fall, it was exceeding difficult for him to 
 rise again. ^Moreover, he was of use only on the open plain, 
 where there were no small fortifications or ditches to oppose 
 his progress. 
 
 While the cavalry thus dwindled in importance, the rise of 
 infantry became more and more pronounced. The value of 
 the foot soldier had been early demonstrated even on the fields 
 of Crecy, Agincourt. and Bannockburn, and by the fifteenth 
 century battles were decided by the comparative efficiency of 
 the infantry on either side. 
 
 368. Standing Armies. — During the reign of Louis XI 
 a large .standing arm\- was formed of ten thousand French 
 infantry. This was afterwards reinforced by a large body of 
 German infantry. But the morals and discipline of the men 
 
266 MODERN PERIOD 
 
 were bad, and they were not nearly so serviceable as the Swiss 
 infantry. The men that formed the Swiss infantry were well 
 trained and disciplined, and as has already been pointed out, 
 they shattered the power of Charles of Burgundy on the bat- 
 tle-field of Granson. 
 
 Even superior to the Swiss was the Spanish infantry. 
 During the long wars against the Moors they had acquired 
 great reputation, and afterwards they became known as the 
 very best in Europe. 
 
 369. Introduction of Artillery. — Another great change in 
 the method of warfare was brought in by the use of artillery. 
 Already in 1312 we read of the Moors using artillery against 
 the Spaniards, and again in 1337 we are told that the Scots 
 used bombards in the siege of Sterling Castle in Scotland. In 
 the fifteenth century, the old-fashioned hand gun became 
 greatly improved and was transformed into the arquebus, a 
 weapon in wdiich the firing of the powder took place with cer- 
 tainty and far greater speed. It is evident that the use of 
 artillery must have played a very important part in doing 
 away with the castle and the knight, the two main features of 
 medieval warfare. 
 
 370. The Professional Soldier. — A radical change also took 
 place in regard to the status of the soldier. During the mid- 
 dle ages, there was no complete separation between citizen and 
 soldier. The man at the plow or the man at the forge had 
 of necessity to take part in all his country's wars. The 
 fifteenth century saw the end of this universal conscription, 
 and we 'find instead mercenary soldiers. These men were 
 specially trained in the art of warfare, adopting it as a pro- 
 fession, and were frequently hired by the sovereigns of Europe 
 to fight their battles. Erom henceforth the profession of war- 
 fare is generally distinct from the civilian professions. 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCE. 267 
 
 371. Formation of the Modern Period. — Such are the main 
 changes in the condition of European societ}- at this time. 
 And when we bear in mind the other changes that must have 
 been introduced by the different inventions of printing, of the 
 telescope and of the microscope, as well as by the increased 
 comfort and luxury throughout all classes of society we can 
 clearly realize the altered character of the period of history on 
 which we are now entering". \\'e shall find it a period fraught 
 with deep and earnest problems and having so close a connec- 
 tion w'ith our own times, full of intense interest. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 No strict line of distinction between medieval and modern his- 
 tory — New forces appearing in the sixteenth century — 
 Changes of geographical areas of action — New threads of con- 
 tinnity — Discoveries in the New World — Columbus and \'es- 
 pucci — Change in the old trade routes — Widening of the mar- 
 kets — Rise of diplomacy — The custom of sending out resi- 
 dential ambassadors — Changes in the art of war — Infantry 
 more popular than cavalry — The French standing army — Use 
 of artillery — Professional militarism. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Windsor, Columbus; Fiske, Discovery of America; Stephens, Portu- 
 gal; Beazley, Prince Henry; Prescott, Conquest of Peru; Rogers, 
 Economic Interpretation of History; Grose, History of the Army of 
 England; Glenie, History of Germany; Wraxell, History of France; 
 Davis, Art of War; Grose, Treatise on Ancient Armour; Brett, Pic- 
 torial and Descriptive record of origin and development of arms and 
 armor. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 ITALY THE CENTER OF FOREIGN POLITICS 
 
 372. Charles VIII. — We have already seen that the king- 
 dom of Naples had been a subject of dispute between France 
 and Aragon. Although the House of Aragon retained the 
 victorious possession of the kingdom, the French claim still 
 lingered on and was again very actively revived when Charles 
 VIII ascended the French throne (1483). 
 
 Charles VIII though stunted and deformed both in body 
 and mind was endowed with sufficient nervous restlessness 
 to make him enter upon an expedition for the conquest of the 
 kingdom of Naples. In this he was also urged on by some of 
 his ministers, who were in the pay of the Italian envoys. Nor 
 were there wanting circumstances favorable to the enterprise. 
 Naples if obtained would serve as a good basis of operations 
 in Charles' intended crusade against the Turks. And, as far 
 as the states of Italy were concerned, everything seemed fa- 
 vorable for such an enterprise. Ludovico Sforza of Milan, 
 hoping that he would be protected in his duchy even sent a 
 special invitation to Charles to undertake the expedition. 
 Venice was neutral. In Florence there was a strong pro- 
 French party, headed by the monk Savonarola, while ene- 
 mies of the Pope, Alexander VI, were hoping that a French 
 descent would prove fatal to the Pope's schemes of family 
 aggrandizement. 
 
 373. Charles VIII Enters Italy.— In 1494. Charles made 
 his celebrated descent into Italy. Everything proved favor- 
 able. Milan received him with open arms, at Florence Pietro 
 de Medici, greatly to the disgust of the Florentines ceded to 
 
 269 
 
270 ITALY THE CENTER OF FOREIGN POLITICS 
 
 him important towns; at Rome, the pope was forced to make 
 a treaty advantageous to Charles, and in Naples itself Ferdi- 
 nand, his opponent, was compelled to withdraw owing to the 
 ill will of his subject citizens. 
 
 374. Charles, Master of Naples. — Charles entered Naples 
 without opposition. Oriental splendor and magnificence at- 
 tended his accession to the Neapolitan throne. With a glove 
 in one hand and a scepter in the other, he received the accla- 
 mations of his joyful subjects. But the space of one short week 
 saw the downfall of his hopes. His subjects became dis- 
 contented at being shut out from the high offices of state while 
 the city treasury became every day more exhausted. More 
 than all, alarming rumors reached him regarding the at- 
 titude of the other Italian states. 
 
 375. Italy Rises Against Charles VIII. — Charles' unex- 
 pected and overwhelming success had brought about a com- 
 plete revulsion of feeling. His closest friend Ludovico 
 Sforza was offended by being refused the promised principality 
 of Taranto, while the other Italian states viewed with dis- 
 trustful alarm the menace of the French power so rapidly ris- 
 ing in Italy. Even foreign princes felt alarm at the prepon- 
 derance of French interests. The envoys of the discontented 
 states met secretly at Venice and formed a league against the 
 French. The members of the league were Milan, Venice, the 
 Pope, Ferdinand of Aragon and Maximilian of Germany. 
 
 Charles decided that the wisest course was to return to 
 France. But he still had time to commit the mistake of nam- 
 ing the incapable Marquis of Montpensier as regent of Naples 
 during his absence. 
 
 376. Retreat of Charles VIII. — In haste Charles pursued 
 his journey to the north of Italy. The confederates of the 
 
FRENCH IN ITALY 27 1 
 
 League were equally quick and at Fornovo (1495) the hos- 
 tile forces engaged in battle. Victory so far favored Charles 
 that he succeeded in making his escape and continuing his 
 journey safely to France. 
 
 Naples was soon afterwards taken by Gonsalvo of Cordova, 
 a Spanish general, and Ferdinand again took possession of 
 his kingdom after an absence of three months. 
 
 377. Results of the Invasion. — The descent of Charles 
 VIII into Italy though dramatic, was a mere episode as far as 
 direct results were concerned. But it had an indirect in- 
 fluence upon European politics. States began to look beyond 
 their own frontiers and to dream of foreign conquest. Wider 
 views began to be entertained of international relations. 
 And the league that was formed against Charles was the first 
 of a series that were to roll in rapid succession over the tu- 
 multuous sea of Italian politics. 
 
 Charles VIII lived only three years after his expedition 
 into Italy. He died in 1498, and owing to. want of direct 
 heirs, he was succeeded by a prince of a collateral line in the 
 person of Louis of Orleans. 
 
 378. Louis XII's reign was more important in its foreign 
 than in its domestic policy. Even more than was the case 
 with his predecessor, there were reasons why he should inter- 
 fere in Italy. He still inherited the French claim upon 
 Naples, and the condition of Italy was even more favorable 
 for French intervention than when Charles undertook his ex- 
 pedition. Venice and Milan were at war with each other, 
 Florence was occupied in besieging Pisa, while the pope had 
 everything to hope from the French. 
 
 379. Louis XII. Active in Italy.— With skilled diplomacy 
 Louis secured active allies in Italy. He promised the pope 
 
272 ITALY THE CENTER OF FOREIGN POLITICS 
 
 the assistance of French troops in order to save Romagna for 
 Caesar Borgia, the pope's son. Regarding Naples, Louis 
 even persuaded Ferdinand, King of Spain, to consent to the 
 dethronement of his relative Frederick, King of Naples. 
 
 Such brilliant prospects only showed how accident may 
 sometimes mar the most skilled diplomacy. Frederick, it is 
 true, was driven out of Naples, but in the moment of victory, 
 Louis and Ferdinand began to quarrel about their share of 
 the spoils. Again the French were driven out of Naples and 
 this time their expulsion was permanent. 
 
 380. Pope Julius II. — Italy, however, did not remain long 
 in peace. In 1503, Pope Julius II ascended the papal throne. 
 He had all the talents of a warrior as well as the astuteness of 
 a diplomat, and he was determined to extend the papal states 
 in Italy. Louis XII on the other hand still dreamed of for- 
 eign conquests and the result was another coalition of Eu- 
 ropean powers, this time against Venice. 
 
 381. League of Cambray. — By the fifteenth century Ven- 
 ice, owing to its power and splendor, towered high among 
 even the prominent states of Italy. Secure in her island 
 home, she was also mistress of the greater part of the lands 
 that had accrued to her from the Fourth Crusade. Her pol- 
 icy of passivity in most of the intestinal wars of Italy had also 
 been the means of securing important possessions on the west- 
 ern mainland. In the south she still owned the five Apulian 
 ports that had been ceded to her by Ferdinand of Aragon in 
 return for assistance in driving the French from Naples. 
 
 382. Venetian Possessions Invite Attack. — But her very 
 position of strength and external display drew upon her the 
 jealousy and active ill will of certain powers whose cupidity 
 was also excited by the prospect of gain at her cost. The 
 
DEFEAT OF J- EN ICE 273 
 
 pope regarded with a wistful eye her possessions of Faenza, 
 Rimini, and Ravenna, and he was angry at the refusal of 
 Venice to allow one of his nephews to be raised to the See of 
 Vicenza. The king of France was casting a covetous eye over 
 Cremona. Bergamo and Brescia; Maximilian was filled with 
 rage at their betraying to the French king his design of driv- 
 ing the French out of Italy, and was also viewing with eager 
 eye the tempting bait of the five Apulian cities. 
 
 Venice thus became to these different states what China is 
 to the present states of Europe, and a policy of partition was 
 soon set on foot. In spite of some little difference between 
 Margaret of Austria and Cardinal d' Amboise. who w'as then 
 the prime minister of France, the League of Cambray was 
 formed. Its members were Louis XII, Maximilian of Ger- 
 many. Pope Julius II, and Ferdinand of Spain. 
 
 383. The Defeat of Venice. — The Venetian republic was 
 undismayed. A large army was raised under the generalship 
 of the Count of Petigliano, a man of skill and cautious tact, 
 but in fire and impetuous dash, inferior to his second in com- 
 mand, d'Alviano. The French aided by the Sw^iss hastened 
 to meet the Venetian army at Vaila. A decisive engagement 
 ensued, in which the Venetians were completely routed. The 
 French advanced even to the very walls of Venice. At the 
 same time the papal troops took possession of the Venetian 
 towns in the Romagna. while the emperor Maximilian seized 
 the important places of Istria and Friuli. 
 
 Thus at one blow was shattered the fal)ric of continental 
 dominion that had cost Venice over a century to erect. Her 
 forces were scattered, her treasury was depleted, and hVance 
 was already preparing a navy wdiose probable destination was 
 the Adriatic. 
 
 384 Venice Recovers From the Blow. — But in the hour 
 of deadly peril, Venice showed remarkable calmness and 
 
274 ITALY THE CENTER OF FOREIGN POLITICS 
 
 extraordinary powers of recuperation. The city itself was 
 by unprecedented efforts girded round with well-nigh impreg- 
 nable defenses, and soon Venetian diplomacy combined with 
 changing circumstances to dissolve the league altogether. With 
 such a bitter enemy as France they felt it useless to negotiate, 
 but by the offer of the city of Ravenna and by humble sup- 
 plications for pardon they appealed both to the interest of 
 Pope Julius as well as to his sense of personal dignity. Max- 
 imilian, it is true, refused to treat without the consent of 
 France, but his languid prosecution of the war restored Padua 
 to the Venetians, whose galleys began to menace even Friuli 
 and Istria. At the same time, either through despair or more 
 likely through the dictates of a far-seeing policy, Venice gave 
 to her endangered states on the mainland complete independ- 
 ence. Her hitherto subject states were now bound to her by 
 the strong ties of gratitude and affection, and it was not long- 
 before the remnant of the hostile league melted away like snow 
 under the sun. 
 
 The results of the League of Cambray were exceedingly 
 partial and transitory. It is true that the French, the pope, 
 and the other members of the league got something. But the 
 real strength of the Venetian Requblic still remained. Com- 
 mercially, her trade was unimpaired. Politically, she still re- 
 mained one of the fixe leading states of Italy. Her greatness, 
 indeed, was not destined to last but this w'as owing not to 
 the League of Cambray but to the transference of the old 
 trade routes from the East. 
 
 385. A New League (1511) that was now formed out of 
 the debris of the League of Cambray had for its object the 
 expulsion of the French out of Italy. Its originator was Pope 
 Julius II. He gained as his allies, Maximilian, Ferdinand 
 the Catholic. Plenry VIII of England, and even the Swiss who 
 had hitherto been the close ally of France. France made a 
 
LEO X AND FRANCIS I 
 
 75 
 
 \'igoi'ous resistance but the death oi her able general Gaston de 
 Foix at Ravenna in the very hour of victory turned the scales 
 completely against her. The French were entirely driven out 
 of Italy and thus lost the result of all their fifteen years' hard 
 fighting and diplomacy. 
 
 Within a short time, the two chief actors in the struggle 
 were removed from the scene by death. Pope Julius died in 
 1 5 13 and Louis XII in 1515. 
 
 386. Leo X and Francis I. 
 
 — Pope Julius was succeeded 
 by Pope Leo X and Louis 
 XII by Francis I. Both of 
 these were men remarkable 
 for ability and were conspic- 
 uous for their interest in other 
 things besides politics. Leo 
 X became celebrated for his 
 humanistic tendencies, his pat- 
 ronage of the arts and learn- 
 ing and for the part which 
 he took during the Protestant 
 
 Reformation. Francis I was Pope Leo X, famous for his splendid 
 
 patronage of arts and learning. 
 
 also the patron of art and 
 
 learning not only in France but also throughout Europe. 
 Erasmus received tokens of his appreciation and the great 
 painter Leonardo da Vinci is sui)posed by some to have died 
 in his arms. 
 
 Francis, however, was very far from being a mere cultj,-^ 
 vator of the muses. He was a politician of a very active typ^;. 
 Italy again became the theatre of French aggressions, and the 
 reconquest of Milan became his first object. Opposing -this, 
 was a remnant of the old anti-French alliance consisting- of, 
 Spain, the pope, and the Swiss. But Venice was on the sid^. 
 
276 ITALY THE CEXTER OF FOREIGX POLITICS 
 
 of France and engaged the attention of the Spaniards. The 
 whole of the French army was thus free to fall npon the 
 Swiss, and not only inflicted upon them a crushing defeat 
 but also recaptured the city of Milan. 
 
 378. Concordat Between Francis I and Pope Leo X. — 
 This ended the wars of French aggression in Italy. Francis 
 I resumed his old friendly relations with the Swiss, and at 
 Bologna drew up an important concordat (1516) with the 
 pope. By this concordat, the first document of its kind, the 
 interests of the national French church were made to har- 
 monize with the welfare of the Church as a whole. To the 
 temporal power was granted the right to confer upon bishops 
 and abbots the temporal advantages connected with their office. 
 To the spiritual power was reserved the right to confer holy 
 orders; in other words, the pope had the right to confer or 
 withhold that spiritual element by which alone the candidate 
 might be raised to ofiice. This concordat seemed so just and 
 so according to the intrinsic fitness of things that it lasted 
 three centuries. Though temporarily destroyed by the revolu- 
 tion it was revived again in 1802. 
 
 388. England Under Henry VIII. — The accession of 
 Henry \'III to the English throne (1509) seemed to augur 
 well for the prosperity of England. He was endowed with 
 great natural ability, and was in many ways highly accom- 
 plished. As a statesman he had a shrewd insight into men's 
 characters and could choose his ministers well. He was also 
 capable of forming and successfully carrying out a broad and 
 far-sighted policy. Together with all this he seemed a re- 
 ligious man. heard mass frequently and took interest in theo- 
 logical questions. The only evil symptom as yet discernible 
 was a certain headstrong rashness of character pardonable in 
 a royal youth. 
 
ENGLISH I'OLITICS 277 
 
 389. Cardinal Wolsey. — The minister who at first more 
 than any other guided Henry's pohcy was Cardinal Wolsey, 
 a man of practical abihty, with great influence over the king, 
 and sagacious enough not to contradict his master's will when 
 once it was made. 
 
 390. Foreign Politics. — Henry's first intervention in for- 
 eign politics was on the occasion of his joining the Holy 
 League to drive the French out of Italy. He invaded France, 
 won without effort the battle of Guinegate and took the towns 
 of Tourraine and Theraunne. France, as usual, sought to at- 
 tack England through Scotland. At the instigation of Fran- 
 cis, the Scotch crossed the Tweed and entered the north of 
 England. They were met on Flodden Field by the English 
 under the Earl of Surrey and were completely vanquished. 
 
 This engagement was practically the last of the war and 
 England joined in the general peace. Peace was made be- 
 tween England and Scotland while the treaty between Eng- 
 land and France was ratified by the marriage of Mary, the 
 youngest sister of Henry VHI, to the old French king, who 
 however did not long survive. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Charles VIII king of France — Reasons for his intervention 
 in Italy — He ascends the throne of Naples — Formation of a 
 hostile league against him — Charles now returns — Battle of 
 Forovo — Results of Charles VHI's descent into Italy — Louis 
 XII king of France — He also interferes in Italian politics — 
 French again driven from Naples — Julius II now pope — 
 Causes of the league of Cambray — Members of the league and 
 their motives — War between Venice and the League — Heroic 
 defence made by Venice — Results of the League of Cambray — 
 Pope Julius forms a league against the French, who are driven 
 from Italy — Pope Leo X and Francis I — Battle of Marignano 
 — Concordat of Bologna — Character of Henry VIII — Cardi- 
 nal Wolsey — Henry's foreign policy. 
 
278 ITALY THE CENTER OF FOREIGN POLITICS 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century; Cambridge. Modern His- 
 tory; Cheyney, European Background; Dye and Hassall, Modern 
 Europe; Lodge, History of Modern Europe; Martin, History of France; 
 Desrey, les grands chroniques de Charles VIII; Brewer, History of 
 Henry VIII; Pollard, Henry VIII; Creighton, Cardinal Wolsey; 
 Chelard, Charles VIII et rcxpedition d'ltalie. 
 
 i 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 RIVALRY BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND THE EMPEROR CHARLES V 
 
 391. Imperial Succession. — The death of the Emperor 
 Maximilian in 15 19 was the beginning of a close contest be- 
 tween France and the empire — a contest that was destined to 
 monopolize the politics of Europe for nearly twenty-five 
 years. 
 
 The important question was, " Who shall succeed to 
 the imperial throne?" The two possible candidates were 
 Francis I of France and King Charles V of Spain, who, 
 through the support of Cardinal Ximenes, had succeeded to 
 the Spanish throne of his father, the late King Ferdinand. 
 In favor of Charles, were the circumstances that he was a 
 grandson of the late Maximilian and that Maximilian during 
 his lifetime had tried to prepare the way for the future elec- 
 tion of Charles. Francis, on the other hand, though not re- 
 lated to the late emperor was quite eligible for election and 
 was in a strong position to enforce his claim to consideration. 
 He had but lately won the battle of Marignano, and was at 
 present on good terms with Pope Leo X. 
 
 392. Charles V, — The German descent of Charles as well 
 as his more lavish use of bribes and promises brought over 
 the electors to his favor. He was therefore on the twenty- 
 eighth of June, 1 5 19, elected emperor. 
 
 The election of Charles became of supreme importance in 
 the general politics of Europe. He was already master of 
 Spain, the Netherlands, Naples, Sicily, Austria, and the New 
 World beyond the Atlantic. Together with all these vast 
 territorial possessions, he now enjoyed that indefinite juris- 
 
 279 
 
28o Rll'ALRY BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND CHARLES V 
 
 diction that the imperial dignity still retained over the Ger- 
 man principalities. 
 
 393. Character of Charles V. — The personality of Charles 
 at once became of paramount interest. His outward appear- 
 ance was certainly not impressive. His bodily growth had 
 been extremely slow, and even at the age of nineteen, when he 
 was elected, he gave small promise of vigorous manhood. 
 The feebleness of his health possibly accounted for his usual 
 dejected appearance, while his thick, low-hanging underlip 
 seemed to indicate extreme sluggishness of intellect. Nor 
 did his speech, which was slow and hesitating, contradict the 
 unfavorable impression received from his personal appear- 
 ance. 
 
 But the inner self and character of Charles were by. no 
 means worthy of contempt. His mind was fairly well equip- 
 ped with the knowledge necessary for a ruler of those times. 
 He had a practical though superficial acquaintance with mod- 
 ern languages, and he had been carefully instructed in history 
 and in the art of government. More important than these 
 mental accomplishments was his character which was distin- 
 guished for a certain pertinacity that carried him successfully 
 through many dangers and difficulties. 
 
 394. Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. — Almost as soon 
 as the election became known the personal rivalry between 
 himself and the French king was found to have received in- 
 stead of a satisfactory solution, a fresh and rapidly gathering 
 momentum. This personal quarrel was aggravated by long 
 standing territorial disputes. Navarre, once French, was 
 now in Spanish possession, so also was Naples. Charles, on 
 the other hand, bitterly resented the loss of Milan recently 
 taken by Francis I and he still remembered that Burgundy 
 once formed part of the empire. 
 
JJ\ IRS OF CHARLES AND FRANCIS 281 
 
 Hostilities were not long in breaking out, and in 1520 be- 
 gan the long war between France and the empire — a war 
 which, with some few short intermissions lasted until the 
 treaty of Crespy in 1544. 
 
 For convenience, these wars may be considered in three 
 different periods. The first begins with the invasion of Na- 
 varre by the French in 1520 and extends down to the treaty 
 of Cambray in 1529; the second begins with the French inva- 
 sion of Savoy in 1536 and ends with the Truce of Nice in 
 1538; the third begins with French invasion of the Nether- 
 lands in 1542 and terminates with the Treaty of Crespy in 
 1544- 
 
 395. The First Period. — Even at the opening of the cam- 
 paign the empire seemed to be fighting with overwhelming 
 odds on her side. Not only were the territorial possessions 
 exceedingly vast, while the Spainish infantry was considered 
 the best in Europe, but Charles had succeeded in enlisting on 
 his side the valuable aid of Henry VHI of England and of 
 Pope Leo X. Yet the French did not hesitate to begin opera- 
 tions by invading Navarre. They took Pampeluna but were 
 soon after repulsed and driven altogether out of Navarre. 
 The scene of warfare was then changed to Italy. Here again 
 the French were unsuccessful. Even if Lautrec their com- 
 mander had been as able as he was energetic, the coalition 
 that he had to face was overwhelming. The Swiss, under 
 the pay of the pope, were turning against him ; even the Vene- 
 tians were now unfriendly. It was no wonder, therefore, 
 that the imperial troops speedily drove the French out of 
 Milan and the Lombardian plain. Nor were matters im- 
 proved by the death of Leo X and the accession of Pope 
 Clement VII, a former tutor and personal friend of the em- 
 peror (1523). The overwhelming success of the French had 
 become the cause of their ultimate failure in Italy. 
 
282 RIl'ALRV BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND CHARLES V 
 
 396. Mutual Invasions. — As if this array of external 
 foes in Italy was not sufficient, Francis was now harassed 
 by the rebellion of one of his most powerful subjects in the 
 person of Charles of Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier and the 
 owner of more territory than any other of the vassals of 
 Francis. He at once proposed to Henry VHI of England 
 and to the emperor a joint invasion of France. His plans, 
 it is true, were discovered and he had to fly before the plot 
 was matured. But the idea of invading France must have 
 appeared to the emperor not only justified by all the odds in 
 his favor but as the most likely means of bringing the entire 
 war to a sudden and victorious termination. The invasion 
 w^as made but the expectations were not realized. The im- 
 perial forces laid siege to Marseilles but had to beat a speedy 
 retreat. Francis in his turn became elated and carried the 
 war into the enemy's country by besieging the town of Pavia. 
 His attack on the emperor failed even more miserably than the 
 attack of the emperor on him. He suffered an overwhelming 
 defeat in the course of which he himself was taken prisoner. 
 
 397. Treaty of Madrid. — This military success, the first 
 real blow of the campaign produced a diplomatic revolution. 
 As after the league of Cambray, the French drew upon them- 
 selves the jealousy and hostility of the other powers, so now 
 the sudden overwhelming success of Charles created a cor- 
 responding feeling against the Spaniards. Not only in Rome 
 and Venice, but even in the English court as well, there rose 
 a strong tide of feeling against the Spaniard. And this hos- 
 tility was in no way lessened by the harsh terms of the treaty 
 of Madrid (1526) imposed by Charles on the captive king. 
 The terms were : The abandonment of all claims on Naples. 
 Milan, Flanders, and Artois, the restoration of the Duchy of 
 Burgundy and a marriage between Francis himself and 
 Charles' sister, the dowager queen of Portugal. As security 
 
THE " LADIES' PEACE" 283 
 
 for his tidelity Francis had to yield two of his sons as hos- 
 tages. 
 
 The ink on the paper was scarcely dry when Francis re- 
 solved to disregard the treaty. In fact, Francis had signed 
 it under compulsion and could scarcely be expected to carry 
 through a forced contract of such an odious nature. His con- 
 tention was upheld, and France; Florence, Alilan, England, 
 and the Swiss entered into another Holy League for the pur- 
 pose of forcing the emperor to release the French princes and 
 return the city of ]\Iilan to Francesco Sforza. 
 
 398. Capture of Rome. — But the league was loose in its 
 construction and as a consequence, its operations were slow 
 and ineffective. The imperial troops were able to strike a 
 l)old and sudden blow. They marched to Rome, took posses- 
 sion of the city and even imprisoned Pope Clement Wil. 
 This success caused even wider and deeper impression than 
 the battle of Pavia. Florence and Venice now joined the 
 league and the French at once adopted a more vigorous plan 
 of campaign. The French general, Lautrec, and the Genoese 
 admiral, Doria, besieged the city of Naples by sea, and with 
 every prospect of success. But the French managed to offend 
 Doria just at this critical time. He withdrew his fleet from 
 the siege with the result that Naples still remained in the 
 hands of the emperor. 
 
 399. Treaty of Cambray. — The hopelessness of striving 
 against the strength and good fortune of the emperor were 
 apparent. All were longing for peace. In 1529 was signed 
 the treaty of Cambray, sometimes called Ladies' treaty, be- 
 cause negotiated by Margaret of Austria and Louisa of Sax- 
 ony. The terms of the treaty of Madrid were adopted as the 
 basis of the new treaty. But Charles agreed to waive his 
 claim on Burgundy and to accept a ransom of two million 
 
284 Rll'ALRy BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND CHARLES V 
 
 crowns for the liberation of his two sons who had been de- 
 tained as hostages. 
 
 Even this treaty was too humihating to French pride. 
 Moreover, the balance of power in Enrope still remained in 
 jeopardy owing to the preponderating strength of Charles 
 V. Hostilities were bonnd to break ont again and during the 
 next few years France braced up her strength for another 
 struggle. 
 
 French diplomacy soon showed itself more successful than 
 French military skill. A marriage was arranged between 
 Catharine de Medicis, the pope's niece, and the Duke of Or- 
 leans. B}' this marriage an alliance was thus effected be- 
 tween France and Florence, while the pope himself would now 
 naturally regard the interests of France as connected with 
 those of his family. 
 
 400. Second Period of the War. — It was not long before 
 the religious difficulties in Germany gave France a favorable 
 opportunity to strike. A pretext was not wanting. A 
 French ambassador on his way to Milan in order to intrigue 
 against the emperor was put to death, h^rancis at once sent 
 an army to overrun Savoy and Piedmont, and had no scruple 
 in allaying himself with Charles' enemy, the Turk. The im- 
 perial troops were speedily driven out and the French occupied 
 Savoy and Piedmont. Charles was deeply angered and 
 sought revenge by carrying hostilities into France itself. 
 His troops laid siege to the important towns of Aries and 
 Marseilles. But operations in hostile territory are generally 
 dependent for success upon their speedy accomplishment. 
 The French avoided a pitched battle and merely held the 
 cities. Charles being far away from his base of supplies was 
 forced to retreat with humiliation and great losses. 
 
 It soon became evident to both sides that neither party had 
 any prospect of accomplishing anything by a prolongation of 
 
A PEACE ARRANGED 285 
 
 hostilities. The presence of the Turk also inclined both sides 
 to seek for peace. While Francis was anxious to dissolve 
 a pagan alliance that had brought on him the unpopularity 
 of Europe, Charles was anxious for peace in order that he 
 might be able to check the advance of the Turks. 
 
 401. A Truce for two years was arranged at Nice (1538). 
 Hostilities were to cease at once, and it was arranged that 
 both parties were to retain their mutual conquests. 
 
 A curious change now took place in the personal relations 
 of the two antagonists. Personal friendship now seemed to 
 take the place of personal animosity. Not only were friendly 
 visits interchanged but the French king gave solid proofs of 
 his good will. When Charles' rebellious subjects in Ghent 
 wished to betray the city into the hands of the French king, 
 the offer was rejected and even disclosed to Charles. Later 
 on, he performed for Charles a still more signal service. 
 When Charles on his way from Spain to the Low Countries 
 wished to pass through France, Francis not only consented 
 but treated his host with sumptuous hospitality. Charles out 
 of gratitude that was either real or feigned promised to yield 
 to the dauphin Henry the possession of Milan. 
 
 When Charles, however, had completed his expedition he 
 ignored the promise. Francis was bitterly chagrined and ac- 
 cordingly bent on revenge. 
 
 In 1 541 Charles again waged war on the infidel. Contrary 
 to the advice of his admiral, he sailed for Algiers, and after 
 building a fort on a hill close to the town, began to besiege 
 the city. But, on land, his troops were visited by fever and 
 on sea his fleet was shattered by a furious storm, Charles 
 himself had only a narrow escape and with a few ships re- 
 turned to Spain. 
 
 402. Third Period. — Even before Charles had started on 
 this ill-starred expedition, Francis had begun hostilities. The 
 
286 RIVALRY BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND CHARLES V 
 
 war was fought with varying success. Operations were car- 
 ried on in Rousillon, Flanders and Piedmont, but nothing de- 
 cisive occurred tih the battle of Cerisoles in Piedmont where 
 the imperial troops were beaten. On the other hand, Charles 
 advanced into Champagne and Henry VIII attacked Bou- 
 logne. If Charles had pursued the campaign to the end it is 
 probable that France would have been at his mercy. But 
 when only two days' march from the city of Paris he sud- 
 denly changed his mind and decided on peace. Possibly he 
 still dreaded the Turks, probably he was harassed by the 
 troubles wath his Protestant subjects at home. Whatever 
 his motives may have been Francis now in a dangerous posi- 
 tion was equally willing to come to terms. 
 
 403. The Treaty of Crespy was signed (1544) between the 
 two sovereigns. This treaty, unlike the two others, gave to 
 France reasonable satisfaction. It is true that she still had 
 to renounce all claim to Naples, Flanders, and Artois, but on 
 the other hand, Charles made a formal renunciation of the 
 Duchy of Burgundy. Milan remained in the emperor's hands 
 but the French by way of compensation were not called upon 
 to surrender Savoy and Piedmont. 
 
 404. General Survey of the War. — In reviewing the whole 
 course of the ^^•ar, one cannut but marvel at the pertinacity 
 and powers of resistance shown by the French king. The 
 odds against him were almost overwhelming, the blows that 
 were dealt on him seemed fatal and yet he always rose again 
 undaunted and full of confidence in the result. His magna- 
 nimity was equal to his courage. Even after Charles' apparent 
 perfidy in repudiating the treaty of Madrid he could still 
 afford to present the hand of friendship to his dangerous 
 rival. 
 
 His own subjects had reason to be grateful for his reign. 
 
ENGLISH POLITICS 287 
 
 He had successfully defended the frontiers of France, and 
 had greatly improved the condition of the army. Some of 
 his financial expedients may have been open to question but 
 the treasury was able to meet the severe demands that were 
 made upon it and to keep up the popular magnificence of his 
 court. He also found time to extend throughout the king- 
 dom that powerful centralized system of government that in 
 a few years' time was to be the main cause of the extraordi- 
 nary power and prosperity of France. 
 
 405. England's Foreign Policy. — The foreign policy of 
 England during this war had been mainly under the control 
 of Cardinal Wolsey. At the beginning of the war England 
 had taken the side of the emperor and after the battle of 
 Pavia, there seemed to be a fair prospect of using the weak- 
 ness of France for an invasion and reconquest. But the 
 doctrine of the balance of power seems now to have been the 
 prevailing consideration. Peace was now made between 
 France and England, and friendly relations remained between 
 the two countries until the marriage of Madelaine, daughter 
 of the French king, with James V of Scotland. This mar- 
 riage roused the king's jealousy of Scotland and seemed to 
 recall the days when the Scotch-French alliance had done so 
 much harm to England, \\niile Henry became thus es- 
 tranged from the h^rench court, a renewed understanding 
 grew up between him and the emperor, which as we have 
 already seen, resulted in their joint invasion of France just 
 before the treaty of Crespy. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Rivalry between Francis I and Charles V for the imperial 
 throne — Chances on both sides — Election of Charles — His 
 character — Further causes of dispute between him and Francis 
 — First period of the war of 1522 to 1529 — War in Spain and 
 Italy — Failure first of the Spanish then of the French invasions 
 
288 RIVALRY BETWEEN FRANCIS I AND CHARLES V 
 
 — The diplomatic revolution — Treaty of Madrid — League 
 formed against the imperial forces — Second discomfiture of the 
 French — Treaty of Cambray — Renewed preparations for war 
 
 — Second Period of the war 1536 to 1538 — Failure of Charles' 
 invasion of France — Truce of Nice — Personal friendship be- 
 tween Charles and Francis — Third Period of the War — 1538- 
 1544 — Germans and English invade France — Treaty of Crespy 
 
 — General survey of the course of the war — Foreign policy of 
 England — Alternate unfriendliness and friendliness with Eng- 
 land. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 KiTCHiN, History of France; Johnson, Europe in Sixteenth Century; 
 Zeller, I'Histoirc de France; Armstrong, The Emperor Charles V ; 
 Robertson, History of the Reign of Emperor Charles V ; Hume, The 
 Spanish People; Maxwell, Cloister Life of Charles V ; For English His- 
 tory, same as in preceding chapter. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 THE REFORMATION 
 
 406. Beginning and Nature of the Reformation. — During 
 the wars between Francis and Charles, there was slowly in- 
 creasing both in volume and in intensity the religious move- 
 ment that goes by the name of the Reformation. The contest 
 between Charles and Francis and the Reformation chrono- 
 logically occupied the same time, and in two or three points 
 they touched one another. But they were quite -different in 
 their nature and on the whole distinctly separate in their work- 
 ings. 
 
 By the Reformation is meant the great separation or schism 
 from the Catholic Church. This separation began about the 
 commencement of the sixteenth century and has lasted even 
 down to our own times. 
 
 There is perhaps scarcely any subject that has aroused so 
 much controversy as the Reformation. Catholic and Protes- 
 tant writers naturally take opposite views. Catholic writers 
 regard it as an apostasy from the true faith while Protes- 
 tants maintain that it was only a return to the belief and prac- 
 tice of primitive Christianity. The historian, however, has 
 very little to do with this theological aspect of the question. 
 His purpose is to investigate the historical narrative accounts 
 of the Reformation, and after a careful investigation of writ- 
 ten authorities to lay bare its causes and effects. 
 
 We will consider, first of all, the causes of the Reformation, 
 then its historical expansion and its effects in the most impor- 
 tant countries. 
 
 The causes of the Reformation may be divided into two 
 
 289 
 
290 THE REFORM AVION 
 
 great groups, religious and secular. Both of these groups 
 ought to be separately considered. 
 
 407, Religious Causes of the Reformation. — In viewing 
 the Reformation as a whole, the fact that looms most promi- 
 nently into view is that no less than one-fourth of the entire 
 population of Europe left the Catholic faith. In some coun- 
 tries like England, Scotland, Sweden, Denmark and the 
 northern parts of Germany, the great majority of the popula- 
 tion became Protestant; in other countries like Hungary and 
 certain lesser German states, a part of the population became 
 Protestant, the rest remaining Catholic. Purely political 
 causes could scarcely account for this fact and there is evi- 
 dence to show there w^ere also certain religious causes that 
 partly explain why so many people, in some countries undei* 
 no compulsion, abandoned the religion of their forefathers. 
 
 408. Abuses and Scandals in the Church. — It is undeniable 
 that at that time there were great abuses and scandals in the 
 Church. Catholic historians who also believe that the holi- 
 ness of the Catholic Church does not depend upon the sanctity 
 of any individual member or group of members, have concur- 
 red upon this point. The testimony of persons who were by 
 no means among the ranks of reformers, the sermons of 
 Savonarola, the heroic efforts of popes and councils to put 
 down abuses, the results of investigations of apostolic vis- 
 itors, and the denunciations of St. Vincent Ferrer and of 
 others are all evidence in the same direction. In England 
 also we find the same evidence; for example, the Archbishop 
 of Canterbury in 141 5 severely denounced certain clerics for 
 the worldliness of their lives. 
 
 It is, however, easy to exaggerate the evil. In all times 
 the Church councils have been wont to assume a critical atti- 
 tude and the very efforts on the part of ecclesiastics to cor- 
 
 m 
 
ART OF PRINTING 29 1 
 
 rect abuses shows that the evil was not universal. Moreover, 
 throughout Europe there were numbers of people eminent for 
 their piety and sanctity. Even in Germany, the home of the 
 Reformation, we come across the mystic brotherhoods or 
 Friends of God, who, while leading a contemplative life tried 
 to influence the world by their teaching and example. Be- 
 sides these there were also saintly teachers like Gerson and 
 St. Thomas a Kempis, whose presence also tended to neu- 
 tralize the supposed gloomy wickedness of those times. We 
 may safely conclude that even on the verge of Reformation 
 there were not wanting teachers to guide and examples to 
 edify. 
 
 Yet there were certainly abuses, in certain localities, and 
 the constant sight of recurring scandals does tend of its own 
 nature to weaken the religious conviction and to bring the 
 church into evil repute. 
 
 409. The Art of Printing and the Reformation. — Aluch has 
 been said regarding the dissemination by the art of printing 
 of the knowledge of the sacred Scriptures. This supposed 
 cause, however, is hardly commensurate with the magnitude 
 of its effects. The art of printing only became known about 
 fifty years before Luther's appearance, and it would take a 
 considerable time to make the great mass of the people ac- 
 quainted with the results of the new invention. Besides this, 
 even during the middle ages the people were not cut off 
 entirely from Biblical instruction. Not only were there 
 manuscript copies of the Bible circulated among the people 
 but for a small sum there could be procured what was called 
 " The Poor ]\Ian's Bible." This consisted of a series of 
 rough wood prints that tried to convey a knowledge of the 
 Bible pictorially. In England especially one of the reasons 
 why Biblical translations were opposed was that already there 
 existed versions of the Bible in the vernacular. 
 
292 THE REFORMATION 
 
 410. Secular Causes of the Reformation. — One of the 
 
 causes of the Reformation was an economic one. A great 
 number of Italian prelates were entrusted with benefices in 
 Germany, France, and England. By this means large sums 
 of money found their way out of the national coffers into 
 other channels. In addition to this, grievous taxes were im- 
 posed on many of the bishops who in their turn had to lean 
 heavily on the lower clergy. The complaints of the English 
 parliament under Henry III, as well as the protest of the Ger- 
 man and French clergy, testify to the presence of this evil. 
 
 411. Jealousy of the Clergy. — Then there was the jealousy 
 entertained by secular magnates of the power and influence of 
 ecclesiastical statesmen. In England this is illustrated by the 
 ardent attack made upon the wealthy clergy by the nobles 
 during the fourteenth century and later on under Henry VIII. 
 by the antipathy shown by the English nobles to the landed 
 influence of the great clerics ; in Germany again the wealth 
 and jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical states had aroused the 
 cupidity and envy of many of the secular rulers. 
 
 412. The Undefined Jurisdiction of Church and State was 
 another secular cause of the reformation. \\'e have seen 
 that the Investiture question was only a part of this- 
 great problem — which during the sixteenth century still 
 demanded an urgent solution. Such details as appointment 
 of Church ofiicials, marriages, wills, divorces — all these still 
 presented difficulties and there was naturally a tendency on 
 the part of the lay element to shake itself free from the 
 activity of the spiritual authority. 
 
 413. The Political Element Most Effective. — Finally, the 
 religious element of discord in many nations found a powerful 
 instrument of expression by allying itself with the element of 
 
LUTHER 293 
 
 civil and political discord. Thus in Germany Protestantism 
 allied itself with the element of discontent against imperial 
 authority; in Geneva it allied itself with the democratic ele- 
 ment for the overthrow of its princely rulers; in England, on 
 the other hand, it formed under Thomas Cromwell's subtle 
 policy an instrument for extending the royal authority. 
 
 A careful examination of the whole course of the Reforma- 
 tion with its interwoven web of religious and political causes 
 will reveal the fact that the political element was the predomi- 
 nant factor in giving to the Reformation its wide and sudden 
 success. In countries like Spain, Italy, and France, where 
 the religious element of the Reformation was almost exclu- 
 sively predominant we find that the reforming movement 
 either lead a languid existence or died out altogether. Cer- 
 tainly the religious element played a very important and an 
 essential part. But what gave fixity and continuity to the 
 movement seems to have been the political element. 
 
 414. Local Characteristics of the Reformation. — The 
 
 Reformation throughout the different areas of its activity had 
 no universal common characteristics. It assumed in each 
 locality distinctly peculiar traits. We will, therefore, con- 
 sider the Reformation, taking one by one the most important 
 kingdoms in which it appeared. 
 
 415. Luther in Germany. — The disturbing political and re- 
 ligious forces in Germany found their exploding point in 
 Martin Luther. He was born at Eisleben in Saxony (1483). 
 After some schooling at Eisenach he went to the University of 
 Erfurt. There he gave evidence of considerable talent and 
 industry, but showed an extraordinary restlessness of mind. 
 On leaving the university, he joined the Augustinian friars 
 and during his stay amongst them studied deeply the Bible 
 and the works of St. Augustine. He was especially interested 
 
294 THE REFORMATION 
 
 in St. Augustine's doctrine of justification by faith. Placing 
 his own interpretation upon that doctrine he said that St. 
 Augustine taught that faith alone could justify. His doc- 
 trines proceeded from the twofold meaning that can be given 
 to the word " faith." Faith may mean merely the assent to 
 some supernatural truth and it may also mean that firm persua- 
 sion of the truth that can alone influence a man's practical life. 
 Luther seems to have imagined that St. Augustine used the 
 word " faith " in the former sense. 
 
 416. Luther's Attack on Indulgencies. — Whatever may 
 have been the private opinions of Luther at that period, what 
 brought him first of all into public notice was his attack on 
 the practice of granting of indulgences. An indulgence is 
 the remission of the ancient canonical penance imposed by the 
 Church in ancient times by way of satisfaction for certain 
 sins. This remission could only be granted on certain condi- 
 tions, and in later times one of these conditions was the giv- 
 ing of money for pious purposes. It is easy to see that in 
 degenerate times this practice might lead to abuses. And 
 in Germany especially these abuses were of a very objectiona- 
 ble character. No one could blame Luther for protesting as 
 he did against these abuses. Nor did he exceed the limits 
 when he' indignantly affixed ninety-five theses to the door of 
 the church at Wittenberg. But some of these propositions 
 attracted attention for their intemperate character and the 
 violence that they did to the doctrinal notions of those times. 
 
 417. Controversy Between Luther and Ecke. — The mani- 
 festo at once brought into existence two hostile camps most 
 bitterly opposed to each other. Some loudly applauded his 
 act, others denounced the newness of his doctrines. In the 
 year 15 19 at Leipzig, before a numerous and august assembly 
 there took place a disputation between Luther and a certain 
 
DIET OF WORMS 295 
 
 learned Dr. Ecke, each being surrounded by his own sup- 
 porters. The discussion was long and quaint in its character. 
 Some of the bystanders we are told fell to blows, others slept. 
 On the whole, Dr. Ecke, a big man, gifted with a stentorian 
 voice and a remarkable flow of words seems to have won the 
 day. 
 
 Dr. Ecke did nut let the matter drop but went in jierson 
 to Rome and urged Pope Leo X to take urgent measures 
 against the audacious reformer who had ncjw denounced not 
 only the doctrine of indulgences but other Catholic doctrines 
 as well. 
 
 418. Luther Defies the Pope. — The result was the issue 
 of a papal bull which condemned Luther's writings and or- 
 dered his books to be burned. Luther who up till now had 
 seemed submissive, if not obsequious to papal authority replied 
 by defiance. He ])ub]icly separated himself from the Church 
 and burned the p(,ipe's letter. The pope then urged the em- 
 peror to take up tlie matter. Therefore in 1521 there took 
 place the celebrated Diet at Worms. 
 
 419. Diet of Worms. — Luther stood before the emperor, 
 the electors, the bishops, the dukes, and the other dignitaries 
 of the empire and was asked if he would retract his views. 
 His answer was a defense of what he had upheld and an 
 appeal to the Scriptures. The emj^eror then dismissed him 
 as a heretic and shortly afterward jjlaced him under the ban 
 of the empire. 
 
 Luther. \\\\\\q drixing in a coach from the assembly was 
 stopped by a band of armed men in a dark forest and was 
 taken to a castle at Wartburg. This was a ruse on the part 
 of his protector, the Elector of Saxony, in order to remove 
 Luther from the violence of his enemies. It was during his 
 retirement here that Luther wrote the translation of the Bible. 
 
PEASANTS' OUTBREAK 297 
 
 From a literary point of view, tiiis was important. It did for 
 the German language very much what the old English Bible 
 has done for the English. It tended to lift the native tongue 
 up to the level of a classic language, giving to it a peculiar 
 simplicity and grandeur entirely its own. 
 
 420. The Knights' War (1523). — The religious strife soon 
 began to draw into its \ortex also the discontented political 
 elements. The lesser knights in Germany were the only 
 class excluded from partaking in the deliberations of the 
 Diet. This they had always bitterh- resented. At length, 
 their long discontent was excited into open warfare by some 
 of the tenets of Luther which advocated the confiscation of 
 Church property. Then their cupidity combined with their 
 desire for power to urge them to action. The standard of 
 revolt was raised by Franz Von Sickingen the owner of 
 numerous castles along the Rhine. But Luther, whom they 
 took to be their friend became their most jealous opponent. 
 He upheld the cause of the upper princes and this opposition 
 is important since it gave to the political aspect of the German 
 Reformation an aristocratic character. 
 
 421. The Peasants' Outbreak (1525). — The same policy 
 characterized Luther's attitude on the occasion of the peasants' 
 revolt. The peasants were then the most oppressed class in 
 Germany. X'ot only were the burdens laid upcjn them by their 
 feudal lords grievously heavy, but they were unable to make 
 their economic condition correspond with the advance of the 
 times. The other classes of society were rapidly advancing 
 in wealth and comfort. But the caste system of feudalism 
 kept them in their old condition and tied them helpless to 
 the soil. Also the diversion of the old trade routes must for 
 the time have occasioned considci"al)lc depression of trade. 
 It was not long before the peasants seemed to find in Luther's 
 
298 THE REFORMATION 
 
 writings a direct encouragement to revolt. But Luther dis- 
 appointed them as he had disappointed the knights. He even 
 urged the princes to crush the rebehion with fire and sword, 
 and was regardless of the fact that some of their demands 
 were copied word for word from his own writings. 
 
 422. Edict of Spires (1526). — At the same time, the re- 
 ligious strife began to assume a more geographical shape. 
 At the Diet of Spires it was enacted that in each state the 
 religion of the people should be decided by the will of their 
 ruler. This edict was another barrier, if an}' such were 
 needed, in the way of the formation of German unity. Re- 
 ligion itself was now added to the numerous jealousies and 
 petty strifes between state and state. 
 
 423. Confession of Augsburg (1530) still further accentu- 
 ated the discordant condition of affairs. The German Protes- 
 tants drew up their formal confession of faith and soon after 
 began to form th^ir mutual league against the Catholic states 
 of Germany. For they soon perceived that they would have 
 to uphold their contention by force. The league was called 
 after the name of the place v^'here they met " The League of 
 Schmalkalde." 
 
 424. French Intervention (1552). — The League at Schmal- 
 kalde and the war that afterwards broke out between the 
 Catholic and Protestant forces of Germany began to affect 
 even the foreign politics of Germany. Henry H was then 
 reigning in France and to him the Protestant party under its 
 able leader Maurice of Saxony appealed for support. Henry 
 n consented but only at a heavy price. The cities of Metz, 
 Toul, and Verdun in Lorraine were to be placed under the 
 protection of the French. It was not long before the French 
 king obtained a still firmer footing on German soil. The 
 
REFORM IN GENEVA 299 
 
 protectorate became changed into a military occupation. 
 From that time the French occupation of Lorraine has always 
 been the cause of irritation between France and Germany and 
 was not terminated even by the late Franco-German war. 
 
 425. Religious Peace of Augsburg. — In 1555 the contend- 
 ing religious ])arties agreed to a compromise called the Treaty 
 of Augsburg. The main provisions of this treaty were, 
 first, that each prince was to choose the religion for himself 
 and his subjects; second, the Lutherans were to be tolerated 
 and admitted in equal numbers with the Catholics to the Im- 
 perial Chambers; thirdly, the Church property that had been 
 secularized before 1552 was to remain so. 
 
 This treaty formed the basis of religious life in Germany 
 for the succeeding fifty years. It was not until 1618 that 
 religious strife again began to break out in the Thirty Years' 
 War. 
 
 426. The Reformation in Geneva. — The Reformation in 
 Germany was mainly indebted for its success to its aristocratic 
 character. Not only was its system of government thor- 
 oughly aristocratic but the political element in Germany with 
 which it blended consisted of the princes and higher magnates. 
 In Geneva, we behold the reforming movement under another 
 aspect. It was democratic in its form and it blended with the 
 democratic element of the community. 
 
 Geneva, in the early part of the sixteenth century was 
 subject to a triple jurisdiction. It had a municipal govern- 
 ment of its own but was also subject to the bishop of Geneva 
 and to the Duke of Savoy. A triangular duel seems fre- 
 quently to have Ijeen the result. Just about this time, the 
 bishop and the duke were trying to annex the city to the 
 duchy of Savoy. Naturally the burghers resisted and it was 
 also natural that the doctrines of the Reformation if they 
 
300 THE REFORMATION 
 
 once found their way there would find in the independent 
 burgher a very suitable soil for their development. 
 
 427. John Calvin was the man who brought together the 
 several elements of resistance. He was a native of Noyon 
 in the south of France. He was a man of brilliant gifts, as 
 well acquainted with the Scriptures as with the classics. He 
 had also great powers of organization and he certainly had 
 far more constructive ability than Luther. 
 
 No doubt, his early studies must have been such as to bring 
 out more fully the peculiar gifts of his mind. For he had not 
 only undergone a theological training but had also been pre- 
 paring himself for the practice of the law. 
 
 While studying in Paris, he came in contact with the doc- 
 trines of the reformers of Wittenberg. His mind was quickly 
 lead away from the Church and he openly advocated the 
 doctrines of Luther. But he was not by any means a mere 
 receptive disciple. He elaborated a system of his own which 
 he partly exposed in his " Institutes of the Christian Re- 
 ligion." 
 
 The fame of Calvin soon spread, and some of the reformers 
 in Switzerland invited him to share in their labors. He ac- 
 cepted their invitation and went to Geneva (1536). 
 
 428. Calvin's Doctrine. — The doctrines of Calvin differed 
 considerably from those of Luther. L^nlike Luther he re- 
 jected transubstantiation altogether, that is to say, he main- 
 tained that at the mass the bread and wine are just the 
 same after as before the consecration. He also differed from 
 Luther in regard to the doctrine of the development of pre- 
 destination. But the free will as taught by Calvin is a self- 
 contradiction since he maintained that some being predes- 
 tined to damnation are consequently unable to do otherwise 
 than commit sin. On the other hand, certain doctrines of 
 
CALVINISM 30 T 
 
 Luther were accepted by Calvin but in a more exaggerated 
 form. Thus it was maintained by Calvin that faith assures 
 not only justification but also salvation. Calvin was also 
 more thorough than Luther in the violence of his attacks on 
 the Catholic Church and rejected altogether its festivals and 
 ritualistic forms. 
 
 429. Organization of Calvinism. — Second, the organization 
 
 of the Church established by Calvin differed entirely from 
 that of Luther's. \\'hile Luther placed all power in the hands 
 of the princes, Calvin placed it in the hands of the people. 
 The Church as foundecj by Calvin was essentially democratic 
 in its origin and in its constitution. While, however, all 
 ])ower was supposed to be derived frcjm the people, the actual 
 administration of government was confided to a permanent 
 council called " The Consistorial Court of Discipline." 
 This council consisted of both pastors and laymen, and it 
 had supreme jurisdiction in all Church matters and general 
 morals. 
 
 Evidently a simple organization of this kind would only 
 suit a small area like that of Geneva, and it was reserved for 
 John Knox in Scotland to draw up a more elaborate Church 
 organization. Tn his Constitution, not only was there a Gen- 
 eral Assembly consisting of representatives froiu the local as- 
 semblies but there was also a hierarchy of smaller councils 
 such as provincial synods, presbyteries and Church sessions. 
 
 430. Political Elements of Calvinism. — This strong demo- 
 cratic character of the Calvinistic Church intensified any op- 
 position that might be made l^y the people to the established 
 government. Thus the Huguenots in France, the English 
 Puritans under the Stuarts, the Scotch Presbyterians under 
 Queen ^lary, and the Protestants of the northern Nether- 
 lands, all as we shall see, derived a considerable support and 
 
302 THE REFORMATION 
 
 incitement against the ruling government from the demo- 
 cratic and unreserved nature of Calvin's doctrines. 
 
 431. The Reformation in England. — The Reformation in 
 England differed from the Reformation in Germany and 
 Geneva in two important respects. First, the immediate ex- 
 citing cause of the Reformation was not the attitude of the 
 people hut the policy of the king and his ministers. Secondly, 
 the change of faith in England w^as effected not in co-opera- 
 tion with but in spite of the tendency of the great majority 
 of the people. Nothing indeed is more conspicuous than the 
 way in which the Catholics in England clung pertinaciously 
 to their faith and yet on the other hand were seemingly over- 
 whelmed by the force of circumstances. 
 
 432. Henry VIII and His Divorces. — Henry VIII had, 
 by a papal dispensation married Katharine of Aragon who 
 had been the wife of his deceased brother Arthur. After 
 seventeen years of married life Henry VIII began to have 
 scruples as to the legality of this marriage. His eagerness 
 for the dissolution of the tie between himself and Katharine 
 was also increased by his ardent affection for Anne Boleyn, 
 a maid of honor to the queen. Henry submitted the question 
 to the pope, who appointed a commission to inquire into the 
 case. The members composing the commission were Cardi- 
 nal Wolsey, the king's minister, and Cardinal Campeggio the 
 papal legate. But the commission purposely delayed the busi- 
 ness. So at the advice of Archbishop Cranmer, Henry re- 
 ferred the question to the universities of Europe. Their de- 
 cision was prompt but unfavorable. Only Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge pronounced in its favor. In the meantime the k'ng 
 had grown angry at the wilful delays of the papal court and 
 was disposed to lay the blame on Cardinal Wolsey. In spite 
 of Wolsey's efforts to placate the king, he was dismissed 
 
THOMAS CROMWELL 303 
 
 from office and soon after died wishing- " that he had served 
 his God as faithfully as he had served his king." 
 
 433. Thomas Cromwell. — A new minister now took the 
 place of Wolsey. This was Thomas Cromwell and it was 
 he who suggested to the king that series of decisive steps by 
 which gradually the Reformation was introduced into Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The personality of Thomas Cromwell is interesting. He 
 had led a roving and an adventurous life. His early years 
 were spent in Italy where he engaged his services as a hired 
 soldier. But his mind was of no common type. In the 
 midst of his active occupations he found time to make him- 
 self thoroughly acquainted with the dark and tortuous 
 methods of Italian diplomacy, especially was he deeply versed 
 in all the maxims of Machiavelli. After leaving Italy, he 
 spent some time in Holland as a clerk. From Holland, he 
 returned to England where he entered the service of Cardi- 
 nal Wolsey. His experience of the men and manners of 
 Europe, his thorough training in statecraft, all tended to 
 cultivate to the utmost his matchless ingenuity of mind and 
 •his utter ruthlessness of character. 
 
 Such was the man who at this moment took his place at the 
 helm of state. It was evident that no half-hearted measures 
 could be expected from him. He boldly advised the king to 
 sever all connection between England and Rome, to make his 
 own royal self head of the Church in England and in that new 
 capacity to dissolve the marriage with Katharine. 
 
 434. Separation of England From Rome. — Henry followed 
 his advice. By a succession of rapid strides England was 
 severed from Rome. Henry set aside Katharine by his own 
 royal authority and married Anne Boleyn. Finally contribu- 
 tions to the papal treasury were cut off and no more appeals 
 
304 THE REFORMATION 
 
 were to be made to Rome. Henry was declared Supreme 
 Head of the Church in England (1534). All religious 
 houses were suppressed and their temporalities handed over 
 to laymen. Even the secular clergy were brought entirely 
 under the control of the self-assumed spiritual power of the 
 king, for none could preach without a license and even the 
 licensed preachers were restricted in the topics of their ser- 
 mons. 
 
 Those who resisted this policy in any way were pitilessly 
 destroyed. The very highest in the land received the fiercest 
 blows. Thomas More, the favorite chancellor of the king, 
 one of the highest representatives of the New Learning and 
 eminent for his loyalty and piety, was asked to acknowledge 
 the spiritual supremacy of the king. He refused and had to 
 pay the penalty on the scaffold. Bishop Fisher of Rochester, 
 illustrious alike for his learning and for his sanctity met with 
 a similar fate. And with these perished many others con- 
 victed of the new treason of denying the spiritual supremacy 
 of the king. 
 
 435- Pilgrimage of Grace. — But Englishmen (jn the whole 
 were reluctant to accept the change. Especially in the north- 
 ern parts of England they clung- obstinately to the faith of 
 their fathers. An armed revolt was organized by the Cath- 
 olic nobles, a revolt that went by the name of Pilgrimage of 
 Grace (1536). At one time, the insurgents were so nu- 
 merous and so well organized that the government was in 
 imminent peril. But by a false promise they were induced to 
 separate, and wholesale executions ruthlessly stamped out all 
 traces of the movement. 
 
 436. The Six Articles. — While England was thus being 
 violently parted from the communion with the See of Rome 
 both Henry and the majority of his subjects still held fast 
 
EDWARD VI 305 
 
 to a great number of the old Catholic doctrines. In 1539 
 was passed the act of " The Six Articles." By this act all 
 were required to believe in, first, the Real Presence; secondly, 
 Communion under one kind; thirdly, celibacy of the clergy; 
 fourthly, the binding nature of vows of chastity; fifthly, the 
 lawfulness of private masses, and sixthly, auricular confes- 
 sion. 
 
 437. Edward VI and the Reform Movement. — When 
 Henry VIII died and Edward VI, his son, ascended the 
 throne (1547) even the Catholic ele- 
 ment tended to l^ecome eliminated. 
 This was chiefly owing to the activ- 
 ity of Archbishop Cranmer who had 
 altogether left the Catholic faith, 
 and to the active policy of the Earl 
 of Warwick who was Protector of 
 the kingdom on account of the king's 
 minority. A Protestant catechism 
 and a Protestant book of homilies 
 were drawn up and their use ordered 
 in all the churches. In 1552, were 
 formulated forty-two articles of re- 
 ligion, afterwards reduced to thirty- Qneen Mary, 
 nine, and all the clerg}^men, church-wardens and schoolmaster.^ 
 had to subscribe to these articles. 
 
 438. Catholic Reaction Under Queen Mary. — W ith the ac- 
 cession of the Catholic queen Mary (1553) there was a reac- 
 tion in favor of Catholicism. Catholic worship was again 
 restored, and in 1554 the two houses of Parliament resolved 
 by a formal vote to return to the obedience of the Holy See. 
 Cardinal Pole, who had been sent by the pope to receive the 
 submission of the kingdom was solemnly received by the two 
 
3o6 THE REFORMATION 
 
 Houses of Parliament and his words of absolution were re- 
 ceived on bended knees (1554). 
 
 439. Queen Elizabeth. — But this reaction lasted only as 
 long as the reign of Queen Mary. When she died in 1558, 
 Elizabeth, her sister, succeeded to the throne. Her own opin- 
 ions were in favor of the reformed doctrines. This was 
 clearly shown by her attitude even from the outset. As early 
 as 1559 she gave permission for part of the Church service 
 to be read in Latin, while in the same year there followed 
 measures still more unmistakable in their character. The 
 supremacy over things spiritual was restored to the crown. 
 All payments of money to Rome were abolished and the 
 book of Common Prayer as established by Edward VI was 
 with certain alterations, restored and prescribed for general 
 usage. 
 
 So far the attitude of Elizabeth had been one of impartial- 
 ity both to the new religion and the old. She was naturally 
 indifferent in religious matters and her wish would have been 
 to hold the balance evenly between the two reli'^ious parties. 
 But political circumstances almost forced her hand. Mary, 
 Queen of Scotland, who had married the Dauphin of France, 
 openly claimed the English throne. Her claims were the 
 more dangerous on account of the alliance between Scotland 
 and Erance, and the possible sympathies of the Catholic party 
 in England. Besides this political complication, while the 
 Protestant party were urgent in demanding war upon Spain, 
 the Catholics with the Duke of Norfolk at their head were 
 as earnest in favor of a steady peace with that country. 
 
 440. Elizabeth Completes the Separation of England From 
 
 Rome. — The flight of Mary Queen of Scots from her re- 
 bellious subjects into England, the conspiracies that were set 
 on foot to raise her to the throne, her execution in 1587, and 
 
REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 
 
 307 
 
 the consequent invasion of England by the Spanish fleet — 
 all combined with the anti-Catholic feeling throughout the 
 country to change a negative attitude into one of a severe 
 persecution of the Catholics. It was declared treason to in- 
 troduce papal bulls into the realm; all magistrates and public 
 officers had to subscribe to the articles of faith. Catholic 
 laymen who refused to attend the Protestant service were 
 punished by fines, and Catholic priests were imprisoned and 
 sent to the gibbet. These 
 severe measures pi-oduced 
 their intended effect of 
 weakening Catholicism in 
 England. They also com- 
 bined with the other causes 
 already mentioned to create 
 a tradition of hostility 
 against Catholicism — a tra- 
 dition which has lasted even 
 down to our own times. 
 
 The reign of Elizabeth 
 may be said to have com- 
 pleted the work of the Ref- 
 ormation in England. The 
 security of the throne, the 
 safety of the country from 
 
 Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 internal conspiracy and from foreign invasion were things 
 that seemed to be incompatible with Catholicism. At the 
 same time Protestantism was firmly organizing itself in- 
 wardly, and under succeeding reigns there gradually grew up 
 the Anglican Church such as we see it at the present day. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 The Reformation defined — Its controversial aspects — Re- 
 ligious causes of the Reformation — Abuses existing in the 
 church — Danger of exaggerating the extent of these abuses — 
 
308 THE REFORMATION 
 
 Printing of the Sacred Scriptures not a sufficient cause — Secular 
 causes of the Reformation — Heavy taxes laid on the clergy — 
 Jealousy entertained by lay rulers of the clerical influence and 
 wealth — The political elements of discord in different nations. 
 Reformation in Germany — Early career of Martin Luther — 
 His attack on abuses connected with indulgences — Formation 
 of two hostile parties — Leo X condemns Luther's doctrines — 
 Diet of Worms — Luther's retirement in Saxony — The Knights' 
 War — The Peasants' Revolt — Edict of Spiers — Confession of 
 Augsburg — French Intervention — Religious Peace of Augs- 
 burg — • Reformation in Geneva — Its political nature — Triple 
 government in Geneva — Early career of Calvin — Calvin's ar- 
 rival in Geneva and his activity there — Differen'^e between the 
 doctrines of Luther and those of Calvin — Difference between 
 the organization of the Lutherans and that of the Calvinists — 
 Democratic organization of the Calvinists — Reformation in Eng- 
 land — Conservatism of the English Catholics — Rise of the di- 
 vorce question — Thomas Cromwell — Strong policy of Crom- 
 vvell — Separation of England from the Catholic Church — Mar- 
 tyrdom of Thomas More and of Cardinal Fisher — Resistance of 
 the Catholic nobles in the North of England — the Six Articles 
 -— Accession of Edward VI to the English throne — Further de- 
 velopment of Protestantism — Catholic reaction under Queen 
 Mary — Queen Elizabeth and her religious policy — Active per- 
 secution of the Catholics brought about by political as well as 
 religious causes — Execution of Mary Queen of Scots and the 
 consequences thereof. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 KoSTLEN, Lutner; Ranke, Lives of the Popes; Seebohm, Protestant 
 Revolution; Beard, Luther; Hausser, Period of the Reformation; Cam- 
 bridge, Modern History; Fisher, Reformation; Alzog, Church History; 
 Spalding, History of the Protestant Reformation ; Perry, Reformation in 
 England; Froude, History of England; Gasquet, Eve of the Reformation ; 
 Seebohm, Oxford reformers; Creighton, Age of Elisabeth; Blunt, 
 Reformation of the Church in England; Gasquet, Henry VHI and the 
 English Monasteries; Vogel, Bibliotheca biographica lutherana; C. Ulman, 
 Reformatoren vor der Reformation; Martin Luther, Werke (Weimar) ; 
 Merle d'Aubigne, Histoire de la Reformation en Europe au Temps de 
 Calvin; Dufur, Le Catechisme de Calvin; Migne, Etablissenient de la 
 Reforme religieuse a Geneve (Paris) ; John Foxe, History of Acts and 
 monuments of the church. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION 
 
 441. Conditions Inside the Church. — Having considered 
 the fortunes of those who separated themselves from the 
 Cathohc Churcli we may now consider the important move- 
 ments that were taking place inside the Cathohc Church. 
 The sight of such numbers fallen away from the Church 
 speedily convinced those who remained within the fold of 
 the necessity of an urgent reform. It would not be fair, how^- 
 ever, to attribute the cause of this reform to Protestantism 
 alone. Some have done this and have therefore called the 
 reform inside the Catholic Church the counter-reformation. 
 But even before the triumph of Protestantism, there had been 
 a reforming party inside the Church. The efforts of popes 
 and councils and the protests of saints sufficiently testify to 
 the presence of a reforming element inside the Church. Even 
 as regards doctrine, there had existed inside the Church a 
 liberal but orthodox party that in matters as yet undefined 
 held freer opinions. 
 
 But this reforming element inside the Church had not suc- 
 ceeded in fully working out its way. It must be remembered 
 that society in those times was only partially organized. 
 Movements and agitations of any kind were slow to work 
 their way. The Church also in its outward body reflected the 
 character of the period. There were still remnants of feu- 
 dalism in the Church, such for example, as the large estates 
 held by the clergy. It required some strong upheaval, in 
 fact, nothing short of a revolution to enable her to throw off 
 the fetters and impediments of the medieval past. This 
 partly explains the reason why the reform in the Catholic 
 
 310 
 
REFORMING POPES 3II 
 
 Church was subsequent to and not antecedent to the Protes- 
 tant Reformation. 
 
 It will help towards a clearer idea of the nature of this 
 reform if we consider separately the various elements that 
 composed it. There were the popes whose lives were now an 
 example to Christendom, and there were the religious orders, 
 many of which were now modernized in their spirit and in 
 their work', there were the saints whose sanctity now as- 
 sumes a type in conformity with modern times, and finally 
 there was the important council of Trent that moulded into 
 a definite and permanent shape the new materials of the 
 outward body and seeming of the Church. 
 
 442. The Popes. — Perhaps the first pope who represented 
 the Reformation inside the Church was Paul IV (1555). 
 In the beginning of his reign, he allow^ed his attention to be 
 taken up with political interests, but he afterward devoted 
 himself entirely to the interests of the Church. His rela- 
 tions were removed from the Roman Curia and both by ex- 
 ample and by monition he made the first steps in the direction 
 of reform. 
 
 443. Pius V (1566) was in many respects the most worthy 
 and typical representative of the reforming rnovement. He 
 drew^ a strong line of demarcation between the Catholic 
 Church and other denominations, and at the same time he in- 
 creased wMthin this narrower area the spiritual life of the 
 Church. He renewed a crusade against the Turks. Under 
 his auspices a league of the Spaniards and of the Venetians 
 was formed against the Turks and in 1571 he was rew^arded 
 by the victory of Lepanto. His bull by which he excommu- 
 nicated heretics and all who should in any way favor the Sar- 
 acens and the aid that he gave to the Catholic party in France 
 and in the Netherlands were also a part of the same policy. 
 
312 
 
 THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION 
 
 Indeed, by the end of his reign, Pius V had succeeded in 
 clearly delineating the frontiers of the Church, perhaps some- 
 what to the exasperation of those who were on the outer side 
 of the frontier. 
 
 Of equal importance were his efforts in the direction of re- 
 form. The main consideration that lead to his election had 
 been the sanctity of his private life. His charity and humil- 
 ity — not his political ability — lifted him to the papal throne. 
 As pope, his public virtues were not less eminent. His zeal 
 
 in putting down simony, his 
 care for the education and 
 spiritual character of aspir- 
 ants to the priesthood made 
 their beneficent results felt 
 everywhere. It is also to 
 Pope Pius V that we are 
 mainly indebted for the 
 Roman Breviary in its pres- 
 ent form. Various other 
 breviaries had been in use l)e- 
 fore his time but he abroga- 
 ted them and substituted in- 
 stead the breviary in its pres- 
 ,, „„. ent form. 
 
 Ciregory XIII. 
 
 444. Gregory XIII, who succeeded Pius V in 1572 was 
 also zealous for the good of the Church, but his zeal had even 
 a more combative character than that of his predecessor. He 
 was frequently engaged in disputes with Venice and other 
 governments. The things for which he will be best remem- 
 bered are the material improvements that characterized his 
 pontificate. For example, there were the six colleges that he 
 built at Rome, and the establishing and the endowment of col- 
 leges in other towns of Italy. Then again, the name of 
 
RELIGIOUS ORDERS 313 
 
 Pope Gregory XIII will always be associated with the Gre- 
 gorian Calendar. Hitherto, the Julian Calendar, the one that 
 was adjusted by Julius C?esar, had been in use. But this in 
 course of time by the accumulation of small errors had be- 
 come unserviceable. Gregory XIII introduced the new and 
 present system of calculation and it was speedily adopted all 
 over Christendom. 
 
 445. Sixtus V (1585) was the last of the popes of this 
 particular period. He was a man of extraordinary capacity 
 and indefatigable energy. The magnificent halls in the 
 Vatican library, the completion of the cupola of St. Peter's, 
 the superb aqueduct called the " Aqua helici " and the well- 
 known obelisk in front of St. Peter's were all his work. His 
 interest in sacred learning was shown Iw his new edition of 
 the Vulgate Bible. Xor was he forgetful of administrative 
 concerns. He limited the number of cardinals to seventy 
 and established fifteen congregations for the more efficient per- 
 formance of the business of the Church. 
 
 446. The New Religious Orders. — The influence exercised 
 by the popes was rendered most efficacious by the founding 
 of new religious orders. Some of these still had for their 
 object the cultivation of the contemplative life, while others 
 adapted themselves for work in their modern environment. 
 One great feature of these modern orders was the absence of 
 a strong line of demarcation between the religious man and 
 the man of the world, such as we see in the older orders. In 
 dress, in occupation, and in wideness of interests they tried 
 to assimilate themselves more to the outer world. 
 
 447. The Jesuits. — The most important of these orders 
 was undoubtedly that of the Jesuits, founded in 1537 by St. 
 Ignatius Loyola, St. Ignatius was at first an ofiicer in the 
 
314 THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION 
 
 Spanish army. Receiving a wound on the field of battle, he 
 was laid up for some weeks in the hospital. During that 
 time he read the lives of the saints. The eternal truths made 
 such an impression upon his mind that he determined to for- 
 sake the world and devote himself entirely to the promotion of 
 the glory of God. 
 
 The general principles that seemed to have guided him 
 in the construction of his order were the defense of the Holy 
 
 _See, the destruction of religious error, and the mental and 
 religious welfare of humanity. 
 
 448. Jesuit Training. — The means adopted were the for- 
 mation of a large body of men united together under one 
 supreme head by (a) the tie of strictest military obedience; 
 (b) the taking of a fourth vow, promising to go as mission- 
 aries to any part of the world to which the pope might send 
 them; (c) a long course of mental and spiritual training. 
 This consisted of two years novitiate spent not in study but in 
 the practice of humility and of the other virtues. At the 
 end of the two years they were to undergo a course of five 
 years' study, after which the subjects were to teach in the 
 schools of the order for five or six years. At the end of this 
 time those who were to become priests had to go through a 
 course of four years' theology. Even their years of study 
 were accompanied by frequent daily exercises of piety, such as 
 meditation and examination of the conscience. 
 
 It was evident that a large body of men carefully selected 
 so thoroughly trained in every way and so tied down by obe- 
 dience to their immediate superior and to the pope must have 
 been a most formidable fighting contingent in the ranks of 
 the Church. In a few years' time branches of the order -were 
 to be found in every part of Europe and the whole of this for- 
 midable organization was completely at the disposal of the 
 Pope. 
 
RELIGIOUS ORDERS 315 
 
 449. Jesuit Influence. — The chief spheres of their activity 
 in Europe were the confessional and the professor's chair. 
 Through these avenues they reached every class of society, 
 the highest as well as the lowest. Hitherto the confessors of 
 kings had been chiefly the mendicant friars. But now they 
 were the Jesuits, typical of whom was the celebrated Pere 
 le Chaise, confessor to Louis XIV. Their colleges and 
 schools became renowned throughout Europe for learning and 
 strictness of discipline. 
 
 450. Jesuit Missionaries. — The missionary labors of the 
 Jesuits were also of importance. St. Francis Xavier, a dis- 
 tinguished member of the order, labored in the East Indies 
 and southern India. In Japan, the Jesuit fathers prepared 
 the way for those to come after. In China according to the 
 testimony of one who was for years British consul at Pekin, 
 they met with conspicuous success. Finally in Paraguay, 
 out of the converted Indians they built up a well organized 
 state, a state where all dwelt in peace and harmon}-, where 
 none paid taxes and all lived upon the product of the common 
 labor. 
 
 Besides the Jesuits, other modern orders were founded 
 about this time, orders, which being still in existence deserve 
 some mention. Some of the more important of these are 
 described in the following paragraphs. 
 
 451. The Theatines. — This order was founded by Paul 
 IV. Its main purpose was to correct the abuses of the clergy 
 by setting an example of every priestly virtue. One work 
 of charity in particular supposed to be peculiarly their prov- 
 ince, was the preparing for death of those doomed to capital 
 punishment. Numerous houses of the order flourished in 
 different countries, but now the order is to be found only in 
 Italy. 
 
3l6 THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION 
 
 452. The Oratorians. — This was a congregation founded 
 by St. Philip Neri (1515-1595). It was not an order in the 
 strict sense of the word, since no rehgious vows were taken. 
 
 Its primary object was to meet the wants of those who 
 while shrinking from the burdens oi the religious life still 
 wished to enjoy some of the assistance that it afforded. Its 
 practical daily work was chiefly the instruction of the people. 
 But the members of the order themselves soon became known 
 for their deep and scholarly learning. 
 
 453. The Barnabites. — The full title of this congregation 
 is " Regular clerks of the Congregation of St. Paul." They 
 are however, populajdy styled Barnabites from the church of 
 St. Barnabas in Milan where the first members of the congre- 
 gation used to assemble and pray in common. At the present 
 day the Barnabites are strong in the north of Italy and main- 
 tain their reputation for learning and scientific research. 
 
 It will be seen from the account of the work done by the 
 orders and congregations that they were very practical and 
 modern in their spirit and in their work. Their members 
 mixed freely with the world. And while, on the one hand, 
 the note of extreme asceticism seems to be wanting, there 
 is a greater cultivation of the more common and human vir- 
 tues of daily life. The medieval world had a type of sanctity 
 of its own and so has the modern. 
 
 454. Saints of the Sixteenth Century. — We find this illus- 
 trated also in the saints that flourished about the sixteenth 
 century. St. Charles Borromeo (1564), whose picture at 
 the present day is to be found in every part of northern Italy, 
 so undying is the memory of his zeal, charity, and utter devo- 
 tion to his people. St. Francis de Sales (1567), celebrated 
 for his charity and kindness, St. Philip Neri, called from his 
 zeal the Apostle of Rome, who when complaints were made to 
 
COUNCIL OF Th'HiXT 317 
 
 him of certain noisy boys replied that they might break fag'- 
 gots on his back so long as they did not commit sin. In these 
 as in so many other saints there is something essentially mod- 
 ern. While not loing sight in any way of the practice of 
 the highest snpernatural \irtue. they seem placed more in 
 touch with our own every day life. 
 
 455. The Council of Trent (1545-1563). — One very im- 
 portant factor in the Catholic Reformation was the holding 
 of the Council of Trent. Indi\idual ])opes with their su- 
 preme jurisdiction might accomplish much in the way of re- 
 form, but it was desirable that the bishops of all the dioceses 
 far and near should meet together and all agree on some 
 common plan of operation. 
 
 For a long while, the German emperors had been pressing 
 upon the popes the need of holding a general council. But 
 there were difficulties in the way. To hold the council on 
 German soil would be giving rise to the same disorders that 
 had attended certain other councils like those of Constance 
 and Basel. Indeed, owing to the influence of Protestantism 
 there would be still greater danger of disaffection toward the 
 sovereign jurisdiction of the pope. Yet to hold the council 
 on Italian ground might make the Germans fearful of local 
 influences. This difficulty, however, was finally surmounted 
 b}' the council being held at Trent which was on neutral 
 ground. The council with various intermissions lasted about 
 eighteen years. It was presided over in succession by Paul 
 III, Julius III, and Pius IV. 
 
 The importance of the council is seen from the fact that 
 it dealt with a wider range of subjects than any other coun- 
 cil, that it set forth in definite form the doctrines that had so 
 far been defined or universally held by the Church, and that 
 it reduced to a permanent system the reforming movement 
 inside the Church. 
 
3l8 THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION 
 
 The proceedings of the Council may be classed under two 
 general heads. First, those that concerned the doctrines; 
 secondly, those that concerned the discipline of the Church. 
 
 456. The Doctrinal Decrees of the Council. — It first of all 
 very carefully defined the sources of authority in matters of 
 faith. Luther and his followers had asserted that the Scrip- 
 tures alone are the depository of sacred revealed truth. The 
 council, against this, declared that the living tradition of the 
 Church is also a depository of revealed religion. After this, 
 the council went on to define the doctrines of the seven sacra- 
 ments, especially of the Holy Eucharist. Also the doctrines 
 concerning Purgatory, Indulgences, Veneration of Saints 
 and Images were clearly laid down. 
 
 What seemed to have caused the greatest discussion was 
 the question of the supremacy of the pope and the question 
 whether the bishops ruled by divine right or only by the author- 
 ity of the Holy See. After many heated arguments on both 
 sides, the council admitted .that the power of the episcopal or- 
 der is conferred at the very moment of consecration, but that 
 jurisdiction over any particular diocese can be exercised only 
 by papal authority. This view is set forth in a condensed 
 form in the heading of the pastoral letter issued by Catholic 
 bishops: "By the Grace of God and of the Apostolic See." 
 
 457. The Decrees of the Council Regarding the Discipline 
 of the Church. — An earnest endeavor was made to do away 
 with the evils that had been partly the cause of the Protestant 
 secession — such abuses, for example, as the corrupt practice 
 of granting indulgences, the non-residence of bishops and of 
 other pastors, the holding of benefices by laymen, and the in- 
 discriminate granting of dispensations. The disciplinary re- 
 form had also a positive aspect. Salutary decrees were 
 passed for the mental and spiritual betterment of the general 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCE 319 
 
 mass of the clergy. None but the fit were to be ordained, 
 seminaries for the training of priests were to be erected in all 
 the dioceses, and periodical provincial councils and espicopal 
 synods were to be held. Also, minute regulations were laid 
 down in order to secure that the cleric by his general deport- 
 ment and by his every act might edify the faithful. 
 
 The termination of the Council of Trent saw also the com- 
 pletion of the work of the counter-reformation. The Church 
 had successfully passed through the dangerous region separat- 
 ing medie\'al from modern times. Her identity and con- 
 tinuity of existence were still preserved and she rose from the 
 bitterness of preceding years with renewed virtue and spirit- 
 ual might. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 'I'rue causes of the reform inside the Catholic Church — Causes 
 of the slowness of this reform — The various elements of this re- 
 form — The Popes — Pius IV — Pius \' — His spiritual zeal and 
 activity — The example of his virtues — Gregory XIII and the 
 material improvements effected by him — Sixtus V — His activ- 
 ity m temporal and spiritual things — New religious orders — 
 Difference between these and the older orders — Foundation of 
 the Jesuit Order — Its principles and constitution — Efficiency of 
 the order — Influence in the chair and in the confessional — St. 
 Francis Xavier and Jesuit missionary work — The Theatines — 
 The Oratorians — The Barnabites — Modern saints and their 
 peculiar spirit — ^ The Council of Trent — Reason for its delay — 
 Im|)()rtance of the Council — Its doctrinal decrees — Its dis- 
 ciphnarv decrees. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Symonds, Caflwlic Reaction; Pastor, History of the Popes; Ward, 
 Counter Reformation; Hughes, Loyola; Cambridge, Modern History; 
 Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Bartoli, History of the Order of 
 the Jesuits; Capecelatro, Life of St. Philip Neri; Catechism of the 
 Council of Trent ; Villari, Life of Savonarola (Edited by J. Peacock) ; 
 Theiner, Acta genuina SS oecumenic Cone. Trent; Muller, das Con- 
 claves Pius IV; Calona, Vita del Pio V ; Henrien, Hist, des Ordres 
 religieux; Hefele, Life of St. Theresa; Sylvani, History of St. Charles 
 
3-^ TJIR CATHOIJC REFORM. \TION 
 
 Bonomco; Consalvi, Acta Antiquissima Ignatii, History Soc. Jesu by 
 Orlandino and others; Henrien, General history of Catholic Missions of 
 the 14th century; Crasset, History of church of Japan (Paris). 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 458. Philip II. — Of all the lay champions of the Reforma- 
 tion inside the Catholic Church, the foremost was perhaps 
 Philip of Spain. 
 
 The weariness of strife had induced Charles V to retire 
 from all cares of government. To his son Philip he resigned 
 Spain, the Netherlands and the Italian provinces, and for his 
 brother Ferdinand he succeeded in procuring the election to 
 the empire and thus the leadership of Germany. 
 
 Philip II w^as now one of the most powerful sovereigns in 
 Europe. \Miile his cousin Ferdinand of Germany enjoyed the 
 shadowy dignity of the Holy Roman Empire, he controlled a 
 real empire whose extent comprised not only the countries 
 already mentioned but also the New World wath all its treas- 
 ures of bullion and commerce. Spain was now the prepon- 
 derating powder of Europe and the character of its ruler be- 
 came therefore a matter of supreme importance. 
 
 The personal appearance of Philip II was not calculated to 
 inspire awe. His dwarfish stature, his bent legs, his nervous 
 and embarrassed manner quite explain his reluctance to ap- 
 pear much in public. Also, unlike Charles V, his accomplish- 
 ments were few-. Spanish was the only language that he 
 spoke with ease, and his interests were extremely narrow. 
 There was, however, one thing that he could do well and that 
 was the ordinary routine business of daily government. His 
 mind was rather like that of a foreman in a business store. He 
 delighted in details, and he himself insisted on performing 
 all the business that in the United States is performed by the 
 departments of war, education, agriculture, commerce, and 
 
 321 
 
322 lllE REVOLT Of THE NETHERLASDS 
 
 finance. With regard to wide problems of statecraft he was 
 capable of pursuing safely the policy of centralization begun 
 bv his predecessors, but when he initiated any line of policy of 
 his own, he was signally unsuccessful. 
 
 459. Centralizing Policy of Philip. — He continued the work 
 of liis predecessor in establishing the supremacy of the roval 
 
 authority in his own Span- 
 ish dominions. Already 
 the representative govern- 
 ment and the power of the 
 people had been reduced by 
 policy of Charles V to a 
 mere formality. In Ara- 
 gon, Philip now began a 
 similar policy and with suc- 
 cess. The Cortes retained 
 only a shadow of their for- 
 mer power and the courts 
 of law were entirely at the 
 disposal and mercy of the 
 king. 
 
 Besides this success, 
 Philip also succeeded in 
 temporarily annexing Portu- 
 gal to his possessions and in strengthening the royal author- 
 ity in his Italian provinces. 
 
 Philip II. Born at Valladolid 1527; died 
 at the Escorial 1598. 
 
 460. Philip's Intervention in the Netherlands. — But there 
 was just one place in his dominions where his policy suffered 
 a complete shipwreck, and that was the Netherlands. His at- 
 tempt to crush the provinical liberties of the Netherlands not 
 only met with determined and unexpected opposition but had 
 the effect of making the Netherlands for about thirty years 
 
WAR IN THE NETHERLANDS 323 
 
 the principal stage of European politics on which he played 
 a losing part. It was there that the physical contestant forces 
 of the "Protestants and Catholics met in combat and it was 
 there that was mainly fought the question of Spanish prepon- 
 derance in Europe. 
 
 461. The Netherlands. — In order to understand, however, 
 the meaning of the struggle and its influence on the future 
 map of Europe it is important to form some idea of what then 
 was meant by the Netherlands. 
 
 During the middle ages the Netherlands included what is 
 now Belgium and Holland. In the i6th century the whole 
 of this territory passed into the hands of the Dukes of Bur- 
 gundy. Later on, by the marriage of Maximilian with Mary 
 of Burgundy it passed into the hands of the House of Austria. 
 Charles then made another change by transferring the seven- 
 teen provinces of the Netherlands to the immediate jurisdic- 
 tion of Spain. 
 
 One very important feature in the Netherlands was the 
 difference between the northern and the southern provinces. 
 This difference was one of religion and of race. The in- 
 habitants of the northern Provinces were mainly Protestants 
 and of German descent; the inhabitants of the southern 
 Provinces were chiefly Catholics, and of French descent. 
 This difference between the North and the South gradually 
 shaped the whole course of the w^ar between Philip and the 
 Netherlands and ended by the northern Provinces l^econi- 
 ing what is now Holland, and the southern Provinces 
 becoming what is now Belgium. 
 
 462. The Causes of the War between the Netherlands and 
 Spain was the policy of Philip who tried to crush the local 
 liberties of the different provinces in the Netherlands and to 
 substitute instead his own royal authority. He tried to effect 
 
324 THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 this in two ways. First, by establishing a central govern- 
 ment entirely under his control. The native nobles, much to 
 their chargin. were excluded from it. Margaret of Parma, 
 his half-sister, who had not much independence of character, 
 was made governor in 1559. With her were associated a 
 triumvirate of the following ministers : Cardinal Granvella, 
 Barleymont, a noble, and Viglius a lawyer. Cardinal Gran- 
 vella was an accomplished man, acquainted with seven lan- 
 guages, a distinguished orator, ready-witted and a most adroit 
 courtier. Barleymont was by Catholics esteemed loyal and 
 honorable but by Protestants accounted as greedy and avari- 
 cious. Viglius the lawyer does not seem to have had much 
 influence in the more important transactions of business. 
 
 The second means by which Philip tried to establish his au- 
 thority was by procuring a bull from Pope Paul IV doing 
 away with the four ancient episcopal sees and creating in 
 their place fourteen new bishoprics and three archbishoprics. 
 These new sees were filled with pro-Spanish bishops who 
 could thus facilitate Philip's idea of making the Netherlands 
 completely Spanish. 
 
 463. Opposition to Philip's Plans. — Philip's schemes how- 
 ever, roused a tempest of opposition. At the head of the 
 resisting elements were the nobles whom Philip's government 
 had supplanted. Three names stand out conspicuously in the 
 list of these partiots — William of Orange. Count Egmont. 
 and Admiral Horn. W^illiam of Orange was descended from 
 the Counts of Nassau on the Rhine. He was at first brought 
 up in the doctrines of Protestantism, but on entering the serv- 
 ice of Charles V, he became a Catholic. On the death of 
 Charles V, he became a Calvinist. He was a man of ability, 
 and his political skill, his great caution and military sagacity 
 made him the first leader of the opposition. Count Egmont 
 was wealthy and noble, but the splendor of his military qual- 
 
DUKE OF ALVA 
 
 325 
 
 ities was set off by his vacillating incompetence as a states- 
 man. Admiral Horn was High Admiral of the United 
 Provinces. 
 
 The opposition at first contented itself with constitutional 
 protests. It secured the removal of Cardinal Granvella and 
 tried to show Philip the dangers of the situation he was creat- 
 ing. 
 
 464. The Compromise. — 
 
 Philip, however, still per- 
 sisted in his policy, and a 
 league called " llie Com- 
 promise " was formed, the 
 non-sectarian attitude of the 
 movement being shown by 
 the fact that it was joined 
 also by the Catholics. Un- 
 fortunately this purely polit- 
 ical aspect of affairs was 
 ((uickly altered by the vio- 
 lence of the Calvinists. 
 Filled with rage and blind 
 fury they demolished 
 churches and convents and 
 even partly defaced the magnificent Cathedral at Antwerp. 
 Thus even in this early stage of the struggle the opposition 
 was weakened bv intestine strife. 
 
 ii^ 
 
 
 
 
 'PJWi 
 
 \'-.Cv%? .--i •■' ' ' ' ■■) 
 
 
 
 
 ^■■:^<-~ 
 
 J»'r- 
 
 
 William 
 
 the Silent, Prince of 
 Born 1535; died 1584. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 465. The Duke of Alva. — At this juncture, the Duke of 
 Alva was sent by Philip (1567) to crush the insurrection. 
 Alva was already a distinguished general, noted for his strict 
 discipline and strategic skill. 
 
 The policy of Alva in regard to the Netherlanders mav be 
 summed up in this one word " Force." He instituted a judi- 
 
326 THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 cial council of twelve judges called " The Council of Blood " 
 which indulged in wholesale executions. He imprisoned and 
 executed Egmont and Horn. W'iliiam of Orange also would 
 have shared the same fate but he prudently fled. Such se- 
 verity was fjuickly followed by its own punishment. Public 
 opinion of the Protestant Powers began to be aroused and 
 their soldiers were soon to appear du the battle flelds of the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 466. The Commercial Policy of Alva was followed by still 
 more disastrous consequences. For the free right of self- 
 taxation which the Netherlanders had previously enjoyed, he 
 imposed a tax of one per cent, on all property, of five per cent, 
 on the transfer of all real property, of ten per cent, on the 
 transfer of all movable property. Commerce was thus bound 
 hand and foot. A house or any article of merchandise on 
 being sold a certain number of times would soon be mulcted 
 to the extent of its full value. 
 
 467. The Failure of Alva's Policy soon became apparent. 
 William of Orange aided by his brother Louis, placed him- 
 self at the head of French and German Protestant merce- 
 naries and speedily began to accomplish the decline of Spanish 
 power. It is true that the mercenaries were ill-trained and ill- 
 equipped in comparison with the Spanish soldiers, but Wil- 
 liam compensated for this lack by his consummate abilities as a 
 statesman. Moreover, he had on his side the Dutch mer- 
 chants so irritated by Alva's exactions. 
 
 468. Requesens. — In 1573 Alva was recalled from the 
 Netherlands and his place was taken by Don Luis de Re- 
 quesens an able soldier and a man of moderate courses. The 
 chief incident of his administration was the mutinous conduct 
 of the Spanish troops who maddened with fury by their long 
 
NEW LEADERS ' 327 
 
 arrears of pay broke loose from all restraint and with every 
 circumstance of cruelty sacked and pillaged the city of Ant- 
 werp. This conduct had the effect of temporarily submerging 
 the religious differences of the Netherlanders. Both Cath- 
 olics and Protestants now united together against the op- 
 pressor and formed a league called " The Pacification of 
 Ghent." 
 
 469. Don John x)f Austria, — In 1577, the place of Don 
 Requesens was taken by Philip's half-brother Don John of 
 Austria. He had already displayed the skill of an able gen- 
 eral at the battle of Lepanto against the Turks, but was lack- 
 ing in statesmanship. He w^as also disposed to conciliatory 
 measures, and partly won over the southern Provinces to 
 Spanish influences. 
 
 470. Alexander Farnese. — In 1578 his place was taken by 
 Alexander Farnese, nephew of Don John and Duke of 
 Parma and Piacenza in Italy. He successfully pursued the 
 same policy as his predecessor but in a more conscious and 
 more thorough way. He saw that it was now useless to try 
 to retain the northern Provinces, but that there was every 
 chance of gaining the southern Provinces by appealing to their 
 religion. William of Orange had already drawn similar con- 
 clusions regarding the northern Provinces. 
 
 471. Treaty of the Union. — There was, therefore, noth- 
 ing more left to fight about. In 1579, the Treaty of Union 
 was signed at Utrecht. This treaty recognized the union of 
 the seven northern Provinces with power of dictating war and 
 peace and levying their own taxes. At first Philip's over- 
 lordship was recognized, but in 1581 even this was formally 
 done away with. The United Provinces of the north then 
 became a confederate Republic and had a constitution some- 
 
028 1HE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 what resembling that of the United States. Its Council of 
 State containing- the federal element, corresponded to our 
 Senate, while its States' General w-as like our House of Rep- 
 resentatives in upholding the local elements of the constitution. 
 Even the central hgurehead was not wanting and the House 
 of Nassau maintained a loose kind of military presidency. But 
 the constitution was always in a very indetermined condition 
 and disputes were often rising between the federal and sepa- 
 ratist elements. 
 
 While the northern Provinces thus worked out their own 
 destiny, the southern Provinces remained Spanish and were 
 known by the name of Spanish Netherlands. From Spain 
 they passed successively into the hands of Austria, France, 
 and Holland, until by a continental treaty it was constituted 
 by the powers of Europe the present independent kingdom of 
 Belgium. 
 
 ^fe' 
 
 472. Elizabeth's Attitude Towards the Netherlands. — Dur- 
 ing the revolt of the Netherlands, the Reformation under 
 Elizabeth was slowly making its way in England. The sever- 
 ities of Alva cjuickly roused the ire of the English Protestants 
 and a loud outcry was roused for an active war upon Spain. 
 Elizabeth, however, held back. Her desire was to keep neu- 
 tral if possible, and thus hold in her hands the balance of 
 power. But the feeling of the nation was strong and she was 
 forced to enter the struggle. An army of eight thousand men 
 was sent to help the Protestants in the Netherlands, doles of 
 money were sent to the Prince of Orange, while English priv- 
 ateers harassed the Spanish shipping. The immediate effects 
 of the hostility were not apparent but there rose a strong feel- 
 ing of resentment in Spain, which began to regard England 
 as its deadliest foe, 
 
 473. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots.— In 1586 the 
 execution of Alary Queen of Scots left Philip the nearest 
 
THE SPANISH ARMADA 329 
 
 Catholic heir to the English throne, and this combined with 
 unfriendliness in the past persuaded him that a blow must 
 now be struck at England. The defeat of England meant 
 in his eyes the triumph of Catholicism and indirectly the con- 
 quest of the Netherlands and security of Spanish trade. He 
 prepared therefore a great fleet with which to invade England. 
 It was the most critical venture of his whole reign. On the 
 success of this practically depended the supremacy or the down- 
 fall of Spain. 
 
 474. The Spanish Armada set sail in 1588. In numbers 
 and in tonnage taken together it was nearly double the 
 strength of the English fleet. But it was badly handled, and 
 English gallantry combined with unusual storms effected its 
 complete destruction. England had thus become the instru- 
 ment of breaking the power of Spain. From now England 
 assumes the task which has ever since been hers — the task of 
 maintaining the balance of power in Europe and of checking 
 any nation that threatened by its preponderance to destroy 
 that balance. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Philip of Spain — Extent of his power — His character and 
 accomplishments — His policy of centralization — Meaning of 
 Netherlands — Division between the Northern and Southern 
 Netherlands — Philip tries to crush the local liberties of the Neth- 
 erlands — The Triumvirate — Opposition of Philip's schemes — 
 The Compromise — Policy of the Duke of Alva — The Council 
 of Blood — Failure of Alva's policy — Don Requesnes — Don 
 John of Austria — Alexander Farnese — Treaty of Union — 
 England's intervention in the war in the Netherlands — Spain 
 declares war on England — Invasion of the Spanish Armada. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Block, A History of flu- People of l/ie Xetherluinis: Johnson, Europe 
 in the Sixteenth Century: Ahni-KV, Ihtleli Republic and United Xetlier- 
 hnids: Hariuson, W'iUuim the Silent; IIl'me, Philip H; Young. Hislorv 
 
330 THE REJ-QLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 of the Netherlands; Stirling, Don John of Austria; Creighton, Queen 
 Elizabeth; Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan seamen; Froude, Spanish story 
 of the Armada; Beazley, Queen Elizabeth; Hinds, England of Elizabeth; 
 CoRBETT, Drake and the Tudor Navy; Gachard, Correspondence of Philip 
 //; Stevenson, Calendar of State Papers of Elizabeth's reign; Cabrera 
 DE Cordoba, Historia de Filip //; Weiss, Papiers de Cardinal de Gran- 
 velle ; Lettenhove, Relations politiqucs du Pays Bas; Juste, de la Revo- 
 lution des Pays Bas sous Philip //. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 THE THIRTY YEARS WAR 
 
 475. Causes of the Thirty Years' War. — Though peace 
 had indeed been made between Spain and the Netherlands, 
 war still continued between the two creeds. But the scene 
 of warfare was now to 1)e in (Germany. Here again was to be 
 fought out the great quarrel between Protestants and Cath- 
 olics and for the next tliirt}' years Germany became the 
 storm center of all the disturbing forces of Europe. 
 
 The causes of the Thirty Years' War are mainly to be 
 found in the defective nature of the religious treaty of Augs- 
 burg. No provision therein had been made for future prog- 
 ress. The government in each state was empowered to dic- 
 tate what should be the religion of that state. But no deed 
 on parchment can stay the march of facts. Princes Catholic 
 or Protestant might lay down regulations but populations 
 would steadily grow' Protestant or Catholic in spite of the 
 regulations. 
 
 476. Strife for Dioceses. — Moreover, there was one point 
 hotly disputed at the time of the treaty, which had never been 
 even verbally settled. Catholics had insisted that if any Cath- 
 olic prelate embraced the reformed faith he should resign the 
 temporalities attached to his office. The Protestants, how- 
 ever, protested against this and their protest together with 
 the Catholic claim was insisted on in the treaty. To our 
 modern minds, the claim of the Catholic party seems reason- 
 able enough but in those times the idea seems to have pre- 
 vailed that the prince might make the faith of those who were 
 his subjects. Naturally, this war of ideas became very acute 
 
 331 
 
332 Tim rniRTv ye.irs' jj'. ir 
 
 when bishops of important dioceses like Cologne left the Cath- 
 olic faith. 
 
 Even if the Treaty of Augsburg- had been clear and 
 definite on all the issues it could only have put an end to 
 physical hostilities. As soon as hostilities were over, the con- 
 flict was waged in the field of diplomacy and of proselytism. 
 There was a keen competition between the two creeds espe- 
 cially for the bishoprics of Westphalia and Cologne, which 
 were already wavering. Finally the struggle between the two 
 parties over the duchies of Cleves and Julich, nearly precipi- 
 tated hostilities. 
 
 The Lutheran claimant, Sigismund of Brandenburg, ap- 
 pealed to the Protestant party, and William, Duke of Neu- 
 berg, to the Catholic party. Even Spain and Holland were 
 nearly being in\'olved. However, the war cloud blew over 
 and the peace of Xanten was signed by which Neuberg ob- 
 tained Julich, while Brandenburg secured possession of Cleves. 
 
 477. The Gregorian Calendar. — Another element that 
 tended to intensify animosity between the two parties was the 
 introduction of the Gregorian Calendar. The Catholics were 
 naturally the first to welcome its appearance but the Protes- 
 tants were reluctant to adopt it. Hence the holidays and 
 feast days as they came round only added more material for 
 strife and hatred. 
 
 What more than anything else lead up to the Thirty Years' 
 War was the attempt on the part of the Catholics to hold a 
 religious procession in the streets of Donnau worth, a Protes- 
 tant city. A tumult was raised and blood flowed. The town 
 close to the dominion of Maximilian of Bavaria, was not un- 
 der his jurisdiction, but the Catholics appealed to him for 
 support. Maximilian both from zeal and interest was glad to 
 interfere. His troops marched into the city which was ac- 
 cordingly annexed to his own duchy of Bavaria. Both the 
 
BOHEMIAN PERIOD 333 
 
 Catholics and Protestants thereupon organized for war. The 
 Protestants were induced by Christian of Anhalt to form a 
 league and the Catholics on their side also formed a league 
 under Maximilian of Bavaria. 
 
 478. Disputed Succession to the Empire. — Shortly after 
 this, a disputed succession to the empire widened the strife and 
 gave to it a national character of the most serious importance. 
 The Emperor Mathias died in 161 9. The electors, of whom 
 the majority were Catholics, elected in his place Ferdinand 
 II. a zealous Catholic brought up in a Jesuit college. But 
 Bohemia being a stronghold of Protestantism bitterly pro- 
 tested, and chose as its ruler, Frederick, the Elector Palatine, 
 an ardent Protestant and head of the Protestant union. 
 
 War now became inevitable, and during the next thirty 
 years most of the European nations one after the other, were 
 dragged into the vortex of strife. 
 
 In order to facilitate the memory as well as to render more 
 clear the relative importance of the different phases of the w^ar, 
 we will divide it into periods labelled by the names of the 
 different nations that took part in the struggle. 
 
 THE BOHEMIAN PERIOD (1618-1623). 
 
 479. Battle of the White Hill. — Frederick the Elector 
 Palatine himself appeared in Bohemia in order to enforce his 
 claims. Everybody was charmed by the gracefulness of his 
 appearance, and his fair and slender form. But the Jesuits 
 rightly prophesied that his career would be short, and chris- 
 tened him the " winter king." A decisive battle took place on 
 the White Hill near Prague (1670). Shouting out their 
 battle cry of " Holy Mary " the Catholic soldiers rushed im- 
 petuously forward and completed routed their antagonists. 
 Not only were Frederick's dreams of aggrandizement rudely 
 dispelled but he was even driven out of his own domains. The 
 
334 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 
 
 Spainards who were Catholics and ruled by a Hapsburger 
 now eagerly took part in the struggle. They invaded the 
 Palatinate and the electoral vote was taken away from Fred- 
 erick and was given to Maximilian of Bavaria. 
 
 480. Results of the Bohemian Campaign. — The important 
 net results of the Bohemian campaign were the hrm establish- 
 ment of the rule of Ferdinand in Bohemia, the Catholic con- 
 quest of the Palatine and especially the addition of the Protes- 
 tant electorial vote of the Palatine and the creation of a new 
 electorate for the benefit of Catholic Bavaria. 
 
 The cause of Ferdinand, the champion of Catholicism, had 
 triumphed. But this very triumph brought its own dangers. 
 France began to get alarmed at the rising power of the Span- 
 ish-Austrian House, and in the minds of the Protestant princes 
 of Europe, the motives of religious zeal began to excite into 
 action any personal motives that they might have had for in- 
 terference. 
 
 481. Foreign Intervention. — The Protestant power most 
 deeply interested in the fate of the Elector Palatine was Eng- 
 land, for James I then king was father-in-law to the Elec- 
 tor. But James, who had the ambition without the ability of 
 Elizabeth, wished to stand aloof and hold the balance of power 
 between European politics. All that he tried to do was to 
 mediate with the King of Spain in behalf of the unfortunate 
 Frederick. 
 
 The next Protestant power whose immediate interests were 
 most at stake was Denmark. The bishoprics of Bremen and 
 Verden in north Germany were in the possession of the son of 
 the King of Denmark. Any further Catholic success might 
 imperil the safety of these bishoprics. Accordingly, Chris- 
 tian IV of Denmark was persuaded to intervene and with this 
 intervention begins the next period of the war. 
 
DEFEAT OF DENMARK 335 
 
 THE DENMARKIAN PERIOD (1625-1629). 
 
 482. Wallenstein Appears. — King Christian himself headed 
 the Danish forces and invaded Germany. In onr times, this 
 new element in the struggle would not seem of much impor- 
 tance but in those days Denmark was a powerful kingdom 
 and included within its territory the present kingdom of Nor- 
 way. 
 
 Against Christian of Denmark were drawn up the Cath- 
 olic armies under two distinguished generals, Tilly and Wal- 
 lenstein. The presence of Wallenstein especially was of su- 
 preme importance. Already he had great influence as being 
 the owner of large territorial possessions in the northeast of 
 Bohemia, while a huge beer monopoly in Bohemia brought 
 him a magnificent yearly income. But it was his qualities as 
 a general that were destined to make him so conspicuous in 
 the war. His iron discipline, his power of rapidly forming 
 an army out of raw recruits, and his swift irresistible move- 
 ments made him a most formidable antagonist. 
 
 483. Defeat of the Danes. — The Danish army soon suf- 
 fered reverse after reverse. At Lutter, Tilly completely 
 routed Christian IV while at Cosel, Wallenstein defeated the 
 other Danish army and drove it from Silesia. 
 
 Well might the emperor rejoice even more than at the re- 
 sults of the first campaign, for now it was his army and not 
 that of the Catholic League that had won the day, and it was 
 his general that had controlled all the operations. Hence 
 Wallenstein was honored and flattered in every way. He 
 \yas declared general of all the forces and admiral of the 
 Baltic and of the North Sea. He was given the duchy of 
 Mecklenburg and became almost sovereign over all the land 
 bordering the Baltic Sea. All that was lacking to complete 
 the victory was the town of Stralsund, but in spite of Wallen- 
 
336 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 
 
 Stein's efforts he failed to take it through the want of a fieet. 
 This encouraged the Danes to make another invasion. But 
 Wahenstein again proved himself invincible on land. In 
 1629 Christian was glad to conclude the treaty of Liibeck by 
 which he was obliged to surrender his son's two bishoprics. 
 
 484. Jealousy of Wallenstein. — Wallenstein's success now 
 gave a new complexion to the war. The Catholic League be- 
 came jealous of the personal success of the emperor and were 
 equally jealous of his all powerful general. They at once 
 strove to minimize the activity of the emperor and to use the 
 victories for the general good of the Church. These two 
 things they sought to accomplish by insisting on Wallenstein's 
 dismissal, and by procuring from the emperor the Edict of 
 Restitution. This Edict provided that all ecclesiastical prop- 
 erty secularized since the year 1552 should be restored. 
 
 485. Sweden Intervenes. — This triumphant progress of 
 Catholicism in Germany now gave Sweden an opportunity of 
 interfering. Sweden was ruled at that time by Gustavus 
 Vasa, who had ascended the throne when only seventeen years 
 of age. He at once showed signs of precocious military 
 ability and emerged successfully from wars against Russia 
 and Poland. He even took possession of Livonia on the 
 south shore of the Baltic — an acquisition wdiich must have 
 already awakened his ambitions in the direction of Germany. 
 
 The fact that the emperor had helped his enemies in Poland 
 and that the Protestants appealed to him for help afforded 
 him a sufficient pretext for a more active aggressive policy. 
 He accordingly posed as the champion of Protestantism and 
 entered Germany at the head of an army. His appearance 
 thus inaugurated the third period of the war. 
 
GUSTAITJS ADOLPHUS 
 
 337 
 
 THE SWEDISH PERIOD (163O-1635). 
 
 486. Gustavus in Germany.— It was precisely at the mo- 
 ment of Wallenstein's dismissal that Gustavus landed in Ger- 
 mau}'. The army of Gustavus was now one of the model 
 armies of Europe. Instead of the old-fashioned scattere(i 
 cohorts, they were well formed regiments taught to move with 
 even moxement and preci- 
 sion, while the more efficient 
 musket was suhstituted for 
 the ancient and unwieldly 
 spear and pike. 
 
 So masterl}' were the 
 early operations of Cnistavus 
 that Xajioleon once re 
 marked that they showed 
 him to be one of the great 
 est generals of his age. At 
 first, he delayed his a(l\ance 
 till the Protesta:it princes 
 of F'randenburg and Saxony 
 had delinitel}' joined his 
 standard, for he was fear- 
 ful of being cut off from 
 communication with his base 
 of supplies and from the 
 
 possibility of a retreat. But this obstacle was soon sur- 
 mounted and Gustavus was able to advance. At Breitenfeld 
 near Leipsic his army met the imperial forces under Tilly and 
 severely defeated them. 
 
 There was no Wallenstein now to retrieve the disaster and 
 all Germany seemed to lay at the feet of Gustavus. He made 
 a victorious march through the ecclesiastical principalities of 
 southwestern Germany, where town after town fell into his 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, from a portrait by 
 \'an Dyck. Born 1594: killed at Liit- 
 zen 163J. 
 
338 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 
 
 hands. Thence he turned eastwards and invaded Bavaria, 
 the very stronghold of Cathohcism. 
 
 487. The Recall of Wallenstein. — There was only one man 
 equal to the situation, and that man was Wallenstein. But 
 would he now consent to take command after his recent hu- 
 miliation? The emperor through sheer necessity made over- 
 tures to him. But Wallenstein was now master of the po- 
 sition and could make his own terms. As was not unnatural 
 he consulted his own interests and policy. His terms were 
 that he should have sole and unlimited control of the army, 
 that he should be sovereign over any of the provinces that he 
 might conquer, and that the emperor should give him one of 
 the imperial hereditary states. 
 
 488. Death of Gustavus at Liitzen. — The emperor con- 
 sented ; as soon as Wallenstein was on the field the tide of 
 Swedish invasion was brought to a standstill. Wallenstein 
 by throwing up remarkably strong lines of defense prevented 
 Gustavus from taking the city of Nuremberg. Both gen- 
 erals then declined an immediate engagement and marched 
 jUorthwards into Saxony. Wallenstein hoped to w^in over the 
 Elector of Saxony, but Gustavus tried to prevent this. They 
 met at Liitzen (1632) where the imperial forces were indeed 
 beaten, but the defeat was acknowledged to be a victory when 
 it became known that Gustavus had fallen on the field of 
 battle. 
 
 489. The Murder of Wallenstein. — Wallenstein had now 
 reached the zenith of his power. Bitter experience, however, 
 might have taught him that this was also the hour of danger. 
 Again the old jealousies against him were aroused. Even 
 the emperor began to shrink from his huge debt of obligations 
 to Wallenstein and to regard him as a dangerous instrument 
 
THE FRENCH PERIOD 
 
 339 
 
 no longer of use. The career of Wallenstein began to de- 
 cline. Amidst dark clouds of unpopularity he retired to the 
 walls of his faithful fortress of Egen but even there he 
 was pursued by the daggers of assassins and he perished in 
 1634. 
 
 In the same year, the emperor took charge of the splendid 
 army that had been left by Wallenstein and at the battle of 
 
 Nordlingen he so effectually 
 crushed the Protestants that 
 the whole of South Germany 
 now lay at the disposal of 
 the imperialists (1674). 
 
 490. A New Leader. — 
 
 The question of finding a 
 new ally for the Protestants 
 was at once raised. James 
 I of England had shown 
 himself unwilling to do more 
 than give fair words, and 
 both Denmark and Sweden 
 had failed of victory. But 
 the changed aspect of the 
 Wallenstein. ^y^j. ^yhich had bccomc not 
 
 so much a struggle between Catholics and Protestants as 
 between the emperor and those who resented his ever in- 
 creasing power, suggested a new ally. The battle of Nord- 
 lingen became the signal for French intervention and with 
 this we enter upon the last period of the war. 
 
 THE FRENCH PERIOD ( 1 634- 1 648) 
 
 Even during the earlier stages of the war, France had been 
 an interested spectator. Both on the east and southwest her 
 frontiers were menaced by the possessions of the powerful 
 
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340 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 
 
 liouse uf Hapsburg". The Spaniards had succeeded in ob- 
 taining possession of the pass of the Valtelline between Italy 
 and the Austrian Tyrol — an important prize since it secured 
 communication between the Hapsburg possessions in Italy 
 and Germany. 
 
 491. Cardinal Richelieu was then Prime Minister in France 
 and he at once began operations. He assisted the Protestant 
 insurgents in the Valtelline against the Spaniards, he formed 
 an alliance with Holland for the purpose of attacking Spain 
 in her Netherland possessions, and on the southwest he suc- 
 ceeded in taking Roussillon, a province of Spain dangerously 
 close to the French frontier. More important still was the 
 French occupation of the chief fortresses of Alsace. At the 
 same time that the French were securing their interests, the 
 Swedes were warring in order to retain their hold on northern 
 Germany. 
 
 492. Treaty of Westphalia. — It became pretty clear that 
 the original purposes of the war had been lost sight of alto- 
 gether and that it had degenerated into an indecent struggle 
 for the spoils of Hapsburgan territory. At last, all parties 
 became weary of the contest. Negotiations were set on foot 
 and after a great many preliminary formalities, there was 
 signed in 1648 the famous Treaty of Westphalia. 
 
 This treaty settled two very important questions, first the 
 religious, secondly the territorial question. 
 
 The religious question was settled mainly on the basis laid 
 down by the Treaty of Augsburg of 1555. Each prince was 
 to dictate the religion of the state over which he ruled. But 
 this right was limited by the liberty allowed to non-conformers 
 of emigrating within five years' time. In all imperial courts 
 and deputations members of the religious parties were to be 
 admitted in equal numbers. The difficulty of ecclesiastical res- 
 
TREATY OF WESTPHALIA 34I 
 
 ervations was also dealt with in the same manner as in the 
 Treaty of Augsburg, only that a different date was fixed, 
 namely 1624. That is to say, all benefices secularized before 
 this date were to remain as they were. In only two respects 
 were there any fresh lines of departure. First the Calvinists 
 were recognized and second members of different creeds no 
 longer enjoyed equal rights within their respectix'e states. 
 
 493. The Territorial Question was settled by the following 
 arrangements : 
 
 France obtained Alsace with the exception of the bishopric 
 of Strasburg. 
 
 Sweden obtained Upper Pomerania, part of Lower Pome- 
 rania, the cities of Bremen and Verden which had formerly 
 belonged to Denmark, and a war indemnity. 
 
 Brandenburg obtained all that part of Pomerania which did 
 not go to Sweden. Brandenl)urg was really entitled to the 
 whole and therefore received by way of compensation the 
 bishopric of Halberstadt, Magdeburg and Minden. 
 
 The boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire underwent 
 modifications. Switzerland and the Protestant Netherlands 
 were now declared outside its boundaries. The reason of this 
 will easily be understood when it is remembered that the pres- 
 ent Holy Roman Empire now only meant Italy and Germany, 
 and thus all political communication between Germany and the 
 aforesaid two countries had altogether ceased. 
 
 494. Results of the Treaty of Westphalia. — The following 
 were the most important results of the Treaty- of Westphalia : 
 (a) France owing to her possessions in Alsace had from now 
 a strong German policy; (b) Sweden from her possession in 
 North Germany had now some chance of realizing her ambi- 
 tion of converting the Baltic into a Swedish Lake; (c) Bran- 
 denburg by its possession of part of Pomerania and the bishop- 
 
342 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 
 
 rics of Halberstadt, Magdeburg, and Minden found itself in 
 possession of important nuclei which were eventually to 
 coalesce by future conquests and form the kingdom of Prus- 
 sia; (d) In Germany itself, the power of the emperor as such 
 was reduced to a mere shadow, the princes of Germany having 
 now become so many independent sovereigns. 
 
 495. Foreign Policy of James I. — England, as we have 
 seen, interfered very little in the Thirty Years' War. James 
 I was anxious to maintain the balance of power in Europe by 
 an alliance between himself as the leader of the Protestants 
 and Philip III of Spain as leader of the Catholics. Even the 
 Spanish occupation of the possessions of his son-in-law the 
 Elector Palatine, failed to move him from this policy. He 
 even tried to bring about a marriage between his son Charles 
 and the daughter of Phillip III. It was only when his son 
 who went to Spain in order to woo in person, had been pub- 
 licly mocked at by the Spanish court and openly fooled, that 
 James began to veer round from his cherished policy. 
 
 Instead of courting an alliance with Spain, James and his 
 minister now began to make approaches to France. As a 
 seal upon the amity of the two nations Prince Charles was 
 married to Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. But in 
 spite of this marriage, England still held aloof from actual 
 strife and took no substantial part in the great continental 
 war. 
 
 496. The Domestic History of James' Reign is more im- 
 portant. Already under Elizabeth Parliament had begun to 
 assert its powers. Indeed, on two or three occasions an actual 
 collision between Elizabeth and Parliament seemed imminent 
 and was only averted by the queen's exquisite tact. 
 
 But James was utterly unlike Elizabeth. He had lived all 
 his life in Scotland, and had no acquaintance with the temper 
 
JAMES I AND PARLIAMENT 343 
 
 of the English people. He was thoroughly conceited and 
 without any corresponding ability, and he had even a greater 
 ambition than his predecessor to strengthen the royal power. 
 
 497. Contest Between James I and Parliament. — Almost 
 as soon as he ascended the throne, disputes took place between 
 himself and Parliament. These disputes mainly rose from 
 his doctrine that kings rule by divine right, a doctrine which 
 he pushed to practical extremes. In religious matters he 
 refused to listen to any suggestions for the reform of the 
 Church and by his high-handed proceedings offended the 
 strong moderate party of the Church of England. In his 
 relations with Parliament, the king claimed though unsuccess- 
 fully the right to decide disputed elections to the House of 
 Commons. 
 
 Ignoring the right of Parliament to grant or refuse taxes, 
 he himself of his own royal authority levied imposts and rates 
 and even had published a book of rates imposing heavy duties 
 on almost every article of commerce. Owing to his desire of 
 summoning Parliament as seldom as possible, James soon had 
 recourse to raising money by forced loans, monopolies, and be- 
 nevolences. This roused a spirit of resentment in nearly every 
 class of society. In judicial matters, he also clashed with the 
 spirit of the constitution. At first, his acts were tempered 
 with some show of legality, for he took care to procure the 
 support and favorable decision of the judges. But later on he 
 threw aside even this outer covering of decency. When the 
 Lord Chief Justice Coke upheld the procedure of the law 
 against the king's personal intervention, he was roughly de- 
 posed and dismissed from office. 
 
 In 1625 the quarrelsome reign of James I came to a close 
 and he was succeeded by his son Charles I, in whose reign 
 the strife between the king and Parliament was brought to a 
 violent climax. 
 
344 '^"^^^ riilRTY YEARS' WAR 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Germany again the center of the rehgions war — Causes of 
 the thirty years' war — Immediate cause of the thirty years' 
 war — The Bohemian Period — Battle of White Hill — Triumph 
 of Ferdinand — Denmarkian Period — Struggles between Chris- 
 tian IV and Tilly and Wallenstein — the Danes defeated — Wal- 
 len^tein's success arouses jealousy of Catholic princes — Wallen- 
 stein's dismissal — Swedish Period — Gustavus Adolphus — 
 Battle of Breitenfeld — Wallenstein recalled on his own condi- 
 tions — Battles of Lutzen — Death of Gustavus — Assassination 
 of Wallenstein — French Period — Motives of French interven- 
 tion — Success of Cardinal Richelieu's policy — Treaty of West- 
 phalia — Results of the Treaty of Westphalia — James I's for- 
 eign policy — His abandonment of an alliance with Spain and 
 his approaches to the French court — Character of James I — 
 Disputes arise between himself and parliament — James I raises 
 money by unconstitutional means — His interference with the 
 courts of justice. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Cambridge, Modern History; Fletcher, Gustavus Adolphus; Gindely, 
 Thirty Years' War; Fox-Bourne, Sir Philip Sidney; Gardiner, Thirty 
 Years' War; Schiller, Thirty Years' War; Gardiner, The First Two 
 Stuarts; Green, History of the English People; De Thon, History of his 
 own times, book CXXX and VHI ; Grindely, History of Thirty Years' 
 War; Charvenat, Histoire de les Guerres de Trente Ans; Carafa, 
 Relatione dello Stafo dell' impcro a della Germania; Meurin, Acta pads 
 Westphalianae; Gfrora, Gustavus AdolpJms (Leipsig) ; Tadia, Brief e von 
 Wallenstein. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 FRANCE PREVIOUS TO THE REIGxN OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 498. The Two Parties in France. — The great struggle be- 
 tween Catholics and Protestants that had made of Germany 
 one huge battlefield made itself felt also in France. In France 
 also, there were two political parties, one of which identified 
 itself with Catholicism and the other with Protestantism. The 
 Dukes of Guise supported the Catholics, while the Princes of 
 Bourbon upheld the Calvinists. Owing to the minority of 
 Francis II and after him of Charles IX Catharine de Medicis, 
 the queen mother, held the reins of power as regent. Though 
 a Catholic, she upheld neither side but cocjuetted first with one 
 side then the other. 
 
 499. Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — From 1559 to 1598, 
 the history of the strife is a record of mutual violence and 
 deeds of cruelty. One act in this lurid drama has attracted 
 the special attention of historians and that is the celebrated 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). The circumstances of 
 the massacre were as follows : Attempts were being made 
 to heal the strife between the rival parties. Admiral Coligny, 
 one of the most famous of the Protestant leaders had been 
 invited by Charles IX to the French court while a marriage 
 was going to be celebrated between the Protestant king of 
 Navarre and Margaret, the youngest sister of Charles. In 
 order to take part in the rejoicings a number of Calvinists 
 hastened from all parts to Paris. Unfortunately these ap- 
 parent signs of reconciliation only lead to disastrous conse- 
 quences. Admiral Coligny so abused his position as to preju- 
 dice Charles against Catharine, and this so frightened the 
 
 346 
 
QUESTION OF SUCCESSION 347 
 
 queen mother that she arranged a plot to assassinate CoHgny. 
 The plot failed and now that so many Calvinists were in Paris 
 she was terrified at the possible consequences of her attempt 
 upon Coligny's life. She and the Duke of Anjou represented 
 to the king that Coligny and the Calvinists were plotting 
 against his life; that civil war was imminent, and that the 
 only remedy was the wholesale extermination of the Protes- 
 tants. The king consented. At the sound of the midnight 
 bell of the Church of Saint Germain I'Auxerois, the massacre 
 of the Protestants began and lasted three whole days, in the 
 course of which thousands of people were killed. 
 
 Whether or not Charles really believed the suggestions of 
 the queen mother regarding a Protestant plot and an ap- 
 proaching civil war he certainly alleged these things as an 
 excuse for his deed. He seems also to have taken care that 
 the news of the excuse should reach Rome, for Pope Gregory 
 XIII ordered a solemn Te Deum to be sung and congratulated 
 the king on his narrow escape. 
 
 500. Question of Succession.— The massacre did not suc- 
 ceed in quieting the agitations of the Huguenots. The death 
 of Charles IX in 1574 and the accession of Henry III, a weak 
 and incompetent man had no influence in diminishing the 
 struggle. \\'hen it became evident that Henry III would soon 
 die without children, the question of succession brought the 
 strife to a climax. 
 
 Both religious parties began to run their own candidates 
 for the royal succession. The Protestants supported the 
 claims of Henry of Bourbon, the Calvinist king of Navarre, 
 and nearest heir to the throne; the Catholics on the other hand, 
 offered the throne to the Cardinal of Bourbon, the nearest 
 Catholic heir. A Catholic league was formed in order to up- 
 hold the claims of the Cardinal but its forces were defeated at 
 Courtrai by Henry of Navarre. Henry III was still alive 
 
348 FR.-IXCE PREJ'IOrS TO THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 while they were thus prematurely fighting fur the possession of 
 his throne. 
 
 501. Henry IV. — It was natural that neither side should 
 have any particular claim on- his sympathy, but his own safety 
 urged him to form an alliance with Henry of Navarre. 
 Shortly after this he was assassinated and in 1590, Henry of 
 Navarre scceeded as Henry IV. 
 
 The religion of Henry I\'' would no doubt luue been an 
 insuperable obstacle in the eyes of the majority of his sub- 
 jects. This difficulty, however, was soon solved. He an- 
 nounced his determination to embrace the Catholic reli.i^ion. 
 Many with too great facility have attributed this conversion 
 to mere motives of policy. But the after career of Heiu'y 1\' 
 showed clearly that he had more sympathy with the Catholic 
 than with the Protestant religion. 
 
 502. Edict of Nantes. — One of the most important meas- 
 ures of his reign was that which regarded the Protestants. 
 He was sincerely desirous of putting an end to religious strife 
 and he also saw clearly that the only way to accomplish this 
 was to allow a compromise by which each party might find 
 itself satisfied with the obtainment of the possible maximum 
 of its claims. In 1598, was issued the famous Edict of 
 Nantes. This Edict allowed to the Protestants full liberty 
 of worship in nearly two hundred towns, most of them in the 
 South, while in other parts of the kingdom, the Protestants 
 could choose for their place of worship one town in each 
 judicial district. Also, they were alUnved to hold office in 
 Parliament and in the different administrative offices. As a 
 guarantee for all this, certain towns were handed over to the 
 Protestants. 
 
 The Catholics on the other hand had the supremacy of 
 their faith acknowledged, its festivals made obligatory on all, 
 
PROSPERITY IN FRANCE 349 
 
 and the continued enjoyment of its revenues. One striking 
 feature of the compromising element of the treaty was that 
 while the dissenters had to pay tithes to the Catholic Church, 
 their own expenses were partly defrayed from the king's own 
 purse. 
 
 503, Prosperity in France. — Besides the great religious 
 peace, another important element of Henry's reign was the 
 rapid growth in the material prosperity of France. This was 
 mainly owing to the practical ability of the Duke of Sully, 
 Henry's most able administrator. 
 
 It was chiefly in matters of economy that the administra- 
 tion of Sully was beneficial to the kingdom. The system of 
 levying- taxes was improved so that the greater part of the 
 money raised, actually found its way into the treasury. While 
 the revenue underwent a diminution from the abolition of 
 sinecure offices that used to be sold to the highest bidder, it 
 received a compensation by making seats in its Parliament 
 or supreme court of justice, hereditary on condition of pay- 
 ment of an annual tax. 
 
 Regulations were made for improving the trade of the na- 
 tion. Communication between different parts of the kingdom 
 was facilitated by the construction of roads and bridges. 
 Capital was retained in the kingdom by forbidding the expor- 
 tation of money and a better distribution of capital was also 
 arrived at by limiting the rate of interest to six per cent. 
 Nev/ factories were established, plantations of mulberry trees 
 were introduced, and such important public works were suc- 
 cessfully executed as the Botanical Garden of Montpellier, the 
 Hospital of Christian Charity for invalid soldiers, and other 
 benevolent institutions. 
 
 Nor was the Duke of Sully indifferent to the importance of 
 a strong maritime and colonial policy. It was in his time that 
 Marseilles looms into view as a great mercantile port and that 
 
350 FRANCE PREVIOUS TO THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 the important Canadian colonies were founded at Annapolis 
 and Quebec. 
 
 Another beneficent feature of Henry's reign was the care 
 shown for the lower classes of the people. 
 
 The sayings attributed to Henry that " He wished that 
 every peasant might have a fowl in his pot on Sunday," and 
 that " He who robbed the people robbed him," are sufficiently 
 indicative of his paternal regard for the lower classes. One 
 practical illustration of this we find in his organization of co- 
 operative industries in which one-thirtieth of all the earnings 
 was to be set aside for the use of disabled workmen. 
 
 504. France a Centralized Government. — Perhaps the only 
 real complaint that could be made against Henry was that 
 he established too centralized a system of government and that 
 he ignored the assistance of the assemblies. But this was not 
 altogether his fault. He himself frequently had to complain 
 of the ineptitude both of the states general and of the parlia- 
 ments. What he therefore could not accomplish through 
 others, he had to accomplish by his own efforts, 
 
 505. Louis XIII. — Henry IV. perished in 1610 by the 
 dagger of an assassin, and was succeeded by Louis XIII. 
 
 The character of Louis XIII made him unfit for governing. 
 He was weak, timid, irresolute, and fit only to be an obscure 
 gentleman. The real power was in the hands of two power- 
 ful ministers — first, the Cardinal Richelieu and second, his 
 successor. Cardinal Mazarin. 
 
 506. Cardinal Richelieu was in many respects the greatest 
 politician of his age. He had the rare gift of seeing into 
 problems and of distinguishing between what was substantial 
 and what was only of transient importance. His whole policy 
 was consistently guided by the widest views and by the most 
 
RICHELIEU 
 
 !5I 
 
 intimate practical acquaintance with the domestic and foreign 
 politics of France. His moral was also equal to his mental 
 greatness. In spite of all the obstacles, including his own 
 wretched health, with which he had to contend he showed un- 
 tiring energy and in- 
 domitable purpose. 
 Cruel he may ha\'e 
 been, but it was only 
 the cruelty w h i c h 
 sweeps away obsta- 
 cles from one's path. 
 There was nothing 
 about the man that 
 was either mean or 
 low. 
 
 507. Policy of 
 Richelieu. — .\n ex- 
 amination of the 
 general tenor of 
 Richelieu's policy 
 shows that he had 
 always in view two 
 main objects. These 
 were, first, the con- 
 solidation of the 
 kingdom under a 
 strong centralized 
 power and second, 
 the crushing of the 
 power of the rival house of Austria whose possessions now 
 threatened France on both sides. 
 
 The first of these two objects he tried to obtain by reducing 
 the power of those who were obstacles in the way of the 
 
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 ^^v Jj^" nlSH^^n^B} 1 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 K^S^ 
 
 i 
 
 Cardinal Richelieu. Born 1585; Prime Minister of 
 France from 1624 until his death in 1642. 
 
35^ FAM.vr/i pKjjjors to i he rlilx of louis xir 
 
 centralizing pow er of the king, namely the Calvinists and the 
 feudal nobles. 
 
 The Calvinists owing to their restlessness and independent 
 political position were a constant menace to the unity and 
 safety of the kingdom. Even as early as 1620 they revolted 
 but were quieted partly by diplomacy, partly by force. Again 
 in 1629 they became still more insolent. In the strong fortress 
 of Rochelle, they took up their headquarters and the prospect 
 of English assistance tended to make them all the more defiant. 
 Richelieu now decided on using overwhelming force. The 
 fortress was taken and demolished ; and Richelieu took away 
 their towns of security thus reducing them to the position of 
 ordinary citizens. 
 
 508. The Nobles who were frequently plotting against the 
 government he crushed by the most drastic methods. The 
 ringleaders, no matter how powerful they were, speedily found 
 themselves on the scaffold. Even high rank and princely 
 blood were no protection against his anger. Thus the Mar- 
 quis of Montmorency was executed, and the Duke of Or- 
 leans, the king's own brother, had to fly to the Spanish 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Besides using destructive methods against those who barred 
 his way, Richelieu also strove to set up efficient machinery of 
 government. 
 
 509. Administrative System. — He deprived the nobility of 
 the administrative and judicial functions that had been the pre- 
 rogative of their class and entrusted these functions to a 
 hierarchy of officials absolutely dependent on the crown. 
 Hitherto, the nobleman's domain had been the unit of local ad- 
 ministration and the noble himself while receiving the feudal 
 dues from tenants did something in return by acting as admin- 
 istrator and magistrate. But under Richelieu the nobles began 
 
RICHEUEi'S POLICY 353 
 
 to be shorn of these responsibilities. France soon became map- 
 ped out into new districts governed by a hierarchy of officials 
 culminating in a central officer who lived at Paris and who was 
 entirely subservient to the king. 
 
 510. Relations with Austria. — We now have to consider 
 how Richelieu carried out the second great object of his policy, 
 namely the humbling of the rival house of the Hapsburgs. 
 This he accomplished by cooperating with and intensifying all 
 the different elements that were tending to drag down the 
 Hapsburgs. Thus he aided the Protestants in Germany 
 against the emperor; in Italy he supported the Protestants of 
 the Valtelline against the Spaniards, in the Spanish Nether- 
 lands he invoked the hostile interventions of Holland and 
 finall3% in Spain he upheld the provincials against Philip IV. 
 
 Besides holding in check his most dangerous foreign enemy, 
 he strengthened the northern frontier of France by the cap- 
 ture of Artois, and secured the southwestern frontier by the 
 still more important occupation of Roussillon. 
 
 511. Effects of Richelieu's Policy. — It must be admitted 
 that the strong government of Richelieu was beneficial t<i 
 France from almost every point of view. He not only de- 
 veloped her internal resources but he also made her strong 
 among the nations of Europe. 
 
 Much also might be said of Richelieu's minor achievements, 
 amongst them being the foundation of the celebrated French 
 Academy, and the establishment of the first French newspaper. 
 He himself wrote " The Memoirs of Cardinal Richelieu " and 
 the " Testament I^^litique." He died in 1642. In the same 
 year Lcjuis XIII also died leaving the crown to the young 
 Louis XIV, for whom his mother, Anne of Austria, acted as 
 regent. Richelieu's place as minister was taken by Cardinal 
 Mazarin, a man of considerable ability but of a lower type 
 than Richelieu, 
 
354 I'K.WCE PRHl'IOl'S TO 11 1 II REIGN OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 512. Cardinal Mazarin continued the same policy of Riche- 
 lieu, but soon found that he had to encounter other antagonists 
 besides the nobles. Those new enemies were the middle class, 
 who now rose in revolt against the court. But eventually the 
 good fortune as well as the dexterity of Mazarin won the day. 
 He rallied to his side a considerable portion of the army and 
 thus overawed the populace, while the nobles seemed to have 
 lost the will as well as the power to do harm, in fact they 
 seemed to regard the campaign against tyranny as a sort of 
 amusement. 
 
 513. The Foreign Policy of Mazarin was also a continua- 
 tion of that of Richelieu, and was attended by even more con- 
 spicuous success. In this he was greatly helped by an alliance 
 which he succeeded in effecting with England. An English 
 army landed in the Spanish Netherlands and took one im- 
 portant place after another. It was not long before Spain 
 became anxious for peace, and after many negotiations, the 
 active hostility between France and Spain was ended by the 
 Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. 
 
 By this treaty, France acquired a further accession of 
 strength on all her frontiers. In the north she acquired a 
 number of fortresses, in Flanders. Hainnault and Luxemburg; 
 on the east, she was confirmed in the possession of Alsace and 
 had also certain limited rights over Lorraine, while in the 
 southwest she was allowed to retain the province of Roussillon. 
 Besides these actual successes, the way was prepared for fur- 
 ther French aggrandizement by the marriage of Louis XIV 
 with the Spanish princess, MariaTheresa. It is true that the 
 French king at the time renounced all pretensions to the Span- 
 ish throne, but in politics expediency often outweighs the 
 memory of obligations as the sequel of this incident will 
 show, 
 
 Mazarin died in 1661, and at his death Louis XIV at once 
 
PETITION OF RIGHT 355 
 
 grasped the reins of power, determining that he would be his 
 own prime minister. 
 
 514. King Charles I ascended the Enghsh throne in 1625 
 and during his reign the struggle between king and parlia- 
 ment reached its last terrible phase. A clear idea of this 
 momentous struggle can be best obtained by a study of tlie chief 
 events that, like links in a chain, lead on from the beginning 
 of Charles' reign to its final catastrophe. 
 
 515. Strife with Parliament. — Even from the very outset 
 there were misunderstandings. Charles had allowed his par- 
 tiality for Catholicism to become visible while parliament in 
 its turn showed its distrust to such an extent that it would grant 
 certain customs duties only for one year instead of for life as 
 had previously been the case. Another cause of bitterness 
 was the Duke of Buckingham, Charles' favorite, who drew 
 upon himself the hostility of Parliament. Charles was re- 
 (juested to dismiss him, but the answer w\as a refusal. There- 
 upon parliament refused to grant any more subsidies. This 
 forced Charles to have recourse to benevolences, forced loans, 
 and other unpopular expedients of raising money. 
 
 Sioi Petition of Right. — At length absolute need of money 
 forced Charles to summon the parliament of 1628. On this 
 occasion, was drawn up the celebrated Petition of Right, which 
 was a recital of previous statutes. It protested against arbi- 
 trary punishment, arbitrary taxation, and the billeting of sol- 
 diers upon the people. Charles was obstinate at first and 
 would not yield. But his needs overpowered his obstinacy 
 and finally he signed the petition. 
 
 Charles, however, was not in earnest and he continued to 
 levy money by illegal means. Enormous penalties imposed 
 for small offenses, high financial monopolies and vexatioiis 
 
356 FRANCE PREVIOUS TO THE REIGN OF LOL'IS XIV 
 
 customs duties — all these were made use of in order to pro- 
 cure money in spite of parliament. 
 
 517. The Religious Element of the Quarrel brought about 
 the final clash. Already during the reign of Elizabeth there 
 had been within the Anglican Church signs of revolt against 
 the practice and ritual established by the crown. The appar- 
 ent moderation of Elizabeth's Protestantism was very dis- 
 pleasing to those who held to the rigid and extreme views of 
 Calvin, The use of the surplice and the Prayer Book were 
 denounced by them as " anti-Christian " and contrary to the 
 Scriptures. They even went so far as to organize distinct 
 congregations of their own, a course of action which gave to 
 them the name of Separatists. 
 
 Elizabeth was much opposed to these sects and resorted to 
 persecution. This, however, had no bad efifect on their dis- 
 position towards the throne itself, and while in religious mat- 
 ters they continued dissenters, they still remained loyal sub- 
 jects. 
 
 When James I came to the throne, the element of religious 
 discontent quickly appeared. The Puritan party in the 
 Church presented to him what was called the Millenary Peti- 
 tion, begging of him to reform the Church especially in the 
 matter of certain ceremonies which they regarded as popish. 
 James, however, ignored their petition. He then ordered a 
 conference to be held at Hampton Court. 1604, between the 
 divines of both parties. The result, however, was no com- 
 promise, but deep dissatisfaction on the part of the Puritans 
 at the manner in which they had been brow-beaten by their 
 royal umpire. 
 
 On the accession of Charles I, the Puritan element in the 
 Church became very formidable and it w'as not long before 
 it began to ally itself with the elements of political discontent. 
 While Charles allied himself with the Arminians. or High 
 
CHARLES AND PARLIAMENT 2>S7 
 
 Church Party, the House of Commons allied itself with the 
 Puritans, who, partly by natural tendency, partly by opposi- 
 tion adopted more than ever the extreme doctrines of Calvin. 
 
 518. Laud. — In order to enforce his views, Charles ap- 
 pointed as Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, a prel- 
 ate, who had all along been the great opponent of Calvinism. 
 He was zealous, but a narrow-minded, meddlesome sort of 
 person. His views were exceedingly high-church, that is to 
 say, he was inclined to such things as stained-glass windows, 
 the use of vestments, the placing the table at the east end of 
 the church. Laud had been fairly successful in enforcing 
 his notions in England but when he tried to introduce the sur- 
 plice and the Book of Common Prayer into Presbyterian Scot- 
 land he was met by an open revolt. 
 
 This revolt hastened the climax in England. Eor Charles, 
 in his anxiety to subdue the Scotch was forced to depend 
 upon parliament for supplies. But parliament knew this and 
 were rather disposed to regard the Scotch as their friends. 
 They granted no supplies but drew up the celebrated docu- 
 ment called the Grand Remonstrance demanding better min- 
 isters and a more fitting administration of justice. 
 
 519. Arrest of the Five Members. — Charles was ap- 
 parently utterly unable to grasp the seriousness of the situa- 
 tion. In the year 1642, he made an attempt in the House of 
 Commons to arrest five members of the opposition who had 
 especially incurred his displeasure. His attempt failed and 
 it proved the signal for civil war. The citizens of London 
 formed themselves into armed bodies for the defense of parlia- 
 ment. Charles on his part began to make immediate prepara- 
 tions for war. 
 
 520. The Civil War began in 1642 and lasted till 1646. 
 On the side of Charles were Ireland, the middle mK\ south- 
 
358 FRANCE PREVIOUS TO THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 west counties of England, while, on the side of parliament 
 were Scotland, the eastern counties and London. 
 
 At first, the war went steadily in favor of Charles. This, 
 however, was partly owing to the unwillingness of some of the 
 parliamentary generals to destroy completely the royal forces. 
 This defect was soon remedied w^hen Cromwell, an able offi- 
 cer, came into power. At his suggestion, the old officers were 
 dismissed and new men put in their places who could be relied 
 upon for thoroughness. At the same time he himself com- 
 pletely remodeled the army, only admitting those men who 
 were honest and God-fearing, and above all things full of re- 
 ligious zeal. 
 
 521. Execution of Charles. — The results were soon mani- 
 fest. At Marston Moor and Naseby (1645) the royalist 
 forces were shattered, and finally Charles himself became 
 a prisoner. Even then his life might have been saved 
 if not his crow'n. But his double-dealings cost him both one 
 and the other. He carried on separate negotiations with the 
 Scotch and with the parliament, playing off one against the 
 other. At length Cromwell felt there was only one way out 
 of the difficulty. In 1648 there was formed the Court of 
 Justice, before which Charles was arraigned and condemned 
 to be executed as a traitor. Accordingly in the month of 
 January, 1649, Charles I was beheaded. 
 
 522. Cromwell's Government. — It was Cromwell's inten- 
 tion at first that England should be governed by a constitu- 
 tional parliament. But his efforts in this direction proved 
 unsuccessful. One parliament after another proved Unman- 
 ageable and thought only of its own powder and interests to the 
 exclusion of aught else. Cromw^ell therefore had to carry on 
 the w^ork of government himself, and after some time assumed 
 the protectorate. Indeed, one may loosely say that his rule 
 
THE PURITANS 
 
 159 
 
 began from 1649, the year of Charles' execution, and lasted 
 until his death in 1658. 
 
 These years were years of growing strength for England. 
 Scotland and Ireland were conquered, and the royalist risings 
 both in those countries and in England put down with merci- 
 less severity. Order and law were made supreme through- 
 out the land and many regulations were introduced for the 
 material amelioration of the people. 
 
 523. Foreign Policy. — Cromwell 
 was especially strong in his foreign 
 policy. The English fleet succeeded 
 in beating the Dutch, who were now 
 rivals with the English for the car- 
 rying trade of the world. Hostili- 
 ties with Spain were rewarded by 
 the conquest of Jamaica, and an al- 
 liance with France enabled England 
 as we have seen already, to strike 
 a blow at Spain in the Spanish Neth- 
 erlands. In fact England made her- 
 self feared and respected all over 
 Europe, and nations courted the 
 friendship of Cromwell with an 
 eagerness amounting almost to servility. 
 
 524. The Puritans. — During this period the Puritan ele- 
 ment was paramount in religious affairs. The Bible was read 
 by everybody and its quotations were freely mingled wdth or- 
 dinary discourse of daily life. Such offenses as swearing, 
 drunkenness, and fornication, were forbidden by the law of 
 the land. The severest form of censorship was held not only 
 over the public, but even over the private lives of the citizens. 
 The spirit of stern and upright morality reigned everywhere. 
 It is true that this afterwards frequently degenerated into 
 
 Oliver Cromwell. Born 1599. 
 Ruler of Enp;land from 1653 
 until his death in 1658. 
 
360 FRANCE PREVIOUS TO THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 hypocrisy, but for the time, such a system brought forth a 
 race of men that became the terror of their enemies and the 
 stuff of which heroes were made. 
 
 525. Richard Cromwell. — Cromwell died in 1658. He was 
 succeeded by Richard Cromwell wdio was of a weak and some- 
 what conservative character. It was not long before a reac- 
 tion in the direction of a monarchy began to make itself felt. 
 The army, especially, began to show- signs of a change. Gen- 
 eral Monk at the head of the branch of the army in Scotland 
 made himself the intermediary between the nation and the 
 exiled Prince Charles, son of Charles I. 
 
 A new' House of Commons was summoned and in 1660, 
 Prince Charles was invited to ascend the English throne. He 
 accepted the invitation and was welcomed with wild outbursts 
 of loyal enthusiasm. 
 
 526. Under Charles II England ceases to be one of the 
 prime factors in European politics and for some years plays 
 only a subordinate part to France now in the zenith of her 
 greatness under Louis XIV. 
 
 527. Colonial Expansion of England. — During all the tur- 
 moil of political strife, we must not loose sight of the colonial 
 expansion of England, which was indirectly benefited by the 
 struggles at home. Already, in the time of Elizabeth, the 
 restless spirit of adventure had lead English seamen to ex- 
 plore the western seas. And while the Erench \vere settling 
 in Canada, the English were forming important settlements on 
 the fringe of the coast low^er down. During the reign of 
 Elizabeth, Sir Walter Raleigh founded the colony of Vir- 
 ginia. Under the auspices of the London Company, the col- 
 ony gre\V in numbers and in prosperity. By 1619, its in- 
 habitants enjoyed all the privileges of a real representative 
 
 i 
 
PURITAN EMIGRATION 361 
 
 government. It enjoyed a legislature, consisting of represent- 
 atives from the boroughs. These representatives could make 
 all needful laws subject to the approval of the Governor and of 
 the Company in England. 
 
 So far, the English colonists had come from the wealthiest 
 and more liesurely classes of English society. They were aris- 
 tocratic in their education and tendencies, and the distinctive 
 feature of their colonial settlements was the foundation of 
 large plantations separated by wide distances. 
 
 528. Puritan Emigrations. — But during the struggle be- 
 tween the Stuarts and the Puritan party in England, there 
 took place another stream of emigration of a distinctly differ- 
 ent type. Failing to obtain toleration in their own country, 
 the Puritans in England were driven to seek for a home else- 
 where. In 1628, John Endicott led the first party of emi- 
 grants to the Plymouth shores of Massachusetts. Only two 
 years afterwards, John W'inthrop lead another party of I^ur- 
 itan settlers also to ^Massachusetts but to a point further north, 
 at what is now called Boston. 
 
 529. Constitution of Massachusetts. — It was not long be- 
 fore the colonists established a form of government that was 
 practically free. By 1634, a House of Representatives was 
 formed, consisting of two representatives from each town, 
 while in 1692. the Charter of King William allowed, (a) the 
 people to choose an assembly, the members of which, in their 
 turn, were to choose an upper house subject to the approval 
 of the governor, (b) Both houses to make laws subject 
 to the approval of the Governor, (c) The lower house to 
 levy taxes. This last measure was of great importance. It 
 involved the power of the purse over which so long and des- 
 perate a struggle had been fought between the English King 
 and parliament. 
 
2C^2 FA'.LXCE PREl'IOVS TO THE REIGN OF EOi'IS XIV 
 
 530. Character of the Massachusetts Colonists. — It was 
 
 not long before the peculiar character of the Massachusetts 
 colonists vigorously asserted itself, both in intellectual and 
 material expansion. Unlike the Virginians, their ranks were 
 filled mainly from the middle class of English society. Their 
 minds were full of the political and social problems of the day, 
 and the very inhospitability and inclemency of the soil became 
 a powerful stimulus, constantly urging them to put forth 
 their best energies. Massachusetts soon became a powerful 
 colony and was well able to take a leading part in the great 
 struggles that were impending; first, the struggle between the 
 English speaking colonists and the French in Canada, and af- 
 terwards, the struggle between the colonists and the mother 
 country. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Religious strife in France — Massacre of St. Bartholomew — 
 Renewed agitations of the Huguenots — Henry of Navarre suc- 
 ceeds as Henry IV — Sincerity of his conversion — Edict of 
 Nantes and its importance — Growth of material prosperity un- 
 der the Duke of Sully — Henry IV centralized system — Char- 
 acter and abilities of Cardinal Richelieu — His formation of a 
 strong centralized power in France — His foreign policy directed 
 against the House of Austria — He enlarges the boundaries of 
 France — Cardinal Mazarin — Success of his foreign policy — 
 Treaty of the Pyrenees — Early disputes between Charles I and 
 his Parliament — His despotic rule — Petition of Right — Arch- 
 bishop Laud — His religious policy in Scotland raises a revolt — 
 Parliament connives with the Scotch — Beginning of civil war — 
 Remodelling of the Puritan army — Cromwell's victories at 
 Marston Moor and at Naseby — Execution of Charles — Crom- 
 well's administration — L^prisings in Scotland and in Ireland 
 suppressed — Cromwell's successful wars against the Spanish 
 and the Dutch — Cromwell's death — The reaction in favor of 
 monarchy — Accession of Charles II. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 BussEY AND Caspey, History of France; Baird, Rise of the Huguenofs; 
 Adams, Groivlh of Frencli Nation; Wilbekt, flenry of Novaryc; Per- 
 
GENERAL REFERENCE 363 
 
 KINS, Richelieu and Mazarin; Mackinnon, Grozvth and Decline of the 
 French Monarchy; Gardiner, Puritan Revolution; Clarendon, History of 
 the Great Rebellion ; Gardiner, Constitutional Documents of Puritan 
 Revolution ; Firth, Cromi<:ell; Henderson, Side Lights on English His- 
 tory. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 
 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 531. The Greatness of France. — The reign of Louis XIV 
 saw France at the very summit of its greatness. What Spain 
 had been, that France had now become. France was now the 
 center of European poHtics, both in war and peace, and the fate 
 of nations awaited her disposal. 
 
 Nor was this greatness merely transitory, the effect of any 
 mere passing combination of circumstances. It was the solid 
 result of the evolution of centuries. From the time of Louis 
 IX, France had been consolidating her strength, and now stood 
 foremost among the nations. 
 
 532. Louis XIV Takes Control. — We have seen that 
 Cardinal Mazarin was prime minister while Louis XIV was 
 still a minor. And even when he became of age he was still 
 content to leave the reins of government in the hands of so 
 able a minister. Indeed Louis' favorite occupation seemed to 
 denote a temperament particularly adverse to the details of 
 state business. Most of his time was taken up in hunting, 
 dancing and in light diversions. 
 
 On the death of Mazarin (1661), however, an unexpected 
 change took place. It was thought that Louis would still re- 
 main in the background and Fouquet, the most active and am- 
 bitious of the ministers, aspired to take Mazarin's place. So 
 certain was he of his own promotion that to honor the oc- 
 casion he even entertained his sovereign to a banquet which 
 must have cost a substantial fortune. But his hopes were al- 
 most immediately dashed to the ground. Louis resolved to 
 be his own prime minister. Fouquet was arrested on charges 
 
 364 
 
LOUIS XIV 365 
 
 of peculation and treason, and his permanent imprisonment 
 shortly afterward successfully prevented him from any further 
 interference. 
 
 533. Character of Louis XIV. — The personality of Louis 
 now becomes of importance. He does not seem to have pos- 
 sessed much original ability but he well knew how to fill his po- 
 sition with dignity. Forces quite independent of himself had 
 elevated him into a high position, but once there he knew how 
 to become a graceful and ef- 
 ficient figurehead. His ma- 
 jestic manners and stately 
 bearing, his innate sense of 
 decorum made him a leader 
 of fashion. And fashion 
 was a serious element that 
 now had to be reckoned -with 
 in European politics. 
 
 The court of France soon 
 became famous for its* splen- 
 dor and for the formality 
 of its etiquette. All the 
 king's acts were done in pub- 
 lic. Even his levee on ris- 
 ing in the morning became 
 a kind of social reception, 
 his different articles of apparel being handed to him through 
 the hands of a hierarchy of officials. 
 
 It would, however, be an injustice to think that Louis had 
 no more serious qualities than these. There were, as a matter 
 of fact, few who could devote themselves so assiduously to 
 business. He could work from morning till night like a clerk 
 behind his desk. More than this, he could appreciate the 
 value of a broad policy like that of Richelieu and he could con- 
 
 Louis XIV. Born 1638; King of l'"raiice 
 from 1643 until his death in 171 5. 
 
^oo r«£ .*^;£ of^ UK75^ xir 
 
 nwie ihai jvvlky with his o>»rn «v?imuwM^ Tlwt a^^Jiin, 
 \>h«ber by ^v>i t»>mM>e or by 9i ket*^ liisoenxnvMW ot char- 
 x^cwT> be j^ > j>erj!oai with mini^^wrs whosjc AbilitW* 
 
 , - - - ..uvrAi whvxsae wiU was for 
 
 ra»i^y x^Kirs to> sway the vksii«ws of EaropCs \\> uwy ik>w 
 
 l.oii«s XIX'^ tT\M« T\w points ot view, nrsi, 
 
 - . 'xi |vrv^Tt^j5S ot Fra«>oe it^h\ seooi*ih\ 
 
 Aivf Ai>d the t^'ber ^v^w^rs v>t Eurv>i>t. 
 
 534 r.vcsuc PoBcy <rf Loucs XiV. — The ceiiiralwii^ 
 }v\lky of RkheJk^i awxi M;iuainn was brosaght to its cv^r.vp e- 
 t»o«4 by Loais. This he did by still farther de|^^ft?si?x§: any 
 
 i» nv>T^ eoc:ksias5>cs to his coaiKals; the pariian>e«ts he t<- 
 
 ihxevi to i»ij>«itity by pjnev^eaitii:^ thwii fn^w nwkn\^ any Tx^- 
 
 .. , \ --^ --- -^ v^ — .1 eilicts; the lower or- 
 
 Loais was de*eiTi^n>ed that he aloaie showM he nvaswr. It 
 
 is tn>e tbat he ^ ;^.5 a sy^wrn in w hich each acti\~ity of 
 
 •:-•■; - :^ -^ ---^-.;..,' — ., •- >ts own Special 
 
 - - - - >!elt \xas to be 
 
 the cesatral palsari:^ oi^n of the wi»«>3e sy^j^ean, — the center, 
 
 " -I ; - i be fdt by eviMy individnal in the re- 
 
 "."/.. :c>: ,\.-. .... V x.-.^viomtv 
 
 The mmiswrs. hox^ev^tr, wix> assisted him in this gneat w»Tk 
 w^wie men of sf*eciall ability, \\~hife they xcere placed in a 
 
 - ~ . ~ . ' - they w~eje n>en whc*se 
 
 ^- . ~ . - ::TeH3it. 
 
 53^ r.x-.iestic Poiicy of Coib«^. — Chi the Jea:"^ ' "*!?.- 
 jaiin, Cc^-ben becan')e Proci-jrator vVi-jeral of the .;s. 
 
 His administration gave an imn>ediaw inipeixis to ahivtst ex^exy 
 dej«nn>ent of trade and oomn>eToe- 
 
(jiWtcrt at once reformed the nyhttm of v^txhivm which had 
 a^ain Ixrcome vexatious without j/rofiting the country. '1 hoie 
 who had mi.sapi^n4»riated the taxes were called to account anrl 
 severely jnjnished. llavinj^ insured to the crown the rece|/tion 
 of its revenues, he discharji^ed the heavy delits due fr^/m the 
 treasury by a a^mpromise which am^Ajnte^l alnr^/st t<'> a bank- 
 ruptcy discharj^e. 
 
 He then tried to lessen the Ijrurden of taxation upon the 
 I^eople by depending less up^^ direct and more upon indirect 
 taxation, that is to say, he raised taxes on the actual buying 
 and c<^^sumpti«^^ of goods, and imp^^^sed heavy excise and 
 stamp duties. 
 
 CoUxrrt alvj employed every means for increasing the nat- 
 ural wealth of the jcingd^mi. Tie UfSttrtfl native manufac- 
 tures by discouraging the importation of foreign-made gfjfjAs 
 anrl by granting t/> manufacturers such privileges as mf/nf/p- 
 olies, honors, and Ixjunties. Xo doubt, this prottcUf/n of na- 
 tive industry did harm in the long run by making the mami- 
 facturer t'^x^ dependent on the state and by interfcrring with 
 the natural laws of trade. But the immediate effects of the 
 system were grxxl. Manufacturers received at least a start. 
 
 Collx:rt also brought the French navy into a flourishing con- 
 dition. Besides ^Aiilding large dock-yards, and increasing the 
 large jx^rt t^jwn of Marseilles, he sent consuls to different 
 places on the Mediterranean, who largely increased V tench 
 trade. 
 
 \or did CyA]tert neglect the means of internal communica- 
 tion. The old roads were repaired and new ones constructed. 
 It was Colbert who first recognized the immense importance of 
 canals as cheap and easy means of freighting goo<ls. 
 
 One remarkable project of his was that of making a canal 
 to connect the Mediterranean coa^it of France v.ith it- coast 
 Ujrdering the Atlantic. 
 
 In other departments as well Gilbert showed remarkable 
 
368 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 activity. The drawing up for the first time of a table of sta- 
 tistics, the formation of a magnificent hbrary, the formation 
 of a commercial code of law, the institution of the Academies 
 of Science and of Architecture, the erection of the Hotel des 
 Invalides, of the Fagade of the Louvre, and of the triumphal 
 arches of St. Denis and St. Martin — all these testify to his 
 versatile ability. 
 
 536. Le Tellier and Louvois, as Ministers of War accom- 
 plished great reforms. Under their supervision, the French 
 army underw'ent a considerable improvement. Uniforms were 
 for the first time introduced. Not only did these uniforms 
 serve the purpose of distinguishing the soldier from the civil- 
 ian, but they also gave greater respectability and attraction to 
 the military profession. 
 
 The discipline of the army was impuoved, and the introduc- 
 tion of the bayonet added to its fighting power. Hitherto the 
 spear or pike had been used separately from the firearm. 
 Now a short spear was attached to the fire arm itself and the 
 w^eapon could thus serve a double purpose. 
 
 Connected with improvements in the army might also be 
 mentioned the wonderful advance made in the art of military 
 fortification. This was mainly owing to the genius of a great 
 engineer. 
 
 537. Vauban had already attracted attention by the skill 
 with which he constructed the long trenches connecting several 
 lines of approach. His acquaintance with the w'eaknesses of 
 the enemy's fortifications soon enabled him to improve the 
 fortifications of his own country. Under his direction a great 
 number of important forts were constructed, and old ones 
 were greatly improved. 
 
 Even at the present day, the principles laid down by Vauban 
 are followed in the construction of fortresses. His great merit 
 
COLONIAL POLICY 369 
 
 seems to have been the discarding of a great number of arbi- 
 trary precepts and the introduction of a few simple rules ap- 
 plicable to buildings of all dimensions. 
 
 What has been said will suffice to show how Louis by his 
 choice of trained experts knew how to develop all the resources 
 of the country — financial, economic, artistic, and military. 
 But something ought still to be said regarding the colonial pol- 
 icy of Louis XIV. 
 
 538. Colonial Policy. — This more than anything else per- 
 haps may be considered as his own particular department. 
 Soon after the discovery of America, various colonies had 
 been established in the great continent of the west. There 
 were the English colonies established in the eastern part of 
 our present United States, the Spanish colonies in the Califor- 
 nias, the French in Canada and along the banks of the Missis- 
 sippi. These French colonies were regarded with peculiar 
 pride by Louis XIV who dreamed of a great and [iermanent 
 empire beyond the seas. 
 
 539. Religious PoHcy.— There is still one thing that is 
 missing in our estimate of Louis, and that is his policy in mat- 
 ters of religion. During the early part of his reign he was 
 content to follow the policy laid down by Richelieu and Maz- 
 arin. But during the last half of his reign when Colbert, his 
 most prudent adviser, had passed away and when his head 
 began to be intoxicated with success he adopted a new and 
 aggressive policy of his own. 
 
 The Calvinists had become thriving and prosperous, and 
 Louis longed for their conversion to the Catholic faith. At 
 first, peaceful measures were resorted to. But when the Cal- 
 vinists turned a deaf ear to promises and bribes, forcible meas- 
 ures were adopted. Their taxes were increased, they were de- 
 barred from promotion in the state and in society, and finally 
 
370 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 anticipating' the conduct of the English government troops in 
 Ireland, troops of soldiers were quartered on Calvinist fam- 
 ilies, in the hopes that rough treatment might aid the persua- 
 sions of the missionary preachers. At length the climax was 
 reached by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. 
 By this deed all toleration was at once done away with. The 
 effects on the prosperity of France were disastrous. Not only 
 did the continual flight of the Calvinists to other countries 
 weaken the industrial and money-making population of 
 France, but when France was surrounded by a ring of foes 
 the revolt of the Calvinists in the interior of France consider- 
 ably impeded Louis' movements. 
 
 540. The Jansenists. — Another element of religious strife 
 was furnished by the rise of the Jansenists. In opposition to 
 the political tendencies and lax principles of some of the clergy, 
 a sect was foiuided by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, and 
 by Jean du Vergier, Abbot of St. Cyran. The center of the so- 
 ciety was at Port-Royal near Versailles. Not only did the 
 Jansenists become conspicuous for their strictness of life but 
 their doctrines also were in some respects divergent from the 
 established beliefs. 
 
 Serious attention began to be aroused when the pope con- 
 demned five propositions supposed to be contained in a book 
 by Jansen. The Jansenites screened themselves by main- 
 taining that the five propositions were not contained in the 
 book at all and that the pope not being infallible in matters 
 of faith could not have decided "whether the propositions were 
 contained therein. 
 
 The controversy gathered in intensity until at length Clem- 
 ent XI published a bull in which he declared that the pope is 
 infallible in deciding questions of dogmatic facts ( 1705). ■ 
 
 This decision, however, did not quiet the Jansenists. 
 
 After the death of Jansen, a French Orator called Ouesnel 
 
GALLIC AN PROPOSITIONS 37 1 
 
 became their leader. He issued a book called " Moral Reflec- 
 tions." The book was undoubtedly full of pious enthusiasm, 
 but certain propositions were decidedly Jansenistic and in 171 3 
 one hundred and one propositions were condemned as such by 
 Pope Clement XI, in his bull called the " Unigenitus." 
 
 The refusal of the Jansenists to accept this bull meant their 
 complete severance from the Church. Even in our own times 
 the sect of the Jansenists exists in Holland. They still admit 
 the primacy of the pope, and they still have orders that are 
 recognized as valid by Catholics, but the pope refuses to have 
 any dealings with them until they accept the bull " Unigen- 
 itus." 
 
 In France, however, the sect rapidly died out. This was 
 chiefly owing to the hostility of Louis XIV^ wIkj objected to 
 them partly for the same reason tliat he objected to the Cal- 
 vinists. 
 
 Before finishing with the religious aspect of France under 
 Louis XIV there is still one other movement that has to be 
 considered. 
 
 541. Quarrel With the Pope. — The king of France had 
 always enjoyed the right of receiving the revenues of vacant 
 bishopics and of appointing the livings within these bishopics. 
 But there were four exceptions, namely, the dioceses of 
 Guienne, Languedoc, Provence, and Dauphine. Louis' at- 
 tempt to extend his right to the four provinces brought him 
 into collision with the pope. Accordingly. Louis in order 
 to substantiate his claim convened a national synod attended 
 by the Jesuits and many of the compliant clergy. 
 
 542. The Galilean Propositions. — In this synod (1682), 
 the following four propositions were laid down: (i) that 
 in temporal matters, the temporal power is independent of the 
 spiritual; (2) that a general council is superior to the pope; 
 
372 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 (3) that the apostolic power is restricted by the canons and 
 by the rules, manners and customs of the GalHcan Kingxlom; 
 
 (4) that the judgment of the pope is not irreversible until 
 conferred b}^ the consent of the whole Church. 
 
 These four propositions were drawn up by Bossuet, a cele- 
 brated French preacher. He. however, afterwards repented 
 of his attitude on this question. ^Moreover, in 1697 the four 
 propositions were formally abrogated and the French clergy 
 made their repentant submission to the Holy See. 
 
 543. Relations With Foreign Countries. — \\'e have al- 
 ready indicated that the domestic policy of Louis XIV might 
 be divided into chronological periods, the earlier and the 
 later. During the earlier period, under the able administra- 
 tion of Colbert he was uniformly successful; during the later 
 period there were disturbances that combined with his own 
 high-handed policy to diminish his previous success. The 
 same might be said of his foreign policy. 
 
 This also might be divided into two periods, the first ex- 
 tending from his assumption of power up to the treaty of 
 Nymeguen in 1678, and the second period dating from this 
 treaty onwards. During the first period Louis contented him- 
 self with successfully pursuing the policy of Richelieu and 
 Mazarin, a policy which consisted in restoring what had been 
 the natural boundaries of France. But after the treaty of 
 Nymeguen he abandoned this moderate policy and laid himself 
 out for a policy of mere conquest and aggrandizement. 
 
 544. Weakness of the French Frontier. — The frontier 
 whose weakness was the most immediate source of danger to 
 France was the Northeast. On the other side of this frontier 
 were the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comte, or Free 
 Country. Naturally these provinces were the first object of 
 Louis' attention. 
 
TRIPLE ALLIANCE 373 
 
 An excuse was not wanting for commencing hostilities. His 
 wife, Maria Theresa, was the elder sister of the Spanish king, 
 and through her he laid claim" to several provinces in the 
 Netherlands. There was indeed no reason why he should limit 
 his claim here, and as a matter of fact he afterwards published 
 A little treatise in which he laid claim to the whole. 
 
 545. Attack on the Netherlands. — In 1667 Louis invaded 
 the Netherlands and Franche-Comte. The campaign was 
 one peculiarly adapted to Louis' temperament. There were 
 no dangerous pitched battles, but only sieges in which Louis 
 loved to make his camp spectacular for its grandeur and mag- 
 nificence. The enemy were weak and coukl make little resist- 
 ance. Town after town fell into Louis' hands and Franche- 
 Compte was completely overrun by French troops. 
 
 546. The Triple Alliance. — These successes, however, in- 
 spired Holland with the greatest alarm. She recognized in 
 the Spanish Netherlands a useful buffer state between herself 
 and France, and was determined not to have such an ambitious 
 neighbor dwelling at her very gates. She therefore sought 
 the aid of England and Sweden and thus in 1668 was formed 
 the famous Triple Alliance consisting of those three countries. 
 
 Louis found it prudent to yield and he signed the Treaty 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), by which he gave up Franche- 
 Compte but was allowed to retain some important towns 
 along the Flemish frontier. 
 
 547. Attack on Holland. — Louis' retreat was however, only 
 the backward step to another leap forward. Holland now 
 became the direct object of his attack. For it was Holland 
 that had been so active against him in the Triple Alliance. 
 Moreover, even before the war of Spanish Netherlands there 
 had been a keen rivalry between the Dutch and the French 
 
374 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 mercantile fleets. Indeed, some of the protective duties of 
 Colbert had been in effect an economic war against Holland. 
 Besides all this Louis had the greatest aversion and contempt 
 for those whom he considered as a plebeian nation of common 
 heretical shop-keepers. 
 
 But he was determined this time to be foiled by no adverse 
 league. He endeavored to isolate Holland before attacking 
 her. And in this he was greatly helped by the perfection of 
 the French diplomatic service. Sweden was detached from 
 the Triple Alliance and Charles H of England was even in- 
 duced to give Louis active assistance. Litervention from Ger- 
 many was guarded against by bribing several of the German 
 princes, while Spain owing to her decline might now be con- 
 sidered a negligible quantity. 
 
 But the resistance offered by Holland was stronger than 
 be expected. The heroic resistance of the Dutch under their 
 able general, William of Orange, considerably delayed the 
 movements of the French army. And every delay meant dan- 
 ger to the success of Louis' plans. For the nations were 
 again taking alarm at the aggressions of France. Another 
 league was concluded which included the emperor. Spain, Hol- 
 land, Denmark, and finally even England, and a second time 
 Louis found it prudent to retire from the conflict. 
 
 Though Louis had had to fight against many more foes than 
 during his campaign against the Spanish Netherlands, he 
 came out of it with much more signal success. 
 
 ^Js' 
 
 548. The Treaty of Nymeguen was signed in 1678. France 
 not only obtained possession of all the important frontier towns 
 in the Netherlands but she also obtained permanent posses- 
 sion of Franche-Compte. 
 
 549. The Period of Aggressive Policy (1678-1714). — We 
 
 now enter upon the second period of the foreign policy of 
 
WAR OF THE PALATINATE 375 
 
 Louis. He now abandons the conservative policy of merely 
 strengthening the frontiers of France and embarks upon a 
 policy of conquest and aggression which was to end disas- 
 trously for France. 
 
 He began first in the debatable region between France and 
 Germany. The bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun had 
 been ceded to France with their dependencies. But the ques- 
 tion rose as to what were these dependencies. A similar 
 question also rose regarding the other territories that had 
 been ceded to Louis, This gave an opportunity for interfer- 
 ence. He set up certain prize courts as they would be termed 
 in our days, and these prize courts being under his influence 
 gave their decision all along the line in Louis' favor. Then, 
 not content with legal pilfering of this kind he openly and 
 unwarrantably seized the city of Strasburg. Nor could the 
 emperor at that time make any resistance, for his hands were 
 tied by the invasion of the Turks in the lower parts of the 
 empire. 
 
 550 Attack on the Palatinate. — About three years after 
 this, Louis perpetrated another great wrong. In 1685 the 
 Elector Palatine died and Louis at once put in an unfounded 
 claim to the regions of the Lower Palatinate. Germany re- 
 sisted his claim but he appealed to force. And so a district 
 of about thirty miles in extent containing opulent and flourish- 
 ing towns was devastated with every circumstance of cruelty. 
 Especially worthy of regret was the destruction of the beauti- 
 ful city of Heidelburg on the Rhine. 
 
 Such wanton aggressions could no longer be tolerated, and 
 in 1686 a defensive league was formed against France, con- 
 sisting of Germany, Spain, Sweden, and Holland. Even the 
 pope himself who had been grossly insulted by Louis joined 
 the League. But as yet the League could do very little in the 
 way of actual war. It was reserved for Louis himself to com- 
 
3/6 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 mit that one vital m 
 whole future career. 
 
 mit that one vital mistake which had the effect of checking his 
 
 551. William of Orange Becomes King of England. — It 
 was just at this time that the people of England being an- 
 gered at the absolute rule and Catholic tendencies of James 
 II, the last of the Stuart kings, offered the English throne to 
 his son-in-law, William of Orange. William at first was 
 obliged to hesitate for Louis might have seized the opportunity 
 of invading Holland during his absence. But Louis com- 
 mitted the fatal mistake of invading Germany. When Louis 
 and his army were thus safely out of the way in Germany, 
 William at once set sail for England and accepted the English 
 throne. 
 
 Thus, Louis' greatest enemy, the most determined and 
 skilled organizer of the forces arrayed against him was in a 
 position to strike. Soon France was surrounded on all sides 
 by a ring of foes. The French generals though able men 
 were gradually driven back. At sea, French commerce was 
 seriously crippled by having to face two such powerful 4leets 
 as those of EnHand and Holland. 
 
 'fe' 
 
 552. Treaty of Ryswick, — Louis, therefore, began to set 
 on foot negotiations and the result of these was the Treaty of 
 Ryswick (1697). The terms of this treaty showed how much 
 weaker had become the position of Louis. It was substantially 
 a list of French concessions. Louis had to give up all con- 
 quests made since the Treaty of Nymeguen. with the exception 
 of Alsace. Lorraine was yielded into the hands of its lawful 
 owner, Duke Leopold. The provisions of the treaty most 
 harmful to French interests were the occupation of the frontier 
 towns of the Spanish Netherlands by Dutch garrisons as 
 security against French aggressions, and the recognition by 
 Louis of the sovereignty of William in England. By the 
 
SPANISH SUCCESSION 277 
 
 first of these clauses Louis lost part of the fruits of even his 
 earlier conquests, and by the second he recognized the com- 
 manding position of his hated rival, William of Orange. 
 
 553. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). — One 
 
 would have imagined that after this humiliation Louis would 
 have desisted from dreams of conquest and aggrandizement. 
 Moreover, his treasury was nearly depleted and the fighting 
 strength of the nation considerably reduced. But it was pre- 
 cisely now that Louis began to push forward the most aggres- 
 sive of all his schemes. 
 
 554. The Spanish Succession. — Ever since the accession of 
 Louis XIV, the question of the succession to the Spanish 
 throne had been uppermost in the minds of statesmen. Charles 
 II, the reigning king of Spain, was of an extremely delicate 
 constitution and liable to die any moment. In such an event 
 there were three claimants to the Spanish throne. These were 
 the Electoral Prince of Bavaria, the Archduke Charles of 
 Austria and the son or grandson of Louis XIV. The death, 
 however, of the electoral prince of Bavaria soon left the field 
 open only to the other two contestants. 
 
 Louis saw clearly the risk of grasping at the whole, for the 
 union of the two kingdoms of Spain and Erance would upset 
 the balance of power and would probably provoke a general 
 war. He therefore drew up a treaty of partition between 
 himself and the Archduke Charles of Austria by which Charles 
 was to have Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia, and the colonies, 
 while Louis' son, Philip Duke of Anjou, was to have Naples, 
 Sicily, the ports of Tuscany, and the Duchy of Lorraine. 
 
 The king and the people of Spain however strongly resented 
 foreign interference and this arbitrary division of their terri- 
 tories. They began to choose for themselves and partly owing 
 to Erench diplomatic influence and partly to the advice of the 
 
3/8 THE AGE OE LOT IS XIV 
 
 ])ope the Spanish king drew up a will in which he left all 
 his possessions to Philip, Duke of Anjou. 
 
 555. Louis Claims Spain. — Shortly after this, the Spanish 
 king died. At once Louis XIV had to decide the important 
 question. Should he ahide by the treaty and thus be sure 
 of at least a part, or should he abide by the will and try for 
 the whole? He decided on the latter alternative. 
 
 The immediate results justified his decision. There was of 
 course much fierce indignation. But then the matter would 
 have dropped, for William could not persuade the English 
 parliament to declare war. But Louis himself again com- 
 mitted a mistake that placed him at the mercy of his antago- 
 nists. He expelled the Dutch garrisons from the fortresses of 
 the Netherlamls and put French garrisons in their place. 
 
 556. The Grand Alliance. — At once this was the signal 
 for war. The English parliament supported William with all 
 its might, and William now set on foot the Grand Alliance for 
 the frustration of Louis' plans. England, Germany, Holland. 
 Austria, and later on, Portugal and Savoy joined together for 
 the purpose of removing the French claimant from the Spanish 
 throne and especially of restoring the barrier between France 
 and Holland. 
 
 557. Marlborough and Eugene. — The first military leader 
 of the allies was the renowned Duke of Marlborough and 
 second to him was Prince Eugene of Savoy. During the 
 struggle, the important battle of Blenheim was fought in Bava- 
 ria, and the battle of Ramillies, Oudinard, and Malplaquet in 
 the Netherlands. All these batttles were won by the allies. 
 But France was not altogether a loser. Spain sided with her. 
 and it was in Spain that French arms met with success. Also 
 the French generals were men of considerable skill and suc- 
 ceeded for some time in holding the allies in check. 
 
PEACE OF UTRECHT 379 
 
 558. Treaty of Utrecht, — But at length France became 
 weary of the struggle and in England the ministry that had 
 been most responsible for the war was supplanted by another 
 eager for peace. When the main contestants in the struggle 
 were thus anxious for peace hostilities speedily subsided and 
 in 1 7 14 was made the important treaty of Utrecht betw^een 
 all the belligerent powers except the emperor. 
 
 The terms of the treaty w^ere as follows : 
 
 (a) The French obtained the recognition of Philip as 
 kir.g of Spain though Philip had to renounce all future claims 
 to the French crown. 
 
 (b) England obtained Gibraltar and Minorca, also New- 
 foundland, Nova Scotia, and Hudson Bay; she also secured 
 the line of Protestant succession on her own throne. 
 
 (c) The Duke of Savoy, Prince Eugene, received the 
 Kingdom of Sicily. 
 
 (d) The House of Brandenburg in Prussia was rewarded 
 for its share in the struggle by obtaining the province of Upper 
 Gelderland and by being raised to the dignity of a kingdom. 
 
 With the Treaty of Utrecht ended the last w^ar of Louis. 
 His schemes of universal conquest were certainly not real- 
 ized, but France had brilliantly defied the whole of Europe, 
 and though she had suffered some loss, she still remained 
 one of its first powers. Great indeed must ha\-e been her 
 internal strength to have stood as she did the shock of so 
 many wars. 
 
 \\'ithin a few years after the Treaty of Utrecht Louis XIV 
 died and was succeeded by his son Louis XV. 
 
 559. Charles II of England.— During the war of Louis 
 XTV against Holland England had been the ally of France. 
 Charles H did not hesitate to accept French gold in order to 
 make himself independent of Parliament. In the secret treaty 
 of Dover (1670) drawn up between himself and Louis, Charles 
 
380 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 promised to establish Catholicism in England and to join Louis 
 in the attack on Holland, provided Louis would give him an 
 annual allowance of two hundred thousand pounds and the 
 assistance of French troops in case of an uprising. The terms 
 of this treaty were kept secret even from the majority of 
 Charles' own ministers. But the general drift of Charles' 
 policy could not be kept secret. 
 
 560. Domestic Affairs. — More important than the foreign 
 policy of England is her internal history during this period. 
 War against Holland was indeed declared and an attack made 
 upon the Dutch fleet, but Parliament refused to support the 
 war and Charles was practically disabled from giving to Louis 
 any continued assistance. 
 
 Again the religious question arose and formed a great dis- 
 turbing element. In the early part of Charles' reign, attempts 
 were made to force the Church of England upon the people. 
 There were passed in quick succession the Corporation Act 
 which allowed only Anglicans or members of the state church 
 of England to hold office, the Act of Uniformity which com- 
 pelled every clergyman, every Fellow of a college, and every 
 schoolmaster to accept the Book of Common Prayer and to 
 sw^ear that resistance to the crown was unlawful; the Con- 
 venticle Act which forbade religious meetings other than those 
 of the Church of England, the Five Mile Act which prevented 
 clergymen save bona fide clergymen of the Church of England 
 from settling within five miles of a corporate town and from 
 teaching in schools. 
 
 By these acts, all those who differed from the teaching and 
 practice of the Anglican Church were driven from her pale. 
 Even to this day there remains the line of distinction betw^een 
 the Anglican Church and dissenters. 
 
 561. The Test Act. — Another disturbing religious element 
 was Charles' tendencies to Catholicism. When it became 
 
WILLIAM AND MARY 38 1 
 
 known that several Catholics held offices of high trust, a wave 
 of anti-Catholic agitation began to rise throughout the coun- 
 try. Soon Parliament passed the celebrated Test Act by which 
 all persons in office had to take an oath denying the doctrine 
 of transubstantiation. The immediate result of this was that 
 the Duke of York, the king's own brother and future heir to 
 the crown resigned his position as High Admiral. The Prot- 
 estant party now went further than this and tried by an exclu- 
 sion act to exclude James from the succession. But a strong 
 reaction set in and on the death of Charles II in 1685 James 
 was allowed to succeed. 
 
 562. The Reign of James II was remarkable for the culmi- 
 nation of the religious difficulty that had been bequeathed to 
 him by Charles. For James II was a pronounced Roman 
 Catholic. He introduced Catholics into his privy council, he 
 gave Catholics important positions in the Church and in the 
 universities and through the Earl of Tyrconnel he attempted 
 to place Catholics in the state offices in Ireland. Finally, 
 matters came to a crisis when James passed the Declaration 
 of Indulgences, which by virtue of the King's dispensing 
 power, did away with all penal laws against nonconformity 
 including Catholicism. 
 
 While the temper of the nation was thus being aroused at 
 the relaxation of the penal laws against the Catholics, the news 
 was spread that the queen had given birth to a son. Up till 
 now, ]\Iary. the Protestant daughter of James and wife of 
 William of Orange, had been the nearest heir. But she was 
 now excluded from the succession by one who would doubtless 
 be brought up a Catholic. 
 
 563. William and Mary. — The nation therefore offered the 
 English crown to W'iUiam of Orange. It was accepted. 
 James II fled to France and in 1689, William and Mary as- 
 
382 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 cended the throne by act of Parliament. This event is known 
 as the EngHsh Revolution. 
 
 The part taken by William in the Grand Alliance against 
 France has already been explained. The domestic aspect of 
 his reign now demands our attention. 
 
 His accession marked a distinct progress in the English 
 Constitution. The king now reigns explicitly only by act of 
 Parliament and there are now two ways in which the king is 
 now kept dependent upon Parliament. First, there was the 
 annual budget. This means that every year a financial state- 
 ment has to be made to Parliament, after which it is decided 
 what taxes should be imposed and to what purpose they should 
 be applied. Such an arrangement as this inevitably takes the 
 power of the purse completely out of the king's hands. Second 
 there is the Mutiny Bill, which renews each year the author- 
 ity of officers in the army. Thus if in any year the Mutiny 
 Bill were not passed, the army would ipso facto be dissolved. 
 
 564. Queen Anne. — "William died in 1702 and in the same 
 year was succeeded by Oueen Anne. She carried on success- 
 fully the anti-French policy of her predecessor and it was 
 during her reign that the great general, the Duke of Marl- 
 borough won against the French the victories of Blenheim, 
 Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. 
 
 The two most important home events of her reign are : 
 
 (a) The union of Scotland with England in 1707. One 
 parliament now governed the two countries while Scotland 
 shared in all the English rights of trade. Also the Scotch 
 Church and the Scotch law were to be left undisturbed. Scot- 
 land gained considerably from this union and it is from this 
 date that her most important commercial towns begin to make 
 their appearance. 
 
 (b) The rise of party government in England. This 
 means that government in England came to be carried on by 
 
SUMMARY 383 
 
 the political party that enjoyed a majority of votes in the 
 country. There were at that time in England two great politi- 
 cal parties, the Whigs, who corresponded to our present day 
 liberals and the Tories who correspond to the conservatives. 
 If for example, a majority of ^\^higs were elected to Parlia- 
 ment, then government would be carried on by the Whigs; 
 on the other hand, a majority of Tory votes would mean a 
 Tory government. 
 
 At first the sovereign chose the ministers, but later on even 
 this duty fell into the hands of the leader of the majority. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Slow growth of the French power — Character of Louis XTV 
 — Splendor of his court — Louis' skill in choosing ministers — 
 Centralizing policy of Louis — Colbert as minister of finance — 
 Economic reforms of Colbert — Important public works con- 
 structed by Colbert — His activity in matters of learning and 
 of education — Le Tellier and Louvois as war ministers — Im- 
 provements in the army — V^auban the engineer — Religious pol- 
 icy of Louis XA^ — his severity towards the Calvinists — The 
 Jesuits and the Jansenists — Condemnation of the Jansenists — 
 Louis' quarrel with the Pope — The four Gallican propositions — 
 Early foreign policy of Louis — His war in the Spanish Nether- 
 lands — The Triple Alliance — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle — 
 Louis' war against Holland — He isolates her — Holland's heroic 
 resistance — Another league against Louis — Treaty of Nymeg- 
 nen — Second Period — Louis' aggressive policy in Alsace — In 
 the Palatine — Another league formed against him — Louis' 
 fatal mistake in attacking Germany — William III of England — 
 France beaten in the war — Treaty of Ryswick — War of the 
 Spanish Succession — Causes that lead up to the War — Louis 
 I'crsus the Grand Alliance — Battles of Pdenheim — Ramillies, 
 Audenardi and Malplaquet — Treaty of LTrecht — Charles IPs 
 foreign policy — His severity to France — Secret Treaty of 
 Dover — Religious policy of Charles — Act of Plniformity — 
 Conventicle Act — Charles' religious convictions — The Test 
 Act — Accession of James II — The dispensing power — De- 
 thronement of James II — Accession of William III — Consti- 
 tutional position of the King — Reign of Queen Anne — Union 
 of Scotland with England — Rise of Party Government in Eng- 
 land. 
 
384 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Hassall, Louis XIV; Perkins, France under Louis XIV; E)ukE op 
 Saint Simon, Memoirs; Baird, Huguenots and Revocation of the Edict 
 of Nantes; Rogers, Economic Interpretation of History; Airy, Louis XIV ; 
 Morris, Age of Anne; Duruy, History of France; Michaud, Louis 
 XIV; Green, History of the English People; Airy, English Restoration 
 and Louis XIV; Macaulay, History of England; Traill, William III ; 
 jNIorris, Age of Anne; Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England; 
 Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional History of England; Adams, Eng- 
 land under Charles II; Burton, Reign of Queen Anne; Diary of Samuel 
 Pcpys; Memoirs de Louis XIV sur la Guerre de Hollande; Gruffet 
 (Paris), Recueil de lettres pour servir a I'Histoire Militaire de Rcgne de 
 Louis XIV ; Rousset, Hist, de Louvois; Gremblet, Letters of William 
 III and Louis XIV; Benoit, History of the Edict of Nantes; Somers, 
 Tracts; Macpherson's Original papers; Stanhope, Impartial History of 
 Anne's Reign; Choisy, Memoirs pour servir a I'Histoire de Louis XIV ; 
 Joseph de Maistre, de I'Eglise Gallicane (Migne, Paris) ; Desmarais, 
 History des dcmcles de la cour de France avec Jansen. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 
 
 565. Rise of Prussia. — During all the wars that had been 
 devastating Europe, the house of Hohenzollern had been 
 steadily rising in power and inthience. By the Treaty of 
 Westphalia after the Thirty Years' War it had obtained part 
 of Pomerania together with the bishoprics of Halberstadt, 
 Minden, and Magdeburg, while by private contract it had se- 
 cured certain territories in Cleves, Mark, and Ravensburg. 
 Then, in 1697 it dexterously made use of the ambition of 
 Charles X of Sweden to secure the independent possession of 
 the Duchy of Prussia. Later on, during the wars of Louis 
 XIV. it procured from the emperor as the price of its support 
 the erection of Prussia into a kingdom (1701). 
 
 Circumstances, no doubt, were partly responsible for this, 
 but the Hohenzollern rulers were generally men of marked 
 ability who knew how to profit by circumstances. There was 
 Frederick \Mlliam, the Great Elector (1640-1688), who 
 founded a firm tradition of a strong military policy. After 
 him came, in 1688, his son, Frederick I, who acquired the 
 title of king and who also deserves mention as being the 
 founder of the L^niversity of Halle and of the Academies of 
 Sculpture and Painting at Berlin. In 17 13, he was succeeded 
 by his son Frederick William I. It was this king who made 
 the Prussian armv the most efficient fighting machine in Eu- 
 rope and who instituted the regiment of the Potsdam Guards, 
 famous for the height of its soldiers. Of equal importance 
 were his financial reforms, such as the improvement of the 
 system of taxation and the foundation of what are now some 
 of the richest manufactories of Prussia. 
 
 385 
 
386 THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SrCCESSWN 
 
 566. Frederick the Great. — In the year 1740 Frederick 
 W^ilHam I died and was succeeded by his son Frederick II 
 surnamed the Great. 
 
 This monarch carried still further the financial improve- 
 ments inaugurated by his father, and it is interestin.^ to note 
 
 that he was the first 
 who in any way 
 dreamed of a Ger- 
 man na\'al policy, 
 insisting on the 
 rights of free navi- 
 gation for all his 
 subjects. Frederick 
 was also interested 
 in law, ;uid his 
 chancellor drew up 
 the " Frederican 
 Code of Laws," the 
 object of which \vas 
 to simplify legal pro- 
 ceedings in the king- 
 dom. He was also 
 a man of consider- 
 able French culture 
 and wrote the mem- 
 oirs of the " House 
 o f Brandenburg," 
 and other works with all the qualities of a good French style. 
 But the most eventful aspect of Frederick the Great's reign 
 was his policy of expansion, for this had direct and important 
 influence on general European politics. 
 
 iM-udtrick the Great. Born 1712; died 1786. 
 
 567. The Pragmatic Sanction. — The reigning emperor of 
 Austria was Charles VI. He had no male heirs but he was 
 
MARIA THERESA 387 
 
 anxious that all his possessions should descend intact to his 
 eldest daughter, Maria Theresa. Accordingly, before his 
 death he procured the consent of most of the European Powers 
 to the " Pragmatic Sanction " by which they guaranteed the 
 succession of Maria Theresa to all his dominions. 
 
 Charles died in 1740 but with the exception of the doubtful 
 friendship of England not one of the guarantors proved in any 
 way faithful to the contract. 
 
 568. Coalition Against Austria. — Indeed, the same causes 
 that prepared the way for the partition of Poland were present 
 also in Austria. The treasury was depleted, the army in a 
 weakened condition, while there was also a general want of 
 cohesion between the different parts of the Austrian domin- 
 ions. Moreover, the Austrian dominions, on account of their 
 very extent, offered a tempting prize. In addition to Austria 
 proper and Bohemia there were the Netherlands and certain 
 states in Italy. 
 
 b'rance was really the prime instigator of the coalition, but 
 the Prussians gave the signal by invading Austrian Silesia, 
 which they conquered by the battles of Mollwitz and Chotusitz. 
 The European states then set their armies in motion. France, 
 Spain, Saxony, and Bavaria, all attacked the Austrian pos- 
 sessions at the most convenient points of assault. 
 
 569. Maria Theresa, however, was a woman of spirit. 
 When the French were at the very gates of Vienna she fled to 
 Hungary and threw herself upon the loyalty and support of 
 her Hungarian subjects. With their aid she speedily drove 
 the French and Bavarians out of her hereditary dominions. 
 
 England was called upon to be faithful to her duty by up- 
 holding the Pragmatic Sanction. But a peace party was then 
 in power. The leaders of this party advised Maria Theresa to 
 buy off Frederick the Great by ceding to him Silesia, Maria 
 
EUROPE 
 
 !■-? .• Tartar — ^-CsJJKyT c^^T 
 
 "lo^t V \ 
 
 ""W-.. 
 
 i'-^-iv 
 
 A I 
 
 •**««, 
 
 LoQgituUe Ve 
 
( 
 
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 389 
 
 Theresa was bitterly chagrined at this lukewarmness in her 
 favor, but circumstances compelled her to give way. She 
 accordingly made with Frederick the treaty of Breslau (1742) 
 by which she yielded to Frederick the greater part of Silesia. 
 Perhaps some excuse may be made for the English ministers. 
 They felt themselves obliged to uphold the Pragmatic Sanc- 
 tion b}^ preventing the complete dismemberment of the Aus- 
 trian Empire, but they did not feel obliged to prevent the 
 loss to Austria of merely one or two provinces. 
 
 570. The Second Silesian War was fought soon after this 
 treaty. This time, Maria Theresa was aided by England, 
 Saxony, and Sardinia. Frederick again entered the Austrian 
 possessions at the head of an invading army and even suc- 
 ceeded in taking Prague, the capital of Bohemia. This, how- 
 ever, was the high water mark of his success. He soon had 
 to evacuate the country altogether. In Italy, the /\ustrians 
 won the battle of Piacenza (1746) against the French and 
 the Spaniards. Elsewhere, the campaign was fought out with 
 varying success. 
 
 571. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) at length termi- 
 nated the War of the Austrian Succession. By the terms of 
 this peace, the provisions of the Pragmatic Sanction were vir- 
 tually carried out. Silesia, however, was left in the hands 
 of Prussia and certain portions of the Milanese Territories 
 were abandoned to Sardinia. These exceptions were the 
 price that Austria had to pay in order to avoid more substan- 
 tial losses. 
 
 Although the actual status of the European territories re- 
 mained the same, the altered significance of European politics 
 demands attention. 
 
 (a) Prussia by its seizure of Silesia had added to its 
 boundaries and maintained its military reputation. But its 
 
 / 
 
390 THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 
 
 unjust attack on the Austrian dominions created a tradition 
 of bitter hostility between itself and Austria. 
 
 (b) The kingdom of Sardinia now rises to a visible power 
 and influence. The territory of the kingdom of Sardinia 
 in the year 1720 comprised the Duchy of Savoy, Piedmont, 
 Nice, Genoa, and the island of Sardinia. These possessions 
 had been accumulated mainly by the skilful diplomacy of the 
 dukes of Savoy. By siding now with one party, now with 
 the other they generally secured something as a result of the 
 strife of other powers. In 1720 Sardinia was added to their 
 possessions and erected into a kingdom. And now by the 
 treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the rulers of the house of Savoy, 
 were called the kings of Sardinia, and gained considerable 
 portions of Milanese territories. 
 
 572. Spain had shown during the war that she was grad- 
 ually recovering from the miserable condition into which she 
 had fallen during the years of Louis XIV. Under the able 
 administration of the prime minister Alberoni and after him 
 of Ripperda, the financial condition of the kingdom became 
 improved, commerce revived, and the navy became rehabili- 
 tated. More than this, Spain even sought to regain some of 
 her lost possessions in Italy. Nor was she unsuccessful. 
 Parma and Piacenza became Spanish possessions for a con- 
 siderable period of time. 
 
 573. France, on the other hand, showed that she had as 
 yet hardly recovered from the shattering effects of the wars 
 of Louis XIV. She had obtained nothing by taking part in 
 the coalition against Austria. Moreover, Louis XV was an 
 indolent, profligate monarch. The chief minister of the 
 French court at this time was Cardinal Dubois, and after him, 
 Cardinal Fleury. It was under the latter minister that France 
 opposed the claims of Maria Theresa. 
 
GEORGE I 391 
 
 574. Austria had emerged from the terrible struggle with 
 some losses, but with considerable vitality. Moreover, the in- 
 ternal administration of Maria Theresa had been very bene- 
 ficial throughout the country. She established a general sys- 
 tem of education supervised by a general council of studies; 
 she improved the condition of the Bohemian serfs, promoted 
 the interests of commerce by the construction of important 
 canals, and instituted various judicial reforms. 
 
 She also had the satisfaction of finding her husband Francis 
 of Lorraine elected emperor, and Austria was still in the 
 proud position of being a possible nucleus of a future united 
 Germany. 
 
 575. George I, on the death of Queen Anne (1714), as- 
 cended the throne. He was a stolid German, and spoke not a 
 word of English. The practical conduct of affairs was there- 
 fore left entirely in the hands of his W hig ministers. 
 
 The chief foreign policy of the ministers was to uphold the 
 provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht. For this purpose, they 
 formed with France and Holland the Triple Alliance of 171 7. 
 In 1 7 18 Germany also became a partner and thus completed 
 the Quadruple Alliance against the designs of Spain in Italy. 
 
 576. Domestic Affairs. — With regard to the domestic his- 
 tory of England, perhaps the most important event was the 
 rise to power of Sir Robert \\^alpole who was the first to be 
 called Prime Minister. The immediate cause of his promotion 
 was the bursting of the South Sea Bubble. This was a bogus 
 company in which almost every class of society had shares. 
 When the crash came. Sir Robert Walpole joined the govern- 
 ment, and made arrangements by which the country was helped 
 through its ditftculties, and financial confidence was restored. 
 In 1 71 5, he became prime minister and first lord of the treas- 
 ury. 
 
392 THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 
 
 577. George II. — George i. died in 1727 and was succeeded 
 by his son George II. He was also a thorough German but he 
 could speak English. 
 
 We have already seen the part taken by England in the 
 War of the Austrian Succession. In order to help Maria 
 Theresa King George himself headed an English army on 
 the continent and in 1743 won a victory over the French at 
 Dettingen. But two years later, at Fontenoy in the Nether- 
 lands, the Duke of Cumberland was defeated by the French. 
 This French victory, the only (jne gained under Louis XV, 
 prepared the way for the separation of the Netherlands from 
 Austria and for their temporary absorption by France during 
 the French Revolution. 
 
 578. The Whig Party, during this period, dominated "Eng- 
 lish politics at home. Owing to the connection and to the 
 supposed sympathy between the Tories and the exiled house of 
 Stuart, the opposition was placed in a position of discredit and 
 of great weakness. On the other hand all the instruments 
 of maintaining themselves in power were at the disposal of 
 the Whig party. They could engineer the elections both in 
 the towns and in the country, and they could also bribe with- 
 out limit both in the matter of granting offices and even by 
 direct sums of money. However, the Whig administration 
 was beneficial. It tended on the whole in the direction of 
 peace, and it promoted the commercial prosperity of the coun- 
 try. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Rising power of the House of Hohenzollern - — Hohenzollern 
 Rulers — ■■ Frederick II — Pragmatic Sanction —Weak condition 
 of the Austrian Empire — Battles of Mollvitz and Chotusitz — 
 Treaty of Breslau — Second Silesian war — Peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle — General condition of European politics — George I — 
 England's foreign policy — England's domestic policy — Reign 
 of George II — Dominance of the Whig party. 
 
REFEREXCES 393 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 TuTTLE, History of Prussia; Beagle, Correspondence hitherto unpub- 
 lished between Maria Theresa and Frederick II; Longman. Frederick 
 the Great; Carlyle, Frederick the Great; Bright, Maria Theresa; Whit- 
 man, Austria; Reduaway, Frederick the Great and Rise of Prussia; 
 Leger, History of Austro-Hungary ; York-Powell and Tout. History 
 of England; Morley, Walpole; Coxe, Sir Robert Walpolc; Stanhope, 
 History of England from Peace of Utrecht; Pastor, Side Lights on 
 Georgian period; Cowper, Diary; Chestcriicld's Memoirs; Fournier, Originc 
 dc la Pragmatiquc Sanction; Broglie, Studies on Frederick II and Maria 
 Theresa; Mirabeau, On the Prussian Monarchy under Frederick II; 
 Paganel, History of Frederick the Great; Wirgaud, Frederick dcr Grosse. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR; COLONIAL EXPANSION OF ENGLAND 
 
 579. Causes of the Seven Years' War. — The War of the 
 
 Austrian Succession contained within itself the germs of an- 
 other war even wider and more momentous in character. 
 
 Austria bitterly grudged the sacrifice of Silesia to Prussia. 
 The action of Frederick was itself provokingly unjustifiable. 
 But besides this, the loss of Silesia meant the loss of one of the 
 German speaking provinces and one of the most valuable 
 parts of the Empire. Austria had also a bitter grudge against 
 England. \\'hile England had indeed done something to pre- 
 vent a complete dismemberment of the Austrian Empire yet 
 it was her supineness that had contributed to the loss of 
 Silesia. 
 
 On the other hand, the anger of France had been aroused 
 against England. For it was England which had mainly op- 
 posed the French scheme of partitioning Austria. But even 
 this grievance paled in importance before the bitter rivalry 
 between the English and French colonies nearly all over the 
 world. 
 
 580. Coalition Against Prussia. — The result was another 
 war, another coalition and another attempt to partition a 
 European nation. This time. Prussia was the intended vic- 
 tim. Against her were ranged France, Austria. Saxony, and 
 Russia. On the side of Prussia was England, which again 
 found itself on the side of the oppressed, and it was partly to 
 English help that Frederick II was indebted for the success- 
 ful defense that he made against almost overwhelming odds 
 
 Frederick II was not taken unawares. By private means, 
 
 394 
 
WARS OF FREDERICK 395 
 
 he had obtained full information of all his enemies' plans. 
 His position was desperate and he saw that the only and the 
 best defense was at once to strike hard and swift blows be- 
 fore his enemies could slowly mature their plan and close in 
 upon him. 
 
 581. Invasion of Saxony. — He therefore began the war by 
 invading Saxony (1756). His army was successful against 
 an Austrian army that opposed him and he then marched 
 southward into Bohemia where he gained a second and still 
 more signal victory over the Austrians. After this, he laid 
 siege to Prague, but the approach of Daun, the Austrian gen- 
 eral, changed the course of the war. Frederick then made 
 the fatal mistake of dividing his army, allowing one part to 
 continue the siege and the other to engage Daun. The re- 
 sult was a double failure. He was defeated at the battles of 
 Kolin (1757) and he had to raise the siege of Prague. 
 
 Just at this moment the gathering forces of his opponents 
 began to threaten the different frontiers of his own domin- 
 ions. 
 
 582, The Odds Against Frederick. — In Hanover on the 
 west, appeared the French who had just defeated an English 
 army under the Duke of Cumberland ; on the north were ad- 
 vancing the combined Russians and Swedes, and on the south 
 was an army of French and Austrians. Frederick at once at- 
 tacked the latter army and inflicted upon it a crushing defeat 
 at Rossbach (1757). After this he marched into Silesia and 
 after another crushing victory at Leuthen recaptured Breslau 
 and the whole of Silesia from the Austrians. To make Fred- 
 erick's position still better the Russians and Swedes retreated 
 from Prussian territory and a new English army under the 
 Duke of Brunswick appeared in Hanover, while the English 
 government began to dole out to him liberal financial aid. 
 
396 THE SEVEN YEARS' II AK 
 
 Frederick by the end of 1757, was thus still in a strong po- 
 sition. But he had now to face even greater dangers. 
 Hitherto he had crossed swords with the Austrians but now 
 he had to face the Russians who seemed to have been of 
 sterner metal. It was only with difficulty that he defeated the 
 Russians at the battle of Zorndorf, 1758, and later on at the 
 battle of Kunnersdorf, (1759), he himself was completely 
 routed by the combined armies of the Russians and of the 
 Austrians. To offset this reverse he had only the English 
 victory over the French at the battle of Minden in Hanover. 
 This victory had the effect of keeping the enemy away from 
 the western borders of the Prussian kingdom. 
 
 583. Peter III Joins Frederick. — Yet in 1761, the position 
 of Frederick became critical. His kingdom was exhausted 
 and it was becoming every day more difficult to hold up suc- 
 cessfully against such a wide ring of foes. But fortunately 
 at this juncture, affairs took a sudden and unexpected turn. 
 The Empress Elizabeth of Russia his bitterest enemy died 
 (1762), and was succeeded by Peter HI, an ardent admirer of 
 Frederick. Russia at once withdrew from the contest and 
 made a treaty of alliance with Frederick. Besides this, the 
 ardor of the French considerably cooled, partly owing to se- 
 vere defeats at the hand of the English, partly owing to want 
 of support from Spain. 
 
 Austria had thus to face Prussia single-handed and the war 
 was necessarily brought to a speedy termination by the Treaty 
 of Paris (1763). The provisions of this treaty mainly re- 
 gard the settlement of the colonial rivalry between England 
 and France. It will be necessary therefore to consider first of 
 all the colonial aspect of the Seven Years' War. 
 
 584. The Colonial Expansion of England. — Towards the 
 end of the sixteenth centurv nearlv all the o-reat states of 
 
COXTIIST FOR C.lXAD.l AXD INDIA ^^jj 
 
 Europe had colonial settlements. Spain had established her- 
 self in a great part of South America and in the West Indies ; 
 Portugal had appropriated Brazil and had started certain 
 trading stations in India, while Holland began to enter as a 
 successful rival in India and the Spice Islands. But in the 
 sixteenth century the two most important and active coloniz- 
 ing powers were England and France. Both of these powers 
 had colonial settlements in Xorth America and in India and, 
 less extensively, in Africa. 
 
 \Mien the Treaty of Utrecht was signed in 1714 the exact 
 extent of the English possessions was as follows: 
 
 (a) In the Xew World. Hudson ?jay, Xewfoundland, Xova 
 Scotia, and what now constitutes the Atlantic border of the 
 United States as far south as Savannah. There were also the 
 Bermudas, Jamaica, and Barbados. 
 
 (b) In Africa; Gambia and the Isle of St. Helena. 
 
 (c) In India: the Island of Bombay and certain trading 
 stations. 
 
 585. Contest for Canada and India. — The places where the 
 English were successful rivals with the French were Canada 
 and India. In 1754. began the real struggle between the 
 French and the English for the possession of Canada. The 
 h^rench attempted to establish communication by means of 
 the Great Lakes and of the Mississippi River between Canada 
 and Louisiana. This policy implied an intention to confine the 
 English colonies to the strip of territory between the Atlantic 
 sea-board and the Appalachian Mountains. 
 
 In the struggle that ensued, the English were at first un- 
 successful. General Braddock was inexperienced in guerrilla 
 warfare and in attempting to capture Fort Duquesne (Pitts- 
 burg) fell into an ambuscade of French and Indians. Not 
 only was his army routed but he himself was mortally w^ounded 
 (1755)- 
 
398 THE SFJ'EN YEARS' WAR 
 
 586. The Fall of Quebec. — But in 1758 the superiority of 
 the English began to make itself felt. The elder Pitt, one of 
 the greatest English statesman, was then at the head of affairs 
 and none knew better than he how to select capable officers. 
 General Wolfe in 1758 was sent out as commander of the 
 English army. His presence was signalized by the capture 
 of the important fortress of Quebec. 
 
 Another English general called Amherst, succeeded in tak- 
 ing the important forts at 
 Niagara and Ticonderoga. 
 From all these different 
 places, the English armies 
 converged upon the city of 
 Montreal and took it after 
 a short siege. With the 
 seizure of the great part of 
 the enemy's stronghold, the 
 English quickly completed 
 the conquest of Canada. 
 
 587. Affairs in India. — 
 We must now consider the 
 colonial rivalry between the 
 English and the French in 
 quite another part of the 
 world. Up to within a few years of this time, India had been 
 ruled by a succession of emperors belonging to the Mogul 
 dynasty. The founder of this dynasty was popularly sup- 
 posed to be Baber, a potentate who flourished in the sixteenth 
 century, but Baber himself claimed descent from Timour the 
 Tartar who lived in the fourteenth century. 
 
 The centralized rule of the Great Moguls as the English 
 called them, had now began to decline. The different princes 
 of the provinces were asserting their own local independence, 
 
 William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. Born 
 1708; died 1778. Prime Minister of 
 England 1783 to 1801, and from 1804 
 to 1808. 
 
ROBERT CLIVE 399 
 
 and the authority of the emperor was ahnost as shadowy and 
 unsubstantial as that of the later Carolingian monarchs. 
 
 Besides these internal elements of disintegration, there were 
 also foreign trading settlements chiefly along the coast line 
 of the empire. On the western coast, the Portuguese had es- 
 tablished the colony of Goa; on the eastern coast, the French 
 had established themselves at Hoogli and at Pondicherry; 
 finally, the English were in possession of the village of Bom- 
 bay on the extreme northwestern coast, Fort St. George in 
 Madras, and a trading settlement at Calcutta in Bengal on 
 the extreme northeast coast. 
 
 The French seem to have made the most progress. The 
 East India Company that had been formed under Richelieu 
 had received especial patronage under Colbert, while Du- 
 pleix, the governor of Pondicherry, was an able man and full 
 of ambition to promote his country's interests. 
 
 588. The Appearance of Robert Clive. — An opportunity 
 soon presented itself in the disputes of the native tribes. The 
 French backed up some of the tribes against the other and 
 by drilling the natives and supplying them with instruments of 
 modern warfare hoped to secure complete ascendancy over 
 India. Such a policy, however, forced the English to take 
 up the cause of the tribes that were attacked by the French. 
 The early point of the campaign went against the English. 
 Their siege of Pondicherry failed and even Trichinopoli in 
 Madras was in imminent danger. But Robert Clive, a dash- 
 ing young English soldier, saved the situation. He abandoned 
 a purely defensive method of warfare and assumed the aggres- 
 sive. He took (1751) the city of Arcot in the Carnatic and 
 held it successfully against powerful odds. 
 
 Almost at once the French power began to decline. Du- 
 pleix had to retire to France in disgrace and the whole of the 
 Carnatic fell under English rule, 
 
400 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 
 
 589. The Conquest of Bengal. — The next step in the es- 
 tablishment of the Enghsh empire in India was the conquest 
 of Bengal. Surajah-Dowlah was then the Nabob of Bengal. 
 He was a man of savage cruelty but it was greed that lead 
 him to attack the EngHsh settlement at Fort William (Cal- 
 cutta) (1756). He succeeded. And in the hour of his tri- 
 umph one hundred 
 and forty-six pris- 
 oners were confined 
 in a small room onl}- 
 twenty feet square 
 and with only two 
 small gratings for 
 ventilation. For 
 only one night were 
 the prisoners im 
 mersed in this den. 
 but the heat of an 
 Indian summer did 
 its wcork and on the 
 morning only twen- 
 ty-three persons had 
 survived. 
 
 This massacre 
 roused Clive to put 
 forth his best ener- 
 gies. He marched into the heart of Bengal and inflicted upon 
 the enemy an overwhelming defeat at the battle of Plassey 
 (1757). This victory placed the English in possession of 
 Bengal and it, together with the victory at Wondernash in 
 southern India by Colonel Coote practically determined that 
 the English and not the French were to be the rulers of India. 
 
 590. The Treaty of Paris (1763) put an end both to the 
 Seven Years' War on the Continent and to the colonial war 
 
 Robert Clive. Born 1725; died i;74. 
 
TREATY OF PARIS 401 
 
 between the English and the French. The terms of tlie treaty 
 were as follows : 
 
 (a) In America, England obtained Canada and Cape 
 Breton and was confirmed in the possession of Nova Scotia, 
 while the Mississippi was to be the boundary between the Eng- 
 lish colonies and Louisiana. In the West Indies, a mutual 
 interchange of territories took place between England and 
 France. In India, England was obliged to restore her con- 
 quests since 1749, but obtained the concession that the French 
 troops should evacuate India and that there should be no 
 French fortifications. England also obtained Senegal in 
 western Africa, and the Island of Minorca in the Mediter- 
 ranean. 
 
 (b) Spain also entered into this treaty. She obtained Ha- 
 vana from England but in return gave to England the pos- 
 session of Florida. 
 
 Though this treaty profoundly disappointed the war party 
 in England, it marked the foundation of the great British 
 colonial empire of to-day. England had succeeded in a task 
 in which other nations of Europe had failed or at least had 
 fallen short of achievement. Spain had failed through want 
 of sufficient revenue and the weakening and deterioration of 
 the government at home ; France had failed because she treated 
 her colonies as purely political appendages and had allowed 
 the local officials too little liberty of action. But England 
 had succeeded because she allowed full liberty of action to 
 wisely chosen officials and generals, and more than all. through 
 her justice and fair play toward the natives, and through her 
 fearless and dogged perseverance which overcame all obsta- 
 cles. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Causes of the Seven Years' War — Frederick II takes the 
 aggressive — Battles of Kolin, Rossback, Leuthen, Zorndorf — 
 Russia withdraws from the war — Treaty of Paris — Greater 
 Europe — English possessions in 1713 — War in Canada between 
 
402 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 
 
 English and French — English success in Canada — War be- 
 tween English and French in India — The Great Moguls — Eu- 
 ropean settlements in India — Success of the English under 
 Clive — English conquest of Bengal — Treaty of Paris. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Brackenbury, Frederick the Great; Tuttle, Prussia; Macaulay, Es- 
 say on Frederick the Great; Henderson, History of Germany; Seelev, 
 Expansion of England; Leckey, History of England in the Eighteenth 
 Century; Gibbins, History of Commerce in Europe; Parkman, Mont- 
 calm and Wolfe; Malleson, Clive; Egerton, Short History of British 
 Colonial Policy; Mahan, Influence of Sea Poner on History; Lyall, 
 Rise of the British Dominion in India; Warmer, Landmarks of English 
 Industrial History; Flux, Building of the British Empire; Correspond- 
 ence between Choiseul and Bernin; Frederick II, Political correspondence; 
 Lord Nathan's Correspondence; Napoleon's precis des guerres de Fred. 
 II; Grant Duff, Hist, of Mahratl'as; Troller, Life of Hastings; Roger's 
 journal of French War; Sparks, Diplomatic correspondence of American 
 Revolutionists; Doniol, Participation of France in formation of United 
 States; Sparks, Washington's Correspondence; Sabine, American Royal- 
 ists in War of Am. Rev. 
 
 I 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 THE RISE OF RUSSIA AND THE PARTITION OF POLAND 
 
 591. Ivan IV; the Romanoffs. — Already, during the reign 
 of Queen Elizabeth of England, Russia had shown signs of 
 rising from the sleep of barbaric ages. Ivan IV was then 
 ruler. During his reign a code of laws was promulgated and 
 a regular army was formed. Communication was also opened 
 up between Russia and the western world. English ships 
 now made their appearance in the port of Archangel and 
 Russia w-arred, though unsuccessfully, with Sweden and Po- 
 land for the possession of Livonia on the Baltic coast. 
 
 In 161 3, Michael Romanoff ascended the throne and founded 
 the dynasty named after him. From this time, Russia be- 
 gins to take her place among the European states. Not only 
 (lid trade with England and France undergo great develop- 
 ments but foreigners began to settle in Russia disseminating a 
 knowledge of western ideas and principles. 
 
 592. Peter the Great. — The most distinguished member of 
 the Romanoff dynasty was Peter the Great, who ascended the 
 throne in 1689. 
 
 A painter would have great difficulty in making a portrait 
 of Peter the Great. He was a man of violent and extraor- 
 dinary contrasts. He was half a savage and yet he had an 
 extraordinary leaning towards the best and highest forms of 
 western civilization. 
 
 Perhaps the most singular feature about Peter was his 
 mental and moral isolation in his own kingdom. He was 
 centuries ahead of the thought and temperament of his own. 
 times. 
 
 403 
 
404 RISE OF RUSSIA AND PARTITION OF POLAND 
 
 If we judge him by comparison with the people he gov- 
 erned, Peter must be considered one of the most creative char- 
 acters that the world has seen. His powers of assimilation and 
 construction w-ere elastic, his genius profound and original, 
 and above all, his resolution unshaken and undomitable. The 
 reforms that were thrust upon Russia during the reign of 
 
 Peter were as yet far too 
 sudden for its willing ac- 
 ceptance, but the iron will of 
 Peter ruthlessly dragged the 
 whole nation after him and 
 made it walk in the way of 
 the western nations. 
 
 In some respects the prog- 
 ress of Russia under Peter 
 may be compared to the 
 progress of Japan at the 
 present day. But it must be 
 remembered that in Japan 
 the chang'e has been grad- 
 ual, whereas in Russia it 
 , ^ „ . ,. , was violent and abrupt. 
 
 Peter the Great. Born 167J; died 172;. '^ 
 
 593. Peter's Travels in Europe. — When a boy, Peter de- 
 termined to make himself acquainted by travel and experience 
 with European civilization. This resolution marked the char- 
 acter of the man. For tra\'el was considered by the Russians 
 of those times as a crime. 
 
 Between 1697 ^"*^ 1698 Peter traveled over the greater part 
 of Europe. He spent the most time in England and Holland. 
 There, he made himself thoroughly acquainted with the prin- 
 ciples of science and of art. But his main interest seems to 
 have been ship-building. In Holland, he put on working 
 man's clothes and worked in a ship-yard near Amsterdam. 
 
REFORMS IX RCSS/.l 405 
 
 In England also he worked in the dock-yards at Depford. 
 Most of our information of Peter's sojourn in England is 
 derived from the English newspapers of that period, from 
 which it appears that he made a good impression on all with 
 whom he came in contact. 
 
 After two years residence among western peoples, Peter re- 
 turned, full}' equipped fm- his arduous task. 
 
 594. Peter's Reforms in Russia. — He at once attempted 
 to introduce into Russia western ideas and customs. The 
 old fashioned oriental robe was now got rid of and even the 
 long beard began to disappear. To the Russians the habit of 
 smoking had always been an atomination but now the long 
 pipe actually made its appearance in the precincts of a Russian 
 court. 
 
 Before Peter's time women had been kept in absolute se- 
 clusion and never allowed to appear in public save with a long 
 A'eil o\'er the face, while the two sexes even at the court were 
 never supposed to meet together in social assemblies. But 
 now all this was done away with and the Russian woman 
 began to assume the status of her western neighbor. 
 
 To abolish successfully deeply rooted habits of fashion is 
 in itself a most heroic achie\'ement ; after this, therefore, we 
 need not wonder if Peter succeeded in things still more im- 
 portant. Knowledge, art, and culture were introduced. 
 Printing presses were set up in different parts of the empire, 
 and libraries established. The Russian library is an anomaly 
 even to this day. Nearly every village has its own library 
 and classical works can be obtained at a reasonable cost. 
 Peter also established the first newspaper in Russia and even 
 planned a learned academy. 
 
 Peter also changed the social divisions of Russia. In his 
 Table of Ranks he classed all the people according to their dif- 
 ferent occupations. The rank of the nobleman was now made 
 
4o6 R^^E OF RUSSIA AND PARTITION OF POLAND 
 
 to depend not upon mere blood but upon service of distinction 
 rendered to the state by the person himself or by one of his 
 ancestors. 
 
 595. Changes in the Church. — Peter even made a radical 
 
 change in the condition of the Russian church. In this he was 
 aided by Feofan. who though not an orthodox Cr'holic had 
 been educated in a Jesuit college. Peter strongly disliked the 
 subordinate position that he occupied in the Russian church. 
 He determined therefore to reverse the position and to make 
 the Russian church subordinate to himself. A snyod for 
 ecclesiastical affairs was erected and the highest office of this 
 was the procurator who was directly nominated by the em- 
 peror. 
 
 596. Administrative Reforms. — Finally certain political 
 changes were made that facilitated the expansion of imperial 
 authority throughout the domains. Hitherto the only other 
 element in the central administration of the state was the 
 council of boyars who were the highest class of Russian offi- 
 cials. These were now allowed to die out and in their place 
 was established a senate composed of ministers of the em- 
 peror's choice. 
 
 From this it will be easily seen that the aim of Peter was 
 to introduce not only western usages, but also the elements of 
 western royal despotism. We may now consider the foreign 
 policy of Peter. 
 
 The great city of St. Petersburg founded by him as the new 
 capital of Russia sufficiently illustrates the great purpose of 
 his life. Situated at the mouth of the Neva, and near the 
 coast, it was to be the open entrance through which Russia 
 was to assert her influence in the theater of European politics. 
 To obtain this object his purpose was to make Russia one of 
 the Baltic powers. 
 
CHARLES XII 407 
 
 597. War With Sweden. — It was this ambition that 
 brought him into colHsion with Sweden. The king of Sweden 
 at this time was Charles XII, a young man of considerable 
 military ability. Charles was still in possession of the dis- 
 tricts along the south shore of the Baltic and it was these very 
 lands that were the object of Peter's desire. At the battle of 
 Narwa (1700), the Swedes and the Russians crossed arms. 
 The well-fed and well-disciplined Swedes quickly defeated 
 the ill-disciplined and half-famished Russians. Peter the 
 Great was compelled to retire. 
 
 The method of his retirement however signally illustrates 
 what has always been up to now the characteristic trait of 
 Russian policy. Instead of abandoning his design, Peter only 
 waited. 
 
 Had Charles XII of Sweden followed up his victory by an 
 advance upon Russia matters might have been more serious. 
 But Charles chose instead to invade Poland and this gave 
 Peter time to recover from defeat and to form a stronger and 
 better disciplined army. 
 
 598. Charles XII Invades Russia. — A few years after- 
 wards, Charles XII in the height of his glory entered with an 
 invading army into the very heart of Russia. Peter adopted 
 the same plan of defense that was used a hundred years later 
 against the French. He avoided for the present a pitched 
 battle but harassed the enemy by cutting down bridges, ob- 
 structing the fords and esf>ecially by wasting the country and 
 so cutting off the enemy's supplies. At length amid most 
 luifavorable circumstances for the Swedes, was fought in 1709 
 the battle of Pultowa. The results of the battle were the 
 rapid decline ofSweden from her accidental position as a 
 great northern power, and the rapid ascendency of Russia. 
 
 599. Treaty of Nystadt. — The war still lingered on and 
 was not really terminated until the celebrated Treaty of Ny- 
 
408 RISE OF [RUSSIA AND PARTITION OF POLAND 
 
 stadt (1/21). By this treaty I'eter obtained the Baltic prov- 
 inces of Ingria. Esthonia. and Livonia, which thus made Rus- 
 sia what she wanted to be, the prominent power on the Baltic. 
 After this, Peter exchanged his title of czar for emperor and 
 autocrat of all the Russias — a title which only lately has been 
 abrogated by the new constitutional government given to 
 Russia. 
 
 Peter the Great died shortly after this treaty. He will al- 
 ways be remembered for the reforms that he effected in Russia 
 and for having made Russia one of the great European powers. 
 
 600. Catharine II. — His work was continued and perhaps 
 still more effectively by Catherine H (1762). She organized 
 the political system, improved the condition of the serfs, and 
 promoted education by establishing everywhere colleges and 
 schools of a high order. She held intimate communications 
 with the most learned men of Europe ; whose services she used 
 for the good of the empire. Especially famous was her cor- 
 respondence with Voltaire, the great French philosopher. 
 
 She also promoted the interests of trade. Many canals 
 were constructed, among them being one that connected the 
 Caspian with the White Sea. Under her auspices also numer- 
 ous towns, banks, docks, and arsenals were brought into exist- 
 ence. Catherine succeeded in exj^anding the Russian territory. 
 Her conquest of Crimea in the south gave Russia complete 
 control over the Black Sea. But the most important acquisi- 
 tion was the large share that she obtained in the division of 
 Poland. 
 
 601. Condition of Poland. — Poland by this time had fallen 
 into a very precarious condition. Its government was in a 
 state of chronic anarchy. The nobles could impose any con- 
 ditions upon the king of their choice while the power of the 
 assembly was nullified by the absurd provision that the veto 
 
PARTITION OF POLAND 409 
 
 of any single nobleman could invalidate its decisions. There 
 was also anarchy from the religious point of view. For there 
 were constant troubles between the ascendant Catholics and 
 the Dissenters who in the western districts were Protestants, 
 and in the East, members of the (ireek Church. 
 
 Together with this tempting weakness of Poland there were 
 reasons that made the possession of some of the Polish terri- 
 tories particularly desirable to other European nations. Rus- 
 sia found that the possession of Polish territories in the East 
 would considerably strengthen her frontier. Prussia was nat- 
 urally aspiring" to the western part of Poland, which would give 
 her com])lete control of the Vistula ; Austria's desire for the 
 Southern provinces of Poland followed from the necessity of 
 having a set-ofif against Russian advances in case any partition 
 of Poland were made. 
 
 602. First Partition of Poland. — All these circumstances 
 combined to bring about the first partition of Poland in 1772. 
 Russia took part of Lithuania, Prussia took the province 
 called West Prussia, Austria occupied Polish territory in the 
 south including Red Russia. 
 
 603. Second Partition. — About two-thirds of Poland still 
 remained but even now there still continued the old system of 
 strife and anarchy, and the consequence was the second parti- 
 tion of Poland in 1793. This time Austria had no share of 
 the spoils. But Russia and Prussia added considerably to 
 what they had already acquired, Russia acquiring the whole 
 of Lithuania, while Prussia obtained the important towns of 
 Posen, Gnesen and Danzig. It was on the occasion of this 
 second partition that the Polish patriot, Kosciusko, tried to 
 lead the Poles against the Russians. But he was defeated and 
 taken prisoner. His memory will be interesting to Americans 
 since he fought on their side during the revolutionary wars. 
 
4IO RISE OF RUSSIA AND PARTITION OF POLAND 
 
 604. Third Partition of Poland. — In 1795 there took place 
 the third and final partition of Poland. On this occasion. 
 Russia, Prussia, and Austria shared in the spoils. Russia and 
 Prussia each extended their possessions till they met and took 
 in* what had hitherto been left of Poland, while Austria ob- 
 tained Gallicia, this time as a counterbalance to the growing 
 power of Prussia. 
 
 605. Present Condition of Poland. — Poland had thus 
 ceased to exist as a separate nation. But she died a hard 
 death. Even at the present day both Russia and Germany 
 are endeavoring to crush out the old national spirit in their 
 Polish dominions. But their attempts seem unavailing, and 
 the Poles still successfully maintain their racial identity, their 
 religious traditions, and even their language. 
 
 However, the possession of the Polish provinces enabled 
 Russia to interfere still more effectively in the affairs of Eu- 
 rope. And as we shall see in treating of the wars of Napo- 
 leon, they enabled Russia to play an important part first on the 
 side of and then against Napoleon. More than this Russia's 
 successful acquisitions had given her a tradition of territorial 
 expansion from which she had never departed until her hu- 
 miliating defeat in the far East at the hands of the rising 
 power of Japan. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Ivan I and beginnings of Russian trade — Michael Roman- 
 off — Character of Peter the Great — Peter's reforms in Russia 
 
 — His patronage of letters — Changes made in the political 
 status of the Russian church — The Boyars replaced by the Sen- 
 ate — Peter's foreign policy — Wars between Russia and Sweden 
 
 — Charles XII's invasion of Russia — Treaty of Nystadt — 
 Catharine II — Catharine IPs foreign policy — Condition of 
 Poland — Causes of the general desire to partition Poland -7- 
 First Partition of Poland — Second Partition of Poland — Third 
 Partition of Poland — Present condition of the Polish Provinces. 
 
REFERENCES 411 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Rambaud, Russia; Schuyler, Peter the Great; Hassall, Balance of 
 Power; Waliszewski, Life of Peter the Great; Bain, Charles XII; 
 Motley, Peter the Great; Morfill, Story of Poland; Skrine, Exf>ansion 
 of Russia; Oderfield, Military History; Wyne, Condition of Sweden un- 
 der Charles XII; Martens, Recueil des Traites et Conventions dc hi 
 Russe ; Prince Boris Kouraine, Voyage in Europe of a great Personage ; 
 Memoirs of private persons in different countries as Kcmpfer in Holland 
 and the French Jesuit Philip d'Avril; Grote, Peter the Great; Kraszen- 
 iSKi, Poland and the Three Partitions; Schmitt, History of Poland in 
 XVIII and XIX Centuries; Rousseau, sur la Constitution de Polognc; 
 Correspondence between Frederick the Great and Catharine II. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 Causes of the French Revolution 
 
 606. Revolutionary Theories. — We have seen how Eng- 
 land \ictoriously held the hrst place in the great colonial move- 
 ments of the sixteenth centnry. It was England's privilege 
 to lead the way in other and still more important movements. 
 Already, in the reign of Charles II of England some philoso- 
 phers like Hobbes broached the doctrine of the social con- 
 tract in which they affirmed that society is the resnlt of an 
 artificial contract between the rulers and the governed. The 
 natural consequences of this doctrine were inevitable and im- 
 mediate. The rulers of the state Wfjuld derive authority only 
 from the consent of the people and these same people, when 
 convenient could dethrone those whom they have placed in 
 power. 
 
 Such doctrines did not perish in the air. Like seeds, they 
 were wafted over to the countries of Europe. There they 
 slowly spread and after sinking right down to the lowest 
 strata of society brought forth tangible results of the most 
 momentous character. All during the thrilling horrors and 
 excitement of French Revolution, nothing can be more illus- 
 trative of the power of abstract philosophical ideas than the 
 way in which all branches of society discussed these difficult 
 doctrines of the social compact and its consequences. 
 
 607. French Political Philosophers. — In France the doc- 
 trines were destined to produce more violent and more far- 
 reaching effects than in any other country. The French 
 
 412 
 
VOLTAIRE AND ROUSSEAU 
 
 413 
 
 writers who were mainly instrumental in presenting these doc- 
 trines to the people were Voltaire. Rousseau, and Montes- 
 quieu. 
 
 Voltaire's system of philosophy was essentially destructive. 
 He opposed to tradition the force of human reason. The 
 most hallowed beliefs and the most sacred institutions were 
 not safe from his critical mind and his power of ridicule. 
 The theory of Voltaire was purely destructive; but he was 
 too much a frequenter of aristocratic society, too much of a 
 diner-out to be dangerous. 
 In fact the friendship of 
 Voltaire with the despot 
 Frederick II of Prussia 
 shows that his revolution- 
 ary tendencies were purely 
 in the field of academic dis- 
 cussion. 
 
 Rousseau, on the other 
 hand, was more uncompro- 
 mising and more inclined 
 to push principles to their 
 practical and logical conclu- 
 sion. At the same time, he 
 was more conservative and 
 more constructive in his 
 method. 
 
 Montesquieu was a great student of the liberty enjoyed 
 under the constitutional monarchy of England. Although he 
 misunderstood in some respect the working of the English 
 constitution, his writings called attention both in France and 
 in America to the most important principles that underlie good 
 government. It is through Montesquieu that America and 
 some European states have imitated in their constitution the 
 English parliamentary system. 
 
 Voltaire. 
 
414 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 608. Political causes of the Revolution. — There were three 
 estates in France, the clergy, the nobility, and the third estate, 
 which comprised all that did not belong to the two upper 
 estates. The whole monopoly of power and privilege was 
 lodged with the upper estates. 
 
 In medieval times, the lord or the baron, while receiving 
 the feudal dues from his tenants at least did something in 
 return. He performed a great part of the administrative and 
 judicial work of the district in which he lived. But now he 
 had become an idle drone, still receiving, but doing nothing 
 in return. 
 
 Moreover, these nobles had no longer the grand old tradi- 
 tions of the ancient feudal aristocracy. Many of them were 
 mere upstarts who had all the pride and arrogance of a noble 
 without any glorious family tradition and ennobling influence. 
 
 It was the intendants or local officials who now handled 
 the executive machinery. These intendants were so many 
 despots. Under their rule the people had no initiative what- 
 ever. 
 
 609. The Parlements in France were quite unlike the 
 English parliament. They were merely law courts. The 
 Parlement of Paris in a formal capacity did exercise some 
 political influence. The king's edicts in order to be valid had 
 to be registered by the Parlement. If Parlement refused, 
 then the king could appear in person and the Parlement would 
 be obliged to register his edict even against its own will. 
 
 It is true that the Parlement was thus helpless in the king's 
 hands. But the attitude of Parlement provoked discussion 
 and aroused that public opinion which was so important an 
 element in the Revolution. 
 
 610. Other elements also roused the third estate to the 
 consciousness of their exclusion from power and of their be- 
 
ECONOMIC CAUSES 415 
 
 ing at the mercy of the king and the intendants. These stimu- 
 lants were the salons or drawing rooms of Paris, the cafes 
 where men would discuss the questions of the hour, the news- 
 papers that at first indirectly, then openly organized and made 
 public opinion. 
 
 We might sum up the political causes of the Revolution by 
 saying that they were, first, the exclusion of the Third Estate 
 from all political power, and. secondly, the growing conscious- 
 ness of that exclusion. 
 
 611. Economic Causes of the Revolution. — At the time of 
 Louis XIV\ the economic system of what was called the mer- 
 cantile school of economists had been adopted. This system 
 meant heavy duties on all imported goods in order to give a 
 better home market to the nati\e producer; it meant en- 
 couraging native industries by such artificial means as boun- 
 ties and monopolies, and it involved a system of continual 
 state interference with trade. At first, this system was suc- 
 cessful, but afterward bad results flowed from it. Trade was 
 prevented from following its natural laws and much distress 
 was occasioned. A new school of economists soon rose whose 
 tenets were quite opposed to those of the school represented 
 by Colbert. The chief exponents of this new school were 
 such men as Turgot and Necker in France and Adam Smith 
 in England. These writers advocated a system of laisscc- 
 fairc, which means that the king should not interfere with the 
 natural course of trade and business. The motto of these 
 men was free trade, and unlike the mercantilists they re- 
 garded agriculture as the producer of wealth. 
 
 This school of economists evidently was opposed to the 
 personal despotism of the king. 
 
 Economic views though apparently of an abstract nature 
 had a very real interest for the people on account of the bad 
 economic condition of the country. 
 
4iC> Jih'.t or Tin-: I'Riixcii rei'Dlutiom 
 
 612. Internal Trade. — In spite of the centralized power 
 of the king. France at that time could hardly be considered 
 a single state. Each of the provinces of France had its own 
 code of laws. And what perhaps was worse, each province 
 was commercially cut off from the rest. There was thus no 
 free trade even inside the kingdom itself. Merchandise pass- 
 ing from one pro\ince to another had to pay duty. This 
 of course meant not only a loss to buyer and seller but also 
 the expense of maintaining a large body of customs officials. 
 
 613. Taxation Laws. — Besides being subjected to all 
 these restrictions on trade the working people were ground 
 down by heavy taxation. There was direct taxation levied 
 upon the person \\'ho is supposed to bear the burden and there 
 was indirect taxation levied upon persons who are supposed to 
 indemnify themselves at the expense of others. In France 
 the chief direct taxes were the taille and the corvee. The 
 taille was a tax le\^ied upon a district which was assessed 
 according to its supposed wealth, and the corvee was compul- 
 sory labor upon the people for the repairing and construction 
 of roads. Of the indirect taxes, the most burdensome of all 
 was the gabelle, or tax on salt. The tax in itself was a se- 
 rious burden and was made still more so by its inequality, 
 some districts having to pay thirty times as much as others. 
 Similar taxes were levied on many other objects of merchan- 
 dise such as flour, candles, etc. 
 
 614. Inequality of Taxation. — Another very aggravating 
 circumstance was that the clergy and the nobility were ex- 
 empted from paying the taille and corvee. Thus, the main 
 burden fell upon those who were the chief producers of the 
 material wealth of the country. 
 
 Besides taxation, the French serf had also to pay heavy 
 feudal dues to his lord. For example, the serf had to help 
 
RELIGIOUS CAUSES 417 
 
 in the harvest field and to grind corn at his lord's mill. And 
 the lord as we have said did nothing in return, but like the 
 absentee Irish landlord spent most of his time and money in 
 the capital. However, from this point of view the condition 
 of the serf was not so bad as in certain other countries. In 
 Prussia, for example, the peasant had to work on his lord's 
 estate three whole days in the week. 
 
 We might sum up the economic causes of the Revolution 
 by saying that they were, (a) Economic principles of liberal- 
 izing tendencies, (b) bad economic administration, (c) ex- 
 cessive taxation combined with the obnoxious burdens of the 
 old feudal system. 
 
 615. Religious Causes of the Revolution. — The great 
 
 wealth of the clergy, which had contributed to the Reforma- 
 tion in England, was also a prominent factor in the French 
 Revolution. No less than one-fifth of the entire revenues of 
 the state went into the pockets of the clergy, and at the same 
 time they failed to pay their just share of the taxes. Their 
 enormous wealth therefore paid nothing to the state. 
 
 616. Misuse of the Wealth of the Church. — Moreover, 
 there were great abuses in the administration of the wealth 
 of the Church. Sums of money that had been left for char- 
 itable purposes were not always wisely applied. No less than 
 seventy per cent, of the monasteries were commendams, that 
 is to say, their revenues were administered by persons not 
 spiritually qualified. 
 
 Above all, there was the enormous disproportion between 
 the salaries of the upper and of the lower clergy. The upper 
 clergy absorbed no less than five-sixths of the entire eccle- 
 siastical revenues, while the lower clergy who did the work 
 and who were spiritually the fittest, lived on a bare subsist- 
 
4l8 ERA OF THE FRENCH REI'OLVTION 
 
 617. The Spirit of Irreligion. — Besides the enormous 
 wealth of the Church badly administered there was the wide- 
 spread spirit of irreligion and scepticism. The most frightful 
 immorality had prevailed in the court of Louis X\^ and in 
 all classes of society there was a fearful gap between the pro- 
 fession of faith and its practice. By degrees faith itself be- 
 came somewhat weakened, and the outward ceremonies of 
 religion became too often reduced to a mere mockery. 
 
 Even amongst ecclesiastics of high rank there were grave 
 abuses. Cardinals, and bishops managed to insinuate them- 
 selves into the court and into high offices, and their last 
 thoughts were of the flocks committed to their charge. Types 
 of such men were Cardinal Rohan, and Talleyrand the bishop 
 of Autun. 
 
 Yet there were some, who, like the pious Labat and the 
 famous orator Neuville, bewailed the evils of the times, and 
 strove to counteract the effects of the rationalistic writings of 
 such men as Rousseau and pointed out the danger that men- 
 aced throne and altar. Among the ranks of the lower clergy 
 especially, were many men leading pious and zealous lives, 
 who strove to bring up their people in the principles of re- 
 ligion. 
 
 Eve of the Revolution 
 
 618. Reforms under Louis XVL — France was in this con- 
 dition of misery and discontentWhen Louis XVL ascended 
 the throne (1774). Louis XVL was a better man than his 
 predecessor. He was upright in character and wished to 
 redress the crying evils of the nation, but he was destitute of 
 genius and wanting in resolution. 
 
 619. Turgot was his minister, an honest man and an ardent 
 exponent of the economic views of the new school. Under 
 his administration attempts were made to lessen the most 
 
NECKER AND CALONNE 419 
 
 grievous of the economic evils. Taxes were equalized and 
 feudal exactions abolished, a uniform code of civil law was 
 established and the criminal code was greatly improved. 
 
 Unfortunately, these and other salutary reforms were 
 stoutly opposed by the privileged classes. So great was the 
 opposition that Louis gave way and Turgot went into retire- 
 ment. 
 
 620. Necker then became minister. He was a Genevese 
 banker, and was ^\•ell acquainted with the principles of finance. 
 
 He had need of all his ability. The treasury had fallen 
 into a calamitous condition, and just at this time France 
 though a luonarchy, declared war against England in sup- 
 port of the revolting American colonies. Fresh supplies of 
 money were therefore urgently needed both to meet ordinary 
 wants and to cope with the additional expense entailed by the 
 war. 
 
 Necker continued some of the reforms of Turgot by making 
 a more equitable assessment of the taxes and by practicing the 
 strictest economy. His reputation as a banker gave him credit 
 and he was able to borrow money at a low rate of interest. 
 
 The later reforms of Necker, however, drew upon him the 
 same unpopularity that \-isited his predecessor. Especially 
 distasteful to the official classes was his doing away with the 
 system of farming out taxes as also was his attempt to trans- 
 fer to provincial representative assemblies functions hitherto 
 exercised by the intendants. 
 
 621. Calonne. — In 1781, took place the downfall of 
 Necker. He was succeeded for a short time by Calonne, 
 inider whose extravagant administration and want of ability 
 the kingdom was reduced to the very verge uf bankruptcy. 
 
 At last, the king in despair turned again to Necker ( 1788). 
 and Necker's first advice was to assemble together the States- 
 General. 
 
420 RRA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 622. Meeting of the States-General. — When the States- 
 General met, certain very important points of procedure had 
 to be settled. Hitherto, the three orders of the Clergy, the 
 Nobility, and the Third Estate had met separately for pur- 
 ix)ses of discussion, and the votes were taken by order. This 
 meant that the will of the two upper orders must always neces- 
 sarily prevail over that of the Third Estate. To this the mem- 
 bers of the Third Estate strongly objected. They invited the 
 Clergy and Nobles to assist in the common deliberations and 
 insisted that the votes should be counted by heads. The 
 great majority of the two upper Estates refused these de- 
 mands, but some of the lower clergy consented and joined the 
 Third Estate. 
 
 623. The Third Estate Supreme. — On the 17th day of 
 June, the Third Estate at the suggestion of the Abbe Sieyes 
 assumed the name of national assembly and began to legislate 
 in complete disregard of the other two Estates. This was 
 the first step that could be called distinctly revolutionary. 
 It implied a complete upsetting of the old constitution and 
 now there took place in rapid succession the several acts of 
 that terrible drama that ended in the execution of Louis XVI, 
 the Reign of Terror, and the formation of the French Re- 
 public. 
 
 The Revolution 
 
 624. The National Assembly. — France from this moment 
 passes under various forms of government which succeeded 
 one another in a natural order and with very close connection. 
 
 The National Assembly that had been once merely the 
 Third Estate began in 1789 and ended in 1791. During this 
 period, it prepared a new constitution. In 1791, the National 
 Assembly having then completed its work resigned and gave 
 place to the Legislative Assembly, the governing body of the 
 
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY 42 L 
 
 new constitution. The king was still recognized as a limited 
 monarch. In 1792, it was decided to set up a republic. So 
 the Legislative Assembly gave place to a Convention of dele- 
 gates elected by the people in order to frame a new system of 
 government. In 1793, the Convention was found to be a 
 slow and unwieldy body for the business that had to be done, 
 so a Committee of Public Safety was formed, which monopo- 
 lized all the practical work of government until 1795. The 
 Con^•ention and the Committee of Public Safety then dis- 
 solved and the constitution of the year III remained in force 
 till 1799. At this date, France practically ceases to be a 
 republic and is in effect an empire ruled by Napoleon. 
 
 We will now consider briefly the progress of events under 
 these successive phases of government. 
 
 The Nafional Assembly (i 789-1 791) 
 
 625. Fall of the Bastile. — When the central government 
 of the kingdom had thus undergone an alteration by the revo- 
 lutionary act of the Third Estate, Paris soon began to follow 
 the example. The ancient fortress of the Bastile, the symbol 
 and monument of the old despotism was taken by storm and 
 its prisoners released. 
 
 Shortly after this, a new municipal government was formed 
 in Paris. This consisted of a mayor chosen from among 
 the ranks of the National Assembly, and a city council con- 
 sisting of members of the middle class, such as the bankers, 
 merchants, and members of the lay profession. The first 
 stej) taken by this Commune as it was called, was to organize 
 a city militia for the preservation of order in the city. It 
 was called the National Guard, and was an armed force at 
 the disposal of the revolutionary leaders. It may be com- 
 pared perhaps with the parliamentary Trained Bands of Lon- 
 don at the time of Charles I. 
 
422 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 626. Reforms of the Nationzil Assembly. — News of the 
 
 ex'ents in Paris soon spread throughout the country and caused 
 violent agitation. So serious were the disorders that arose 
 that the National Assembly had to issue a series of reforms. 
 All the old feudal dues and corvees were abolished, the guilds 
 and exclusive corporations in the town were dissolved, pay- 
 ment of taxes was made obligatory on all, and offices and 
 
 The fall of the Bastile. 
 
 dignitaries were eclared open to all without distinction. In 
 order to complete the work of Turgot in bringing France 
 together, the Assembly also did away with the old provinces 
 and divided the kingdom anew into artificial divisions called 
 Departments which were to have one common law and one 
 common system of taxation. 
 
 627. The Royal Family Brought to Paris. — These re- 
 forms, however, like the free constitution granted by the Czar 
 
THE ASSIGN ATS 423 
 
 to the Russian people failed to pacify. Insurrections broke 
 out. A mob of several thousand went to the palace of Ver- 
 sailles, and brought with them to Paris the king, the queen 
 and the dauphin. 
 
 The remo\al of the king to the capital occasioned also a 
 similar step on the part of the National Assembly. This also 
 moved to Paris and held its meetings in a riding school near 
 the Tuileries. 
 
 That the government was now acting under the inBuence 
 of the most violent and extreme of the Paris politicians, 
 events soon made clear. 
 
 628. The Assignats. — The Church became the object of the 
 most violent attacks. Already, the tithes had been abolished 
 and now the, whole of the property of the Church was confis- 
 cated and placed at the disposal of the state. Strange to say, 
 it was Talleyrand, one of the indifferent French bishops, who 
 proposed this act of robbery. 
 
 However, the sale of the church property was very slow 
 and did not realize enough, so a new expedient had to be 
 devised. A number of bills, called assignats, was issued, on 
 the security of church property, tliat is to say, the holders of 
 these bills were to receive their face value when the church 
 property ultimately came to be sold. 
 
 This expedient ended disastrously. The assignats were 
 issued in too great a number and the pu "^ saw that they 
 were backed up by insufficient security. The suit was that 
 the assignats soon became almost worthless an!l great distress 
 was caused, 
 
 629. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy. — Not only was 
 the property of the Church thus attacked by the revolutionists, 
 but e\'en its \'ery organization was tampered with. The old 
 bishoprics were done a^vay with, and their place was taken hy 
 
424 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 new bishoprics exactly coterminous with the eighty-three 
 departments into which France had been divided. It was 
 also enacted that the bishops should be nominated by the 
 department electoral assemblies, and that the pope's confirma- 
 tion of the bishop should be entirely dispensed with. 
 
 These enactments constituted what was called the civil con- 
 stitution of the clergy. All bishops and clergy who refused 
 to take an oath to be faithful to this law were to be prosecuted 
 and as time went on the penalties on conviction were contin- 
 ually increased. Those who took the oath were called jurors, 
 those who refused to do so for religious or other reasons were 
 called non- jurors. 
 
 It was clearly the intention of the revolutionary leaders to 
 de-catholicize France. And fresh evidence of this was soon 
 forthcoming. The old church of St. Genevieve was turned 
 into a burial place and here were placed the remains of such 
 anti-relieious writers as Voltaire and Rousseau. 
 
 'to' 
 
 630. Flight of the Nobles. — It soon became evident that 
 the nobles also, who formed the second of the two upper 
 Estates, would be subjected to rough treatment. Accordingly 
 many of them, including the Count of Artois, the king's 
 youngest brother, crossed the Rhine into Germany. There 
 they set up a little court of their own, contemptible for its 
 frivolities and dangerous on account of its insolence. 
 
 But even at this juncture there was still some hope of salva- 
 tion for the old monarchy. The excesses of the extreme revo- 
 lutionists, and especially their ill-treatment of the clergy had 
 provoked a reaction. Within the ranks of the National 
 Assembly there had been formed a party opposed to extreme 
 measures and inclined to uphold the cause of a limited mon- 
 archy. The leader of this party was the Count Mirabeau, a 
 powerful orator and endowed with the highest cjualities of 
 statesmanship. 
 
LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 425 
 
 631. A New Constitution. — Alirabeau advised the king to 
 leave the capital and to arm the provinces against the extrem- 
 ists in tlie capital. But just at this moment Mirabeau died. 
 The king instead of seeking- to place liimself at the head of 
 the provinces, tried to leave the kingdom altogether to join a 
 foreign army against France. He fled in disguise, but was 
 detected by the post-master at \\'irennes, arrested, and brought 
 back to Paris. 
 
 The king's attempt aroused the wildest indignation, and 
 now the National Assembly brought forward the new consti- 
 tution which it had been preparing during the last two years. 
 
 The main elements of the constitution were, (a) a central 
 government to consist of the king and a Legislative Assembly 
 elected every two years ; ( b) France to be divided into depart- 
 ments, the departments into districts (arrondissements), and 
 these again into towns and villages (communes). All these 
 units of local government were to be governed by their own 
 elected councils. 
 
 The king by this constitution had very little power. The 
 Legislative Assembly had control of national affairs. The 
 councils of the departments of the districts and of the com- 
 munes enjoyed a great deal of local authority. 
 
 The king signed his name to the new constitution and with 
 this begins a new period. 
 
 The Legislative Assembly ( 1 791- 1792) 
 
 632. The Revolutionary Clubs. — The arrest of the king 
 had caused a revulsion of feeling against him. At the same 
 time the revolutionary clubs assumed greater importance and 
 more than counteracted any restraining influence that might 
 still exist in the Assembly as a whole. The chief of these 
 clubs were those of the Jacobins and the Girondists. The 
 Jacobins desired a republic by any means fair or foul, while- 
 
4-rO ERA OF THE FRESCH RErOLl'TIOX 
 
 the Girondists though wishing for a repubhc only desired to 
 obtain it by constitutional and moderate means. Naturally, 
 the Jacobins being the more violent and assertive had the 
 greater share of influence. 
 
 635. Foreign Interference. — Fogether with these internal 
 influences, most serious complications were brought about by 
 the action of the foreign powers. These were bitterly indig- 
 nant at the ill-treatment meted out to their brother sovereign 
 and they naturally feared the evil eftects of the example up^^n 
 their own states. In 1791. the Emperor Le^^pold of Austria 
 issueii the Declaration of Pillnitz which declaret.1 that he and 
 the king of Prussia would join the other European pv^wers in 
 an attempt " to set up a form of gfovemment more in harmony 
 with the rights of sovereigns and with the welfare of the 
 French nation." 
 
 Soon after this. Leopold died and was succeeded by Francis 
 II whose policy was still more aggressive. War l^canie 
 inevitable and its approach was being continually hastened by 
 the impnident conduct of the emigrant nobles across the 
 Rhine. 
 
 634. War With Austria. — At the outset, the war went 
 against the French forces. Not only were they unsuccessful 
 in an invasion of the Austrian Netherlands but foreign troops 
 were actually at the ver}- frontiers of France. The growing 
 dang-er maddened the Parisian populace. They invaded the 
 Tuileries and subjected the king to the grossest indignities. 
 But this was only the prelude to something still worse for 
 now the last ^•estige of the old monarchical constitution was 
 overtiinied. The Legislative Assembly deliberated with the 
 Commune of Paris and decided to remove the king altogether 
 from the constitution. In accordance with this decision they 
 resolved that the people should be invited to elect members of 
 
mi- CONVENTION 427 
 
 a convention that should draw up a scheme oi republican gov- 
 ernment. This was accorrlingly done and so in 1792 we 
 enter upon the third period. 
 
 The Convention Ti 792-1 793 j 
 
 635. The Republic Established. — The first act of the new 
 Convention was to declare the fact of the French Republic. 
 Nor was there a single dissentient voice. The constitution- 
 alists had already disappeared, and in their place were only 
 two parties, namely the Girondists who wished for a Re;)ublic 
 but by constitutional means, and the Mountain that consisted 
 of the most extreme Republicans. 
 
 1'hree men in the Convention now rapidly came to the 
 front and asserted a strong influence in the direction of affairs. 
 These men were Danton, Marat, and Robespierre. 
 
 Danton was a man of tall, majestic presence with a voice 
 like thunder and an eloquence like a mighty torrent. But he 
 was ambitious, greedy, and revengeful. 
 
 Marat was a demagogue of the furious type. He was not 
 altogether wanting in ability, but he was swayed entirely by 
 violent emotions. 
 
 Robespierre on the other hand was a ruffian of a different 
 type. He was cool, cunning, cautious, and reserved. His 
 clearness of views and a certain latent reserve of power more 
 than compensated for the meanness and insignificance of his 
 personal appearance. But a considerable amount of low mal- 
 ice prevents him from being considered a great man. 
 
 636. Execution of the King. — A keen discussion was 
 raised as to what should be done with the deposed king. 
 There seems to have been three different opinions. Some 
 thought that the king's life should be spared, others that the 
 king should at least be given the benefit of a trial, and others 
 
428 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 again maintained that the king should be forthwith executed 
 as a pubhc enemy. It was finally decided that Louis should 
 be allowed a trial and the benefit of counsel. After a long 
 debate, he was adjudged guilty and condemned to the guillo- 
 tine. Six days afterwards the sentence was carried out. 
 Louis met his fate with the same patience and fortitude that 
 had characterized the end of Charles I (1749). 
 
 637. Insurrections in France. — The Mountain had thus 
 asserted its supremacy in the Convention, and before long, 
 with the aid of the Paris mob. they expelled the Girondists 
 altogether. But these high-handed proceedings did not pass 
 unchallenged. Insurrections broke out in the provinces, and 
 even the great cities of Marseilles. Bordeaux, and Lyons took 
 part. Especially serious was the revolt of the peasantry in 
 the department of La Vendee. But the armies of the Republic 
 were successful and more than all, the Convention had adopted 
 the expedient of entrusting the defence of the government and 
 of the nation to a small picked body of men of great sagacity 
 and entrusted with great power. This small executive body 
 was called the 
 
 Conirnittce of Public Safety 
 
 638. Success of the Army. — It not only dealt in a vigorous 
 and efficient wav with the insurrections at home but it also 
 warded off the terrors of foreign invasion. An immense 
 army was raised by a universal conscription and able generals 
 like Carnot. Jourdan, and Hoche were placed in command. 
 Two x^ustrian armies were beaten in succession and jealousy 
 between the Austrians and Prussians completed what the 
 French armies were unable to accomplish. 
 
 639. The Reign of Terror. — But these successes were 
 marred by the despotic cruelty of the government. It was 
 
COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY 429 
 
 now that begins what is justly called the Reign of Terror. A 
 revolutionary tribunal was set up and in the course of four 
 months alone, no fewer than six hundred victims fell under 
 its bloodthirsty functions. Among the victims were the queen 
 Marie Antoinette and such distinguished persons as the Duke 
 Philip of Orleans, Madam Roland, and Barnave, the eminent 
 lawyer and jurist. 
 
 640. Treaty of Basel. — Towards the close of the admin- 
 istration of the Committee of Public Safety, France had 
 achieved glorious success abroad. Holland was completely 
 defeated and made into a repubhc called the Batavian Repub- 
 lic. Prussia lost all command of the west bank of the Rhine, 
 and the Austrians were ignominiously driven back to their 
 own country. The success of the French was finally sealed 
 by the Treaty of Basel (1795). The terms of this Treaty 
 were, (a) that France should retain her conquests on the west 
 bank of the Rhine on condition of ceding some territory on 
 the right bank; (b) France was to keep possession of St. 
 Domingo from Spain; (c) France had to recognize the neu- 
 trality of the Northern States of Germany as the allies of 
 Prussia. 
 
 641. The Ability of the Committee. — Whatever may be 
 said of the cruelty of the Committee of Public Safety and of 
 the Convention that called it into being, there was at least 
 power, and power is sometimes better for a state than feeble 
 goodness. 
 
 Besides power, there was also displayed a considerable tal- 
 ent of organization. The intellectual welfare of the nation 
 was provided for by bettering the whole system of education 
 through the erection of such establishments as the Normal 
 School, the Polytechnic School of France, the Conservatory 
 of France, the Institute of France, and the National Library. 
 
430 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 Social order and commerce were promoted by a still further 
 advance in the unification of the civil code and by the adoption 
 of the metric system of weights and measures. Even the 
 flower of philanthropy could blossom amid the horrors of the 
 Reign of Terror as was shown in the improved condition of 
 hospitals and prisons. 
 
 But the main work of the Convention was supposed to be 
 a construction of some form of Republican government and 
 by October, 1795, this task was definitely accomplished. 
 
 The new constitution was composed of a directory of five 
 persons who were to be the executive, and an upper chamber 
 consisting of 250 members over forty years of age, and a 
 lower chamber of 500 members over thirty years of age. We 
 now enter upon the period of 
 
 The Directory (i 795-1 799) 
 
 642. Rise of Napoleon. — \\'e have said already that France 
 has made peace with Prussia and Spain, but she was still at 
 war with Austria, England, and Sardinia. At this date 
 Napoleon Bonaparte began to display his genius. 
 
 This young officer was by birth an Italian rather than a 
 Frenchman. He was already ten years of age when he was 
 taken by his father from Italy to France, and he could speak 
 French only imperfectly. He was educated first at the mili- 
 tary school of Brienne and afterwards in Paris. His skill 
 and bravery in an attack on Toulon had already raised him to 
 the notice of the government. 
 
 643. War with Austria. — When the Directory assumed 
 office, young Napoleon was entrusted with an important share 
 in the military operations in Europe. While the generals 
 Moreau and Jourdan led two large armies against Germany. 
 Bonaparte was entrusted with a third army for the purpose of 
 
BATTLE OF THE NILE 43 1 
 
 driving the Austrians out of Italy. Napoleon on this occasion' 
 displayed his genius for extraordinary rapid movements. He 
 and his army crossed the Alps even before the snow was yet 
 melted. By this move, he thus separated the Sardinian and 
 the Austrian armies, beat them both in succession and made 
 himself complete master of the Austrian provinces in Italy. 
 
 While this was going on. the other two French generals 
 had been sadly worsted in Germany. So, Bonaparte again 
 with lightning rapidity crossed the Eastern Alps and by 
 threatening Vienna forced the Emperor of Austria to con- 
 clude an armistice. 
 
 644. By the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) France re- 
 ceived from Austria the Belgian provinces, the Ionian islands, 
 the recognition of the Cisalpine Republic in Northern Italy, 
 and the acceptance of the Rhine as the Eastern frontier of 
 France. Austria, on the other hand, received as compensa- 
 tion, the Venetian dominions that had been taken by 
 Napoleon. 
 
 Fresh victories crowned Bonaparte with new laurels. He 
 was quick to perceive that his most dangerous foe was Eng- 
 land, whose position and policy had always made her the up- 
 holder of the balance of power in Europe. He resolved 
 therefore to attack England in her eastern possessions. He 
 sailed to Egypt and in 1798 gained the Battle of the Pyra- 
 mids. 
 
 645. Battle of the Nile. — But here Bonaparte was destined 
 to receive his first check. The French fleet was beaten and 
 destroyed by the English admiral Nelson in the bay of Abukir 
 at the mouth of the Nile (1799). Though Bonaparte suc- 
 ceeded afterwards in taking Gaza and Jaffa, he was foiled 
 again at the siege of Acre. Bitterly disappointed, he returned 
 home. 
 
/ 
 
 432 ' ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 646. Work of the Directory. — During Bonaparte's absence 
 in Egypt, the Directory had not been idle. It had set up the 
 Helvetic Republic in Switzerland, driven the pope from his 
 temporal possessions, forming out of them the Tiberine 
 Republic and finally it had expelled the king of Naples, form- 
 ing out of his possessions the Parthenopean Republic. 
 
 But this work was more brilliant than solid. The Powers 
 of Europe again took to arms. The Republics that had been 
 set up were abolished, and even France herself was once more 
 in danger. 
 
 The Directory became very unpopular and Napoleon intend- 
 ing to assume control of affairs himself, speedily brought 
 about its overthrow. 
 
 647. The First Consul. — In 1799 the Directory was dis- 
 solved and Napoleon became First Consul. Nominally there 
 were two other consuls, but he had complete control of the 
 government. 
 
 With this step, the Republican form of government came to 
 an end and we enter once more upon a period of personal rule. 
 Napoleon first as consul and then as Emperor wields a power 
 even more despotic than that of Louis XIV. 
 
 648. Revolt of the American Colonies. — Closely connected 
 with the French Revolution was the separation of the Ameri- 
 can colonies from England. The successful wars of the co- 
 lonials against the French had had the effect of breaking down 
 the barriers between the different provinces and of making 
 possible greater unity of action. At the same time, the con- 
 duct of the English government had exasperated the colonials 
 to the last degree. George III, the reigning monarch of 
 England, was disposed to assert his royal power to the fullest 
 extent. Prohibition put upon all manufactures, the im])osi- 
 tion of grievous taxes, interference with the due procedure of 
 
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 433 
 
 justice, and the violation of the charters of the colonies — all 
 these and other evils induced them to appeal to arms and to 
 shake off their subjection to England. 
 
 649. Declaration of Independence. — In 1775, began the 
 American war of independence. The battle of Bunker's Hill 
 was fought in which the English were victorious, and then on 
 the 4th of July (1776), was signed the famous Declaration 
 of Independence. 
 
 At first the English were successful. Under Sir William 
 Howe, they won the battle of Brooklyn and captured New 
 York, and after this the English succeeded in taking Phila- 
 delphia, the headquarters of the colonial leaders. 
 
 But here their success ended. The English general Bur- 
 goyne had to capitulate at Saratoga, and later on, Lord Corn- 
 wallis had to surrender at Yorktowai to the Americans under 
 Washington. This last event ended the war. Not only did 
 the nations of Europe recognize the independence of America, 
 but even King George III himself saw that the contest was 
 hopeless. In 1783, was signed the Treaty of Paris in which 
 England recognized the independence of America. 
 
 650. Career of the Younger Pitt. — The course of events in 
 England between 1784 and 1801 was directed mainly by the 
 great minister, William Pitt the Younger. 
 
 His financial and commercial policy w^ere important. He 
 had read Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations and he was a pro- 
 nounced free trader. Under his administration, many of the 
 present large manufacturing towns of England began to rise; 
 roads and canals were c<onstructed, and agriculture received a 
 remarkable impulse from the discovery of a new system of 
 farming. 
 
 Under Pitt's administration, the political condition of 
 England also underwent a change. The effective support 
 
434 ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 given to him by the people, a support which enabled him to 
 win over the opposition of Parliament, showed that the peo- 
 ple themselves were now taking a more active part in the bus- 
 iness of the state. And there was another even still more im- 
 portant change. There began to arise an aristocracy of 
 wealth which formed a preponderating element in English 
 social and political life. And this also was partly the result 
 of Pitt's deliberate policy since he openly bestowed both of- 
 fice and influence upon the wealthy manufacturers of the 
 country. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 English philosophical doctrines of the state find their way into 
 France — Voltaire-Rousseau — Montesquieu — Political Causes of 
 the Revolution — The French Parlements — Economic causes of 
 the Revolution — Economic disunion of France — Heavy taxes 
 
 — Religious causes of the Revolution — Bad administration of 
 Church revenues — Spirit of irreligion — Louis XVI — Turgot 
 
 — Necker — Calonne — Meeting of the States-General — The 
 National Assembly — Successive forms of Revolutionary govern- 
 ment — Fall of the Bastille — The French Commune — Reforms 
 made by the Assembly — Attacks on church property — New 
 bishoprics founded — The civil constitution — Flight of the no- 
 bles — The moderate party — The new constitution — Revolu- 
 tionary clubs — Hostility of Europe — Final overthrow of the 
 monarchy — Declaration of the French republic — Danton — 
 Marat — Robespierre — The King's execution — Opposition of 
 the provinces — Success of the French army — Reign of Terror 
 
 — Treaty of Basel — Improvements effected by the Committee — 
 Napoleon Bonaparte — Bonaparte in Italy — Treaty of Campo 
 Formio — French fleet destroyed — Work of the Directory — 
 Change in the government — Causes of the revolt of the Ameri- 
 can colonies — Battle of Bunker's Hill — Treaty of Versailles — 
 Administration of Pitt the Younger. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Macklehose, Last days of French M anarchs; Mrs. Gardiner, French 
 Revolution; Cambridge, Modern History; French Revolution; Lowell, 
 Eve of French Revolution ; Taine, Ancient Regime; Tocqueville, The 
 Old Regime and the Revolution ; Morley, Voltaire; Morley, Rousseau, 
 
ATTACK ON THE POPE 443 
 
 Orthez they received crushing defeats, while their defense of 
 the cities of Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajos. and San Sebastian was 
 broken down. At the last the French Eagles were compelled 
 to fall back beyond the snowy peaks of the Pyrenees. 
 
 Napoleon was not present himself during the whole of the 
 Spanish campaign. Austria, his first bitter enemy, was again 
 in arms against him. Leaving his generals Massena and Soult 
 to conduct the war in Spain he hastened to France, assembled 
 an army on the Rhine, advanced into Austria and at the battle 
 of Wagram, 6th of July, 1809, Napoleon laid Austria pros- 
 trate at his feet. He then turned his arms against the papacy 
 and again invaded Italy. 
 
 665. Attack on the Pope. — Pope Pius VII had offended 
 him on account of his reluctance to join in the offensive 
 league against England. When the pope refused to expel the 
 English subjects from the papal states, and to prevent English 
 ships from entering the papal harbors, Napoleon roughly re- 
 plied : " You are sovereign of Rome ; I am emperor, my 
 enemies are yours." Napoleon's actions were even rougher 
 than his words. In July, 1809, the papal palace of the Quir- 
 inal was stormed, the pope was taken prisoner and eventually 
 removed to Fontainebleau in France, and the " good city of 
 Rome " declared a second city of the empire. 
 
 With the captivity of the pope and his enforced residence in 
 France the emperor seemed to have everything at his feet. 
 But from now the hand of destiny seemed turned against the 
 new emperor. Though the pope was at the emperor's mercy, 
 though he had to endure insults and even violence, yet the 
 power of patient suffering was victorious against rampant 
 brutality. In May, 1814, the pope returned to Rome amidst 
 universal rejoicings and the year after received back all his 
 temporal possessions. 
 
 W^e now' have to consider the third difficulty in which 
 
444 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 
 
 Napoleon found himself involved on account of the Berlin 
 decrees. 
 
 666. Invasion of Russia. — Russia, in spite of its promise, 
 had secretly encouraged the importation into Russia of Eng- 
 lish goods, and soon there developed a coolness between 
 Napoleon and Alexander that grew into open war. In 1812, 
 Napoleon invaded Russia. The Russian plan of defense was 
 carried out on the same lines as when the Swedes invaded 
 Russia. The country was devastated for miles around, and 
 the French were allowed to enter far into the heart of Russia 
 far away from the base of supplies. The French capture of 
 the city of Moscow became a mere empty exploit, void of any 
 material advantage, and Napoleon and his army had to retreat 
 to France, amid the ice and snow of a severe Russian winter. 
 The loss of men during- this campaign was enormous, but the 
 loss of prestige in Europe had the most serious effects. 
 
 667. Battle of Leipsic. — Austria and Prussia again took 
 courage and joined Russia against the common oppressor, and 
 in 181 3 was fought the battle of Leipsic. The Allies vastly 
 superior in numbers easily overcame the French, of whomi 
 25,000 were obliged to surrender as prisoners of war. This 
 Battle of the Nations as it is called was even more disastrous 
 than the retreat from Moscow. The French army became 
 demoralized, Germany and Holland rose in revolt, and more 
 serious still, a profound dissatisfaction in F'rance began to 
 make itself visible. 
 
 668. Paris Taken. — When Napoleon returned to France, 
 the legislative body showed signs of independence, and the 
 whole nation seemed tired and wearied of the struggle. It 
 became difficult either to collect taxes or to find conscripts for 
 the army. And now the allied armies were fast closing in 
 
WATERLOO 445 
 
 upon France. In vain for two whole months did Napoleon 
 display all his genius for rapid marches and unheard of com- 
 binations, now flying at one invading army, now at another. 
 The odds against him were overwhelming, and in March, 
 1814, the armies of the allies entered and occupied Paris. 
 
 Napoleon was forced to abdicate but was allowed to retire 
 to the Isle of Elba oyer which he was allowed absolute sov- 
 ereignty together with a revenue of six millions of francs. 
 His place in France was taken by Louis XVIII, younger 
 brother of Louis XVI. 
 
 Napoleon spent just ten months on the Island of Elba. 
 During most of the time he was maturing plans for his resto- 
 ration to power. For his chances were still great. He could 
 rely upon the old soldiers whom he had led from victory to 
 victory, upon the office holders, displaced by the Bourbon 
 dynasty, and most of all upon his still powerful relatives. 
 
 669. Waterloo. — The Congress of Vienna was still settling 
 the affairs of Europe when the news was brought that Napo- 
 leon had returned to France. 
 
 The allies again had to take to arms, and in June, 181 5, 
 was fought the decisive battle of Waterloo near Brussels. At 
 first the battle was between the French and the English. 
 Napoleon's soldiers made charge after charge. But the su- 
 perb British infantry held their ground firmly. At length to- 
 wards the end of the battle the Prussians under Bliicher ar- 
 rived and quickly the whole French army was put to flight. 
 
 The battle of Waterloo closed the long succession of N'apo- 
 leonic wars. Napoleon was exiled to the Isle of St. Helena, 
 while the powers were able to continue the important negotia- 
 tions that led up to the Treaty of Vienna. 
 
 670. Second Vienna Congress. — The question that caused 
 the greatest difficulty in the Congress of Vienna was the dis- 
 
446 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 
 
 posal of Poland and Saxony. Regarding Poland, the great- 
 est efforts were made by Russia to obtain the Grand Duchy 
 of Warsaw. But Prussia naturally demanded that some 
 compensation should be made her for such a surrender of 
 territory, though it had been gained by the previous partitions 
 of Poland. It was proposed therefore that Saxony should be 
 handed over to Prussia who would therefore gain in the west 
 what it had lost in the east. 
 
 But even this arrangement met wath great opposition. In 
 fact, both Austria and England viewed with dislike any ag- 
 grandizement of Russia and they were equally opposed to the 
 injury that would be inflicted on the king of Saxony. 
 
 After much discussion, a further compromise was effected. 
 The Duchy of Warsaw with the exception of certain provinces 
 and districts was allowed to go to Russia, but not the whole of 
 Saxony was handed over to Prussia — only a portion of it 
 which went by the name of the Duchy of Saxony, the other 
 portion of Saxony, including Dresden, the capital, remained 
 with the king, Augustus. 
 
 The other provisions of the Treaty were as follows : 
 
 (a) Holland and Netherlands were erected into one king- 
 dom under the house of Nassau. 
 
 (b) The integrity of the Swiss Confederation was recog- 
 nized. 
 
 (c) The king of Sardinia received the Duchy of Genoa 
 in addition to his territories of 1792. 
 
 (d) In Germany, Austria was enriched with the Venetian 
 and Lombardian provinces ; Hanover was erected into a king- 
 dom and enlarged in size, Prussia obtained in addition a 
 portion of Saxony, certain districts on the left bank of the 
 Rhine, and also recovered Swedish Pomerania. The old im- 
 perial supremacy of Austria was done away with, and its place 
 was taken by a confederation of the separate states of Ger- 
 many. 
 
RESULTS OF NAPOLEONIC WARS 447 
 
 (e) In Italy, Ferdinand IV. king- of the two Sicilies, re- 
 ceived back the kingdom of Naples, and the pope was restored 
 to the whole of his papal states. 
 
 (f) England acquired Malta, the Ionian Islands, Cape 
 Colony and Ceylon. 
 
 671. Results of the Napoleonic Wars. — It was evident that 
 a great deal of this arbitrary division of territories must 
 needs be ephemeral. Yet, the Napoleonic wars did produce 
 some very lasting and important results on the after-history 
 of Europe. 
 
 First of all, the way was being prepared for German unity. 
 A great number of the lesser states had been abolished, and 
 now there were only about forty. Austria whose prestige 
 had always enabled it to assume whatever leadership was pos- 
 sible in Germany was now weakened and evidently disabled 
 from a duty she was unable to perform. Prussia, on the 
 other hand, owing to the social and economic reforms that 
 had been brought about indirectly by the wars was now ad- 
 mirably fitted to perform the all important task of bringing 
 about and heading a united Germany. 
 
 In Italy the way had been prepared for future unity. The 
 violence that had been done to the old territorial divisions 
 and the temporary coalescence of territories into large groups 
 broke down the barriers of isolation and raised aspirations 
 towards a United Italy. 
 
 Throughout all Europe, the effects of the Napoleonic wars 
 were. seen in a general reaction in the direction of monarchy 
 and conservatism. In some states, even the privileges of the 
 nobles and the old feudal burdens were restored. But the 
 reaction was but slight, and the fundamental principles of the 
 Revolution, although apparently in suspension for half a cen- 
 tury, still continued to mould the political destiny of the 
 nations of Europe. 
 
448 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Napoleon's active foreign policy — Battle of Marengo — 
 Treaty of Luneville — The constitution drawn up by Lieyes — 
 Napoleon's religious reforms — The code Napoleon — Napoleon 
 crowned emperor — • Material reforms — Napoleon in Austria — 
 Treaty of Pressburg — Battle of Trafalgar — Napoleon wars in 
 Prussia — • Napoleon beats Prussia — Berlin decrees and Treaty 
 of Tilsit — Results of the Berlin decrees — War in Spain — 
 War in Austria — Napoleon's attack on the Papacy — Napo- 
 leon's invasion of Russia — Battle of Leipsic — Discontent of 
 France — Napoleon's exile at Elba. — Battle of Waterloo — • 
 Congress of Vienna — Results of the Congress of Vienna. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 FouRNiER, Life of Napoleon; Taine, Modern Regime; Thiers, History 
 of the Consulate and of the Empire; Seeley, History of Napoleon; Ropes, 
 Napoleon; Lanfrey, History of Napoleon; Andrews, Historical develop- 
 ment of Europe; Southey, Life of Nelson; Creasy, Decisive Battles of 
 the World; Wood, Cavalry in Waterloo; Cambridge, Modern History, 
 Napoleon; Colonel Furse, Marengo, Hohenlinden; Furse, joo Years 
 Ago; Battles oH Land and Sea; Ulm, Austerlitc; Pascal, History of the 
 French Army; Du Pradt, Les Quatres concordats. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI 
 
 THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 
 
 672. Progress of German Union. — The unification of Ger- 
 many l)egan with the Napoleonic wars and the congress of 
 Vienna. The removal of a great number of the lesser states, 
 the formation of such large groups as the kingdom of West- 
 phalia, and the German Confederation, the weakening of Aus- 
 tria, now unfit for the leadership of Germany, the strengthen- 
 ing of Prussia, and finally, the formation of one common Ger- 
 man interest and patriotism — all these were already paving 
 the way to a future German Empire. 
 
 Even the weakness of the German Confederation that was 
 formed at the Congress of Vienna, indirectly helped to the 
 same end. Both from the legislative and from the executive 
 point of view, this Confederation was thoroughly inept. The 
 Federal Diet was reduced to a state of nullity by the absurd 
 provision that all measures of great importance must be passed 
 by a unanimous vote. Even if such measures were passed, 
 there was no practical machinery for carrying them out. Be- 
 sides this political lifelessness, the separate German states 
 were reduced to about the same state of commercial isolation 
 as the French provinces before the Revolution. 
 
 673. The Customs Union. — But in 1828, there appeared 
 an important movement that portended future results even still 
 more important. This was a movement in the direction of 
 German commercial unity. A Customs Union was formed 
 by which it was agreed that free trade should be established 
 among all the German states. Henceforth, merchandise could 
 pass from one German state to another free of duty. 
 
 450 
 
BISMARCK 
 
 451 
 
 674. William I and Bismarck. — It was not, however, until 
 1 86 1 that there took place anything decisive in the direction 
 of German political unit3^ In this year William I ascended 
 the Prussian throne, and one of his first acts was to call to his 
 side as minister Otto Bismarck, the real originator of German 
 unity, and as he has been called rightly " a man of blood and 
 iron." 
 
 Bismarck saw that before 
 Germany unity could be ac- 
 complished the important 
 Cjuestion would have first 
 to be settled as to who 
 should be the organizer and 
 leader of the unity. The 
 answer could only be either 
 Austria or Prussia. Theory 
 and tradition were certainly 
 on the side of Austria. At 
 the congress of V^ienna. 
 there were German states- 
 men who implored Francis 
 to resume the office and 
 dignity of Otto the Great. 
 But Bismarck was deter- 
 mined that in fact, Prussia 
 and not Austria, should be 
 the leader, and that the first preliminary step must be to 
 weaken still further the power of Austria. 
 
 Already there were circumstances that favored his design. 
 Prussia was the first military state in Germany. By a uni- 
 versal system of conscription she had become one huge fight- 
 ing machine. Besides this inherent fighting strength a con- 
 siderable party in nearly all the German states wished to ac- 
 cept Prussia as the natural leader. This was the party of the 
 
 Prince Bismarck. Born 181 5; died 
 
452 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 
 
 liberal reformers. They perceived that Austria would be 
 most unlikely to carry out their ideas, since by so doing Aus- 
 tria owing to its many racial elements would at once lose its 
 homogeneity and even its identity. Prussia, on the other 
 hand, could have no such repugnance to constitutional re- 
 forms. Her race people were practically homogeneous with 
 the exception of her recently acquired Polish dominions. 
 
 In 1847 ^^ opportunity occurred for Bismark to make war 
 upon Austria. 
 
 675. The Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein though inhabited 
 mainly by Germans, had for centuries been under the rule of 
 Denmark. They were not, however, an integral part of the 
 Danish kingdom and were allowed a considerable amount of 
 local government. When Frederick VII of Denmark died 
 without male heirs, the Germans claimed that the duchies 
 should be absorbed by German Confederation. To this the 
 new king of Denmark strongly objected. The question was 
 evidently one that could be decided only by war and Prussia 
 took the lead. 
 
 Bismarck invited Austria to co-operate with an army and 
 soon Denmark was forced to give way (1864). 
 
 676. War with Austria. — It was now that Bismarck found 
 his opportunity for forcing war upon Austria. Bismarck 
 claimed that the duchies should be made dependent upon Prus- 
 sia. To this Austria objected and a compromise was made 
 by which Prussia should govern Schleswig and Austria should 
 take over Holstein. 
 
 In the meantime Bismarck was making preparations for 
 war with Austria. Austria was not blind to what was going 
 on and in self-defense amassed troops for the war that was 
 inevitable. This was construed by Bismarck into an act of 
 war. He declared the German Confederation dissolved and 
 forthwith began hostilities (1866). 
 
UNION AGAINST FRANCE 453 
 
 The war lasted only six weeks. Nothing could stop the 
 advance of the well armed and well disciplined Prussian 
 troops, and the important battle of Sadowa ended the duel 
 between Prussia and Austria. The supremacy of Prussia was 
 secured and Austria became politically excluded from Ger- 
 many. 
 
 677. The North-German Confederation. — Bismarck now 
 proceeded to form a confederation under the leadership of 
 Prussia. He was, however, not strong enough to include 
 in it the middle states south of the river Main. He therefore 
 formed a confederation wdiich consisted of the Protestant 
 Northern states. The president of the Confederation was the 
 king of Prussia and the chief governing body was the Bundes- 
 rath and the Reichstag, the Bundesrath consisting of the rulers 
 of the states, each having one vote, and the Reichstag con- 
 sisting of deputies elected by universal suffrage. 
 
 678. French Influence in the South. — The great obstacle 
 to the incorporation of the southern states had been France. 
 Even from the time of Richelieu, the Southern German states 
 had been under French influence, and the same interfering 
 policy was pursued by Choiseul and after him by Talleyrand. 
 It was evident that the influence of France was directly op- 
 posed to the interests of Prussia. France on the other hand 
 had reason to be alarmed at the prospect of the undoing of 
 her long traditional policy in southern Germany, and also at 
 the prospect of a united Germany under the formidable Ho- 
 henzollerns. 
 
 The only question that remained was who should incur the 
 odium of starting the war. 
 
 679. The Franco-Prussian War. — In 1869, the throne of 
 Spain which had become vacant was offered to Leopold, a 
 
454 I XlFICjriOS OF CF.RMAXY JXP OF ITALY 
 
 incinlH^r of the Hoheiu-oUern family, Xa|X">leon III saw 
 in this a daiigXT to the balance of ^x^wer in Euroi>e and a 
 menace to the safety of France who wonUl thns tind herself 
 snrrc>undeti on lH">th sides by a |x^\verful dynasty whose ii\- 
 tentions were donbtfnl. Bnt the demands of Xaix^lei^n were 
 so nnreasonable that they gave rise to the general idea that 
 he had wantonly prvnokeil the war. 
 
 He insisteil not only that Lev^jx^ld should not accept tlie 
 otYer but also that King William should promise that no llo- 
 henzolleni should ever become a candidate for the S|xinish 
 thiXMie. 
 
 William tiatly retusetl. Ihen the German news|vqx^rs 
 ti.x>k up the matter and j.ierhaps at the instigation of Bismarck 
 made out that the French ambassador had been ^ossly in- 
 sultevl. 
 
 France declared war. iioping liiat at the tirst French viciory. 
 the south Gennan states would join her ag^ainst Prussia. 
 But the Prussian army beat the French almost as easily as 
 it had beaten the Anstrians. Metz, the great French fortress 
 in Alsace, was besiegevl and taken, while at the battle of Seilan 
 ^^1871) the French were completely rontetl. Even Paris it- 
 self was taken. At length France had to sign the ignominious 
 treaty of Frankfort by which she had to cetle Lorraine and 
 Als;ice to Gennany and also pay a heavy war indemnity. 
 
 680. William I Becomes Emperor of Gennany. — Xajx>- 
 levMi's hoi>e that south liennan states would join France against 
 Pnissia was cvnnpleiely disapix>intevl. Pnissia had ^x^seil all 
 along as the champion of the Gennan cause and the (.rt?rman 
 States eagerly follow evl its standard. In January 1871, 
 w hile the l^sieging forces were still investing Paris, the ix->licy 
 of Bismarck received in the palace of \'ersailles its crowning 
 triumph. Within the palace of \*ersaiUes, the king of Bava- 
 ria at the instigation of Bismarck pro|K^sed that William should 
 
AUSTRIAN COXST/riJlON 
 
 455 
 
 be German J'.rnj^eror. All were unanimous, aiul thus after 
 centuries of waiting' we find Tiermany at last one united nation. 
 
 68i. The German Constitution assumed the form of an 
 imperial federation. The Prussian king is the hereditary pres- 
 ident of this federa- 
 tion. L'nder him 
 are tlie Hundesrath 
 or federal council 
 consisting of fifty- 
 six delegates from 
 the different states, 
 and the Reichstag 
 elected by manhood 
 suffrage. 'J'he min- 
 istry is always ap- 
 jjointed by the em- 
 peror. 
 
 682. Constitution 
 of Austria . — Aus- 
 tria now ceased to 
 be a part of Ger- 
 m a n y. She still 
 retains a consider- 
 able element of Ger- 
 man population but ^vilHa^, I. Emperor of Germany. Born 1797; died 
 
 she now busies her- '^^^' 
 
 self in extending- her influence southward among the Slav 
 states. After the battle of Sadowa there was formed what is 
 called the Dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Both of 
 these kingdoms are ruled by the emperor of Austria, but they 
 have their own independent parliaments. The common affairs 
 of the two kingdoms are transacted by a council of which 
 sixty members are sent from each of the two parliaments. 
 
456 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 
 
 The Unification of Italy 
 
 683. The Unification of Italy also began with the Napo- 
 leonic wars and the Congress of Vienna. Old barriers were 
 for the time removed, traditions of the past were broken, and 
 more than all, there had been created a wave of intense patriot- 
 ism and a desire for constitutional liberty. There were also 
 other parallels between the two countries. What Austria had 
 been to Germany that the pope had been to Italy. In the same 
 way as Austria had in the past seemed the only possible ful- 
 crum with which to accomplish German unity, so the popes 
 in previous times had aspired to a united Italy under their 
 leadership. And as Austria had become enfeebled, so also 
 the papal power had already received a shock that made the 
 prospect of the leadership of a united Italy more difficult 
 and remote. And as Prussia had by its brute military 
 strength and by its w^onderful intriguing become the new 
 fulcrum of unity, so also Sardinia was now marked out for 
 the task of accomplishing the unity of Italy. 
 
 684. Political Conditions of Italy. — We have seen that by 
 the Treaty of Vienna, Austria had acquired possession of 
 Venetia and Lombardy. These acquisitions gave her a strong 
 foothold in Italy and enabled her for a time to dominate 
 Italian politics. This she did by upholding against the liberals 
 and radicals the despotic rulers that still reigned in Italy. In 
 the south, there was the Bourbon ruler of Naples and the 
 Sicilies, in the middle of Italy was the pope at the head of his 
 old papal states, and in the north, there were the conservative 
 and absolutists. But within all these dominions there ex- 
 isted a strong liberal party who aspired to a united Italy and 
 constitutional government. 
 
 685. Revolutionary Uprisings took place all over Italy 
 during the years 1820 and 1821. First, in Naples the Car- 
 
MAZZINI 457 
 
 bonari, the name given to the secret society of Italian hberals 
 raised an open insurrection and forced Ferdinand I to grant 
 a free constitution ; similar revoUs took place in Sardinia ; 
 and finally in the papal states the people also rebelled and 
 declared the temporal power of the pope at an end. 
 
 686. Austrian Interference. — But Austria, in all these in- 
 stances posed as the champion of the conservative rulers. Her 
 troops marched into Naples and reinstated Ferdinand in his 
 old position of absolute ruler. In Sardinia. Charles Felix 
 who had succeeded Victor Emmanuel, suppressed the uprising 
 by merely threatening to call in the aid of the Austrian army, 
 and naturally the close proximity of Sardinia to Austria gave 
 the threat additional meaning. Finally the Austrian troops 
 advanced to Rome, quelled the insurrection, and secured peace- 
 ful election and coronation of the new Pope Pius IX (1846). 
 
 687. Mazzini. — Still the leaven of the old revolutionary 
 spirit was not entirely crushed out. Mazzini, a Genoese law- 
 yer, and a man of inspiring enthusiasm rapidly organized all 
 the moral and intellectual forces of Italy for a new outbreak. 
 He was a man of philosophical ideas combined with a strong- 
 emotional temperament and thus knew how to appeal to the 
 peculiar genius of the Italian people. The older Carbonari 
 were done away with and he formed what was called the 
 Society of Young Italy. 
 
 It was during this period that there appeared another chance 
 of the new pope placing himself at the head of a united Italy. 
 Together with the old tradition of leadership that still clung 
 to the papal throne, the numerous reforms made by the pope 
 in the direction of a liberal government seemed likely to place 
 him at the head of the patriotic party throughout all Italy. 
 
 688. The Papal Policy. — A new council of state was 
 formed consisting of younger prelates, a cardinal of liberal 
 
458 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 
 
 views was made secretary of state, the laws were revised, and 
 several material and economic improvements were effected. 
 Later, he made even still further concessions. But unfor- 
 tunately his refusal to declare war against Austria, precluded 
 him from taking any further leadership in the patriotic move- 
 ment. The radicals in Rome grew violent and Pope Pius 
 found it necessary for the sake of public order to form a 
 stronger ministry under the able and energetic Count Rossi. 
 This only infuriated the radicals still more. In November 
 1848, Count Rossi w^as assassinated and shortly afterwards 
 the pope was forced to flee from Rome. He was soon how- 
 ever, restored to the Eternal City by the aid of French troops, 
 and under the state secretaryship of Cardinal Antonelli, still 
 further reforms were carried out in the departments of educa- 
 tion, agriculture, and commerce. 
 
 689. Sardinia Takes the Lead. — But the leadership of Italy 
 of the future now passed to the military state of Sardinia. 
 Charles Albert not only granted, as the pope had done, a lib- 
 eral constitution, but he gratified the national aspirations by 
 waging war upon Austria. At first, his arms were successful 
 but at the battle of No vara (1849) in Piedmont the Sardin- 
 ian army was defeated and Charles Albert was forced to 
 resign the crown in favor of Victor Emmanuel II who was 
 destined to achieve Italian unity. 
 
 6go. Cavour. — Emmanuel's minister was Cavour, a vio- 
 lent republican and ardent patriot, but well versed in the in- 
 tricacies of European politics and diplomacy and a consum- 
 mate statesman. 
 
 He soon came to the conclusion that the unification of Italy 
 could be accomplished only by outside help, and just at the 
 opportune moment for this purpose a European war was just 
 on the point of breaking out. 
 
CRIMEAN WAR 459 
 
 691. The Crimean war (1855) rose from an attempt of 
 the czar of Russia to assume the protectorate over the Greek 
 subjects of the Sultan. The alhed forces of Turkey, France, 
 and Great Britain were ranged against those of Russia. 
 Cavour now offered his assistance to France, partly for the 
 general purpose of asserting a place for Sardinia in Euro- 
 pean politics, partly through the hope of receiving future as- 
 sistance from France against 
 
 Austria. 
 
 The offer after some hesi- 
 tation was accepted, and at 
 the end of the Crimean war, 
 Cavour at the Congress of 
 Paris had the satisfaction of 
 appearing at the board of 
 European plenipotentiaries. 
 
 When the cong'ress was 
 over, Cavour devoted all his 
 energy to preparing Sar- 
 dinia for the great and 
 final struggle against Aus- 
 tria. The army was raised 
 to the best of its fighting 
 powers and an active alliance 
 with France was secured. 
 
 Count Cavour. 
 
 692. War Between Sardinia and Austria. — In 18^9, the 
 blow was struck. Partly by the adroitness of Cavour in 
 warding off any possibility of a compromise between Sardinia 
 and Austria, partly by the shortsightedness of Austria herself, 
 the entire odium of the commencement of hostilities was 
 thrown upon Austria. Her ultimatum that Sardinia should 
 not be represented at a congress which was being held in order 
 to settle the affairs of Italy, and that the Sardinian army 
 
460 UNIFICATION OP GERMANY AND OF ITALY 
 
 should disband within three days were evidently unreasonable, 
 and Cavour rejoiced because the apparent aggressiveness of 
 Austria would justify France in coming to his assistance. 
 
 693. Magenta and Solferino. — Sardinia refused to com- 
 ply. An Austrian army crossed into Italy and at once Napo- 
 leon III came to the help of his ally. The French army 
 was well handled by Marshall MacMahon, and the Austrian 
 army was in useless condition. The Austrian army was like 
 the Austrian nation — a composition of different nationalities 
 speaking different languages and dialects. Even the words 
 of command were scarcely understood. It was therefore not 
 surprising that the Austrians were defeated first at the battle 
 of Magenta (June 4, 1859), and then at the battle of Sol- 
 ferino (June 24). 
 
 At once, Italy went wild with enthusiasm. Tuscany, 
 Parma, and Modena, all offered the sovereignty of their states 
 to Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 694. Peace of Villafranca. — But at the moment when 
 Sardinia was about to gather in the full fruits of its victory. 
 Napoleon suddenly concluded with the Austrians the Peace of 
 Villafranca (1859). The terms of the peace were that while 
 Lombardy was to go to Sardinia, Venetia was still to remain 
 in Austrian hands, and that the pope not Sardinia was to be 
 the leader of the federation of the Italian states of Tuscany, 
 Modena, Parma, and the Roman Legations. 
 
 But Sardinia had gained a great deal. It had acquired 
 more territory, and greater prestige in Italy. 
 
 695. Garibaldi. — And now besides Cavour there appeared 
 another patriot on the stage of Italian politics. This was 
 Garibaldi, a former soldier of fortune and once a naturalized 
 American citizen. 
 
25' id" 15" 10* 5° O" 5" 10* 
 
 5 * Loti^itnile 
 
 10" L>iMlitud«r East lo° from tin 
 
ATTACK ON PAPAL STATES 46 I 
 
 In 1859 Francis II had succeeded his father, Ferdinand, on 
 the throne of the Two SiciHes. Cavour proposed to Francis 
 that he should arm himself against the arch enemy of Italy. 
 But Francis II. clung to the conservative despotic traditions, 
 and preferred to lean upon the Austrian alliance. Cavour's 
 natural desire would have been to coerce his obstinate neigh- 
 bor but he dare not incur the odium of waging an unprovoked 
 war. 
 
 But Garibaldi be- 
 came the deus ex 
 Machina. He sailed 
 from Genoa (May 14, 
 i860) with one thou- 
 sand volunteers, re- 
 duced Palermo and 
 Sicily, and entered 
 Naples in triumph. 
 
 696. Attack o n 
 Papal States. — Cav- 
 our himself now be- 
 gan to interfere. He 
 found a pretext in the 
 fact that Pius IX had 
 set on foot a crusade 
 
 . , . Pius IX, Pope 1846-1! 
 
 tor the recovery ot 
 the Legations. Cavour now sent an army that defeated the 
 papal general Lamoriciere at Castel Fidardo, while Victor 
 Emmanuel led an army in person to Naples. 
 
 At the same time, a popular vote was ordered and Naples, 
 Sicily and the Papal states of Umbria voted almost unani- 
 mously for annexation to the Sardinian kingdom. 
 
 By this time a real Italian kingdom had been formed, only 
 Venetia and Rome remaining outside. V^enetia soon fell into 
 
462 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 
 
 the hands of Sardinia by a treaty with Prussia which pro- 
 vided that Venetia should be handed over to Sardinia as a 
 reward for her help. 
 
 Rome was now the only exception to the complete unifica- 
 tion of Italy. As yet, the pope was maintained in possession 
 of the Eternal City by the presence of French troops. But a 
 treaty l)etween Napoleon III and the King of Sardinia stipu- 
 lated that those troops should be withdrawn. This was ac- 
 cordingly done in 1867. Henceforth the pope had to rely up- 
 on his own little army consisting partly of his own subjects, 
 partly of volunteers wlio came in hundreds from all the differ- 
 ent countries of Europe. 
 
 But this army could not long hold out and in 1870 an 
 Italian army entered Rome by the Porta Pia. The center of 
 Italian government was transferred from Turin the former 
 capital of the Sardinian kingdom to Rome. 
 
 697. Law of Guarantees. — Thus ended the temporal power 
 of the popes in Rome. In 1871 a statute called the Law of 
 Guarantees was passed which attempted to effect a compro- 
 mise between the pope and the Italian government. 
 
 (a) The Vatican Palace and grounds were assigned to 
 the pope as his residence and were to be considered as extra- 
 territorial — that is to say as not under the jurisdiction of 
 the Italian government. 
 
 (b) A fixed annual salary of over six million dollars was 
 to be paid to the pope. 
 
 (c) Einally, the pope was to be free in the exercise of all 
 his spiritual functions. 
 
 The pope however has never acquiesced in what he considers 
 to be the unjust robbery of his possessions. He has also 
 claimed that the deprivation of the temporal power is incom- 
 patible wdth the free exercise of his spiritual duties. 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCE 463 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Beginnings of German unity — The customs Union — William 
 the First — Policy of Bismarck — Prussia not Austria to be at 
 the head of a united Germany — Prussia and Austria wage war 
 on Denmark — War between Prussia and Austria — Battle of 
 Sadowa — Prussia forms a confederation — Opposition from 
 France — War between France and Germany — Treaty of 
 Frankfort — William becomes Emperor of Germany — Nature 
 of the present German constitution — Austrian dual monarchy — 
 Parallel between the condition of Germany and that of Italy — 
 Austrian intervention in Italy — Mazzini — Liberal policy of 
 Pope Pius IX — Leadership of Italy falls to Sardinia — Cavour 
 — Sardinia engages in the Crimean war • — ■ War between Austria 
 and Sardinia — Sardinia beats Austria — Peace of Villafranca — 
 Garibaldi — Garibaldi enters Naples — Formation of United 
 Italy — End of the temporal power of the Popes — Law of 
 Guarantees. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Fyffe, History of Modern Europe; jMunroe Smith, Bismarck and 
 German Unity; Mallfson, Refounding of the German Empire; Meadocks, 
 Reconstruction of Europe; Mullek, Recent Times; Headlan, Bismarck; 
 Forbes, Life of Napoleon III; Leger, History of Aitstro-Hiingary; 
 Thayer, Dawn of Italian Independence ; Cesaresco, Liberation of Italy; 
 Stillman, Union of Italy; King, Maazini; Mazadi, Cavour; Alzog, 
 Church History; Gallenga, The Pope and the King; Dicey, Victor 
 Emmanuel ; Andrews, Historical Development of Modern Europe; 
 Akrelanere, Italy and Victor Emmanuel ; Botta, History of Italy; BoN- 
 FADiNi, Mezzo sccolo di Patriotismo ; Faldella, Storia della Giovane 
 Italia. 
 
CHAPTER XXXII 
 
 PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 
 
 698. Relations with Ireland. — The revolt of the American 
 colonies was not without results on the political relations be- 
 tween England and Ireland. 
 
 Ireland had even from the time of the conquests of Henry 
 II. been in a state of discontent. She had never been wholly- 
 absorbed into the English political system while to the politi- 
 cal antagonism between Englislinian and Irishman there was 
 also added the bitterness of religious strife. 
 
 The Irish had always remained true to the Catholic faith, 
 and they were also consistently steadfast to the declining 
 cause of the House of Stuart. When James II was exiled, 
 Ireland became the fulcrum by which he hoped to reestablish 
 his rule in England. But the superior military power and 
 skill of William III won the day, and after that time, Ireland 
 was ground down under the heels of Protestant oppressors. 
 
 699. The Penal Laws against Catholics in Ireland were a 
 shame to civilization. No Catholic could sit in Parliament or 
 could hold office; if the son of a Catholic gentleman turned 
 Protestant he could take possession of his father's estate; if 
 a Catholic owned a horse he could be forced to sell it to any 
 Protestant for five pounds. E^•en his very children did not 
 go unscathed, for they were strictly forbidden to go to any 
 school of their own faith. 
 
 700. English Tyranny.— The Irish Catholics however, 
 were not the only people in Ireland who had grievances. 
 The Irish Protestants also complained, though for far lighter 
 
 465 
 
466 PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 
 
 and different reasons. The chief ground of their complaint 
 was that they were debarred from their due share of poHtical 
 power. By the Poyning's act under Henry VIII, no law 
 could be passed in the Irish Parliament without the previous 
 consent of the English Privy Council ; on the other hand, 
 the English Parliament could legislate directly for Ireland. 
 
 701. Economic Discontent. — There was also (great dis- 
 content arising from economic causes. The cottier system 
 of holding land was then prevalent. By this system, small 
 Irish tenants obtained their holdings by competition, the land- 
 lord leasing the farm to the man who was willing to pay the 
 highest rent. Since land was an absolute necessity the conse- 
 quence was that the tenant often agreed to pay a rent which 
 he was totally incapable of paying. He thus became reduced 
 to a chronic state of distress, while evictions on account of the 
 non-payment of rent became frequent. 
 
 702. The Act of Union. — Pitt believed that the only effi- 
 cient remedy for these evils was the union of Ireland with 
 England, and in 1800 an act was passed to this effect. Hence- 
 forth, there was to be only one Parliament for England and 
 Ireland, and absolute free trade was established between the 
 two countries, but there was still to be a Lord Lieutenant of 
 Ireland and there was still to be a separate judicial system. 
 
 After this, it was not long before the Catholics in Ireland 
 succeeded in obtaining relief from some of their most crying 
 grievances. In 1829 was passed the Catholic Emancipation 
 bill. The passing of the bill was mainly owing to the stren- 
 uous agitation of the great Daniel O'Connell, a clever law- 
 yer, a brilliant orator, and endowed with powers of wit that 
 have become proverbial. The opposition was strong; even 
 George IV, who had few scruples about anything, had scru- 
 ples about this, but the eloquence of O'Connell and the per- 
 
PARLIAMENTARY REFORM 467 
 
 suasions of the Duke of Wellington, then minister, won the 
 day. In 1829 the royal assent was given to the bill. Irish 
 Catholics were now admitted to Parliament and to most of 
 the higher offices, civil and military. 
 
 703. Parliamentary Reform. — About three years after this, 
 there took place in England a parliamentary reform of a most 
 important character. 
 We have already 
 pointed out that in 
 the fourteenth cen- 
 tury Parliament had 
 ceased to represent 
 the nation. The dis- 
 proportion of repre- 
 sentatives sent up by 
 north and south, the 
 non-representation of 
 many cities and bor- 
 oughs, and more 
 than all the limiting 
 of the franchise to 
 forty-shilling free- 
 holders had been re- 
 sponsible for this. 
 
 In after years the Daniel O'Connell. Bom 1775; died 1847. 
 
 want of any true coordination between the Parliament and 
 the nation became still more apparent and was productive of 
 evil results. The crown or the dominant political party man- 
 aged to gain complete control of the elections ; not the will of 
 the nation but coercion, corruption, and bribery too often 
 decided the course of legislation. 
 
 The Reform^ Bill of 1832 removed this abuse. The main 
 provisions of this bill were: 
 
468 PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 
 
 (a) Small and depopulated towns were no longer allowed 
 representation in Parliament, but the new and important 
 towns like Manchester, Birmingham, and Leeds were now al- 
 lowed to send up a due proportion of representatives. 
 
 (b) The number of members for Scotland was raised 
 from forty-five to fifty-three, and the number of members for 
 Ireland, from one hundred to one hundred and five. 
 
 (c) The right of suffrage was extended in the counties 
 to all freeholders and tenants whose holdings were valued at 
 fifty pounds a year, and in the boroughs, to those whose houses 
 were valued at ten pounds and upwards a year. 
 
 Besides these political reforms, there were also economic 
 and educational reforms. 
 
 704. Reform of the Poor Laws. — The crying grievance at 
 that time was the miserable condition of the poor law in Eng- 
 land. Idleness and beggary were rewarded instead of being 
 punished. Even if a man became poor through sheer idleness 
 and vice, he was lodged in a big comfortable house, where 
 he was fed, clothed, and lodged far better than many of those 
 who had to pay ruinous rates for their support. The poor 
 law of 1834 did away with this. It adopted the important 
 principle that the condition of the able-bodied pauper should 
 be made less desirable than that of the lowest wage earner. 
 Henceforth, all able-bodied beggars had to be relieved in the 
 work-house, where they had to perform certain allotted tasks. 
 The result was that fewer people sought relief and the poor 
 rates that had been so high as to threaten the prosperity of the 
 country were speedily reduced. Changes were also made in 
 the administration of the relief. Parishes sent their poor into 
 one common union work-house which was under the manage- 
 ment of a board of guardians elected by the people. While 
 a great deal of liberty was allowed to the local units of ad- 
 ministration, uniformity in general principles was secured by 
 
THE UNIVERSITIES 469 
 
 entrusting the general supervision of the working of the act 
 to a central body at London. 
 
 705. Educational Reform. — As regards education, there 
 appeared in 1839 for the first time a system of national edu- 
 cation. By this act. all schools in receipt of grants from the 
 go\'ernment had to submit to government inspection. In 
 1870. this was supplemented by the erection of board schools 
 throughout the country. These schools were to be supported 
 by the rates from the district in which they were situated and 
 attendance at these board schools was made compulsory. 
 From that time onward, the great bulk of the people were 
 initiated into the mysteries of reading, writing, and arithmetic, 
 and in later times the number of subjects taught became quite 
 considerable. 
 
 706. The Universities. — The state also extended its activ- 
 ity to the centres of higher education. In 1854, the Univer- 
 sities of Oxford and Cambridge were reformed and brought 
 more into pace with the requirements of modern times. And 
 in accordance with the same spirit the custom was gradually 
 introduced of having several universities instead of only two. 
 Already, in the time of George IV. there was founded the 
 University of London. Then, it was only an examining body, 
 but during the last few years it has been made a teaching 
 body as well. The movement in this direction did not die 
 out and during the past fifty years other universities were 
 erected, such as the Victoria University and the Universities 
 of Birmingham, Sheffield, and Manchester. 
 
 Most of these reforms and changes have been carried out 
 during the reign of Victoria. 
 
 Though the legal constitutional power of the British sover- 
 eign is strictly limited, yet the character and example of Vic- 
 toria always gave a strong and enduring impetus to every un- 
 dertaking that went for the general benefit of the nation. 
 
470 PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 
 
 Not only on several urgent occasions did she give impor- 
 tant advice to her ministers but her court, for its purity and 
 uprightness became an example to all Europe. 
 
 707. The British Colonial Empire. — Having considered 
 the internal progress of England, we must now consider her 
 colonial empire, which on account of its vastness, its immense 
 material resources, and prudent administration is the most 
 successful and unique that the world has yet seen. 
 
 The most important outlying possessions of England at the 
 present day are Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand, and 
 Africa. All these are allowed practical self-government. But 
 there are certain general ties that unite them to the mother 
 country; the chief of these are the common sentiment of race 
 and tradition. There are also strong commercial ties, since 
 most of the colonial trade is carried on with England, and it 
 is British capital that forms the chief support of most of the 
 industrial enterprises within the colonies. Finally there is a 
 judicial bond of connection since the supreme court of appeal 
 for the colonies is the judicial committee of the Privy Council 
 in England. • ^ 
 
 708. Canada. — When the American colonies revolted from 
 England, Canada remained faithful. Indeed, the Quebec act 
 which allowed them to retain their own law, aristocracy, and 
 religion gave them no excuse for revolt. 
 
 Great troubles arose at first from the strife between the 
 French and the English element. The division made by the 
 Constitution Act of 1774 between the English Upper Can- 
 ada, and the French Lower Canada was certainly ill-advised 
 and it only accentuated the separation between the two races. 
 The folly of this measure however, was partly undone in 
 1840 by following the suggestion of Lord Durham and unit- 
 ing Upper and Lower Canada into one province administered 
 by only one parliament. 
 
INDIA 471 
 
 But it was not until 1867 that all troubles were put an 
 end to by the formation of the Dominion of Canada. This 
 is a federation of the seven provinces, Ontario, Quebec, Nova 
 Scotia, New Brunswick, British Columbia, and Prince Ed- 
 ward's Island. The federal government consists of a Gov- 
 ernor-General, representing the British king, and a legisla- 
 ture consisting of a Senate and House of Commons. The 
 members of the Senate are appointed by the Governor-Gen- 
 eral, while the members of the lower house are elected from 
 the several provinces. 
 
 709. India. — British rule in India was extended by several 
 wars and by rebellions successfully crushed. In 1843 ^^'^^ 
 broke out between the English and the rulers of the Sind in 
 the northwest of India, whereupon this country was annexed 
 to the British Empire by Sir Charles Napier. Similar wars 
 broke out with the Sikhs, a magnificent race of warriors in 
 the Punjab, and these wars also resulted in the annexation 
 of the Punjab. Finally in 1857, there took place the terri- 
 ble Indian mutiny which by the exertions of such distin- 
 guished officers as Sir Henry Lawrence, and Sir Henry Have- 
 lock was successfully crushed. On this occasion the Gov- 
 ernment of India was taken completely out of the hands of 
 the East India Company and transferred to the Queen of 
 England who in 1876 was created Empress of India. 
 
 710. The Government of India affords an exception to that 
 of the other colonies. The Secretary of State for India as- 
 sisted by a council of persons who have resided in India, has 
 the supreme control of affairs, and the governor-general of 
 India with his council is allowed very little initiative. Lately, 
 however, owing to excessive home interference this policy has 
 been severely criticized and probably at no distant date the 
 officials in India will be allowed a greater discretion and a 
 wider latitude than they are at present. 
 
472 PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 
 
 It should be borne in mind however that not all India is 
 governed directly by the British government. There are vari- 
 ous native states which enjoy a considerable amount of local 
 independence though under English control and supervision. 
 
 711. Australia and Nev^^ Zealand. — Between the years 
 181 5 and 1850 there grew up the rich and thriving colonies 
 of Australia and New Zealand. The sheep-runs and the gold 
 mines attracted great crowds of emigrants and the popula- 
 tion increased by leaps and bounds. At first, the custom of 
 transporting convicts to Australia was the means of intro- 
 ducing a military system of government. But as the convict 
 system began to die out, a constitutional system of govern- 
 ment was introduced. There are five provinces in Australia, 
 namely, Queensland, New South Wales. Victoria, South Aus- 
 tralia, and West AustraHa. Each of these is ruled by its 
 own governor and by two chambers. But the federal prin- 
 ciple for several years remained extremely w-eak. Most ab- 
 surd prejudices existed between the provinces who in com- 
 mercial matters tried to do one another all the harm they 
 could. By degrees however, the spirit of disunion is being 
 exorcised and the Federal Council of Australia in 1885 and 
 the Commonw^ealth of Australia in 1901 have tended to bring 
 the provinces together in the closest unity. 
 
 At the present day, Australia is perhaps growang faster 
 than any other country in the world. Sydney and Melbourne 
 are large flourishing cities and contain buildings that rival 
 successfully the proudest in Europe or America. 
 
 712. Africa. — The British possessions in South Africa 
 have of late years attracted considerable attention owing to 
 the Boer w^ar. After the acquisition of Cape Colony by the 
 English, a succession of w^ars combined with skilful treat- 
 ment of the conquered natives, to extend British control in 
 
IMPERIAL FEDERATION 473 
 
 all directions. In 1843, Natal was acquired and made into 
 an English colony. In 1853, the Kaffir wars added a con- 
 siderable amount of Kaffir land to British territory. In 1879 
 war was declared against the Zulus, and this resulted in the 
 acquisition of Zululand. Later, large portions of unappro- 
 priated xA^frican territory were seized and the rights over 
 them handed over to the British South African Company, 
 organized by Cecil Rhodes, and finally, during the last few 
 years the war against the Boers has ended in giving to the 
 English complete control over the important districts of the 
 Transvaal and Orange Free States. 
 
 713- Egypt. — In connection with the colonies in South 
 Africa, might also be mentioned the British Protectorate of 
 Egypt. This is important not only because it controls the 
 Suez Canal, the direct and shortest route to India, but also 
 because it forms a basis from which to explore central Africa. 
 Probably at no distant date there will be direct railroad com- 
 munication between northern and southern Africa. 
 
 Such, in a few words is an outline of the most important 
 of the British possessions throughout the world. There are 
 of course others of less extent and of minor importance, such 
 as Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus, and the British settlements in 
 China. Altogether, the British possessions cover an area of 
 11,421,100 square miles and a population of about 400,000,- 
 000. 
 
 714. Imperial Federation. — Of late years, various schemes 
 have been propounded for bringing all these scattered lands 
 together in closer political unity. The most feasible one seems 
 to be that of an internal confederation somewhat resembling 
 in its structure the Constitution of the United States. Each 
 section of the Empire would manage its own home affairs, 
 and all matters affecting the common interest of the whole 
 
474 PROGRESS OF ENGLAND 
 
 empire would be handled and dealt with by an imperial fed- 
 eral council meeting at London. In former times such close 
 political union between such scattered lands would have been 
 impossible but now steam and electricity have considerably 
 done away with the limits of time and space. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Relations between England and Ireland — Catholic Ireland 
 under alien oppressors — Penal laws in Ireland — Grievances of 
 the Irish Protestants — the Cottier system — Union of England 
 and Ireland — Catholics' Emancipation Bill — Parliamentary 
 Reform in England — Introduction of the Modern Poor Law 
 System — Provision for national education — The Universities 
 — England's Colonial Empire — Ties between England and the 
 Colonies — Canada — India — Australia and New Zealand — 
 Africa — Extent and Area of British Colonies — ■ Prospects of an 
 Imperial Colonial Federation. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 York-Powell and Tout, History of England ; Green, History of Eng- 
 land; Walpole, Memoirs of George H ; Theodore Martin, Life of the 
 Prince Consort; Stanhope, History of England from Peace of Utrecht; 
 Lecky, England in the i8th century; McCarthy, History of Our Own 
 Times; Escott, Social Transformations of Victorian Age; Political and 
 Private Correspondence of D. O'Connell; Traill, Social England; Payne, 
 The Colonies; Jenks, Australian Colonies; Bourinot, Canada under 
 British Rule; Seeley, Expansion of England; Jeans, England's Su- 
 premacy; Parker, Imperial Federation; Dilke, Problems of Greater 
 Britain; Roberts, Forty-one years in India; Todd, Parliamentary Govern- 
 ment in British Colonies; Story, British Empire. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII 
 
 DEVELOPMENTS AND PROGRESS IN THE OTHER LEADING STATES 
 
 OF EUROPE 
 
 715. Political Tendencies of the Nineteenth Century. — 
 The revolutionary ideas that had pervaded the thinking classes 
 in Europe, combined with the wars of Napoleon to fill almost 
 every nation with a spirit of feverish unrest. Everywhere 
 could be seen a tendency in the direction of constitutional 
 experiments and everywhere the balance of power tended to 
 shift more and more from the hands of the few into the 
 hands of the many. At the same time the balance of power 
 in Europe had been seriously disturbed. As yet it was hard 
 to ascertain the exact position and drift of political forces 
 and it was only by degrees that nations gradually formed 
 themselves into new and evenly balanced groups and alliances. 
 We will now consider in detail, the corresponding changes 
 that took place in Europe after the eventful overthrow of 
 Napoleon in 181 5. 
 
 France 
 
 716. France Under Louis XVIII. — The Congress of 
 Vienna, which in Sept., 18 14, restored the old Bourbon 
 dynasty to France, placed Louis XVIII upon the French 
 throne. The power of the people and the recent terrors of 
 the revolution were still fresh in his mind and the early years 
 of his reign were distinguished for the broad liberality of his 
 administration. The charter which he promulgated allowed 
 some of the main elements of popular government. While 
 the House of Peers was to be filled by the king's choice, there 
 was to be a lower house duly elected by the people, which 
 
 476 
 
REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 477 
 
 was to have complete control over taxation. Such funda- 
 mental principles as free speech, religious liberty, and equal- 
 ity before the laws were finally confirmed. 
 
 During the latter years of his reign, however, he yielded 
 more and more to the demands of the reactionary conserva- 
 tive party which was rapidly growing in strength. Upon his 
 death in 1824, his brother Charles X succeeded, and threw 
 himself heart and soul into the cause of the conservative party. 
 
 717. Reaction Under Charles X. — From 1820 to 1830 the 
 work of the revolution was undone piece by piece. The 
 franchise was practically restricted to the wealthy landown- 
 ers; influential appointments were confined as far as possible 
 to those of conservative tendencies, and Charles formally an- 
 nounced that he regarded the legislature merely as an ad- 
 \isory council. The nation began to raise its voice, and the 
 overwhelming majority of liberals that were returned to the 
 Chamber of Deputies ought to have shown him the danger 
 of his position. But the infatuous monarch disregarded the 
 warning, and by a series of edicts, suspended the constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 At once, Paris was in revolt. Once more the barricades 
 were erected in the streets and throngs of armed men shouted, 
 " Down with the Bourbons." A hasty meeting of some of 
 the members of the legislature was held in the Hotel de Ville, 
 and chiefly by the influence of Lafayette, it was decided to 
 offer the throne to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, who ac- 
 cordingly became king in 1830. 
 
 718. Louis Philippe, however, was first obliged to accept 
 the charter which had been granted by Louis XVIII, and 
 also some important supplementary laws. The most impor- 
 tant changes thus effected were as follows. The clause in 
 the charter concerning the divine right of kings was omitted, 
 
478 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 
 
 the legislatures were allowed to introduce bills, and the fran- 
 chise was considerably widened, so as to include all who paid 
 forty dollars annually in taxes. 
 
 719. Conservative Policy. — But it soon became clear that 
 the democratic impetus given by the revolution would not be 
 satisfied with a constitutional monarchy. Ideas of popular 
 government gained in strength, but during the last eight years 
 of Philip's reign the government was administered by Guizot, 
 who headed the party of resistance to the march of democracy. 
 The most salutary measures of reform were introduced into 
 the Legislatures, only to be rejected one after another by the 
 ministry. Nor was this all. By trying to control the elec- 
 tions, he sought to do away with the representative character 
 of the Lower House. The new elections, so far from show- 
 ing the mind of the people by an overwhelming liberal ma- 
 jority, returned a majority of conservatives. 
 
 Revolutions had become easy by habit. Again the barri- 
 cades were erected. Again a few members of the legislature 
 met together, and this time appointed a committee called " The 
 Provisional Government," whose duty it was to call into ex- 
 istence a new regime. 
 
 720. Louis Napoleon President. — After many heated dis- 
 cussions, and perhaps under pressure from the outside mob, 
 the committee abolished the House of Peers, established man- 
 hood suffrage, and declared a Republic. Some of the ele- 
 ments of the New Constitution were borrowed from that of 
 the United States. Among the members of the new ministry 
 was Lamartine, the great French poet, who became foreign 
 minister, and at the presidential election, Louis Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon the Great, was chosen presi- 
 dent. 
 
 Napoleon seems to have had a great deal of the ambition 
 
NAPOLEON III 479 
 
 and versatility in using ways and means that had characterized 
 his illustrious ancestor. Though he had sworn to be faith- 
 ful to the constitution, he plotted against it from the very 
 beginning. The growing unpopularity of the assembly, and 
 the favor which Napoleon found with the Bourgeoise. were 
 powerful circumstances in his side. Napoleon was also active 
 in his own behalf. He carefully fanned the general hostility 
 against the assembl}- and placed all the important posts in 
 the army in the hands of his friends and confidants. 
 
 721. Louis Napoleon Becomes Emperor. — On the night 
 of December the _'d, 185 1, the Republican (ioxernment was 
 suddenly overturned. The assembly was dispersed and by 
 popular vote, Napoleon was made president for ten years, 
 with dictatorial power. All this, as read in the light of prece- 
 dent could have but one meaning, and in 1852, Napoleon be- 
 came Emperor of the French. 
 
 We now enter upon the period of the Second Empire, which 
 though less brilliant than the First Empire, closely resembled 
 it in many leading features. Napoleon became the active su- 
 preme head of the nation. It was a period of personal rule, 
 during which Napoleon was responsible to no one and every 
 one responsible to him ; the legislature and the press were 
 entirely at his service, and for the time, the cause of popular 
 liberty seemed to have been lost. But France had for the 
 time, what she sorely needed — a strong government which 
 secured to her a period of commercial prosperity and of gen- 
 eral diffusion of wealth and comfort throughout all classes 
 of the community. 
 
 It was the foreign policy of Napoleon that ultimately 
 brought about his downfall. 
 
 722. War with Germany. — In a previous chapter, it has 
 already been pointed out that the Franco-German war was 
 
480 PROGRFSS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 
 
 forced upon Napoleon III by Bismarck, but that the whole 
 plan was so skilfully arranged that the odium of declaring 
 war was thrust upon France. It is clear, however, that Napo- 
 leon thought that France was better prepared for war than 
 Germany, and that a campaign would be easily and quickly 
 won. But there was also the additional reason that Napo- 
 peon had discovered, by the returns of the elections that his 
 popularity was waning, and urged on by his wife, he deter- 
 mined to stake all upon the issue of a successful war (1870). 
 The event did not justify his expectations. The French 
 did not realize that the Germans wer" determined not on a 
 war of defense but of offense. The surrender of 83,000 men 
 at Sedan, the still more disastrous surrender at Metz, and 
 the capitulation of Paris, place France under the heel of the 
 invader. Napoleon had played his last card and failed. The 
 treaty by which France sacrificed to Germany Alsace and 
 Lorraine, withdrew from Napoleon the last vestige of popu- 
 larity. A revolutionary form of government was set up and 
 the mob destroyed some of the most notable buildings in 
 Paris. Napoleon was forced to flee. For a time, a provi- 
 sional government under Thiers, administered the country, 
 but the quarrels among the different party leaders, at length 
 drove him from oftice. In 1873, the provisonal government 
 came to an end and the Third Republic was set up and is 
 the form of government in France at the present day. 
 
 723. The Third Republic. — The most conspicuous fea- 
 tures of this present French Republic are as follows : ( a ) 
 A national assembly consisting of two houses, a Senate, and 
 a Chamber of Deputies. The Senators are elected by Elec- 
 toral Colleges in the different departments and hold office of 
 three years. The deputies are elected by universal suffrage, 
 and in the proportion of one deputy to every 70.000 inhab- 
 itants. The two chambers sit apart for ordinary purposes, 
 
FRENCH POLITICS 481 
 
 but meet together for the revision of the Constitution and 
 for the election of the President, which takes place every 
 seven years, (b) The second element of the present consti- 
 tution is the President, who as we have said is elected by the 
 chambers in joint session. The President has the power of 
 dissolving the Chamber of Deputies and of returning bills 
 for consideration, but instead of being the master of the Cabi- 
 net, is rather its servant, (c) The local government of 
 France underwent no change, and still remains what it was 
 during the First Republic. The chief divisions of local gov- 
 ernment are the Departments, Arrondissements, Cantons, 
 Communes. These different units enjoy very little local 
 power and are absolutely subordinated to the central govern- 
 ment. 
 
 This Constitution such as we have briefly outlined, has sat- 
 isfied the aspirations of France for the last thirty-six years. 
 It has stood successfully very severe tests. The intrigues of 
 the Monarchists and Bonapartists, and for a time, the hos- 
 tility of the Church, have been against it. Also the educa- 
 tional question and the relations between the government and 
 the Church are problems that still remain to be solved. The 
 late separation between Church and state by the abolition of 
 the Concordat, may have had the effect of alienating from 
 the government, a considerable class of its supporters. But 
 the interests of the different sections hostile to the govern- 
 ment are all so divergent that it hardly seems likely that at 
 present, they will coalesce for the purpose of any revolution- 
 ary change. 
 
 Belgium and Holland. 
 
 724. Character of the Two Peoples. — When Napoleon the 
 Great had received his final overthrow, the Kingdoms of Bel- 
 gium and Holland were united into one kingdom, under Wil- 
 liam I, a prince of the House of Orange. The arrangement 
 
482 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 
 
 was singularly unfortunate. It ignored the tendencies that 
 had been mapped out by past history and by the religion and 
 character of the peoples. The Teutonic character of the 
 Dutch and the Romance tendencies of the Belgians, united 
 with the Protestantism of the northern Provinces and the 
 Catholicism of the southern, to form barriers that were in- 
 superable to any kind of pacific union. Even the occupations 
 of the peoples were different, for while Holland was a trad- 
 ing country, Belgium had been from time immemorial, a man- 
 ufacturing community. 
 
 Nor was any care taken to make the union less odious. 
 William I was exclusively a Dutchman and was not inclined 
 to make any allowance for natural proclivities of his southern 
 subjects. The result was a condition of profound dissatis- 
 faction and a union of the clerical and disaffected political 
 forces which at any moment, might prove most formidable. 
 
 725. Revolution in Belgium. — The spark w^as kindled by 
 the revolution that broke out in Paris when Charles X was 
 driven from the throne (1830). At once, Brussels rose in 
 revolt. A provisional government w^as formed, and for the 
 sake of order, a national guard was placed in charge of the 
 capital. Negotiations were opened w^ith the government of 
 the Netherlands. The Prince of Orange was sent to tempo- 
 rize with the malcontents. Personally, he was disposed to 
 grant concessions of so complete a nature, that all causes of 
 complaint would be removed. Unfortunately the States- 
 General failed to pass the measure. 
 
 The Belgians thereupon resorted to force. The Dutch gar- 
 risons were expelled and the whole Belgian army was pre- 
 pared to defend the national cause. 
 
 Belgium soon became the center of European politics. Rus- 
 sia was inclined to favor the cause of William, while England, 
 owing to motives of commerce, was more inclined to favor the 
 
CONGRESS AT BRUSSELS 483 
 
 independence of Belgium. The other countries of Europe 
 were also interested, partly on account of the danger of the 
 still further spread of revolutionary principles, and partly on 
 account of the danger to the balance of power. 
 
 726. An International Congress now met at Brussels, 
 and the first result of its deliberations was to acknowledge the 
 independence of Belgium as a separate state. It was then 
 arranged that the government should take the form of a mon- 
 archy. But here the question rose as to who should fill the 
 throne. There were many material ties between the French 
 and the Belgians, but the acceptance of the throne by a French 
 king would have been a standing menace to the balance of 
 power, and distasteful to the other powers. The choice of 
 the Belgians eventually fell upon Prince Leopold of Coburg, 
 a prudent and moderate statesman. 
 
 The Dutch protested and endeavored to enforce their pro- 
 test. An invading army penetrated into the country and 
 forced Leopold to fly to Mechlin. But England and France 
 speedily intervened. While an English fleet menaced the 
 coasts of Holland, a French army besieged the town of Ant- 
 werp. Immediate danger at home compelled the Dutch army 
 to retire from Belgian territory, and William eventually had 
 to accept the arrangements of the Congress by a definite 
 treaty (1831). 
 
 727. The Belgian Constitution as set up and as it still re- 
 mains provides for a limited monarchy. Besides the king, 
 there is a Senate and a Lower House. Both the Senators 
 and Representatives are chosen by the same electors. The 
 Senators are elected for eight years, the representatives for 
 four years. At the elections, the chambers are renewed by 
 one half. Laws may be introduced in either the Upper or 
 the Lower House, but bills for raising money must appear 
 first in the House of Representatives. 
 
484 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 
 
 The king fills up all the offices, ministerial, civil, and mili- 
 tary. He appoints the judge, who cannot be removed except 
 by judgment in open court. The king has also control over 
 the foreign policy of the nation, and he is entrusted with the 
 task of seeing that the laws are properly enforced. 
 
 Only one defect in the constitution remained to be corrected 
 and that was the limitation of the franchise. At first, there 
 was a heavy property qualification. This was afterwards re- 
 moved by a law providing for universal suffrage, with the very 
 useful amendment that additional votes should be given to 
 those possessed of a certain amount of wealth or education. 
 
 728. The Constitution of Holland still remains what it 
 was in 18 15. It is a limited monarchy and presents some 
 points of resemblance to that of Great Britain. There are 
 two legislative chambers, the members of the Upper Chamber 
 being appointed by the king for life, and the members of the 
 Lower Chamber being elected by the assemblies of the prov- 
 inces. The executive force is placed in the hands of the king, 
 the succession being allowed to go to females only in default 
 of male heirs. 
 
 Spain and Portugal 
 
 729. The Bourbon Restoration. — The overthrow of Napo- 
 leon meant the restoration of the Bourbons, not only to the 
 throne of France, but also to that of Spain, in the person of 
 Ferdinand VII. The old Bourbon tendencies speedily showed 
 themselves. The constitution that had been framed in 18 12, 
 was swept away and personal rule substituted in its place. 
 He dissolved the Cortes, and abrogated their constitution, 
 established the Inquisition, restored to the nobles all their 
 old privileges, and filled the prisons with patriotic liberals. 
 
 730. Ferdinand VII. — At the same time, the finances of 
 the country were in a ruinous condition. But instead of di- 
 
SPANISH POLITICS 485 
 
 recting his time and attention to the true sources of wealth, 
 such as trade and manufactures, Ferdinand squandered large 
 sums of money in seeking to recover the Spanish colonies 
 that had revolted during the Bonapartist regime. Even in 
 this object he failed. His tyrannical instincts alienated still 
 further the colonies, so that by 1823, Buenos Aires, Chili, 
 Peru, Colombia, and Mexico became independent states and 
 were recognized as such by the United States. 
 
 At last, the standard of revolt was raised in Spain and the 
 liberal party compelled the king to accept the constitution of 
 1 81 2. Just, however, when the revolutionary party appeared 
 supreme, France, with the consent of the European powers, 
 intervened and released the king from his captivity by the 
 Cortes and established peace and order. 
 
 The remaining years of the reign of Ferdinand were peace- 
 ful, and were undisturbed by any question save that of the 
 succession. He had only one child, a daughter, who by the 
 Salic law, was prevented frcnn ascending the throne. Ferdi- 
 nand tried to solve the difficulty by abolishing the Salic law. 
 To this, Don Carlos, the king's brother and otherwise the 
 next heir, strongly objected. The death of Ferdinand was 
 the signal for strife, and at once the throne was disputed be- 
 tween Isabella, for whom Christina, the queen acted as regent, 
 and Don Carlos. The former was supported by the liberal, 
 and the latter by the conservative or reactionist party. 
 
 731. Party Strife. — The liberal party triumphed and in 
 1850, Don Carlos was driven from the country. But peace 
 was not yet. Even during the conflict with Don Carlos, the 
 liberals had been fighting among themselves. The cause of 
 dissension being that Christina had replaced the old constitu- 
 tion by a new one of a more conservative character. In the 
 very year of triumph over the common enemy, Christina was 
 compelled to resign her office of regent in favor of Espartero, 
 
486 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 
 
 a Progressionist General. His victory, however, was short- 
 lived. When Isabella became of age, Christina returned from 
 exile and the partizans of the conservative constitution now 
 held the reins of power. 
 
 The character of Isabella was unfitted for a position where 
 a respectable and commanding character was more than ever 
 necessary. The dissoluteness of her private life, and her strong" 
 reactionary tendencies soon provoked a revolution. Isabella 
 was driven from the throne (1868), and an interregnum took 
 place, during which the crown was offered unsuccssfully to 
 various persons. At length, Amadeus, the Italian Duke of 
 Aosta accepted the position. He however was soon glad to 
 resign, and for two years Spain was governed by a republic, 
 with Castelar at the head. Even this experiment proved a 
 failure and as a last measure for the restoration of order, the 
 crown was offered to Alfonso XII. From that time, till the 
 present, the restored monarchy seems to have given reasonable 
 satisfaction, though the prospect of a revolution in behalf of 
 the exiled Carlists is a constant menace to the permanence uf 
 the present dynasty. 
 
 732. The Constitution of Spain consists of a monarch and 
 two chambers, namely, a Senate and Congress. Half of the 
 Senators are elected, the other half are appointed for life; 
 the members of the lower house are elected by universal suf- 
 frage. 
 
 733. The History of Portugal, from 181 5, presents during 
 its early stages, a remarkable parallel with that of Spain. 
 
 The revolution in Spain which drove out Ferdinand VII 
 produced a similar revolution in Portugal. Owing to the 
 occupation of Portugal by the French, the seat of government 
 was transferred from Portugal to Brazil, which was one of 
 the most important of the Portuguese colonies. It was not 
 
AFFAIRS IN PORTUGAL 487 
 
 long before the revolutionary movement spread from Portugal 
 to Brazil. This double revolution forced King John to re- 
 sign the administration of Brazil into the hands of his son 
 Pedro, while he himself returned to Lisbon. Brazil quickly- 
 declared its independence of the mother country and Don 
 Pedro was proclaimed emperor. 
 
 In the meantime. King John was forced to accept the radi- 
 cal constitution that had been drawn up in 1820, shortly after 
 the revolution in Portugal. 
 
 On the death of King John in 1824, the crown was forcibly 
 seized and held by Miguel, the youngest son, for six years. 
 After this, it passed into the hands of the daughter of the 
 emperor, Pedro. This caused a change in Brazil. Then Don 
 Pedro abdicated the throne in favor of his son. Pedro II., 
 while he himself went to Portugal, to act as regent for his 
 daughter. The throne has remained in possession of this 
 dynasty, though up to the middle of the nineteenth century. 
 there was a great deal of internal strife, further complicated 
 by the Carlist risings in Spain. 
 
 734. The Present Constitution of Portugal provides for an 
 hereditary monarchy with which resides the executive power of 
 government, while the legislative power resides in an Upper 
 and a Lower Chamber. The members of the Upper Chamber 
 take their seats in some cases by appointment in other cases 
 by election, while the deputies of the Lower House are elected 
 by the people. The senators hold office for life, while the 
 deputies vacate their seats every four years. 
 
 The Anstro-Hungarian Empire 
 
 735. Racial Division. — The battle of Sadowa (1866), in 
 which the Austrians were so badly beaten by Italy convinced 
 the .\ustrian emperor, Francis Joseph, of the need of further 
 
488 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 
 
 consolidating and strengthening his empire. It is necessary 
 to remember that the Austrian empire then comprised, as it 
 does now, many nationalities. But the chief lines of cleavage 
 lie between the Germans in Austria proper, and the inhabit- 
 ants of Hungary and Bohemia. All efforts to Germanize 
 these provinces had failed ; they still hungered for local in- 
 dependence and rejoiced at the humiliation of Austria. 
 
 736. The Dual Monarchy. — Some change was absolutely 
 necessary. But Francis Joseph, who was true to the old 
 Hapsburg motto of " divide and rule," instead of forming a 
 solidly united nation, created two different centers of gravity 
 in Austria and Hungary. He instituted a dual-monarchy, 
 united together under the one emperor of Austria. Both 
 countries were to have their own parliaments which should 
 deal with local affairs. All foreign, military, and naval af- 
 fairs were to be dealt with by two delegations, each consisting 
 of sixty members, chosen respectively by the Austrian and 
 Hungarian parliaments. By a curious arrangement, the dele- 
 gations could not discuss matters viva voce, but were to ex- 
 change their views in writing, and even when they did meet, it 
 was to vote only in silence. 
 
 In this compact, there is technically speaking no Austria; 
 the w'ords, " Hungary " and " Austria-Hungary," are dis- 
 tinctly stated, but Austria is spoken of as the " Countries rep- 
 resented in the Reichsrath." the Reichsrath consisting of the 
 representatives sitting in the parliament of Vienna having no 
 connection with the Hungarian parliament. 
 
 It would be nearer the truth, therefore, to speak of the 
 empire of Hungary, than of the empire of Austria. Indeed, 
 not only is Hungary a definite unit with a living and growing 
 organism of its own, but it is an empire both by the compact 
 that was made by Francis Joseph, and also by the powers that 
 were given to it under Pope Sylvester 11, 
 
FORCES OF DISUNION 489 
 
 737. Forces of Disunion. — The compromise by which 
 Francis Joseph admitted Hungary into an imperial dual part- 
 nership, has proved most detrimental both to the dual-mon- 
 archy as a whole and to each of the partners. There is no 
 common center of government, and no force to weld together 
 the conflicting interests of the empire. Instead of imitating 
 the bold policy of the Hohenzollerns, in expanding outward 
 from one common center. Francis Joseph created two differ- 
 ent centers with different activities of their own. All the 
 heterogeneous elements in the empire are suffered to exercise 
 their own activity independently of one another. Tlie differ- 
 ent languages that are spoken, are in themselves a bar to unity. 
 Even the very army is weakened by the fact that the words 
 of command are not understood by those to whom they are 
 spoken. 
 
 At present, the only apparent bond of cohesion seems to be 
 the emperor, who has endeared himself to all. When he 
 vanishes, the Austro-Hungarian empire will most probably 
 undergo disruption. In such a case, the different races com- 
 posing the empire would naturally be absorbed into those 
 powers with which they have most affinity. 
 
 In spite of the present confusion, it must be remembered 
 that both in Austria and in Hungary the principles of repre- 
 sentative democratic government have fully asserted them- 
 selves. Whatever difficulties there are. arise from the in- 
 compatible union of different races and the preservation of 
 customs that tend to perpetuate, rather than soften disunion. 
 The fatal mistake was made when Austria, with her own 
 provinces still disorganized, attempted to play an imperial 
 policy. The result was, that Austria, the weaker portion, 
 has become a mere annex of Hungary, which has all the unity 
 and all the training and institutions but lacks only the ma- 
 chinery of a real empire. 
 
490 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 
 
 Russia 
 
 738, The Russian Advance in Europe. — The part that had 
 been taken Ijy Russia in the overthrow of Napoleon, showed 
 that henceforth Russia was going to become an active factor 
 in Europcau poh'tics. As the victory of Peter the Great over 
 vSwedeu iu a war of defence was followed by an active policy 
 in l-'urope itself, so the success of Czar Alexander at Moscow, 
 was followed by an active propagandist policy in Eastern 
 Europe. 
 
 When Alexander died, in 1825, he was succeeded by his 
 younger brother Nicholas. The new emperor, unlike his 
 predecessors, from the time of Peter the Great, was an ardent 
 lover of the old Russian institutions and did his best to shut 
 out all European influences. But, together with this con- 
 servati\e policy at home, Nicholas combined aggressive de- 
 signs on Turkey for purposes of a self-aggrandizement in 
 the Balkan States. Taking advantage of an insurrection in 
 Turkey, and of the defenceless condition that followed, he 
 forced the Sultan to consent to the independence of Servia, 
 tt) allow Russia to occupy the fortresses on the east coast of 
 the Black Sea, and to allow Russian ships to enter the waters 
 under the jurisdiction of Turkey. 
 
 739. Revolt of Greece. — Yet another opportunity for in- 
 tervention was afforded by the revolt of Greece from Turkey. 
 The Turks, in order to crush the rebellion, began to ravage 
 the Morea of southern Greece. Thereupon, England, France, 
 and Russia, combined their fleets together and at the battle 
 of Navarino, 1S27, destroyed the entire Turkish fleet and 
 made the independence of Greece an accomplished fact. A 
 conference in London provided that Greece should be a con- 
 stitutional monarchy, and offered the crown to Prince Leopold 
 of Saxenburg. The oft'cr was declined and Otto, the younger 
 
CRIMEAN WAR 491 
 
 son of the king of Bavaria, was placed upon the throne. 
 Otto's excessive German tendencies soon caused a revolution 
 and a new king was elected in the person of Prince George, 
 second son of the king of Denmark. The next event in the 
 reign of Nicholas, was the Polish revolt, 1830. B}- the Con- 
 gress of \'ienna, Poland had been erected into a kingdom 
 under the Russian Grand Duke Constantine. The constitu- 
 tion was utterly unsuited to the needs of the people and the 
 French Revolution of 1830. caused a similar rising in Poland. 
 The results were disastrous. The Poles, as ever, were 
 divided among themselves, and the advance of the Russian 
 was one long triumphal march. Pt^land soon became a Rus- 
 sian T'rovince. 
 
 740. The Crimean War. — 'J he great event in the reign 
 of Nicholas was the Crimean war. This war was the effect 
 of Nicholas's determination to partition Turkey and thus ex- 
 tend Russian influence over the Balkan countries. The imme- 
 diate cause of the war was, that Nicholas insisted on being 
 the protector of the Greek Christians throughout the Turkish 
 Empire. The claim was refused by the Sultan. Russia then 
 presented an ultimatum and on this being rejected, Russian 
 troops occupied the provinces of Moldavia and of \\'allachia 
 as security for the obtainment of their request. This was 
 clearly an act of war. Then the Sultan appealed to France 
 and England and the three powers together now warred on 
 Russia. The league was afterwards joined by Sardinia, anx- 
 ious to obtain a recognized place among European powers 
 
 (1853). 
 
 The scene of the war was in the Crimea. The main inci- 
 dents were the battles of Balaklava and Inkermann, at the 
 former of which took place the celebrated charge of the 
 British Light Brigade, so well known from Tennyson's poem. 
 One very important episode was the appearance of the Eng- 
 
492 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 
 
 lish nurse, Florence Nightingale, who first introduced into 
 warfare the present organized system of nursing that has done 
 so much to assuage the horrors of war. 
 
 741. Treaty of Paris. — During the war, the emperor 
 
 Nicholas died, Both sides were now weary of the contest, 
 and in 1859, was signed the Treaty of Paris. The chief 
 terms were as follows: (a) The guarantee of the independ- 
 ence and integrity of Turkey, (b) Moldavia anil W'al- 
 lachia, to be ruled by separate princes elected by the assemblies 
 of the respective countries, (c) The Black Sea was de- 
 clared neutral, (d) The Sultan w-as to be the protector of 
 the Christians of the Turkish Empire. 
 
 742. Alexander II. — The successor of Nicholas was Alex- 
 ander II. He was a monarch of humane and most liberal 
 tendencies. He not only sought to give Russia a better sys- 
 tem of justice and to set on foot some kind of local self- 
 government, but he issued the " Emancipation Code," which 
 gave liberty to forty-six millions of Russian serfs. Till then 
 the Russian serf, like some of the old medieval serfs, was 
 absolutely tied down to the soil, and were obliged to work, 
 not only on the village lands, but also on the lands of their 
 lord. 
 
 But the Emancipation Code gave the serfs their freedom 
 and making them legal tenants of the lands which they tilled, 
 declared that the rent could be paid in labor or in money. 
 Even this tenantship might be converted into freehold posses- 
 sion by the payment of a sum of money. 
 
 743. Russo-Turkish War. — In 1877, war again broke out 
 between Russia and Turkey. Whatever might have been the 
 good intentions of the Sultan, the tyranny of the official 
 oligarchy, who w^ere the rulers, became intolerable. The 
 
BERLIX CONGRESS 493 
 
 Greek Christians rose in revolt, and the Turks retaHated by 
 the notorious Bulgarian atrocities. Not only Russia but the 
 whole of Europe was aflame with indignation. The Rus- 
 sians being allowed a passage through Roumania, entered 
 the provinces under Turkish rule. Plevna was taken and a 
 few days later, the fortress of Kars in Asia, shared the same 
 fate. It is difficult to foresee what might have taken place, 
 had not England interfered, by sending a fleet through the 
 Dardanelles, which stayed the progress of the Russians and 
 brought on negotiations for peace. 
 
 744. Congress of Berlin. — In 1878, a Congress was held 
 at Berlin which attempted a definite settlement of long stand- 
 ing Eastern question. The independence of Roumania, Ser- 
 via, and Alontenegro, was confirmed. Bosnia and Herze- 
 govina were placed under the care of Austria. Bulgaria was 
 divided into three parts of which the northern part alone 
 secured complete independence, the middle portion being partly 
 dependent on Turkey and the southern part entirely so. Also, 
 the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles were to be closed to all 
 foreign ships of war — an important proviso in case of any 
 European complications. 
 
 745. Present Condition of Russia. — The Emperor Alex- 
 ander was assassinated in ]March 1881, and was succeeded 
 by Alexander III, after whom came Nicholas II (1894). 
 The reigns of these monarchs have been marked by the ad- 
 vance of liberal principles among the great mass of the Rus- 
 sian people. These principles have been constantly resisted 
 not so much by the obstinacy of the emperors themselves, as 
 by the oligarchy, which while professing to administer in 
 the name of the emperor, control in effect both emperor and 
 people. In very recent times, however, a liberal constitution 
 of a very restricted character has been granted to the Rus- 
 
494 PROGRESS OF OTHER LEADING STATES 
 
 sian people. But the peasants and the lower classes gener- 
 ally are still very ignorant and the party of reaction is strong. 
 The only saving element seems to be the intellect and the 
 patriotism of the professional classes, and this element will 
 probably become the saving element in Russian politics. 
 
 TOPICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Introduction — Reign of Louis XVIII in France — Accession 
 of Charles X — A reaction in direction of conservative mon- 
 archism — Revolution in Paris and accession of Philippe, Duke 
 of Orleans — The charter granted by Louis Philippe — Strong 
 democratic movements — Another revolution and establishment 
 of a second republic — The coup d'etat and accession of Louis 
 Napoleon as Emperor — Reign of Louis Napoleon — His for- 
 eign policy — ^ Defeat of France at the hands of Germany — 
 Overthrow of Louis Napoleon and establishment of the Third 
 Republic — Present Constitution of France — Union of Belgium 
 and Holland under William I — Revolution in Brussels — Bel- 
 gium becomes the center of European politics — International 
 congress and accession of Leopold I to the Belgian throne — 
 Present constitution of Belgium — Present constitution of Hol- 
 land — ■ Reign of Ferdinand VII of Spain — Revolt of the Spanish 
 colonies — Question of the Spanish succession — Triumph of the 
 liberal party — Reign of Isabella — Again another revolution — 
 Accession of Alphonsus XII — Present constitution of Spain — 
 Revolution in Portugal — Separation of Brazil from Portugal — 
 Don Pedro Emperor of Brazil — His abdication in favor of his 
 youngest son — Present constitution of Portugal — Racial di- 
 visions in Austria-Hungary — Formation of the Dual monarchy 
 under Francis Joseph — Meaning of the Dual Empire — Results 
 of the Dual Empire — Principles of representative government — 
 Russia's policy of expansion inaugurated by Peter the Great — 
 Accession of Nicholas I — His policy at home and abroad — 
 Destruction of Turkey's fleet at the battle of Navarino — Inde- 
 pendence of Greece under Prince Otto — Dethronement of Otto 
 followed by accession of Prince George of Denmark — Absorp- 
 tion of Poland by Russia — Crimean war — Treaty of Paris of 
 1859 — Accession of Alexander II — ^ Reforms of Alexander II 
 T- War between Russia and Turkey — Congress of Berlin in 
 1878 — Accession of Alexander III and present condition of 
 Russia. 
 
REFERENCES 495 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 Philips, Modern Europe; Combertin, Evolution of France under the 
 Third Republic; Hanotaux, Contemporary France; Thiers, Discours; 
 Louis Blanc, Organization of Work; Helie, Les Constitutions de la 
 France; Chateaubriand, Memoirs; Lebon, Modern France; Gambetta, 
 Correspondence ; Jerrold, Life of Napoleon III; Adams, Growth of 
 French Nation; Murdoch, Reconstruction of Europe; Seignobos, Europe 
 since 1814; Lavelaye, Le Parti clerical en Belgigue; Woerste, Tiventy 
 Years of Polemics; Blok, History of the People of the Netherlands; 
 Lowell, Goz'ernmcnts and Parties in Continental Europe ; Hume, Modern 
 Spain; Hanway, Castelar ; Latimer, Spain in the jgth century; Hough- 
 ton, Origin of Restoration of the Bourbons in Spain; Pirala, Contem- 
 porary Spam; Prunel, Souvenirs de voyage en Espagne et en Portugal; 
 Stroebel, Spanish Revolution of 1868-1874; Gabrieil Ferry, Les Revolu- 
 tions du Mexique; Southey, History of Brazil; Andrews, Historical 
 Development of Modern Europe; Leger, History of Austria-Hungary ; 
 Seignobos, Europe since J814; Beust, Memoirs, Correspondence between 
 Grun and Frankl; Muller, Recent Times; Leroy Beaulieu, Awakening 
 of the East; Noble, Russia and the Russians; Rambaud, History of Rus- 
 sia; Skrine, Expansion of Russia; Stepiak, Russian Peasants; Helluald, 
 Russians in Central Asia; Fyffe, Europe; Smith, Greece under King 
 George; McCarthy, History of Our Own Times; Kinglake, Invasion of 
 the Crimea. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV 
 
 SOME TYPICAL FEATURES OF THE XIX CENTURY 
 
 746. Political Tendencies. — Besides the leading political 
 events that have taken place in every country in Europe, 
 there are distinctly visible certain general political tendencies 
 that are independent of any national barriers. During the 
 modern period of history, the isolation that had characterized 
 the medieval state has been gradually diminishing almost 
 to the vanishing point. At the present day, the destiny of 
 a nation must be conjectured, not only by what is in the 
 nation itself, but also from general forces and tendencies that 
 are affecting alike the whole of Europe. 
 
 747. The Principle of Balance of Power asserted itself 
 even from the descent of Charles VIII into Italy; it became 
 stronger during the wars of Louis XIV. and at the present 
 day is a dominant factor in European politics. From the 
 Franco-German war up till very recently, the alliances that 
 have constituted the balance of power in Europe are the 
 Triple Alliances and the Dual Alliances. The former is an 
 alliance between Germany, Austria, and Italy, and the latter 
 is formed between France and Russia. After the Berlin Con- 
 gress, Bismarck discovered that his support of certain claims 
 of Austria in the Balkans had deeply offended Russia; he 
 accordingly advised the emperor to form an alliance with 
 Austria, which had already been drawn into the misunder- 
 standing. Italy had a grievance against France and entered 
 the league, thus completing the Triple Alliance. Shortly 
 afterward France and Russia being afifected by a common in- 
 terest and a common danger also entered into partnership and 
 
 496 
 
498 TYPICAL FEATURES OF THE XIX CENTURY 
 
 formed a counterbalancing Dual Alliance. For a time, when 
 England viewed with jealousy the use of French influence in 
 northern Africa and found herself on terms of cordial inti- 
 macy with Italy, there seemed a prospect of forming a quad- 
 ruple alliance. But this did not take place, and England for 
 many years consistently maintained an attitude of isolation, 
 but she has in recent times been close! '^ drawn toward the 
 United States and Japan. 
 
 748. European Colonies. — Another general factor that has 
 to be reckoned with in European politics is the colonizing 
 activity that has been displayed by the different European 
 countries. Thus. France has acquired in northern Africa, the 
 fertile lands of Algeria and a protectorate over Tunis. 
 She also holds possession of Senegal and the island of 
 Madagascar, and has developed important trade connections 
 in southern China. Germany has also acquired in Africa 
 considerable colonial interests and has established there, im- 
 portant protectorates, most of which are well adapted for 
 European settlements. Still more significant is the success 
 of the German colonial policy in Asia Minor and even in 
 China. The chief elements in the success of Germany seem 
 to have been the activity and shrewdness of her trading agents 
 and the quickness with which she opens up new lines of com- 
 merce. Russia again has been constantl}- expanding, not so 
 much in a westerly, as in an easterly direction. In northern 
 Persia and up till lately in the extreme eastern part of Asia 
 at Port Arthur, Russian influence had been slowly and power- 
 fully asserting itself. And lately in southern Persia she is 
 menacing English interests. Italy also has interests in north- 
 ern Africa, notably in the Massowah district and in the protec- 
 torate of the Somaliland. Even Belgium has acquired in 
 Africa a portion of the Congo district, remarkable for the 
 fertility of its soil. By the Berlin conference, in 1885, this 
 
I 
 
 i 
 
N 
 
 powEBs or 
 
 THE WORLD 
 
 I j Oreat Britain \ [ UniM Statu P^3*P<""> 
 
 I t **"""* I \Ptirtufat }^' ^ Holland 
 
 I \ 0*rmant \ \ ltixly \ [ ginria 
 
 Etit to rron 
 
 Orefowich 80 
 
ECONOMIC CHANGES 499 
 
 Belgian portion of the Congo district was organized into a 
 Congo kingdom, with Leopold II as sovereign. 
 
 All these European expansions are full of deep significance 
 for the future. Perhaps the world will again see the rise of 
 more colonial empires resembling that of the English. But 
 it must be carefully remembered that although many seem to 
 l)e in the race, there are only a few nations that are possessed 
 of the peculiar qualities necessary for the formation of a great 
 colonial empire. 
 
 749. The Principle of Arbitration. — Another conspicuous 
 element in international politics is the principle of arbitration, 
 in 1898. at the initiative of the Russian minister for foreign 
 affairs, a general conference was held at the Hague, for the 
 purpose of limiting the excessive armament of the different 
 nations and for the purpose of establishing a permanent tribu- 
 nal for the peaceful adjudication of disputes. It cannot be 
 said that in practice its success has been very complete. But 
 the attempt marks the growing acceptance of the principle 
 of arbitration, and may be taken as an evident sign of the 
 increased solidarity of the nations of the world. 
 
 750. Economic Changes. — Besides these political features 
 of the nineteenth century, we must nf)t fail to observe tlie 
 remarkable progress that has been made in economic and 
 social conditions. 
 
 Owing to the increased means of communication after the 
 invention of the railway engines, and the use of steam in 
 propelling ships, the markets of the world ha\'e become con- 
 siderably widened. Merchants have now to consider not only 
 the demands of consumers in their own country, but of those 
 who live in the most distant parts of the world. Together 
 with increased facilities of transportation there are also 
 numerous inventions that multiply indefinitely the production 
 
500 TYPICAL FEATURES OF THE XIX CENTURY 
 
 of goods. The flying shuttle, invented by Kay in 1753, the 
 water- frame by Arkwright in 1767. the spinning jenny by 
 Hargraves in 1770, and the mule by Crompton in 1779, all 
 these have indefinitely increased the speed of the output and 
 have worked a revolution in the world of labor and industrial 
 competition. 
 
 751. The Factory System. — One of the most important 
 results has been the substitution of the factory system for the 
 domestic system. Hitherto, goods were wrought by single 
 workmen or by small groups of workmen. The goods were 
 hand-made and many of them went through all the different 
 processes of manufacture under the same hands. There was 
 also a close relationship existing between the employer and 
 his men. 
 
 All this was changed by the new and powerful inventions 
 that revolutionized the production and transit of goods. The 
 factory system came into existence with its hundreds and its 
 thousands working under a hierarchy of trained officials. 
 The old personal relations between employer and employee 
 could exist no longer; everything had now to be run on the 
 lines of strict business. From henceforth the same piece 
 of goods is under the manipulation not of one man only but 
 of several, each process in the manufacture being carried out 
 in its own special department. 
 
 Such a system has its merits and its demerits. It is not 
 nowadays that we find works of art that have the stamp of 
 individual genius. Things made by machinery cannot possi- 
 bly acquire that finish and that individuality of expression that 
 is the result of one man doing the whole work. But as a 
 compensation, the conveniences of life are multiplied a hun- 
 dred-fold. With small cost, the average man can command 
 what in former times would have been deemed unattainable 
 luxuries. 
 
BANKING SYSTEM 501 
 
 752. Trade Unions. — The factory system has been fol- 
 lowed indirectly by another very great change in the industrial 
 word and that is combinations of labor trade unions. Even 
 before the factory system, there had been combinations of 
 wage earners, but with the new complex system of labor they 
 increased rapidly. The main object of these unions is to 
 obtain fair wages and reasonable hours of work. No doubt, 
 much could be said regarding the rash acts, the unnecessary 
 strikes, and the interference with the rights of non-union 
 laborers. In the main, however, they have done much good. 
 This is especially the case in some countries, where the affairs 
 of the unions are regulated by a central committee of sagacious 
 and experienced men. Hasty and unnecessary strikes are 
 not so likely to occur and there is less opportunity for the 
 display of local passion. It must also be admitted that owing 
 to the unions, wages have been raised and that the laboring 
 classes have acquired greater comfort and leisure. 
 
 753. The Banking System. — Another consequence of the 
 industrial revolution has been the perfecting of the banking 
 system. Nothing can be done without capital, and it is by 
 means of banks that capital is accumulated and readily dis- 
 tributed where it is immediately required. The Bank af 
 England, founded during the reign of William III, Is the 
 most important establishment of its kind in the world. It is 
 the place of deposit not only for individual customers, but 
 also for the provincial banks of England and even for a great 
 part of the European banks. The national banks of other 
 countries hold their capital more evenly distributed and though 
 the risk of insolvency is smaller the capital is not so easily 
 and readily obtained. In America, the two chief classes of 
 banks are the national banks and the state banks ; the chief 
 difference between the two consisting in this, that the state 
 banks cannot issue circulating notes. 
 
502 TYPICAL FEATURES OF THE XIX CENTURY 
 
 The banking system plays a most important part in the 
 industrial world. Not only is capital deposited and ready 
 at hand, but it facilitates the exchange of goods and accom- 
 panies every movement in manufacture and in trade. 
 
 The material well-being of society has been benefited, not 
 only by the industrial revolution, but also by the great strides 
 that have been taken in works of philanthropy. 
 
 754. The Care of its Poor. — In most countries, the poor 
 are now taken care of in a wise and systematic way. Vaga- 
 bondage and loafing are sternly repressed ; while every help 
 is given to those who are poor through misfortune or acci- 
 dent or old age. In some countries like New Zealand, there 
 had already been started a system of caring for the aged and 
 with conspicuous success. Even such difficult questions as 
 finding work for the unemployed are receiving attention ; but 
 in overcrowded places like London, the problem as yet pre- 
 sents insuperable difficulties. Such expedients, however, as 
 emigration and labor colonies tend to mitigate the evils that 
 result from overcrowding and from too keen competition. 
 
 755. Care of Criminals. — Even the criminal classes are 
 now attracting the benevolent attention of society. The sum- 
 mary executions and brutal methods in vogue some fifty 
 years ago, which only drove to desperation and hardened 
 the criminal, are done away with. There is now some just 
 proportion between the crime and the offence. And not only 
 is the prison regime calculated to reform the prisoner, but 
 when the term of imprisonment is over, there are willing hands 
 who will keep the ex-convict from his former bad surround- 
 ings and put him in the way of earning an honest livelihood. 
 
 756. Discoveries in Science and Medicine. — Much also 
 might be said of the discoveries in science that have contribu- 
 
PROGRESS IN RELIGION 503 
 
 ted to the health and longevity of man. Especially in biology 
 and medicine, modern researches have been fraught with the 
 most momentous results. The discovery of bacteria, as the 
 causes of disease, has revolutionized the whole system of 
 healing. Not only have such diseases as diphtheria, cancer, 
 typhoid, and consumption become curable under the new 
 methods, but by the antiseptic treatment the most difficult 
 operations can be performed without danger of blood poison- 
 ing. 
 
 Another important advance in medical science was made by 
 the discovery of anesthetics, such as chloroform and ether; 
 not only has much pain been thereby saved, but many lives 
 have been preserved that would otherwise have succumbed 
 to the violence of the shock. 
 
 757. Progress in Religion. — After a rapid survey of the 
 industrial and material progress of the last century, one might 
 be tempted to ask whether a like progress has been shown in 
 the more important sphere of religion and morality. There is 
 no doubt that keen competition and abundance of material com- 
 fort are not very conducive to the austere practice of religion, 
 and that the meditative lives and severe penances of the middle 
 ages are rare. But every nation and every age has its own 
 peculiar type of sanctity. And in our modern times, the 
 spirit of philanthropy and charity and a zeal for the well 
 being of the whole community are very conspicuous. At the 
 same time, there is a great improvement among the broad 
 masses of the community, greater enlightenment, a wider 
 view, and above all. a greater power of self-restraint. This 
 last quality is a special feature of the American democracy 
 and is a most sure guarantee for a prosperous future. 
 
 Also the spirit of toleration is everywhere dominant. The 
 obstacles of violence and persecution are removed, and the 
 truth is allowed to appeal directly to the minds and con- 
 sciences of men. " The truth is great and will prevail." 
 
INDEXES 
 
INDEX TO CHURCH HISTORY 
 
 Origin of the names Province and 
 
 Diocese, 5. 
 Persecution of Christians under 
 
 Diocletian, 6, 7. 
 Christian policy of Constantine, 7- 
 
 9. 
 
 Council of Nicea, 8, 9. 
 Persecution of orthodox Christians 
 
 by Vandals in Africa, 16. 
 Repulse of the Huns by Leo I, ig. 
 Persecution of orthodox Christians 
 
 by Theodoric, 23. 
 Effects of Clovis' conversion on the 
 
 Church, 25, 26. 
 Gregory the Great and Western 
 
 Alonasticism, 32. 
 .Mohammedans, 39, 49. 
 Leonine Walls, 47. 
 King Dagobert and the Church. 51. 
 Conversion of the Germans, 52. 
 Beginning of Temporal Pov^'er of 
 
 the Pop^es, 53. 
 Separation of Latin and Greek 
 
 churches, 54. 
 Coronation ol Charlemagne, 55. 
 Church and State in Holy Roman 
 
 Empire. 57. 
 Ecclesiastical learning, 58. 
 Conversion of England, 60. 
 The Canons, 63. 
 Benedictines, 64. 
 
 The Church and Feudalism, 75, 76. 
 Cluniac Reform, 78-81. 
 Church and State in France, 84. 
 Germany and Papal Elections, 96, 
 
 102. 
 Alliance between the Papacy and 
 
 the Normans, 103. 
 Reform in the method of Papal 
 
 elections, T04. 
 Investiture Contest, 105-110. 
 Organization of church in Eng- 
 land, III. 
 
 Contest between Empire and Pa- 
 pacy continued, 1 14-126. 
 Cistercians, 114, 115. 
 Carthusians, 116. 
 The Canons, 116. 
 Innocent HI, 121-125. 
 Honorius HI and Frederick H, 
 
 124-125. 
 Henry II of England and the 
 
 church, 127. 
 Crusades, 136-144. 
 Schools of Theology, 154. 
 Canon 'Law, 153. 
 Friars and Universities, 155. 
 Franciscans. 157-160. 
 Dominicans, 160-163. 
 Scholasticism, 161. 
 Albigenses, 169. 
 Friction between Church and State 
 
 in France in fsth Century, 176- 
 
 ^79. 
 Clerical representation in English 
 
 Parliament, 180. 
 Joan of Arc, 187. 
 John Huss and fourth Council of 
 
 Constance, 196. 
 William Wycliff. 198, 199. 
 Renaissance and Relision. 208-210. 
 Sacred Art during Renaissance, 215- 
 
 22y. 
 Savonarola, 244, 245. 
 Popes of Renaissance Period, 246- 
 
 250. 
 Conciliar Movement. 246^24^. 
 Inquisition in Spain, 254, 255. 
 Julius II, 272. 
 
 Leo X and Francis I concordat, 276. 
 Reformation, 290-307. 
 Catholic Reformation, 310-320. 
 Ecclesiastical element in Revolt of 
 
 Netherlands, 325. 
 Religious element in 30 years War, 
 
 332, 335, 339. 34^ 
 
5o8 
 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 347, 
 
 348: 
 
 Religious element in struggles be- 
 tween the Stuart Kings and the 
 English People, 356, 357^^ 
 
 Religious Policy of Louis XIV, 369- 
 
 371- 
 Tendency of the Stuart Kings to 
 
 the Catholic Church, 380, 381. 
 Russian Church under Peter the 
 
 Great, 406. 
 
 INDEX TO CHURCH HISTORY 
 
 Religious Causes of French Revolu- 
 tion, 417, 418. 
 
 Assignats and Civil Constitution of 
 the Clergy, 423, 424. 
 
 Religious Reforms of Napoleon, 438. 
 
 Captivity of Pius VII, 443. 
 
 Unification of Italy versus the 
 Papacy, 457-463- 
 
 Penal laws in Ireland and Catholic 
 Emancipation, 465, 466. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Aachen, 26, 58, 83, 58, 92. 
 
 Abassides, 45. 
 
 Abelard, Peter, 154. 
 
 Abu Beker, 42. 
 
 Aethelric, 60. 
 
 Actius, 18, 24. 
 
 Africa, 5, 261, 472. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of, 389, 
 
 Alexander II of Russia, 492. 
 
 Agincourt, battle of, 187, 191. 
 
 Alaric, 15. 
 
 Alberoni, 390. 
 
 Albertus Magnus, 161. 
 
 Albigenses, 122, 160. 
 
 Albizzi, the, 242. 
 
 Albrecht, I, 193. 
 
 Albrecht II, 193. 
 
 Alcuin, 58. 
 
 Alemanni, 25. 
 
 Alessandria, 119. 
 
 Alexander IT, Pope, 80. 
 
 Alexander III, 119. 
 
 Alexander VII, 250. 
 
 Alexandria, 43. 
 
 Alexius, 143, 137, 142. 
 
 Alfonso, 252. 
 
 Alfred the Great, 69. 
 
 Algebra, 48. 
 
 Algiers, 286. 
 
 Ali, 44. 
 
 Alphonse of Castile, 192. 
 
 Alsace, 454. 
 
 Alva, Duke of, 325-326. 
 
 Amadeus, 486. 
 
 Amherst, 398. 
 
 America, 262. 
 
 Anastasius, 25. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, 60. 
 
 Aniane, St. Benedict of, 78. 
 
 Anjou, Ren6 of, 85. 
 
 Anselm, 112, 131. 
 
 Antioch, 42, 40, 138, 139. 
 
 Antoninus, 6. 
 
 Appanages, 170. 
 
 Aquitaine, 84, 127, ibp, 86. 
 
 i7i- 
 
 Arabia, 38. 
 
 Aragon, 253. 
 
 Arbitration, 499. 
 
 Armies, 261. 
 
 Architecture, 58, 89, 171, 220. 
 
 Arians, 14, 2^. 
 
 Aristotle, 48. 
 
 Aries, 66, loi, 284. 
 
 Armada, Spanish, 329. 
 
 Armagnacs, 187. 
 
 Arnold of Brescia, 155. 
 
 Arnulf, 87. 
 
 Arthur of Brittany, 168. 
 
 Artillery, 266. 
 
 Aryans, 85, 127, 168. 
 
 Assignats, 423. 
 
 Athens, University of, 27, 29. 
 
 Attila, 17. 
 
 Ausburg, treaty of, 92, 298, 299. 
 
 Augustus, Philip, 167, 168. 
 
 Augusti, 5. 
 
 Austria, 279, 487, 489. 
 
 Australia, 472. 
 
 B 
 
 Balance of Power, 496. 
 
 Banks, 501. 
 
 Barleymont, 324. 
 
 Barnabites, 316. 
 
 Basel, Council of, 247, 
 
 Bartholomew, St., Massacre of, 346. 
 
 Bavaria, 192, 338. 
 
 Bedford. Duke of, 187. 
 
 Belgium, 481, 482. 
 
 Benedict II, pope, 177. 
 
 Benedictines, 64. 
 
 Benevento, 32. 
 
 Berengar, 93. 
 
 Bergamo, 273. 
 
 Berlin Congress, 493. 
 
 Berlin Decrees, 451. 
 
 Berthold of Mainz, 236. 
 
 Besangon, 93. 
 
 Bethlehem, 125. 
 
 Bible, 291. 
 
 509 
 
5IO INDEX 
 
 Bismarck, io8. 
 
 Black Prince, 185. 
 
 Blois, Count of, 86. 
 
 Boers, 76. 
 
 Boethiiis, 22, 69. 
 
 Bohemia, 192, 333. 
 
 Bohemond, 138. 
 
 Boleyn, Anne, 302. 
 
 Bologna, University of, 153 ; Con- 
 cordat of, 286. 
 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 430, 432, 436, 
 448. 
 
 Boniface, VIII, pope, 152. 
 
 Boniface, Count of Montferrat, 141. 
 
 Book of Common Prayer, 380. 
 
 Bordeaux, 186. 
 
 Borgia, Caesar, 271. 
 
 Borromeo, 316. 
 
 Bossuet, 372. 
 
 Bouvines, battle of, 176. 
 
 Bracton (lawyer), 200. 
 
 Bramante, 223. 
 
 Brandenburg, 91, 192. 
 
 Breitenfeld, 337. 
 
 Bremen, 55. 
 
 Brenner Pass, 94. 
 
 Bretigny, treaty of, 186. 
 
 Breviary, Roman, 312. 
 
 Britain, 60. 
 
 Brittany, 84, 85. 
 
 Brescia, 273. 
 
 Bruges, 85. 
 
 Brunelleschi, 223. 
 
 Bruno, St., 96, 116. 
 
 Brunswick, 120. 
 
 Buckingham, 355. 
 
 Bundesrath, 452. 
 
 Burgoyne, 433. 
 
 Burgundy, 14, 83, 171, 181 ; Duchy 
 of, 66, 86. 
 
 Byzantine Art, 9, 31. 
 
 Byzantium, 8. 
 
 Caaba, 40. 
 
 Cairo, 45. 
 
 Calais, 190. 
 
 Calcutta, 399. 
 
 Calendar, Gregorian, 332. 
 
 Caliphs, 45. 
 
 Caliphate of the West, 45. 
 
 Calixtus II, 109. 
 
 Calonne, 418. 
 
 Calvin, John, 200-301, 269, 370. 
 
 Calvinism, 352, 369. 
 
 Cambray, League of, 272, 274. 
 
 Cambridge, 210. 
 
 Campeggio, Cardinal, 302. 
 
 Canada, 397, 470. 
 
 Canals, 362, 397, 398. 
 
 Canonical life, 64. 
 
 Canons, 64, 116. 
 
 Canossa, castle of, 108. 
 
 Campo Formio, treaty of, 431, 437. 
 
 Cardinals, 104-105. 
 
 Carlists, 485-486. 
 
 Capet, Hugh, 84-87. 
 
 Capetian Dynasty, 165. 
 
 Carlovingian Empire, 64, 83. 
 
 Carnot, 428. 
 
 Carthusians, 116. 
 
 Castelar, 486. 
 
 Cassiodorus, 22. 
 
 Castile, 253. 
 
 Castles, 75. 
 
 Castor, 4. 
 
 Catherine II, Czarina of Russia, 
 
 408. 
 Catharites, 169. 
 Cavalry, y6. 
 Cavour, 458. 
 Ceylon, 447. 
 Chalons, battle of, 17. 
 Chalcondyles, 209. 
 Champagne, 86. 
 Charles Albert, 458. 
 Charles Felix, 457. 
 Charles V, Ger. Emp., 279, 287, 321. 
 Charlemagne, 54, 55, 56, 59. 
 Charles, Count of Anjou, 170. 
 Charles I, King of England, 355, 
 
 358; II, 360. 379, 380. 
 Charles VI of Austria, 386. 
 Charles V of France, 186; VI, 187; 
 
 VII, 188, 229; VIII, 232, 269-270; 
 
 IX, 346; XII, 407. 
 Charles IV of Luxemburg, 193- 
 
 194- 
 
 Charles Martel, 46, 52. 
 
 Charles XII of Sweden, 407. 
 
 Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, 231. 
 
 Charles the Fat, 83. 
 
 Chevalier, 229. 
 
 Childeric, 53. 
 
 Chlotilda, 25. 
 
 Choiseul, Etienne F., 453. 
 
 Christianity, 7. 
 
 Christian iV of Denmark, 334. 
 
 Christians, 6. 
 
 Chrodegang of Metz, 63, 116. 
 
 Church, 97. 
 
 Cicero, 207. 
 
 Cilicia, 28. 
 
INDEX 
 
 511 
 
 Cirtella, battle of, 104. 
 
 Cisalpine Republic, 431. 
 
 Cistercians, 114-115. 
 
 Cistercian Wool, 115. 
 
 Citeaux, 114. 
 
 Civil Constitution of clergy in 
 France, 423. 
 
 Clairvaux, 115. 
 
 Claudian, Emp., i. 
 
 Clement II, pope, 103; V, 177; VII, 
 246, 283. 
 
 Clermont, council of, log. 
 
 Clive, Robert, Lord, Conquest of 
 India, 399. 400. 
 
 Clovis, 24-26. 
 
 Cluniac Reform, 78-81. 
 
 Cluny, 81, Customs of, 78. 
 
 Cnut the Great. 89. 
 -Code Napoleon, 438. 
 
 Cceur Jaques, 229. 
 
 Coke, 343. 
 
 Colbert, Jean B., 306. 
 
 Colet, John, 210. 
 
 Coligny, Admiral, 346. 
 
 Cologne, 93, loi, 119,- 149, 192. 
 
 Colonies, 361, 396-401, 470-474. 
 
 Colonies, North American, govern- 
 ment of, 432. 
 
 Columbus. Christopher, 262. 
 
 Committee of Public Safety, 428. 
 
 Conciliar Movement, 246. 
 
 Concordat of Worms, 109. 
 
 Conrad I, of Germanv, 88; II, 98; 
 III, 139. 
 
 Consolations of Philosophy, 69. 
 
 Constance, 196; treaty of, 119. 
 
 Constantine the Great, 7. 
 
 Constantinople, 8, 2y, 209. 
 
 Conventuals, 159. 
 
 ^Topts, 147, 151. 
 
 Cordova, 45, 97 ; University, 96 : 
 
 Corporation Act, 380. 
 
 Cortez, Spanish, 2=;4, 323. 
 
 Courtrai, battle of, 347. 
 
 Cosel, battle of, 335. 
 
 Councils of Constance, 196, 246. 
 
 Councils, provincial, 247. 
 
 Courts, 173, 180. 
 
 Cranmer, .Archbishop, 205. 
 
 Crecy, battle of, 184, 185, 191. 
 
 Crescentius, 95. 
 
 Crespy, 281, 286. 
 
 Crimean War, 459, 491. 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver, 358-360; Rich- 
 ard, 360; Thomas, 293-303. 
 
 Crozier, 106, 109. 
 
 Crusades, 134, 136, 140-144. 
 
 Cyprus. 144, 473- 
 
 Customs Union in Germany, 450. 
 
 D 
 
 Dagobert, 51, 52. 
 
 Dandolo, 141. 
 
 Danelagh, 69. 
 
 Danes, 67, 69, 83, 87-88. ' ' 
 
 Dante, 174, 209, 212, 213. 
 
 Danton, 427. 
 
 Daun, General, 395. 
 
 Declaration of Independence, 433. 
 
 Declaration of Indulgence, 381. 
 
 Demetrius Chalcondyles, 209. 
 
 Denmark, 149, 334. 
 
 Diaz, Bartholomew, 262. 
 
 Dijon, 114. 
 
 Diocletian, 5-7. 
 
 Diplomacy, 263, 264. 
 
 Directory, 430. 
 
 Dominican.s, 160-162. 
 
 Donatello, 225. 
 
 Don Carlos, 485. 
 
 Donnauworth, 2:^2. 
 
 Doria, Admiral, 287. 
 
 Dover, Treaty of, 379. 
 
 Dunstan, Archbishop, 81. 
 
 Durham, Lord, 430. 
 
 Ealdred, Archbishop, no. 
 
 East Anglia, 89. 
 
 East India Company, 471. 
 
 Eberhard, 235. 
 
 Ecke, Dr., 296. 
 
 Edessa, 139. 
 
 Edgar, king, 81. 
 
 Educational reform, 467. 
 
 Edward, the Confessor, 99, 180. 
 
 Edward I of England, 180-183; II. 
 
 197; III, 184, 197; IV, 203; VI, 
 
 306. 
 Edwin, 60. 
 Egbert, 60. 
 Egmont, Count, 324. 
 Egypt, 5, 473- 
 Elias of Cortona, 159. 
 Elinor of Aquitaine, 127, 168. 
 Elizabeth, queen of Eng., 306. 
 Elizabeth of Russia, 396. 
 Emancipation, Catholic, 466. 
 Endicott, John, 361. 
 England, 357. v 
 Erasmus, 210. 
 
;i2 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Este, Elizabeth, 208. 
 Ethelbert, 35. 
 Eugenius, IV, pope, 248. 
 
 Factories, 500. 
 
 Farnese, 327. 
 
 Fatimites, 45. 
 
 Fealty. 73. 
 
 Ferdinand the Catholic, 236. 
 
 Ferdinand of Naples, 253. 
 
 Ferdinand VII of Spain, 483. 
 
 Ferrara, 53. 
 
 Feudalism, 72, 78, 82, 100, 180. 
 
 Fisher, Bishop, 210. 
 
 Flanders, 85. 184, 354. 
 
 Fleury, Cardinal, 390. 
 
 Flodden field, 277. 
 
 Florence, 209, 238, 241-245, 243, 
 
 269. 
 Fontenoy, battle of, 392. 
 Fornovo, battle of, 271. 
 Fortescue, 220. 
 Fouquet, 364. 
 France, 83, 165, 182, 476. 
 Francis I of France, 275-276 ; II, 
 
 346. 
 Franciscans, 88, 157, 159. 
 Franco-German \\ ar, 479. 
 Franconia, 24, 192. 
 Frankfort. 24: treaty of, 454. 
 Frankish Empire, 26. 
 Franks, 24. 
 Free Town, 146. 
 Free Trade, 415. 
 Frederick Barbarossa, 1 17-120. 
 Frederick I, Ger. Emp., 117; II, 
 
 122, 127, 143; III. 234. 
 Frederick, Elector Pal., 333. 
 Friars, 122, 155, 162. 
 Fulk of Neuilly. 141. 
 Frederick II of Prussia, 394-401. 
 
 G 
 Garibaldi, 400. 
 Gascony, 87, 183, 184. 
 Gaul, 5. 
 
 Geneva, 299-301. 
 Genseric, 16. 
 Genoa, 145. 
 Geoffrey, 141. 
 
 George I of Eng., 391 ; III, 432. 
 Gerbert, 96. 
 
 Germans, 2. 10, 12, 14, 73. 
 German diet, 233. 
 German Confederations, 452. 
 Germany, 83. 
 
 Gero, 95. 
 
 Gerson, 291. 
 
 Ghent, 85. 
 
 Ghibellines, I18. 
 
 Girondists, 425. 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, 136. 
 
 Golden Bull, 194. 
 
 Godwin, Earl, 98, 99. 
 
 Goths, 12. 
 
 Granada, 253. 
 
 Grand Remonstrance. 357. 
 
 Grand Alliance, 378. 
 
 Granson, battle of, 232. 
 
 Granvella, Cardinal, 324. 
 
 Gratian, 152. 
 
 Great Charter, 131. 
 
 Greece, 15, 490. 
 
 Greek, study of, 207, 209, 210. 
 
 Greenland, 68. 
 
 Gregory the Great, 32, 36 ; V, 96 ; 
 
 VII, 106, 109; IX, 159; XI, 246. 
 Gregory XIII, 312. 
 Grey Friars, 159. 
 Grocvn, 210. 
 Guelf, 118. 
 Guibert, Archbishop of Ravenna, 
 
 108. 
 Guienne, 87, 183. 
 Guiscard, Robert, 108. 
 Gustavus Adolphus, 336, 337. 
 
 H 
 
 Hadrian, 6. 
 
 Halberstadt, ^^S- 
 
 Halle University, 385. 
 
 Hamburg. 9^;. 149. 
 
 Hampton Court. 356. 
 
 Hanseatic League, 149. 
 
 Hapsburg, house of, 192. 
 
 Harfleur, 187. 
 
 Harold II, 99. 
 
 Haroun-al-Raschid. 45. 
 
 Hastings, battle of, no. 
 
 Hegira, 39. 
 
 Henrietta, 342. 
 
 Henrv III of England. 
 
 Henry I of Germany, 88; II. 98, 
 
 127; HI, 101-104; IV, 106; V, 
 
 109; VI, 120. 
 Henry III of En<^land. 
 Henry V of England, 187, 201. 
 Henry IV of France. 348. 
 Henry the Fowler, 88, 91. 
 Henry the Lion, 120, 134. 
 Heraldry, 146. 
 Holy Land, 43, 137. 
 
INDEX 
 
 513 
 
 Holy Roman Empire, 25, 55. 
 
 Homage, 273. 
 
 Hohenstaufen, 120. 
 
 Hohenlinden, battle of, 437. 
 
 Hohenzollern, 192. 
 
 Honorius H, pope, 169; HI, 124. 
 
 Horn. Count, 324. 
 
 Hospitallers, 124. 
 
 Hugh Capet, 84. 
 
 Hugh, Count of Vermandois, 324. 
 
 Hugh du Puiset. 166. 
 
 Huguenots, 301. 
 
 Hundred Years' War, 193, 204. 
 
 Hungarians, 67. 
 
 Huns, 17, 18. 
 
 Huss, John, 196. 
 
 I 
 
 Iceland, 68. 
 
 Ignatius Loyola, 313. 
 
 Illyria, 5. 
 
 Images. 318. 
 
 Imperial Succession, 52, 79. 
 
 India. 43, 398, 400, 471. 
 
 Indulgences, 294, 318. 
 
 Innocent III, pope, 121, 123, 169, 
 
 250; VIII, pope, 250. 
 Inquisition, 254-255. 
 Institutes of Justinian, 30. 
 International Congress, 483. 
 Investiture Question, loi, 113, 176. 
 Ionian Islands, 447. 
 Ireland, 465. 
 Irnerius, 153. 
 Isaac Angelus, 141. 
 Isabella of Brienne, 125 
 Istria, 273. 
 Italy, 83, 141. 456. 
 Ivan I, 404. 
 
 J 
 
 Jacobins, 415. 
 
 Jamaica, 359, 397. 
 
 James I, of England. 312; II, 381. 
 
 James V, of Scotland, 287. 
 
 Jean du Vergier, 370. 
 
 Jerusalem, 43, 125, 138. 
 
 Jesuits, 313. 
 
 Joan of Arc, 187, 188. 
 
 Joanna, Queen, 236. 
 
 John, Don, of Austria, 327. 
 
 John of Cappadocia, 28. 
 
 John of England, 131. 
 
 John XII, pope; XXII, pope, 246. 
 
 Julian, Count, 43. 
 
 Julius II, pope, 271, 274; III, pope, 
 
 :i77- 
 
 Jourdan, 428. 
 
 Jury system, 128. 
 Jus Gentium, 30. 
 Justin, 23. 
 Justinian, 9, 26, 46 150. 
 
 K 
 Kadijah, 39. 
 
 Katharine of Aragon, 302. 
 Kent, 35. 
 
 Knighthood, Schools of, 151. 
 Knights' War, 297. 
 Kolin, 395. 
 Koran, 39. 
 
 L 
 
 Labat, 418. 
 
 Laissez faire doctrine, 415. 
 
 Lan franc, 131. 
 
 Langton, Archbishop, 131. 
 
 Langue d'oc, 86. 
 
 Langue d'oui, 86. 
 
 Lascares, John, 243. 
 
 Lateran Council, 122, 128. 
 
 Latin hymns, 58. 
 
 Latin literature, 36. 
 
 Laud, William, 357. 
 
 Laurentian Library, 243. 
 
 Lautrec, General, 281, 283. 
 
 La Vendee, 428. 
 
 Lawrence, Sir Henry, 471. 
 
 Legislative Assembly, 425. 
 
 Legnano, 119. 
 
 Leipsic, 444. 
 
 Le Mans, 86. 
 
 Leo, popes by that name, I, 19; 
 
 III, 55; IV, 47; IX, 103, 104. 
 
 108; X, 275. 
 Leonine city, 47. 
 Lepanto, battle of, 311. 
 Leuthen, battle of, 395. 
 Libraries, 405. 
 Linacre, 210. 
 Livonia. 336, 408. 
 Lollardy, 197, 199. 
 Lombard league, 119. 
 Lombards, 32, 35. 
 London. 81, no. 
 London company, 360. 
 Lorenzo the Magnificent, 209. 
 Lorraine, 83, 454, 27^. 
 Lothaire, 65, 93. 
 Louis the Pious, 6^,. 
 Louis VI. 166. 
 Louis, kings of France, VT, 166- 
 
 167; VII, 139; Vin, 169: IX, 
 
 172-174: XII, 271; XIII, 350; 
 
 XIV, 364-383. 
 
514 
 
 Louis, Count of Bloise, 141. 
 
 Louis, the Child, 87. 
 
 Louis Philippe, 477. 
 
 Louis Napoleon, 478- 
 
 Louvois, 368. 
 
 Louvre, 368. 
 
 Lower Lorraine, 66. 
 
 Liibeck, 149. 
 
 Lupus, bishop, 18. 
 
 Luther, Martin, 293-297. 
 
 Lutzen, 338. 
 
 Luxemburg, duchy of. 194. 354. 
 
 Lydia, 28. 
 
 M 
 Machiavelli, 303. 
 Madrid, 48; treaty of, 282. 
 Magdeburg, 93, 94. 
 Magenta, battle of, 460. 
 Maine, 85, 129, 168. 
 Mainz, 58, 93. 192, 236. 
 Malplaquet, battle of, 378. 
 Malta, 144, 473, 447- 
 Mantua, 18. 
 Marat, 427. 
 
 Marengo, battle of, 436, 437. 
 Margaret of Parma, 324. 
 Maria Theresa of Austria, 354, 373, 
 
 387, 389. 
 Marie Antoinette, 429. 
 Marignano, battle of, 279. 
 Marius, 13. 
 Markgrafs, 57. 
 
 Marlborough, Duke of, 378-379- 
 Mars, 3. 
 
 Marseilles, city, 282, 284. 349. 
 Marston Moor, battle of, 358. 
 Martin V, pope, 246. 
 Mary of Burgundy, 236-237. 
 Mary, 305. 
 
 Mary, queen of Scots, 306, 328. 
 Massachusetts, 361. 
 Mathias, Emperor, 333. 
 Matilda, daughter of Henry I. 112. 
 Matilda, Countess, 107, 108. 152. 
 Maximilian, Emperor, 235, 237, 
 
 279, 334- 
 Mayors of the palace, 52. 
 Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal, 334. 364- 
 Mazzini, 457. 
 Mecca, 39. 
 Mechlin, 483. 
 Medici family, 242-244. 
 Medicine-, 502. 
 Medina, 39. 
 
 Melbourne, 472. '■ 
 
 Mercia, kingdom of, 60, 88. 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Mercury. 4. 
 Merovic, 24. 
 
 Merovingian dynasty, 26. 
 INIetz, 298. 
 
 Michael Angelo, 223-226. 
 Milan, 238, 239, 270, 271, 281. 
 Minden, 396. 
 
 Milan, archbishop of, 18, 118. 
 Mirabeau, Count, 424. 
 Missi dominici, 92. 
 Modern History, 2C0. 
 Mohammed, 39-42. 
 Mohammedan Culture, 47. 
 Mohammedan Religion, 41. 
 Monasticism, 32, 72, 82. 
 Monk, General, 360. 
 Monte I'Lery, 230. 
 Montenegro, ^03. 
 Montesquieu, 413. 
 Morat, battle of, 232. 
 Moravia, 194. 
 
 More, Sir Thomas, 210, 304. 
 Moreau, General, 430. 
 Morgarten, battle of. 196. 
 Morosini, T. 142. 
 Mosque of Omar, 43. 
 Mountain, the, 427. 
 Munster, 55. 
 Murat, General, 442. 
 Mutiny Act, 382. 
 
 N 
 
 Nancy. 232. 
 
 Nantz, Edict of, 348. 
 
 Napier, Sir Charles, 471. 
 
 Naples, 28, 238, 251-253, 270, 279. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, 430; HI, 454. 
 
 Napoleon Code, 438. 
 
 Napoleonic Wars, 448. 
 
 Narbonne, 87. 
 
 Narses, 27. 
 
 Naseby, battle of, 358. 
 
 Natal, 473. 
 
 National Assembly, 420. 
 
 National guard of Paris, 421. 
 
 Navarre, 83, 280. 
 
 Nazareth, 125. 
 
 Necker, 415, 419. 
 
 Nero, 4. 
 
 Netherlands, 236. 279, 321, 322, 329, 
 
 330. . 
 Neustria, 26, 52. 
 Neuville, 418. 
 New World, 279. 
 Nicsea, 138; council of, 8. 
 Nice, 285. 
 
INDEX 
 
 515 
 
 Nicene Creed, 14. 
 
 Nicholas I, Czar, 490, 492: II, 493. 
 
 Nicholas, pope, II, 104; V, 248. 
 
 Nile, battle of, 431. 
 
 Nobles in France, 230. 
 
 Nobles, flight of, 424. 
 
 Norbert, St., 117, 155. 
 
 Nordlinger, battle of, 339. 
 
 Normans, 67, 85 ; in Italy, 103-104. 
 
 Normandy, 85, 127, 187, 188. 
 
 North-German Confederation, 453. 
 
 Northmen, 68, 67. 
 
 Northumberland, 88, 89. 
 
 Northumbria, 60. 
 
 Notre Dame Cathedral, 167. 
 
 Novara, battle of, 458. 
 
 Nova Scotia, 30. 
 
 Norway, 67. 
 
 Nuremburg, 388. 
 
 Nymeguen, 58. 
 
 Nystadt, treaty of, 407. 
 
 O 
 
 Ockham, William, 161. 
 
 O'Connell, Daniel, 466. 
 
 Odoacer, 16, 21. 
 
 Odo, St., 80. 
 
 Offa, 56, 60. 
 
 Omar, 43, 44. 
 
 Ommiades, 45. 
 
 Oratorians, 316. 
 
 Ordeal, 129. 
 
 Orsini, 118. 
 
 Orthez, 443. 
 
 Osnabriick, 55. 
 
 Ostrogoths, 14, 17, 28. 
 
 Oswald, 60. 
 
 Oswi, 60. 
 
 Othman, 44. 
 
 Otto I, Ger. Emp., 91, 94; II, 94; 
 
 III, 96. 
 Otto of Brunswick, 122. 
 Otto of Wittelsbach, 120. 
 Ottocar of Bohemia, 193. 
 Oudinard, battle of, 378. 
 Ovid, 207. 
 
 Padua, 237. 
 
 Painting, Italian Schools of, 215- 
 
 219. 
 Palatinate, 192; War of, 375, 
 Palatium, 57. 
 Pampeluna, 281, 
 Pandecta, 30. 
 P.-ipnl State*. 53, 245. 
 
 Paraguay, 315. 
 
 Paris, treaty of, 396; 2d treaty of, 
 
 400-401 ; 4th treaty, 492. 
 Paris, 83, 153, 161, 230; University 
 
 of, 152-153- 
 Parliament of, 1295, 180; English, 
 
 342. 
 Parliamentary reform in England, 
 
 467; in France, 414. 
 Parsees, 43. 
 
 Party government in England, 383. 
 Pascal, Pope, 109. 
 Patarini, 169. 
 Patricius, 16. 
 I'aulinus, 35. 
 Paul the Deacon, 58. 
 Paul III, pope, 249; IV, 311. 
 Pavia, 18, 32. 
 Peasants' revolt, England, 191-198; 
 
 Germany, 297. 
 Pelagius, Pope, 34. 
 Penal laws in Ireland, 466-467. 
 Pen da, 60. 
 
 Peninsular War, 442. 
 Persians, 43. 
 Perugino, 217. 
 Peter Abelard, 154. 
 Peter of Pisa, 58. 
 Peter the Great, 403 ; III, 396. 
 Peter the Lombard, 155. 
 Peter the Venerable, 80. 
 Petition of Right, 355. 
 Petrarch, 212. 
 Philip Augustus, 167. 
 Philip, Duke of Anjou, 377. 
 Philip II of France, 172, 321, 330; 
 
 III, 175; IV, 177. 
 Philip II of Spain, 321-329. 
 Philip the Good, 190. 
 Philip of Suabia, 122. 
 Philo, 43. 
 
 Piacenza. council of, 136. 
 Pietro Delia Francesca, 216. 
 Pilgrimage of Grace, 304. 
 Pippin II, 52, 53. 
 Pisa, 14s, 222; council of. 246. 
 Pisani, 225. 
 Pitt the Younger, 433. 
 Pius, popes of that name, II, 249; 
 
 III, 249; V, 311, 312; VII, 443; 
 
 IX, 457-458. 
 
 Plantagenet, 201. 
 Poitiers, 184. 
 Poitou, 84, 87, 
 Poland, 97, 408-410, 
 Poor laws, 468, 
 Pole, Cardinal, 305, 
 
.^16 
 
 LWDEX 
 
 Pollentia, battle of, 15. 
 Ponierania, 385-39-. 446- 
 Pondicherry. 399- 
 Port Arthur. 408. 
 Portugal, 253. 48d. 
 Potsdam Guards, 385. 
 Poynings Act, 466. 
 Pragmatic Sanction, s^. 
 Prague, 104. 
 PreiFectures. 5. 
 Presbyterians, 301. 
 Pressburg. treaty of, 440. 
 Printing, 201. 
 Privy Council, 180. 
 Protestants, 301. 
 Provence, 83, 171, 371. 
 Pultowa. battle of, 407 
 Purgatory. 3x8. 
 Puritans, 30I-357- 
 Pyrenees, treaty of. 354. 
 
 Q 
 Quadruple Alliance, 391. 
 Quebec, battle of. 398. 
 Quesnel, 370. 
 
 Raleigh. Sir W., 36a 
 Ramadan. 41. 
 Ramillies. battle of. H^y^. 
 Raphael, 219. 
 
 Ravenna. 28. 53. Q6-Q7. 108. 274. 
 Raymond of Provence. 170. 
 Raymond of Toulouse. 138. 169. 
 Reformation. Catholic, 310-319; 
 
 Protestant. 289-3OQ. 
 Reign of Terror. 128. 
 Religious Orders, 313. 
 Remigius, St.. 25. 
 Renaissance, 206-228. 
 Requesens. 326. 
 Rheims, 25, 86. 
 Richard, English kings. I, 131 ; II, 
 
 197. 
 Richard, Duke of Cornwall, 192. 
 Richelieu. 340. 
 Robbia Lucca della. 226. 
 Robert of Molcme. 114. 
 Robert of Normandy, 136. 
 Roderick. 44. 
 Rohan. Cardinal, 418. 
 Romanoff. Michael, 403. 
 Roman Empire. 1-5. 
 Roman army. 3. 
 Roman education, 3. 
 Roman Senate, 9. 
 
 Rome, 283. 
 
 Roses, Wars of, 191, 201. 
 
 Rouen, 188. 
 
 Rudolph I, 193. 
 
 Rousseau, 413. 
 
 Russia, 403-410. 444. 490. 
 
 Russo-Turkish War, 492. 
 
 Ryswick, Treat}- of. S7^. 
 
 St. Albans. 202. 
 
 St. Alcuin, 60. 
 
 St. Anselm, 131. 
 
 St. Augustine. 15, 34, 116. 
 
 St. Bartholomew, Massacre of, 346 
 
 St. Benedict, 33-64. 
 
 St. Benedict of Aniane, 64. 
 
 St. Bernard. 114. 155. 
 
 St. Boniface. 35. 
 
 St. Cyprien. 2S. 
 
 St. Dominic. 160. 
 
 St. Francis. 157. 315; de Sales, 316. 
 
 St. Genevieve. 424. 
 
 St. Helena. t,qs. 
 
 St. John. Knights of. 264. 
 
 St. Clark's Church, 9; Convent, 216. 
 
 St. Norbert. ISS- 
 
 St. Odo, 80. 
 
 St. Peter. 19. 
 
 St. Petersburg, 406. 
 
 St. Philip Neri, 316. 
 
 St. Remigius. 25. 
 
 Salamanca. 442. 
 
 Salerno. 153. 
 
 Salian Emperors, loi. 
 
 Salzburg. 93. 
 
 San Germano. treaty of, 125. 
 
 San Sebastian. 443. 
 
 Saracens. 36, 137. 
 
 Sardinia. 390. 
 
 Savonarola. 244. 269. 
 
 Savoy. 284. 
 
 Saxony. 192. 
 
 Scandinavians, 12. 
 
 Schism, Great. 248. 
 
 Schleswig-Hol stein, 452. 
 
 Schmalkalde League of, 298. 
 
 Schola Palatina, 58. 
 
 Scholasticism. 161. 
 
 Schwyz. 195. 
 
 Scotland. 183. 
 
 Scott. Michael. 124. 
 
 Sculpture. 225-228. 
 
 Sedan, battle of, 454. 
 
 Seneca. 207. 
 
 Selling, W., 210. 
 
 Seven Years' War, 394. 
 
INDEX 
 
 SI7 
 
 Sforza Ludovico, 269; Francesco, 
 
 239- 
 
 Shakespeare, William, 211, 214. 
 
 Shetland, 25, 67. 
 
 Sicily, 251, 279- 
 
 Sickingen, Franz von, 297. 
 
 Sieyes, Abbe, 420. 
 
 Silesia, 194; Second War of, 389. 
 
 Simon dc Alontfort, 141, 169, 179. 
 
 Six Articles, 304, 250, 343. 
 
 Sixtiis IV, pope, 343; V, 313. 
 
 Slavs, 67, 95. 
 
 Sluys, battle of, 184. 
 
 Smith, Adam, 415. 
 
 Soissons, 25. 
 
 Solferino, battle of, 460. 
 
 Sorel, Agnes, 229. 
 
 South Sea Bubble, 391. 
 
 Spain, 253, 279. 
 
 Spanish Succession, War of, T,yy. 
 
 Spenser, 211, 214. 
 
 Spires, Edict of, 298. 
 
 Spoleto, 2)2. 
 
 Star chamber, 256. 
 
 States General of France, 420. 
 
 Steelyard, 149. 
 
 Stephen, 62,; Count of Blois, 136; 
 
 pope, 63. 
 Stephen, Harding St., 115. 
 Stilicho, 15. 
 Styria, 120. 
 
 Suabia, 192; league, 235. 
 Suevi, 215. 
 Suger, 168. 
 Sully, Duke of, 349. 
 Surrey, 214. 
 Sutri, Synod of, 112. 
 Switzerland, 67. 
 Sydney, 472. 
 
 Sylvester II, pope, 84, 96. 
 Syagrius, 25. 
 Symmachus, 2t,. 
 Syria, 5. 42, 139- 
 
 Tacitus, 13. 
 
 Taginffi, battle of, 28. 
 
 Talleyrand, 418, 453. 
 
 Tancred, 130, 136. 
 
 Taxation laws, 416. 
 
 Templars, 144. 
 
 Test Act, 380. 
 
 Teutonic Knights, 234 ; order, 195. 
 
 Tewkesbury, battle of, 202. 
 
 Theatines, 315. 
 
 Theobald, 141. 
 
 Theodebunda, 35. 
 
 Theodora, 27. 
 
 Theodoric, 17, 21. 
 
 Thcraunne, 277. 
 
 Theophano, 94. 
 
 Third Estate, 150, 175. 
 
 Thirty Years War, 331-345. 
 
 Thomas a Becket, St., 128. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas, St., 161. 
 
 ''"illy. 335- 
 
 Tilsit, 441. 
 
 Titian, 219. 
 
 Tories, 383. 
 
 Toul, 298. 
 
 Toulouse, 87. 
 
 Tourraine, 2y7. 
 
 Tournament, 75. 
 
 Tours, battle of, 46. 
 
 Towns, 149. 
 
 Trade guilds, 147. 
 
 Towton, battle of, 202. 
 
 Trade routes, change in, 264, 265. 
 
 Trafalgar, 140. 
 
 Treaty of Union, 327. 
 
 Trent, council of, 317. 
 
 Treves, 5. 
 
 I richinopoli, 399. 
 
 Trier, 93, 192. 
 
 Triple Alliance, 391. 
 
 Troyes, 18, 86; treaty of, 187. 
 
 Tudor dynasty, 256. 
 
 Turgot, 415, 418. 
 
 Turkestan, 46. 
 
 Turks, 46, 209, 311. 
 
 Tyrconnel, Earl of, 381. 
 
 Tyrol, 237- 
 
 U 
 
 Ugolino, Cardinal, 159. 
 
 Uniformity Act, 380. 
 
 United Provinces, 227. 
 
 Universities, 151, 152, 210, 212, 469. 
 
 Lnterwalden, 195. 
 
 Upper Lorraine, 66. 
 
 Urban II, pope, 156; IV, 246 
 
 Uri, 195. 
 
 Utrecht, 379. 391. 
 
 Utrecht, treaty of, 379. 
 
 Vandals, 12, 15, 16, 27-28 
 Vasco da Gama, 262. 
 Vassalage, 7:3. 
 Vatican, 47, 248. 
 Vauban, 368. 
 Venerable Bede, 60. 
 
5i« 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Venice, 95, 237, 239, 271. 
 
 Vercellae, battles of, 13. 
 
 Verden, 334. 
 
 Verdun, 55, 298 ; treaty of, 65. 
 
 Verona, battle of, 17. 
 
 Vespucius Americo, 262. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel, 457. 
 
 Vienna, 193, 387 ; Congress of, 445- 
 
 446. 
 Vighus, 324. 
 Villafranca, 460. 
 Vinci Leonardi da, 218. 
 Virgil, 207, 208. 
 Visconti, Galiazzo, 239. 
 Visigoths, 13. 14. 15. 35. 43- 
 Vittoria, battle of, 442. 
 Vivarini Antonio, Bartholomew, 
 
 218. 
 Voltaire, 408, 413. 
 
 W 
 Wakefield, battle of, 202. 
 Wallenstein, 335, 338. 
 Walpole, R., 391, 392. 
 War, Art of, 265. 
 War of the Knights, 297. 
 Warsaw, 446. 
 Warwick, Earl of, 305. 
 Waterloo, 445. 
 Wends, 95. 
 Wenzel, Emp., 194. 
 Wessex, 56, 60, 69, 88, 89. 
 
 Westphalia, treaty of, 340. 
 
 White Hills, battle of, m. 
 
 Whigs, 383; party, 392. 
 
 William I of England — ; III, 381. 
 
 William I, Emp. Ger., 451. 
 
 William, Duke of Aquitaine, 78. 
 
 William, Duke of Newberg, 332. 
 
 William of Orange, 324. 
 
 Willibroad, St., 52. 
 
 Winthrop, John, 361. 
 
 Wittenberg, 294. 
 
 Wittikind, 54. » 
 
 Wolfe, General, 398. 
 
 Wolsey, Cardinal, 277, 287, 302. 
 
 Worms, concordat of, 109, 119, 176. 
 
 Wulstan, St., no. 
 
 Wyatt, 214. 
 
 Wycliff, 196, 198, 199, 247. 
 
 X 
 
 Xavier, Francis St., 315. 
 Ximenes, Cardinal, 255. 
 
 Yorktown, battle of, 433. 
 
 Zeres, battle of, 44. 
 Zorndorf, battle of, 396. 
 Zoroastrianism, 43. 
 
 W 98 
 
 1 
 
 

 
 
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