III 11 I i i iiiiilii I illlill! ( ■ m |l„n i •illii^ f mm '"\\m LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 0DDDbS15t)TH Ml §M lii ^^i \M [[fnlffin!iii!!||| llii i im i'f i ^!n I lili|ii!P i i ! J' \^ - />^^% •• **"% O - . , o ■ ■• .«■ %.^^ 0^ •:.••' > v^ ..'•• *w* ^. / -"■v> .//^;:.V c°^^^^^°o >*\.^iX s^'"^ •S'^. " ^°-nj ** .>Va:-. V .» ..-. V-^ .*10^ .1 -oV" ;. "^ tf' •^oV" ^..*" »*^ .o«^«»J'^^ • -^0 -So^ .1 •- ^?' L-^* .^A^^A-- -e*. A* ♦^ 1 • ^^s..*^ •- v ,• o ,♦ v> : ^^°.fe •.iCTl^>; jp-n*. '.^ r.* ^^^ v^^^ ri"^ .f ■^ '' "> ^•"- %,<^^ :^'^ \..r yM/i'^ %..^^ :. "0*9' v\^ :» «.^ tv • v^' o^ ♦ f: -^^o^ :i •^^o^ .^^ .HO^ . To- «•> ^- *;:^**T»' .«.^ ;» .jP-^fe .40^ . O ♦-T^o n-' li.'lllmllllltilllllllllllllllllllilllllll !lii|liliiiiiiiiiiiiiiii>miiMiiiiiii iiiiiiliiii:'! REVISED AISTD EJsT JL, ARGUED. A POPULAR HISTORY OK THE United States of America, FROM THE ABORIGINAL TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. EMBRACING AN ACCOUNT OP TnE ABORIGINES; THE NORSEMEN IN THE NEW WORLD; THB DISCOVEKIES BY THE SPANIARDS, ENOLJSH, AND FRENCH; THE PLANTING OF SETTLEMENTS; THE GROWTH OF THE COLONIES; THE STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY IN THE REVOLUTION; THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE union; THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION; THE CIVIL WAR; THE CENTENNIAL OF INDE- PENDENCE ; AND THE RECENT AKNALS OP THE REPUBLIC. THE ^A^HOLE BROUGHT DOWN TO THE YEAR 1889. JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL.D., Author of Ridi-ath's School Histories of the United States, and a Cyclopedia of Universal Historv. Illuslrateb faitlj Paps, €lmis, |ortraits, aiib f iagrams. '"RIGHT '%. OCT 6 1889; NEW YORK: 80S BROADWAY. 1889. -rill. h- lis Copyright, 1889, by New York. PREFACE. Deae People of the United States: — By this, ray Preface, I offer to you a New History of your coun- try — and miue. The work is presented in the form of an abridged narrative. My reasons for such a venture are brief, but, I trust, sat- isfactory : First, to every American citizen some knowledge of the history of his country is indispensable. The attainment of that knowledge ought to be made easy and delightful. Second, the Centennial of the Republic furnishes an auspicious oc- casion for the study of those great events which compose the warp and woof of the new civilization in the West. This book is intended for the avei'age American ; for the man of business who has neither time nor disposition to plod through ten or twenty volumes of elaborate historical dissertation ; for the prac- tical man of the shop, the counter, and the plow. The work is, dedicated to the household and the library of the working man. It is in- scribed to the father, the mother, the son, and the daughter of the American family. If father, mother, son, and daughter shall love their country better — if they shall understand more clearly and a])- preciate more fully the founding, progress, and growth of liberty in the New World — the author will be abundantly repaid. (iiii iv PREFACE. In the preparation of the work the following objects have been kept in view: I. To give an accurate and spirited Narrative of the principal events in our National history from the aboriginal times to the pres- ■iit day. II. To discuss the Philosophy of that history as fully as possible within the narrow limits of the work. III. To avoid all Partiality, Partisanship, and Prejudice, as things dangerous, baneful, and wicked. IV. To preserve a clear and systematic Arrangement of the sev- eral subjects, giving to every fact, whether of peace or war, its true place and importance in the narrative. V. To give an Objective Representation by means of charts, maps, drawings, and diagrams, of all the more important matters in the history of the nation. VI. To secure a Style and Method in the book itself which shall be in keeping with the spirit and refinement of the times. Whether these important ends have been attained, dear People, it is not my province but yours to decide. I have labored earnestly to reach the ideal of such a work, and if success has not rewarded the effort, the failure has been in the execution rather than in the plan and purpose. I surrender the book, thus undertaken and completed, to You — for whom it was intended. With diffidence I ask a considerate judg- ment and just recognition of whatever worth the work may be found to possess. J. C. R. Indiana Asbury TlNrvERSixy, J.inuary 1, 1883. } CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. What constitutes a period in history. — The period of the Aborigines. — The second period in the history of the United States. — E.xtends from the discovery of the conti- nent to the establisliment of permanent settlements. — Tlie third period. — Reaches from the first colonies to the war of the Revolution. — The fourth period. — Embraces the Revolution and the consolidation of the government. — The fifth period is most im- portant. — Extends from the adoption of the Constitution to the present time. — The names and dates of the several periods 39, 40. PART I. ABORIGINAL AMERICA. CH.^PTER I. THE BED MEN — ORIGIN, DISTRIBUTION, CHARACTER. The Indians. — Their name accounted for. — Differences between them and the Asiatics. — The origin of the Indian races unknown. — Theories controverted. — The question likely to remain unsolved. — Language may give us light. — The Red men Gan- owanians. — Habits of that race. — Divisions of the aboriginal nations.--The Esqui- maux. — Their manner of life. — The race of Algonquins. — Their distribution. — And character. — The Huron-Iroquois. — Their domain. — Nature of their confederation. — Their influence and character. — The Southern races. — Cherokees. — Mobilians. — Man- ners and characteristics. — The Dakotas. — Their limits. — The Oomanches. — The na- tions beyond the Mountains. — Sboshonees. — Selish. — Klamaths. — Californians. — Aztecs and Toltecs of old. — The Indian character in general. — Sense of personal inde- pendence. — Passion for war. — Principles of war. — And of peace. — The Indian unsocial and solitary. — His family organization. — The European family. — Diagram thereof. — Indian method. — And diagram. — Aboriginal government. — Powers and limitations. — Native religion. — Beliefs of the Red men. — Their arts. — Rudeness of the same. — The Indian house. — Utensils. — Weapons. — Clothing. — Decorations. — Paint. — And writing. — • The savage tongues. — Peculiarities of Indian speech. — Personal appearance of the aborigines. — Stature. — Features. — Bodily habit. — Indian amusements. — The dance. — Other sports. — Gaming. — The use of tobacco. — Strong drinks. — Indian prospects. — ■ Reflections 41-50, VI CONTENTS. PART II. VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. A. I>. 986—1607. CHAPTER 11. THE ICELANDERS AND NORWEGIANS IN AMERICA. Herjulfson is driven by a storm to the American coast. — Lief Erickson discovers America. — Thorwald and Tliorstein Erickson make voyages. — Tliorfinn Karlsefne ex- plores tlie shores of Maine and Massachusetts. — Other voyages are made by the Norse- men. — The name of Vinland. — Character of the .sea-kings. — Voyages in the following centuries. — No practical results from the Icelandic discoveries. — Their authenticity.— Note 51-54. CHAPTER 111. SPANISH DISCOVERIES. Spain makes the New World known to Europe. — Old ideas about the figure of tlie earth. — Columbus. — Sketch of his life. — The favor of Isabella. — Columbus departs on his first voyage. — Discovers San Salvador, Cuba, and llayti. — Second voyage of Co- lumljus. — Third. — He discovers South America. — Fourth voyage. — Columbus's misfort- unes and death. — Wrong done to his memory. — Vespucci makes two voyages to South America. — Excitement in Europe on account of discoveries. — Colony planted on the Isthmus. — Balboa discovers the Pacific. — Ponce de Leon makes explorations in Flor- ida. — Is killed in a fight with the Indians 54-58. CHAPTER IV. SPANISH DISCOVERIE.S — CONTINUED. Cordova discovers Yucatan. — Grijalvaexplores Mexico. — Cortez lands at Tabasco. — Terror pervades the country. — The natives are beaten back. — Cortez proceeds to Vera Cruz. — Montezuma ."ends embassies and presents. — The Spaniards march towards tlie capital. — And are forbidden to approach. — The Mexican tribes revolt. — Cortez reaohes the city. — And enters. — His critical situation. — He seizes Montezuma. — Who acknowl- edges the king of Spain. — The governor of Cuba sends forces against Cortez. — He over- powers them. — Returns to tlie capital.— The struggle fur possession of the city. — Mon- tezuma is wounded. — And dies. — Tlie Spaniards are victorious. — Mexico becomes a Spani.sh province. — Magellan sails around South America. — Crosses the Pacific. — If killed at the Philippines. — His crew reach the East Indies. — Double the Cape of Good Hope. — Return to Europe. — De Narvaez is appointed governor of Florida. — Ex- plores the country around the Gulf. — The company embark in boats, and are wrecked. — Four men reach San Miguel. — De Soto sets out on an expedition to explore and con- quer Florida. — Arrives at Tampa Bay. — Marches into the interior. — Spends the winter on Flint River. — The company march into South Carolina. — Cross into Georgia. — Capt- ure Manville. — Spend the next winter on the Yazoo. — Discover the Mississippi. — Ex- plore Arkansas and return to the Mississippi. — De Soto dies. — His men again march we.stward to the mountains. — Return to tlie mouth of Red River. — Build boats and descend the Mississippi. — Reach the Spanish settlements in Mexico. — Melendez conies CONTENTS. vii to Florida, and founds St. Augustine. — Murders the Huguenots on the St. .John's.— Massacres the crews of the French vessels. — Extent of the Spanish explorations. — The Portuguese voyage of Gaspar Cortereal. — He sells a cargo of Indian slaves in Portu- gal 61-69- • CHAPTER V. THE FRENCH IN AMERICA. First acquaintance of the French with America. — Verrazzani is .sent out to make eX- plorations. — Arrives on the coast of North Carolina. —Explores the shores of the country as far north as Newfoundland. — Cartier is sent on a voyage to America. — Reaches Newfoundland and enters the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence. — Returns to Europe. — Sails on a second expedition. — Ascends the St. Lawrence to Montreal. — His crew are attacked with scurvy. — He passes the winter near the site of Quebec. — And returns to France. — Roberval undertakes to colonize the country. — Cartier joined to the under- taking. — -Prisons of France are opened to furnish emigrants. — Expedition reaches the St. Lawrence. — The leaders quaiTel, and Cartier goes back to France. — The whole colony returns. — Roberval sails with another fleet. — And is lost at sea. — Ribault con- ducts a band of Huguenots to Port Royal. — Builds Fort Carolina. — The settlement is abandoned. — The enterprise renewed by Laudonniere. — A Huguenot colony estab- lished on the St. .John's River. — But destroyed by Melendez. — De Gourges takes venge- ance on the Spaniards. — La Roche is commissioned to plant colonies in America. — French prisons again opened. — .\ settlement is made on Sable Island. — The company rescued and carried to France. — De Monts made viceroy of New France. — Departs with a colony. — Reaches the Bay of Fundy. — Port Royal founded by Poutrinconrt, and the St. Croix settlement by De Monts. — The country named Acadia. — Charaplain receives a commission. — Sails with a colony to the St. Lawrence. — Goes against the Iroquois. — • Returns and founds Quebec 70-76. CHAPTER VI. ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. Henry VII. commissions .Tolin Cabot. — Who discovers North America. — Is re- commissioned. — Sebastian takes charge of the expedition. — Explores the Atnerican coast from Labrador to Cape Hatteras. — Leaves England to become pilot of Spain. — The notable year 1498. — Causes which impeded English discovery. — Maritime enter- prise revives under Elizabeth. — Frobisher sails to America and discovers Meta Incog- nita. — Takes spurious ore to London. — A new voyage is planned. — Frobisher conducts a fleet to Meta Incognita. — The expedition proves a failure. — Sir Francis Drake cap- tures Spanish merchantmen. — Goes to the Pacific coast. — Attempts the discovery of a north-west passage. — Gilbert forms a plan of colonization. — Is assisted bv Raleigh. — Conducts a fleet to Newfoundland.- -The crews find spurious minerals. — The voyage is continued to Massachusetts. — Gilbert loses his best ship and a hundred men. — Starts home, and is lost at sea — Raleigh .sends Amidas and Barlow with a colony. — Tliey reach Roanoke Island and begin a settlement. — The place is abandoned. — Raleigh sends a second colony under Lane. — The colonists reach Roanoke and begin to build. — Difficulties arise with the Indians. — The settlement is broken up. — The colony taken home by Drake. — .\ new charter granted by Raleigh, and White chosen governor. — The new emigrants arrive at Roanoke. — The foundations of a town laid on the Island.^ Troubles with the Indians. — Manteo is made a peer. — White returns to England. — Birth of Virginia Dare. — The fate of the colony never ascert.ained. — Condition of affairs ir England. — White returns, and finds Roanoke deserted. — Raleigh assigns his patent it viii CONTENTS. XoiKion merchants. — Gosnold makes a voyage directly across the Atlantic. — Attempts to form a settlement on Elizabeth Island. — The place is abandoned. — Gosnold trades witli the natives. — The crew demand to return. — Flattering accounts are given of the country. — An expedition is sent out under Pring. — He explores a part of the New England coast, and returns to Bristol. — Waymouth sails on a voyage. — Trades with the Indians of Maine.— Returns lo England 76-85k CHAPTER VII. ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AUD SETTLEMENTS. — CONTINUED. King James issues patents to the London and Plymouth Companies. — Tlie London Company to plant colonies between the 34th and the 38th parallels. — The Plymouth Com- pany to make settlements from the 41st to tlie 45th degree. — Gosnold, Smith, Hakluyt and Wingfield lead the afl'airs of the Southern Company. — No democratic principles are recognized in tlie charter. — X ship is sent out by the Plymouth Comjiany. — A second vessel is dispatched to America. — A settlement is attempted at the mouth of the Kennebec. — Is abandoned in tl>e .summer of 1608. — A fleet with a colony is sent out by the London Company. — Newport commands. — They arrive in the Chesapeake. — Enter James River. — Make a' landing and lay the foundations of Jamestown. — Tlie affairs of the Plymouth Company are revived by Smith. — He explores and maps the coast of Maine and Massachusetts. — Several attempts are made to form a colony in New Eng- land. — The Plymouth Company is superseded by the Council of Plymouth. — A new plan of colonization is made, and Smitli appointed admiral. — Tlie Puritans ari.se in the North of England. — They remove to Amsterdam and Leyden. — Determine to remove to America. — Ask permission of the king and the Council of Plymouth. — Meet with dis- couragements. — Procure two vessels at their own expense. — Sail from Leyden, and after- ward from Southampton. — The Speedwell is found unfit for the voyage, and the Pilgrims depart in the Mayflower. — The Pilgrims have a stormy voyage. — Come in sight of Cape Cod. — They make a frame of government. — Carver is elected governor. — The landing Is delayed by oad weather. — The ship is driven by storms. — Enters Plymoutli harbor.^ The Puritans go ashore on the 11th of December. — Begin to build. — Are attacked with diseases. — Mary of the colony die. — An early spring brings them relief. . 85-91. CHAPTER VIII. VOYAGES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE DUTCH. Dutch settle i-^nts in America result from the voyages of Hudson. — He is employed by London merchants to reach the Indies. — Sails into the North Atlantic. — Fails in his effort. — Is sent on a .second voyage. — And fails. — Goes into the service of the Dutch East India Company. — Sails on a third voyage. — Is driven back by tlie icebergs. — Turns to America. — Reaches Newfoundland. — Sails southward to the Chesapeake. — Then north- ward to New York harbor. — Discovers the Hudson River. — Explores that stream as far as Albany. — Returns to Dartmouth. — Is detained by the English government. — Issenton a fourth expedition. — Discovers Hudson Strait and Bay. — Is overtaken by winter. — The crew mutiny. — Hudson is cast ofl" among the icebergs. — Dutch vessels begin to trade at the mouth of the Hudson. — The states-genera! grant a right to trade. — h. settlement is made on Manhattan Island. — Block explores Lonf^ Island Sound. — Christianson builds Fort Nassau. — May explores the coast of New Jersey. — Holland claims the country from Delaware Bay to Cape Cod 92-94 CONTENTS. \x PART III. COLONIAL HISTORY. A. ». 1607—1776. PARENT COLONIES. CHAPTEK IX. VIRGINIA. — THE FIRST CHARTER. The progress of Virginia is hindered. — First settlers are of bad character. — Necessity drives them to labor. — The king gives sealed instructions. — Smith is arrested. — And ex- cluded from the council. — He and Newport explore the James. — Return to Jamestown. — Newport goes to England. — The colonists are discouraged. — Disease ravages the settle- ment. — (josnold dies. — Wingfield embezzles the funds. — And is removed from office. — Eatcliffe succeeds. — And is also impeached. — Smith takes control of tlie colony. — Sketch of his life. — The settlement flourishes under his care. — He explores the country, and pro- cures supplies. — The Indians furnish provisions. — Smith explores the Chickahominy. — Is captured by the Indians. — Saves his life by stratagem. — Is carried to Orapax. — Thence to Panninkey. — Is condemned to death. — And saved by Pocahontas. — He remains in Powhatan's household. — Is liberated. — Returns to Jamestown. — Terrifies the savages.— Deplorable condition of the settlement. — Plot to abandon the place. — Newport arrives with new immigrants. — Who are as bad as the others. — The gold-hunters go abroad.— And find mica in the sand of James River. — .\ ship is loaded with dirt and sent to Eng- land. — The planting season goes by. — Smith makes his great exploration of the Ches.i- peiike. — And maps the country. — Returns. — Is elected president. — Newport arrives with more immigrants and supplies. — Progress of the colony. .... 9.5-104. CHAPTER X. VIRGINIA. — THE .SECOND CHARTER. King James grants a new charter. — Changes are made in the form of government. — A new council is organized. — Delaware is chosen governor. — The other officers. — A fleet with five hundred emigrants sails for America. — Encounters a storm. — Two vessels are wrecked. — Seven ships reach Jamestown. — The commissioners are left on the Bermuda Islands. — Smith retains the presidency. — New settlements are projected. — Smith is wounded. — Delegates his authority to Percy. — Returns to England. — Colony sufiers after his departure. — The starving time. — Gates and his companions reach Virginia. — The settlement is abandoned. — Delaware meets the colony. — And persuades them to return. — Prosperity begins. — But Delaware falls sick. — And returns to England. — Percy is deputy. — Dale arrives as governor. — Brings immigrants. — Writes for supplies and new colo- nists. — Wlio arrive. — The colony improves. — Gates is made governor. — The right of private properly is recognized. — And the settlements enlarged. . . . 104-107 , CONTENTS. CHAPTER XI. VIKGINIA. — THE THIRD CHARTER. The London Company receive a third patent. — The colony had proved unprofitahle. ■ — Ar^ali kidnaps Pocaliontas. — Who is married to Rolfe. — They visit England. — And leave descendants in Virginia. — Argall destroys the French settlements in Acadia.— And reduces tlie Dutch colony of Manhattan. — Dale becomes governor of Virginia.- Tobacco is the staple of Jamestown. — And is used for money. — Argall is chosen gov ernor. — Delaware sails for America. — And dies. — Yeardley supersedes Argall. — Abolishes martial law. — Establishes the House of Enrges,ses.— Slavery is introduced. — Society is low. — Women are sent over. — And married to the colonists. — A constitution is granted. — Wvatt becomes governor. — Settlements spread abroad. — The Indians become jealous — And massacre the people. — But are defeated. — The company is opposed by the king.^ A commission is appointed. — Who report against the company. — And its charter is re- voked. — But liberty is planted in Virginia 108-113 CHAPTER XII. VIKtilNIA. — THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. Royal government is established. — But the administration is unchanged. — Charles I. becomes king. — Recognizes the Virginia Assembly. — Yeardley is re-elected governor.— Dies, — West is chosen by the council. — Harvey arrives from England. — Land-grants vex the people. — Harvey is impeached. — But is sustained by the king. — Wyatt succeeds.— English Revolution breaks out. — King Charles is beheaded. — Monarchy is abolished. — Cromwell becomes Protector. — Virginia inclines to royalty. — Berkeley becomes gov- ernor. — The Puritans are persecuted. — .\n Indian war arises. — The savages are beaten. — Virginia refuses to acknowledge Parliament. — Cromwell restricts her commerce.^ Sends a fleet to America. — And the Virginians submit. — Favorable terms are granted — Peace continues during the commonwealth. — The Burgesses elect three governors. — Berkeley is thus chosen. — Accepts. — Bnt at the Restoration renounces his .acceptance. — And issues writs in the king's name. — Tyranny follows. — Commerce is restricted. — The Virginians complain. — In vain. — Charles II. gives away Virginia lands. — And finally the whole State to Arlington and Culpepper. — The Quakers and the Baptists are persecuted. — Ta.-ses are odious.— The people rebel. — An Indian war is the e.Tcnse. — And Berkeley's tyranny the cause. — Bacon heads the insurrection. — The Indians are punished. — Berkeley abdicates. — Returns. — Captures Jamestown. — Bacon takes the place, and burns it. — Dies. — The patriots are dispersed.— And the leaders hanged. — A worse despotism is established.— Culpepper becomes governor. — Treats Virginia as an estate. — Arlington surrenders his claim. — The king recalls the grant. — And Vir- ginia becomes a royal province. — Howard and Nicholson administer the government.— AVilliam and Marv College founded. — Andros becomes governor.— Future history of Vir- ginia . . ' . \ 114-123 CHAPTER XIII. MASSACHUSETTS. — SETTLEMENT. The Pilgrims are saved by the coming of spring. — Health is restored. — Miles Stan- dish is sent out to reconnoitre. — Samoset and Squanto come to Plymouth. — X treaty is made with Massasoit. — Other tribes acknowledge the sovereignty of England. — Canon- icus is overawed. — ,\n unfruitful summer. — Immigrants arive. — Are quartered on the colony. — The Pilgrims are destitute. — The new-comers found Weymouth. — The Indi- CONTENTS. XI ans plan a massacre. — And are punished by Standish. — Weymouth is abandoned. — A plentiful harvest. — Robinson remains at Leyden. — Tlie colonial enterprise proves un- profitable. — The managers sell out to the colonist.s. — The Established Church is fa- vored.— Salem is founded. — The Company of Mas.sachu8etts Bay is cliartered by the king and the council. — Boston is founded. — The government is transferred to America. — A large immigration in 1630. — Wintlirop is governor. — Cambridge is founded. — W;itertown. — Eoxbury. — Dorchester. — The colony suffers greatly. — Suffrage is restricted. — Williams protects. — And is banished. — Goes among the Indians. — Is kindly received. — Tarries at Seekonk. — Kemoves. — And founds Providence. — A representative govern- ment is established. — The ballot-box is introduced. — Three thousand immigrants ar- rive. — Vane and Peters are the leaders. — Concord is founded. — Colonies remove to the Connecticut. — Religious controversies. — Mrs. Hutchinson is banished. — She and her friends establish a republic on Rhode Island. — Harvard College is founded at Cam- bridge. — A printing-press is .set up. — Eliot, Welde, and Mather translate the Psalms.— Liberty flourishes in Massachusetts. — Emigration is hindered by England. 123-133 CHAPTER XIV. MASSACHCSETTS. — THE UNION. Progress of New England. — Circumstances favor a union of the colonies. — Massa- chusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven are confederated. — No other colonies are admitted. — A Body of Liberties is formed. — Tlie two legislative branches are sepa- rated. — The English Revolution is favorable to New England. — Vane and others de- fend the rights of the colonies. — The Parliament demands the charter of Massachusetts. — Which is refused. — Cromwell the friend of Ma.ssacbu.setts. — Maine is annexed. — Early settlements in Maine. — The Quakers arrive at Boston. — Are per.seculed and ban- ished. — The death-penalty is passed against them. — Four persons are executed. — Reac- tion against the law. — And the law is abolished. — News of the Restoration reaches Boston. — Whalley and Goffe arrive. — And escape to Connecticut. — Vane and Peters are executed. — The Navigation Act is passed. — Its bearing on the commerce of New Eng- land. — War between England and Holland. — Charles II. attempts to subvert the colo- nial cliarters. — Commissioners are sent to Ma.ssachusett3. — Are met with resistance. — And defeated in their objects. — The colony prospers. .... 133-139. CHAPTER XV. MASSACHUSETTS. — KINO PHIMP's WAK. Philip becomes king of the Wampanoags. — Causes of jealousy and war. — Alexan- der's imprisonment. — Outrages are committed. — The war begins. — Swanzey is attacked. — Philip is pursued to Mount Hope. — Escapes to Tiverton. — Is driven from the Narra- gansett country. — Goes to the Nipniucks. — A general war ensues. — The Narragansetts ai-e obliged to remain neutral. — English ambassadors are nias.sacred at Brookfield. — The town is attacked. — Rescued. — Abandoned. — Burned. — Deerfield is partiv destroyed. — Lathrop attempts to bring off the harvests. — Is ambushed at Bloody Brook. — The battle. — Hadley is attacked. — Rescued by Gofl^e. — Springfield is assaulted. — And destroyed. — Hadley is burned. — The savages are defeated at Hatiield. — Philip repairs to the Nar- ragansetts. — The English declare war. — And invade the country. — Philip and his forces take refuge in a swamp.— Are surrounded. — Attacked. — And utterly routed. — Ruin of the Narragansett nation. — The war continues on the frontiers. — Towns and villages are destroyed. — The savages grow feeble.— Canonchet is taken.— And put to death. — Philip's family are captured. — And sold -as slaves. — Himself hunted down. — And shot. — SuV Xll CONTENTS. mission of the tribes. — Losses of New England. — Tlie English government refuses help. — Kandolph comes to abridge the liberties of Massachusetts. — And is defeated. — Mas- sachusetts purchases Maine of the heirs of Gorges. — Difficulties concerning New Hamp- shire. — A royal government is established in the province. — Cranfield's administration, —The king's hostility. — The charter of Massachusetts is annulled. — King Charles dies. — James 11. appoints Dudley governor. — And then Andros. — The liberties of the peo- ple are destroyed. — The government of Andros is extended over New England. — But the charter of Connecticut is saved. — The Revolution of 1688.— Andros is seized, and imprisoned. — And the colonies restore their liberties. .... 139-147. CHAPTER XVI. MASSACHUSETTS. — WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. King William's War begins. — The causes. — Dover is attacked and burned. — Pema- quid is destroyed. — And then Schenectady. — And Salmon Falls. — An expedition is planned against Canada. — Phipps takes Port Royal. — But fails at Quebec. — And re- turns. — Paper money is issued. — Failure of the expedition against Montreal. — Phipps goes to England. — And returns as royal governor. — Oyster River is destroyed. — Haver- hill is attacked and burned. — Mrs. Dustin's captivity. — The treaty of Ryswick.— Tlie witchcraft excitement begins at Salem. — The causes. — Parris and Mather. — The trials. —Convictions. — Executions. — Tlie reaction. — Matlier's liook. — Reflections. 147-153. CHAPTER XVII. MASSACHUSETTS. — WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. Causes of Queen Anne's War. — Field of operations in .\nicriea. — A treaty is made with the Five Nations. — The conflict begins. — Deerfield is burned. — And the inhab- itants carried captive to Canada. — Barbarities of the Indians. — An expedition is sent Against Port Royal. — The attempt fails. — Is renewed in 1710.— Port Royal is taken. — And named Annajiolis.— Preparations are made for invading Canada. — Nicholson com- mands the land forces. — And Walker the fleet. — The squadron is delayed. — Stops at Seeks admission into the Union. — Is refused at first. — The peo- ple of the United States divide on the question of annexation. — On that issue Polk is elected President. — Professor Morse and the telegraph. — Texas admitted into the Union 440-447. CHAPTER LVII. pole's administration and the MEXICAN WAR. Sketch of President Polk. — Texas ratifies the annexation. — General Taylor sent to defend the country. — The boundary question. — Proposition to negotiate. — Mexico refuses. — Taylor ordered to the Neuces. — And thence to the Kio Grande. — He estab- lishes a post at Point Isabel. — And builds Fort Brown. — Beginning of hostilities by the Mexicans. — Taylor retires to Point Isabel. — Mexican boasting. — Returns toward Mata- moras. — Meets the Mexicans. — Fights and gains the battles of Palo Alto and Re.saca de la Palma. — Siege of Fort Brown. — News of the battles in the Unite- proach of Santa Anna. — Battle of Buena Vista. — Retirement of Taylor from the service. — Scott besieges and captures Vera Cruz. — Marches against the capital. — Battle of Cerro Gordo. — Jalapa, Perote, and Puebla are taken. — Negotiations. — The march renewed. — The army passes the Cordilleras. — Reaches Ayotla. — Turns to the left. — The approaches and fortifications of the city. — Storming of Contreras and San Antonio. — C'hurubusco is carried. — The Mexicans driven back to Chapnltepec. — More foolish nego- tiations. — Scott rests his army. — And then advances. — Molino del Rey and Casa de Mata are stormed. — Chapnltepec is taken. — Flight of the Mexican government. — The American army enters the city. — Santa Anna attacks the hospitals at Pnebla. — Is driven off by General Lane. — Downfall of the Mexican authority, — The treaty of Gaudalupe Hidalgo. — Its terms. — Settlement of the Oregon boundary. — The international line es- tablished on the forty-ninth parallel. — The discovery of gold in California. — The excite- ment which ensued. — Importance of the mines. — Founding of the Smithsonian Institu- tion. — Death of Jackson and John Quincy Adams. — Wisconsin is admitted. — Establish- ment of the Department of the Interior. — The canvass for President. — Rise of the Fret Soil party. — The Wilmot proviso. — Election of Taylor to the presidency. 447-46i CHAPTER LVIII. ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. Sketch of the chief magistrate. — The question of slavery in California.— A terri. torial government is organized. — A petition for admission. — The controversy in Con. gress. — Other political vexations. — Clay as a peace-maker. — Pa.ssage of the Omnibun Bill. — And its provisions. — Death of the President. — The slaverv excitement subsides. CONTENTS. XXIX — The question not permanently settled. — Eetirement of Mr. Clay. — Effects of the Om- nibu.'i Bill on the administration. — The Cuban expedition is organized. — Lopez and his associates are executed. — Important measures recommended by the President. — A diffi- culty arises about the coast-fisheries. — And is settled by a treaty. — The tour of Kossuth. — Arctic expeditions of Franklin, De Haven, and Kane. — Death of Calhoun, Clay, and Webster. — The Cuban excitement in Europe. — The Tripartite Treaty is proposed. — And rejected. — Everett's reply to France and Great Britain.— The candidates for the. presidency. — Pierce is elected 463-469. CHAPTER LIX. Pierce's adsdnistbation. Sketch of Franklin Pierce. — A route for a Pacific railroad is explored. — Settle- ment of the boundary of New Mexico. — The Japanese ports are opened to the United States. — The World's Fair. — Walker organizes a filibustering expedition against Central America. — Is captured. — Makes a .second descent on Nicaraugua. — And then a third. — Is defeated, captured, and executed. — The Martin Koszta affair. — Cuban difficulties. — The Ostend manifesto. — A bill to organize Kansas and Nebraska is pas.sed. — Repeal of the Missouri Compromise. — Renewal of the slavery agitation. — The troubles in Kan- sas. — Two territorial governments are organized. — Geary .sent thither as military gov- ernor. — Marshaling of parties on the slavery question. — Buchanan is elected to the pres- idency. . . 469-4"4, CHAPTER LX. buchanan'.s administration. Sketch of the President. — The Dred Scott decision. — The Mormon rebellion in Utah. — Is suppressed by the army. — A difficulty ari.ses with Paraguay. — But is settled by treaty. — The fir.«t Atlantic cable is laid. — Minnesota is admitted. — Retirement and sketch of Houston. — Death of Washington Irving. — His work in American literature. — The Personal Liberty bills. — John Brown's insurrection. — C-ontinuance of the troubles in Kansa.s — The political parties again divide on the slavery question. — The National conventions. — The candidates and the canvass. — Lincoln is elected President. — Condi- tion of affairs in the government. — Position of Buchanan. — The drama of secession. — • Seven States withdraw from the Union. — The seces.sion conventions. — Position of Steph- ens. — Organization of the Provisional Confederate government. — Davis for President. — ■ The peace movements end in failure. — Paralysis of the administration. — Seizure of forts and arsenals by the Confederate.s. — The strife in Kansas continues. — The Star of the Went is driven off from Fort Sumter. — The President elect reaches Wash- ington 474-482. CHAPTER LXI. Lincoln's administration and the civil war. Sketch of Abraham Lincoln. — Organization of his cabinet. — His purpose to repos- »e3B the forts of the L^nited States. — Preparations to reinforce Fort Sumter. — Confed- erate movements in Charleston. — Bombardment and fall of Fort Sumter. — The event fires the nation. — The call for troops. — Secession of Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee. — The soldiers attacked in Baltimore. — Capture of Harper's Ferry and the Norfolk navy yard. — Prodigious activity and preparations. — Davis and his cabinet »t Richmond 482-4S5 XXX CONTENTS. CHAPTER LXII. THE CAUSES. The causes.— First, the different construction of the Constitution in the North and the South. — Fatal cliaracter of this disjuite. — Second, the system of slavery. — The cotton gin.— The Missouri agitation.— The annexation of Texas, and the Mexican War. — The nulliBcation measures of South Carolina. — The Omnibus Bill. — The Kan- sas-Nebraska imbroglio. — Third, the want of intercourse between the North and the South. — Fourth, the publication of sectional books. — Fifth, the influence of dema- gogues 485-488 CHAPTER LXIII. FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. Advance of the Union army. — Fight at Big Bethel.— Morris and McClellan move forward in West Virginia.— Engagements at Philippi, Rich Mountain, Carrick's Ford, Carnifex Ferry, Cheat Mountain, and Romney. — The Confederates concentrate at Manassas. — The national forces advance. — Tlie skirmish, the battle, and the rout. — Effect on the country. — The Confederate government at Richmond. — Sketch of Davis. — Affairs in Missouri. — Confederates capture Liberty. — Form Camp Jackson. — Lyon defends St. Louis. — Battlen of Carthage and Springfield. — Price captures Lexington. — Fremont pursues him. — And is superseded. — Grant captures Belmont. — McClellan is made commander-in-chief. — The disaster at Ball's Bluff. — H.atteras inlet, Port Royal, and Hilton Head secured by the Federals. — Capture of Mason and Slidell. — They are released by Mr. Seward. 490-495. CHAPTER LXIV. CAMPAIGNS OF '62. Extent and position of the Union forces. — Tlie Confederates defeated on the Big Sandy and at Mill Spring. — Fort Henry is taken. — Siege and capture of Fort Donelson. — Battle of Shiloh. — Island Number Ten is t.aken. — The battle of Pea Ridge. — Fight of the Mrmilor and the Merrimuc. — Eurnside captures Roanoke Island, Newbern, and Beaufort. — Savannah is blockaded. — Farragut aud Butler ascend the Mississippi. — Pass Forts Jackson and St. Philip. — Capture of New Orleans. — Fall of Jackson and St. Philip. — Kirby Smith invades Kentucky. — Battle of Richmond. — Bragg marches on Louisville. — The city held by Buell. — Bragg retreats. — Battle of Perryville. — Battles of luka and Corinth. — Grant moves against Vicksburg. — Retreats. — Battle of Chickasaw Bavou. — Battle of Murfreesborough.— Banks and Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley. — Fight at Front Royal. — The Federals retreat across the Potomac. — The Confederates fall back in turn.— Battles of Cross Keys and Port Republic— McClellan advances.— Beginning of the Peninsular campaign. — Yorktown is taken. — Then William.«burg and West Point.— Wool captures Norfolk.— The Virymia destroyed.— Bailie of Fair Oaks.— Lee made general-in-chief of the Confederates.— McClellan changes ba.se.— The seven days' battles.— The Union army at Harrison's Landing. — Lee strikes for Washington. — Is opposed by Pope.— Flank movement of Jackson.— Battles of Manassas, Centreville, and Chantilly.- Lee invades Maryland.— Harper's Ferry is taken. — Engagement at South Mountain.— Battle of Antietam.— Confederates retreat.— Burnside in command. — Plans a campaign against Richmond.— Advances against Fredericksburg.— And is de- feated 495-510. CONTENTS. XXX) CHAPTER LXV. THE WORK OF '63. Proportions of the conflict. — New calls for troops. — The Emancipation Proclaraa- 4on. — Capture of Arkansas Post. — Movements against Vicksburg. — The fleet passes the batteries. — Grant at Bruinsburg. — Battles of Port Gibson, Raymond, Jackson, and Champion Hills. — The siege and capture of Vicksburg. — Fall of Port Hudson. — Cav- alry raids of Jackson, Stuart, and Grierson. — Roseerans drives Bragg across the Ten- nessee. — Battle of Chattanooga. — And the siege. — Storming of Lookout and Missionary Ridge. — Longstreet in Tennessee. — Siege of Knoxville. — Engagements at Springfield, Cape Girardeau, and Helena. — The sacking of Lawrence. — Capture of Little Rock. — Morgan invades Indiana. — Pa.sses into Ohio. — Is hemmed in and captured. — The Con- federates take Galveston. — The siege of Charleston. — Hooker commands the Army of the Potomac. — Battle of Chancellorsville. — Death of Stonewall Jackson. — Stoneman's raid. — Siege of Suffolk. — Lee invades Pennsylvania. — The battle of Gettysburg. — Re- treat of the Confederates. — The conscription. — Riot in New York.^The draft. — New calls for soldiers. — West Virginia a State. ...... 510-523. CHAPTER LXVI. THE CLCSING CONFLICTS. Sherman's campaign to Meridian. — Smith fails to form a junction. — Sherman retires to Vicksburg. — Forrest's raid. — The Red River expedition. — Plan of the cam- paign. — Capture of Fort de Russy, Alexandria, and Natchitoches. — Union disaster and retreat. — Steele falls back to Little Rock. — Grant lieutenant-general. — Plan of the cam- paigns of '64. — Sherman advances. — Battles of Dalton, Resaca, and Dallas. — Attacks and repulses at Kenesaw. — The Confederates fall back to Atlanta. — Siege and capture of the stronghold. — Hood invades Tennessee. — Thomas sent to confront him. — Battle of Franklin. — Siege of Nashville. — Rout and ruin of Hood's army. — Sherman's march to the sea. — Capture of Macon, Milledgeville, Gibson, and Waynesborough. — Storming of Fort McAllister. — Escape of Hardee. — And capture of the city. — The Union army in Savannah. — Renewal of the march. — Columbia, Charleston, and Fayetteville are taken. — Battle of Kilpatrick's and Hampton's Cavalry. — Johnston restored to command. — Battles of Averasborough and Bentonsville. — Capture of Goldsborough and Raleigh. — Great raid of Stoneman. — Surrender of Johnston. — Farragut enters Mobile Bay. — Defeats the Confederate squadron. — Captures Forts Gaines and Morgan.— Fort Fisher is besieged by Porter and Butler. — The first effort fails. — The siege is renewed. — And the fort taken by storm. — Cushing's exploit. — The Confederate cruiser.s. — Injury done to the commerce of the United States. — The Savannah. — Career of the Sumler. — Cruise of the Nashville. — The Confederates use the British ship-yards. — Building of the Florida. — Her fate. — The Georgia, the Olustee, the Shenandoah, and the Chiekamauga built at Glasgow. — End of the Chiekamauga and the Tallahassee. — Career of the Georgia and the Shenandoah. — The Alabama. — Her character. — She scours the ocean. — Runs into Cherbourg. — Is caught by the Kearsarge. — And destroyed. — The Army of the Potomac moves from Culpepper. — Reaches the Wilderness. — The battles. — Grant advances to Spottsylvania. — Terrible fighting tliere. — Tlie Union army moves to Cold Harbor. — Is repulsed in two battles. — Los.ses. — Grant changes base. — Butler captures Bermuda and City Point. — Is driven back by Beauregard. — Junction of the armies. — Advance on Petersburg.— The assaults.— The siege begins.— Sigel on the Shenandoah.— Battle of New Market. — Hunter in command. — Engagement at Piedmont. — Retreat of Hunter. — Early enters the valley. — Crosses the Potomac— Defeats Wallace.— Threatens Wash- xxxii CONTENTS. ingtun and Baltimore. — Retreats into Virginia. — Figlit at Wincliestcr. — Tlie Confed erate.s burn Chambersburg. — Sheridan is sent into the valley. — Battles of Winchester and FLsher's Hill. — Slieridan ravages the country. — Early comes. — Routs the Federals at Cedar Creek. — Sheridan return.s, and destroys Early's army, — The siege of Peters- burg continues. — Battles of Boydtown and Five Forks. — Flight of the Confederate government. — Fall of Petersburg and Richmond. — Surrender of Lee. — Collapse of the Confederacy. — The Federal authority is re established. — Capture, imprisonment, and trial of Davis. — Lincoln re-elected. — Financial condition of the country. — Treasury notes. — Internal Revenue. — Legal Tenders. — Bonds. — Banks. — The debt. — Lincoln is reinaugurated. — Visits Richmond. — Is assas-sinated. — Punishment of his murderers. — Character of Lincoln. .......... 523-543. CHAPTER LXVII. Johnson's .administration. Johnson in the presidency. — Sketch of his life and character. — Slavery is formally abolished. — The Amnesty Proclamation. — A struggle vvitii the war-debt. — Napoleon's empire in Mexico. — Maximilian is captured and shot. — Final success of the Atlantic telegraph. — The Postal Money-Order .system is established. — The Territories assume their final form. — Alaska is purchased from Russia. — The difficulty between the Presi- dent and Congress. — The reconstruction imbroglio. — Second amnesty. — The Civil Rights Bill is passed. — Tlie Southeni States are re-admitted. — .\ national convention at Phila- delphia. — The President makes a tour of the country. — Congressional measures of reconstruction. — The breacli is widened between the executive and Congress. — The ve^ toing business. — The President removes Stanton. — Is imjjeached. — And acquitted. — Gen- eral Grant is elected President. ........ 644-551 CHAPTER LXVIIL grant's administration. Sketch of President Grant. — The Pacific Railroad is completed. — The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution are adopted. — The story of Black Friday. — The Southern States are restored to their place in tlie L^nion. — The ninth census and its lesson. — The Santo Domingo business. — The Alabama claims are ad- justed by the treaty of Washington and the Geneva court. — Railroad development of the United States. — The burning of Chicago. — The Nortli-western boundary is settled by arbitration. — The presidential election. — The candidates. — Grant is re- elected. — Character of Cireeley. — His death. — Great fire in Bcston. — The Modoc war. — Murder of the peace commissioners. — The savages are subdued. — The Loui-siana im- broglio. — The Credit Mobilier investigation. — The financial crisis of 1873-'74. — The Northern Pacific Railroad enterprise. — Admission of Colorado. — Death-roll of emi- nent men. — Sketches of Sumner and Wilson. — The great Centennial. — Origination of the enterprise. — U|iposition. — (General plan of the Exposition. — Organization. — The monetary man.agement. — Lukewarmness of theGovernment. — The Centennial (irounds. — Dedication. — The General Regulations. — Nations participating. — Clussitication of products. — The Centennial Buildings. — Descriptions of the same. — Main Building. — Memorial Hall. — Machinery Hall. — Agricultural Hall. — Horticultural Hall. — United States Government Building. — Woman's Pavilion. — Foreign and State Buildings. — Re- ception of materials. — Scheme of Awards. — Opening ceremonies. — The Exposition itself. — Description of exhibits in Main Building. — In Macliinery Hall. — In the Gov- CONTENTS. xxxiii ernraent Building. — In Agricultural Hall. — In Horticultural Hall. — lu the Woman's Pavilion. — In Memorial Hall — Tlie celebration of the Fourth of July in Philadel- phia. — Attendance at the Exposition. — The closing ceremonies. — The Sioux War. — The great election of 1876. — A disputed presidency. — The result. . 553-633 CHAPTER LXIX. Hayes's administration. Sketch of President Hayes. — His inaugural address. — The policy indicated. — Eflfect of the same upon the country. — The new cabinet is organized. — The great Railroad Strilie breaks out. — And is suppressed. — Beginning of the Nez Perce War. — The tribe is subdued by General Howard. — Silver is remonetized. — The Yellow Fever epidemic in the South. — The Halifax Fishery Commission. — How constituted. — The award. — A Chinese Embassy established in the United States. — A Life Saving Service is instituted by Congress. — Resumption of Specie Payments by the Government. — Issues of 1880.— Garfield elected President. — Refunding legislation. — Tour of Ex-President Grant. — Results of the Census of 1880. — Death of Senator Morton, William CuUen Bryant, Bayard Taylor, and Senators Chandler and Carpenter 633-646 CHAPTER LXX. ADMINISTRATIONS OF GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. Sketch of President Garfield. — His inaugural. — The new cabinet. — Question of Civil Service Reform. — Break in the Republican Party. — Assassination of the President. — Accession of Arthur. — Sketch of the new executive. — Cabinet changes. — Star-Route conspiracy. — Applications of science. — The telephone. — The phono- graph. — The electric light. — The Brooklyn bridge. — Party questions of 1884. — The tariff issue. — Doctrine of free-trade. — Incidental protection. — Limited pro- tection. — Higli protection. — Prohibitory tariffs. — Presidential contest of 1884. — Election of Cleveland and Hendricks. — Transfer of the command of the army. — Tlie Washington Monument. 047-671 CHAPTER LXXI. Cleveland's administration. Sketch of President Cleveland. — The new cabinet. — -Question of Civil Service Reform. — Struggle for office. — Revival of War memories. — Literature on the sub- ject. — Death of General Grant. — Of General McClellan. — Of General Hancock. — Of General Logan. — Of Vice-President Hendricks. — Of Horatio Seymour. — Of Samuel J. Tilden. — Of Henry Ward Beccher. — Of Chief-Justice Waite. — Historical sketch of the Supreme Court. — Appointment of Melville W. Fuller. — Death of Roscoe Conkling. — His life and character. — The labor agitations and strikes of 1886-88. — The Hay-market riot in Chicago. — The Charleston earthquake.— The Forty-ninth Congress. — Question of extending the Pension list. — The Interstate Commerce Bill. — Political excitements of 1888. — Questions at issue. — Protection to American Industry. — Attitude of tlie Parties. — Nominations for the Presidency. — The result. — Admission of South and North Dakota, Montana, and Washington. — Institution of the Department of Agriculture. .... 672-695 3 xxxiv CONTENTS. CHAPTER LXXII. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. Sketch of Prcsifleiit Harrison. — His cabinet. — (Centenary of the American Government. — Crises of the Uevohitiouary Epocli. — Declaration of Independence. — Formation of the Constitution. — Its adoption. — Institution of the Government in 1?&9. — Sketch of the ceremonies of Wasliington's Inauguration. — His journey to New York.— His reception. — Character of New York in 1789. — Inaugural pro- gramme prepared liy Congress. — The Wasliingtonian jirocession. — The Inauguration proper. — First policy of the Government. — The Centennial commemoration of 1889. — Preparations for the event. — The tlirong in New York. — Coming of Pres- ident Harrison and his company. — Decoration of the city. — Receptions of the Presidential Party, Literary Exercises. — Whittier's Poem and Depew's oration. — The Military Paiadc. — Features of the great Procession. — Sketch of the various divisions. — Metropolitan Banquets. — The Civic parade. — Its historical features. — Management of the throngs. — Difficulty with Germany relative to Samoa. — Causes of the controversy. — Wreck of the American and German fleets. — The Embassy to Berlin. — Conclusion. ......... (i96-72.'> CHAPTER LXXIII. CONCLUSION. The outlook for the Republic. — Byron's view of nations. — The hopeful side. — Present achievements of the United States. — Natural advantages. — How the Saxon has improved them. — Things necessary to the perpetuity of American institutions: First, National Unity. — Seajiitl, Universal Education. — Third, Toleration. — Fourt/i, The Nobility of Laljor.— Reflections 726-729 APPENDIXES. Appendix A. — Mandeville's Argument 730 Appendi.^ B. — Franklin's Constitution 734 Appendix C. — Declaration of Independence 736 Appendix D. — Articles of Confederation 739 Appendix E. — Constitution of the United States 745 Appendix F. — AVashington's Farewell Address 756 Appendix G. — The Emancipation Proclamation 766 Vocabulary 768 Index 771 ILLUSTRATIONS. Front view of llie Capitol Frontispiece. Map of Aboriginal America 44 Diagram of European Kinship 45 Diagram of Indian Kinship 4G Specimen of Indian Writing 48 A North American Indian 49 Norse Explorations 52 A Norse Sea King of the lllli Ceiitur-y 53 Christopher Columbus 55 Chart of Voyage and Discovery 5(j The Night of October 11, 1492 56 Fernando Cortez 69 Burial of De Soto 66 Dining Hall of the French Colonists at Port Royal 73 Map of Voyage of Discovery 76 Baptism of Virginia Dare 83 Map of English Grants 86 The Mayflower at Sea 90 Captain John Smith 96 John Smith Among ihe Indians 99 Jamestown and Vicinity 103 Wives for the Settlers at Jamestown Ill Governor Berkeley and the Insurgents 120 Chart of the Colonial Period 122 The Treaty between Governor Carver and Massasoit 124 John Wintlirop 127 Roger Williams's Reception by the Indians 129 Early Settlements in New FJngland '. 131 First Scene of King Philip's War 140 Second Scene of King Philip's War 141 Tliird Scene of King Philip's War "..... 143 Death of King Philip 144 Siege of Louisburg, 1745 158 Sir Henry Hudson 161 De Vries Revisits his Ruined Settlement 164 French, English, Dutch, Swedish, and Spani.sh Provinces, 1655 168 Peter Stuyvesant 171 Roger Williams Opposing the Pequot Emissaries 185 Scene of the Pequod War 187 The Younger Winthrop 190' The Old Stone Tower at Newport 195 East and West Jersey, 1677 205- XXXV xxxvi ILLUSTRATION'S. PASK Peaii's Colonists on the Delaware 209 Wiliiain Penn 211 Philadelphia and Vicinity 213 Lord Baltimore 217 James Oglethorpe 239 Country of the Savannah, 1740 242 Scene in St. Augustine 242 Marquette and Joliet Discover the Mississippi 247 First Scene of the French and Indian War, 1750 253 Scene of Braddock's Defeat, 1755 260 Fall of Braddook 260 The Acadian Isthmus, 1755 262 The Exile of the Acadians 263 Vicinity of Lake George, 1755 265 Viciuily of Quebec, 1759 274 General James Wolfe 275 Tlie Revehation of Pontiac's Conspiracy 278 Tlie Old Thirteen Colonies 281 Patrick Henry 290 Samuel Adams 295 Scene of the Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775 300 Siege of Boston, 1776 306 Chart of the Revolution and Confederation 306 Battle of Long Island, 1776 311 Scene of Operations about New York, 1776 314 Battles of Trenton and Princeton, 1776-77 316 Scene of Burgoyne's Invasion, 1777 323 Encampment at Valley Forge, 1777-78 327 Benjamin Franklin 330 Siege of Cliarleston, 1780 340 Scene of Operations in the South, 1780-Sl 342 Scene of Arnold's Treason, 1 780 344 General Greene 351 Siege of Yorktown, October. 1781 353 Map of the United States at the Clo.se of the Eevolutiou 354 Alexander Hamilton 359 George Wasliington 36:'. Chart of the National Period — First Sectidu 36+ John Adams 372 Tiiomas Jeflfer-son 377 Inauguration of the Territorial ( Jovernment at Marietta, Ohio 378 Chief-Justice Marshall 380 Robert Fulton 386 James Madison 389 Scene of Hull's Campaign, 1812 394 The Niagara Frontier, 1812 399 Scene of the Creek War, 1813-14 403 La Fayette 423 Chart of the National Period — Second Section 424 Andrew Jack.son 427 Daniel Webster 429 ILLUSTRATIONS. xxxvii PAGE Land of the Semiuoles 431 The New Patent-Office at Washington 433 Bunker Hill Monument 443 Professor Morse 446 Texas and Coaliuila, 1845 448 Scene of Taylor's Campaign, 1 846-47 449 Fremont on the Rocky Mountains 452 Scene of Scott's Campaign, 1 847 454 General Winfield Scott 457 Tlie Smithsonian Institution 460 Overland to California, 1849. (Pass of the .Sierras) 460 President Taylor 463 Henry Clay 4G5 John C. Calhoun 468 General Sam Houston 477 Washington Irving 478 Alexander H. Stephens 481 Abraham Lincoln 483 Cliart of the National Period — Third Sectiou 489 Scene of Operations in West Virginia, 1861 490 Vicinity of Manassas Juuctiou, 1861 491 Jefferson Davis 492 Scene of Operations in the South-west, 1861 493 William H. Seward 495 Battle of Murfreesboroiigh, December 31, 1862 500 Battle of Murfreesborough, January 2, 1863 501 Scene of Campaign in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, 1862 503 General Robert E. Lee 504 Vicinity of Richmond, 1862 505 The Battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862 507 Tlie Proposed Routes from Washington to Richmond, 1862 608 Vicksburg and .Vicinity, 1863 512 Battle of Chickamanga, September 19, 20, 1863 514 Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, November 23-25, 1863 515 Stonewall Jackson 519 Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863 520 Sherman's Campaign, 1 864 525 General Thomas 527 General Sherman 528 Admiral Farragut 631 Operations in Virginia, 1 864-65 635 Petersburg, Richmond, Appomattox, 1865 539 Map of the United States, 1876 546 C lief-Justice Chase 551 President Grant 552 Map of the Territorial Growth of the United States 556 Horace Greeley 558 Cliarles Sumner 562 Independence Hall, 1876 563 General Joseph R. Hawley 666 Centennial Medal — Obverse 587 xxxviii ILLUSTBATIONa. PAOR Centennial Medal — Reverse 5(17 Tbe Centennial Grounds and Buildings 5G9 Main Exposition Building, Centennial Exliibition 576 Memorial Hnll, " " 579 Machinery Hall, " " 581 Agricultural Hall, " " 583 Horliciiltural Hall, " " 585 U. S. Government Building, " " 587 Woman's Pavilion, " " 589 Inaugural Ceremonies ol" the Centennial Exhibition 593 Alfred T. Goshoru 595 View in the Main Exhibition Building 597 Interior View of Machinery Hall .... 607 Interior View of the United States Government Btiilding 613 Interior View of Agricultural Hall 616 Interior View of Horticultural Hall 621 Rotunda of Memorial Hall 623 Scetie of the Sioux War, 187G 629 Sioux Indians in Battle with limigrauts 629 Rtithcrford B. Hayes 633 James A. Garfield 647 Chester A. Arthur 652 Tlie Telephone 655 Brooklyn Bridge 061 Philip H. Sheridan 67 1 Grover Cleveland 07 2 Thotuas F. Bayard 673 Tliomas A. Hendricks 674 George B. McClellan 674 Ambrose E. Enrnside 675 Jo-^eph Hooker , 075 Wintield Scott Hancock 676 George G. Meade 677 John A. IiOgan 679 Samuel J. Tilden 680 Henry Ward Beecher 681 Morrison R. Waite 682 Roscoe Conkling . 685 Bctijamin Harrison 696 James G. Blaine 697 Old Federal Hall, 1789 702 I iiaiiguration of Washington 707 Old St. Paul's Chapel 709 Sub-Treasury Btiilding in Wall Street 714 John M. Schofield 718 Memorial Arch in AVashington Square 719 INTRODUCTION. 1. The history of every nation is divided into periods. For a while the genius of a people will be turned to some particular pur- suit. Men will devote themselves to certain things and labor to ac- complish certain results. Then the spirit of tlie age will change, and historical facts will assume a different character. Thus arises what is called A Period in History. In studying the history of the United States it is of the Urst importance to understand the periods into which it is divided. 2. First of all, there was a time when the New World was under the dominion of the aborigines. From ocean to ocean the copper-col- ored children of the woods ruled with undisputed sway. By bow and arrow, by flint and hatchet, the Red man sujiported his rude civiliza- tion and waited for the coming of the pale-faced races. 3. After the discovery of America, the people of Europe wei-e hundreds of years in making themselves acquainted with the shape and character of the New World. During that time explorers and adven- turers went everywhere and settled nowhere. To make new discov- eries was the universal passion ; but nobody cared to plant a colony. As long as this spirit prevailed, historical events bore a common char- acter, being produced by common causes. Hence arose the second pe- riod in our history — the Period of Voyage and Discovery. 4. As soon as the adventurers had satisfied themselves with trac- ing sea-coasts, ascending rivers and scaling mountains, they began to form permanent settlements. And each settlement was a new State in the wilderness. Every voyager now became ambitious to plant a col- ony. Kings and queens grew anxious to confer their names on the towns and commonwealths of the New World. Thus arose a third pe- riod — the Period of Colonial History. (xzzix) 3j1 introduction. 5. Then the colonies grew strong and multiplied. There were thirteen little sea-shore republics. The people began to consult about their privileges and to talk of" the rights of freemen. Oppression on the part of the mother-country was met with resistance, and tyranny with defiance. There was a revolt against the king; and the patriots of the different colonies fought side by side, and won their freedom. Then they built them a Union, strong and great. This is the Period of Revolution and Confederation. 6. Then the United States of America entered upon their career as a nation. Three times tried by war and many times vexed with civil dissensions, the Union of our fathers still remains for us and for posterity. Such is the Period of Nationality. 7. Collecting these results, we find five distinctly marked peri- ods in the history of our country : First. The Aboriginal Period ; from remote antiquity to the coming of the White men. Second. The Period of Voyage and Discovery; A. D. 986-1607. Third. The Colonial Period; A. D. 1607-1775. Fourth. The Period of Revolution and Confederation; A. D. 1775-1789. Fifth. The National Period; A. D. 1789-1888. In this order the History of the United States will be presented in the following pages. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. PART I. ABORIGINAL AMERICA. CHAPTER I. THE RED MEN— ORIGIN, DISTRIBUTION, CHARACTER. THE primitive inhabitants of the New World were the Red men called Indians. The name Indian was conferred upon them from their real or fancied resemblance to the people of India. But without any such similarity the name would have been the same; for Colum- bus and liis followers, believing that they had only rediscovered the Indies, would of course call the inhabitants Indians. The supposed similarity between the two races, if limited to mere personal appearance, had some foundation in fact; but in manners, customs, institutions, and character, no two peoples could be more dissimilar than the Amer- ican aborigines and the sleepy inhabitants of China and Japan. The origin of the North American Indians is involved in com- plete obscurity. That they are one of the older races of mankind can not be doubted. But at what date or by what route they came to tlie Western continent is an unsolved problem. Many theories have been proposed to account for the Red man's presence in the New World, but most of them have been vague and unsatisfactory. The notion that the Indians are the descendants of tlie Israelites is absurd. That half civilized tribes, wandering from beyond the Euphrates, should reach North America, surpasses human credulity. That Europeans or Afri- cans, at some remote period, crossed the Atlantic by voyaging from is- land to island, seems altogether improbable. That the Kamtchatkans, wnning by wav of Beh ring's Strait, reached the frozen North-west and 42 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. became the progenitors of the Red men, has no evidence otlier than conjecture to .support it. Until furtiier research shall throw additional lig-ht on the history and migrations of the primitive races of mankind, tlie origin of the Indians will remain shrouded in mystery. It is not unlikely that a more tliorough knowledge of the North American lan- sjuages may furnish a clue to the early history of the tribes that spoke them. The Indians belong to the Gfutointnkin, or Bow-and-Arrow family of men. Some races cultivate the soil; others have herds and flocks ; others build cities and ships. To the Red man of the Western continent the chase was every thing. Without the chase he pined and languished and died. To smite with swift arrow the deer and the bear was the chief delight and profit of the primitive Americans. Such a race could live only in a country of woods and wild animals. The il- limitable hunting-grounds — forest, and hill, and river — were the In- dian's earthly paradise, and the type of his home hereafter. The American alxirigines belonged to several distinct families or nations. Above the si.xticth j)arallel of latitude the whole continent from Labrador to Alaska was inhabited by the Esquimaux. The name means (he eaterti of raw ine((t. They lived in snow huts, or in hovels, partly or wholly underground. Sometimes their houses were more ar- tistically constructed out of the bones of whales and walruses. Their manner of life was that of fishermen and hunters. They clad them- selves in winter with the skins of seals, and in summer with those of reindeers. Inured to cold and exposure, they made long journeys in sledges drawn by dogs, or risked their lives in open boats fighting with whales and polar bears among the terrors of the icebergs. By eating abundantly of oils and fat meats they kept the fires of life a-l)urning, even amid the rigors and desolations of the Arctic winter. Lying south of the Esquimaux, embracing the greater part of Canada and nearly all that portion of the United States east of the Mississippi and north of the thirty-seventh parallel of latitude, si>read the great family of the ALfioXQUiXS. It appears that their original scat was on the Ottawa River. At the beginning of the sev- enteenth century the Algonquins numbered fully a quarter of a million. The tribes of this great family were nomadic in their habits, roaming from one hunting-ground and river to another, according to the exi- gencies of fishing and the chase. Agriculture was but little esteemed. They were divided into many subordinate tribes, each having its local name, dialect, and traditions. When the first European settlements were planted the Algonquin race was already declining in numbers ABORIGINAL AMERICA. 4.3 aiul influence. Wasting diseases destroyed whole tribes. Of all the Indian nations the Algonquins suffered most from contact with the White man. Before his aggressive spirit, his fiery rum, and his de- structive weapons, the warriors were unable to stand. The race has withered to a shadow; only a few thousands remain to rehearse the story of their ancestors. Within the wide territory occupied by the Algonquins lived the powerful nation of the Huron-Iroquois. Their domain extended over the country reaching from Georgian Bay and Lake Huron to Lakes Erie and Ontario, south of those lakes to the valley of the Up- per Ohio, and eastwai'd to the River Sorel. Within this extensive dis- trict was a confederacy of vigorous tribes, having a common ancestry, and generally — though not always — acting together in war. At the time of their greatest ])o\ver and influence the Huron-Iroquois em- braced no less than nine allied nations. These were the Hurons proper, living north of Lake Erie; the Erics and Andastes, south of the same water; the Tuscaroras, of Carolina, who ultimately joined their kinsmen in the North; the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Onei- das, and Mohawks, constituting the famous Five Nations of New York. The warriors of tliis great confederation presented the Indian character in its most favorable aspect. They were brave, patriotic, and eloquent; not wholly averse to useful industry; living in respectable villages; tilling the soil with considerable success; faithful as friends but terri- ble as enemies. South of the country of the Algonquins were the Cherokees and THE MoBiLiAN Nations; the former occupying Tennessee, and the latter covering the domain between the Lower Mississippi and the Atlantic. The Cherokees were highly civilized for a primitive peo- ple, and contact with the whites seemed to improve rather than degrade them. The principal tribes of the Mobilians were the Ya- massees and Creeks of Georgia, the Seminoles of Florida, and the Choetaws and Chickasaws of Mississippi. These displayed the usual characteristics of the Red men, with this additional circumstance, that below the thirty-second parallel of latitude evidences of temple-build- ing, not practiced among the Northern tribes, began to ajipear. West of the Father of Waters was the great and widely-spread race of the Dakotas, whose territory extended from the Arkansas River to the country of the Esquimaux and westward to the Rocky Mountains. Their languages and institutions, differing much among the various tribes, are not so well understood as tliose of some other nations. South of the land of the Dakotas, in a district nearly cor- 44 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. responding with the present State of Texas, lived the wild Coman- CHES, whose very name is a synonym for savage ferocity. Beyond the Rocky Mountains were the Indian nations of the Plains; the great family of the Shoshonees, the Selish, the Klamaths, and the Californians. On the Pacific slojje farther southward dwelt in for- mer times the famous races of Aztecs and Toltecs. These were the most civilized of the primitive Indian nations, but at the same time among the most feeble ; the best builders in wood and stone, but the least warlike of any of the aborigines. Such is a brief sketch of the distribution of the copper-colored race in the New World. The ter- ritorial position of the various nations and tribes will be easily under- stood from an examination of the accompanying map. The Indians were strongly marked with national peculiarities. The most striking characteristic of the race was a certain sense of per- sonal independence — tviUfnlne.'^s of action — freedom from restraint. To the Red man's imagination the idea of a civil authority wliich should subordinate his passions, curb his will, and thwart his purposes, was intolerable. Among this people no common enterprise was possible unless made so by the concurrence of free wills. If the chieftain entered the war-path, his kinsmen and the braves of other tribes fol- lowed him only because they chose his leadership. His authoritv and right of command extended no further than to be foremost in danger, most cunning in savage strategy, bravest in battle. So of all the relations of Indian life. The Medicine Man was a self-constituted physician and prophet. No man gave him his authority ; no man took it away. His right was his own ; and his influence depended upon himself and the voluntary respect of the nation. In the solemn de- bates of the Council House, where the red orators pronounced their wild harangues to groups of motionless listeners, only questions of expediency were decided. The painted sachems never thought of imposing on the unwilling minority the decision which had been reached in council. Next among the propensities of the Red men was the passion for war. Their wars, however, were always undertaken for the re- dress of grievances, real or imaginary, and not for conquest. But ■with the Indian, a redress of grievances meant a personal, vindictive, and bloody vengeance on the offender. The Indian's principles of war were easily understood, but irreconcilable with justice and hu- manity. The forgiveness of an injury was reckoned a weakness and a shame. Revenge was considered among the nobler virtues. The open, honorable battle of the field was an event unknown in Indian DISTRIBUTIOX ASD TEKRITOKTAL LIMITS — op — ^^e INDIAN NAT\0^^' IN THE NEW WORLD. SfAI.K fasting and prayer, and tiien made revelations of the will and purposec of the spirit world. The religious ceremonies of the Indians were per- formed with great earnestness and solemn formality. In the matter of the arts tlie Indian was a barbarian. His house was a wigwam or hovel. Some poles set up in a circle, converging at the top, covered with skins and the branches of trees, lined and some- times floored with mats, a fire in the center, a low opening opposite the point from which the wind blew — such was the aboriginal abode of North America. Indian utensils were few, rude, and primitive. Poorlv-fashioned earthen pots, bags and pouches for carrying provis- ions, and stone hammers for pounding parched corn, were the stock and store. A copper kettle was a priceless treasure. The warrior's chief implement was his hatcliet of stone or copper. This he always carried with him, and it was rarely free from the stain of blood. His weapon of offence and defence was the bow and arrow, by no means an insignificant or feeble instrument. The arrow pointed with stone or iron was frequently driven cudirlt/ through the ponderous buffalo. The range of the winged missile was two hundred yards or more, and the aim was one of fatal accuracy when the White man was the tar- get. The Indian's clothing was a blanket, thrown over his shoulders, bound around him perhai>s with a thong of leather. The material for his moccasins * and leggins was stripped from the red buck, elk, or buffalo. He was fond of hanging about his person an infinity of non- sensical trappings ; fangs of rattlesnakes, claws of hawks, feathers of eagles, bones of animals, scalps of enemies. He painted his face and body, specially when the passion of war was on him, with all manner of glaring and fantastic colors. So tlie Prophet of his nation taught him; so he would be terrible to his enemies; so he would exemplify the peculiarities of his nation and be unlike the Pale face. All the higher arts were wanting. Indian writing consisted only of quaint and half-intelligible hieroglyphics rudely scratched on the face of rocks or cut in the bark of trees. The artistic sense of the savage could rise no higher than a coarse necessity compelled the flight. The language spoken by a peojjle is always a matter of special * Tlie Algonquin word is makmn. 48 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. SPECIMEN OF INDIAN WRITING. Translation: Eight soldiers (9), with musliets (10), commanded by a cap- tain (1), and accompanied by a secretary (2), a geologist (3), three attend- ants (4, 5, 6), and two Indian guides, encamped here. They had three camp fires (13, 14, 1.5), and ate a turtle and a prairie hen (11, 12), for supper. interest anil importance. Tlie dialects of the North American races bear many and evident marks of resemblance among themselves; but little or no analogy to tiie languages of other nations. If there is any similarity at all, it is tbund between the Indian tongues and those sjwken by the nomadic races of Asia. The vocaljulary of the Red men was a very limited one. The principal objects of na- ture had spec- ial names, and actions were likewise spe- cifically e X - j)re.ssed. Ab- stract ideas but rarely f o u n d expression in any of the Indian languages ; such ideas could only be expressed by a long and labored circumlocution. Words had a narrow but very intense meaning. There was, for in.stance, no general word signify- ing to hunt or to fish ; but one word signified " to-kill-a-deer-with-an- arrow;" another, " to-take-fish-by-.striking-the-ice." In mo.st of the dialects there was no word for brother; but "elder-brother" and " younger-brother " could be expressed. Among many of the tribes the meanings of words ami phrases were so restricted that the war- rior would use one set of terms and the squaw another to express the .same ideas. The languages were monosyllabic; but many of the mono.syllables might be combined to form compounds resembling the poly.syllables of European tongues. These compounds, ex])ressing ab- stract and difficult ideas, were sometimes inordinately long,* the whole forming an explanation or flescripfion of the thing rather than a sin- gle word. Scholars have applied the term agylutinative to those lan- guages in which such labored and tedious forms of expression occur. Of this sort are the tongues spoken by the nomadic races of A.sia. *' For instance, in the Massachusetts dialect, the form of speecli nie.iniirg "o«r qvxaf Hon" was this: Kum-moe-ko-don-at-toot-tum-raoo-et-it-e-a-ong-an-iiun-non-ash. ABORIOIXAL AMERICA. 49 In personal appearance the Indians were strong/y marked. In stature they were nearly all below the average of Europeans. The Esquimaux are rarely live feet high, hut are generally thick-set and heavy. The Algonquins are taller and lighter in build; a straight auc' agile race, lean and ^!wift of foot, jet-black and en ; straight Eyes sunk- hair black and beard black and scant; skin copper-colored, a red- dish-black, cin- namon-hued, brown ; high cheek bones ; forehead and skull variable in shape and proportion; hands and feet small ; body lithe but not strong; expression sinister, or rarely dignified and noble : — these are the well-known features and person of the Indian. Though gener- ally sedate in man- ^lers and serious in behavior, the Red men at times gave themselves up to merry-making and hilarity. The dance was universal — not the social dance of civ- ilized nations, but the dance of ceremony, of religion, and of war. Sometimes the warriors danced alone, but frequently the women joined in the wild exercise, circling around and around, chanting the weird, monotonous songs of the tribes. Many other amusements were com-^ mon, such as running, leaping, wrestling, shooting at a mark, racing in canoes along swift rivers or placid lakes, playing at ball, or en- gaging in intricate and exciting games, performed with small stones resembling checkers cr dice. To this latter sport was not unfre- quently added the intoxication of gambling, in which the warriors, under the influence of their fierce passion, would often hazard and * An authentic portrait of the celebrated Black Hawk, chief of the Sacs and Foxes. 4 A NORTH A5IERICAN ItlDIAN. ■ 60 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. lose their entire possessions. In soberer moments, the Red men, never inclined to conversation, would sit in silence, communing each with his own thoughts or lost in a dream under the fascination of his pipe. The use of tobacco was universal and excessive; and after the introduction of intoxicating liquors by the Europeans the Indi- ans fell into terrible drunkenness, only limited in its extent bv the amount of sjiirits which they could procure. It is doubtful whether any other race has been so awfully degraded by drink. Such is a brief sketch of tiic Red man — who wax rather than is. The only hope of the perpetuity of his race seems now to center in the Choctaws, Cherokees, Creeks and Chickasaws of the Indian Ter- ritory. These nations, numbering in the aggregate about forty-eight thousand souls, have attained a considerable degree of civilization ; and with just and liberal dealing on the part of the Government the outlook for the future is not discouraging. Most of the other Indian tribes seem to be rapidly approaching extinction. Right or wrong, such is the logic of events. Whether the Red man has been justly deprived of the ownership of the New World will remain a subject of debate ; that he has been deprived, can be none. The Saxon has come. His conquering foot has trodden the vast domain from shore to shore. The weaker race has withered from his presence and s^vord. By the majestic rivers and in the depths of the solitary woods the feeble sons of the Bow and Arrow will be seen no more. Only their names remain on hill and stream and mountain. The Red man sinks and fails. His eyes are to the West. To the prairies and forests, the hunting-grounds of his ancestors, he says farewell. He is gone ! The cypress and the hemlock sing his requiem. PART II. YOTAGE AND DISCOTEEY. A. ». 9S6-1607. CHAPTER II. y^ THE ICELANDERS AND NORWEGIANS IN AMERICA. THE western continent was first seen l)y white men in A. D. 986. A Norse navigator by the name of Herjulfson, sailing from Iceland to Greenland, was caught in a storm and driven westward to Newfoundland or Labrador. Two or three times the shores were seen, but no landing was made or attempted. The coast was low, abounding in forests, and so different from the well-known cliffs of Greenland as to make it certain that another shore hitherto unknown Was in sight. On reaching Greenland, Herjulfson and his companions told wonderful stories of the new lands seen in the west. Fourteen years later, the actual discovery of America was made by Lief Eeickson. This noted Icelandic captain, resolving to know the truth about the country which Herjulfson had seen, sailed west- ward from Greenland, and in the spring of the year 1001 reached Labrador. Impelled by a spirit of adventure, he landed with his companions, and made explorations for a considerable distance along the coast. The country was milder and more attractive than his own, and he was in no haste to return. Southward he went as far as Massachusetts, where the daring company of Norsemen remained for more than a year. Rhode Island was also visited; and it is alleged that the hardy adventurers found their way into New York harbor. What has once been done, whether by accident or design, may easily be done again. In the years that followed Lief Erickson's dis- covery, other companies of Norsemen came to the shores of America. Thorwald, Lief 's brother, made a voyage to Maine and Massachu- setts in 1002, and is said to have died at Fall River in the latter state. (51) 52 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Then another brother, Thorstei.v l)y name, arrived with a band of followers in 1005 ; and in the year 1007, Thorfinn Karlsefne, the most distinguislied mariner of his day, eame with a crew of a hnndred and tifty men, and made exi)lorations along the coast of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and per haps as tar south as the capes of Virginia. Other companies of Icelanders and Norwegians visited the countries fa r t h e r north, and planted col- onies in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. Little, however, was known or imagined by these rude sailors of the extent of the country which they had discovered. They supposed that it was only a portion of Western Greenland, which, bend- insr to the north around an arm of the ocean, had reajjpeared in the west. The settlements which were made, were feeble and soon broken up. Commerce was au im- possibility in a country where there were only a few wretched savages with no disjOTsition to buy and nothing at all to sell. The spirit of adventure was soon appeased, and the restless Northmen returned to their own country. To this undefined line of coast, now vaguely known to them, the Norse sailors gave the name of Vinland; and the old Icelandic chroniclers insist that it was a pleasant and beauti- ful country. As compared with their own mountainous and frozen island of tl"; North, the coasts of New England may well have seemed delightful. The men who thus first visited the shores of the New World were a race of hardy adventurers, as lawless and restless as any that ever sailed the deep. Their mariners and soldiers penetrated every clime. The better parts of France and England fell under their do- minion. All the monarchs of the latter country after William the Conqueror — himself the grandson of a sea-king — are descendants of NORSE EXPLOEATIONS. VOYAGE AND DISCO VEEK the Norsemen. They were rovers of the sea; freebooters and pi- rates ; warriors audacious and headstrong, wearing hoods surmounted with eagles' wings and wah'uses' tusks, mailed armor, and for robes the skins of polar bears. AVoe to the people on whose defenceless coasts the sea-kings landed with sword and torch! Their wayward life and ferocious disposition are well portrayed in one of their own old bal- He scorns to rest 'neatli the smoky rafter, He plows with liis hoat the roaring deep; The billows boil and the storm howls after — But tlie tempest is only a thing of laughter, — The sea-king loves it better than sleep ! During the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries occa- sional voyages continued to be made; and it is said that as late as A. D. 1347 a Norwegian ship visited Labrador and the north-eastern parts of the United States. The Norse remains which have been found at Newport, at Garnet Point, and several other places seem to point clearly to some such events as are here described; and the Ice- landic historians give a uni- form and tolerably consistent account of these early ex- ploits of their countrymen. When the word America is mentioned in the hearing of the Icelandic schoolboys, they will at once answer, with en- thusiasm, "Oh, yes; Lief Er- ickson discovered that country in the year lOOL" An event is to be weighed by its consequences. From the discovery of Amer- ica by the Norsemen, nothing Mhatever resulted. The world was neither wiser nor better. Among the Icelanders themselves the place and the very name of Yinland were forgotten. Europe never heard of such a country or such a discovery. Historians have until late years been incredulous on the subject, and the fact is as though it had never been. The curtain which had been lifted for a A NORSE SEA-KING OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. 54 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. moment was stretched again fVorn sky to sea, and the New World still lay hidden in the shadows. * CHAPTER III. SPANISH DISCO VERIES IN AMERICA. TT wa.? reserved for the people of a sunnier clime than Iceland first to make known to the European nations the existence of a Western con- tinent. Spain was the happy country under whose auspicious patronage a new world was to be added to the old ; but the man who was destined to make the revelation was not himself a Spaniard : he was to come from genial Italy, the land of olden valor and the home of so much greatness. Christopher Columbus was the name of that man whom after ages have justly rewarded with imperishable fame. The idea that tbe world is round was not original with Columbus. Others before him had held a similar belief; but the opinion had been so feebly and uncertainly entertained as to lead to no practical results. Copernicus, the Prussian astronomer, had not yet taught, nor had Galileo, the great Italian, yet demonstrated, the true system of .the universe. The Englisli traveler. Sir John Mandeville, had declared in the very first English book that ever was written (A. D. 1.356) that the world is a sphere ; that he himself, when traveling northward, had seen the polar star approach the zenith, and that on going southward the antarctic con- stellations had risen overhead ; and that it was both possible and practicable for a man to sail around the world and return to the place of starting : but neither Sir John liiniself nor any other seaman of his times was bold enough to undertake so hazardous an enterprise. f Columbus was, no doubt, the first practical believer in the theory of circumnaviga- tion ; and although he never sailed around the world himself, he demonstrated the possibility of doing so. * Aa to the reality of the Norse discoveries in America, the following from Hum- boldt's Cosmos, Vol. II., pp. 269-272, may be cited as conclusive: "We are here on historical ground. By the critical and highly praiseworthy efforts of Professor Rafn and the Koyal Society of Antiquaries in Copenhagen, the Sagas and documents in regard to the expeditions of the Nor.semen to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Vinland have been published and satisfactorily commented upon. * * *' * The dis- covery of the nm-lhem part cf Ametica by the Norsemen can not be disputed. The length of the voyage, tlie direction in which tliey sailed, the time of the sun's rising and setting, are accurately given. While the Caliphate of Bagdad was still flourisli- ing, * * * * America was discovered about the year A. D. 1000, by Lief, the son of Eric the Red, at the latitude of forty one and a-half degrees north." t See Appendix A. roVAGE AXD DISCO VEEY. 55 The great mistake with Cohimbus and others who shared his opinions "was not concerning tiie figure of the earth, lint in regard to its size. He believed the world to be no more than ten thousand or twelve thousand miles in circumference. He therefore confidently expected that after sail- ing about three thousand miles to the westward he should arrive at the East Indies ; and to do that was the one great purpose of his life. Christopher Columbus was born at Genoa, a .seacoast town of North- western Italy, in A.D.I 435. He was carefully educated, and then devoted himself to the sea. His ancestors had been sea- men before him. His own inclination as well as his early training made him a sailor. For twenty yeare he traversed the Mediter- ranean and the parts of the Atlantic adjacent to Europe; he visited Iceland ; tiien went to Portugal, and finally to Spain. The idea of reaching the Indies by crossing the Atlan- tic had already pos- sessed him. For more than ten years the poor enthusiast was a beg- gar, going from court to court, explaining to dull monarclis and bigoted monks the' figure of the earth and the ease with which the rich islands of the East might be reached by sailing westward. He found one appreciative listener, after- ward his constant and faithful friend — the noble and sympathetic Isa- bella, queen of Castile. Be it never forgotten that to the faith, and insight, and decision of a woman the final success of Columbus nmst be attributed. On the morning of the 3d day of August, 1492, Columbus, with his three ships, left the harbor of Palos. After seventy-one days of sailing, in the early dawn of October 12, Rodrigo Triana, who chanced to be on the lookout from the Pinta, set up a shout of " Land ! " A gun was fired as the signal. The ships lay to. There was music and jubilee; CHKKSTOPHEK COLUMBUS. 66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and just at sunrise Columbus himself first stepped ashore, shook out the royal lianner of Castile in the presence of the wondering natives, and named the island San Salvador. During the three remaining months of this first A-oyage the islands of Concepcion, Cuba and Hayti were added to the list of discoveries ; and on the bay of Caracola, in the last' named island, Mas erected out of the timbers of the Santa Maria a fort, the first structure built by Europeans in the New World. In the earlj part of January, 1493, Columbus sailed for Spain, where he arrived in March, and was everywhere greeted with rejoicings and ajiplause. In September of the following autumn Columbus sailed on his second voyage. He still believed that by this route westward he should reach, if indeed he had not already reached, the Indies. The result of the second voyage was tlie discovery of the Windward group and the islands of Jamaica and Porto Rico. It was at this time that the first colony was established in Hayti and Columbus's brother appointed governor. After an absence of nearly three years, Columbus returned to Spain in the sum- mer of 1496 — returned to find himself the victim of a thousand bitter jealousies and suspicions. All the rest of his life was clouded with perse- cutions and misfortunes. He made a third voyage, discovered the island of Trinidad and the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco. Thence he sailed back to Hayti, where he found his colony disorganized ; and here, while attempting to restore order, he was seized by Bobadilla, an agent of the Spanish government, put in chains and car- ried to Spain. After a disgraceful imprisonment, he was liberated and sent on a fourth and last voyage in search of the Indies ; but besides making some explorations along the south side of the Gulf of INIexico, the expedition accomplished nothing, and Columbus, overwhelmed with discouragements, returned once more to his ungrateful country. The good Isabella was dead, and the great discoverer found himself at last a friendless and despised old man tottering into the grave. Death came, and fame afterward. Of all the Avrongs done to the memon' of Columbus, perhaps the greatest was that which robbed liim of the name of the new conti- nent. Tliis was bestowed ujton one of the least wortliy of the many adventurers whom the genius and success of Columbus had drawn to the West. In the year 1499, Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator of some daring but no great celebrity, reached the eastern coast of South America. It does not appear that his explorations there were of any great importance. Two years later he made a second voyage, and then hastened home to give to Europe the first jiublished account of the Western V'nrld. Vespucci's onlv merit consisted in his recognition of lOOO IIOO Cciitriil Poriod of the Middle Ages. •U. Courad II. Th 99. 35. Union of C 3,1. Heiirv tbe Bla4-k. S6. Henry HOUSE OP CAPET IN FHANCE. 17 Canute. 40. Hardicau nte. 1300 52. Frederi 80. T ck Barbaro8sa. e CRUSADES. Tlie Kingdom of Jerusalem established. astile and Leon. 8. IiOllis \l. IV. 20. IjOiiis IX. 1300 he Kingdi 85. P hilip IV. 16. Phili The difl'ereut Or ders of Knighthood establish< 37. Louis VII. 71. C'onq nest or Irelaual. 80. Ph ilip II. 28. HC V 42. Edward ilhe Confessor, 60. Harold. '^^' struggle of ttae Gnelphs and Ohibel lines, C6. William I 87. DANISH KINGS IN ENGLAND. The NORMANS. 3.5. Stephen. Williaiu RnTus. Henry I. 54. Henry 89. 99. \¥ars of the Barons. 15. 9Iagna Chartaj granted. II. Ricliard I. Jobii. The PLANTAGENETS. Heroic .4ge. 72. Edward I. 7. Ednard Wicl 27. E« 1. lEIF KRICKSON, an Icelandic navigator, sailing westward from Greenluuil, discovers tlie coast of Labrador, and makes explorations as far aoutli as Rhode Island. BJarne Herjnlfson driven by a storm witliin sight of the American coast A. D. 9se. 2. Thorwald Erickson re- turns to America and re- mains three years. 5. Thorstein Erickson CO 7. Ttaorfinn Karlsefne ex U. Expedition of Freydis THE WESTERN CONTINENT UNKNOWN 21. Erik Vpsi sent as TO THE bishop to Vinlaud. f Jeru saleiu overtbrowii. as. Columbus boi'ii. 15. Joliu Hhs.«*. First bo ok written in En^- 98. l)e Oama doubles the Cape liNh, iu which the author, SirJoliii of Good Hope and reaches 48. Treaty of Miindevil le, declares the spherical the Kast Indies. Westphalia. ligure of the earth aud the practica- Liuther. bility of cireumiiavigation. 80. Ch ariesvi. ^nntii.g Inbcntrl). 11-31. Joan of Arc. The Keforiuat ion. •>2. Charles VII. 61. L.onis XI. OF 0. Johu Calvin. IS. 72. St. Biirlliolomew. 77. Bic bard II. r.. Francis I. [ Wars of the Roses. Ml. 19. Chai'Ies V. Henry IV. T he LANCASTEES. 10. Eonis XIII. 74. Fcr diuaud and Isabella. The TUDOKS. The PURITANS. 43.L>oiiis XIV &5.H enry VII. 3. James I. The YOEKS. . Henry VIII. 99. Henry IV. 13. Henry V. 47. Edward VI. 25. Charles I. 22. Henry VI. 83. Mary. The STUARTS. 61. Edward IV. x:;. E e S; ar vaoz mak es explorations in Florida. 3!i. Be Soto in Am erica. 65. Melen dez founds St. Augustine. 97. John Cabot discovers No rth America. 98. Sebastian Cabot explores the American coast. 78. Ma rtin Frobisher's voyages. 79. »r ake on the Pacific coast. 83. G jlbert's voyage. [tion. >mpany of Norsemen in America. K aleig^h's attempts at coloniza- 2. 4>osnolrin8;'s voyii<;e. 7. Settlement at .lames! own 77. Col umbus visits Iceland and s. Wayniontli in Maine. TRIBES. learns of the New World. 20. The Puritans at I'lymoiith. .._/ 24. Verrazzani explor ai. Cartier's exped cs the American coast, ition. 42. Koberval in Canada. 62.RibanIt 64.. Eando with the Huguenots. nniere's enterprise. 98. Ea Roclte in Nova Scotia. 4. I>e Monts anoiv .\iii- storut were dispersed by the invaders. After freeing the coast of his opjio- nents, Cortez proceeded westward to Vera Cruz, a seaport one hun- dred and eighty miles south-east of the Mexican capital. Here he was met by ambassadors from the celebrated Montezuma, emperor of the country. From liim they delivered messages and exhibited great anxiety lest Cortez sliould march into the interior. He as- sured them that such was indeed his purpose ; that his business in the country was urgent; and that he must confer with Montezuma in person. The ambassadors tried in vain to dissuade the terrible Sj)aniard. They made him costly presents, and then hastened back to their alarmed sovereign. Montezuma immediately despatched them a sec- ond time with presents still more valuable, and with urgent appeals to Cortez to proceed no farther. But the cupidity of the Spaniards was now inflamed to the highest pitch, and burning their ships behind them, they began theii march towards the capital. The Mexican eni- VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 59 peror by his messengers forbade their approaeii to his city. Still they pressed on. The nations tributary to Montezuma threw off their al- legiance, made peace with the conqueror, and even joined his stand- ard. The irresolute and vacillating Indian monarch knew not what to do. The Span- iards came in sight of the city — a glit- tering and splen- did vision of spires and temples ; and the poor Montezu- ma came forth to receive his remorse- less enemies. On the morning of the 8th of November, 1519, the Spanish army marched over the causeway lead- ing into the Mexi- can capital and was quartered in the great central square near the temple of the war. It was now winter time. For a month Cortez remained quietly in the city. He was permitted to go about freely with his soldiers, and was even allowed to examine the sacred altars and .shrines where human sacrifices were daily ofl'ered up to the deities of Mexico. He made himself familiar with the defences of the capital and the Mex- ican mode of warfare. On every side he found inexhaustible stores of provisions, treasures of gold and silver, and what greatly excited his solicitude, arsenals filled with bows and javelins. But although surrounded with splendor and abiuidance, his own situation became extremely critical. The millions of natives who swarmed around him were becoming familiar with his troops and no longer believed them immortal. There were mutterings of an outbreak which threatened to overwhelm him in an hour. In this emergency tbe Spanish general adopted the bold and unscrupulous expedient of seizing Montezuma and holding him as a hostage. A plausible pretext for this outrage was found in tlie fact that tlie Mexican governor of the ]>n)vince Aztec god of FEUNANDO CORTEZ. GO HISTORY (IF THE UXITED STATES. adjaeent to Vera Cruz had attacked the Spanish garrison at that place, and that Montezuma himself had acted with hostility and treachery towards the Spaniards while they were marching on the city. As soon as the emperor -was in his ])ower, Cortez compelled him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the king of Spain and to agree to the payment of a sum auKiunting to six million three hundred thousand dollars, with an annual tribute afterwards. In the mean time, Velasquez, the Spanish governor of Cuba, jealous of the fame of Ccn-tez, had despatched a force to Mexico to arrest his progress and to supersede him in the command. The ex- pedition was led by Pamphilo de Xarvaez, the same who was afterwards "overnor of Florida. His forces consisted of more than twelve hundred well armed and M-ell disciplined soldiers, besides a thousand Indian servants and guides. But the vigilant Cortez had meanwhile been informed by messengers from Vera Cruz of the movement which his enemies at home had set on foot against him, and he determined to sell his command only at the price of his own life and the lives of all his followers. He therefore instructed Al- varado, one of his subordinate officers, to remain in tiic capital with a small force of a hundred and forty men; and with the remainder, numbering less than two hundred, he himself hastily withdrew from the citv and proceeded by a forced march to encounter De Narvaez on the sea-coast. On the night of the 26th of May, 1520, while the ■soldiers of the latter were quietly asleep in their camp near Vera Cruz, Cortez burst upon them with the fury of despair, and before they could rally or well understand the terrible onset, compelled the whole force to surrender. Then, adding the general's skill to the warrior's prowess, he succeeded in inducing the conquered army to join his (nvn .standard ; and with his forces thus augmented to six times their original numbers lie began a second time his march to- Avards the capital. Wiiile Cortez was absent on this expedition, the Mexicans of the ca])ital rose in arms, and the possession of the country was staked on the issue of war. Alvarado, either fearing a revolt or from a si>irit of atrocious cruelty, had attacked the Mexicans while they were celclu-ating one of their festivals, and slain five hundred of the leaders and priests. The people in a frenzy of astonishment and rage flew to their arms and laid siege to the palace where Alvarado and his men were fortified. The Spaniards were already hard pressed when Cortez at the head of his new army reached the city. He en- tered without ojjposition and joined Alvarado's command; but the ])assiims of the Mexicans were now thoroughly aroused, and not all VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 61 the diplomacy of the Spanish general could again bring them into subjection. In a few days the conflict began in earnest. The streets were deluged with the blood of tens of thousands; and not a few of the Spaniards fell before the vengeance of the native warriors. For months there was almost incessant fighting in and around the city ; and it became evident that the Spaniards must ultimately be overwhelmed and destroyed. To save himself from his peril, Cortez adopted a second shame- less expedient, more wicked than the first. Montezuma was compelled to go upon the top of the palace in front of the great square where the besiegers were gathered and to counsel them to make peace with the Spaniards. For a moment there was universal silence, then a murmur of vexation and rage, and then Montezuma was struck down by the javelins of his own subjects. In a few days he died of wretchedness and despair, and for a while the warriors, overwhelmed with remorse, abandoned the conflict. But with the renewal of the strife Cortez was obliged to leave the city. Finally a great battle was fought, and the Spanish arms and valor triumphed. In the crisis of the struggle the sacred Mexican banner was struck down and captured. Dismay seized the hosts of puny warriors, and they fled in all directions. In De- cember of 1520, Cortez again marched on the capital. A siege, last- ing until August of the following year, ensued ; and then the famous city yielded. The empire of the Montezumas was overthrown, and Mexico became a Spanish province. Among the many daring enterprises which marked the beginning of the sixteenth century, that of Ferdinand Magellan is worthy of special mention. A Portuguese by birth, a navigator by profession, this man, .so noted for extraordinary boldness and ability, determined to discover a south-west rather than a north-west passage to Asia. With this object in view, he appealed to the king of Portugal for ships and men. The monarch listened coldly, and did nothing to give encouragement. Incensed at this treatment, Magellan threw off his allegiance, went to Spain — the usual resort of disappointed sea- men — and laid his plans before Charles V. The emperor caught eagerly at the opportunity, and ordered a fleet of five ships to be im- mediately fitted at the public expense and pi-operly manned with crews. The voyage was begun from Seville in August of 1519. Sailing southward across the equinoctial line, Magellan soon reached the coast of South America, and spent the autumn in explorations, hoping to find some strait that should lead him westward into that ocean which Balboa had discovered six years previously. Not at first successful in this effort, 62 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. he passed the winter — whicli \va,s summer on that side of the equator — ■ somewhere on tlie coast of Brazil. Renewing his voyage southward, lie came at last to the eastern mouth of that strait which still bears the name of its discoverer, and passing througli it found himself in the ojjen and boundless ocean. The weather was beimtiful, and the peaceful deep was called the Pacific. Setting his prows to the north of west, IMagellan now held steadily on his course for nearly four months, suficring much meanwhile from want of water and scarcity of provisions. In March of 1520 he came to the group of islands called the I^adrones, situated about midway between Australia and Japan. Sailing still westward, he reached the Philippine group, where he was killed in a battle with the natives. But the fleet was now less than four hundred miles from China, and the rest of the route was easy. A new captain was chosen, and the voyage continued by way of the Moluccas, where a cargo of spices was taken on board for the market of Western Europe. Only a single ship was deemed in a fit condition to venture on the homeward voyage; but in this vessel the crews embarketl, and returning Ijy way of the Cape of Good Hoj)e arrived in Spain on the 17th day of September, 1522. The circumnavigation of the globe, long believed in as a possibility, had now become a thing of reality. The theory of the old astronomers, of Mandeville and of Columbus had been proved l)y actual demonstration. The next important voyage undertiiken to the shores of America was in the year 1520. Lucas Vasqi'ez de Ayllon, who had been a judge in St. Domingo and had acquired great riches, conducted the expedition. He and six other wealthy men, eager to stock their plantations with slaves, determined to do so by kidna]i|)ing natives from the neighboring Bahamas. Two vessels were fitted out for the purpose, and De Ayllon commanded in person. When the vessels were nearing their destination, they encoun- tered a storm which drove them northward about a hundred and fifty leagues, and brought them against the coast of South Carolina. The ships entered St. Helena Sound and anchored in the mouth of the Cambahee River. The name of Chicora was given to the country, and the river was called the Jordan. The timid but friendly natives, as soon as their fca.s had subsided, began to make presents to the strangers and to treat them with great cordiality. They flocked on board the ships ; and when the decks were crowded, De Ayllon, watching his opportunity, weighed anchor and sailed away. A few days afterward an avenging storm sent one of the ships to the bottom of the sea, and death came mercifully to most of the poor Avretches who were huddled under the hatches of the other. VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 63 Going at once to Spain, De Ayllon repeated the story of his exploit to Charles V., who rewarded him with the governorship of Chicora and the privilege of conquest. Returning to his province in 1525, he found the natives intensely hostile. His best ship ran aground in the mouth of the Jordan, and the outraged Indians fell u^ion him with fury, killing many of the treacherous crew, and making the rest glad enough to get away v;ith their lives. De Ayllon liimself returned to St. Domingo humiliateil and ruined. Thus ended the first dLsgraceful effort to enslave the Indians. In the year 1526, Charles V. appointed the unprincijiled Pamphilo DE Narvaez governor of Florida, and to the appointment was added the usual privilege of conquest. Tlie territory thus placed at his disposal extended from Cape Sabie fully three-fifths of the way around the Gulf of Mexico, and was limited on the south-west by the mouth of the River of Palms. AVitii tiiis extensive commission De Narvaez arrived at Tampa Bay in the month of April, 1528. His force consisted of two hundred and sixty soldiers and forty horsemen. The natives treated them with suspicion, and, anxious to be rid of the intruders, began to hold up their gold trinkets and to point to the north. The hint was eagerly caught at by the avaricious Spaniards, wiiose imaginations were set on fire with the sight of tlie precious metal. They struck boldly into the forests, expect^ ing to find cities and empires, and found instead swamps and savages. They readied the Witiilacoociiie and crossed it by swimming, they ])assed over the Suwanee in a canoe which they made for the occasion, and finally came to Apalachee, a squalid village of forty cabins. This, then, was the miglity city to which their guides had directed them. Oppressed with fatigue and goaded by hunger, they plunged again into the woods, wading through lagoons and assailed by lurking savages, until at last they reached the sea at the harbor of St. Mark's. Here they expected to find their ships, but not a ship was there, or had been. WitJi great labor they constructed some brigantines, and put to sea in the vain hope of reaching the Sj)anish settlements in Mexico. They Avere tossed by storms, driven out of sight of land and then thrown upon the shore again, drowned, slain by the savages, left in the solitary woods dead of starvation and despair, until finally four miserable men of all the adven- turous company, under the leadership of the heroic De Vaca, first lieu- tenant of the expedition, were rescued at the village of San Miguel, on the Pacific coast, and conducted to the city of Mexico. The story can hardly be paralleled in the annals of suffering and peril. But the Spaniards were not yet satisfied. In the yeai' 1537 a new expedition was planned which surpassed all the others in the bril- 64 HISTORY UF THE UNITED STATES. liancy of its beginning and the disasters of its end. The most cavaliei of the cavaliers was Ferdinand de Soto, of Xeres. Besides the dis- tinction of a noble birth, he had been the lieutenant and bosom friend of Pizarro, and had now returned from Peru loaded with wealth. So great was his popularity in Spain that he had only to demand what he would have of the emperor that his request might be granted. At his own dic- tation he was accordingly appointed governor of Cuba and Florida, with the privilege of exploring and conquering the latter country at liis pleasure. A great company of young Spaniards, nearly all of them wealtliy and high-born, flocked to his standard. Of these he selected six hundred of the most gallant and daring. They were clad in costly suits of armor of the knightly pattern, with airy scarfs and silken embroideiy and all the trappings of chivalry. Elaborate preparations wei'e made for the grand conquest ; arms and stores were provided ; shackles ^\cr': wrought for the slaves ; tools for the forge and workshop were abundantly sup- plied ; bloodhounds were bought and trained for the work of hunting fugitives ; cards to keep the young knights excited with gaming ; twelve priests to conduct religious ceremonies ; and, last of all, a dro\-e of swine to fatten on the maize and mast of the countiy. When, after a year of impatience and delay, everything was at last in readiness, the gay Castilian squadron, ten vessels in all, lelt the harbor of San Lucar to conquer imaginary empires in the New World. The fleet touched at Havana, and the enthusiasm was kindled even to a higher pitch than it had reached in Spain. De Soto left his wife to govern Cuba during his absence; and after a prosperous and exulting voyage of two ■weeks, the ships cast anchor in Tampa Bay. This A\as in the early part of June, 1539. When some of the Cubans who had joined the expedition first saw the silent forests and gloomy morasses that stretched before them, they were terrified at the prospect, and .sailed back to the security of home ; but De Soto and his cavaliers despised such cowardice, and began their march into the interior. During the months of July, August and Sep- tember they marched to the northward, wading through swamps, swim- ming rivers and fighting the Indians. In October they arrived at the country of the Apalachians, on the left bank of Flint River, where they determined to spend the winter. For four months they remained iu this localit}^, sending out exploring parties in various directions. One of these companies reached the gulf at Pensacola, and made arrangements that supplies should be sent out from Cuba to that place during the fol- lowing summer. In the early spring the Spaniards left their winter quarters and con- tinued their march to the north and east. An Indian gruide told them of VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 65 A powerful and populous empire in that direction ; a woman was empress, ftnd the land was full of gold. A Spanish soldier, one of the men of Narvaez, who had been kept a captive among the Indians, denial the truth of the extravagant story ; but De Soto only said that he would find gold or see poverty with his own eyes, and the freebooters pressed on through the swamps and woods. It was April, 1540, when they came upon the Ogechee River. Here they were delayed. The Indian guide ivent mad ; and when the priests had conjured the evil spirit out of him> he repaid their benevolence by losing the whole company in the forest. By the 1st of May they had reached South Carolina, and were within a two days' march of where De Ayllon had lost his ships and men at the mouth of the Jordan. Thence the wanderers turned west^vard ; but that De Soto and his men crossed the mountains into North Carolina and Ten- nessee is hardly to be believed. They seem rather to have passed across Northern Georgia from the Chattahouche to the upper tributaries of the Coos», and thence down that river to the valleys of Lower Alabama. Here, just above the confluence of the Alabama and the Tombecbee, they came upon the fortified Indian town called Mauville, or Mobile, where a terrible battle was fought with the natives. The town was set on fire, and two thousand five hundred of the Indians were killed or burned to death. Eighteen of De Soto's men were killed, and a hundred and fifty wounded. The Spaniards also lost about eighty horses and all of their baggage. The ships of supply had meanwhile arrived at Pensacola, but De Soto and hLs men, although in desperate circumstances, were too stubborn and proud to avail themselves of help or even to send news of their where- abouts. They turned resolutely to the north ; but the country was poor, and their condition grew constantly worse and worse. By the middle of December they had reached the country of the Chickasas, in Northern Mississippi. They crossed the Yazoo; the weather was severe; snow fell ; and the Spaniards were on the point of starvation. They succeeded, however, in finding some fields of ungathered maize, and then came upon a deserted Indian village which promised them shelter for the winter. After remaining here till February, 1541, they were suddenly attacked ia the dead of night by the Indians, who, at a preconcerted signal, set the town on fire, determined then and there to make an end of the desolating foreigner ; but the Spanish weapons and discipline again saved De Soto and his men from destruction. After gathering provisions and reclothing themselves as well as pos- sible, the Spaniards set out again in early spring to journey still farther westward. The guides now brought them to the Mississippi. The point 66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. •where the majestic Father of Waters was first seen by white men was at the lower Chickasaw Biiiff, a little north of the thirty-fourth parallel of latitude ; the clay of the discovery cannot certainly be known. The In- dians came down the river in a fleet of canoes, and offered to carry the Spaniards over ; but the horses could not be transported until barges were built for that purpose. The crossing was not effected until the latter part of May. De Soto's men now found themselves in the land of the Dakotas. Journeying to the north-west, they passed through a country where wild fruits were plentiful and subsistence easy. The natives were inoffensive and superstitious. At one place they were going to woi"ship the woe- begone cavaliers as the children of the gods, but De Soto was too good a Catholic to permit such idolatry. Tiie Spaniards continued their march until they reached the St, Francis River, which they crossed, and gained the southern limits of Missouri, in the vicinity of New Madrid. Thence westward the march was renewed for about two hundred miles; thence soutliward to the Hot Springs and the tributaries of the Washita River. On the banks of this river, at the town of Atiamque, they passed the win- ter of 1541--42. The Indians were found to be much more civilized than those east of the Mississippi ; but their civilization did not protect them in the least from the horrid cruelties which the Spaniards practiced. No consideration of justice, humanity or mercy moved the stony hearts of these polite and Christian warriors. Indian towns were set on fire for sport ; Indian hands were chopped off for a Avhim ; and Indian captives burned alive because, under fear of death, they had told a falsehood. But De Solo's men were themselves growing desperate in their mis- fortunes. They turned again toward the sea, and passing down the tributaries of the Washita to the junction of that stream with the Red River, came upon the Mississippi in the neighborhood of Natchez. The spirit of De Soto was at last com])letely broken. The haughty cavalier bowed his head and became a prey to melancholy. No more dazzling visions of Peru and Mexico flitted before his imagination. A malignant fever seized upon his emaciated frame, and then death. The priests chanted a requiem, and in the middle of the solemn night his sorrowful companions put the dead hero's body into a rustic coffin, and rowing out a distance from shore sunk it in the Mississippi. Ferdinand de Soto had found a grave under the rolling waters of the great river with which his name will be associated for ever. Before his death, De Soto had named Moscoso as his successor ; and now, under the leadership of the new governor, the ragged, half-starved adventurers, in the vain hope of reaching Mexico, turned once more to the VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 67 west. They crossed the country to the upper waters of tlie Red River, on the confines of Texas. Thence they turned northward into the territory of the Pawnees and the Comanches, ranging the hunting-grounds of those fierce savages until stopped by the mountains. In December of 1542, after almost endless wanderings and hardshijjs, they came again to the Mississippi, reaching the now familiar stream a short distance above the mouth of Red River. They now formed the desperate resolution of building boats, and thiLS descending the river to the gulf They erected a forge, broke off the fetters of the captives in order to procure iron, sawed timber in the forest, and at last completed seven brigantines and launched them. The time thus occupied extended from January to July of 1543. The Indians of the neighborhood were now for the la.st time plundered in order to furnish supplies for the voyage ; and on tlie 2d day of July the Spaniards went on board their boats and started for the sea. The dis- tance was almost five hundred miles, and seventeen days Avere required to make the descent. On reaching the Gulf of Mexico, they steered to the south-west ; and keeping as close to the shore as possible, after fiftj'-five days of buffetings and perils along the dangerous coast, they came — three hundred and eleven famished and heart-broken fugitives — to the settle- ment at the mouth of the River of Palms; and thus ended the most marvelous expedition in the early history of our country. The next attempt by the Spaniards to colonize Florida was in the year 1565. The enterprise was entrusted to Pedro Melendez, a Span- ish soldier of ferocious disposition and criminal practices. He was under sentence to pay a heavy fine at the very time Avhen he received his com- mission from tiie bigoted Philip II. The contract between that monarch and Melendez was to the effect that the latter should within three years explore the coast of Florida, conquer the country, and plant in some favorable district a colonv of not less than five hundred persons, of whom one hundred should be married men. Melendez was to receive two hun- dred and twenty-five square miles of land adjacent to the settlement, and an annual salary of two thousand dollars. Twenty-five hundred persons collected around Melendez to join in the expedition. The fleet left Spain in July, reached Porto Rico early in August, and on the 28th of the same month came in sight of Florida. It must now be understood that the real object had in view by Melendez was to attack and destroy a colony of French Protestants called Huguenots, who, in the previous year, had made a settlement about thirty- five miles above the mouth of the St. John's River. This was, of course, within the limits of the territory claimed by Spain ; and Melendez at once perceived that to extirpate these French heretics in the name of patriotism 68 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and religion would be likely to restore his shattered character and bring him into favor again. His former crimes were to be washed out in the blood of the innocents. Moreover, the Catholic party at the French court had comnmnicated with the Spanish court a.s to the whereabouts and intentions of the Huguenots, so that Melendez knew precisely where to find them and how to compa.ss their destruction. It was St. Augustine's day when the dastardly Spaniard came lu sight of the shore, but the landing was not effected until the 2d of Sep- tember. The spacious harbor and the small river which enters it from the south were named in honor of the saint. On the 8tli day of the same month, Philip II. was proclaimed monarch of all North America ; a solemn mass was said by the jmests ; and there, in the sight of forest, and sky, and sea, the foundation-stones of the oldest town in the United States were put into their place. Tliis was seventeen years before the founding of Santa Fe by Antonio de Espego, and forty-two years before the settlement at Jamesto\vn. As soon as the new town was sufficiently advanced to be secure agaiiLst accident, Melendez turned his attention to the Huguenots. The latter were expecting to be attacked, but had supposed that the Spanish fleet would sail up the St. John's, and make the onset from that direction. Accordingly, knowing that they must fight or die, all the French vessels except two left their covert in the river and put to sea, intending to an- ticipate the movements of the Spaniards ; but a furious storm arose and da.shed to pieces everj' ship in the fleet. Most of the crews, however, reached the shore just above the mouth of the river. Melendez now collected his forces at St. Augustine, stole through the woods and swamps, and falling unexpectedly on the defenceless colony, utterly destroyed it. Men, women and children were alike given up to butchery. Two hundred were killed outright. A few escaped into the forest, Laudonniere^ the Huguenot leader, among the number, and making their way to tha coast, were picked up by the two French ships which had been saved from the storm. The crews of the ^vTecked vessels were the next object of Spanish vengeance. Melendez discovered their wlicreabouts, and deceiving them with treacherous promises of clemency, induced them to surrender. They were ferried across the river in boats ; but no sooner were they completely in the poMcr of their enemy than their hands were bound behind them, and they were driven off, tied two and two, toward St. Augustine. As they approached the Spanish fort the signal was given by sounding a trumpet, and the work of slaughter began anew. Seven hundred defence- less x-ictims were added to the previous atrocious massacre. Only a few VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 69 mechanics and Catholic servants were left alive. Under these bloody aaspices the first permanent European colony was planted in our country. In what way the Huguenots were revenged upon their enemies will be told in another place. The Spaniards had now explored the entire coast from the Isthmus of Darien to Port Royal in South Carolina. They were acquainted with the country west of the Mississippi as far north as New Mexico and Missouri, and east of that river they had traversed the Gulf States as far as the mountain ranges of Tennessee and North Carolina. With the es- tablishment of their firet permanent colony on the coast of Florida the period of Spanish voyage and discovery may be said to end. Before closing this chapter, a brief account of the only important voyage made by the Portuguese to America will be given : At the time of tlie first discovery by Columbus, the unambitious John II. was king of Portugal. He paid but little attention to the New World, prefer- ring the security and dullness of his own capital to the splendid allure- ments of the Atlantic. In 1495 he was succeeded on the throne by his cousin Manuel, a man of very different character. This monarch could hardly forgive his predecessor for having allowed Spain to snatch from the flag of Portugal the glory of Columbus's achievements. In order to secure some of the benefits which yet remained. King INIanuel fitted out two ves- sels, and in the summer of 1501 commissioned Caspar Cortereal to sail on a voyage of discovery. The Portuguese vessels reached America in the month of July, and beginning at some point on the shores of Maine, sailed northward, exploring the coast for nearly seven hundred miles. Just below the fiftieth parallel of latitude Cortereal met the icebergs, and could go no farther. Little attention was paid by him to the great forests of pine and hemlock which stood tall and silent along the shore, promising ship-yards and cities in after times. He satisfied his rapacity by kid- napping fifty Indians, whom, on his return to Portugal, he sold as slaves. A new voyage was then undertaken, with the avowed purpose of capturing another cargo of natives for the slave-mart of Europe ; but when a year went by, and no tidings arrived from the fleet, the brother of the Portuguese captain sailed in hope of finding the missing vessels. He also was lost, but in what manner has never been ascertained. The fate of the Corte- reals and their slave-ships has remained one of the unsolved mysteries of the sea. 70 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER V. TEE FRENCH IN AMERICA. FRANCE was not slow to profit by the discoveries of Columbus. As early as 1504 the fishermen of Normandy and Brittany began to ply their vocation on the banks of Ne^\'fouudland. A map of the Gulf of St. Lawrence was drawn by a Frenchman in the year 1506. Two years later some Indians were taken to Franc«; and in 1518 the attention of Francis I. was turned to the colonization of the New World. Five years afterward a voyage of discovery and exploration was planned, and John Verrazzaxi, a native of Florence, was commissioned to conduct the expedition. The special object had in view was to discover a north-west passage to Asia. In the month of January, 1524, Verrazzani left the shores of Europe. His fleet consisted at first of four vessels ; but three of them were damaged in a storm, and the voyage was undertaken with a single shiji, called the Dolphin. For fifty days, through the buffetings of tempestuous weather, the courageous mariner held on his course, and on the 7th day of March discovered the main land in the latitude of Wilmington. He first sailed southward a hundred and fifty miles in the hope of finding a harbor, but found none. Returning northward, he finally anchored somev^here along the low sandy beach which stretches between the mouth of Cape Fear River and Pamlico Sound. Here he began a traffic with the natives. The IndiaiLS of this neighborhood were found to be a gentle and timid sort of oi-eaturos, unsuspicious and confiding. A half-drowned sailor who was washed ashore by the surf was treated with great kindness, and as soon as opportunity offered, permitted to return to the ship. After a few days the voyage was continued toward the north. The whole coast of New Jersey was explored, and the liills marked as con- taining minerals. The harbor of New York was entered, and its safe and spacious waters were noted with admiration. At Newport, Rhode Island, Verrazzani anchored for fifteen days, and a trade was again opened with the Indians. Before leaving the place the French sailors repaid the confidence of the natives by kidnapping a ciiiid and attempting to steal a defenceless Indian girl. Sailing from Newjjoit, Verrazzani continued iu"s exjjiorations north- VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 71 vfard. The long and broken line of the New England coast was traced with considerable care. The Indians of the north were wary and sus- picious. They would buy neither ornaments nor toys, but were eager to purchase knives and weapons of iron. Passing to the east of Nova Scotia, the bold navigator reached Newfoundland in the latter part of May. In July he returned to France and published an account, still ex- tant, of his great discoveries. The name of New France was now given to the whole country whose sea-coast had been traced by the adventurous crew of the Dolphin. Such was the distracted condition of France at this time, that another expedition was not planned for a period of ten years. In 1534, however, Chabot, admiral of the kingdom, selected James Cartier, a seaman of St. Malo, in Brittany, to make a new voyage to America. Two ships were fitted out for the enterprise, and after no more than twenty days of sailing under cloudless skies anchored on the 10th day of May off the coast of Newfoundland. Before the middle of July, Cartier had circumnavigated the island to the northward, crossed the Gulf of St. Lawrenee to the south of Anticosti, and entered the Bay of Chaleurs. Not finding, as he had hoped, a passage out of this bay westward, he changed his course to the north again, and ascended the coast as far as Gasp6 Bay. Here, upon a point of land, he set up a cross bearing a shield with the lily of France, and proclaimed the French king monarch of the country. Pressing his way still farther northward, and then west- ward, he entered the St. Lawrence, and ascended the broad estuary until the narrowing banks made him aware that he was in the mouth of a river. Cartier, thinking it impracticable to pass the winter in the New World, now turned his prows toward France, and in thirty days anchored his ships in the harbor of St. Malo. So great was the fame of Cartier's first voyage that another was planned immediately. Three good ships were provided, and quite a num- ber of young noblemen joined the expedition. Colonization rather than discovery was now the inspiring motive. The sails were set by zealous and excited crews, and on the 19th of May the new voyage was begun. This time there was stormy weather, yet the passage to Newfoundland was made by the 10th of August. It was the day of St. Lawrence, and the name of that martyr was accordingly given to the gulf, and after- ward to the noble stream which enters it from the west. Sailing north- ward around Anticosti, the expedition proceeded up the river to the island of Orleans, where the ships were moored in a jilace of safety. Two In- dians vhom Cartier had taken with him to France in the previous year now gave information that higher up the river there was an important 72 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. town on the island of Hochelaga. Proceeding thither in his boats, the French captain found it as the Indians had said. A beautiful village lay there at the foot of a iiiij-h hill in the middle of the island. Climbing; to the top of the hill, Cartier, as suggested by the scene around him, named the island and town Mont-Real. The country was declared to belong by right of discovery to the king of France; and then the boats dropped down the river to tlie ships. During this winter twenty-five of Cartier's men were swept off by the scurvy, a malady hitherto unknown in Europe. With the opening of spring, preparations were made to return to France. The terrible winter had proved too much for Frendi enthusiasm. The emblem of Catholicism, bearing the arms of France, was again jjlanted in the soil of the New World, and the homeward voyage began ; but be- fore the ships had left their anchorage, the kindly king of the Hurons, who had treated Cartier with so much generosity, was decoyed on board and carried off to die. On the Oth day of July the fleet reached St. Malo in safety ; but by the accounts which Cartier pulilished on his return the French were greatly discouraged. Neither silver nor gold had been found on the banks of the St. Lawrence ; and what was a new world good for that had not silver and gold ? Francis of La Roque, lord of Roberval, in Picardy, was the next to undertake the colonization of the countries discovered by the Frencli. This nobleman, four years after Cartier's return from his second voyage, was commissioned by the court of France to plant a colony on the St. Lawrence. The titles of viceroy and lieutenant-general of New France were conferred upon him, and much other vainglorious ceremony attended his preparations for departure. The man, however, who was chiefly relied on to give character and direction to the proposed colony was no other than James Cartier. He only seemed competent to conduct the enterprise with any promise of success. His name was accordingly addetl to the list, and he was honored with the office of chief pilot and captain- general of the expedition. The next thing to be done was to find material for the colony. This was a difficult task. The French peasants and mechanics were not eager to embark for a country which promised nothing better than savages and snow. Cartier's honest narrative about the resources of New France had left no room for further dreaming. So the work of enlisting volunteers went on slowly, until the government adojrted the plan of ojjening the prisons of the kingdom and giving freedom to whoever would join the expedition. There was a rush of robbers, swindlers and murderers, and the lists were immediately filled. Only counterfeiters and traito .? were denied the ])rivilege of gaining their liberty in the New World. VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 73 In the latter part of May, 1541, five ships, under the immediate command of Cartier, left France, and soon reached the St. Lawrence. The expedition proceeded up the river to the present site of Quebec, where a fort was erected anil named Charlesbourg. Here the colonists passed the winter. Cartier, t)ii'ended because of the subordinate position which he held, was sullen and gloomy, and made no effort to prosecute discoveries which could benefit no one but the ambitious Roberval. The two leaders never acted in concert ; and when La Roquc, in June of the following year, arrived with immigrants and supplies, Caitier secretly sailed away with his part of the squadron, and returned to Europe. Roberval was left in New France with three siiiploads of criminals who could only be restrained by whipping and hanging. During tiie autumn some feeble efforts were made to discover a northern passage ; the winter M^as long and severe, and spring was welcomed by the colonists chiefly for the ojjportunity which it gave them of returning to Fi-ance. The enterprise undertaken with so much pomp had resulted in nothing. In the year 1549 Roberval, with a large company of emigrants, sailed on a second voyage, but the fleet was never heard of afterward. A period of fifty years now elapsed before the French authorities again attempted to colonize America. Meanwhile, private enterprise and religious pereecution had co-operated in an effort to accomplish in Florida and Carolina what the government had failed to accomplish on the St. Lawrence. About the middle of the sixteenth century Coligni, the Protestant admiral of France, formed the design of establishing in America a refuge for the persecuted Huguenots of his own country. In 1562 this liberal and influential minister obtained from the sovereign, Charles IX., the coveted privilege of planting a colony of Protestants in the New World. John Ribault of Dieppe, a brave and experienced sailor, was selected to lead the Huguenots to the land of promise. Sail- ing in February, the company reached the coast of Florida at a point where three years later St. Augustine was founded. Tiie River St. John's, called by the Spaniards the St. Matthew, was entered by the French and named the River of May. The vessels then continued northward along the coast until they came to the entrance of Port Royal ; here it was determined to make the settlement. The colonists were landed on an island, and a stone engraved with the arms of their native land was set up to mark the place. A fort was erected, and in honor of Charles IX. named Carolina — a name which a centuiy afterward was retained by the English and applied to the whole country from the Savannah River to the southern boundary of Virginia. In this fort Ribault left twenty-six men to keep possession, and then sailed back to France for additional 74 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. emigrants and stores. But civil war was now raging in the kingdom, and it was quite impossible to procure either supplies or colonists. No reinforcements were sent to Carolina, and in the following spring the men in the fort, discouraged with long waiting, grew mutinous, and killed their leader for atteni])ting to control them. Then they constructed a rude brig and put to sea. After they had been driven about bv the winds fur a long time, they were picked up half starved by an English shij) antl carried to the coast of France. Coligni did not yet despair of success in what he had undertaken. Two years after the first attempt another colony was planned, and Lau- DONNiEEE chosen leader. The character, however, of this second Prot- estant company was very bad. Many of them were abandoned men, of little industry and no prudence. The harbor of Port Royal was now shunned by the Huguenots, and a point on the River St. John's about fifteen miles west of where St. Augustine now stands was selected for the settlement. A fort was built here, and things were going well until a part of the colonists, under the pretext of escaping from famine, contrived to get away with two of the ships. Instead of returning to France, as thev had promised, they began to practice piracy in the adjacent seas, until they were caught, brought back and justly hanged. The rest of the settlers, im- provident and dissatisfied, were on the eve of breaking up the colony, when Ribault arrived with supplies of ever}' sort, and restored order and content. It M'as at this time that the Spaniard IMelendez, as already narrated, discovered the whereabouts of the Huguenots, and murdered the entire company. It remained for DoMixic DE Goueges, a soldier of Gascony, to visit the Spaniards of St. Augustine with signal vengeance. This man fitted out three ships, mostly with his own means, and with only fifty daring seamen on board arrived in mid-winter on the coast of Florida. With this handful of soldiers he surprised successively three Spanish forts on the St. John's, and made prisoners of the inmates. Then, when he was unable to hold his position any longer, he hanged his leading captives to the branches of the trees, and put up this inscription to explain what he had done : " Not Spaniards, but murderers." In the year 1598 the attention of the government of France was once more directed to the claims which French discover}- had established in America. The Marquis of La Roche, a nobleman of iniluence and distinction, now obtained a commission authorizing him to found an empire in the New World. The prisons of France were again opened to furnish the emigrants, and the colony was soon made up. Crossing the Atlantic by the usual route, the vessels reached the coast of Nova Scotia, and VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 75 anchored at Sable Island. A more dismal place could not have been found between Labrador and Mexico ; yet here, on this desolate island, La Roche left forty men to form a settlement, while he himself, under the pre- text of procuring more men and supplies, returned to France. Shortly after his arrival in that country he died ; and for seven dreary years the new French empire, composed of forty criminals, languished on Sable Island. Then they were mercifully picked up by some pa.ssing shijis and carried back to France. Their punishment had been enough, and they were never remanded to prison. But the time had now come when a colony of Frenchmen should actually be established in America. In the year 1603 the sovereignty of the country from the latitude of Philadelphia to one degree north of Montreal was granted to De Monts. The items of chief importance in the patent which he received from the king were a monopoly of the fui'- trade of the new country and religious freedom for Huguenot immigrants. De Monts, with two shiploads of colonists, left France early in March of 1 604, and after a pleasant voyage reached the Bay of Fundy. The sum- mer was spent in making explorations and in trafficking with the natives. De Monts seems to have been "uncertain as to where he should plant his colony ; but while in this frame of mind, Poutrincourt, the captain of one of the ships, being greatly pleased with a harbor which he had discovered on the north-west coast of Nova Scotia, a*ked and obtained a grant of the same, together with some beautiful lands adjacent, and he and a part of the crew went on shore. De IMonts, with the rest of the colony, crossed to the west side of the bay, and began to build a fort on an island at the mouth of the St. Croix River. But in the following spring they abandoned this place, and returned to the harbor which had been granted to Poutrin- court. Here, on the 14th day of November, 1605, the foundations of the first permanent French settlement in America were laid. The name of Port Royal was given to the harbor and the fort, and the whole country, including Nova Scotia, the surrounding islands and the main land as far south as the St. Croix River, was called Acadia. Two years before the settlement was made at Port Royal, SAMtTEli Champlain, one of the most eminent and soldierly men of his times, was commissioned by a company of Rouen merchants to explore the country of the St. Lawrence and establish a trading-post. The traders saw that a traffic in the furs which those regions so alnuidantly supplied was a surer road to riches than rambling about in search of gold and diamonds. Under this commission, Champlain crossed the ocean, entered the gulf, sailed up tlie river, and with remarkable prudence and good judgment selected the spot on which Quebec now stands as the site for a fort. In the 76 HISTORY OF THi, UNITED STATES. autumn of 1603, he returned to France, and published an interesting and feithful account of his expctlition. In the year 1608, Champlain again visited America, and on the 3d of July in that year the foundations of Quebec were laid. In the following year he and two other Frenchmen joined a company of Huron and Algonquin Indians who were at war with the Iroquois of New York. While marciiing with this party of warriors, he ascended the Sorcl River until he came to the long, narrow lake which he was the first white man to look upon, and which has ever since borne the name of its discoverer. Champlain was a religious enthusiast, and on that account the devclojmient of his colony was for some time hindered. In 1612 the Protestant party came into power in France, and the great Conde, the protector of the Protestants, became viceroy of the French empire in America. Now, for the third time, Champlain came to New France, and the success of the colony at Quebec was fully assured. Franciscan monks came over and began to preach among the Indians. These friars and the Protestants quarreled a good deal, and the settlement ^vas much disturbed. A second time Champlain went with a war- party against the Iroquois. His company was defeated, he himself Mounded and obliged to remain all winter among the Hurons ; but in the summer of 1617 he returned to the colony, in 1620 began to build, and four years aflerward completed, the strong fortress of St. Louis. When the heavy bastions of this castle appeared on the high cliiF above the town and river, the permanence of the French settle- ments in the valley of the St. Lawrence was no longer doubtful. To Samuel Champlain, more than to any other man — more than to the French government itself — the success of the North American colo- nies of France must be attributcd- CHAPTER VI. ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. "VTO day in the early history of the New AA'orld was more important -L^ than the 5th of May, 1496. On that day Henry VII., king of England, signed the commission of John Cabot of Venice to make dis- coveries and explorations in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, to carry the English flag, and to take possession of all islands and eontinents which he might discover. Cabot was a brave, adventurous man who had been a VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 77 sailor from his boyhood, and was now a wealthy merchant of Bristol. The autumn and winter were spent in preparations for the voyage; five substantial ships were fitted, crews were enlisted, and everything made ready for the opening of tlie spring. In April the fleet left Bris- tol ; and on the morning of the 24th of June, at a point about the middle of the eastern coast of Labrador, the gloomy shore was seen. This was the real discovery of the American continent. Fourteen months elapsed before Columbas reached the coast of Guiana, and more than two years before Ojeda and Vespucci came in sight of the main land of South America. Cabot explored the shore-line of the country which he had dis- covered for several hundred miles. He supposed that the land was a part of the dominions of the Cham of Tartary ; but finding no inhabitants, he went on shore, according to the terms of his commission, planted the flag of England, and took possession in the name of the English king. No man forgets his native land ; by the side of the flag of his adopted country Cabot set up the banner of the republic of Venice — auspicious emblem of another flag which should one day float from sea to sea. As soon as he had satisfied himself of the extent and character of the country which he had discovered, Cabot sailed for England. On the homeward voyage he twice saw on the right hand the coast of Ne-\vfound- land, but did not stop for further discovery. After an absence of but little more than three montks, he reached Bristol, and was greeted with great enthusiasm. The town had holiday, the people were wild about the discoveries of their favorite admiral, and the whole kingdom took up the note of rejoicing. The Crown gave him money and encouragement, new crews were enlisted, new ships fitted out, and a new commission more liberal in its provisions than the first was signed in Febraary of 1498. Strange as it may seem, after the date of this second patent the very name of John Cabot disappears from the annals of the times. Where the remainder of his life was passed and the circumstances of his death are involved in complete mystery. But Sebastian, second son of John Cabot, inherited his father's plans and reputation, and to his father's genius added a greater genius of his own. He had already been to the New World on that first famous voyage, and now, when the opportunity ofiered to conduct a voyage of his own, he threw himself into the enterprise with all the fervor of youth. It is probable that the very fleet which had been equipped for his father was entrusted to Sebastian. At any rate, the latter found himself, in the spring of 1498, in command of a squadron of well-manned vessels and on his way to the new continent. The particular object had in view was 78 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. that common folly of the times, the discovery of a north-west passage to the Indies. The voyage continued prosperously until, in the ocean west of Green- land, the icebergs compelled Sebastian to change his course. It was July, and the sun scarcely set at midnight. Seals were seen and the ships ploughed through such shoals of codfish as had never before been heard of^ The shore was reached not far from the scene of the elder Cabot's discov~ eries, and then the fleet turned southward, but whether across the Gulf' of St. Lawrence or to the east of Newfoundland is uncertain. New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Maine were next explored. The whole coast-line of New England and of the Middle States was now for the first time since the days of the Norsemen traced by Europeans. Nor did Cabot desist from this M'ork, which was bestowing the title of discovery on the crown of England, until he had passed beyond the Chesapeake. After all the disputes about the matter, it is most probable that Cape Hatteras is the point from -which Sebastian began his homeward voyage. The future career of Cabot was as strange as the voyages of his boyhood had been wonderful. The scheming, illiberal Henr}' VII., although quick to appreciate the value of Sebastian's discoveries, was slow to reward the discoverer. The Tudors were all dark-minded and selfish princes. When King Henry died, Ferdinand the Catholic enticed Cabot away from England and made him pilot-major of Spain. While holding this high office he had almost entire control of the maritime affairs of the kingdom, and sent out many successful voyages. He lived to be very old, but the circumstances of his death have not been ascer- tained, and his place of burial is unknown. TJie year 1498 is the most marked in the whole history of discovery. In the month of May, Vasco de Gama of Portugal doubled the Cape of Good Hope and succeeded in reaching Hindostan. During the sum- mer the younger Cabot traced the eastern coast of North America through more than twenty degrees of latitude, thus establishing for ever the claim of England to the most valual)le portion of the New World. In August, Columbus himself, now sailing on his third voyage, reached the mouth of the Orinoco. Of the three great discoveries, that of Cabot has proved to be by far the juost important. But several causes impeded the career of English discovery during the greater part of the sixteenth centurj\ The next year after the New World was found, the pope, Alexander the Sixth, drew an imaginary line north and south three hundred miles west of the Azores, and issued a papal bull giving all islands and countries west of that line to Spain. Henry VII. of England was himself a Catholic, and he did not care to VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 79 begin a conflict with his Church by pressing his own claims to the newiy- found regions of the west. His son and successor, Henry VIII., at first adopted the same policy, and it was not imtil after the Reformation had been accomplished in England that the decision of the pope came to be disregarded, and finally despised and laughed at. During the short reign of Edward VI. the spirit of maritime adven- ture was again aroused. In 1548 the king's council voted a hundred pounds sterling to induce the now aged Sebastian Cabot to return from Spain and become grand-pilot of England. The old admiral quitted Seville and once more sailed under the English flag. In the reign of Queen Mary the power of England on the sea was not materially extended, but with the accession of Elizabeth a wonderful impulse was given to all enterprises which promised the aggrandizement of her kingdom. The spirit of discovery now reappeared in that bold and skillful sailor, Martin Feobisher. Himself poor, Dudley, earl of Warwick, came to his aid, and fitted out three small vessels to sail in search of a north-west passage to Asia. Three-quarters of a century iiad not sufficed to destroy the fanatical notion of reaching the Indies by sailing around America to the north. One of Frobishor's sliips was lost on the voyage, another, terrified at the prospect, returned to England, but in the third the dauntless captain proceeded to the north and west until he attained a higher latitude than had ever before been reached on the American coast. Above the sixtieth parallel he discovered the group of islands which lies in the mouth of Hudson's Strait. Still farther to the north he came upon a large island which he supposed to be the mainland of Asia ; to this he gave the name of Meta Incognita. North of this island, in lati- tude sixtj'-three degrees and eight minutes, he entered the strait which has ever since borne the name of its discoverer, then sailed for England, carrying home with him one of the Esquimaux and a stone which was declared by the English refiners to contain gold. London was greatly excited. Queen Elizabeth herself added a vessel to the new fleet which in the month of May, 1577, departed for Meta Incognita to gather the precious metal by the shipload. Coming among the icebergs, the ships were for weeks together in constant danger of being crushed to atoms between the floating mountains. The summet was unf"vorable. No ships reached as high a point as Frobisher had attained by himself on the previous voyage. The mariners were in con- sternation at the gloomy perils around them, and availed themselves of the fii-st opportunity to get out of these dangerous seas and return to England. Were the English gold-hunters satisfied ? Not at all. Fifteen new 80 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. vessels were immediately fitted out, the queen again bearing part of the exjiense, and as soon as the sjiring of 1578 opened the third voyage was begun. This time a colony was to be planted in the gold-regions of the north. Three of the ships, loaded with emigrants, were to remain in the promised land. The other twelve were to be freighted with gold-ore and return to London. When they reached the entrance to Hudson's Strait, they encountered icebergs more terrible than ever. Through a thousand perils the vessels finally reached Meta Incognita and took on cargoes of dirt. The provision-ship now slipped away from the fleet and returned to England. Affliire grew desperate. The north-west passage was for- gotten. The colony which was to be plantetl was no longer thought of. Faith in the shining earth which they had stored in the holds gave way, and so, with disappointed crews on board and several tons of the spurious ore under the hatches, the ships set sail for home. The El Dorado of the Esquimaux had proved an utter failure. The English admiral, Sir Francis Drake, sought fortune in a different manner. \Vithr)ut much regard for the law of nations, he began, in the year 1572, to prey upon the merchant-ships of Spain, and gained thereby enormous wealth. Five years later he sailed around to the Pacific coast bv the route which Magellan had discovered, and became a terror to the Spanish vessels in those waters. When he had thus sufficiently en- riched himself by a process not very different from piracy, he formed the daring project of tracing up the western coast of North America until he should enter the nortli-west ])assage from the Pacific, and thence sail cast- ward around the continent. With this object in view, he sailed northward along the coast as far as Oregon, when his sailors, who had been for seve- ral years within the tropics, began to shiver with the cold, and the enter- prise, which could have resulted in nothing but disaster, -was given up. Returning to the south, Drake passed the winter of 1579-80 in a harbor on the coast of Mexico. To all that portion of the western shores of America which he had thus explored he gave the name of New Albion ; but the earlier discovery of the same coast by the Spaniards rendered the English claim of but little value. No colony of Englishmen had yet been established in the New World. Sir Humphrey Gilbert was perhaps the first to conceive a rational plan of colonization in America. His idea was to form somewhere on the shores of the New Continent an agricultural and commercial state. With this purpose he sought aid from the queen, and received a liberal patent authorizing him to take possession of any six hundred square miles of unoccupied territory in America, and to plant thereon a colony of which he himself should be proprietor and governor. With this commission. VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 81 Gilbert, assisted by liis illustrious step-brother, Walter Raleigh, jire- pared a fleet of five vessels, and iu June of 1 583 sailed for the west. Only two davs after their departure the best vessel in the fleet treacher- ously abandoned the rest and returned to Plymouth. Early in August, Gilbert reached Newfoundland, and going ashore, took formal possession of the country in the name of his queen. Unfortunately, some of the sailors discovered in the side of a hill scales of mica, and a judge of metals, whom Gilbert had been foolish enough to bring with him, de- clared that the glittering mineral was silver ore. The crews became in- subordinate. Some went to digging the supposed silver and carrying it on board the vessels, while others gratified their piratical propensities by attacking the Spanish and Portuguese ships that were fishing in the neighboring harbors. Meanwhile, one of Gilbert's vessels became worthless, and had to be abandoned. With the other three he left Newfoundland, and steered toward the south. When off the coast of Massachusetts, the largest of the remaining ships was M'rccked, and a hundred men, with all the spuri- ous silver ore, went to the bottom. The disaster was so great that Gilbert determined to return at once to England. The weather was stormy, and the two ships that were now left were utterly unfit for the sea ; but the voyage was begun in hope. The brave captain remained in the weaker vessel, a little frigate called the Squirrel, already shattered and ready to sink. At midnight, as the ships, within hailing distance of each other, were struggling through a raging sea, the Squirrel was suddenly en- gulfed ; not a man of the courageous crew was saved. The other ship finally reached Falmouth in safety. But the project of colonization was immediately renewed by Raleigh. In the following spring that remarkable man obtained from the queen a new patent fully as liberal as the one granted to Gilbert. Raleigh was to become lord-proprietor of an extensive tract of country in America ex- tending from the thirty-third to the fiirtieth parallel of north latitude. This territory was to be peopled and organized into a state. The frozen regions of the north were now to be avoided, and the sunny country of the Huguenots was to be chosen as the seat of the rising empire. Two ships were fitted out, and the command given to Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow. In the month of July the vessels reached the coast of Carolina. The sea that laved the long, low beach was smooth and glassv. The woods were full of beauty and song. The natives Avere generous and hospitable. Explorations were made along the shores of Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, and a landing finally effected on Roanoke Island, where 82 HISTORY OF THE VXITED STATES. the English were entertained by the Indian queen. But neither Amid;ui nor Barlow h^id the courage or genius necessary to such an enterprise. After a stay of less than two months they returned to England to exhaust the rhetoric of description in praising the beauties of the new land. In allusion to her own life and reign, Elizabeth gave to her delightful country in the New World the name of Virginia. In December of 1584, Sir Walter brought forward a bill in Par- liament by which his previous patent was confirmetl and enlarged. The mind of the whole nation was inflamed at the prospects which Raleigh's province now offered to emigrants and adventurers. The plan of coloni- zation, so far from being abandoned, was undertaken with renewed zeal and earnestness. The proprietor fitted out a second expedition, and appointed the soldierly Ralph Lane governor of the colony. Sir Richard Gren- ville commanded the fleet, and a company, not unmixed with the gallant young nobility of the kingdom, made up the crew. Sailing froni Ply- mouth, the fleet of seven vessels reached the American coast on the 20th of June. At Cape Fear they were in imminent danger of Ijcing wrecked ; but having escaped the peril, they six days afterward reached Roanoke in safety. Here Lane was left with a hundred and ten of the emigrants to form a settlement. Grenville, after making a few unsatisfactory explora- tions, returned to England, taking with him a Spanish treasure-ship \\hicl: he had captured. Privateering and colonization went hand in hand. INIeanwhile, some Indians of a village adjacent to Roanoke had committed a petty theft, and the English wantonly burned the whole town as a measure of revenge. Jealousy and suspicion took the place of former friendships. Lane and some of his companions were enticed with false stories to go on a gold-hunting expedition into the interior ; their destruction was ]>lanned, and only avoided by a hasty retreat to Roanoke. Wingina, the Indian king, and several of his chiefs were now in turn allured into the power of the English and inhumanly murdered. Hatred and gloom f()llowed this atrocity, then despondency and a sense of danger, until the discouragement became so great that when Sir Francis Di"ake, returning with a fleet from his exploits on the Pacific coast, came in sight, the colonists prevailed on him to carry them back to England. It was a needless and hasty abandonment, for within a few days a shipload of stores arrived from the prudent Raleigh; but finding no colony, the vessel could do nothing but return. Two weeks later Sir Richard Grenville himself came back to Roanoke with three well-laden ships, and made a fruitless search for the colonists. Not to lose possession of the country altogether, he left fifteen men upon the island, and set sail for home. VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 83 The ardor of the Englis^h people was now somewhat cooled. Yet they had before them truthful descriptions ot' the beauty and mag- nificence of the new country, and another colony, consisting largely of families, was easily made up. A charter of municipal government was granted by the proprietor, John White was chosen governor, and every precaution taken to secure the permanent success of the City of Raleigh, soon to be founded in the west. In July the emigrants arrived in Caro- lina. Avoiding tiie dangerous capes of Hatteras and Fear, they came safely to Eoanoke ; but a search for the fifteen men who had been left there a year before only revealed the fact that the natives, now grown savage, had murdered them. Nevertheless, the northern extremity of the ill-omened island was chosen as the site for the city, and on the 23d of the month the foundations were laid. But disaster attended the enteii^rise. Jealousy between the settlers and the Indians grew into hostility, and hostility into war. Then a peace was concluded, and Sir Walter gave countenance to an absurd perform- ance by which Manteo, one of the Indian chiefs, was made a peer of England, with the title of Lord of Roanoke. It was a silly and stupid piece of business. Notwithstanding the presence of this copper-colored nobleman, the colonists were apprehensive and gloomy. They pretended to fear starvation, and in the latter part of August almost compelled Governor White to return to England for an additional cargo of supplies. It was a great mistake. If White had remained, and the settlers had given themselves to tilling the soil and building houses, uo further help would have been needed. The 18th of August was marked as the birth- day of Virginia Dare, the first-born of English children in the New World. When White set sail for England, he left behind him a colony of a hundred and eight persons. What their fate was has never been ascertained. The story of their going ashore and joining the Indians is unlikely in itself, and has no historical evidence to support it. The Invincible Armada was now bearing down upon the coasts of England. All the resources and energies of the kingdom were demanded for defence; and although Raleigh managed to send out two supply- ships to succor his starving colony, his efforts to reach them were unavail- ing. The vessels which he sent with stores went cruising after Spanish merchantmen, and were themselves run down and captured by a man-of- war. Not until the spring of 1590 did the governor finally return to search for the unfortunate colonists. The island was a desert, tenantless and silent. No soul remained to tell the story of the lost. In the mean time, Sir Walter, after spending two hundred thou- sand dollars of his own means in the attempt to found and foster a colony, 84 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. liad given up the enterprLse. He assigned his exclusive proprietary rights to an association of Loudon nierchant.s, and it was under their auspices that White had made the final search for the settlers of Roanoke. From the date of this event very little in the way of voyage and discovery was accomplished by the English until the year 1602, when maritime enter- prise again brought the flag of England to the shores of America. Bar. THOLOMEW GosNOLD was the man to whom belongs the honor of mak- ing the next explorations of our coast. The old route from the shores of Europe to America was very cir- cuitous. Ships from the ports of England, France and Spain sailed first southward to the Canary Islands, thence to the West Indies, and thence northward to the coast-line of the continent. Abandoning this path as unnecessarily long and out of tlic way, Gosnold, in a single small vessel called the Concord, sailed directly across the Atlantic, and in seven weeks reached the coast of Maine. The distance thus gained was fully two thousand miles. It was Gosnold's object to found a colony, and for that purpose a company of emigrants came with him. Beginning at Cape Elizabeth, explorations were made to the southward ; Cape Cod was reached, and here the captain, \\ith four of his men, went on shore. It was the first landing of Englishmen within the limits of New Eng- land. Cape Malabar was doultlcd, and then the vessel, leaving Nantucket on the right, turned into Buzzard's Bay. Selecting the most Avesterly island of the Elizabeth group, the colonists went on sliore, and there be- gan tlic first New England settlement. It was a short-lived enterprise. A traffic M^as opened ^vith the natives which resulted in loading the Concord with sassafras root, so much esteemed for its fragrance and healing virtues. Everything went well for a season ; but when the ship was about to depart for England, the settlers became alarmed at the prospect before them, and pleaded for permission to return with their friends. Gosnold acceded to their demands, and the island was abandoned. After a pleasant voyage of five weeks, and in less than four months from the time of starting, the Concord reached home in safety. Gosnold and his companions gave glowing accounts of the country which they had visited, and it was not long until another English expe- dition to America was planned. Two vessels, the Speedwell and the Discoverer, composed the fleet, with Martin Pring for commander. A cargo of merchandise suited to the tastes of the Indians was put Into the holds; and in April of 160:1, a few days after the death of Queen Elizabeth, the vessels sailed for America. They came safely to Penobscot Bay, and afterward spent some time in exploring the harbors and shores VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 85 of Maine. Then, turning to the south and coasting Massachusetts, Priug reached the sassafras region, and loaded liis vessels at Martha's Vineyard. Thence lie returned to England, reaching Bristol in October, after an absence of six months. Two years later, George Waymouth, under the patronage of the earl of Southampton, made a voyage to America, and passing Cape Cod on tlie left, came to anchorage among the islands of St. George, on the coast of Maine. He explored the harbor, and sailed up the river for a considerable distance, taking note of the fine forests of fir and of the beautiful scener}- along the banks. A profitable trade was opened with the Indians, some of whom learned to speak English and returned with Waymouth to England. The voyage homeward was safely made, the vessels reaching Plymouth about the middle of June. This was tlie last of the voyages made by the English preparatory to the actual establish- ment of a colony in America. The time had at last arrived when, in the beautiful country of the Chesapeake, a permanent settlement should be eifected. CHAPTER VII. ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AXD SETTLEMENTS.— CONTINUED. THE 10th of April, 1606, was full of flite in the destinies of the west- ern continent. On that day King James I. issued two great patents directed to men of his kingdom, authorizing them to possess and colo- nize all that portion of North America lying between the thirty-fourth and forty-fifth parallels of latitude. The immense tract thus embraced extended from the mouth of Cape Fear River to Passamaquoddy Bay, and westward to the Pacific Ocean. The first patent was granted to an association of nobles, gentlemen and merchants residing at London, and called the London Company, while the second instrument was issued to a similar body which had been organized at Plymouth, in South-west- ern England, and which bore the name of the Plymouth Company. To the former corporation was assigned all the region between the thirty- fourth and the thirty-eighth degrees of latitude, and to the latter the tract extending from the fiirty-first to the forty-fifth degree. The narrow belt of three degrees lying between the thirty-eighth and forty-first parallels was to be equally open to the colonies of either company, but no settle- 86 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ment of one party was to be made within leas than one hundred miles of the nearest settlement of tiie other. The nature and extent of these grants will be tully understood from an examination of tlie aoeompanv- ing map. Only the London Company was successful under its cliartcr in planting an American colony. Tlie man who was chiefly instrmnental in organizing the Ivondon Company Avas Bartholomew Gosnold. His leading associates were Edward Wingficld, a rich merchant, Robert Hunt, a clergyman, and John Smith, a man of genius. Others who aided the enterprise were Sir John Pop- ham, chief-justice of England, Richard Hakluyt, a historian, and Sir Ferdinand Gorges, a distinguished iK)bleman. By the terms of the char- ter, the aiFairs of the company ^\•cre to be administered by a Superior Council, residing in England, and an Inferior Council, residing in the colony. The members of the former body were to be cliosen by the king, and to hold office at his pleasure ; the members of the lower council were also selected by the royal direction, and were subject to removal by the same power. All legislative authority was likewise vested in the mon- arch. In the first organization of tiie companies not a single principle of self-government was admitted. Tiie most foolish clause in tlie patent was that which required the proposed colony or colonies to hold all prop- erty in common fir a jwriod of li\e years. The wisest provision in the instrument was that N\liicli allowed the emigrants to retain in tiie New World all the rights and privileges of Englishmen. In tlie month of August, IGOfi, the Plymouth Company sent their first ship to America. The voyage, which was one of exploration, was but half completed, when tlie company's vessel was captured by a Spanish man-of-war. In the autumn another ship was sent out, which vemained on the American coast until the following spring, and then i-eturned with glowing accounts of the country. Encouraged by these reports, the company, in the summer of 1607, despatched a colony of a hundred persons. Arriving at the mouth of the River Kennebec, the colonists began a settlement under fovorable circumstances. Some forti- fications were thrown up, a storehouse and several cabins built, and the place named St. George. Then the ships returned to England, leaving a promising colony of forty-five members; but tlie winter of 1607-8 was very severe ; some of the settlers were starved and some frozen, the storehouse burned, and wlien summer came the remnant escaped to England. The London Company had better fortune. A fleet of three vessels was fitted out, and the command given to Christophurchased at Amsterdam, and the ISIayflower, a larger and more substantial sliip, was hired for the voyage. The former was to carry the emigrants from Ley- den to Southampton, where they were to be joined by the Mayflower, with another company from London. Assembling at the harbor of Delft, on the River Meuse, fifteen miles .south of Leyden, as many of the Pilgrims as could be ■accommodated went on board the Speedwell. The whole con- gregation accompanied them to the shore. There Robinson gave them a consoling farewell address, and the blessings and prayers of those who ■were left behind followed the vessel out of sight. Both ships came safely to Southampton, and within two weeks the emigrants were ready for the voyage. Ou the 5th of August, 1620, the vessels left the harbor ; but after a few days' sailing the Speedwell was found to be shattered, old and leaky. On this account both ships an- chored in the port of Dartmouth, and eight days were spent in making the needed repairs. Again the sails were set ; but scarcely had the land receded from sight before the captain of the Speedwell declared his vessel unfit to breast the ocean, and then, to the great grief and discouragement of the emigrants, put back to Plymouth. Here the bad ship was aban- doned ; but the Pilgrims were encouraged and feasted by the citizens, and the more zealous went on board the Mayflower, ready and anxious for a final effort. On the 6th day of September the first colony of New Eng- land, numbering one hundred and two souls, saw the shores of Old England grow dim and sink behind the sea. The voyage was long and jjcrilous. For si.xtj'-three days the ship was buffeted by storms and driven. It had been the intention of the Pilgrims to found their colony in the beautiful countr}' of the Hud.son ; but the tempest carried them out of their course, and the first land seen was the desolate Cape Cod. On the 9th of November the vessel waa m m VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY 91 anchored in tlie bay ; tlien a meeting was held on board and the colony organized under a solemn compact. In the charter whicii they there made for themselves the emigrants declared their loyalty to the English Crown, and covenanted together to live in peace and harmony, with equal rights to all, obedient to just laws made for the common good. Such was the simple but sublime constitution of the oldest New England State. A nobler document is not to be found among the records of the world.* To this instrument all the heads of families, forty-one in number, solemnly eet their names. An election was helil in \\'hich all had an equal voice, and John Carver was unanimously chosen governor of the colony. After two days the boat was lowered, but was found to be half rotten and useless. More thmi a fortnight of precious time M'as required t» make the needed repairs. Standish, Bradford and a few other hardy spirits got to shore and explored the country ; nothing was found but a heap of Indian corn under the snow. By the 6th of December the boat was ready for service, and the governor, with fifteen companions, went ashore. The weather was dreadful. Alternate rains and snow-storms converted the clothes of the Pilgrims into coats-of-mail. All day they wandered about, and then returned to the sea-shore. In the morning they were attacked by the Indians, but escaped to the ship with their lives, cheerful and giving thanks. Then the vessel was steered to the south and west for forty-five miles around the coast of what is now the county of Barnstable. At nightfall of Saturday a storm came on ; the rudder was wrenched away, and the poor ship driven, half by accident and half by the skill of the pilot, into a safe haven on the west side of the bay. The next day, being the Sabbath, was spent in religious devotions, and on Monday, the 11th of December, Old Style, 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers landed on the Rock of Plymouth. It was now the dead of winter. There was an incessant storm of sleet and snow, and the houseless immigrants, already enfeebled by their sufferings, fell a-dying of hunger, cold and exposure. After a few days spent in explorations about the coast, a site was selected near the first landing, some trees were felled, the snow-drifts cleared away, and on the 9th of January the heroic toilers began to build New Plymouth. Every man took on himself the work of making his own house; but the rav- ages of disease grew daily woi-se, strong arms fell powerless, lung-fevers and consumptions wasted every family. At one time only seven men were able to work on the sheds which were building for shelter from the storms ; and if an early spring had not brought relief, the colony must have perished to a man. Such were the privations and griefs of that terrible winter when New England began to be. * See Appendix, note B 92 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER VIII. VOYAGES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE DUTCH. THE first Dutch settlement in America was made on ^lanhattan or New York Island. Tlie colon}' resulted from the voyages and explorations of the illustrious Sir Henry Hudson. In the year 1607 this great British seaman was eini)loyed by a company of London mer- chants to sail into the North Atlantic and discover a route ea.stward or westward to the Indies. He made the voyage in a single sliiji, passed up the eastern coast of Greenland to a higher point of latitude than ever before attained, turned eastward to Spitzbergen, circumnavigated that island, and then was compelled by the icebergs to return to England. In the next year he renewed his eftbrts, hoping to find between iSj)itzbergen and Nova Zembla an open way to the East. By this course he confi- dently expected to shorten the route to China by at least eight thousand miles. Again the voyage resulted in failure; his employers gave up tlie enterprise in despair, but his own spirits only rose to a liigher determi- nation. When the cautious merchants would furnish no more means, he quitted England and went to Amsterdam. Holland Mas at this time the foremost maritime nation of the world, and the eminent navigator did not long go begging for jiatronagc in the busy marts of that country. The Dutch East India Company at once furnished him with a ship, a small yacht called the Half Moon, and in April of 1609 he set out on his third voyage to reach the Indies. About the seventy-second parallel of latitude, above the capes of NorM'ay, he turned eastward, but between Lapland and Nova Zembla the ocean was filled with icebergs, and further sailing was impossible. Baffled but not discouraged, he immediately turned his prow toward the shores of America ; somewhere between the Chesapeake and tlie North Pole he would find a passage into the Pacific ocean. In the month of July Hudson reached Newfoundland, and pa.ssing to the coast of Maine, spent some time in repairing liis ship, which had been shattered in a storm. Sailing thence southward, he touched at Cape Cod, and by the middle of August found himself as far south as the Chesapeake. Again he turned to the nortli, determined to examine the coast more closely, and on the 28th of the month anchored in Delaware VOYAGi: AND DISCOVERY. 93 Bay. After one day's explorations the voyage was continued along tlie coast of New Jersey, until, on tlie 3d of September, the Half Moon came to a safe anchorage in the bay of Sandy Hook. Two days later a land- ing was effected, the natives flocking in great numbers to the scene, and bringing gifts of corn, \\ild fruits and oysters. The time until the 9tli of the month was spent in sounding the great harbor; on the next day the vessel passed the Narrows, and then entered the noble river which l)ears the name of Hudson. To explore the beautiful stream was now the plea.sing task. For eight days the Half jVIoon sailed nortliward up the river. Such mag- nificent forests, such beautiful hills, such mountains rising in the distance, such fertile valleys, planted here and there Avith rijaening corn, the Neth- erlanders had never seen before. On the 19th of September the vessel was moored at what is now the landing of Kinderliook ; but an exj^loring party, still unsatisfied, took to the boats and rowed up the river beyond the site of Albany. After some days they returned to the ship, the moor- ings were loosed, the vessel drop^jed down the stream, and on the 4th of October the sails were spread for "Holland. On the homeward voyage Hudson, not perhaps without a touch of national pride, put into the har- bor of Dartmouth. Thereupon the government of King James, with characteristic illiberality, detained the Half Moon, and claimed the crew as Englishmen. All that Hudson could do was to forward to his employ- ers of the East India Company an account of his successful voyage and of the delightful country which lie had visited under the flag of Holland. Now were the English merchants ready to spend more money to find the north-west passage. In the summer of 1610, a ship, called the Discovery, was given to Hudson ; and with a vision of the Indies flitting before his imagination he left England, never to return. He had learned by this time that nowhere between Florida and Maine was there an open- ing through the continent to the Pacific. The famous pass must now be sought between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the southern point of Greenland. Steering between Cape Farewell and Labrador, in the track which Frobisher had taken, the vessel came, on the 2d day of August, into the mouth of the strait which bears the name of its discoverer. No ship had ever before entered these Avaters. For a while the way west- ward was barred with islands ; but passing between them, the bay seemed to open, the ocean widened to the right and left, and the route to China was at last revealed. So believed the great captain and his crew ; but sailing farther to the west, the inhospitable shores narrowed on the more inhospitable sea, and Hudson found himself environed with the terrors of winter in the frozen gulf of the North. With unfaltering courage he 94 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. bore up until liis; provisions •were almost exliaustcd; spring ■was at hand, and the day of escape had already arrived, when the treacherous crew broke out in mutiny. They seized Hudson and his only son, with seven other faithful sailors, threw them into an open shallop, and east them off among the icebergs. Tlie fate of tlie illustrious mariner has never been ascertained. In the summer of 1010 the Half Moon was liberated at Dartmouth, and returned to Amsterdam. In the same year several ships owned by Dutch merchants sailed to the banks of the Hudson River and engaged in the fur-trade. The traffic was very lucrati\e, and in the two following vears other vessels made frequent and jjrofitable voyages. Early in 1614 an act was passed by the States-General of Holland giving to certain merchants of Amsterdam the exclusive right to trade and establish settle- ments within the limits of the country explored by Hudson. Under this connnission a fleet of five small trading-vessels arrived in the summer of the same year at Manhattan Island. Here some rude huts had already been built by former traders, but now a fort for the defence of the place was erected, and the settlement named' New Amsterdam. In the course of the autumn Adrian Block, who commanded one of the ships, sailed through East River into Long Island Sound, made explorations along the coast as far as the mouth of the C'omiecticut, thence to Xarraganset Bay, and even to Cape Cod. Almost at the same time Christianson, another Dutch commander, in the same fleet, sailed up the river from jNIanhattan to Castle Island, a short distance below the site of Albany, and erected a block -hoase, which was named FortNa.ssau, for a long time the northern outpost of the settlers on the Hudson. Meanwhile, Cornelius ISIay, the captain of a small vessel called the Fortune, sailed from New Amsterdam and explored the Jersey coast as far south as the Bay of Delaware. Upon these two voyages, one north and the other south from Manhattan Island •where the actual settlement was made, Holland set up a feeble claim to the country which was now named New Netiierlaxds, extending from Cape Henlopen to Cape Cod — a claim which Great Britain and France treated with derision and contemjit. Such were the feeble and inaus- picious beginnings of the Dutch colonies in New York and Jei-sey. PART III. COLONIAL HISTORY. A. D. 1607—1775. PARENT COLONIES. CHAPTER IX. VIRGINIA.— THE FIRST CHARTER. MANY circumstances impeded the progress of the oldest Virginia colony. The first settlers at Jamestown were idle, improvident, dissolute. Of the one hundred and five men who came with Newport in the spring of 1607, only twelve were common laborers. There were four carpenters in the company, anel six or eight masons and blacksmiths, but the lack of mechanics wa.s compensated by a long list of forty-eiglit gentlemen. If necessity had not soon driven these to the honorable vocations of toil, the colony nuist have jterished. The few married men who joined the expedition had left their families in England. The pros- pect of planting an American State on the banks of James River was not at all encouraging. From the first the affairs of the colony were badly managed. King James made out instructions for tiie organization of the new State, and then, with his usual stupidity, sealed up the parchment in a box whicli was not to be opened until the arrival of the emigrants in America. The names of the governor and members of the council were thus unknown during the voyage ; there was no legitimate authority on shipboard ; insubordination and anarchy prevailed among the riotous company. In this state of turbulence and misrule, an absurd suspicion was blown out against Captain John Smith, the best and truest man in the colony. He was accused of making a plot to murder the council, of which he ^\■as supposed to be a member, and to make himself monarch of Virginia. An arrest followed, and confinement until the end of the voyage. When at last the colonists reached the site of their future settlement, the king's instructions were unsealed and the names of the seven members of tli© 96 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Inferior Council made kno\\Ti. Then a meeting of that body was held and Edward "Wingfield duly elected first governor of Virginia. Smith, who had been set at liberty, was now charged with sedition and excluded from his seat in the council. He demanded to l)e tried ; and when it was found that his jealous enemies could bring nothing but their own suspi- cions against him, he was acquitted, and finally, through the good offices of Robert Hunt, restored to his place as a member of the corporation. As soon as the settlement was m'cU begun and the aftairs of the colony came into a better condition, tiie rest- less Smith, accom- panied by K^ew- port n.nd twenty others, ascended and explored James River fi)r forty-five miles. This was the first of those marvelous expeditions which were undertaken and carried out by Smith's enterprise and daring. Just below the falls of the river, at the present site of Richmond, the English explorers came upon the capital of Pow- hatan, the Indian king. Smith was not greatly impressed with the mag- nificence of an empire whose chief city was a squalid village of twelve wigwams. The native monarch received the foreigners with formal courtesy and used his authority to moderate the dislike which his sub- jects manifested at the intrusion. About the last of May the company returned to Jamestown, and fifteen days later Newport embarked for England. The colonists now for the first time began to realize their situation. They M'ere alone amid the solitudes of the New "World. The beauties of the Virginia wilderness were around them, but the terrors of the CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. YIMGINIA.— FIRST CHARTER. 97 approaching winter were already present to their imagination. In the latter part of August dreadful diseases broke out in the settlement, and the colony was brought to the verge of ruin. The fort which had been built for the defence of the plantation was filled with the sick and dying. At one time no more than five men were able to go on duty as sentinels. Bartholomew Gosnold, the projector of the colony and one of the best men in the council, died, and before the middle of September one-half of the whole number had been swept off by the terrible malady. If tlie fi'osts of autumn had not come to check the ravages of disease, no soul would have been left to tell the story. Civil dissension was added to the other calamities of the settlement. President Wingfield, an unprincipled man, and his confederate, George Kendall, a member of the council, were detected in embezzling the stores of the colony. Attempting to escape in the company's vessel, they were arrested, impeached and removed from office. Only three councilmen now remained, Ratcliffe, Martin and Smith ; the first was chosen presi- dent. He was a man who possessed neither ability nor courage, and the affiiirs of the settlers grew worse and worse. After a few weeks of vacil- lation and incompetency, he, like his predecessor, was caught in an attempt to abandon the colony, and willingly gave up an office which he could not fill. Only Martin and Smith now remained ; the former elected the lat- ter president of Virginia ! It was a forlorn piece of business, but very necessary for the public good. In their distress and bitterness there had come to pass among the colonists a remarkable unanimity as to Smith's merits and abilities. The new administration entered upon the discharge of its duties without a particle of opposition. The new president, though not j^et thii-fy years of age, was a veteran in every kind of valuable human experience. Born an Englishman ; trained as a soldier in the wars of Holland ; a traveler in France, Italy and Egypt ; again a soldier in Hungary' ; captured by the Turks and sold as a slave; sent from Constantinople to a jjrison in the Crimea; killing a taskmaster who beat him, and then escaping through the woods of Russia to Western Europe ; going with an army of adventurers against Morocco ; finally returning to England and joining the Loudon Com- pany, — he was now called upon by the very enemies who had persecuted and ill-treated him to rescue them and their colony from destruction. A strange and wonderful career ! John Smith Mas altogether the most noted man in the early history of America. Under the new administration the Jamestown settlement soon began to show signs of vitality and progress. Smith's first care, after the set- tlers were in a measure restored to health, was to improve the buildings 7 98 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of the plantation. The fortifications of the place were strengthened, dwellings were repaired, a storehouse erected, und everything made ready for the coming winter. The next measure -was to secure a supply of pro- visions from the surrounding country. A plentiful harvest among the Indians had compensated in some degree for the mismanagement and rascality of the former officei-s of the colony, but to procure corn from the natives was not an easy task. Although ignorant of the Indian language, Smith undertook the hazardous enterprise. Descending James River sa far as Hampton Roads, he landed with his five companions, went boldly among the natives, and began to ofter them hatchets and copper coins in exchange for corn. The Indians only laughed at the proposal, and then mocked the half-starved foreigners by oifering to barter a piece of bread for Smith's sword and musket. Finding that good treatment was only thrown away, the English captain formed the desperate resolution of fight- ing. He and his men firetl a volley among the affi-ighted savages, who ran yelling into the woods. Going straight to their wigwams, he found an abundant store of corn, but forbade his men to take a grain until the Indians should return to attack them. Sixty or seventy painted warriors, headed by a priest who carried an idol in his arms, soon came out of the forest and made a violent onset. The English not only stood their ground, but made a rush, wounded several of the natives and captured their idol. A parley now ensued ; the terrified priest came and humbly begged for his fallen deity, but Smith stood grimly with his nuisket across the pros- trate idol, and would grant no terms until six unarmed Indians had loaded his boat with corn. Then the image was given up, beads and hatchets were liberally distributed among the warriors who ratified the peace by performing a dance of friendship, while Smith and his men rowed up the river with a boat^load of supplies. There were other causes of rejoicing at Jamestown. The neighbor- ing Indians, made liberal by their own abundance, began to come into the fort with voluntary contributions. The fear of famine passed away. The woods were full of wild turkeys and other game, inviting to the chase as many as delighted in such excitement. Good discipline was maintained in the settlement and friendly relations established with several of the native tribes. Seeing the end of their distresses, the colonists revived in spirit; cheerfiilness and hope took the place of melancholy and despair. As soon as the setting in of winter had made an abandonment of the colony impossible, the president, to whose ardor winter and summer were alike, gave himself freely to the work of exploring the country. With a company of six Englishmen and two Indian guides he began the ascent of the Chickahominy River. It was generally believed by the JOHN SMITH AMONG THE INDiANS. VIRGINIA.— FIRST CHARTER. 90 people of Jamestown that by going up this stream they could reach the Pacific Ocean. Smith knew well enough the absurdity of such an opin- ion, but humored it because of the opportunity which it gave him to explore new territory. The rest might dig imaginary gold-dust and hunt for the Pacific; he would see the country and map the course of the river. The company proceeded up the Chickahomiiiy until their barge ran aground in shallow water. Mooring the boat in a place of safety, Smith letl four of the Englishmen to guard it, and with the other two and the Indian guides ascended the stream in a canoe. When this smaller craft could go no fiirther, it was put in charge of the white men, while the captain, with only the savages, proceeded on foot. For twenty miles he continued along the banks of the river, now dwindled to a mere creek winding about the woods and meadows. Meanwhile, the men who were left to protect the barge disobeyed their orders, and wandering into the forest, were attacked by three huncked Indians under the command of their king, 0{)echan- canough, the brother of Powhatan. Three of the Englishmen escaped to the boat, but the fourth, George Cassen by name, was taken prisoner. Him the savages compelled by torture to reveal the whereabouts of Smith. The two men who guarded the canoe were next overtaken and killed. The captain himself was at last discovered, attacked, wounded with an arrow and chased through the woods. The missiles of the barbarians flew around him in a shower, but he compelled the Indian guides to stand between him and his enemies, and every discharge of his musket brought down a savage. He fought like a lion at bay, tied one of the guides to his left arm for a buckler, ran and fired by turns, stumbled into a morass, and was finally overtaken. The savages were still wary of their danger- ous antagonist until he laid down his gun, made signs of surrender and was pulled out of the mire. Without exhibiting the least signs of fear. Smith demanded to see the Indian chief, and on being taken into the presence of that dignitary began to excite his interest and curiosity by showing him a pocket com- pass and a watch. These mysterious instruments struck the Indians with awe ; and profiting by his momentary advantage, the prisoner began to draw figures on the ground, and to give his captors some rude lessons in geography and astronomy. The savages were amazed and listened for an hour, but then grew tired, bound their captive to a tree and prepared to shoot him. At the critical moment he flourished his compass in the air as though performing a ceremony, and the Indians forbore to shoot. His sagacity and courage had gained the day, but the more appalling danger of tortiu-e was yet to be avoided. The savages, however, were 100 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. thoroughly superstitioas, and became afraid to proceed against him except 111 the most formal manner. He was regarded by them as an inhabitant of another world whom it was dangerous to touch. Smith was firet taken to the town of Orapax, a few miles north- east of the site of Richmond. Here he found the Indians making great preparations to aHuck and destroy Jamestown. They invited him to join them and bec^.^xie their leader, but he refused, and then terrified them by describing the cannon and other destructive weapons of the English. He also managed to Avrite a letter to liis countrymen at the settlement, telling them of his captivity and their own peril, asking for certain articles, and requesting especially that those bearing the note should be thoroughly frightened before their return. This letter, which seemed to them to have such mysterious power of carrying intelligence to a dis- tance, was not lost on the Indians, who dreaded the WTiter more than ever. When the warriors bearing the epistle arrived at Jamestown and found everything precisely as Smith had said, their terror and amazement knew no bounds, and as soon a.s they returned to Orapax all thought of attack- ing the settlement was at once given up. The Indians now marched their captive about from village to vil- lage, tlie interest and excitement constantly increasing, until, near the fork of York River, they came to Pamunkey, the capital of Opechan- canough. Here Smith was turned over to the priests, who assembled in their Long House, or judgment-hall, and for three days together danced around him, sang and yelled after the manner of their superstition. The object was to determine by this wild ceremony what their prisoner's fate should be. The decision was against him, and he was condemned to death. It was necessary that the sanction of the Indian emperor should be given to the sentence, and Smith Avas now taken twenty-five miles do\\m the river to a town wiiere Powhatan lived in winter. The savage monarch was now sixty years of age, and, to use Smith's own language, looked every inch a king. He received the prisoner with all the rude formalities peculiar to his race. Going to the Long House of the village, the emperor, clad in a robe of raccoon skins, took his seat on a kind of throne prepared for the occasion. His two daughters sat right and left, while files of warriors and women of rank were ranged around the hall. The king solemnly reviewed the cai::;8 and confirmed the sentence of death. Two large stones were brought into the hall. Smith was dragged forth bound, and his head put into position to be crushed with a war- club. A stalwart painted savage was ordered out of the rank and stood ready for i':e bloody tragedy. The signal was given, tlie grim execu- tioner raised lis bludgeon, and another moment had decided the fate of VIRGINIA.— FIRST CHARTER. 101 both the illustrious captive and his colony. But the peril svent by harm- less. Matoaka,* the eldest daughter of Powhatan, sprang from her seat and rushed between the Marrior's uplifted club and the prostrate prisoner. She clasped his head in her arms and held on with the resolution of despair luitil her father, yielding to her frantic appeals, ordered Smith to be unbound and lifted up. Again he was rescued from a terrible death There is no reason in the world for doubting the truth of this aifecting and romantic story, one of the most marvelous and touching in the his- tory of any nation. Powhatan, having determined to spare his captive's life, received him into flvvor. The prisoner should remain in the household of the mon- arch, making hatchets for the warriors and toys for the king's daughters. By degrees his Hberties were enlarged, and it was even agreed soon afterward that he should return to his own people at Jamestown. The conditions of his liberation were that he should send back to Orapax two cannons and a grindstone. Certain warriors were to accompany Smith to the settlement and carry the articles to Powhatan. There should then be peace aad friendship between the English and the Eed men. The journey was accordingly begun, the company camping at night in the woods, and Smith being in constant peril of his life from the uncertam disposition of the savages. But the colony was reached in safety, the lost captain and his twelve Indian guides being received with great gladness. Smith's first and chief care was to make a proper impression on the minds of the savages. He had improved the opportunities of his captivity by learning the language of Powhatan's people, and by making himself familiar with their peculiarities and weaknesses — an experience of vast importance to himself and the colony. He now ordered the two cannons which he had promised to give Powhatan to be brought out and loaded to the muzzle with stones. Then, under pretence of teaching the Indians gunnery, he had the pieces discharged among the tree-tops, which were bristling with icicles. There was a terrible crash, and the savages, cowering with fear and amazement, could not be induced to touch the dreadful engines. The barbarous delegation returned to their king with neither guns nor grindstones. As a matter of fact, the settlers were very little to be dreaded by anybody. Only thirty-eight of them were left alive, and these were frosts bitten and half starved. Their only competent leader had been absent for seven weeks in'the middle of one of the severest winters known in * Powhatan's tribe had a superstition that no one whose real name was unknown could be injured. They therefore told the English falsely that Matoaka's name was Poca- hontas. 102 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. modern times. The old fears and discontents of the colonists bad revived ; and when Smith returned to the settlement, he found all hands preparing to escape in the pinnace as soon as the ice should break in the river. With much persuasion and a few wholesome threats he induced the majority to abandon this jiroject, but the factious spirits of the colony, burning with resentment against him and his influence, made a couspii» aey to kill him, and he knew not what hour migiit be his last. In the midst of these dark days Captain Ne^\'])ort arrived from England. He brought a full store of supplies and one hundred and twenty emigrants. Great was the joy throughout the little plantation ; only the president was at heart as much grieved as gladdened, for he saw in the character of the new comers no promise of anything but vexation and disaster. Here were thirty-four gentlemen at the head of the list to begin with ; then came gold-hunters, jewelers, engravei-s, adventurers, ' strollers and vagabonds, many of whom had more business in jail than at Jamestown. To add to Smith's chagrin, this comj)any of worthless creatures had been sent out contrary to his previous protest and injunc- tion. He had urged Newport to bring over only a few industrious mechanics and laborers; but the love of gold among the members of the London Company had prevailed over common sense to send to Virginia another crowd of profligates. The kind of industry which Smith had encouraged in the colony was now laughed at. As soon as the weather would permit, the new- comers and as many of tlie old settlei-s as had learned nothing from the past year's experience began to stroll about the country digging for gold. In a bank of sand at the mouth of a small tributary of the James some glittering particles were found, and the whole settlement was ablaze with excitement. Martin and Newport, both members of the council, were carried away with the common fanaticism. The former already in imagi- nation saw himself loaded with wealth and honored with a peerage. The latter, having filled one of his ships with the supposed gold-dust, sent it to England, and then sailed up James River to find the Pacific Ocean ! F< lurteen weeks of the precious springtime, that ought to have been given to ploughing and planting, were consumed in this stupid nonsense. Even the Indians ridiculed the madness of men who fir imaginary grains of gold were wasting their chances for a crop of corn. In this general folly Smith was quite forgotten ; but fireseeing that the evil must soon work its own cure, he kept his patience, and in t!"e mean time busied himself with one of his most brilliant and successful enterprises ; this was no less than the exjiloration of Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. Accompanied by Dr. Russell and thirteen other comrades VIRGINIA.— FIRST CHARTER. 103 who had remained faithful to him, he left Jamestown on the 2d day of June. He had nothing but an open barge of three tons' burden, but in this he steered boldly out by way of Hampton Roads and Cape Henry as far as Smith's Island. Returning thence around the peninsula which ends with Cape Charles, the survey of the eastern shore of the bay was begun, and continued northward as far as the river Wicomico, in Mary- land. From this point the expedition crossed over to the mouth of the Patuxent, and thence coasted northward along the western side to the Pataps- co. Here some members of the company became discon- tented, and insisted on return- ing to the colony. Smith gave a, reluctant consent, but in steer- ing southward had tlic good fortune to enter the moutJi of the Potomac. The crew were so much jjleased with the pros- pect that they agreed to explore the great river before returning homeward. Accordingly, the barge was steered up stream as far as the falls above George- town. The country' was much admired ; and when the explor- ers were tired of adventure, they dropped down the river to the bay, and turning south- ward, reached Jamestown on the 21st of July. After a rest of three days a second voyage was begun. This time the expedition reached the head of the bay, and sailed up the Susquehanna River until the volume of water would float the barge no farther. Here an acquaintance was made with a race of Indians of gigantic stature and fiercer disposition than was known among the natives of Virginia. On the return voyage Smith passed down the bay, exploring every sound and inlet of any note, as far as the mouth of the Rappahannoc ; this stream he ascended to the head of navigation, and then, returning by way of the York and Chesapeake Rivers, reached Jamestown on the 7th of Septem- Jamestown and Vicinity. Smith's First Voyage in the Chesapeake -- Smith's Second Voyage in the Chesapeake - 104 HISTORY OF THE VMTED STATES. ber. He liad been absent a little more than three months, had explored the winding coast of the great bay for fully three thousand miles, had encountered hostile savages by hundreds and thousands, had been driven hither and thither by storms, once wrecked, once stung by a poisonous fish and brought so near to death that his comrades digged his grave: now he was come back to the colony with a Map of the Chesapeake which he sent by Newport to England, and M'liich is still preserved. Oul^ one man had been lost on the expedition. Richard Fetherstone had died, and ^vas buried on the Rappahannoc. Within three days after Smith's return to Jamestown he was form- ally elected president. Ho entered at once upon the duties of his office, correcting abuses, enforcing the laws and restoring order to the distracted colony. There was a marked change for the better ; gold-hunting be- came unpopular, and the rest of tiie year wa.s noted as a season of great prosperity. Late in the autumn Newport arrived with seventy additional immigrants, increasing the number to more than two hundred. The health was so good that only seven deaths occurred between September and May of the following year. Excellent discipline was maintained. Every well man was obliged to work six hours a day. New houses were built, new fields fenced in; and all through the winter the sound of axe and saw and hammer gave token of a prosperous and growing village. Such was the condition of affairs in the spring of 1009. CHAPTER X. VTRGTXIA.— THE SECOXD CHARTER. ON the 23d of May, 1609, King James, without consulting the wishes of his American colonists, revoked their constitution, and granted to the London Company a new charter, b}' the terms of which the govern- ment of Virginia was completely changed. The territory included under the new patent extended from Cape Fear to Sandy Hook, and westward to the Pacific Ocean. The members of the Superior Council were now to be chosen by the stockholdei"s of the company, vacancies were to be filled by the councilors, who were also empowered to elect a governor from their own number. The council was at once organized in accordance with tliis charter, VIRGIXIA.— SECOND CHARTER. 105 and the excellent Lord De La Ware chosen governor for life. With him were joined in authority Sir Thomas Gates, lieutenant-general ; Sir George Somers, admiral ; Christopher Newport, vice-admiral ; Sir Thomas Dale, high mai-shal ; Sir Ferdinand ^^'ainman, master of horse ; and other dig- nitaries of similar sort. Attracted by the influence of these noblemen, a large company of more than five hundred emigrants was speedily col- lected, and early in June a fleet of nine vessels sailed for America. Lord Delaware did not himself accompany the expedition, but delegated his authority to three commissioners, Somei-s, Grates and Newport. About the middle of July the ships, then passing the West Indies, were over- taken and scattered by a storm. One small vessel was wrecked, and another, having on board the commissioners of Lord Delaware, M-as driven ashore on one of the Bermuda Islands, where the crew remained until April of the following year ; the other seven ships came safely to James- town. But who should now be governor ? Captain Smith was at first dis- posed to give up his office, but in a few days the affairs of the colony were plainly going to ruin, and he was urged by the old settlers and the better class of new-comers to continue in authority. Accordingly, declar- ing that his powers as president under the old constitution did not cease until some one should arrive from England properly commissioned to supersede him, he kept resolutely to the discharge of his duties, although in daily peril of his life. He arrested Ratcliffe* and Archer, put some of the most rebellious brawlers in prison, and then, in order to distract the attention of the rest, planned two new settlements, one, of a hun- dred and twenty men, under the command of Martin, to be established at Nansemond ; the other, of the same number, under Captain West, to form a colony at the falls of the James. Both companies behaved badly. In a few days after their departure troubles arose between West's men and the Indians. The president was sent for in order to settle the diffi- culty ; but finding his efforts unavailing, he returned to Jamestown. On his way down the river, while asleep in the boat, a bag of gunpowder lying near by exploded, burning and tearing his flesh so terribly that in hLs agony he leaped overboard. Being rescued from the river, he was carried to the fort, where he lay for some time racked with fever and tor- tured with his wounds. Finally, despairing of relief under the imperfect medical treatment which the colony afforded, he decided to return to England. He accordingly delegated his authorih- to Sir George Percy, a brother of the earl of Northumberland, and about the middle of Sep- * This man's real name was not Ratcliffe, but Sicklemore. He had been president of the colony in 1607, and was an accomplished thief as well as an impostor. 106 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tember, 1609, left the scene of his heroic toils and sufferings, never to return. There remained at Jamestown a colony of four hundred and ninety persons, well armed, well sheltered and well supplied. But such was the viciousuess and profligacy of the greater number, and such the iiLSubor- dination and want of proper leadership, after Smith's departure, that by the beginning of winter the settlement wa.s face to face with starvation. The Indians became hostile and hovered around the plantations, strag- glers were mtercepted and murdered, houses were fired at every opportu- nity, disease returned to add to the desolation, and cold and hunger complett'd the terrors of a winter which was long remembered with a shudder and called The Starving Time. By the last of March there were only sixty persons alive, and these, if help had not come speedily, could hardly have lived a fortnight. Meanwhile, Sir Thomas Gates and his companions, who had been shipwrecked in the Bermudas, had constructed out of the materials of their old ship, with such additional timber as they could cut from the for- est, two small vessels, and set sail for Virginia. They came in full expec- tation of a joyful greeting from a happy colony. What, therefore, was their disappointment and grief when a few wan, half-starved wretches crawled out of their cabins to beg for bread ! Whatever stores the com- missioners had brought with them were distributed to the famishing settlers, and Grates assumed control of the government. But the colonists had now fully determined to abandon fof ever a place which promised them nothing but disaster and death. In vain did the comniissionere remonstrate; they were almost driven by the clamors around them to yield to the common will. An agreement was made to sail for Newfoundland ; there the remnant of the Virginia colony should be distributed among the fishermen until such time as some friendly ship might carry them back to England. On the 8th of June Jamestown was abandoned. The disheartened settlers, now grown resentful, were anxious before leaving to burn the town, but Grates defeated this design, and was himself the last man to go on board. Four pinnaces lay at their moorings in the river ; embark- ing in these, the colonists dropped down with the tide, and it seemed as though the enterprise of Raleigh and Gosnold liad ended in failure and humiliation. But Lord Delaware was already on his way to America. Before the escaping settlei-s had passed out of the mouth of the river, the ships of the noble governor came in sight. Here were additional immigrants, plentiful supplies and promise of better things to come. Would the VIRGINIA.— SECOND CHARTER. 107 colonists return ? The majority gave a reluctant consent, and before night- fall the tires were again kindled on the hearthstones of the deserted village. The next day was given to religious services ; the governor caused his com- mission to be rend, and entered upon the discharge of his duties. The amiability and virtue of his life, no less than the mildness and decision of his administration, endeared him to all and inspired the colony with hope. Autumn came, and Lord Delaware fell sick. Against his own will, and to the great regret of the colony, he was compelled to return to Eng- land. Having reluctantly delegated his authority to Percy — the same who had been the deputy of Captain kSniith — the good Delaware set sail for his own country. It was au event of great discouragement ; but for- tunately, before a knowledge of the governor's departure reached England, the Superior Council had despatched a new shipload of stores and another company of emigrants, under command of Sir Thomas Dale. The vessel arrived at Jamestown on the 10th of May, and Percy was superseded by the captain, who bore a commission from the council. Dale had been a military officer in the ware of the Netherlands, and he now adopted a system of martial law as the basis of his administration. He was, how- ever, a man so tolerant and just that very little complaint was made on account of his arbitrary method of governing. One of Dale's first acts was to write to the council in England, requesting that body to send out immediately as large a number of colon- ists as possible, with an abundance of supplies. For once the council acted promptly ; and in the latter part of August, Sir Thomas Gates arrived with a fleet of six ships, having on board three hundred immigrants and a large quantity of stores. There was great thanksgiving in the colony, a fresh enthusiasm was enkindled, and contentment came with a sense of security. Thas far the property of the settlers at Jamestown had been held in common. The colonists had worked together, and in time of harvest deposited their products in storehouses which were under the control of the governor and council. Now the right of holding private property was recognized. Governor Gates had the lands divided so that each set- tler should have three acres of his own; every family might cultivate a garden and plant an orchard, the fruits of which no one but the owner was allowed to gather. The benefits of this system of labor were at once apparent. The laborers, as soon as each was permitted to claim the rewards of his own toil, became cheerful and industrious. There were now seven hundred persons in the colony ; new plantations were laid out on every side, and new settlements were formed on both banks of the river and at considerable distances from Jamestown. The promise of au American State, so long deferred, seemed at last to be realized. 108 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER XI. VIRGINIA.— THE THIRD CHARTER. EARLY in the year 1612 the London Company obtained from the king a third patent, by the terms of whieli the character of the gov- ernment was entirely changed. The Superior Council was abolished and the powers of that body transferred to the stockholders, who were author- ized to hold juiblic meetings, to elect their own officers, to discuss and decide all questions of law and right, and to govern the colony on their own responsibility. The cause of this change was the unprofitableness of the colony a.s a financial enterprise, and the consequent dissatisfaction of the company with the management of the council. The new patent, although not so intended by the king, was a great step toward a demo- cratic form of government in Virginia. 2. The year 1613 was marked by two imjiortant events, both of them resulting from the lawless behavior of Captain Samuel Argall. While absent on an expedition up the Potomac River he learned that Pocahon- tas, who had had some difficulty with her flvther's tribe, was residing in that neighborhood. Procuring the help of a treacherous Indian family, the English captain enticed the unsuspecting girl on board his vessel and carried her ca])tive to Jamestown. The authorities of the colony, instead of punishing Argall for this atrocity, aggravated the outrage by demand- ing that Powhatan should pay a heav}' ransom for his daughter's libera- tion. The old king indignantly refused, and ordered his tribes to prepare for war. Meanwhile, Pocahontas, who seems not to have been greatly grieved on account of her captivity, wa.s converted to the Christian faith and became by baptism a member of the Episcopal Church. She was led to this course of action chiefiy by the instruction and persuasion of John Rolfe, a worthy young man of the colony, who after the baptism of the princess sought her in marriage. Powhatan and his chief men gave their consent, and the nuptials were duly celebrated in the spring of the following year. By this means war was averted, and a bond of union established between the Indians and the whites. 3. Two years later Rolfe and his wife went to England, where they were received in the highest circles of society. Captain Smith gave them a letter of introduction to Queen Aime, and many other flattering atten- VIRGIN I A.~THIRD CHARTER. 109 tions were bestowed on the modest daughter of the Western wildei'ness. In the following year, Rolfe made preparations to return to America ; but before embarking, Pocahontas fell sick and died. There was left of tliis marriage a son, wlio afterward came to Jamestown and was a man of some importance in the affairs of the colony. To him several influential families of Virginians still trace tlieir origiu. John Randolph of Roanoke was a grandson of the sixth generation from Pocahontas. When Captain Argall returned from his expedition up the Potomac, he was sent witli an armed vessel to the coast of Maine. The avowed object of the voyage was to protect the English fishermen who frequented the waters between the Bay of Fundy and Cape Cod, but the real pur- pose was to destroy the colonies of France, if any should be found within the limits of the territory claimed by England. Arriving at his destina- tion, Argall soon found opportunity for the display of hLs violence and rapacity. The French authorities of Acadia were at this time building a village on Mount Desert Island, near the mouth of the Penobscot. This settlement was the first object of Argall's vengeance. The place wa.s cap- tured, pillaged and burned ; part of the inhabitants were put on board a vassel bound for France, and the rest were carried to the Chesapeake. The French colony at the mouth of the St. Croix River next attracted the attention of the English captain, who cannonaded the fort and destroyed every building in the settlement. Passing thence across the bay to Port Royal, Argall burned the deserted hamlet which Poutrincourt and his companions had built there eight years before. On his way back to Virginia he made a descent on the Dutch traders of Manhattan Island, destroyed many of their huts, and compelled the settlers to acknowledge the sovereignty of England. The result of these outrageous proceedings was to confine the French settlements in America to the banks of the St. Lawrence, and to leave a clear coast for the English flag from Nova Scotia to Florida. In the month of March, 1614, Sir Thomas Gates returned to Eng- land, leaving the government in the hands of Dale, whose administration lasted for two years. During this time the laws of the colony were much improved, and, more important still, the colonial industry took an entirely difi"erent form. Hitherto the labor of the settlers had been directed to the planting of vineyards and to the manufacture of potash, soap, glass and tar. The managers of the London Company had at last learned that these articles could be produced more cheaply in Europe than in America. They had also discovered that there were certain products peculiar to the New World which might be raised and exported with great profit. Chief among such native products was the plant called 110 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tobacco, the use of which had already become fiishionable in Spain, Eng- land and France. This, then, became the leading staple of the colony, and was even used for money. So entirely did the settlers give them- selves to the cultivation of the famous weed that the very streets of Jamestown were ploughed up and planted with it. It was a great disaster to the people of the colony when Argall was chosen deputj'-governor. He was a man who had one virtue, courage • and in all other respects was thoroughly bad. The election occurred in 1617, and through the influence of an unscrupulous faction composed of Argall's friends he wa.s not only selected as Lord Delaware's deputy in America, Ijut was also made an admiral of the English navv. His administration was characterized by fraud, oppression and violence. Neither property nor life was secure against his tyraimy and greed. By and by, the news of his proceedings reached England ; emigration ceased at once, and the colony became a rejiroach, until Lord Delaware restored confidence by embarking in person for Virginia. But the worthy noble-^ man died on the voyage, and Argall continued his exactions and cruelty. In the spring of 1619, he was at last displaced through the influence of Sir Ed\vyn Sandys, and the excellent Sir George Yeardley appointed to succeed him. Martial law was now abolished. The act which required each settler to give a part of his labor for the common benefit was also repealed, and thus the people were freed from a kind of colonial servi- tude. Another action was taken of still greater importance. Governor Yeardley, in accordance with instructions received from the company, divided the plantations along James River into eleven districts, called boroughs, and issued a proclamation to the citizens of each borough to elect two of their own number to take part in the government of the colony. The elections were duly held, and on the 30th of July, 1619, the delegates came together at Jamestown. Here was organized the Virginia House of Burgesses, a colonial legislature, the first popular assembly held in the New World. The Burgesses had many privileges, but very little power. They might discuss the affairs of the colony, but could not control them ; pass laws, but could not enforce them ; declare their rights, but could not secure them. Though the governor and council should both concur in the resolutions of the assembly, no law was binding until ratified by the company in England. Only one great benefit was gained — the freedom of debate. Wherever that is recognized, liberty must soon follow. The year 1619 was also marked by the introduction of negro slavery into Virginia. The servants of the people of Jamestown had hitherto I VIRGINIA.— THIRD CHARTER. Ill been persons of English or German descent, and their term of service had varied from a few months to many years. No perpetual servitude had thu8 far been recognized, nor is it likely that the English colonists would of themselves have instituted the system of slave labor. In the month of August a Dutc^h man-of-war sailed up the river to the planta- tions, and offered by auction twenty Africans. They were purchased by the wealthier cliiss of planters, and made slaves for life. It was, however, nearly a half century from this time before the system of negro slavery became well established in the English colonies. Twelve years had now passed since the founding of Jamestown. Eighty thousand pounds sterling had been spent by the company in the attempted development of the new State. As a result there were only six hundred men in the colony, and these for the most part were rovers who intended to return to England. Sir Thomas Smith, the treasurer, had managed matters badly. Very few families had emigrated, and society in Virginia was coarse and vicious. In this condition of affairs Smith was superseded by Sir Edwyn Sandys, a man of great prudence and integrity. A reformation of abuses was at once begun and carried out. By his wisdom and liberality the new treasurer succeeded before the end of the summer of 1620 in collecting and sending to America a company of twelve hundred and sixty-one persons. Another measure of still greater importance was equally successful. By the influence of Sandys and his friends, ninety young women of good breeding and modest man- ners were induced to emigrate to Jamestown. In the following spring sixty others of similar good character came over, and received a hearty welcome. The statement that the early Virginians bought their wives is absurd. All that was done was this : when Sandys sent the first company of women to America, he charged the colonists with the expense of the voyage — a measure made necessary by the fact that the company was almost bankrupt. An assessment was made according to the number who were brought over, and the rate fixed at a hundred and twenty pounds of tobacco for each passenger — a sum which the settlers cheerfully paid. The many marriages that followed were celebrated in the asual way, and nothing further was thought of the transaction. When the sec- ond shipload came, the cost of trans])ortation was reported at a hundred and fifty pounds for each passenger, which was also paid without complaint. In July of 1621 the London Company, which had now almost run its course, gave to Virginia a code of \\Titten laws and frame of government modeled after the English constitution. The terms of the instrunent were few and easily understood. The governor of the colony was as l/therto to be appointed by the company, a council to be chosen 112 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. by tlie same body, and a house of burgesses, two members from each district, to be elected by the people. In making laws the councilors and burgesses sat together. ^\'hen a new law was proposed, it was debated, and if passed received the governor's signature, then was transmitted to England and ratified or rejected by the company. The constitution also acknowledged the riglit of petition and of trial by jury, but the most remarkable and liberal concession was that which gave the burgesses the power of vetoing any objectionable acts of the company. Governor Yeardley's administration ended in October of 1621. At that time Sir Francis Wyatt arrived, commissioned as governor and bearing the new constitution of Virginia. The colony was found in a very flourishing conditicin. The settlements extended for a hundred and forty miles along both banks of James River and far into the interior, especially northward toward the Potomac. There remained but one cause of foreboding and alarm. The Indians had seen in all this growth and prosperity the doom of their own race, and had determined to make one desj)erate effort to destroy their foes betbre it should be too late. To do this in open \\ ar was impossible ; necessity and the savage impulse work- ing together suggested treachery as the only means likely to accomplish the result. Circumstances favored the villainous undertaking. Pocahon- tas was dead. The peaceable and faith-keeping Powhatan had likewise passed away. The ambitioas and crafty Opechancanougli, who succeeded to his brother's authority in 1618, had ever since been plotting the destruc- tion of the English colony, and the time had come for the bloody tragedy. The savages carefully concealed their murderous purpose. Until the very day of the massacre they continued on terms of friendship with the English. They came unmolested into the settlements, ate with their victims, borrowed boats and guns, made purchases, and gave not the slightest token of hostility. The attack was planned for the 22d of March, at mid-day. At the fatal hour the work of butchery began. Every hamlet in Virginia was attacked by a band of yelling barbarians. No age, sex or condition awakened an emotion of ]>itv. IVIcn, women and children were indiscriminately slaughtered, until three huudi-ed and forty -seven had perished under the knives and hatchets of the savages. But Indian treachery was thwarted by Indian faithfulness. What was the chagrin and rage of the warriors to find that Jamestown and the other leading settlements had been warned at the last moment, and were prepared for the onset ? A converted Red man, wishing to save an Eng- lishman who had been his friend, went to him on the night before the massacre and revealed the plot. The alarm was spread among the settle- ments, and thus the greater part of the colony escaped destruction. But VIRGINIA.— THIRD CHARTER. 113 the outer plantations were entirely destroyed. The people crowded to- gether on the larger farms about Jamestown, until of the eighty settlements there were only eight remaining. Still, there were sixteen hundred I'eso- lute men in the colony ; and although gloom and despondency prevailed for a Avhile, the courage of the settlers soon revived, and sorrow gave place to a desire for vengeance. It was now the turn of the Indians to suffer. Parties of English soldiers scoured the country in every direction, destroying wigwams, burning villages and killing every savage t-iat fell in their way, until the tribes of Opechancanough were driven into the wilderness. The colon- ists, regaining their confidence and zeal, returned to their deserted farms, and the next year brought such additions that the census showed a popu- lation of two thousand five hundred. Meanwhile, difficulties arose between the corporation and the king. Most of the members of the London Company belonged to the patriot party in England, and the freedom with which they were in the habit of discussing political and governmental matters was very distasteful to the monarch. A meeting of the stockholders, now a numeroas body, was held once every three months, and the debates took a wider and still wider range. The liberal character of the Virginia constitution was offensive to King James, who determined by some means to obtain con- trol of the London Company, or else to suppress it altogether. A com- mittee was accordingly appointed to look into the affairs of the cor- poration and to make a report on its management. The commissioners performed their duty, and reported that the company, in addition to being a hot-bed of political agitation, was unsound in every part, that the treas- ury was bankrupt, and especially that the government of Virginia was had and would continue so until a radical change should be made in the constitution of the new State. Legal proceedings were now instituted by the ministers to ascer- tain whether the company's charter had not been forfeited. The question came before thejudges, who had no difficulty in deciding that the violated patent was null and void. In accordance with this decision, the charter of the corporation was canceled by the king, and in June of 1624 the London Company ceased to exist. But its work had been well done ; a torch of liberty had been lighted on the banks of the James which all the gloomy tyranny of after times could not extinguish. The Virgin- ians were not slow to remember and to claim ever afterward the precious rights which were guaranteed in the constitution of 1621. And the other colonies would be satisfied with nothing less than the chartered privileges which were recognized in the laws of the Old Dominion. 114 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER XII. VIRGINIA.— THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. A ROYAL governmeut was now estaljlislied in Virginia. To the colonists themselves the change of authorities was scarcely percepti- ble. The new administration consisted of a governor and twelve coun- cilors ai^pointcd liy the crown. The General Assembly of the colony was left undisturbed, and all the rights and privileges of the colonists remained as before. The king's hostility had been directed against the London Company, and not against the State of Virginia ; now that the former was destroyed the latter was left unmolested. Governor Wyatt was continued in office; and in making up the new council the king wisely took pains to select the known friends of the colony rather than certain untried partisans of his own court. The Virginians found in the cJiange of goverinnent as much cause of gratitude as of grief. King James of England died in 1625. His son, Charles I., a young, inexperienced and stubborn jjrince, succeeded to the throne. The new king paitl but little attention to the aifairs of his American colony, until the commerce in tobacco attracted his notice. Seeing in this product a source of revenue for the crown, he attempted to gain a monopoly of the trade, but the colonial authorities outwitted him and defeated the project It is worthy of special note that while conferring with the colony on thi'^ subject the king recognized the Virginia assembly as a rightfully consti- tuted power. The reply which was finally returned to the king's i)roposal was signed not only by the governor and council, but by thirty-one of the burgesses. In 1626 Governor Wyatt retired from office, and Yeardley, the old friend and benefactor of the colonists, was reappointed. The young State was never more prosperous than under this administration, which was terminated by the governor's death, in November of 1627. During the preceding summer a thousand new immigrants had come to swell the population of the growing province. The council of Virginia had a right, in case of an emergency, to elect a governor. Such an emergency was now present, and Francis West was chosen by the councilors ; but as soon as the death of Yeardley- VIRGINIA.— THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 115 was known in England, King Charles commissioned John Harvey to assume the government. He arrived in the autmnn of 1629, and from this time until 1635, the colony was distracted with the presence of a most unpopular chief magistrate. He seems to have been disliked on general principles, but the greatest source of dissatisfaction was his par- tiality to certain speculators and land monopolists who at this time in- fested Virginia, to the annoyance and injury of the poorer jjeople. There were many old land grants covering districts of territory which Mere now occupied by actual settlers, and between the holders of the lands and the holders of the titles violent altercations arose. In these disputes the governor became a partisan of the speculators against the people, until the outraged assembly of 1635 passed a resolution that Sir John Harvey be thrust out of office, and Captain West be appointed in his place "until the king's pleasure may be known in this matter." A majority of the councilors sided with the burgesses, and Harvey was obliged to go to England to stand his trial. King Charles treated the whole afEiir with contempt. The com- missioners appointed by the council of Virginia to conduct Harvey's im- peachment were refused a hearing, and he was restored to the governor- ship of the unwilling colony. He continued in power until the year 1639, when he wa^s superseded by Wyatt, who ruled until the spring of 1642. And now came the English Revolution. The exactions and tyranny of Charles at last drove his subjects into open rebellion. In January of 1642, the king and his friends left London, and repairing to Nottingham, collected an army of I'oyalists. The cajyital and southern part of the country remained in the power of Parliament. The High Church party and the adherents of monarchy took sides with the king, while the re- publicans and dissenters made up the opposing forces. The country was plunged into the horrors of civil war. After a few years of conflict tiie royal army was routed and dispersed ; the king escaped to Scotland, and the leading royalists fled to foreign lands. On the demand of Parliament Charles was given up and brought to trial. The cause was heard, a sen- tence of death was passed, and on the 30th of January, 1649, the unhappy monarch was beheaded. Monarchy was now abolished. Oliver Cromwell, the general of the Parliamentai-y army, was made Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England. By him the destinies of the nation were controlled until his death, in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. But the latter, lacking his father's abilities and courage, became alarmed at the dangers that gathered around him, and resigned. For a few months the 116 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. couutrj' was in anarchy, until General Monk, who commanded the Eng- lish army of the North, came down from Scotland and declared a restora- tion of the monarchy. The exiled son of Charles I. was called home and proclaimed king, the people acquiesced, Parliament sanctioned the measure, and on the 18th of May, 1660, Charles II. was placed on the throne of England. These were times full of trouble. Virginia shared in some degree the distractions of the mother-country, yet the evil done to the new State by the conflict in England was less than might have been expected. In the first year of the civil war Sir William Berkeley became governor of the colony, and, with the exception of a brief vLsit to England in 1646, remained in office for ten years. His administration, notwithstanding the commotions abroad, was noted as a time of rapid growth and develop- ment. The laws were greatly improved and made conformable to the English statutes. The old controversies about tlie lands were satisfacto- rily settled. Cruel jjunishments were abolished and the taxes equalized. The general assembly was regularly convened to bear its part in the gov- ernment, and Virginia was in all essential particulars a free as well as a prosperous State. So rapid was the progress that in 1646 there were twenty thousand people in the colony. But there were also drawbacks to the prosperity of Virginia. Re- ligious intolerance came with its baleful shadow to disturb the State. Tiie faith of the Episcopal Church was established by law, and dissenting was declared a crime. The Puritans were held in contempt by the people, who charged them with l)eing the destroyers of the peace of England. In March of 1643 a statute was enacted by the assembly declaring that no person who disbelieved the doctrines of the English Church should be allowed to teach publicly or privately, or to preach the gospel, within the limits of Virginia. The few Puritans in the colony were excluded from their places of trust, and some were even driven from their homes. Gov- ernor Berkeley, himself a zealous churchman, was a leader in these per- secutions, by which all friendly relations with New England were broken off for many years. A worse calamity' befell in a second war M'ith the Indians. Early in 1644, the natives, having forgotten their former punishment, and believing that in the confusion of the civil war there still remained a hope of destroying the English, planned a general massacre. On the 18th of April, at a time when the authorities were somewhat off their guard, the savages fell upon the frontier settlements, and before assistance could be brought murdered three hundred people. Alarmed at their own atrocity, the warriors then fled, but were followed by the English forces and VIRGINIA.— THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 117 driven into tiie woods and swamps. Tlie aged Opechanoanough was cap- tured, and died a prisoner. The tribes were chastised witliout mercy, and were soon glad to pureha.se peace by the cession of large tracts of land. The Virginians adhered with great firmness to the cause of Charles I. in his war with Parliament, and after his death proclaimed the exiled Ciiarles II. as rightful sovereign of the country. Cromwell and the Parliament were much exasperated at this course of conduct, and mea- sures were at once devised to bring the colony to submission. An ordi- nance was passed laying heavy restrictions on the commerce of such Englisli colonies as refused to acknowledge the supremacy of Parliament. All foreign ships, especially those of Holland, were forbidden to enter the colonial harbors. In 1651 the noted statute called the Navigation Act was passed, and the trade of the colonies was still more seriously distressed. In this new law it was enacted that the foreign commerce of Virginia, now grown into importance, should be carried on wholly in English vessels, and directed exclasively to English ports. The Virginians held out, and Cromwell determined to employ force. A war-vessel called the Guinea was sent into the Chesapeake to compel submission, but in the last extreme the Protector showed him- self to be just as well as wrathful. There were commissioners on board the frigate authorized to make an offer of peace, and this was gladly accepted. It was seen that the cause of the Stuarts was hopeless. The people of Virginia, although refusing to yield to threats and violence, cheerfully entered into negotiations with Cromwell's delegates, and ended by acknowledging the supreme authority of Parliament. The terms of the settlement were very flivorable to popular liberty; the commercial restrictions of the two previous years were removed, and the trade of the colony was made as free as that of England. No taxes might be levied or duties collected except such as were imposed by the general assembly of the State. The freedom of an Englishman was guaranteed to every citizen, and under the control of her own laws Virginia again grew pros- perous. No further difficulty arose during the continuance of the Common- wealth. The Protector was busied with the affairs of Europe, and had neither time nor disposition to interfere in the affairs of a remote colony. The Virginians were thus left free to conduct their government as they would. Even the important matter of choosing a governor was sub- mitted to an election in the House of Burgesses ; when so great a power had been once exercised, it was not likely to be relinquished without a struggle. Three governors were chosen in this way, and what was at first only a privilege soon became a right. Special acts of the assembly 118 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. declared that such a right existed, and that it should be transmitted to posterity. In 1660, just at tlie time of the resignation of Richard Cromwell, Samuel Matthews, the last of the three elected governors, died. The burgesses were immediately convened, and an ordinance was passed de- claring that the supreme authority of Virginia was resident in the colony, and would continue there until a delegate with proper credentials should arrive from the British government. Having made this declaration, the hoase elected as governor Sir William Berkeley, who by accepting the office acknowledged the right of the burgesses to choose. The question of recognizing Charles II. as king was debated at the same session, but prudence suggested that the colonial authorities would better await the natural course of events. For the present it was decided to remaiit faith- ful to Parliament. Most of the people, no doubt, desired the restoration, but policy forbade any open expressions of such a preference. It would be time enough when monarchy was actually restored. In May of 1660 Charles II. became king of England. As soon as this event was known in Virginia, Governor Berkeley, forgetting the source of his own authority, and in defiance of all consistency, issued writs in the name of the king for the election of a new assembly. The friends of royalty were delighted with the prospect. The adherents of the Com- monwealth were thrust out of office, and the favorites of the king estab- lished in their places. Great benefits were expected from the change, and the whole colony was alive with excitement and zeal. But the disaj)- pointment of the people wa.s more bitter than their hopes had been extrav- agant. The Virginians soon found that they had exchanged a republican tyrant with good principles for a monarchial tyrant with bad ones. King Charles II. was the worst monarch of modern times, and the people of Virginia had in him and his government a special cause of grief The commercial system of the Commonwealth, so far from being abolished, was re-enacted in a more hateful form than ever. The new statute pro- vided that all the colonial commerce, whether exports or imports, should be carried on in English ships, the trade between the colonies was bur- dened with a heavy tax for the benefit of the government, and tobacco, the staple of Virginia, could be sold nowhere but in England. This odious measure gave to English merchantmen a monopoly of the carry- ing trade of the colonies, and by destroying competition among the buy- ers of tobacco robbed the Virginians to that extent of their leading product. Remonstrance was tried in vain. The cold and selfish monarch only sneered at the complaints of his American subjects, and the commer- cial ordinances were rigorously enforced. VIRGINIA.— THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 119 Charles II. seemed to regard the British empire as personal property to be used for the benefit of hinLself and his courtiers. lu order to reward the worthless profligates who thronged his court, he began to grant to them large tracts of laud in Virginia. What did it matter that these lauds had been redeemed from the wilderness and were covered with orchards and gardens ? It was no uncommon thing for an American planter to find that his farm, which had been cultivated for a quarter of a century, was given away to some dissolute flatterer of the royal household. Great distress was occasioned by these iniquitous grants, until finally, in 1673, the king ■set a limit to his own recklessness by giving away the whole State. Lord Culpepper and the earl of Arlington, two ignoble noblemen, received under the great seal a deed by which was granted to them for thirty- ■one years all the dominion of land and water called Virginia. Unfortunately, the colonial legislation of these times became as selfish and narrow-minded as the policy of the king was mean. An aristocratic party which had arisen in the colony obtained control of the House of Burgesses, and the new laws rivaled those of England in illiber- ality. Episcopalianism was again established as the State religion. A proscriptive ordinance was passed against the Baptists, and the peace-lov- ing Quakers were fined, persecuted and imprisoned. Burdensome taxes were laid on personal property and polls ; the holders of large estates were exempt and the poorer people afilicted. The salaries of the ofiicers were secured by a permanent duty on tobacco, and, worst of all, the biennial election of burgesses was abolished, so that the membei's of the existing assembly continued indefinitely in power. For a while Berkeley and his council out^lid the tyranny of England. And then came open resistance. The people were worn out with the governor's exactions, and availed themselves of the first pretext to assert their rights by force of arms. A war witii tlie Susquehanna In- dians furnisiied the occasion for an insurrection. The tribes about the head of Chesapeake Bay and along the Susquehamia had been attacked by the Senecas and driven from their homes. They, in turn, fell upon the English settlers of Maryland, and the banks of the Potomac became the scene of a border war. Virginia and Maryland made common cause agaiust the savages. John Washington, great-grandfather of the first president of the United States, led a company of militia into the enemy's country, and compelled the Susquehannas to sue for peace. Six of their chieftains went into Virginia as ambassadors, and, to the lasting dishonor of the colony, were foully nun-dered. This atrocity maddened the savages, and a devastating warfare raged along the whole frontier. Governor Berkeley, not without some show of justice, sided with 120 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the Indians. But the colonists remembered only the many acts of treachery and bloodshed of which the red men had before been guilty, and were determined to have revenge. In this division of sentiment among the people, the assembly and the aristocratic party took sides with tlie governor and favored a peace; wliile the popular party, disliking Berkeley and hating the Indians, resolved to overthrow him and destroy them at one blow. A leader M'as found in that remarkable man, Nathaniel Bacon. Young, brave, eloquent, patriotic, full of enthusiasm and energy, he became the soul and life of the popular party. His own farm in the county of Henrico had been pillaged and his tenants nuu-dered by the savages. Exasjoerated by these injuries, he was the more easily urged by the public voice to accept the dangerous office of leading an insurrection. Five hundred men rushed to arms and demanded to be led against the Indians. Alarm, excitement and passion prevailed throughout the colony. The patriot forces were organized ; and without permission of a government which they had ceased to regard, the march was begun into the enemy's country. Berkeley and the aristocratic faction were enraged at this proceeding, and proclaimed Bacon a traitor. A levy of troops was made for the purpose of dispersing the rebellious militia; but scarcely had Berkeley and his forces left Jamestown when another pojnilar uprising in the lower counties compelled him to return. Affairs were in an uproar. Bacon came home victorious. The old assembly was unceremoniously broken up, and a new one elected on the basis of universal suffrage. Bacon wa.s chosen a member for Henrico, and soon after elected com- mander-in-chiei of tiie Virginia army. Tiie governor refused to sign his commission, and Bacon appealed to the pcojile ; the militia again flew to arms, and Berkeley was compelled to yield. Not only was the com- mission signed, but a paper drawn up by the burgesses in commendation of Bacon's loyalty, zeal and patriotism received the executive signature and was transmitted to Parliament. Peace returned to the colony. The power of the savages was com- pletely broken. A military force was stationed on the frontier, and a sense of security returned to all the settlements. But Berkeley M'as petu- lant, proud and vengeful ; and it was only a question of time when the struggle would be renewed. Seizing the first opportunity, the governor left Jamestown and repaired to the county of Gloucester, on the north side of York River. Here he summoned a convention of loyalists, who, contrary to his expectations and wishes, advised moderation and com- promise ; but the hot-headed old cavalier would yield no jot of his pre- rogative to what he was pleased to call a rabble, and Bacon was again proclaimed a traitor. i\"KK\nI! ];kRKKI.BY AMj TUi; l.\?;L-U(i KNTt VIRGINIA.— THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 121 It was eviileut that there must be figliting. Berkeley and his forces left Gloucester, crossed the Chesapeake Bay, and took station on the eastern shore, in the county of Accomac. Here his troops were organized ; the crews of some English ships were joined to his command, and the fleet set sail for Jamestown. The place was taken without much resistance ; but when Bacon with a few companies of patriots drew near, the loyal forces deserted and went over to his standard. The governor with his adherents was again obliged to fly, and the eajiital remained in possession of the people's party. The assembly was about to assume con- trol of the government without the governor, whose flight to Accomac had been declared an abdication, when a rumor arose that an English fleet was approaching for the subjugation of the colonies. The patriot leaders held a council, and it was determined that Jamestown should l)e burned. Accordingly, in the dusk of the evening the torch was applied, and the only town in Virginia laid in ashas. The leading men set the example by throwing firebrands into their own houses ; others caught the spirit of saci'ifice ; the flames shot up through the shadows of night ; and Governor Berkeley and his followers, on board a fleet twenty miles down the river, had tolerably fair warning that the capital of Virginia could not be used for the purposes of despotism. In this juncture of affairs Bacon fell sick and died. It was an event full of grief and disaster. The patriot party, discouraged by the loss of the heroic chieftain, was easily dispersed. A few feeble efforts were made to revive the cause of the people, but the animating spirit which had controlled and directed until now was gone. The royalists found an able leader in Robert Beverly, and the authority of the governor was rapidly restored throughout the province. The cause of the people and the leader of the people had died together. Berkeley's vindictive passions were now let loose upon the defeated insurgents. Fines and confiscations became the order of the day. The governor seemed determined to drown the memory of his own wrongs in the woes of his subjects. Twenty-two of the leading patriots were seized and hanged with scarcely time to bid their friends flirewell. Tims died Thomas Hansford, the first American who gave his life for freedom. Thus perished Ednnmd Cheesman, Thomas Wilford and the noble Wil- liam Drummoud, martyrs to liberty. Nor is it certain when the vengeful tyrant would have stayed his hand, had not the assembly met and passed an edict that no more blood should be spilt for past offences. One of the burgesses from the county of Northampton said in the debate that if the governor were let alone he would hang half the country. When Clharles II. heard of Berkeley's ferocity, he exclaimed, "The old fool has taken 122 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. away more lives in that naked country tlian I for the murder of my father" ; and the saying was true. Tlie liistory of tliis insurrection was for a long time reciiwl by Bacon's enemies. Until the present century no one appeared to rescue the leader's name from obloquy. In the light of after times his cluracter will shine with a jjcculiar lustre. His motives were as exalted as liis life was pure, and his virtues as noted as his abilities were great. His ambi- tion was for the public welfare, and his 2)assions were only excited against the enemies of his country. The consequences of the rebellion were very disastrous. Berkeley and the aristocratic Jiarty had now a good excuse for suppressing all liberal sentiments and tendencies. The printing-press was interdicted. Educa- tion wa.s discouraged or forbidden. To speak or to wTite anything against the administration or in defence of the late insurrection was made a crime to be punished by fine or whipping. If the offence should be three times repeated, it was declared to be treason punishable with death. The former t}'raunical methods of taxation were revived, and Virginia was left at the mercy of arbitrary rulers. In 1675, Lord Culpepper, to whom with Arlington the province had been granted two years previously, obtained the appointment of governor for life. The right of the king was thus by his own act relin- quished, and Virginia became a proprietary government. The new execu- tive arrived in 1680 and a.ssumed the duties of his office. His whole administration was characterized by avarice and dishonesty. Regarding Virginia as his pei-sonal estate, he treated the Virginians as his tenants and skives. Ever)- species of extortion was resorted to, until the nmtter- ings of rebellion were again heard throughout the impoverished colony. In 1683, Arlington surrendered his claim to Culpepper, who thus became sole proprietor as well as governor ; but before he could proceed to further mischief, his official career was cut short by tlie act of the king. Charles II., repenting of his f)wn rashness, found in Culpepper's vices and frauds a sufficient excuse to remove him from office and to revoke his patent, n 1684, Virginia again became a royal province, under the government of Lord Howard, of Effingham, Avho was succeeded by Francis Nich- olson, formerly governor of New York. His administration was sig- nalized by the founding of William and Mary College, so named in honor of the new sovereigns of England. This, next to Harvard, was the first institution of liberal learning planted in America. Here the boy Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence, shall be educated! From these halls, in the famous summer of 1776, shall be sent forth young James Monroe, future President of the United States! 1600 11. Gustavus Adolplius the CHreat. 89. Pe Grotius. Galileo. IS. The Thirty Years' War begins. Kepler. 48. Peace of Westphalia. 24-42. Kichelieu. 43. LoVlis XIV. 85. Revocatic 87. Habea Shakespeare. Milton. Iiocke. 88. Sec Bacon. 49. Cromwell. 88. Will of Mary, 94. '■ tZi:t } 25. Char.es I. 42. The Revolution. ««; T^,;?.-*",!!-- 35. j,^. 7. 9. Second Charter granted. 42. Berkeley's administration. 12. The Third Charter. 44. Indian massacre. 76. Bacon's Eebellio; 19. House of Burgesses established. 77. Virginia becom VIEGINIA colonized by the London 51. First Navigation Act. 84. Royal go Company at Jamestown. 24. Dissolution of the 50 London Company. 19. Introduction of Slavery. John Smith) governor. 83. Seth Sot NOETH OAROLIHA settled by the Engl 63. Grant made to Lord Clarendon 8.5. Sir Jo 65. Sir John Yeamans, gover 77. Culpepper's re 34. MARYLAND settled by the Catho- 91. 3 lies under Lord Baltimore. 75. Charles Calvei 39. Representative government established. 92. : 38. Governor Kief. 64. Taken by the English. 91. S 14. : NEW YORK settled by the Dutch. Berkeley and Carteret. 91 : 47. Stuyvesant. 70. Lovelace. 56. New York City founded. 74. Edm : 26. Minuits, governor. : 38. Wilmington settled by the Swedes. 82.:DELAWi 23 NEW JERSEY settled by the Dutch. 81. First Genen 29. NEW HAMPSHIRE settled. 30. Boston founded. 79. : New Hampshire : as a distinct colons 30. : MAINE settled. 76. King Philip's de 20. : MASSACHUSETTS settled by the Puritans at Plymouth. 84. Massa : 30. Winthrop, governor. 90. Fii : 38. Harvard College founded. 90. Ki 39. First printing-press set up at Cambridge. : 92. W : e: : 36. : RHODE ISLAND settled by Roger Williams. : : 3'J. Newport founded. S7. Rh ode : 37. Pequod War. 89. The 30. : OONNECTIOUT granted to the earl of Warwick. : 35. Saybrook founded. :33. Hartford founded. 62. New charter granted. ^ru^n-^ 70. SOUTH OAROLD Locke's Constitution a Sij. Arrival 82. PENNf the Q, 92, ^ 1700 he Great. barles XII. ^ar of the Spanish Saccession. leibuitz. 13. Peace of Utrecht. iict of Nantes. IS- 15. Loiiis XV. evolutioi:. Qtl Mary, and after the death am III. !. Anne. 14. George I. 27. George II. 62. Catharine II. 40. Frederick the Great. 40. War of the Austrian Succession terminated by 48. Peace of Aii-la-Chapelle. 89. French Revolntiou. 93. ReigB Voltaire. 74. Louis XVI. ofTer- Tor. Dr. Johnson. Burke. 65. The Rockingham Ministry. Newton. Chatham. Pi"- 55. War between France and England. * **• 65. The Stamp Act. 60. George III. 'roprietary government. ent re-established. 32. Birth of Washington. 65. The Virginia: Resolutions. ovemor. 9. Arrival of the German immigrants. rchdale, governor. 11. The Corse War. 1. 29. Final separation of the Carolinas. nd becomes a royal government. b1 Copley. iter, governor. ;cher. 1. Cornbnry. ellamont. indros. 44. Negro plot. 58. Fall of Louisburg. 32. Cosby, governor. 65. Declaration: of Rights. 54. French and Indian : War. 65. First Colonial Congress assembles at New York. jparated from New York. 'nion of East and West Jersey. mblv. 38. Dr. Benjamin : Franltlin. Royal government established. : Fnited with Massachusetts. 20. Introduction of tea. id death. 4. First newspaper. ts loses her charter, .e of paper money 'iiliam's War. 2. Queen Anne's War. aft 10. First post-ofice. ent. 41, : New ITanipsliire finally sepa- : : rateil from Mass. 67. The tea tax. 61. Writs of Assist:ance. 73. The Boston " Tea Party." 44. King George's War, 45, 75. Lexington. Louisburg taken. 74. Boston Port Bill. 68. General Gage arrives in Boston. 59. llMcweJec 75. bJ! -Bi«(AYr i7)7/. ^~*"'^taken. 70. r^""^ Tumult in Boston. d joined to New York. g of the charter. . Yale College founded. ttled by the English. !. ^ 2. Expedition against St. Augustine. 'T:i_;uen"ts. 29. Roral government established. ANIA settled by rs under Penn. ses bis commission. ipn 76. Independence. 55. iLSl Braddock's defeat. 1^^ 74. Second Congress assem- • hies at Philadelphia. 33. GEORGIA settled by the English : under Oglethorpe. : 52. Royal government established. MASSACHUSETTS.— SETTLEMENT. 123 After Nicholson's administration, Sir Edmund Andros, recently ex- pelled by the people of Massachusetts, assumed for a while the gov- ernment of Virginia. The affairs of the colony during the next forty or fifty years are not of sufficient interest and importance to require extended notice in an abridgment of American history. At the out- break of the French and Indian War, Virginia will show to the world that the labors of Smith, and Gosnold, and Bacon have not been in vain. CHAPTEK XIII. MASS A CHUSETTS.— SETTLEMENT. THE spring of 1621 brought a ray of hope to the distressed Pilgrims of New Plymouth. Never was the returning sun more welcome. The fatal winter had swept off one-half of the number. The son of Uie benevolent Carver was among the first victims of the terrible climate. The governor himself sickened and died, and the broken-hearted wife found rest in the same grave with her husband. But now, with the ap- proach of warm weather, the destroying pestilence was stayed, and the spirits of the survivors revived with the season. Out of the snows of winter, the desolations of disease, and the terrors of death the faith of the Puritan had come forth triumphant. For a while the colonists were apprehensive of the Indians. In February, Miles Standish was sent out with his soldiers to gather in- formation of the numbers and disposition of the natives. The army of New England consisted of six men besides the general. Deserted wig- wams were found here and there ; the smoke of camp-fires arose in the distance ; savages were occasionally seen in the forest. These fled, how- ever, at the approach of the English, and Standish returned to Plymouth. A month later the colonists were astonished by the sudden appear- ance in their midst of a Wampanoag Indian named Samoset. He ran into the village, offered his hand in token of friendship, and bade the strangers welcome. He gave an account of the numbers and strength of the neighboring tribes, and recited the story of a gi'eat plague by which^ a few years before, the country had been swept of its inhabitants. The present feebleness and desolate condition of the natives had resulted from the fatal malady. Another Indian, by the name of Squanto, who had been carried away by Hunt in 1614, and had learned to speak English, came also to Plymouth, and confirmed what Samoset had said. 124 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. By the influence of these two natives friendly relations were at once established with the Wampanoags. Massasoit, the great sachem of the nation, was invited to visit the settlement, and came attended by a few of his warriors. The Pilgrims received him with as much parade and ceremony as the colony could provide ; Captain Standish ordered out his soldiers, and Squanto acted as interpreter. Then and there was ratifier^. the first treaty made in New England. The terms were few and simple. There should be peace and friendship between the whites and the red men. No injury should be done by either party to the other. All oifenders should be given up to be punished. If the English engaged in THE TREATY BETWEEN GOVERNOR VARVER AND MASSASOIT. war, Massasoit should help them ; if the Wampanoags were attacked un- justly, the English should give aid against the common enemy. Mark that word xmjustly : it contains the essence of Puritanism. The treaty thus made and ratified remained inviolate for fifty years. Other chiefs followed the example of the great sachem and entered into friendly relations with the colony. Nine of the leading tribes acknow- ledged the sovereignty of the English king. One chieftain threatened hostilities, but Standish's army obliged him to beg for mercy. Canonicus, king of the Narragansetts, sent to William Bradford, who had been chosen governor after the death of Carver, a bundle of arrows wrapped in the skiu of a rattlesnake ; but the undaunted governor stuifed the skin with MASS A CHUSETTS.— SETTLEMENT. \ 25 powder and balls and sent it back to the chief, who did not dare to accept the dangerous challenge. The hostile emblem was borne about from tribe to tribe, until finally it was retui-ned to Plymouth. The summer of 1621 was unfruitful, and the Pilgrims were brought to the point of starvation. To make their condition still more grievous, ft new company of immigrants, without provisions or stores, arrived, and were cpiartered on the colonists during the fall and winter. For six months together the settlers were obliged to subsist on half allowance. At one time only a few grains of parched corn remained to be distributed, and at another there was absolute destitution. In tliLs state of affairs some English fishing-vessels came to Plymouth and charged the starving colo- nists two prices for food enough to keep them alive. The intruding immigrants just mentioned had been sent to America by Thomas Weston, of London, one of the projectors of the colony. They remained with the people of Plymouth until the summer of 1622, then removed to the south side of Boston Harbor and began a new settlement called Weymouth. Instead of working w.th their might to provide against starvation, they wasted the fall in idleness, and attempted to keep up their stock of provisions by defrauding the Indians. Thus provoked to hostilit)% the natives formed a plan to destroy the colony ; but Massa- soit, faithful to his jiledges, went to Plymouth and revealed the plot, Standish marched to Weymouth at the head of his regiment, now in- creased to eight men, attacked the hostile tribe, killed several warriors and carried home the chief's head on a pole. The tender-hearted John Robinson \vrote from Leyden : " I would that you had converted some of them before you killed any." In the following spring most of the Weymouth settlers abandoned the place and returned to England. The summer of 1623 brought a plentiful harvest to the people of the older colony, and there was no longer any danger of starvation. The natives, preferring the chase, be- came dependent on the settlement for corn, and furnished in exchange an abundance of ganae. The main body of Pilgrims still tarried at Leyden. Eobiuson made unwearied efforts to bring his people to America, but the adventurers of London who had managed the enterprise would provide no further means either of money or transportation ; and now, at the end of the fourth year, there were only a hundred and eighty persons in New England. The managers had expected profitable returns, and were dis- appointed. They had expended thirty -four thousand dollars; there was neither profit nor the hope of any. Under this discouragement the proprietors made a proposition to sell out their claims to the colonists. The offer was accepted; and in November of 1627 eight of the leading 126 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. men of Plymouth purchased from tlie Londoners their entire interest for the sum of nine thousand dollars. Before this transfer of right was made the colony had been much, vexed by the efibrts of the managers to thrust on them a minister of the Established Chiu'ch. Was it not to avoid this very thing that they had come to the wilds of the New World ? Should the tyranny of the prelates follow them even across the sea and into the wilderness? There was dis- sension and strife for a while ; the English managers withheld support ; oppression was resorted to; the stores intended for the colonists were sold to them at three prices ; and they were obliged to borrow money at sixty per cent. But no exactions could break the spirit of the Pilgrims; and the conflict ended with the purchase of whatever rights the London proprietors had in the colony. The year 1624 was marked by the founding of a settlement at Cape Ann. John White, a Puritan minister of Dorchester, England, collected a small company of emigrants and sent them to America. The colony was established, but after two years of discouragement the cape was abandoned as a jilace unsuitable, and the company moved farther south to Naumkeag, afterward called Salem. Here a settlement was begun, and in 1G28 was made permanent by the arrival of a second colony, in charge of John Endicott, who was chosen governor. In March of the same year the colonists obtained a patent from the Council of Plymouth ; and in 1629 Charles I. issued a charter by which the proprietors were incorporated under the name of The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England. In July two hundred ad- ditional immigrants arrived, half of whom settled at Plymouth, while the other half removed to a peninsula on the north side of Boston Harbor and laid the foundation of Charlcstown. At the first it had been decided that the charter of the colony should be left in England, and that the governor should reside there also. After further discussion, this decision was reversed, and in September it was decreed that the whole government should be transferred to America, and that the charter, as a pledge of liberty, should be entrusted to the colonists themselves. As soon as this liberal action was made known emigration began on an extensive scale. In the year 1630 about three hundred of the best Puritan families in the kingdom came to New Eng- land. Not adventurers, not vagabonds, were these brave people, but vir- tuous, well-educated, courageous men and women who for conscience' sake left comfortable Jiomes with no expectation of returning. It was not the least of their good fortune to choose a noble leader. If ever a man was worthy to be held in perpetual remembrance. I MASS A CHUSETTS.— SETTLEMENT. 127 >^nJ5.,^ that man was John Winthrop, governor of Massachusetts. Born a royalist, he cherished the prmciples of republicanism. Himself an Episcopalian, he chose affliction with the Puritans. Surrounded with affluence and com- fort, he left all to share the destiny of the persecuted Pilgrims. Calm, prudent and jjcace- able, he joined the zeal of an entluisi- ast witli the sub- lime faitli of martyr. A part ol the new immi- grants settled at Salem ; others at Cambridge and Watertown, on Charles River; while others, going farther south, founded Roxbury and Dorchester. The governor, with a few of the leading families, resided for a while at Charlestown, but soon crossed the liarbor to tlie peninsula of Shawmut and laid the foundation of Bos- ton, wliich became henceforth the cajjital of the colony and the metropolis of New England. With the approach of wiutei' sickness came, and the distress was very great. Many of the new-comers were refined and ten- der people who could not endure the bitter blasts of Massachusetts Bay. Coarse fare and scanty provisions added to the griefs of disease. Sleet and snow drifted through the cracks of the thin board huts where en- feebled men and delicate women moaned out their lives. Before mid- winter two hundred had perished. A few others, heartsick and despair- ing, returned to England ; but there was heard neither murmur nor repining. Governor Winthrop wrote to his wife : " I like so well to be here that I do not repent my coming." At a session of the general court of the colony, held in 1631, a law was passed restricting the right of sufirage. It was enacted that none but JOHN WINTHKOP. 128 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. members of tlie church should Ije permitted to vote at the colonial elec- tions. The choice of governor, deputj'-governor and assistant councilors was thus placed in the hands of a small minority. Nearly three-fourths of the people were excluded from exercising the rights of freemen. Taxes were levied for the support of the gospel ; oaths of obedience to the magis- trates were required ; attendance on public woi-ship was enforced by law ; uone but church-members were eligible to offices of trust. It is strange indeed that the very men ^^'ho had so recently, through perils by sea and land, escaped with only their lives to find religious freedom in another continent, should have begun their career with intolerance and proscrij)- tion. The only excuse that can be found for the gross inconsistency and injustice of such legislation is that bigotry was the vice of the age rather than of the Puritans. One manly voice was lifted up against this odious statute. It was the voice of young Roger Wilham^!, minister of Salem. To this man belongs the shining honor of being first in America or in Europe to pro- claim the full gospel of religious toleration. He declared to his people that the conscience of man may in no wise be bound by the authority of the magistrate ; that civil government has only to do with civil matters, such as the collection of taxes, the restraint and j^unishment of crime, and the protection of all men in the enjoyment of equal rights. For these noble utterances he was obliged to quit the ministry of the church at Salem and retire to Plymouth. Finally, in 1634, he MTote a paper in which the declaration was made that grants of land, though given by the king of England, wei'e invalid until the natives Mere justly recompensed. This was equivalent to saying that the colonial charter itself was void, and that the people were really living upon the lands (>f the Indians. Great excitement was occasioned by the publication, and Williams consented that for the sake of public peace the paper should be burned. But he continued to teach his doctrines, saying that compulsory attendance at re- ligious worship, as well as taxation for the sujiport of the ministry, was contrary to the teachings of the gospel. ^Vhen arraigned for these bad doctrines, he crowned his offences by telling the court that a test of church-membership in a voter or a public officer was as ridiculous as the selection of a doctor of physic or the pilot of a ship on account of his skill in theology. These assertions raised such a storm in court that Williams Avas condemned for heresy and banished from the colony. In the dead of winter he left home and became an exile in the desolate forest. For four- teen M-eeks he M-andered on through the snow, sleeping at night on the ground or in a hollow tree, living on parched corn, acorns and roots. He MASSACHUSETTS.— SETTLEMENT. 129 carried with him one precious treasure — a private letter from Governor Winthrop, giving him words of cheer and encouragement. Nor did the Indians fail to show their gratitude to the man who had so nobly de- fended their rights. In the country of the Wampanoags he was kindly entertained. Massasoit invited him to his cabin at Pokanoket, and r.ui;t,U WILLIAMS' KECEPTION BY THE INDIANS. Canonicus, king of tiie Narragansetts, received him as a friend and brother. On the left bank of Blackstone River, near the head of Narra- gansett Bay, a resting-place was at last found ; the exile pitched his tent, and with the opening of spring planted a field and built the first house in the village of Seekonk. Soon the information came that he was still within the territory of Plymouth colony, and another removal became necessary. With five companions who had joined him in banishment, he embarked in a canoe, passed down the river and crossed to the west side of the bay. Here he Avas safe; his enemies could hunt him no farther. A tract of land was honorably purchased from Canonicus ; and in June of 1636, the illustrious founder of Rhode Island laid out the city of Providence. Meanwhile, his teachings were bearing fruit in Massachusetts. In 1634 a representative form of government was established against the opposition of the clergy. On election-day the voters, now numbering between three and four hundred, were called together, and the learned 130 HISTQRY OF THE UNITED STATES. Cotton preached powerfully and long against the pro}X)sed change. The assembly listened attentively, and then went on with the election. To make the reform complete, a ballot-box wiis substituted for tlie old method of public voting. The restriction on the right of suffrage was the only remaining bar to a perfect system of self-government in New England. During the next year three thousand new immigrants arrivetl. It was worth wiiile— so thought the people of England — to come to a country where the principles of freedom were spreading with such rapidity. The new-comers were under the leadcrehip of Hugh Peters and Sir Henry Vane ; tiie former the Puritan pastor of some English exiles at Rotter- dam, in Holland, and the latter a young nobleman who afterward played an important part in the history of Eugland. Such M'as his popularity with the people of Massachusetts, and such his zeal and piety, tiiat in less tlian a year after his arrival he was ciiosen governor of the colony. By this time the settlements around ISIassachusctts Bay were thickly clustered. Until new homes should be found there was no room for the immigrants who were constantly coming. To enlarge the frontier, to plunge into the wilderness and find new places of abode, became a necessity. One little company of twelve families, led by Simon Willard and Peter Bulkeley, marched through the woods until they came to some open meadows sixteen miles from Boston, and there laid the foundations of Concord. A little later in the same year, another colony of sixty per- sons left the older settlements and pressed their way westward as far as the Connecticut River. The march itself was a grievous hardship, but greater toils and sufferings were in store for the adventurous company. A dreadful winter overtook them in their new homes but half provided. Some died ; others, disiieartened, waded back through the dreary untrod- den snows and came half famished to Plymouth and Boston; but the rest, with true Puritan heroism, outbraved the winter and triumphed over the pangs of starvation. Spring brought a recompense for hardship : the heroic pion(>ers crept out of their miserable huts to become the foundere of Windsor, Hartford and Wethei-sfield, the oldest towns iu tlie Con- necticut valley. The banishment of Roger Williams, instead of bringing peace, brought strife and dissension to the people of Massachusetts. The minis- ters were stern and exacting. Every shade of popular belief was closely scrutinized ; the slightest departure from orthodox doctrines Avas met with a charge of heresy, and to be a heretic was to become an outcast. Still, the advocates of free opinion nndtiplied. The clergy, notwithstand- 'ng their great influence among the people, felt insecure. Rf iigious de- I MASSACHUSETTS.— SETTLEMENT. 131 Jiarly Settlements NEW £KC!£,AKD, — and — Distribution of the Infliaii Tribes. 00 3k»gtt"A Cn-Cin. MAP OF EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN NEW ENGLAND. bates became the order of the day. Every sermon had to pass the ordeal of review and criticism. Most prominent among those who were said to be "as bad as Roger Williams, or worse," was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a woman of genius who had come over in the ship with Sir Henry Vane. She de- sired the privilege of speaking at the weekly debates, and was refused. Women liad no business at these assemblies, said the eldei"S. Indignant at this, slie became the champion of her sex, and declared that the minis- ters who were defrauding women of the gospel were no better than Piiari- Bees. She called meetings of her friends, spolce much in pubhc, and pleaded with great fervor for the full freedom of conscience. The liberal doctrines of the exiled Williams v.'ere reaffirmed with more power and eloquence than ever. Many of the magistrates were converted to the new beliefs ; the governor himself espoused the cause of Mrs. Hutchinson ; and a majority of the people of Boston inclined to her opinions. For a while there was a reign of discord ; but as soon as Sit Henry's term of office expired a call was issued for a meeting of the synod of New England. The body convened in August of 1637; a^ 132 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. decree was proposed ; Mrs. Hutchinson and her friends were declared unfit for tlie society of Christians, and banished from the territory of Massachusetts. With a large number of friends the exiles wended their way toward the liome of Roger Williams. Miantonomoh, a Narragansett chieftain, made them a gift of the beautiful island of Rhode Island; there, in the month of March, 1641, a little republic was established, in whose constitution freedom of conscience was guaranteed and persecution for opinion's sake forbidden. The year 1636 was an important epoch in the history of Massa- chasetts. The general court of the colony passed an act apj^ropriatiug between one and two thousand dollars to found and endow a college. The measure met with popular favor; the Puritans were an educated people, and were quick to appreciate the advantages of learning. New- town was selected as the site of the proposed school. Plymouth and Salem gave gifts to heljj the enterprise ; and from villages in the Con- necticut valley came contributions of corn and wampum. In 1638, John Harvard, a young minister of Cliarlestown, died, bequeathing liis library and nearly five thousand dollars to tlie school. To perpetuate the memory of the noble benefactor the new institution was named Harvaed Col- lege ; and in honor of the place where the leading men of Massachusetts had been educated, the name of Newi^own was changed to Cambridge. ThiLs early did the people of New England stamp their approval on the cause of education. In spite of sterile soil and desolate landscapes — in spite of destroying climate and wasting diseases — in spite even of superstition and bigotry — the people who educate will ever be great and free. The PRINTING-PRESS came also. In 1638, Stephen Daye, an English printer, arrived at Boston, bringing a font of tyjjes, and in the following year set up a press at Cambridge. The first American publica- tion was an almanac calculated for New England, and bearing date of 1639. During the next year, Thomas Welde and John Eliot, two minis- ters of Roxbury, and Richard Mather, of Dorchester, translated the Hebrew Psalms into English verse, and published their rude work in a volume of tliree hundred pages — the first book printed on this side of the Atlantic. The rapid gro\vth of Massachusetts now became a source of alarm to the English government. Those liberal principles of religion and politics which were openly avowed and gloried in by the citizens of th" new commonwealth were hateful to Charles I. and his ministers. Th archbishop of Canterburj' was much offended. Something must be done to check the further growth of the Puritan colonies. The first MASSACHUSETTS.— THE UNION. 133 measure which suggested itself was to stop emigration. For this purpose an edict was issued as early as 1634, but was of no effect. The officers of the government neglected to enfoi'ce the law. Four years later, more vigorous measures were adopted. A squadron of eight vessels, ready to .sail from London, was detained by the royal authority. Many of the most prominent Puritan families in England were on board of these ships. Historians of high rank have asserted — but without sufficient proof — that John Hampden and Oliver Cromwell were of the number who were turned back l)y the detention. At all events, it would have been the part of wisdom in King Charles to allow all Puritans to leave his realm as fast as possible. By detaining them in England he only made sure the Revolution, and by so much hastened his own downfall. CHAPTER XIV. MASSACHUSETTS.— THE UNION. nVTEW ENGLAND was fast becoming a nation. Wellnigh fifty towns J-'' and villages dotted the face of the country. Nearly a million of dollars had been spent in settling and developing the new State. Enter- prises of all kinds were rife. Manufactures, commerce and the arts were rapidly introduced. William Stephens, a shipbuilder who came- with Governor Winthrop to Boston, had already built and launched an Ameri- can vessel of four hundred tons burden. Before 1640, two hundred and ninety-eight emigrant ships had anchored in Massachusetts Bay. Twenty- one thousand two hundred people, escaping from English intolerance of Church or State, had found home and rest between Plymouth Rock and the Connecticut valley. It is not wonderful that the colonists began to cast about them for better political organization and more ample forms of government. Many circumstances impelled the colonies to union. First of all, there was the natural desire of men to have a regular and permanent government. England, torn and distracted with civil M'ar, could do nothing for or against her colonies ; they must take care of themselves. Here was the western frontier exposed to the hostilities of the Dutch towns on the Hudson ; Connecticut alone could not defend herself. Similar trouble was apprehended from the French on the north ; the 134 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. English settlements on the Piseataqua were weak and defenceless. In- dian tribes capable of mustering a thousand warriors were likely at any hour to fall upon remote and helpless villages ; the jjrevalence of common interests and the necessities of common defence made a union of some sort indisjjcnsable. The first effort to consolidate the colonies was ineflectual. Two years later, in 1(339, the project was renewed, but without success. Again, in 1G43, a measure of union was brought forward and finally adojrted. By the terms of this compact, Massachusetts, Plymouth, Con- necticut and New Haven were joined in a loose confederacy, called The United Colonies op New England. The chief authority was con- ferred upon a general assembly, or congress, composed of two representa- tives from each colony. These delegates were chosen annually at an election wlicre all tlie freemen voted by ballot. There was no president other than the speaker of the assembly, and he had no executive powei"s. Each community retained, as before, its separate local existence ; and all subordinate questions of legislation were reserved to the respective colo- nies. Only matters of general interest — such as Indian affairs, the levy- ing of troojis, the raising of revenues, declarations of war and treaties of peace — were submitted to tlie assembly. Provision was made for the admission of other colonies into the unitm, but none were ever admitted. Tiie English settlement on the Piscataqua Mas rejecteil because of heterodoxy in religion. The Provi- dence Plantations were refused for similar reasons. Should Roger Wil- liams return to plague an a.ssembly where an apjjroved church-member- ship was the sole qualification for office? The little island of Rhode Island, witli its Jewish republic, also knocked for admission ; Anne Hutchinson's commonwealth was informed that Plvniouth colony had rightful jurisdiction there, and that heresy was a bar to all petitions. Until the year 1641 tlie people of Massachusetts had had no regular code of laws. At a meeting of the assembly in December of this year, Nathaniel Ward brought forward a -written instrument which, after ma- ture deliberation, was adopted as the constitution of the State. This fundamental statute was called the Body of Liberties, and was ever afterward esteemed as the great charter of colonial freedom. It may be doubted whether any other primitive constitution, either ancient or modern, contains more wisdom than this early code of jMassaehusetts. A further modification in the government was effected in 1644. Until this time the representatives of the people had sat and voted in the same hall with the governor and his assistant magistrates. It was now decreed that the two bodies should sit apart, each with its own officers MASSACHUSETTS.— THE UNION. 135 and under its own management. By this measure the people's branch of the legislature was made independent and of equal authority with the governor's council. Thus step by step were the safeguards of liberty established and regular Ibrms of government secured. The people of Massachusetts were little grieved on account of the English Revolution. It was for them a vindication and a victory. The triumph of Parliament over King Charles was the triumph of Puritanism both in England and America. Massachusetts had no cause to fear so long as the House of Commons was crowded with her friends and patrons. But in the hour of victory the American Puritans showed themselves more magnanimous than those of the mother-country ; when Charles I., the enemy of all colonial liberties, was brought to the block, the people of New England, whose fiithers had been exiled by his father, lamented his tragic fate and preserved the memory of his virtues. During tlie supremacy of the Long Parliament several acts were passed which put in peril the interests of Massachusetts, but by a prudent and far-sighted policy all evil results were avoided. Powerful friends, especially Sir Henry Vane, stood up in Parliament and defended the colony against the intrigues of her enemies. Ambassadors, men of age and experience, went often to London to plead for colonial rights. Soon after the abolition of monarchy a statute was made which threatened for a while the complete subversion of the new State. Massachusetts was in- vited to surrender her charter, to receive a new instrvnnent instead, and to hold courts and issue writs in the name of Parliament. The measure seemed fair enough, but the jieople of Ne\v England were too cautious to stake their all on the fate of a Parliament whose power was already waning. The requisition was never complied with. Cromwell did not insist on the surrender ; no one else had jiower to enforce the act ; and Massachusetts retained her charter. The Protector was the constant friend of the American colonies. Even Virginia, though slighting his authority, found him just as well as severe. The people of New England were his special favorites. To them he was bound by every tie of political and religious sympathy. For more than ten years, when he might have been an oppressor, he continued the benefactor, of the English in America. During his administration the northern colonies were left in the full enjoyment of their coveted rights. In commerce, in the industry of private life, and especially in religion, the people of Massachusetts were as free as the people of England. In the year 1652, it was decreed by the general court at Boston that the jurisdiction of the province extended as far north as three miles above the most northerly waters of the river Merrimac. This declaration. 136 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. which was iu strict accordance with the charter of the colony, was made for the purpose of annexing Maine to Massachusetts. By this measure the territory of the latter State was extended to Casco Bay. Settlements had been made on the Piscataqua as early as 1626, but had not flourished. Thirteen years later a royal charter was issued to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, a member of the Council of Plymouth, who became proprietor of the province. His cousin, Thomas Gorges, was made deputy-governor. A liigh-sounding constitution, big enough for an empire, was draAvn up, and the little village of Gorgeana, afterward York, became the capital of the kingdom. jNIeanwhile, in 1630, the Plymouth Council had granted to anotlier corjwration sixteen Imndrcd square miles of the territory around Casco Bay, and this claim had l)cen purchased by Rigby, a republican member of Parliament. Between his deputies and tiiose of Gorges violent disputes arose. Tiie villagers of Maine, sympathizing with neither party, and emulous of the growth and prosperity of the southern colonies, laid their grievances before the court at Boston, and the annexation of the province followed. In July of 1656, the Quakers began to arrive at Boston. The first who came were Ann Austin and Mary Fisher. The introduction of the plague would have occasioned less alarm. The two women were caught and searched for marks of witchcraft, their trunks were broken open, their books were burned by the hangman, and they themselves thrown into prison. After several weeks' confinement they were brought forth and banished from the colony. Before the end of the year eight others had been arrested and sent back to England. The delegates of the union were immediatelv convened, and a rigorous law was passed, excluding all Quakers from the country. Whipping, the loss of one 2ar and lianisji- ment were the penalties for the first offence; nftcr a second conviction the other ear sh.ould be cut off; and should the criminal again return, his tongue should be bored through with a red-hot iron. In 1657, Ann Burden, who had o.ime from London to preach against persecution, was seized and beateii with twenty stripes. Others came, were whipped and exiled. As the law became more cruel and prescriptive, fresh victims rushed forward to brave its terrors. The assembly of the four colonies again convened, and advised the authorities of Massachusettstoi>ronounce the penalty of death against the fanatical disturbers of the public peace. When the resolutions embodying this ad- vice A\'as put before the assembly, to his everlasting honor, the younger Winthrop, delegate from Connecticut, voted No ! Massachusetts ac- cepted the views of the greater number, and the death-penalty was passed bv a majority of one vote. MASSACHUSETTS.— THE UNION. 137 In September of 1659, four persons were arrested and brought to trial under tliis law. The prisoners wore given the option of going into exile or of being hanged. Two of them (Mary Dyar and Nicholas Davis) chose banishment ; but the other two (Marmaduke Stephenson and Wil- liam Robinson) stood firm, denounced the wickedness of the court, and were sentenced to death. Mary Dyar, in whom the love of martyrdom had triumphed over fear, now returned, and was also condemned. On the 27th of October' the three were led forth to execution. The men were hanged without mercy; and the woman, after the rope had been adjusted to her neck, was rejjrieved only to bo banished. She was con- veyed beyond the limits of the colony, but immediately returned and was executed. William Leddra was next seized, tried and sentenced. As in the case of the othei-s, he was oifered 23erpetual exile instead of deatli. He refused, and was hanged. Before the trial of Leddra was concluded, Wenlock Christison, who had already been banislied, rushed into the court-room and began to upbraid tlie judges for shedding the blood of the innocent. When put on his second trial, he spoke boldly in his own defence; butthe jury brought in a verdict of guilty, and he was condemned to die. Others, eager for the honor of martyrdom, came forward in crowds, and the jails were filled witli voluutary prisoners. But before the day arrived for Christison's exe- cution, the public conscience was aroused; the law was repealed, the prison- doors were opened, and Christison, with twenty-seven companions, came forth free. Tiie bloody reign of proscrijition had ended, but not until four innocent enthusiasts had given their lives for liberty of conscience. But let a veil be drawn over this sorrowful event. The history of all times is full of scenes of violence and wrong. It could not be ex- pected that an American colony, founded by exiles, pursued with malice and beset with dangers, should be \vholly exempt from the sliame of evil deeds. Tiie Puritans establisiied a religious rather than a civil common- M-ealth ; whatever put the faith of the people in peril seemed to them more to be dreaded than pestilence or death. To ward off heresy, even by destroying the heretic, seemed only a natural self-defence. A nobler lesson has been learned in the light of better times. The English Revolution had now run its course. Cromwell was dead. The Commonwealth tottered and fell. Charles II. was restored to the throne of his ancestors. Tidings of the Restoration reached Boston on the 27th of July, 1660. In the same vessel that bore the news came Edward Whalley and William Goffe, two of the judges who had passed sentence of death on Charles I. It was now their turn to save their lives by flight. Governor Endicott received them with, courtesy ; the agents 138 HISTOHV OF THE UNITED STATES. from the British government came in hot ])ursuit \\ith ordere to arrest them. For a while the fugitives, aided by the people of Boston, baffled the officers, and then escaped to New Haven. Here for many weeks they lay in concealment ; not even the Indians would accept the reward which was offered for their apprehension. At last the exiles reached the valley of the Connecticut and found refuge at the village of Hadley where they pa.ssed the remainder of their lives. It was in October of this same fatal year that Hugh Peters, the old friend of the colony, the father- in-law of the younger Winthrop, was hanged at London. The noble Sir Henry Vane was hunted down in Holland, surrendered to the English government, condemned and beheaded. Owing to the partiality of Cromwell, the restrictions on colonial commerce which bore so heavily on Virginia were scarcely felt by j\Iassa- chusetts. On the restoration of monarchy a severer policy \vas at once adopted. All vessels not bearing the English flag were forbidden to enter the liarliors of New England. A law of exportation was enacted by which all articles produced in the colonies and demanded in England should be shipjjed to England only. Such articles of American produc- tion as the English merchants did not desire might be sold in any of the ports of Europe. The law of importation was equally odioas ; such articles as were produced in England should not be manufactured in America, and should be bought from England only. Free trade between the colonies was forbidden ; and a duty of five j)er cent., levied for tli- tivity. Among the latter wa.s Mi-s. Hannah Dustin. Her child, only a week old, was snatched out of her arms aud dashed against a tree. The heartbroken mother, with her nurse and a lad named Leonardsou, from Worcester, was taken by the savages to an island in the ^lerrimac, a short distance above Concord. Here, while their captors, twelve in number, were asleep at night, the three prisoners arose, silently armed themselves with tomahawks, and with one deadly blow after another crushed in the temples of the sleeping savages, until ten of them lay still in death ; then, embarking in a canoe, the captives dropped down the river and readied the English settlement in safety. Mrs. Dustin carried home with her the gun and tomahawk of the savage who had destroyed her family, and a bag containing the scalps of her neighbors. It is not often that the mother of a murdered babe has found such ample vengeance. But the war was already at an end. Early in 1697, commissioners of France and England assembled at the town of Ryswick, in Holland ; and on the 10th of the following September, a treaty of peace M-as con- cluded. King; William was acknowledged as the rightful soverciiju of ?? Coo England, and the colonial boundary-Hues of the two uatioas in America were established as before. Massachusetts had in the mean time been visited with a woree calamity than war. Tiie darkest page in the history of New England is that which bears the record of the Salem Witchcraft. The same town which fifty-seven years previously had cast out Roger Williams wa« now to become the scene of the most fatal delusion of modern times. In Februar}' of 1692, in that part of Salem afterward called Danvers, a daughter and a niece of Samuel Parris, the minister, were attacked with a nervous disorder which rendered them partially insane. Parris be- lieved, or affected to believe, that the two girls were bewitched, and that Tituba, an Indian maid-servant of the household, was the author of the affliction. He had seen her performing some of the rude ceremonies of her own religion, and this gave color to his suspicions. He tied Tituba, and whipped the ignorant creature until, at his own dictation, she con- fessed herself a witch. Here, no doubt, the matter would have ended had not other causes existed for the continuance and spread of the miser- able delusion. MASSACHUSETTS.— WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. 151 But Parris had had a quarrel in his church. A part of the congre- gation desired that George Burroughs, a former minister, should be rein- stated, to the cxchision of Parris. Burroughs still lived at Salem ; and there was great animosity between the partisans of the former and the present pastor. Burroughs disbelieved in witchcraft, and openly ex- pressed his contempt of the system. Here, then, Parris found an oppor- tunity to turn the confessions of the foolish Indian servant against his enemies, to overwhelm his rival with the superetitions of the community, and perhaps to have him put to death. There is no doubt whatever that the whole murderous scheme originated in the personal malice of Parris. But there were others ready to aid him. First among these wa.s the celebrated Cotton Mather, minister of Boston. He, being in high re- pute for wisdom, had recently preached much on the subject of witchcraft, teaching the people that witches were dangerous and ought to be put to death. He thus became the natural confederate of Parris, and the chief author of the terrible scenes that ensued. Sir William Phipps, the royal governor, who had just arrived from England, was a member of Mather's church. Increase Mather, the father of Cotton, had nominated Phipps to his present office. Stoughton, the deputy-governor, who Mas appointed judge and presided at the trials of the witches, wa.s the tool of Parris and the two Matliei"s. To these men, more especially to Parris and Mather, must be charged the full infamy of what followed. By the laws of England witchcraft was punishable with death. The code of Massachusetts was the same as that of the mother-country. In the early history of the colony, one person charged with being a wizard had been arrested at Charlestown, convicted and executed. But with the progress and enlightenment of the people, many had grown bold enough to denounce and despise the baleful superstition. Something, therefore, had to be done to save the tottering fabric of witchcraft from falling into contempt. A special court was accordingly app minted by Governor Phipps to go to Salem and to sit in judgment on the persons accused by Parris. Stoughton was the presiding judge, Parris himself the prosecutor, and Cotton Mather a kind of bishop to decide when the testimony was sufficient to condemn. On the 21st of INIarch, the horrible proceedings began. Mary Cory was arrested, not indeed for being a witch, but for denying the reality of witchcraft. When brought before the church and court, she denied all guilt, but was convicted and hurried to prison. Sarah Cloyce and Rebecca Nurse, two sisters of the most exemplary lives, were next appre- hended as witches. The only witnesses against them were Tituba, her half- witted Indian husband and the simple girl Abigail Williams, the niece 152 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of Parris. The victims were sent to prison, protesting their innocence. Giles Cory, a patriarch of eighty yeare, was next seized ; he also was one of those who had opposed Parris. The Indian accuser fell down before Edward Bishop, pretending to be in a fit under Satanic influence ; the stui-dy flirmer cured him instantly with a sound flogging, and said that he could restore the rest of the afHicted in the same manner. He and his wife were immediately arrested and condemned. George Burroughs, the rival of Parris, was accused and hurried to prison. And so the work went on, until seventy-five innocent people were locked up in dungeons. Not a solitary partisan of Parris or Mather had been arrested. In the hope of saving their lives, some of the terrified prisoners now began to confess themselves witches, or bewitched. It was soon found that a confession was almost certain to procure liberation. It be- came evident that the accused were to be put to death, not for being witches or wizards, but for denying the reality of witchcraft. The special court wa.s already in session ; convictions followed fast ; the gallows stood waiting for its victims. The truth of Mather's preaching was to be estab- lished by hanging whoever denied it ; and Parris was to save his pastorate by murdering his rival. When the noble Burroughs mounted the scaffold, he stood composedly and repeated correctly the test-prayer which it Avas said no wizard could utter. The people broke into sobs and moans, and would have rescued their friend from death ; but the tyrant IVIather dashed among them on horseback, muttering imprecations, and drove the hang- man to his horrid work. Old Giles Cory, seeing tliat c(jnvictiou was cer- tain, refused to plead, and was pressed to death. Five women were hanged in one day. Between the 10th of June and the 22d of September, twentv victims were hurried to their doom. Fifty-fiA-e others had been toi-tured into the confession of abominable falsehoods. A hundred and fifty lay in prison awaiting their fate. Two hundred were accused or suspected, and ruin seemed to impend over New England. But a reaction at last set in among the people. Notwithstanding the vociferous clamor and denuncia- tions of Mather, the witch tribunals were overthrown. The representative assembly convened early in October, and the hated court which Phipps had appointed to sit at Salem was at once dismissed. The spell was dis- solved. The thralldora of the popular mind was broken. Reason shook off the terror that had oppressed it. The prison doors were opened, and the victims of malice and superstition went forth free. In the beginning of the next year a few persons charged with witchcraft were again arraigned and brought before the courts. Some were oven convicted, but the convictioa went for nothing ; not another life was sacrificed to passion and fanaticism. MASSACHUSETTS.— WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 153 Most of those who had participated in the terrible deeds of the preceding summer confessed the great wrong which they had done ; but confessions could not restore the dead. The bigoted Mather, in a vain attempt to justify himself before the world, wrote a treatise in which he expressed his great thankfulness that so many witches had met their just loom. It is not the least humiliating circumstance of this sad business that Mather's hypocritical and impudent book received the approbation of the president of Harvard College. In all this there is to the American student one consoling reflection — the pages of his country's history will never again be blotted with so dark a stain. CHAPTER XVII. MASSACHUSHTTS.— WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. THE peace which followed the treaty of Ryswick was of short dura- tion. Within less than four years France and England were again involved in a conflict which, beginning in Europe, soon extended to the American colonies. In the year 1700, Charles II., king of Spain, died, having named as his successor Philip of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV. This measure pointed clearly to a union of the crowns of France and Spain. The jealousy of all Europe was aroused ; a league was formed between England, Holland and Austria ; the archduke Charles of the latter country was put forward by the allied powers as a candidate for tlie Spanish throne; and war was declared against Louis XIV. for supporting the claims of Philip. England had against France another cause of offence. In Septem- ber of 1701, James II., the exiled king of Great Britain, died at the court of Louis, who now, in violation of the treaty of Ryswick, recognized the son of James as the rightful sovereign of England. This action was re- garded as an oj)en insult to English nationality. King William led his armies to the field not less to thwart the ambition of France than to save his own crown and kingdom. But the English monarch did not live to carry out his plans. While yet tlie war was hardly begun, the king fell from his horse, was attacked with fever, and died in May of 1702. Parliament had already settled the crown on Anne, the sister-in-law of William and daughter of James II. The new sovereign adopted the 154 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. policy of her predecessor. From the circumstance of her reign, the con- flict with France, which lasted for nearly thirteen years, is known in his- tory as Queen Anne's War ; but a better name is The War of the Spanish Succession. In America the field of operations was limited to New England and South Carolina. The central colonies were scarcely aware that wai existed. The military operations of both parties were conducted in a feeble and desultoiy manner. The more influential Indian tribes held aloof from the struggle. In August, 1701, the powerful Five Nations, whose dominions south of Lake Ontario and the river St. Lawrence formed a Ijarrier between Canada and New York, made a treaty of neutrality with both the French and the English. The Abenakis of Maine did the same; but the French Jesuits prevailed with the latter to break their compact. The first notice of treachery which the English had, was a fearful massacre. In one day tiie whole country between the town of Wells and the Bay of Casco was given up to burning and butchery. In midwinter of 1703—1 the town of Deerfield was destroyed. A war-part\' of three hundred French and Indians, setting out from Canada, marched on the snow-crust into the Connecticut valley. On the last night of February, the savages lay in the pine forest that surrounded the ill-fated village. Just before daybreak they rushed from their covert and fired the houses. Forty-seven of the inhabitants were tomahawked. A hundred and twelve were dragged into captivity. The prisoners, many of them women and children, were obliged to march to Canada. The snow lay four feet deep. The poor wretches, haggard with fear and starvation, sank down and died. The deadly hatchet hung ever above the heads of the feeble and the sick. Eunice Williams, the minister's wife, fainted by the wayside ; in the presence of her husband and five captive children, her brains were dashed out with a tomahawk. Those who survived to the end of the journey -were afterward ransomed and permitted to return to their desolated homes. A daughter of Mr. ^\'il- liams remained with the savages, grew up among the Mohawks, married a chieftain, and in after yeai-s returned in Indian garb to Deerfield. No entreaties could induce her to remain with her friends. The solitude of the woods and the society of her tawny husband had prevailed over the charms of civilization. In Maine and New Hampshire the war was marked with similar barbarities. Farms were devastated •, towns were burned ; the inhabitants were murdered or carried to Canada. Prowling bands of savages, led on by French officers, penetrated at times into the heart of Massachusetts. Against the treacherous barbarians and ti'.eir bloodthirsty leaders there MASSACHUSETTS.— WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 155 was no security either at home or abroad. Along the desolated frontier ruin prevailed, as in the days of King Philip. In 1707, the reduction of Port Royal was undertaken by Mai?sa- chusetts. A fleet, bearing a thousand soldiers, was equipped and sent against the town. But Baron Castin, who commanded the French garri- son, conducted the defence with so much skill that tlie English were obliged to abandon the undertaking. From this costly and disastrous 'expedition Massachusetts gained nothing but discouragement and debt. Nevertheless, after two years of prejiaration, the enterprise was renewed ; and in 1710 an English and American fleet of thirty-six vessels, having on board four regiments of ti-oops, anchored before Port Royal. The garrison was weak ; Subercase, the French connnander, had neither talents nor courage ; famine came ; and after a feeble defence of eleven days, the place surrendered at discretion. By this conquest all of Nova Scotia passed under the dominion of the English. The flag of Great Britain was hoisted over the conquered fortress, and the name of Port Royal gave place to Annapolis, in honor of Queen Anne. Vast preparations were now made for the invasion of Canada. A land force under conmiand of General Nicholson was to march against Montreal, while Quebec, the key to the French dominions in America, was to be reduced by an English fleet. For this purpose fifteen men-of- war and forty transports were placed under command of Sir Hovenden Walker. Seven regiments of veterans, selected from the armies of Europe, were added to the colonial forces and sent with the expedition. Before such an armament the defences of Quebec could hardly hold out an hour. But for the utter incompetency of the admiral, success would have been assured. For six weeks in midsummer the great fleet lay idly in Boston Har- bor. Sir Hovenden was getting ready to sail. The Abenaki Indians carried the news leisurely to Quebec ; and every day added to the strength of the ramparts. At last, on the 30th of July, when no further excuse could be invented, tho ships set sail for the St. Lawrence. At the Bay of Gasp6 the admiral thought it necessary to loiter a while; then he busied himself with devising a plan to save his ships from the ice during the next winter. Proceeding slowly up the St. Lawrence, the fleet, on the 22d of August, was enveloped in a thick fog. The wind blew hard from the east. The commander was cautioned to remain on deck, but went quietly to bed. A messenger aroused him just in time to see eight of his best vassels dashed to jiieces on the rocks. Eight hundred and eighty-four men went down in the foaming whirlpools. A council of war vas held, and all voted that it was impossible to proceed. In a letter to 156 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the English government, Walker expressed great gratitude that by the loss of a thousand men the rest had been saved from freezing to death at Quebec. The fleet sailed back to England, and the colonial troops were disbanded at Boston. Meanwhile, the army of General Nicholson had marched against Montreal. But when news arrived of the failure of the fleet, the land expedition was also abandoned. The dallying cowardice of \\"alker had brought the campaign of 1711 to a shameful end. Erance had already made overtures for peace. Negotiations were formally begun in the early part of 1712; and on the lltli of April in the following year a treaty was concluded at Utrecht, a town of Holland. By the terms of the settle- ment, England obtained control of the fisheries of Neu-foiuidland. Labra- dor, the Bay of Hudson and the whole of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, were ceded to Great Britain. On tiie 13th of July the chiefs of the hostile Indian tribes met the ambassadoi-s of New England at Portsmouth, and a second treaty was concluded, by which peace was secured throughout the American colonies. For thirty-one years after the close of Queen Anne's war, Massa- chusetts was free from hostile invasion. This was not, however, a period of public tranquillity. The people were dissatisfied with the royal govern- ment which King William had established, and were at constant variance with their governors. Phipj)s and liLs administration had been heartily disliked. Governor Shute was equally unpopular. Burnett, wiio suc- ceeded him, and Belcher afterward, were only tolerated because they could not be shaken off: The opposition to the royal officei-s took the form of a controversy about their salaries. The general assembly in- sisted that the governor and his councilors should be paid in proportion to the importance of their several offices, and for actual service only. But the royal commissions gave to each officer a fixed salary, which was frequently out of all jH'oportion to the services required. After many years of antagonism, the difficulty was finally adjusted with a comjiroinise in which the advantage was wholly on the side of the people. It was agreed that tlie salaries of tiie governor and his assistants sliouid be an- nually allowed, and the amount fixed by vote of the assembly. The representatives of popular liberty had once more triumphed over the principles of arbitrary rule. On the death of Charles YI. of Austria, in 1740, there were two principal claimants to the crown of the empire — Maria Theresa, daughter of the late emperor, and Charles Albert of Bavaria. Each claimant had his party and his army ; war followed ; and nearly all the nations of Europe were s\vEpt into the conflict. As usually happened in MASSACHUSETTS.— WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 157 such struggles, England and France were arrayed against each other. The contest that ensued is generally known as the War of the Austrian Succession, but in American history is called King George's War ; for George II. was now king of England. In America the only important event of the war was the capture of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island. This j^lace had been fortified at vast expense by the French. Standing at the principal entrance to the gulf and river of St. Lawrence, the fortress was regarded as a key to the Canadian provinces. Nov/ England was quick to note that both New- foundland and Nova Scotia were threatened so long as the French flag floated over Louisburg. Governor Shirley brought the matter before the legislature of Massachusetts, and it was resolved to attempt the capture of the enemy's stronghold. The other colonies were invited to aid the enterf)rise. Connecticut responded by sending more than five hundred troops ; New Hampshire and Rhode Island ea^h furnished three hundred; a park of artillerj' was sent from New York ; and Pennsylvania contributed a supply of provisions. The forces of Massachusetts alone numbered more than tliree thousand. It only remained to secure the co-operation of the English fleet then cruising in the West Indies. An earnest invitation was sent to Commodore Warren to join his armament with the colonial forces ; but having no orders, he declined the request. Everything devolved on the army and navy of New England, but there was no quailing under the responsibility. William Pepperell, of Maine, was appointed commander- in-chief; and on the 4th of April, 1745, the fleet sailed for Cape Breton. At Canseau, the eastern cape of Nova Scotia, the expedition was detained for sixteen days. The sea was thick with ice-drifts floating from the north. But the delay was fortunate, for in the mean time Com- modore Warren had received instructions from England to proceed to Massachusetts and aid Governor Shirley in the contemplated reduction of Cape Breton. Sailing to the north, Warren brought his fleet safely to Canseau on the 23d of April. On the last day of the month the arma- ment, now numbering a hundred vessels, entered the Bay of Gabarus in sight of Louisburg. A landing was effected four miles below the city. On the next day a company of four hundred volunteers, led by William Vaughan, marched across the peninsula and attacked a French battery which had been planted on the shore two miles beyond the town. The French, struck with terror at the impetuosity of the unexpected charge, spiked their guns and fled. Before morning the cannons M'ere re-drilled and turned upon the fortress. An English battery was established on the east side of the harbor, but the sea-walls of Louisburg were so strong 158 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. that little damage was done by the guns across the bay. An attack in the rear of the town seemetl impossible on account of a large swamp which lay in tliat direction ; but the resolute soldiers of New England lashed their heavy guns upon sledges, and dragged them through the marsh to a tract of solid ground within two hundred yards of the enemy's bastions. Notwithstanding the advantage of this position, the walls of the fort stood firm, and the siege progressed slowly. On the 18th of May a French ship of sixty-four guns, laden with stores for the garrison, was captured by Warren's fleet. The French were greatly discouraged by this event, and the defence grew feeble. The English were corresjiondingly elated with the prospect of success. On the 26th of the month an effort was made to capture the French bat- tery in the harbor. A company of daring volunteers undertook the hazardous enterprise by night. Embarking in boats, they drew near the island where the battery was planted, but were discovered and repulsed with the loss of a hundred and seventy-six men. It was now determined to carry the town by storm. The assault was set for the 18th of June; but on the day previous the desponding garrison sent out a flag of truce ; terms of capitulation were proposed and accepted, and the English flag rose above the conquered fortress. By the terms of this surrender not only Louisburg, but the whole of Cape Bretou, was given up to England. The rejoicing at Boston and throughout the colonies was only equaled by the indignation and alarm of the French government. Louis- burg must be retaken at all hazards, said the ministers of France. For this purpose a powerful fleet, under command of Duke d'Anville, was sent out in the following year. Before reaching America the duke died of a pestilence. His successor went mad SIEGE OF LODisBCRG, 1745. ^ud killed himself. Storms and ship- wrecks and disasters drove tlie ill- fiited expedition to utter ruin. The renewal of the enterprise, in 1747, was attended with like misfortune. Commodores Warren and Anson overtook the French squadron and compelled a humiliating surrender. In 1748, a treaty of peace was concluded at ALS-la-Chajielle, a town of Western Germany. After eight years of devastating warfare, nothing was gained but a mutual restoration of conquests. By the terms of settlement. Cape Breton was surrendered to France. With grief and ,\- ,* >^ }- ^y^r 1 ^ >' > --^ ■" ^ i' y ^^^'■' ; OCfotest V t^^'.a Y lii*n-^rC o 6° ° 1 . ''-^-IS-liTTS 5>-^' MILES 2 4 6 a to MASSACHUSETTS.— WARS OF ANJVE AND GEOBGE. 159 ehame the fishermen and farmers of New England saw the island which had been subdued by their valor restored to their enemies. Of all the disputed boundary-lines between the French and English colonies in America, not a single one was settled by this treaty. The Euroi)ean nations had exhausted themselves with fighting ; what cared they for tlie welfare of distant and feeble provinces? The real war between France and England for colonial suj)remacy in the West was yet to be fought. Within six years after the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the two great powers were involved in the final and decisive conflict. The history of Massachusetts has now been traced through a period of a hundred and thirty years. A few words on THE Character of THE Puritans may be appropriately added. They were in tlie begin- ning a vigorous and hardy people, firm-set in the principles of lionesty and the practices of virtue. They were sober, industrious, frugal ; reso- lute, zealous and steadfast. They esteemed honor above preferment, and truth more than riches. Loving home and native land, they left both for the sake of freedom ; and finding freedom, they cherished it with the zeal and devotion of martyi-s. Without influence, they became influential ; without encouragement, great. Desj)ised and mocked and hated, they rose above their revilers. In the school of evil fortune they gained the discipline of patience. Suffering without cause brought resignation with- out desjjair. Themselves the victims of persecution, they became the founders of a colony — a commonwealth — a nation. They were the chil- dren of adversity and the fathers of renown. The gaze of the Puritan was turned ever to posterity. He believed in the future. His affections and hopes were with the coming ages. For his children he toiled and sacrificed ; for them the energies of his life were cheerfully exhausted. The system of free schools is the enduring monu- ment of his love and devotion. The printing-press is his memorial. Almshouses and asylums are the tokens of his care for the unfortunate. With him the outcast found sympathy, and the wanderer a home. He was the earliest champion of civil rights, and the builder of the Union. The fathers of New England have been accused of bigotry. Tlu charge is true : it is the background of the picture. In matters of re- ligion they were intolerant and superstitious. Their religious faith n'as gloomy and foreboding. Human life was deemed a sad and miserable journey. To be mistaken was to sin. To fail in trifling ceremonies was reckoned a grievous crime. In the shadow of such belief the people be- came austere and melancholy. Escaping from the splendid formality of the Episcoi)al Church, they set up a colder and severer form of worsljp ; and the form was made like iron. Dissenters themselves, they could not 160 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tolerate the dissent of others. To restrain and punish error seemed right and necessary. Williams and Hutchinson were banished ; the Quakers were persecuted and the Avitches hanged. But Puritanism contained within itself the power to correct its own abuses. Within the austere and gloomy fabric dwelt the very soul and genius of Feke Thought. Under the ice-bound rigors of the faith flowed a current which no fatalism could congeal, no superstition poison. The heart of a mighty, tumultuous, liberty-loving life throbbed within the cold, stiff body of formalism. A jwwerful vitality, which no disaster could subdue, no persecution quench, warmed and energized and quickened. The tyranny of Phipps, the malice of Parris, and the bigotry of Mather are far outweighed by the sacrifices of Winthrop, the beneficence of Harvard, and the virtues of Sir Henry Vane. The evils of the sys- tem may well be forgotten in the glory of its achievements. Without the Puritans, America would have been a delusion and liberty only a name. CHAPTER XYIII. NEW YORK.—SETTLEMENT ILLUSTRIOUS Sir Henry Hudson ! Indomitable explorer, daunt- less cavalier of the ocean ! Who so worthy to give a name to tlie great inland sea of the frozen North as he who gave his life in heroic combat with its terrors ? Who so fit to become the father of a colony in the New World as he who braved its perils and revealed its mys- teries ? And where should the new State be planted unless by the broad haven — broadest and best on the American coast — and among the beautiful hills and landscapes Where The Hudson came rolling tlirough valleys a-smoke From the lands of the Iroquois? It was the good fortune of the American colonies to be founded b_r men whose lives, like the setting suns of summer, cast behind tliein a long and glorious twilight. But for the name and genius of Hud- son the province of New Netherland had never been. For ten years after the founding of New Amsterdam the colony was governed by directors. These officers were appointed and sent I JVEIF YORK.— SETTLEMENT. IGi out by tl the lower province. Andros issued a decree that ships sailing to and from the ports of New Jersey should pay a duty at the custom-house of New York. This tyrannical action was openly resisted. Andros attempted to frighten the assembly of New Jersey into submission, and 2)roceeded so far as to arrest Philip Carteret, the deputy-governor. But it was all of no use. The representatives of the ^jeople declared them^ selves to be under the protection of the Great Charter, which not even the duke of York, or his brother the king, could alter or annul. In August of 1682 the territories beyond the Delaware were granted by the duke to AV^illiam Penn. This little district, first settled by the Swedes, afterward conquered by the Dutch, then transferred to England on the conquest of New Netherland, was now finally separated from the jurisdiction of New York and joined to Pennsylvania. The governors of the latter province continued to exercise authority over the three counties on the Delaware until the American Revolution. At the close of Andros's administration, in 1683, Thomas Dongan, a Catholic, became governor of New York. For thirty years the people had been clamoring for a general assembly. Just before Andros left the province, the demand became more vehement than ever. The retiring governor, himself of a despotic disposition, counseled the duke to concede the right of representation to the people. At last James yielded, not so much with the view of extending popular rights, as with the hope of in- creasing his revenues from the improved condition of his province. Dongan, the new governor, came with full instructions to call an assem- bly of all the freeholders of New York, by whom certain persons of their own number should be elected to take part in the government. Seventy years had passed since the settlement of INIanhattan Island ; and now for the first time the people were permitted to choose their own rulers and to frame their own laws. The first act of the new assembly was to declare that the supreme legislative power of the province resided in the governor, the council and THE PEOPLE. All freeholders were granted the right of suffrage ; trial by jury was established; taxes should no more be levied except by con- sent of the assembly; soldiers should not be quartered on the people; martial law should not exist; no person accepting the general doctrines of religion should be in any wise distressed or persecuted. All the rights and privileges of Massachusetts and Virginia were carefully written by the zealous law-makers of New York in their first charter of liberties. In July of 1684 an important treaty was concluded at Albany. The governors of New York and Virginia were met in convention by the sachems of the Iroquois, and the terms of a lasting peace were settled 176 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. A long war ensued between the Five Nations and tlie French. The Jesuits of Canada employed every artifice and intrigue to induce tlie Indians to In'cak tlieir treaty with the Englisli, but all to no purpose ; the alliance was faithfully observed. In 1(584, and again in 16S7, the French invaded the territory of the Iroquois; but the mightv Mohawks and Oneidas drove back their foes with loss and disaster. By the barrier of the friendly Five Nations on the north, the English and Dutch colo- nies were screened from danger. In 1685 the duke of York became kine; of Encland. It was soon found that even the monarch of a great nation could violate his pledges. King James became the open antagonist of the government which had been established under his own directions. The poj^ular legislature of New York was abrogated. An odious tax was levied by an arbitrary decree. Printing-presses Avere forbidden in the province. All the old abuses were revived and made a juiljlic l)oast. In December of 1686, Edmund Andros became governor of all New England. It was a j)art of his plan to extend his dominion over New York and New Jersey. To the former jirovince, Francis Nicholson, the lieutenant-general of Andros, was sent as deputy. Dougau was super- seded, and until the English Revolution of 1688, New York was ruled as a dependency of New England. When the news of that event and of the accession of William of Orange reached the province, there was a general tunuilt of rejoicing. The people rose in rebellion against the government of Nicliolson, who was glad enough to escape from New York and return to England. The leader of the insurrection was Jacob Leisler, a captain of the militia. A committee often took upon themselves the task of reorganizing the government. Leisler was commissioned to take possession of the fort of New York. Most of the troops in the city, together with five hundred volunteers, proceeded against the fort, which was surrendered without a struggle. The insurgents published a declaration in which they avowed their loyalty to the prince of Orange, their coiuitryman, and expressed their determination to yield immediate obedience to his authority. A jirovisional government \\as organized, with Leisler at the head. The provincial councilors, who were friends and adherents of the dejjoscd Nicholson, left the city and repaired to Albany. Here the party who were opposed to the usurpation of Leisler jiroceeded to organize a second provisional government. Both factions were careful to exercise authority in the name of "William and INIary, the new sovereigns of England. In September of 1689, Milborne, the son-in-law of Leisler, was sent to Albany to demand the surrender of the town and fort. Court- NEW YORK UXDER THE EXGLISH. 177 laud and Bayard, mIio were the leadei-s of tlie northern faction, oppu.sed the demand with so much vigor that Milborne was obliged to retire with- out accomplishing his object. Such was the condition of aifairs at the beginning of King William's War. How the village of Schenectady was destroyed by the French and Indians, and how an unsuccessful expedition by land and water was planned against Quebec and Montreal, has been narrated in the history of Massachusetts. Such M'as the dispiriting etfect of these disasters upon the people of Albany and the north that a second effort made by Milborne against the government of the opposing faction was successful ; and in the spring of 1690 the authority of Leisler as tem- porary governor of New York was recognized throughout the province. The summer was spent in fruitless preparations to invade and conquer Canada. The general assembly was convened at the capital ; but little was accomplished except a formal recognition of the insurrectionary government of Leisler. In January of 1691, Richard Ingoldsby arrived at New York. He bore a commission as captain, and brought the intelligence that Colo- nel Sloughter had been appointed royal governor of the province. Leisler received Ingoldsby with courtesy, and offered him quarters in the city ; but the latter, without authority from either the king or the governor, haughtily demanded tlie surrender of His Majesty's fort. Leisler refiised to yield, but expressed his willingness to submit to any one who bore a commission from King William or Colonel Sloughter. On the 19th of March the governor himself arrived ; and Leisler on the same day despatched messengers, tendering his service and submission. Tlie mes- sengers were arrested, and Ingoldsby, the enemy and rival of Leisler, was sent with verbal orders for the surrender of the fort. Leisler foresaw liis doom, and hesitated. He wrote a letter to Sloughter, expressing a desire to make a personal surrender of the post to the governor. The letter was unanswered ; Ingoldsby pressed his demand ; Leisler wavered, capitu- lated, and with Milborne was seized and hurried to prison. As soon as the royal government was organized the two prisoners were brought to trial. The charge was rebellion and treason. Dudley, the chief-justice of New England, rendered a decision that Leisler had been a usurper. The prisoners refused to plead, were convicted and sen- tenced to death. Sloughter, however, determined to know the pleasure of the king before putting the sentence into execution. But the royalist assembly of New York had already come together, and the members were resolved that the prisoners should be hurried to their death. The governor was invited to a banquet ; and when heated with strong drink, the death- warrant was thrust before him for his signature. He succeeded in affix- 178 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ing his name to tlie fatal parcliment ; and almost before the fumes of his drunken revel had passed away, his victims had met their fate. On tlie 16th of May, Leisler and Milborne were brous;;ht from prison, led through a drenching rain to the scatibld and hanged. Within less than a year afterward, their estates, which had been confiscated, were restored to their heirs; and in 1695 the attainder of the families was removed. The same summer that witnessed the execution of Leisle,'' ana Milborne was noted for the renewal of the treaty with the Iroquois. At Albany, Governor Slough ter met the sachems of the Five Nations, and the former terms of fidelity and friendship were reaffirmed. In the fol- lowing year the valiant Major Schuyler, at the hezA of the New York militia, joined a war-party of the Iroquois ''n a successful exjjedition against the French settlements beyond Lake Champlain. Mcanwliile, the a.ssembly of the province had been in session at the capital. Although the representatives were royalists, a resolution was passed against arbitrary taxation, and another which declared the people to be a part of the govern- ing power of the colony. It was not long until one of the governors had occasion to say that the people of New York were growing altogether too big with the privileges of Englishmen. Soon after his return from Albany, Sloughter's career was cut short by death. He was succeeded in the office of governor by Benjamin Fletcher, a man of bad passions and poor abilities. The new executive arrived in September of 1692. One of the fii-st measures of his adminis- tration was to renew the recent treaty with the Iroquois. It was at this time the avowed purpose of the English monarch to place under a com- mon government all the territory between the Connecticut River and Delaware Bay. To further this project, Fletcher was armed with an anqile and comprehensive commission. He was made governor of New York, and commander-in-chief not only of the troops of his own jH'Ovince, but also of the militia of Connecticut and New Jersey. In the latter province he met with little opposition ; but the Puritans of Hartford re- sisted so stubbornly that the alarmed and disgusted governor was glad to return to his own capital. The next effort of the administration was to establish the Episcopal Church in New York. The Dutch and the English colonists of the province were still distinct in nationality ; the former, though Calvinists, were not unfriendly to the Episcopal service which the Puritans so heartily despised. In a religious controversy between Fletcher's council and the English, the Dutch, not being partisans of either, looked on with comparative indifference. But when the governor was on the point of succeeding with his measures, the general assembly interposed, passed a NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 179 decree of toleration, and brought the pretentious Church to a level with the rest. Fletcher gave vent to his indignation by calling his legislators a set of unmannerly and insubordinate boors. In 1696 the territory of New York was invaded by the French under Frontenac, governor of Canada. The faithful Iroquois made com- mon cause with the colonial forces, and the formidable expedition of the French was turned into confusion. Before the loss could be repaired and a second invasion undertaken. King William's War was ended by the treaty of Ryswick. In the following year, the earl of Bellomont, an Irish nobleman of excellent character and popular sympathies, succeeded Fletcher in the government of New York. His administration of less than four years was the happiest era in the history of the colony. His authority, like that of his predecessor, extended over a part of New Eng- land. Massachusetts and New Hampshire were under his jurisdiction, but Connecticut and Rhode Island remained independent. To this period belong the exploits of the famous pirate. Captain William Kidd. For centuries piracy had been the common vice of the high seas. The nations were just now beginning to take active measures for the sup- pression of the atrocious crime. The honest and humane Bellomont was one who was anxious to see the end of piratical violence. His commission contained a clause which authorized the arming of a vessel to range the ocean in pursuit of pirates. The ship was to bear the English flag, and was also commissioned as a priv^ateer to prey upon the commerce of the enemies of England. The vessel was owned by a company of distin- guished and honorable persons ; Governor Bellomont himself M'as one of the proprietors ; and William Kidd received from the English admiralty a commission as captain. The ship sailed from England before Bello- mont's departure for New York. Hardly had the earl reached his province when the news came that Kidd himself had turned jiirate and become the terror of the seas. For two years he continued his infamous career, then appeared publicly in the streets of Boston, was seized, sent to England, tried, convicted and hanged. What disposition was made of the enormous treasures which the pirate-ship had gathered on the ocean has never been ascertained. It has been thought that the vast hoard of ill-gotten wealth was buried in the sands of Long Island. Governor Bellomont was charged with having shared the booty, but an in- vestigation before the House of Commons showed the accusation to be groundless. In striking contrast with the virtues and msdom of Bellomont were the vices and folly of Lord Cornlxiry, who succeeded him. He arrived at New York in the beginning of May, 1702. A month 180 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. previously the proprietors of New Jereey had surrendered their rights in the }>rovince to the English Crown. All obstacles being thus removed, the two colonies were formally united in one government under the authority of Cornbury. For a period of thirty-six yeai-s tiie territories, though with separate assemblies, continued under the jurisdiction of a single executive. One of Cornbury's first acts was to forge a clause in his own com- mission. Desiring to foster the Established Church, and finding nothing to that effect in his instructions, he made instructions for himself At first the people received him with great favor. The assembly voted two thousand pounds sterling to compensate him for the expenses of his voyage. In order to improve and fortify the Narrows, an additional sum of fifteen hundred pounds was granted. The money was taken out of the treasury, but no improvement was visible at the Narrows. The repre- sentatives modestly inquired what had become of their revenues. Lord Cornbury replied that the assembly of New York had no right to ask questions until the queen should give them jJt'i'uiission. The old and oft-rej>eated conflict between personal despotism and popular liberty broke out anew. The people of the province were still divided on the subject of Leisler's insurrection. Cornbuiy became a violent partisan, favoring the enemies and pei-secuting tlie friends of that unfortunate leader ; and so from year to year matters grew constantly worse, until between the gov- ernor and his people there existed no relation but that of mutual hatred. In 1708 the civil dissensions of the province reached a climax. Each succeeding assembly resisted more stubbornly the measures of the governor. Time and again the people petitioned for his removal. The councilors selected their own treasurer, refusal to vote appropriations, and curtailed Cornbury's revenues until he was impoverished and ruined. Then came Lord Lovelace with a commission from Queen Anne, and the passionate, MTetched governor was unceremoniously turned out of office. Left to the mercy of his injured subjects, they arrested him for debt and threw him into prison, where he lay until, by his father's death, he be- came a peer of England and could bo no longer held in confinement. During the progress of Queen Anne's War the troops of New York cooperated with the army and navy of New England. Eighteen hun- dred volunteei-s from the Hudson and the Delaware composed the land forces in the unsuccessful expedition against IMoutreal in the winter of 1709-10. The provincial army proceeded as far as South River, east of Lake George. Here information was received that the English fleet which was expected to cooperate in the reduction of Quebec had been sent to Portugal; the armament of New England was insufficient of NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 181 itself to attempt the conquest of the Canadian stronghold ; and tlie troops of New York and New Jersey were obliged to retreat. Again, in 1711, when the incompetent Sir Hovenden Walker was pretending to conduct his fleet up the St. Lawrence, and was in reality only anxious to get away, the army which was to invade Canada by land was furnished by New York. A second time the provincial forces reached Lake George ; but the dispiriting news of the disaster to Walker's fleet destroyed all hope of succeas, and the discouraged soldiers returned to their homes. Failure and disgrace were not the only distressing circumstances of these campaigns ; a heavy debt remained to ovei-shadow the prosperity of New York and to consume her revenues. For many years the re- sources of the province were exhausted in meeting the extraordinary expenses of Queen Anne's war. In 1713 the treaty of Utrecht put an end to the conflict, and peace returned to the American colonies. In this year the Tuscaroras of Carolina — a nation of the same race with the Iro- quois and Hui'ons of the North — were defeated and driven from their homes by the Southern colonists. The haughty tribe marched north- ward, crossed the middle colonies and joined their warlike kinsmen on the St. Lawrence, making the sixth nation in the Iroquois confederacy. Nine years later a great council was held at Albany. There the grand sachems of the Six Nations were met by the governors of New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia. An important commercial treaty was formed, by which the extensive and profitable fur-trade of the Indians, Avhich, until now, had been engrossed by the French, was diverted to the English. In order to secure the full benefits of this arrangement, Governor Burnett of New York hastened to establish a trading-post at Oswego, on the southern shore of Lake Ontario. Five years later a substantial fort was built at the same place and furnished with an English garrison. As late as the middle of the century, Oswego continued to be the only forti- fied outpost of the English in the entire country drained by the St. Law- rence and its tributaries. The French, meanwhile, had built a strong fort at Niagara, and another at Crown Point, on tlie western shore of Lake Champl lin. The struggle for colonial supremacy between the two nations was already beginning. The administration of Governor Cosby, who succeeded Burnett in 1732, was a stormy epoch in the history of the colony. The people were in a constant struggle with the royal governors. At this time the contest took the form of a dispute about the freedom of the press. The liberal or democratic party of the province held that a public journal might criti- cise the acts of the administration and publish views distasteful to the sfovernment. The aristocratic party opposed such liberty as a dangerous 182 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. license, which, if permitted, would soon sap the foundations of all au- thority. Zenger, an editor of one of the liberal noMspapcrs, jiublished hostile criticisms on the policy of the governor, was seized and put in prison. Great excitement ensued. The people were clamorous for their champion. Andrew Hamilton, a noted lawyer of Philadelphia, went to New York to defend Zenger, who was brought to trial in July of 1 735. The charge was libel against the government ; the cause was ably argued, and the jury made haste to bring in a verdict of acquittal. The aldermen of the city of New York, in order to testify their appreciation of Hamil- ton's services in the cause of liberty, made him a jirescnt of an elegant gold box, and the jieople were wild with enthusiasm over their victory. New York, like Massachusetts, was once visited with a fatal delu- sion. In the year 1741 occurred what is kno^^•n as the Negro Plot. Slavery was permitted in the province, and negroes constituted a large fraction of the population. Several destructive fires had occurred, and it was believed that they had been kindled by incendiaries. The slaves were naturally distrusted ; now they became feared and hated. Some degraded women came forward and gave information that the negroes had made a plot to burn the cit}', kill all who opposed them, and set up one of their own number as governor. The whole story was the essence of absurdity ; but the people were alarmed, and were ready to believe anything. The reward of freedom was offered to any slave who would reveal the plot. Many witnesses rushed forward with foolish and contra- dictory stories; the jails were filled with the accused; and more than thirty of the miserable creatures, with hardly the form of a trial, were convicted and then hanged or burned to death. Others ^\cre transj>orted and sold as slaves in foreign lands. As soon as the supposed peril had passed and the excited people regained their senses, it came to be doubted whether the whole shocking affair had not been the result of terror and fanaticism. The verdict of after times has been that tha-e was no plot at all. During the progress of King George's War the territory of New York was several times invaded by the French and Indians. But the invasions Avere feeble and easily repelled. Except the abandonment of a few villages in the northern part of the State and the destruction of a small amount of exjiosed property, little harm Mas done to the province. The alliance of the fierce Mohawks with the English always made the in- vasion of New York by the French an exploit of more danger than j)rofil. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapellc, concluded in 1748, again brotight peace and prosperity to the people. Notwithstanding the central position of New York, iier growth NEW YORK' UXDER THE ENGLISH. IS.] ■was slow, her development unsteady, and her prospects darkened with much adversity. In population she stood, at the outbreak of the French and Indian war, but xiiih in a list of the colonies. Massa- chusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia had all outstripped her in the race. But the elements of future renown were nowhere else more abundantly bestowed. Here at the foot of her principal city lay the most convenient and commodious harbor on the Atlantic. A magnificent river — draining the country as far as where, at Onondaga, burned the great council-fire of»the Six Nations — rolled liiid grat itude of his friends could not prevail over the wisdom of the prudent leader. He foresaw the danger, and refused the tempting commission* Roger AV^illiams mts proof against all the seductions of ambition. The faithful Clarke remained in England to guard the interests of the colony. It was not long until his services were greatly needed. The restoration of monarchy occurred in 1660. Charles II. came home in triumph from his long exile. Rhode Island had acceptelanting, progress, and development of New England. Hither had come, in the beginning, a people of sober habits, frugal lives, and lofty purposes. Before their imagination was one vision — the vision of freedom. And freedom to the men who laid the foundations of civilization in New England meant the breaking off of every species of thralldom. These people came to the New World to stay. They voluntarily chose the wilderness with its forests, and snows, and savages. For forests, and snows, and savages were better than luxury with despotism. In Virginia as late as the middle of the eighteenth century many of the planters still looked fondly across the ocean and spoke of England as their " home." Not so with the peo- ple whose hamlets were scattered from the Penobscot to the Housa- tonic. With them the humble cabin in the frozen woods under the desolate sky of winter was a cheerful and sunny " home " — if only Freedom was written on the threshold. COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. MINOR MIDDLE COLONIES. CHAPTER XXIV. NEW JERSEY. THE colonial history of New Jersey properly begins with the fonnd- ing of Elizabethtown, in 1664. As early as 1618 a feeble trading .station had been established at Bergen, west of the Hudson ; but forty years elapsed before permanent dwellings were built in that neigh- borhood. In 1623 the block-house, called Fort Nassau, was erected at the mouth of Timber Creek, on the Delaware ; after a few months' occupancy. May and his companions abandoned the place and returned to New Amsterdam. Six years later the southern part of the present State of New Jersey was granted to Godyn and Blomaert, two of the Dutch patroons ; but no settlement was made. In 1634 there was not a single European living between Delaware Bay and the fortieth degree of latitude. In 1651 a considerable district, including the site of Elizabethtown, was purchased by Augustine Herman ; but still no colony was planted. Seven years afterwards a larger grant, embracing the old trading house at Bergen, was made; and in 1663 a company of Puritans, living on Long Island, obtained permission of Governor Stuyvesant to settle on the banks of the Raritan ; but no settlement was effected until after the conquest. All the territory of New Jersey was included in the grant made by King Charles to his brother the duke of York. Two months before the conquest of New Netherland by the English, that portion of the duke's province lying between the Hudson and the Delaware, extending as far north as forty-one degrees and forty minutes, was assigned by the proprietor to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. These noblemen were already proprietors of Carolina ; but they had adhered to the king's cause during the civil war in England, and were now rewarded with a second Amer- ican province. Almost immediately after the conquest another company of Puritans made application to Governor NicoUs, and received an exten- sive grant of land on Newark Bay. The Indian titles were honorably (203) 204 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. purchased ; in tlio followiiiEi; October a village was begun anrl named Elizabethtown, in honor of Lady Carteret. In August of 1665, Philip Carteret, son of Sir George, arrived as governor of the province. At first he was violently opposed by Nicolls of New York, who refused to believe that the duke had divided his terri- tory-. But Carteret was armed with a commission, and could not be pre- vented from taking jwssession of the new settlements below the Hudson. Elizabethtown was made the capital of the colony ; other immigrants arrived from Long Island and settled on the banks of the Passaic ; New- ark was founded ; flourishing hamlets appeared on the shores of the bay as far south as Sandy Hook. In honor of Sir George Carteret, who had been governor of the Isle of Jersey, in the English Channel, his American domain was named New Jersey. Experience had taught the proprietors wisdom ; they had learned that freedom is essential to the prosperity of a colony, and that liberal concessions to the people are better than great outlays of money. Berke- ley and Carteret, though royalists themselves, provided for their new State an excellent constitution. Person and property were put under the protec- tion of law. The government was made to consist of a governor, a council and a popular legislative assembly. There should be no taxation unless levied by the representatives of the people. DiiFerence of opinion should be respected, and freedom of conscience guaranteed to every citizen. The proprietors reserved to themselves only the right of annulling objection- able acts of the assembly and of appointing the governor and colonial judges. The lands of the province were distributed to the settlers for a quit-rent of a half penny per acre, not to be paid until 1670. In 1668 the first general assembly convened at Elizabethtown. Nearly all the representatives were Puritans, and the laws and customs of New England were thus early impressed on the legislation of the colony. Attairs went well until 1 670, M'hen the half-]ienny quit-rents M-ere due to the pi'oprietors. The colonists, in the mean time, had purchased their lands of the Indians, and also of Governor Nicolls of New York, vho still claimed New Jersey as a jjart of his province. To the settlers, therefore, it seemed that their titles to their farms were good without further payment to Philip Carteret or anybody else. The collection of the rents was accordingly resisted ; and the colony became a scene first of strife and then of revolution. In May of 1672 the colonial assembly convened and deposed the governor from office. James Carteret, another son of Sir George, was chosen governor, and Philij) returned to England. In 1673 the Dutch succeeded in retaking New York from the Eng- lish. For a few months the old province of New Netherland, including NEW JERSEY. 205 the country as far south as the Delaware, was restored to Holland. But in the next year the whole territory was re-ceded by the states-general to England. The duke of York now received from his brother, the king, a second pate:it for the country between the Connecticut and the Delaware, and at the same time confirmed his former grant of New Jersey to Bei'ke- ley and Carteret. Then, in utter disregard of the rights of the two pro prietors, the duke appointed Sir Edmund A ndros as royal governor of the whole province. Carteret determined to defend his claim against the authority of Andros ; but Lord Berkeley, disgusted with the duke's vacil- lation and dishonesty, sold his interest in New Jersey to John Fenwlck, to be held in trust for Edward Byllinge. In 1675, Philip Carteret returned to America and resumed the government of the province from which he had been expelled. Andros opposed him in every act ; claimed New Jersey as a part of his own dominions; kept the colony in an uproar ; compelled the ships which came a-trading with the new settle- ments to pay tribute at New York ; and finally arrested Carteret and brought him to his own cajiital for trial. Meanwhile, Byllinge became embarrassed with debt, and was forced to make an assignment of his property. Gawen Laurie, Nicholas Lucas and William Penn were appointed trus- tees, and to them Byllinge's interest in New Jersey was assigned for the benefit of his creditors. The assignees were Quakers. Here, then, was an opportunity to establish another asylum for the persecuted, and to found a common- wealth of Friends. Penn and his associates at once applied to Sir George Carteret for a division of the province. That nobleman was both Avilling and anxious to enter into an arrangement by which his own half of the territory could be freereference in matters of opinion, and no proscription for religion's sake, the colony flourished and waxed strong. But the English ministers had now formed the design of abolishing all the proprietary governments, with a view to the estab- lishment of royal governments instead. The presence and influence of Penn were especially required in England in order to prevent the success of the ministerial scheme. After much controversy his rights were recognized and secured against encroachment. In the mean time, the affiiirs of Pennsylvania were administered by the deputy- governors, Andrew Hamilton and John Evans. The latter, a worldly sort of man, not very faithful to the principles of the Friends, greatly troubled the province by purchasing warlike stores, building forts, ani attempting' to organizi' a regiment of militia. The assembly en- tered a strong protest against these proceedings, so irreconcilable with PENNSYLVANIA. ^15 the policy of the Quakers, and in 1708 Evans was removed from office. After him Charles Gookin received a commission as dep- uty-governor and entered upon his administration in 1709. Soon afterwards Penu was well-nigh overwhelmed by the rascality of his English agent, Ford, who first involved him in debt and then had him imprisoned. From a shameful confinement of many months ho was finally released, and his old age was brightened by a gleam of prosperity. But the end of his labors Avas at hand. In July of 1718 the magnanimous founder of Pennsylvania sank to his final rest. His estates, vast and valuable, but much encumbered witli debt, were be- queathed to his three sons, John, Thomas and Richard, who thus be- came proprietors of Pennsylvania. By them, or their deputies, the province was governed until the American Revolution. In the year 1779 the entire claims of the Penn family to the soil and jurisdiction of the State were purchased by the legislature of Pennsylvania for a hundred and thirty thousand pounds sterling. The colonial history of the State founded by William Penn and the Quakers is one of special interest and pleasure. It is a narrative that recounts the victories of peace and the triumph of the nobler virtues over violence and wrong. It is doubtful whether the history of any other colony in the world is touched with so many traits of innocence and truth. When the nations grow mercenary and the times seem full of fraud, the early annals of Pennsylvania may well be recited as a perpetual protest against the seeming success of evil. "I will found a free colony for all mankind," were the words of Williani Penn. How well his work was done shall be fitly told when the bells of his capital city shall ring out the first glad notes of American Independence. COLONIAL HLSTORY.— Continued. MINOR SOUTHERN COLONIES. CHAPTER XXVI. MARYLAND. CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH was the first whito man to explore the Chesapeake and its tributaries. After him, in 1621, William Clay- borne, a resolute and daring English surveyor, was sent out by the London Company to make a map of the country about the head-waters of the bay. By the second charter of Virginia the territory of that province had been extended on the north to the forty-first parallel of latitude. All of the present State of Maryland wa-s included in this enlargement, which also embraced the whole of Delaware and the greater part of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The ambition of Virginia was greatly excited by the jjossession of this vast domain; to explore and occupy it was an enterprise of the highest importance. Clayborne was a member of the council of Virginia, and secretary of state in that colony. In May of 1631 he received a royal commission authorizing him to discover the sources of the Chesapeake Bay, to survey the country as far as the forty-first degree of latitude, to establish a trade with the Indians, and to exercise the right of government over the com- panions of his voyage. This commission was confirmed by Governor Harvey of Virginia, and in the spring of the following year Clayborne began his imjjortant and arduous Mork. The members of the London Company were already gathering imaginaiy riches from the immense fur- trade of the Potomac and the Susquehanna. The enterprise of Clayborne was attended with success. A trading- post was established on Kent Island, and anoth'T at the head of tlie bay, in the vicinity of Havre de Grace. The many rivers that fall into the Chesapeake were again explored and a trade opened with the natives. The limits of Virginia were about to be extended to the borders of New Netherland. But in the mean time, a train of circumstances had been (216) MARYLAND. 217 prei^ared in England by which the destiny of several American provinces was completely changed. As in many other instances, religious perse- cution again contributed to lay the foundation of a new State in the wilderness. And Sir George Calvert, of Yorkshire, was the man who was destined to become the founder. Born in 1580 ; educated at Oxford; a man of mucii travel and vast experience ; an ardent and devoted Cath- olic; a friend of hu- manity ; honored with kniofhthood, and after- ward with an Irish peerage and the title of Lord Baltimore, — he now in middle life turned aside from the dignities of rank and affluence to devote the energies of his life to the Avelfare of the oppressed. For the Catholics of England, as well as the dissent- ing Protestants, were afflicted with many and bitter persecu- tions. Lord Baltimore's first American enter- LORD BALTIMORE. pfisc was thc planting of a Catholic colony ill Newfoundland. King James, who was not unfriendly to the Roman Church, had granted him a patent for the southern j^romontory of the island; and here, in 1623, a refuge was established for distressed Cath- olics. But in such a place no colony could be successful. The district was narrow, cheerless, desolate. Profitable industry was impossible. French ships hovered around the coa.st and captured the English fishing- boats. It became evident that the settlement must be removed, and Lord Baltimore wisely turned his attention to the sunny country of the Ches- apeake. In 1629 he made a visit to Virginia. The general assembly offered him citizenship on condition that he Mould take an oath of allegiance; but the oath was of such a sort as no honest Catholic could subscribe to. 218 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. In vain did Sir George plead for toleration • the as.sembly was inexorable. It was on the i)art of the Virginians a short-sighted and ruinoas policy. For the London Company had already been dissolved ; the king might therefore rightfully regrant that vast territory north of the Potomac which by tiie terms of the second charter had been given to Virginia. Lord Baltimore left the narrow-minded legislatoi-s, returned to London himself drew up a charter for a new State on the Chesapeake, and ea.sily induced his friend, King Charles I., to sign it. The Virginians had saved their religion and lost a province. The territory embraced by the new patent was bounded by the ocean, by the fortieth parallel of latitude, by a line drawn due south from that parallel to the most western fountain of tlie Potomac, by the river itself from its source to the bay, and by a line running due east from the mouth of the river to the Atlantic. The domain included the whole of the present States of Maryland and Delaware and a large ])art of Penn- sylvania and New Jersey. Here it was the purpose of the magnanimous proprietor to establish an asylum for all the afflicted of his own faith, and to plant a State on the broad basis of religious toleration and popular lib- erty. The provisions of the charter were the most liberal and ample whi< h had ever received the sanction of the English government. Christianity was declared to be the religion of the State, but no preference was given to any sect or creed. The lives and property of the colonists were care- fully guarded. Free trade was declared to be the law of the province, and arbitrary taxation was forbidden. The rights of the proprietor ex- tended only to tlie free a})pointment of the officers of his government. The power of making and amending the laws was conceded to the freemen of the colony or their representatives. One calamity darkened the prospect. Before the liberal patent could receive the seal of State Sir George Calvert died. His title and estates descended to his son Cecil ; and to him, on the 20th of June, 1632, the charter which had been intended for his noble father was finally issued. In honor of Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France and wife of Charles I., the name of Maryland was conferred on the new province. Independence of Virginia was guaranteed in the constitution of the colony, and no danger w.os to be antici])ate(l from the feeble forces of New Netherland. It only remained for the younger Lord Baltimore to raise a company of emigrants and carry out his father's benevolent designs. The work went forward slowly, and it was not until November of 1633 that a colony numbenng two hundred persons could be collected. Meanwhile, Cecil Calvert had abandoned the idea of coming in person to Ameriea, and had appointed his brother Leonard to accompany the col- MARYLAND. 219 onists to their destination, and to act as deputy-governor of the new province. In March of the following year tlie immigrants arrived at Old Point Comfort. Leonard Calvert bore a letter from Kins Charles to Governor Harvey of Virginia, commanding him to receive the new- comers with courtesy and favor. The order was complied with ; but the Virginians could look only with intense jealousy on a movement which must soon deprive them of the rich fur-trade of the Chesapeake. The colonists proceeded up the bay and entered the Potomac. At the mouth of Piscataway Creek, nearly opposite Mount Vernon, the pinnace was moored, and a cross was set up on an island. On the present site of Fort Washington there was an Indian village whose inhabitants came out to meet the English. A conference was held, and the sachem of the nation told Leonard Calvert in words of dubious meaning that he and his colony miffht stay or go just as they pleased. Considering this answer as a menace, and deeming it imprudent to plant his first settlement so far up the river, Calvert again embarked with his companions, and dropped down stream to the mouth of the St. Mary's, within fifteen miles of the bay. Ascending the estuary for about ten miles, he came to an Indian town. The natives had been beaten in battle by the Su.squehannas, and were on the eve of migrating into the interior. The village was already half deserted. With the consent of the Red men, the English moved into the vacant huts. The rest of the town was purchased, with the adjacent ter- ritory, the Indians promising to give possession at the opening of the spring. The name of St. Mary's was given to this the oldest colony of Marj-land, and the name of the river was changed to St. George's. Calvert treated the natives with great liberality. The consequence was that the settlers had peace and plenty. The Indian women taught the wives of the English how to make corn-bread, and the friendly war- riors instructed the colonists in the mysteries of hunting. Game was abundant. The lands adjacent to the village were already under cultiva- tion. The settlers had little to do but to plant their gardens and fields and wait for the coming harvest. There was neither anxiety nor want. The dream of Sir George Calvert was realized. Within six months the 3olony of St. Mary's had grown into greater prosperity than the settle- ment at Jamestown had reached in as many years. Best of all, the pledge of civil liberty and religious toleration was redeemed to the letter. Two years before the founding of Rhode Island the Catholics of the Ches- apeake had emancipated the human conscience, built an asylum for the distressed, and laid the foundations of a free State. Within less than a year after the founding of St. Mary's the free- 220 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. men were convened in a general assembly. In February of 1635 the Mork of colonial legislation was first begun. The records of this and several succeeding sessions were destroyed in the rebellion of 1645, and not much is known concerning the character of the earliest laws. But it is certain that the province was involved in difficulty For Clay- borne still stood his ground on Kent Island, and openly resisted Lord Baltimore's authority. His settlement on the island was almost as strong as the colony at St. Mary's; and Claybornc, unscrupulous as to the right, and confident in his power, resolved to appeal to arms. In 1637 a bloody skirmish occurred on the banks of the river Wicomico, on the eastern shore of the bay. Several lives were lost, but the insurgents were defeated. Calvert's forces proceeded to Kent Island, overpowered the settlement, and executed one or two persons who had participated in the rebellion. Claybornc, in the mean time, had escaped into Virginia. The assembly of Maryland demanded the fugitive; but the governor refused, and sent the j)risoner to England for trial. The legislators of St. Mary's charged the absent criminal with murder and piracy, tried him, con- demned him and confiscated his estates. Claybornc, who was safe in England, appealed to the king. The cause was heard by a eonmiittee of Parliament, and it was decided that the commission of Claybornc, which was only a license to trade in the Chesapeake, had been annulled by the dissolution of the London Company, and that the charter of Lord Balti- more was valid against all opposing claimants. Claybornc, however, was allowed to go at large. In 1639 a regular representative government was established in Maryland. Hitherto a system of popular dcnioci'acy had prevailed in the province ; each freeman had been allowed a vote in determining the laws. With the growth of the colony it was deemed expedient to substitirte the more convenient method of representation. When the delegates came together, a declaration of rights was adopted, and the prerogative of the ])roprietor more clearl)- defined. All the broad and liberal principles of the colonial patent were reaffirmed. The powers of the assembly were made coextensive w^ith those of the House of Commons in England. The I'ights of citizenship were declared to Ije identical with those of Eng- lish subjects in the mother country. The Indians of Maryland and Virginia had now grown jealous of foreign encroachments. Vague rumoi's of the English Revolution had been borne to the Red men, and they believed themselves able to expel the intruders from the country. In 1642 hostilities were begun on the Potomac, and for two years the province was involved in war. But the 3IAEYLAND. 221 settlements of Maryland were few and compact, and no great suffering was occasioned by the onsets of the barbarians. In 1644 the savages agreed to bury the hatchet and to renew the broken pledges of friendship. Hardly, however, had the echo of Indian warfare died awav, when the colony was visited with a woi-se calamity by the return of its old enemy, William Clayborne. He came to find revenge, and found it. The king was now at war with his subjects, and could give no aid to the proprietor of an American province. Clayborne saw his opportunity, hurried to Mary- land, and raised the standard of rebellion. Arriving in the province in 1644, he began to sow the seeds of sedition by telling the restless and lawless spirits of the colony that they were wronged and oppressed by a usurping government. Early in 1645 an insurrection broke out. Com- panies of desperate men came together, and found in Clayborne a natural leader. The government of Leonard Calvert wa.s overthrown, and the governor oitligod to fly for his life. Escajnng from the province, he found refuge and protection with Sir William Berkeley of Virginia. Clayborne seized the colonial records of Marylanil, and destroyed them. One act of violence followed another. The government was usurped, and for more than a year the colony was under the dominion of the insurgents. Mean- while, however, Governor Calvert collected his forces, returned to the province, defeated the rebels, and in August of 1646 succeeded in restor- ing his authority. It marks the mild and humane spirit of the Calverts that those engaged in this unjustifiable insurrection were ijardoned by a general amnesty. The acts of the provincial legislature in 1649 were of special im- portance. It was enacted in broad terms that no person believing in the fundamental doctrines of Christianity should, on account of his religious opinions or practices, be in any wise distressed within the bordei-s of Maryland. It was declared a finable offence for citizens to apply to each other the opprobrious names used in religious controversy. Freedom of conscience was reiterated with a distinctness that could not be misunder- stood. While Massachusetts was attempting by proscription to establish Puritanism as the faith of ISTew England, and while the Ejjiscopalians of Jamestown were endeavoring by exclusive legislation to make the Church of England the Church of Virginia, Maiyland was joining with Rhode Island and Connecticut in proclaiming religioas freedom. It sometimes happened in those days that Protestants escaping from Protestants found an asylum M-ith the Catholic colonists of the Chesapeake. In 1650 the legislative body of Maryland was divided into two branches. The upper house consisted of the governor and members of 222 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. his council appointed hy tlie proprietor. The lower house, or general assembly, was composed of burgesses elected b}' the people of the province. Again the rights of Lord Baltimore were carefully defined by provincial law. An act was also passed declaring that no taxes should be levied without the consent of the asseml^ly. Such was the condition of affairs in the colon)- when the commonwealth was established iu England. Par- liament was now the supreme power in the mother country, and it could hardly be expected that Lord Baltimore's charter would be allowed to stand. In 1651 parliamentary commissioners were appointed to come to America and assume control of the colonies bordering on the Chesapeake. Clayborne was a member of the body thus appointed, ^^'hen the com- missioners arrived in Maryland, Stone, the deputy of Lord Baltimore, was deposed from office. A cf)ni]iromise M'as presently effected betweeu the adherents of the proprietor and the opposing faction ; and in June of the following year, Stone, with three members of his council, was jjer- mitted to resume the government. In April of 1653 the Long Par- liament, by whose authority the commissioners had been appointed, -was dissolved. Stone thereupon published a proclamation declaring that the recent interference of Clayborne and his associates had been a rebellious usurpation. Clayborne, enraged at this proclamation, collected a force in Virginia, returned into Maryland, again drove Stone out of office, and entrusted the government to ten commissioners appointed by himself. The Puritan and republican party in Maryland had now grown sufficiently strong to defy the j)roj)rictor and the Catholics. A Protestant assembly was convened at Patuxent in October of 1654. The first act was to aciknowledge the supremacy of Cromwell ; the next to disfranchise the Catholics and to deprive them of the protection of the laws. The un- grateful representatives seemed to forget that if Lord Baltimore had been equally intolerant not one of them would have had even a residence within the limits of Maryland. It would be difficult to find a more odious ])iece of legislation than that of the assembly at Patuxent. Of course the Catholic party would not sutimit to a code by which they were virtually banished from their own province. Civil war ensued. Governor Stone organized and armed the militia, seized the records of the colony, and marched against the oppos- ing forces. A decisive battle was fought just across the estuary from the present site of Annajiolis. The Catholics were defeated, with a loss of fifty men in killed and wounded. Stone himself was taken prisoner, and was only saved from death by the personal friendshi]> of some of the in- surgents. Tliree of the Catholic leaders were tried by a court-martial MARYLAND. 223 and executed. Cromwell paid but little attention to these atrocities, and made no effort to sustain the government of Lord Baltimore. In 1656 Josias Fendall, a weak and impetuous man, was sent out by the proprietor as governor of the province. There was now a Cath- olic insurrection with Fendall at the head. For two years the govern- ment was divided, the Catliolies exercising authority at St. JMaiy's, and the Protestants at Leonardstown. At length, in March of 1658, a com- promise was effected; Fendall was acknowledged as governor, and the acts of the recent Protestant assemblies were recognized as valid. A gen- eral amnesty was published, and the colony was again at peace. When the death of Cromwell was announced in Maryland, the provincial authorities were much perplexed. One of four courses miglit be pursued : Richard Cromwell might be recognized as protector; Charles II. might be proclaimed as king; Lord Baltimore might be acknowledged as hereditary proprietor ; colonial independence might be declared. The latter policy was adopted by the assembly. On the 12th of March, 1660, the rights of Lord Baltimore were formally set aside ; the provincial council was dissolved, and the whole power of government was a.ssumed by the House of Burgesses. The act of independence was adopted just one day before a similar resolution was passed by the general assembly of Virginia. The population of IVIaryland had now reached ten thousand. On the restoration of monarchy tlie rights of the Baltimores were again recognized, and Philip Calvert was sent out as deputy-governor. In the mean time, Fendall had resigned his trust as agent of tlie proprietor, and had accepted an election by the people. He was now repaid for his double-dealing with an arrest, a trial and a condemnation on a charge of treason. Nothing saved his life but the clemency of Lord Baltimore, who, with his customary magnanimity, proclaimed a general pardon. Sir Cecil Calvert died in 1675, and his son Charles, a young man who had inherited the virtues of the illustrious family, succeeded to the estates and title of Baltimore. For sixteen years he exercised tlie rights of proprietary governor of Maryland. The laws of the ]H'ovince were carefully revised, and the liberal principles of the original charter re- affirmed as the basis of the State. Only once during this jjeriod was the happiness of the colony disturbed. When the news arrived of the abdi- cation of King James II., the deputy of Lord Baltimore hesitated to acknowledge the new sovereigns, William and Mary. An absurd rumor was spread abroad that the Catholics had leagued with the Indians for the purpose of destroying the Protestants of Maryland in a general mas- sacre. An opposing force w:ls organized ; and in 1689 the Catholic party was compelled to surrender the government. For two years the Protest- 224 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. auts lield tlie province, and civil authority was exercised by a body called the Convention of Associates. Ou the 1st day of June, 1*391, the government of Maryland M'as revolutionized by the act of King William. The charter of Lord Balti- more was arbitrarily taken away, and a ro}-al governcjr appointed over the province. Sir Lionel Copley received a connnission, and assumed the government in 1692. Every vestige of the old patent was swept away. The Episcopal Church was establishe to stand like a colossus over the huts and pas- tures along the Cape Fear and Chowan Rivers. The empire of Carolina Avas divided into vast districts of four hundred and eighty thousand acres each. Political rights were made dependent upon hereditary wealth. The offices were put beyond the reach of the people. There were two grand orders of nobility. There M'ere dukes, earls and marquises; knights, lords and esquires; baronial courts, heraldic ceremony, and eveiy sort of feudal nonsense that the human imagination could conceive of. And this was the magnificent constitution which a great statesman and a wise philosopher had planned for the government of a few colonists who lived on venison and potatoes and paid their debts with tobacco ! It was one thing to make the grand model, and another thing to get it across the Atlantic. In this the proprietors never succeeded. All at- tempts to establish the pompous scheme of government ended in necessary failure. The settlers of Albemarle and Clarendon had meanwhile learned to govern themselves after the simple manner of pioneers, and they could but regard the model and its authors with disdainful contempt. After twenty years of fruitless effort, Shaftesbury and his associates folded up their grand constitution and concluded that an empire in the pine forests of North Carolina was impossible. The soil of Clarendon county was little better than a desert. For a while a trade in staves and furs supplied a profitable industry ; but when this traffic was exhausted, the colonists began to remove to other settle- ments. In 1671, Governor Yeamans was transferred to the colony which had been founded in the previous year at the mouth of Ashley River, and before the year 1690 the whole county of Clarendon was a second time surrendered to the native tribes. The settlement north of Albemarle Sound was more prosperous, but civil dissension greatly retarded the development of the country. For the proj)rietors were alreadj- busy trying to establish their big in- stitutions in the feeble province. The humble commerce of the colony was burdened with an odious duty. Every pound of the eight hundred hogs- heads of tobacco annually produced was taxed a penny for the benefit of the government. There were at this time less than four thousand people in North Carolina, and yet the traffic of these poor settlers with New England alone was so M'eighcd down with duties as to yield an annual revenue of twelve thousand dollars. INIillcr, the governor, was a hareh and violent man. A gloomy opposition to the proprietary government l^ORTH CAROLINA. 227 pervafled the colon)'; and when, in 1676, large numbers of refugees from Virginia — patriots who had fought in Bacon's rebellion — arrived in the Chowan, the spirit of discontent was kindled into ojien resistance. The arrival of a merchant-ship from Boston and an attempt to en- force the revenue laws furnished the occasion and jjretext of an insurrec- tion. The vessel evaded the payment of duty, and wa.*- declared a smug- gler. But the j^eople ilew to arms, seized the governor and six members of hLs council, overturned the existing order of things and established a new government of their own. John Culpejjper, tlie leader of the insur- gents, was chosen governor; other officers were elected by the people; and in a few weeks tlie colony -B-aEj as tranquil as if Locke's grand model had never been heard of. But in the next year, 1679, the imprisoned ]\Iil- ler and his associates escaped from confinement, and going to London told a dolorous story about their wrongs and sufferings. The English lords of trade took the matter in hand, and it seemed that North CaroHna was doomed to punishment. But the colonists were awake to their interests. Governor Cul- pepper went boldly to England to defend himself and to justifv the rebel- lion. He was seized, indicted for high treason, tried and acquitted by a jury of Englishmen. It marks a peculiar feature of this cause that the sagacious earl of Shaftesbury came forward at the trial and spoke in do- fence of the prisoner. But Lord Clarendon was so mucii vexed at th'' acquittal of the rebellious governor that he sold his rights as proprietor tc the infamous Seth Sothel. This man in 1680 was sent out by his associ- ates as governor of the province. In crossing the ocean he was captured by a band of pirates, and for three years the colony was saved from his evil presence. At last, in 1683, he arrived in Carolina and began his M'ork, which consisted in oppressing the people and defrauding the ])ro- prietors. Cranfield of New Hampshire, Cornbury of New York and Wingfield of Virginia were all respectable men in comparison with Sothel, whose sordid passions have made him notorious as the woret colonial gov- ernor that ever plundered an American province. After five years of avaricious tyranny, the base, gold-gathering, justice-despising despot was overthrown in an insurrection. Finding himself a prisoner, and fearing the wrath of the defrauded proprietors more than he feared the indigna- tion of the outraged colonists, he begged to be tried by the assembly of the province. The request was granted, and the culprit escaped with a sentence of disfranchisement and a twelve months' exile from North Carolina. Sothel was succeeded in the governorsliip by Ludwell, who arrived in 1689. His administration of six years' duration was a period of peace 228 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and contentment. The wrongs of his predecessor wei-e corrected as far as possible by a just and liumane chief magistrate. In 1695 came Sir Jolin Archdale, another of the proprietors, the rival of Ludwell in prudence anil integrity. Then followed the tranquil administration of Governor Henderson Walker; then, in 1704, the foolish attempt of Robert Daniel to establish the Church of England. In the mean time, the colony had grown strong in population and resources. The country south of the Roanoke began to be dotted with farms and hamlets. Other settlei-s came from Virginia and Maryland. Quakers came from New England and the Delaware. A band of French Huguenots came in 1707. A hundred families of German refugees, buffeted with war and pei'secutiou, left the banks of the Rhine to find a home on the banks of the Neuse. Peasants from Switzerland came and founded New Berne at the mouth of the River Trent. The Indians of North Carolina had gradually wasted away. Pes- tilence and strong drink had reduced jjowerful tribes to a shadow. Some nations were already extinct ; others, out of thousands of strong-limbed warriors, had only a dozen men remaining. The lands of the savages had passed to the whites, sometimes by purchase, sometimes by fraud, often by forcible occupation. The natives were jealous and revengeful, but weak. Of all the nn"ghty tribes that had inhabited the Carolinas in the days of Sir Walter Raleigh, only the Coreas and the Tuscaroras Mere still formidable. The time had come when these unhappy nations, like the rest of their race, were doomed to destruction. The conflict which ended, and could only end, in the ruin of the Red men, began in the ye;ir 1711. In September of this year, Lawson, the surveyor-general of North Carolina, ascended the Ncuse to explore and map the country. The In- dians were alarmed at the threatened encroachment upon their 1 territory. A band of warriors took Lawson prisoner, led liim before their council, condemned him and burned him to death. On the night of the 22d, com- panies of savages rose out of the woods, fell upon the scattered settlements between the Roanoke and Pamlico Sound, and murdered a hundred and thirty persons. Civil dissension prevented the colonial authorities from adopting vigorous measures of defence. The jirotection of the people and the punishment of the barbarians were left to the neighboring prov- inces. Spottswood, governor of Virginia, made some unsuccessful efforts to render assistance, and Colonel Barnwell came from South Carolina Avit 1' a company of militia and a body of friendly Cherokees, Creeks and Cataw- bas. The savages were driven into their fort in the northern part of Craven comity, but could not be dislodged. A\'hile affairs wei-e in this NORTH CAROLINA. 229 condition a trcatj' of peace was made ; but Barnwell's men, on their way homeward, violated the compact, sacked an Indian village and made elaves of the inhabitants. The war was at once renewed. In September of the next year, while the conflict was yet unde- cided, the yellow fever broke out in the country south of Pamlico Sound. So dreadfal were the ravages of the pestilence that the peninsula was^ wellnigh swept of its inhabitants. Meanwhile, Colonel James Moore of South Carolina had arrived, in command of a regiment of whites and In- dians, and the Tuscaroras were pursued to their principal fort on Cotentnea Creek, in Greene county. This place was besieged until the latter part of March, 1713, and was then carried by assault. Eight hundred warriors were taken prisoners. The power of the hostile nation was broken, but the Tuscarora chieftains Avere divided in council ; some were desirous of peace, and some voted to continue the war. This difference of opinion led to a division of the tribe. Those who M'ished for peace were permit- ted to settle in a single community in the county of Hyde. Their hostile brethren, seeing that further resistance would be hopeless, determined to leave the country. In the month of June they abandoned their hunting- grounds made sacred by the traditions of their fathers, marched across Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, reached Northern New York, joined their kinsmen, the Oneidas, and became the sixth nation of the Iroquois confederacy. Thus far the two Carolinas had continued under a common gov- ernment. In 1729 a final separation was effected between the provinces north and south of Cape Fear River, and a royal governor appointed over each. In spite of Locke's grand model and the Tuscai'ora war, in spite of the threatened Spanish invasion of 1744, the northern colony had greatly prospered. The intellectual development of the people had not been as rapid as the gro-nth in numbers and in wealth. Little attention had been given to questions of religion. There was no mmister in the province until 1703. Two years later the first church was built. Tlie first court- house was erected in 1722, and the printing-press did not begin its work until 1754. But the people were brave and patriotic. They loved their countiy, and called it the Land of Summer. In the farmhouse and the village, along the banks of the rivers and the borders of the primeval for- ests, the spirit of liberty pervaded every breast. The love of freedom was intense, and hostility to tyranny a universal passion. In the times of Sothel it was said of the North Carolinans that they would not pay trib- ute even to Omar. 230 HlHTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER XXVTTT. SOUTH CAROLINA. IX January of 1670 the proprietors of Carolina sent out a colony under command of Joseph West and William Sayle. There was at this time not a single European settlement between the mouth of Cape Fear River and the St. John's, in Florida. Here was a beautiful coast of nearly four hundred miles readv to receive the beginnings of civilization. The new emigrants, .sailing by way of Barbadoes, steered far to the south, and reached the mainland in the country of the Savannah. The vessels first entered the harbor of Port Royal. It was now a hundred and eight years since John Ribault, on an island in this same harbor, had set up a .stone engraved with the lilies of France ; now the Entrlishman had come. The ships were anchored near the site of Bcaulbrt. But the colo- nists were dissatisfied with the appearance of the country, and did not go ashore. Sailing northward along the coast for forty miles, they next en- tered the mouth of Ashley River, and landed where the first high land appeared upon the southern banl^. Here wei-e laid the foundations of Old Charleston, so named in honor of King Charles 11. Of this, the oldest town in South Carolina, no trace remains except the line of a ditch which was digged around the fort ; a cotton-field occupies the site of the ancient settlement. Sayle had been commissioned as governor and West as commercial agent of the colony. The settlers had been furnished with a copy of Locke's big constitution, but they had no more use for it than for a dead elephant. Instead of the grand model, a little government was organized on the princij)les of common sense. Five councilors were elected by the people, and five others ajipointed by the jiroprietors. Over this council of ten the governor presided. Twenty delegates, composing a house of representatives, were chosen by the colonists. Within two years the .sys- tem of popular government was firmly established in the province. Ex- cept the prevalence of diseases peculiar to the southern climate, no calam- ity darkened the prospects of the rising State. In the beginning of 1671 Governor Sayle died, and West, by com- mon consent, assumed the duties of the vacant office. After the lapse of SOUTH CAROLINA. 231 a few months, Sir John Yeamans, who had been gov^ernor of the northern province and was now in Barbadoes, was commissioned by the proprie- tors as chief magistrate of tlie southern colony. He brought with him to Ashley River a large cargo of African slaves. From the beginning the colonists had devoted themselves to planting ; but the English laborers, unused as yet to the climate, could hardly endure the excessive heats of the sultry fields. To the Caribbee negroes, already accustomed to the burn- ing sun of the tropics, the Carolina summer seemed temperate and pleasant. Thus the labor of the black man was substituted for the labor of the white man, and in less than two years from the founding of the colony the system of slavery was firmly established. In this respect the history of South Carolina is peculiar. Slavery had been introduced into all the American colonies, but everywhere else the introduction had been effected by those who were engaged in the slave-trade. In South Carolina alone was the system adojited as a political and social experiment and with a view to the regular establishment of a laboring class in the State. Governor Yeamans M'as the first to accept this policy, M'hich soon became the general j^olicy of the province. The importation of negroes went on so rapidly that in a short time they outnumbered the whites as two to one. Immigration from England did not lag. During the year 1671 a system of cheap rents and liberal bounties was adopted by the proprietors, and the country was rapidly filled with people. A tract of a hundred and fifty acres Mas granted to every one who Mould either immigrate or im- port a negro. Fertile lands were abundant. AVars and pestilence had almost annihilated the native tribes; M'hole counties M'ere almost M'ithout an occupant. The disasters of one race had prepared the May fir the coming of another. Only a iew years before this time New Netherland had been conquered by the English. The Dutch M^cre greatly dissatisfied with the government which the duke of York had established over them, and began to leave the country. The proprietors of Carolina sent several ships to New York, loaded them with the industrious but discontented people, and brought them Mithout expense to Charleston. The unoccupied lands M'cst of Ashley River M-ere divided among the Dutch, M'ho formed there a thriving settlement called Jamestown. The fame of the new country reached Holland, and other emigrants left fatherland to join their kinsmen in Carolina. Charles II., who rarely aided a colony, collected a company of Protestant refugees from the South of Europe, and sent them to Carolina to introduce the silk- worm and to begin the cultivation of the grape. In 1680 the present metropolis of South Carolina was founded. The site of Old Charleston had been hastily and injudiciously selected. The 232 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. delightful peninsula called Oyster Point, between Ashley and Cooper Hivers, was now chosen as the spot on which to build a city. The erec- tion of thirty dwellings during the first summer gave proof of enterprise ; the name of Charleston was a second time bestowed, and the village immediately became the capital of the colony. The unhealthy climate for a while retarded the progress of the new town, but the people were lull of life and enterprise ; storehouses and wharves were built, and mer chant-ships soon began to throng the commodious harbor. Injustice provoked an Indian war. Some vagabond Nestoes, whose only offence consisted in strolling through the plantations, were shot. The tribe appealed to the government, and the proprietors showed a wil- lingness to punish the M'rongdoers ; but the pioneers were determined to fight and the savages were naturally revengeful. Scenes of violence con- tinued along the border, and hostilities began in earnest. In the prosecu- tion of the war the colonists were actuated by a shameful spirit of avarice. The object was not so much to jiunish or destroy the savages as to take them prisoners. A bountj' was oflered for every captured Indian, and as fast as the warriors were taken they were sold as slaves for the West In- dies. The petty strife continued for a year, and was then concluded with a treaty of peace. Commissioners were appointed, to whom all complaints and dis2)utes between the natives and the colonists should henceforth be submitted. South Carolina \vas favored with rapid immigration, and the immi- grants were worthy to become the founders of a great State. The best nations of Europe contributed to people the country between Cape Fear and the Savannah. England continued to send her colonies. In 1683 Joseph Blake, a brother of the great English admiral, devoted his fortune and the last years of his life to bringing a large company of dissenters from Somersetshire to Charleston. In the same year an Irish colony under Ferguson arrived at Ashley River, and met a hearty welcome. A company of Scotcii Presbyterians, ten families in all, led by the excellent Lord Cardross, settled at Port Royal in 1684. The authorities of Charles- ton claimed jurisdiction there, and the new immigrants reluctantly yielded to the claim. Two years afterward a band of Spanish soldiers arrived Irom St. Augustine, and the unhappy Scotch exiles were driven from their homes. But intolerant France gave up more of her subjects than did all the other nations. As early as 1598 Henry IV., king of the French, had published a celebrated proclamation, called the Edict of Nantes, by the terms of which the Huguenots were protected in their rights of religious worship. Now, after eightv-seven years of toleration, Louis XIV., blinded with bigotry SOUTH CAROLINA. 23;^ and passion and hoping to make Catholicism universal, revoked the kindly edict, and exposed the Protestants of his kingdom to the long-suppressed rage of their enemies. In order to enforce the decree of revocation the French army was quartered in the towns of the Huguenots, the ports were closed against emigration, and the borders were watched to prevent escape. How foolish are the ways of despotism ! In spite of every precaution, five hundred thousand of the best people of France, preferring banishment to religious thraldom, escaped from their country and fled, self-exiled, into foreign lands. The Huguenots were scattered from the Baltic Sea to the Cape of Good Hope, and on the Western continent from Maine to Flor- ida. But of all the American colonies. South Carolina received the great- est number of French refugees within her borders. They were met by the projirietors with a pledge of protection and a promise of citizenship ; but neither promise nor pledge was immediately fulfilled, for the colony had not yet determined what should be its laws of naturalization. Both the general assembly and the proprietors claimed the right of fixing the conditions. Until tiiat question could be decided the Huguenots were kept in suspense, and were sometimes unkindly treated by tiie jealous English settlers. Not until 1697 were all discriminations against the French innnigrants removed. In 1686 came James Colleton as colonial governor. He began his administration with a foolish attemj)t to establish the mammoth constitu- tion of Locke and Shaftesbury. No wonder that the assembly resisteil his authority, and that the people were embittered against him. The rents came due; payment was refused, and the colony was in a state of rebellion. In order to divert attention from himself, Colleton jiublished a proclama- tion setting forth the danger of a pretended invasion by the Indians and Spaniards. The militia was called out and the province declared under martial laM'. It was all in vain. The people were only exasperated by the arbitrary proceedings of the governor. Tidings came that James II. had been driven from the throne of England. The popular assembly was convened, and William and Mary were proclaimed as sovereigns. In 1690 a decree of impeachment was passed again.st Colleton, and he was banished from the province. The people of North Carolina had just performed a similar service for Seth Sothel. Not satisfied with his previous succe.ss, he at once re- paired to Charleston and assumed the government of the southern colony. To Sothel's other merits were added the qualifications of a first-rate dem- agogue ; he induced the people to acquiesce in his usurpation and to sus- tain his authority. But his avaricious disposition could not long be held in cheek. The proprietors disclaimed his acts and after a turbulent rule 234 HISTORY OF THE UMTED STATES. of two years, he and his government were overthrown. One bright pag« redeems the record of his administration. In May of 1691 the first gen- eral act of enfraiiciiisement was passed in favor of the Huguenots. Philip Ludwell, who had been collector of customs in A'irginia, and since 1689 governor of North Carolina, was now sent to establish order in the southern ])rovince. He spent a year in a well-meant effort to administer the go^•ernment of the proprietors; but the people were fixed in their antagonism to the constitution, and nothing could be accom- plished. Ludwell gave up the hoj)eless task, withdrew from the prov- ince, and returned to Virginia. South Carolina had fallen into a condi- tion bortlering on anarchy. Nearly a quarter of a century had elapsed since Locke drafted the grand model. At last the ])ro})rietors came to see that the establishment of such a monstrous frame of government over an American colon)' was impossible. Pride said that the constitution should stand, for the nobility of England had declared it immortal. But self-interest and common sense demanded its abrogation, and the demand prevailed. In April of 1693 the proprietoi-s assembled and voted the boasted model out of exist- ence. It was enacted at the same meeting that since the peojde of Caro- lina preferred a simple charter government, their request be granted. The magnificent paper empire of Shaftesbur}- was swept into oblivion. Thomas Smith was now appointed governor, but was soon super- .seded by John Archdale, a distinguished and talented Quaker. Arriving in 1695, he began an administration so just and wise that dissension ceased and the colony entered upon a new career of prosperity. The quit-rents on lands were remitted for four years. The people were given the option of paying their taxes in money or in produce. The Indians were concili- ated with kindness and protected against kidnappers. Some native Cath- olics were ransomed from slavery and sent to their homes in Florida, and the Spanish governor reciprocated the deed with a friendly message. When the old jealousy against the Huguenots asserted itself in the gen- eral assembly, the benevolent influence of Archdale procured the pa.ssage of a law by which all Christians, except the Catholics, were fully enfran- chised ; the imgenerous exception was made against the governor's will. It was a real misfortune to the colony when, in 1698, the good g^ivernor was recalled to England. James Moore was next commissioned as chief magistrate. The first important act of his administration was a declaration of hostilities against the Spanish settlement of St. Augustine. Queen Anne's "War had broken out. The Spaniards were in alliance with the French against the English. By the ant&gonism of England and Spain, South Carolina and SOUTH CAROLINA. 235 Florida were brought into conflict. Yet a declaration of war was strong- ly opposed in the assembly at Charleston, and was only passed by a small majority. It was voted to raise and equip a force of twelve hun- dred men, and to invade Florida by land and water. The summer of 1702 was spent in preparation, and in September the expeditions departed, the land-forces led by Colonel Daniel and tiie fleet commanded by the governor. The English vessels sailed down the coast, entered the St. John's and blocked up the river. Daniel marched overland, reached St. Augus- tine and captured the town. But tiie Spaniards withdrew without serious loss int<:) the castle, and bade defiance to the besiegers. Without artillery it was evident that the place could not be taken. Colonel Daniel was despatched with a sloop to Jamaica to procure cannons for the siege; but before his return two Spanish men-of-war appeared at the moutli of the St. John's, and Governor Moore found himself blockaded. His courage was not equal to the occasion. Abandoning liis ships, he took to tlie shore, and collecting his forces hastily retreated into Carolina. Daniel returned and entered the St. John's, but discovered the danger in time to make his escape. The governor's retreat occasioned great dissatisfaction. There were insinuations of cowardice and threats of impeachment, but no formal action was taken against him. The only results of the unfor- tunate expedition Avere debt and paper money. In order to meet the heavy expenses of the war, the assembly was obliged to issue bills of credit to the amount of six thousand poimds sterling. Governor Moore retrieved his reputation by invading the Indian nations south-\vest of the Savannaii. In December of 1705 he left the province at the head of fifty volunteers and a thousand friendly natives. White men had not been seen marching in these woods since the days of De Soto. On the 14th of the month the invaders reached the fortified town of Ayavalla, in the neighboriiood of St. Mark's. An attack was made and the church set on fire. A Franciscan monk came out and begged for mercy ; but tlie ])lace A\as carried by assault, and more than two -hundred prisoners were taken, only to be enslaved. On the next day Moore's forces met and defeated a large body of Indians and Spaniards. Five important towns were carried in succession, and the English flag was borne in triumph to the Gulf of Mexico. Communication between the Spanish settlements of Florida and the French posts in Louisiana was entirely cut off. Meanwhile, the Church of England had been established by law in South Carolina. In the first j^ear of Johnston's administration the High Church party succeeded in getting a majority of one in the colonial 236 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. assembly, and immediately j)assed an aet dLsfranchi.sing all the dissenters in the province. \n aj)peal \\as carried to the proprietors, only to be re- jected with contempt. The dissenting party next laid their cause before Parliament, and that liody promptly voted that the act of disfranchiscmenl was contrary to the laws of England, and that the {iroprietors had for- feited their charter. The queen's ministers were authorized to declare the intolerant law null and void. In November of the same year the colo- nial legislature revoked its own act so far as the disfranchising clause was concerned ; but Episcopalianism continued to be the established faith of the province. The year 1706 was a stirring epoch in the history of South Caro- lina. A French and Spanish fleet was sent from Havana to capture Charleston and subdue the country. The orders were more easily given than executed. The brave j)eople of the capital flew to arms. Governor Johnson and Colonel William Rhett insjiired the volunteei'SAvith courage; and when the hostile squadron anchored in the harbor, the city was ready for a stubborn defence. Several times a landing was attemjjted, but the invaders were everywhere repulsed. At last a French vessel succeeded in getting to shore with eight hundred troops, but they were attacked with fury and driven off with a loss of three hundred in killed and jirisoners. The siege was at once abandoned ; unaided by the pro])rictors. South Car- olina had made a glorious defence. In the spring of 1715 war broke out with the Yamassees. ^\.s usual with their race, the Indians began hostilities with treachery. At the very time when Captain Xairne was among them as a friendly ambas- sador, the wily savages rose ujjon the frontier settlements and committed an atrocious massacre. The people of Port Royal were alarmed just in time to escape in a ship to Charleston. The desperate savages rushed on to within a short distance of the capital. It seemed that the city would be taken and the whole colony driven to destruction. But the brave Charles Craven, governor of the in-ovince, rallied the militia of Colleton district, and the blood-stained barbarians were driven back. A vigorous pursuit began, and the savages were pressed to the banks of the Salke- hatchie. Here a decisive battle was fought, and the Indians were com- pletely routed. The Yamassees collected their shattered tribe and retired into Florida, where they M'cre received by the Spaniards as friends and confederates. In 1719 the government of South Carolina was revolutionized. At the close of the war with the Yamassees the assembly petitioned the proprietors to bear a portion of the exjjense. But the avaricious noble- men refiised, and would take no measures for the future protection of the SOUTH CAROLINA. 237 colony. The people were greatly burdened with rents and taxes. The lands were monopolized ; every act of the assembly which seemed for the public good was vetoed by the proprietors. In the new election ever}' delegate was chosen by the popular party. The 21st of December was training-day in C-harleston. On that day .James Moore, the new chief magistrate elected by the people, was to be inaugurated. Governor John- son forbade the military display and tried to prevent the inauguration ; but the militia collected in the public square, drums were beaten, flags were flung out on the forts and shipping, and before nightfall the propri- etary government of Carolina was overthrown. Governor Moore was duly inaugurated in the name of King George I. A colonial agent was at once sent to England ; the cause of the colonists was heard, and the forfeited charter of the proprietors abrogated by act of Parliament. Francis Nicholson was now commissioned as governor. He had already held the office of chief magistrate in New York, in Virginia, in Maryland and in Nova Scotia. He began a successful administration in South Carolina by concluding treaties of peace and commerce with the Cherokees and the Creeks. But another and final change in colonial affairs was now at hand. In 1729 seven of the eight proprietors of the Carolinas sold their entire claims in the provinces to the king. Lord Carteret, the eighth proprietor, would surrender nothing but his right of jurisdiction, reserving his share in the soil. The sum paid by King George for the two colonies was twenty-two thousand five hundred pounds sterling. Royal governors were appointed, and the affairs of the province were settled on a permanent basis, not to be disturbed for more than forty years. The people who colonized South Carolina were brave and chival- rous. On the banks of the Santee, the Edisto and the Combahee were gatlicred some of the best elements of the European nations. The Hu- guenot, the Scotch Presbyterian, the English dissenter, the loyalist and High Churchman, the Irish adventurer and the Dutch mechanic, com- posed the j)owerful material out of which soon grew the beauty and re- nown of the Palmetto State. Equally with the rugged Puritans of the North, the South Carolinians were lovers of liberty. Without the severe morality and formal manners of the Pilgrims, the people who were once governed by the peaceful Archdale and once led to war by the gallant Craven became the leaders in courtly politeness and high-toned honor be- tween man and man. In the coming struggle for freedom South Caro- lina will bear a noble and distinguished ]5art; the fame of the patriotic Rhett will be perpetuated by Marion and Sumter. 238 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER XXIX. GEORGIA. /~^ EORGIA, the thirteentli American colony, was founded in a spirit ^J of pure benevolence. The laws of England jjermitted imprisonment for debt. Thousands of English laborers, who tiirough misfortune and thoughtless contracts had become indebted to the rich, were annually ar- rested and thrown into jail. There were desolate and starving families. The miserable condition of the debtor class at last attracted the attention of Parliament. In 1 728 a commissioner was appointed, at his own request, to look into the state of the jioor, to visit the prisons of the kingdom, and to report measures of relief. The work ^^•as accomplished, the jails were opened, and the poor victims of debt returned to their homes. The noble commissioner was not yet satisfied. For the liberated prisoners and their friends were disheartened and disgraced in the country of their birth. Was there no land beyond the sea where debt was not a crime, and where poverty was no disgrace ? To provide a refuge for the down-trodden poor of England and tiie distressed Protestants of other countries, the commissioner now appealed to George II. for the privilege of ]i]anting a colony in America. The petition was favorably heard, and on the 9th of June, 1732, a royal charter was issued by which the terri- tory between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers, and westward from the upper fountains of those rivers to the Pacific, was organized and granted to a corporation for twenty-one years, to be held in trust for the poor. In honor of the king, the new province received the name of Georgia. But what was the name of that high-souled, unselfish commissioner of Parliament ? James Oglethorpe, the philanthropist. Born a loyalist, educated at Oxford, a High Churchman, a cavalier, a soldier, a member of Parliament, benevolent, generous, full of sympathy, far-sighted, brave as John Smith, chivalrous as De Soto, Oglethorpe gave in middle life tlie full energies of a vigorous body and a lofty mind to the work of building in the sunny South an asylum for the oppressed of his own and other lands. The magnanimity of the entei'prise was heightened by the fact that he did not believe in the equality of men, but only in the right and duty of the strong to protect the weak and sympathize with the lowly. To Oglethorpe, as GEORGIA. 239 principal member of the corporation, tiie leadersliip of the first colony to be planted on the banks of the Savannah, was naturally entrusted. By the mid- dle of November a hundred and twen- ty emigrants were ready to sail for the New World. Oglethorpe, like the elder Win- throp, determined to shai-e the dan- gers and hardshijis of his colony. In January of 1733 the company was welcomed at Charleston. Pass- ing down the coast, the vessels were anchored f o r a short time at Beau- fort, while tlie gov- ernor with a few JAMES OGLETHOKPE. companions as- cended tiie bound- ary river of Georgia, and selected as the site of his settlement the high bluff on which now stands the city of Savannah. Here, on the 1st day of February, were laid the foundations of the oldest English town south of the Savannah River. Broad streets were laid out; a public square was reserved in each quarter ; a beautiful village of tents and board houses, built among the pine trees, appeared as the capital of a new common- wealth where men were not imprisoned for debt. Tomo-chichi, chief of the Yamaeraws, came from his cabin, half a mile distant, to see his brother Oglethorpe. There was a pleasant con- ference. " Here is a present for you," said the red man to the white man. The present was a buffalo robe painted on the inside with the head and feathers of an eagle. " Tlie feathers are soft, and signify love ; the buf- falo skin is the emblem of jirotection. Therefore love us and protect us," said the old chieftain. Such a plea could not be lost on a man like Ogle- thorpe. Seeing the advantages of peace, he sent an invitation to the chiefs 240 HISTORY OF TEE UNITED STATES. of the Muskhogees to meet liim in a general council at his capital. The conference was held on the 29th of May. Long King, the sachem of Oconas, spoke for all the tribes of his nation. The English were wel- comed to the country. Bundles of buckskins, and such other good gifts as savage civilization could otter, were laid down jilcntifully at the feet of the whites. The governor and his poor but generous colony responded with valuable presents and \\ords of faithful friendship. The fame of Oglethorpe spread far and wide among the Red men. From the distant mountains of Tennessee came the noted chief of the Cherokees to confer with the humane and sweet-tempered governor of Georgia. The counciloi-s in England who managed the affaii*s of the new State encouraged emigration with every liberal offer. Swiss peasants left their mountains to find a home on the Savannah. Tlie plaid cloak of the Scotch Highlander was seen among the wigwams of the Muskhogees. From distant Salzburg, afiir on the l)orders of Austria, came a noble col- ony of German Protestants, singing their way down the Rhine and across the ocean. Ogletiiorpe met them at Charleston, bade them welcome, led them to Savannah and thence through the woods to a point twenty miles up the river, told them of English rights and the freedom of conscience, and left them to found the village of Ebenezer. In April of 1734, Governor Oglethorpe made a visit to England. His friend Tomo-chiehi went with him, and made the acquaintance of King George. It was said in London that no colony was ever before founded so wisely and well as Georgia. The councilors prohibited the importation of rum. Traffic with the Indians — always a dangerous mat- ter — was either interdicted or regulated by special license. When it came to the question of labor, slavery was positively forbidden. It was said that the introduction of slaves would be fatal to the interests of the Eng- lish and German laborei-s for wiioni the colony had been founded. While the governor was still abroad, the first company of Moravians, number- ing nine, and led by the evangelist Spangenberg, arrived at Savannah. In February of 1736, Oglethorpe himself came back with a new colony of three hundred. Part of these were Moravians, and nearly all were people of deep piety and fervent spirit. First among them — fii-st in zeal and first in the influence which he was destined to exert in after times — was the celebrated John Wesley, the founder of Methodism. Overflowing with religious enthusiasm, he came to Georgia, not as a poli- tician, not as a minister merely, but as an apostle. To lead the people to righteousness, to spread the gos]iel, to convert the Indians, and to intro- duce a new type of religion characterized by few forms and much emo- tion, these were the purposes that thronged his lofty fancy. He was GEORGIA. 241 doomed to much disappointment. The mixed people of tiie new province could not be moulded to his will ; and after a residence of less than two years he left the colony with a troubled spirit. His brother, Charles Wesley, came also as a secretary to Governor Oglethorpe; but Charles was a poet, a timid and tender-hearted man who pined with homesickness and gave way under discouragement. But when, in 1738, the famous George AVhitefield came, his robust and daring nature proved a match for all the troubles of the Avilderness. He preached with fiery eloquence. To build an orphan-house at vSavannah he went through all the colonies ; and those who heard his voice could hardly refuse him money. Think- ing no longer of native land, ho found a peaceful grave in New England. Meanwhile, Oglethorpe M'as busy with the affairs of his growing province. Anticipating war with Spain, he began to fortifj-. For the Spaniards were in possession of Florida, and claimed the country as far north as St. Helena Sound. All of Georgia M'as thus embraced in the Spanish claim. But Oglethorpe had a charter for Georgia as far south as the Altaniaha, and he had secured by treaty with the Indians all the territory between that river and the St. Maiy's. In 1736 he ascended the Savannah and built a fort at Augusta. On the north bank of the Altamaha, twelve miles from its mouth, Fort Darien was built. On Cumberland Island, at the mouth of the St. Mary's, a fortress was erected and named Fort William. Proceeding down the coast with a company of Highlanders, the daring governor reached the mouth of the St. John's, and on Amelia Island built still another fort, which he named St. George. The river St. John's was claimed from this time forth as the southern boundary of Georgia. To make his preparations complete, the governor again visited England, and was commissioned as brigadier-general, with a command extending over his own province and South Carolina. In Octo- ber of 1737 he returned to Savannah, bringing with him a regiment of six hundred men. Such were the vigorous measures adopted by Ogle- thorpe in anticipation of a Spanish war. The war came. It M'as that conflict known in American history as King George's War. England published her declaration of hostility against Spain in the latter part of October, 1739. In the first week of the following January the impetuous Oglethorpe, at the head of the Georgia militia, made a dash into Florida, and captured twp fortified towns of the Spaniards. His plans embraced the conquest of St. Augustine and the entire extinction of Spanish autliority north of the Gulf of Mexico. Repairing to Charleston, he induced the a.ssembly to support his measures. By 1he first of May he found himself in command of six hundred regular troops, four hundred volunteers and a body of Indian auxiliaries. With 242 HISTORY OF THE UmTED STATES. this force he proceeded at once against St. Augustine. The place was strongly fortified, and the Spanish commandant, Monteano, was a man of ability and courage. The siege continued for five weeks, but ended in disaster to the English. For a while the town was successfully block- aded ; but some Spanish galleys, eluding the vigilance of Oglethorpe's squadron, brought a cargo of supplies to the garrison. The Spaniards made a sally, attacked a company of High- landers, and dispersed them. Sickness prevailed in the English camp. The general himself was enfeebled with fever and excitement, but he held on like a iiero. The troops of Carolina, disheart- ened and despairing of success, left their camp and marched homeward. The English vessels gathered up their crews, abandoned the siege and returned to Frederica. Oglethorpe, yielding only to necessity, collected his men from the trenches and withdrew into Georgia. The Spaniards now determined to carry the war northward and drive the English beyond the Savannah. The Combahee River should be made the .northern boundary of Florida. Prep- arations began on a vast scale. A pow- erful fleet of thirt>'-six vessels, carrying more than three thousand troops, was brought from Cuba, and anchored at St. Augustine. In June of 1742 the squadron passed up the coast to Cumberland Island, and at- temjited the reduction of Fort William. But Oglethorpe by a daring exploit reinforced the garrison, and then fell back to Frederica. The Spanish vessels followed and came to anchor in the harbor of St. Simon's. From the southern point of the island to Frederica, Oglethorpe had cut a road which at one place lay between a morass and a dense forest. Along this path the Spaniards must pass to attack tlie town. The English gen- eral had only eight hundred men and a few Indian allies. In order to cope with superior numbers, Oglethorpe resorted to stratagem. A Frenchman had deserted to the Spaniards. To him the English general now M'rote a letter as if to a sjoy. A Spanish prisoner in Ogle- thorpe's hands was liberated and bribed to deliver the letter to the de- serter. The Frenchman was advised that two British fleets were coming COlTXTItY OF THK SAVANNAH, 1740. »iCii»Nli LN bl. AtUUSlINJi GEORGIA. 243 to America, one to aid Oglethorpe and the other to attad^ St. Augustine. Let the Spaniards remain on tlie island but tliree days longer, and they would be ruined. If the enemy did not make an immediate attack on Frederica, his forces would be captured to a man. Oglethorpe knew very well that the prisoner, instead of delivering this letter to tlie deserter, would give it to the Spanish commander, and that the Spanish commander could not possibly know whether the communication was the truth or a fiction. This letter was delivered, and the astonished Frenchman was arrested as a spy, but the Spaniards could not tell whether his denial was true or false. There was a council of war in the Spanish camp. Ogle- thorpe's stratagem was suspected, but could not be proved. Three ships had been seen at sea that day ; perhaps these were the first vessels of the approaching British fleets. The Spaniards were utterly per|)Iexcd ; but it was finally decided to take Oglethorpe's advice, and make the attack on Frederica. The English general had foreseen that this course M'ould be adopted. He had accordingly advanced his small force from the town to the place where the road passed between the swamp and the forest. Here an am- buscade was formed, and the soldiers lay in wait for the approaching Span- iards. On the 7th of July the enemy's vanguard reached the narrow pass, were fired on from the thicket and driven back in confusion. The main body of the Spanish forces pressed on into the dangerous position where superior numbers were of no advantage. The Highlanders of Oglethorpe's regiment fired with terrible effect from the oak woods by the roadside. The Spaniards stood firm for a while, but were presently driven back with a loss of two hundred men. Not without reason the name of Bloody Mai-sh was given to this battle-field. Within less than a week the ^a hole Spanish force had re-embarked and sailed for Florida. On the way south- ward the fleet made a second attack on Fort William. But Captain Stuart, with a garrison of only fifty men, made a vigorous and successful defence. The English watched the retreating ships beyond the mouth of the St. John's ; before the last of July the great invasion was at an end. The Spanish authorities of Cuba were greatly chagrined at the failure of the expedition. The commander of the squadron was arrested, tried by a court-martial and dismissed from the service. The commonwealth of Georgia was now firmly established, and the settlements had jieace. In 1743, Oglethorpe bade a final adieu to the col- ony to whose welfare he had given more than ten years of his life. He had never owned a house nor possessed an acre of ground within the lim- its of his own province. He now departed for England crowned with blessings, and leaving behind him an untarnished fame. James Ogle- 244 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tliorpe lived to be nearly a hundrccl years old; benevolence, integrity and honor were the virtues of his declining years. But the new State which he had founded in the West was not always free from evils. For the regulations which the councilors for Georgia had adopted were but poorly suited to the wants of the colony. The settlers had i.ot been permitted to hold their lands in fee simple. Agriculture had not flourished. Commerce had not sprung up. The laws of property had been so arranged that estates could descend only to the oldest sons of fam- ilies. The colonists ^^•ere poor, and charged their jiovcrty to the fact that slave-labor was forbidden in the province. This became the chief ques- tion which agitated the peoj)le. The proj)rietaiy laws grew more and more unpopular. The statute excluding slavery was not rigidly enforced, and, indeed, could not be enforced, \\hen the people had determined to evade it. Whitefield himself pleaded for the abrogation of the law. Slaves began to be hired, first for short terms of service, then for longer periods, then for a hundred years, which was equivalent to an actual pur- chase for life. Finally, cargoes of slaves were brought directly from Africa, and the primitive free-labor system of Georgia was revolutionized. Plantations were laid out below the Savannah, and cultivated, as those of South Carolina. Another and more impoi-tant change was at hand. It became evident that there could be no progress so long as the original char- ter renuiined in force. However benevolent the impulse which IkuI called Georgia into lacing, the scheme of government had provcil a sham. The people were iinjirovident, idle, inexperienced. More than six hundred thousand dollars in parliamentary grants, besides private contributions amounting to nearly ninety thousand dollars, had been fruitlessly expended on the lagging province. In 1752 there were only a few scattered plantations and three inconsiderable villages be- low the Savannah. The white population amounted, at this time, to .seventeen hundred souls ; and the blacks numbered about four hun- dred. The industry of Georgia was at a stand-still. The extravagant hopes which the colonial managers had entertained of wine, and silk, and indigo, found no realization in the facts. The annual exports ot the colony amounted to less than four thousand dollars ; and the pros- pect for the future was as discouraging as the present condition was gloomy. At last, however, the new order of things was acknowledged by the councilors of the province. They yielded to necessity. In June of 1752, just twenty years from the granting of the charter, the trust- eas made a formal surrender of their patent to the king. A royal GEORGIA. 245 government was established over the country south of the Savannah, and the people were granted the privileges and freedom of English- men. A constitution was drawn up by the British Board of Trade, and Captain John Reynolds was commissioned as royal governor. In October of 1754 he arrived at Savannah and began the work of reor- ganization. For two years and a half he labored assiduously to ex- tricate the affairs of Georgia from the confusion into which they had liillen ; and .so successful was his work that at the end of this time the population had reached six thousand. The southern boundary of the province remained to be decided by the issue of the French and Indian War. During the progress of that conflict Georgia was saved from calamity by the prudent administration of Governor Ellis, who secured from the powerful Creek confederacy a new treaty of peace. A barrier was thus interposed between the colony and the hostile nations of the West and North. In the year 1758 the province was divided into eight parishes, and at the same time the Church of Eng- land was established l)y law. Still, for a while, the progress of the colony was not equal to the expectations of its founder. But before the beginning of the Revolution, Georgia, though the feeblest of all the Anglo-American provinces, had become a prosperous and growing State. Such is the story of the planting by our fathers of the Old Thir- teen republics — such the record of their growth and prospects. From the gloomy coast of Labrador, where, two hundred and fifty years be- fore, Jolin Cabot had set up the flag of England and arms of Henry VII., to the sunny waters where Ponce de Leon, looking shoreward, called his cavaliers to gaze on the Land of Flowers, — the dominion of Great Britain had been established. Would that dominion last forever? Would the other nations of Europe ever rally and regain their lost ascendency on the Western continent? Would the ties of kinship, the affinity of language, the bond of a common ancestry, stretching from these sea-shore commonwealths across the Atlantic, bind them in perpetual luiion with the mother Islands ? Would these isolated provinces in America — now so quick to take ofl^ence at each other's beliefs and actions, and so easily jealous of each other's power and fame — ever unite in a common cause ? ever join to do battle for life and liberty? ever become a Nation? Such were the momentous fjuestions, the problems of destiny, which hung above the colonics at 246 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the middle of the eighteenth century — problems which the future could not be lonu; in .solvinsj. The history of these American colonies from their first feeble be- ginnings is full of interest and instruction. The people who laid the foundations of civilization in the New World were nearly all refugees, exiles, wanderers, pilgrims. They were urged across the ocean by a common impulse, and that impulse was the desire to escape from somi form of ojipression in tiie Old World. Sometimes it was the oppres- sion of the Church, sometimes of the State, sometimes of society. In the wake of the emigrant ship there was always tyranny. Men loved freedom ; to find it they braved the perils of the deep, traversed the solitary forests of Maine, built huts on the bleak shores of New Eng- land, entered the Hudson, explored the Jerseys, found shelter in the Chesapeake, met starvation and death on the banks of the James, were buffeted by storms around the capes of Carolina, built towns by the estuaries of the great rivers, made roads through the pine-woocLs, and carried the dwellings of men to the very margin of the fever-haunted swamps of the South. It is all one story — the story of the human raco seeking for liberty. i;i:i!!i!!||ii>iii»il If COLONIAL HLSTORY.— Continued. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. CHAPTER XXX. CA USES. rpHE time came when the American colonies began to act together. -*- From the beginning they had been kept apart by prejudice, suspi- cion and mutual jealousy. But the fathers were now dead, old antago- nisms had passed away, a new generation had arisen with kindlier feel- ings and more charitable sentiments. But it was not so much the growth of a more liberal public opinion as it was the sense of a common danger that at last led the colonists to make a united effort. The final struggle between France and England for colonial supremacy in America was at hand. Necessity compelled the English colonies to join in a com- mon cause against a common foe. This is the conflict known as the French and Indian War ; witli this great event the separate histories of the colonies are lost in the more general history of the nation. The contest began in 1754, but the causes of the war had existed for many years. The first and greatest of these causes was the conflicting territorial ■claims of the two nations. England had colonized the sea-coast ; France had colonized the interior of the continent. From IMaine to Florida the Atlantic shore was spread-wittrEligTish colonies; but there were no inland settlements. The great towns were on the ocean's edge. But the claims of England reached far beyond her colonics. Bused on the discoveries of the Cabots, and not limited by actual occupation, those claims extended westward to the Pacific. In making grants of territory the English kings had always proceeded upon the theory that the voyage of Sebastian Cabot liad given to England a la-\vful right to the countiy from one ocean to the other. Far different, however, were the claims of France ; the French had first colonized the valley of the St. Lawrence. Montreal, one (247) 248 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of the earliest settlements, is more than five hundred miles from the sea. If the French colonies had been limited to the St. Lawrence and its trib- utaries, there would have been little danger of a conflict about territorial dominion. But in the latter half of the seventeenth century the French began to push their way westward and southward ; first, along the shores of the great lakes, then to the head-waters of the Wabash, the Illinois; the Wisconsin and the St. Croix, then down these streams to tlie jNIissis- sippi, and then to the Gulf of Mexico. The jJurpose of the French, as manifested in these movements, was no less than to divide the American continent and to take the larger portion, to possess the laud for France and for Catholicism. For it was the work of the Jesuit missionaries. So important and marvelous are those early movements of the French in the valley of the ]\Iississippi that a l)rief account of the leading explora- tions may here be given. The zealous Jesuits, purposing to extend the Catlu)lic faith to all lands and nations, set out fearlessly from the older settlements of the St. Lawrence to explore the unknown West, and to convert the barbarous races. In 1641, Charles Kaymbault, the first of the French missionary explorers, ])assed through the northern straits of Lake Huron and entered Lake Superior. In the thirt}' years that followed, the Jesuits continued their explorations with prodigious activity. Missions were established at various points north of the lakes, and in Michigan, Wisconsin and Illi- nois. In 1673, Joliet and Marquette passed from the head-waters of Fox River over the watershed to the upper tributaries of the WLsconsin, and thence down that river in a seven days' voyage to the Mississippi. For a full month the canoe of the daring adventurers carried tliem on toward the sea. They passed the mouth of Arkansas River, and reached the limit of their voyage at the thirty-third parallel of latitude. Turn- ing their boat up stream, they entered the mouth of the Illinois and returned by the site of Chicago into Lake Michigan, and thence to De- troit. But it was not yet known whether the great river discharged its flood of waters into the southern gulf or into the Pacific Ocean. It remained for Robert de la Salle, most illustrious of the French explorers, to solve the problem. This courageous and daring man was living at the outlet of Lake Ontario when the news of Marquette's voyage reached Canada. Fired with the passion of discovery. La Salle built and launched the first ship above Niagara Falls. He sailed west- ward through Lake Erie and I^akc Huron, anchored in Green Bay, crossed Lake Michigan to the mouth of the St. Joseph, ascended that stream with a few companions, traversed the country to the upjier Kanka- kee, and dropi^cd down with the current into the Illinois. Hen' disas- CAUSES. 249 ters overtook the expedition, and La Salle was obliged to return on foot to Fort Frontenac, a distance of nearly a thousand miles. During his absence, Fatlicr Hennepin, a member of the company, traversed Illinois, and explored the Mississijipi as high as the Falls of St. Anthony. In 1681, La Salle returned to his station on the Illinois, bringing men and supplies. A boat was l)uilt and launched, and early in the following year the heroic adventurer, with a few companions, descended the river to its junction with the Mississippi, and was borne by the Father of Waters to the Gulf of Mexico. It was one of the greatest exploits of modern times. The return voyage was successfully accijm- plished. La Salle reached Quebec, and immediately set sail for France. The kingdom was greatly excited, and vast plans were made for coloniz- ing the valley of the Mississippi. In .July of 1G84 four ships, bearing two hundred and eighty emigrants, left France. Beaujeu commanded the fleet, and La Salle was leader of the colony. The plan was to enter the gulf, ascend the river, and plant settlements on its banks and tributa- ries. But Beaujeu was a bad and headstrong captain, and against La Salle's entreaties the squadron was carried out of its course, beyond the mouths of the Mississippi, and into the Ba)- of IMatagorda. Here a landing was effected, but the store-ship, with all its precious freightage, was dashed to pieces in a storm. Nevertheless, a colony was established, and Texas became a part of Louisiana. La Salle made many unsuccessful efforts to rediscover the Missis- sippi. One misfortune after another followed fast, but the leader's reso- lute spirit remained tranquil through all calamities. At last, with sixteen companions, he set out to cross the continent to Canada. The march began in January of 1687, and continued for sixty days. The wanderers were already in the basin of the Colorado. Here, on tlie 20th of March, while La Salle was at some distance from the camp, two conspirators of the company, hiding in the })rairie grass, took a deadly aim at the famous explorer, and shot him dead in his tracks. Only seven of the adventurers succeeded in reaching a French settlement on the Mis- sissippi. France was not slow to occupy the vast country revealed to her by the activity of the .Jesuits. As early as 1688 military posts had been established at Frontenac, at Niagara, at the Straits of Mackinaw, and on the Illinois River. Before the middle of the eighteenth century, jiermanent settlements had been made by the French on the Maumee, at Detroit, at the mouth of the river St. Joseph, at Green Bay, at Vincennes on the Lower Wabash, on the Mississippi at the mouth of the Kaskas- kia, at Fort Rosalie, the present site of Natchez, and on the Gulf of •250 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Mexico at the head of the Bay of Biloxi. At this time the only outposts of ths English colonies were a small fort at Oswego, on Lake Ontario, and a few scattered cabins in West Virginia. It only remained for France to occupy the valley of Ohio, in order to confine the provinces of Great Britain to the country east of the Alleghanies. To do this became the sole ambition of the French, and to prevent it the stubborn purpose of the English. A second cause of war existed in the long-standing national animos- ity of France and England. The two nations could liardly remain at peace. The French and the English were of different races, languages and laws. For more than two centuries France had been the leader of the Catholic, and England of the Protestant, powers of Europe. Religious prejudice intensified the natural jealousy of the two nations. Rivalry prevailed on land and sea. When, at the close of the seventeenth century, it was seen that the peoj^le of the English colonies outnumbered those of Canada by nearly twenty to one, France was filled with envy. When, by the enterprise of the Jesuit missionaries, the French began to dot the basin of the Mississippi with fortresses, and to monopolize the fur-trade of the Indians, England could not conceal her wrath. It was only a question of time when this unreasonable jealoasy would bring on a colo- nial war. The third and immediate cause of hostilities was a conflict between the frontiers-Men of the tiro nations in attempting to colonize the Oiiio valley. The year 1749 witnessed the beginning of difficulties. For some time the strolling traders of Virginia and Pennsylvania had fre- quented the Indian towns on the ui)per tributaries of the Ohio. Xow the tradei>: of Canada began to visit the same villages, and to compete with the English in the purchase of furs. Virginia, under her ancient char- tei-s, claimed the \\liole country lying between her western borders and tiie southern shores of Lake Erie. The French fur-gatherere in this dis~ trict were regarded as intruders not to be tolerated. In order to prevent further encroachment, a number of prominent Virginians joined them- selves together in a body called the Ohio Company, with a view to the immediate occupation of the disputed territory. Robert Dinwiddie, g' vernor i)f the State, Lawrence and Augustus Washington, and Thomas Lee, j)re.si(lent of the Virginia council, were the leading members of the corporation. In March of 1749 the company received from George II. an extensive land-grant covering a tract of five iumdrcd tliousand acres, to be located between the Kanawha and the Monongahela, or on the northern bank of the Oiiio. The conditions of the grant were that the lai.ds should be held free of rent for ten veai-s, tiiat within seven years a CAUSES. 251 colony of one hundred families should be established in the district, and that the territory should be immediately selected. But the French were equally active. Before the Ohio Company could send out a colony, the governor of Canada despatched Bienville with three hundred men to explore and occupy the valley of the Ohio. The expedition \\as successful. Plates of lead bearing French inscrip- tions were buried here and there on both banks of the river, the region was explored as far west as the towns of the Miamis, the English traders were expelled from the country, and a letter was written to Governor Hamil- ton of Pennsylvania admonishing him to encroach no farther on the territory of the king of France. This work occupied the summer and fall of 1749. In the mean time, the Ohio Company had equipped an exploring party, and jilaced it under command of Christopher Gist. In November of 1750 he and his company reached the Ohio opposite the mouth of Beaver Creek. Here the expedition crossed to the northern side, tarried at Logstown, passed down the river through the several Indian confederacies to the Great Miami, and thence to within fifteen miles of the falls at Louisville. Returning on foot through Kentucky, the explorers reached Virginia in the spring of 1751. This expedition was followed by still more vigorous movements on the part of the French. Descending from th-eir headquarters at Presque Isle, now Eric, on the southern shore of the lake, they built a fortress called Le Boeuf, on French Creek, a tributary of the Alleghany. Pro- ceeding down the stream to its junction with the river, they erected a second fort, named Venango. From this point they advanced against a British post on the IMiami, broke up the settlement, made prisoners of the garrison and carried them to Canada. The king of the IMiami con- federacy, who had assisted the English in defending their outpost, was inhumanly murdered by the Indian allies of the French. About the same time the country south of the Ohio, between the Great Kanawha and the Monongahela, was exploretl by Gist and a party of armed sur- veyors, acting under ordei-s of the company. In the summer of 1753 the English opened a road from Will's Creek through the mountains into the Ohio valley, and a colony of eleven families wa-s planted on the Youghi- ogheny, just west of I^aurel Hill. It was impossible that a conflict be'-, tweeii the advancing settlements of the two nations could be much longer averted. The Indian nations were greatly alarmed at the tlireatening pros- pect. Solemn councils were held among all the tribes, and the affairs of the race were gravely discussed by the copper-colored oratoi-s. From the first the Red men rather favored the English cause, but their allesriauce 252 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. was wavering and uncertain. After the murder of the Miami cliieftaiu their hostility to the French became more decided. When, in the spring of 1753, the news was borne to the council-fires on the Ohio that Du Quesne, the governor of Canada, had despatched a companj' of twelve hundred men to descend the Allegiiany and colonize the country, the jealousy of the natives was kindled into open resistance. The tribes most concerned were the Dclawares, the Shawnees, the Miamis and the Miugocs. The chieftain of this confederacy, named Tanacharisson, was called the Half-King from the fact that his subjects, except the Miamis, owed a kind of indefinite allegiance to the Iroquois or Six Nations. By the authority of a great council held at Logstown the Half-King was now sent to Erie to remonstrate with the French commandant against a further invasion of the Indian country. " The land is mine, and I will have it," replied the Frenchman, with derision and contempt. The insulted sachem returned to his nation to lift the hatchet against the enemies of his i)eople. It was at this time that the chiefs of many tribes met Benja- min Franklin at the town of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and formed a treaty of alliance with the Elnglish. Virginia was now thoroughly aroused. But before proceeding to actual hostilities, rjovcrnor Dinwiddie determined to try the effect of a final remonstrance with tlie French. A paper w;xs accordingly drawn up setting forth the nature and extent of the English claim to the valley of the Ohio, and solenmly warning the authorities of France against further intrusion into that region. It was necessary that this paper should be carried to General St. Pierre, now stationed at Erie as commander of the French forces in the West. Who should be chosen to bear the important parchment to its far-off destination? It was the most serious mission ever yet undertaken in America. A young surveyor, named George Washington, was called to jierform the perilous duty. Him the governor summoned from his home on the Potomac and commissioned as ambassador, and to him was committed the message which was to be borne from Williamsburg, on York River, through the untrodden wilder- ness to Prcsque Isle, on the shore of Lake Erie. On the last day of Octol)er, 1 7o;5, Washington set out on his long journey. He was attended by four comrades besides an interpreter and Christopher Gist, the guide. The party arrived without accident at the mouth of Will's Creek, the last important tributary of the Potomac on the north. From this place Washington proceeded through the moun- tains to the head-waters of the Youghiogheny, and thence down that stream to the site of Pittsburg. The immense importance of this place, lying at the confluence of the two great tributaries of the Ohio, and com- CAUSES. 25:3 mantling them both, was at once perceived by the young ambassador, who Washington was now conducted FIRST SCENE OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR, 1750. noted the spot as the site of a fortress, across the Alleghany by the chief of the Delawares, and thence twenty miles down the river to Logstown. Here a council was held with the Indians, who renewed their j)lcdges of friendship and fidelity to the Eng- lish. The emissaries of the French were already in the country trying in every conceivable way to entice the Red men into an alliance ; but every proposal was rejected. In the beginning of December, Washington and his party moved northward to the French post at Venango. The officers of the fort took no pains to conceal their purpose ; the project of uniting Canada and Louisiana by way of the Ohio valley was openly avowed. From Venango, Washington set out through the forest to Fort le Boeuf on French Creek, fifty miles above its junction with the Alleghany. This was the last stage in the journey. It was still fourteen miles to Presque Isle ; but St. Pierre, the French commander, had come down from that place to superintend the fortifications at Le Breuf. Here the conference was held. Washington was received with great courtesy, but the general of the French refused to enter into any discussion on the rights of nations. He was acting, he said, under military instructions given by the governor pf New France. He had been commanded by his superior officer to eject every Englishman from the valley of the Ohio, and he meant to carry out his orders to the letter. A firm but courteous reply was returned to Governor Dinwiddle's message. France claimed the country of the Ohio in virtue of discovery, exploration and occupa- tion, and her claim should be made good by force of arms. Washington was kindly dismissed, but not until he had noted with keen anxiety the immense preparations which were making at Le Boeuf. There lay a fleet of fifty birch-bark canoes and a hundred and seventy boats of pine ready to descend the river to the site of Pittsburg. For the French, as well as the English, had noted the importance of that spot, and had determined to fortify it as soon as the ice should break in the rivers. It was now the dead of winter. Washington returned to Ve- 254 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. nango, aud then, with Gist as his sole companion, left tlie river and struck into the woods. It was one of the most solitary marches ever made by man. There in the desolate wilderness was the future Pr&sident of the United States. Clad in the robe of an Indian, with gun in hand and knapsack strapped to his shoulders ; struggling through interminable snows; sleeping with frozen clothes on a bed of pine-brush; breaking through the treacherous ice of rapid streams ; guided by day by a pockci compass, and at night by the North Star, seen at intervals through the leafless trees ; fired at by a prowling savage from his covert not fifteen steps away ; thrown from a raft into the rushing Alleghany ; escaping to an island and lodging there until the river was frozen over ; plunging again into the forest ; reaching Gist's settlement and then the Potomac, — the strong-limbed young ambassador came back without wound or scar to the capital of Virginia. For his flesh was not made to be torn with bullets or to be eaten by the wolves. The defiant despatch of St. Pierre was laid l)efore Governor Dinwiddle, and the first public service of Wash- ington was accomplished. In the mean time, the Ohio Company had not been idle. About mid-winter a party of thirty-three men had been organized and placed under command of Trent, with orders to proceed at once to the source of the Ohio and erect a fort. The company must have been marching to its destination Avhen Washington returned to Virginia. It was not far from the middle of March, 1754, when Trent's party reached the confluence of the Allesrhanv and the Mononsrahela, and b'lilt the first rude stockade on the site of Pittsburg.* After all the threats and boasting of the French, the English had beaten them and seized the key to the Ohio valley. But it Avas a short-lived triumph. As soon a.s the approaching spring broke the ice-gorges in the Alleghany, the French fleet of boats, already prepared at Venango, came sweeping down the river. It was in vain for Trent witli his handful of men to offer resistance. Washington had now been commissioned as lieutenant-colonel, and was stationed at Alexandria to enlist recruits for the Ohio. A regiment of a hundred an' ' fifty men had been enrolled ; but it was impossible to bring succor to Trent in time to save the post. On the 17th of April the little band of Englishmen at the head of the Ohio surrendered to the enemy and with- drew from the countr}-. The French immediately occupied the place, felled the forest-trees, built barracks and laid the foundations of Fort DU QuESNE. To recajiture this place by force of arms Colonel Wash- ington set out from Will's Creek in the early part of May, 1754. Nego- * The accounts of this important event are very obscure and unsatisfactory. CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 25S tiations had failed ; remonstrance liad been tried in vain ; the possession of the disputed territory was now to be determined by the harsher methods of war. CHAPTER XXXI. CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. WASHINGTON now found liimself in command of a little army of Virginians. His commission was brief and easily understood : To construct a fort at the source of the Ohio ; to destroy whoever opposed him in the work ; to capture, kill or repel all who interrupted the progress of the English settlements in that country. In the month of April the young commander left Will's Creek, but the march westward was slow and toilsome. The men were obliged to drag their cannons. The roads were miserable ; rain fell in torrents on the tentless soldiers ; rivers were bridgeless ; provisions insufficient. All the while the faithful Half-King was urging Washington by repeated despatches to hasten to the rescue of the Red men. On the 26th of May the English regiment reached the Great Meadows. Here Washington was informed that a company of French M'as on tlie march to attack him. The enemy had been seen on the Youghioghcny only a few miles distant. A stockade was immediately erected, to which the commander gave the appropriate name of Fort Necessity. Ascertaining from the scouts of the Half-King that the French company in the neighborhood was only a scouting-party, Washington, after conference with the Mingo chiefs, determined to strike the first blow. Two Indians followed the trail of the French, and discovered their hidino-- place ni a rocky ravine. The English advanced cautiously, intending to surprise and capture the whole force ; but the French were on the alert, saw the approaching soldiers and flew to arms. Washington witli musket in hand was at the head of his company. " Fire !" was the clear command that rang through the forest, and the first volley of a great war went flying on its mission of death. The engagement was brief and decisive. Junionville, the leader of the French, and ten of his party were killed, and twenty-one were made prisoners. A month of precious time was now lost in delays. While Washing- ton at Fort Necessity waited in vain for reinforcements, the French at 256 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Fort du Quesne were collecting in great numbers. One small companv of volunteers from South Carolina arrived at the English camp ; but the captain was an arrogant blockhead who, having a commission from the king, undertook to supersede ^^'ashington. The latter, Mith the Vir- ginians, sjient the time of waiting in cutting a road for twenty miles across the rough country in the direction of Fort du Quesne. The In- dians were greatly discouraged at the dilatory conduct of the colonies, and the strong war-parties which had been expected to join ^\'ashington from the Muskingum and the Miami did not arrive. His whole effect- ive force scarcely numbered four hundred. Learning that the French general De Villiers was a))proacliing with a large body of troops, besides Indian auxiliaries, Washington deemed it prudent to fall back to Fort Necessity. The Carolina captain, who had remained within the fortifica- tions, had done nothing to strengthen the works, although there was the greatest need. The little fort stood in an open space, midway between two emi- nences covered with trees. Scarcely were Washington's forces safe within the enclosure, when on the 3d of July the regiment of De Villiers, num- bering six hundred, besides the savage allies, came in sight, and surrounded the fort. The French stationed themselves on the eminence, about sixty yards distant from the stockade. From this position they could fire down ujjon the English with fatal effect. Many of the Indians climbed into the tree-tops, where they wei'e concealed by the thick foliage. For nine hours, during a rain-storm, the assailants poured an incessant shower of balls upon the heroic band in the fort. Thirty of Washington's men Mere killed, but his tranquil presence encouraged the rest, and the fire of die French was returned with unabated vigor. At length De Villiers, fear- ing that his ammunition would be exhausted, proposed a parley. Wash- ington, seeing that it would be impossible to hold out much longer, ac- cepted the honorable terms of capitulation which were offered by the French general. On the 4th of July the English garrison, retaining all its accoutrements, marched out of the little fort, so bravely defended, and withdrew from the country. The whole valley of the Ohio remained in undisturbed possession of the French. Meanwhile, a congress of the American colonies had assembled at Albanv. The objects had in view were twofold : first, to renew the treaty with the Iroquois confederacy ; and secondly, to stir up the colonial authorities to some sort of concerted action against the French. The Iroquois had wavered from the beginning of the war; the recent reverses of the English had not strengthened the loyalty of the Red men. As to the French aggressions, something must be done speedily, or the flag of CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 257 England could never be borne into the vast country west of the Alle- ghanies. The congress was not wanting in abilities of the highest order. No such venerable and dignified body of men had ever before assembled on the American continent. There were Hutchinson of Massachusetts, Hopkins of Rhode Island, Franklin of Pennsylvania, and others scarcely less distinguished. After a few days' consultation, the Iroquois, but half satisfied, renewed their treaty and departed. The chieftains were anxious and uneasy lest, through inactivity and want of union on the part of the colonies, the Six Nations should be left to contend alone with the power of France. The convention next took up the important question of uniting the colonies in a common government. On the 10th day of July, Benjamin Franklin laid before the commissioners the draft of a federal constitu- tion. His vast and comprehensive mind had realized the true condition and wants of the country ; the critical situation of the colonies demanded a central government. How else could revenues be raised, an army be organized and the common welfare be provided for? According to the proposed plan of union, Philadelphia, a central city, M-as to be the cap- ital. It was urged in behalf of this clause that the delegates of New Hampshire and Georgia, the colonies most remote, could reach the seat of government in fifteen or twenty days! Slow-going old patriots! The chief executive of the new confederation was to be a governor-general appointed and supported by the king. The legislative authority was vested in a congress composed of delegates to be chosen triennially by the general assemblies of the respective provinces. Each colony should be represented in proportion to its contributions to the general government, but no colony should have less than two or more than seven represent- atives in congress. With the governor was lodged the power of appoint- ing all military officers and of vetoing objectionable laws. The appoint- ment of civil officers, the raising of troops, the levying of taxes, the super- intendence of Indian aflPairs, the regulation of commerce, and all the general duties of government, belonged to congress. This body was to convene once a year, to choose its own officers, and to remain in session not longer than six weeks.* Such was the constitution drafted by Franklin and adopted, not without serious opposition, by the commissioners at Albany. It remained for the colonies to ratify or reject the new scheme of government. Copies of the proposed constitution were at once transmitted to the several colon- ial capitals, and were everj'where received with disfavor ; in Connecticut, rejected ; in Massachusetts, opposed ; in New York, adopted with indiifer- «^nce. The chief objection urged against the instrument was the power of " • See Apnendix C. 258 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. veto srivcn to the trovernor-Ereneral. Nor did the new constitution fare better in the mother country. The Englisii board of trade rejected it witii disdain, saying that the froward Americans were trj'ing to make a government of their own. Meanwhile, the French were strengthening their works at Crown Point and Fort Niagara, and rejoicing over tlieir success in Western Pennsylvania. But the honor of England, no less than the welfare of her colonieSj was at stake, and Parliament came to the rescue. It was determined to send a British army to America, to accept the service of such provincial troops as the colonies might furnish, and to protect the frontier against the aggressions of France. As yet there had been no declaration of war. The ministers of the two nations kejrt assuring each other of peaceable intentions ; but Louis XV. took c-are to send thi-ee thousand soldiers to Canada, and the British government ordered General Edward Braddock to proceed to America with two regiments of regulars. Early in 1755 the English armament arrived in the Chesapeake. On the 14th of April Braddock met the governors of all the colonies in a convention at Alex- andria. The condition of colonial atfairs was fully discussed. It was resolved, since peace existed, not to invade Canada, but to repel the French on the western and northern frontier. The plans of four cam- paigns Mere accordingly submitted and ratified. Lawrence, the governor of Nova Scotia, was to complete the conquest of that province according to the English notion of boundaries. Johnson of New York was to enroll a force of volunteers and Mohawks in British pay, and to capture the French post at Crown Point. Shirley of jSIassachusetts was to equip a regiment and drive the enemy from their fortress at Niagara. Last and most important of all, Braddock himself as commander-in-chief M'as to lead the main body of regulars against Fort du Ciuesiie, retake that post and expel the French from the Ohio valley. In the latter part of April the British general set out on his march from Alexandria to Will's Creek. The name of the military post at the mouth of this stream was now changed to Fort Cumberland. Braddock's army numbered fully two thousand men. They were nearly all veterans who had seen service in the wars of Europe. A few provincial troojjs had joined the expedition ; two companies of volunteers, led by Colonel Horatio Gates of New York, were among the number. Washington met the army at Fort Cumberland, and became an aid-de-camp of Braddock. The colonies would have assisted with large levies of recruits, had it not been for the nature of the general's authority. It was prescribed in hi.« commission that the provincial captains and colonels shoidd have no rank when serving in connection with the British army. So odious was this CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 259 Tegulation that Washington had set the example of withdrawing from the service ; patriotic motives and the wish of A'irgiuia now induced him to return and to accept a post of responsibihty. On the last day of May tlie march began from Fort Cumberland. A select force of five hundred men was thrown ibrward to open the roads in the direction of Fort du Quesne. Sir Peter Halket led the advance, and Braddoc'k followed with the main body. The army, marching in a slender column, was extended for four miles along the narrow and broken road It Avas in vain that Washington pointed out the danger of am- buscades and suggested the employment of scouting-parties. Braddock was self-willed, arrogant, proud ; thoroughly skilled in the tactics of European warfare, he could not bear to be advised by an inferior. The sagacious Franklin had admonished him to move with caution ; but he only replied that it was impossible for savages to make any impression on His Majesty's regulars. Now, when Washington ventured to repeat the advice, Braddock flew into a passion, strode up and down in his tent, and said that it was high times when Colonel Buckskin could teach a Britisli general how to fight. On the 19th of June, Braddock put himself at the head of twelve hundred chosen troops and pressed forward more rapidly. Colonel Dun- bar was left behind with the remainder of the army. On the 8th of July tlie van reached the junction of the Youghiogheny and the Monongahela. It wa.s only twelve miles farther to Fort du Qiiesne, and the French gave up the place as lost. On the next morning the English army advanced along the Monongahela, and at noon crossed to the northern bank just bevond the confluence of Turtle Creek. Still there was no sisrn of an enemy. Colonel Thomas Gage was leading forward a detachment of three hundred and fifty men. The road was but twelve feet wide ; the country uneven and woody There was a dense undergrowth on either hand ; rocks and ravines ; a hill on the right and a dry hollow on the left. A few guides were in the advance, and some feeble flanking-parties ; in the rear came the general with the main division of the army, the artillery and the baggage. All at once a quick and heavy fire was heard in the front. France was not going to give up Fort du Quesne without a strug- gle. For two months the place had been receiving reinforcements ; still the garrison was by no means able to cope with Braddock's army. Even the Indians realized the disparity of the contest. It was with great diffi- ^'ulty that, on the night before the battle, the commandant of the fort induced the savages to join in the enterprise of ambuscading the British. A-t last a force of two hundred and thirty French, led by Beaujeu and 260 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Dumas, and a body of six hundred and thirty-seven Indians set out from Du Quesne ^^•itl^ a view to harass and annoy tlie English rather than to face them in a serious battle. It was the purpose of the French, who Avere entirely familiar with the ground, to lay an ambuscade at a favor- able i^oint seven miles distant from the fort. They were just reaching the selected spot and settling into ambush when the flanking-jjarties of the English came in sight. The French fired ; the Indians yelled and slunk into tiieir hiding-places, and the battle began. If Gage had at once thrown forward his forces to the support of ^___^ the guards, the day could have been V \^ l^^F'^^' i Vl ^^^'(^^'^ ! t)ut he was confused and un- 'v^'^^^^^^^ nI, I j decided. The flanking parties were driven in, leaving their six-pounders in the hands of the enemy. Gage's men wavered, and were mixed in the thickset underwood with a regiment which Braddock had pushed forward to the rescue. The confusion became greater, and there were symptoms of a panic. The men fired constantly, but could see no enemy. Every volley from the hidden foe flew with deadly certainty into the cro\^•ded ranks of the English. The rash but brave general rushed to the front and rallied his men with the energy of despair; but it was all in vain. The men stood huddled together like sheep, or fled in terror to the rear. The forest was strewn with the dead ; the savages, emboldened by their unex- pected success, crept farther and farther along the flanks; and the battle became a rout. Braddock had five horses shot under him ; his secretary was killed ; both his English aids were disabled ; only ^^'ashington re- mained to distribute orders. Out of eighty-two ofiicers twenty-six were killed and thirty-seven M'ounded. Of the privates seven hundred and fourteen \\-ere dead or bleeding with wounds. At last the general re- ceived a ball in his right side and sank fainting to the ground. "What shall we do now, colonel?" said he to Washington, who came to his assist- luce. " Retreat, sir — retreat by all means," replied the young hero, ujjon whom everything now depended. His own bosom had been for more than two hours a sj)ecial target for the savages. Two horses had fallen under him, and four times his coat had been torn with balls. A Shawnee Jiief singled him out and bade his warriors do the same ; but their volleys SCENE OF ERABDOCK'S DEFEAT, 1755. FALL OF UKAIiIiOCK. EUIN OF ACADIA. 261 went by harmless. The retreat began at once, and the thirty Virginians, who, with Wasiiiugton, were all that remained alive, covered the fliglit of the ruined army. The artillery, provisions, baggage and private papei-s of the general were left on the field. The losses of the French and Indians were slight, amounting to :hree officers and thirty men killed, and as many others wounded. There was no attempt made at pursuit. The savages fairly reveled in the spoils of the battle-field. They had never known so rich a harvest of scalps and booty. The tawny chiefs returned to Fort du Quesne clad in the laced coats, military boots and cockades of tlie British officers. Tlie dying Braddock was borne in the train of the fugitives. Once he roused himself to say, " Who would have thought it ?" and again, " We shall better know how to deal with them another time." On the evening of the fourth day he died, and was buried by the roadside a mile west of Fort Necessity. When the fugitives reached Dunbar's camp, the confusion was greater than ever. Dunbar was a man of feeble capacity and no courage ; pretending to have the orders of the dying general, he proceeded to de- stroy the remaining artillery, the heavy baggage, and all the public stores, to the value of a hundred thousand pounds. Then followed a precipitate retreat to Fort Cumberland, and then an abandonment of that place for the safer precincts of Philadelphia. It was only the beginning of August, yet Dunbar pleaded the necessity of finding winter quarters for his forces. The great expedition of Braddock had ended in such a disaster as spread isonsternation and gloom over all the colonies. CHAPTER XXXII. RUIN OF ACADIA. BY the treaty of Utrecht, made in 1713, the province of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, was ceded by France to England. During the following fifty years the 'lolony remained under the dominion of Great Britain, and was ruled by English officers. But the great majority of the people were French, and the English government amounted only to a military occu- pation of the peninsula. The British colors, floating over Louisburg and Annapolis, and the presence of British garrisons here and there, were the only tokens that this, the oldest French colony in America, had passed under the control of foreigners. •262 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. At the time of the cession the population amounted to about three thousand ; by the outbreak of the French and Indian War tiic number had increased to more than sixteen thousand. Lawrence, tlie deputy- governor of the province, jiretended to fear an insurrection. Wlien Brad- dock and the colonial govei'uors convened at Alexandria, it was urged that something must be done to overawe the French and strengthen the English authority in Acadia. The enterprise of reducing the French peasants to complete humiliation was entrusted to Lawrence, who was to be assisted by a British fleet under Colonel Monckton. On the 20th of May, 1755, the S(piadron, with three thousand troops, sailed from Boston for the Bay of Fundy. The French had but two fortified posts in the province ; both of these wei'e on the isthmus which divides Nova Scotia from New Bruns- wick. The first and most important fortress, named Beau-Sejour, was sit- uated near the mouth of JNIessagouche Creek, at the head of Chignecto Bay. The other fort, a mere stockade called Gaspereau, was on the north side of the isthmus, at Bay Verte. De Ver- gor, the French commandant, had no intimation of approaching danger till the English fleet sailed fearlessly into the bay and anchored before the walls of Beau-Sejour. There was no preparation for defence. On the 3d of June the English forces landed, and on the next day forced their way across the Messagouche sicgre of four davs followed. Fear and confusion reigned ar rison ; no successful resistance could be offered. On the IGth of the month Beau-Sejour capitulated, received an English garrison and took the name of Fort Cumberland. The feeble post at Gaspereau was taken a few days afterward, and named Fort Monckton. Captain Rous was des])atched w' ith four vessels to capture the fort at the mouth of the St. John's ; but before the fleet could reach its destination, the French reduced the town to ashes and escaped into the interior. In a campaign of less than a month, and with a loss of only twenty men, the English had made theniselves masters of the whole country east of the St. Croix. The ^var in Acadia was at an end ; but what should be done with the people? The French inhabitants still outnumbered the English nearly three to one. Governor Lawrence and Admiral Boscawen, in con- THE ACADIAN ISTII.MUS, 1755. A vigorous the gar- RUiy OF ACADIA. 263 ference with the chief justice of the province, settled upon the atrocious measure of driving tlie people into banishment. The first movement was to demand an oath of allegiance which was so framed that the French, as honest Catholics, could not take it. The priests advised the jieasants to declare their loyalty, but refuse the oath, which was meant to ensnare their souls. The next step on the part of the English was to accuse the French of treason, and to demand the surrender of all their firearms and boats. To this measure the broken-hearted people also submitted. They even offered to take the oath, but Lawrence declared that, having once refused, they must now take the consequences. The British vessels were made ready, and the work of forcible embarkation began. The country about the isthmus was covered with peaceful hamlets. THE EXILE OF THE ACADIANS.* These were now laid waste, and the people driven into the larger towns on the coast. Others were induced by artifice and treachery to put them- selves into the power of the English. "Wherever a sufficient number of the French could be gotten together they were driven on shipboard. They were allowed to take their Avives and children and as much property as would not be inconvenient on the vessels. The estates of the province were confiscated, and what could not be ai)])roDriated was given to the * Longfellow's Evangeline is founded on this incident. 264 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. flames. The wails of thousands of bleeding hearts were wafted to heaven with the smoke of burning homes. At the village of Grand Pre four hundred and eighteen unarmed men were called together and shut up in. a church. Then came the wives aud children, the old men and the mothers, the sick and the infirm, to share the common fate. The whole company numbered more than nineteen hundred souls. The jjoor crea- tures were driven down to the shore, forced into the boats at the poin of the bayonet, and carried to the vessels in the bay. As the moaning fugrtives cast a last look at their pleasant town, a column of black smoke floating seaward told the story of desolation. More than three thousand of the hapless Acadians were carried away by the British s((Uadron and scattered, helpless, half starved and dying, among the English colonies. The history of civilized nations furnishes no parallel to this wanton and wicked destruction of an inotfensive colony. CHAPTER XXXIII. EXPEDITIONS OF SHIRLEY AND JOHNSON. THE third campaign planned by Braddock at Alexandria was to be conducted by Gnvernor Shirley of Massachusetts. The expedition was to proceed from Albany to Oswego, and thence by water to the mouth of the Niagara. It was known that Fort Niagara was an insig- nificant post, depending for its defence upon a small ditch, a rotten palisade and a feeble garrison. To capture this place, to obtain command of the river, and to cut off the communications of the French by way of the lakes, were the objects of the campaign. " Fort du Quesne can hardly detain me more than three or four days," said Braddock to Shirley, " and then I will meet you at Niagara." In the early part of August, Shirley set out at the head of nearly t^vo thousand men. It was the last of the month before he reached Oswego. Here the provincial forces had been ordered to assemble. Four weeks were spent in preparing boats for embarkation. When everything was in readiness, a storm arose ; and when the storm abated, the wnids blew in the wrong direction. Then came another tempest and another delay ; then sickness prevailed in the camp. With the beginning of October EXPEDITIONS OF SHIRLEY AND JOHNSON. 265 Shirley declared the lake to be dangerous for navigation. The Indians deserted the standard of a leader whose skill in war consisted in framing excuses. The fact was that the general, while on the march to Oswego, had learned of the destruction of Braddock's army, and feared that a sim- ilar fate might overtake his own. On the 24th of October the greater jiart of the provincial forces, led by Shirley, marched homeward. Only one result of any importance followed from the campaign — the fort at Oswego was M'ell rebuilt and garrisoned with seven hundred men under Mercer. Far more important was the expedition entrusted to General Wil- liam Johnson. The object had in view was to capture the enemy's fort- ress at Crown Point, and to drive the French from the shores of Lake Chaniplain. Johnson's army numbered three thousand four hundred men, including a body of friendly Mohawks. The active work of the campaign began early in August, when General Phineas Lyman, at the head of the New England troops, proceeded to the Hudson above Albany, and at a 2)oint just below where the river bends ab- ruptly to the Avest built Fort Edward. Thither in the last days of summer came the commanding general with the main division. The watershed between the Hudson and Lake George is only twelve miles wide. Johnson's army marched across to the head of the lake and laid out a commodious camp. A week was spent in bringing forward the artillery and stores. The soldiers were busy preparing boats for embarkation, and the important matter of fortifying the camp was wholly neglected. In the mean time, Dieskau, the daring command- ant at Crown Point, determined to anticipate the movements of the English. With a force of fourteen hundred French, Canadians and Indians he sailed up Lake Champlain to South Bay. From this point he marched to the upper springs of Wood Creek, intending to strike to the south, pass the English army and capture Fort Edward before the alarm could be given. But the news was carried to General Johnson ; and a force of a thousand men under command of Colonel Williams, accompanied by Hendrick, the gray-haired chieftain of the Mohawks, with two hundred warriors, was sent to the relief of the endangered fort. On the previous night Dieskau's guides had led him out of his course. On the morning of the 8th of September the French general found himself and his army about four miles north of Fort Edward, on the main road from the Hudson to Lake VICINITY OP LAKK GEORGE, 17.J-3. 266 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. George. Just at tliis time Colonel Williams's regiment and the Mohawks came in sight, marching toward the fort. Dieskau quickly formed an ambush, and the English were entrapped ; but the Indian allies of the French showed themselves to their countrymen, and would not fire. The C^anadians and the French poured in a deadly volley; both \\'il]iams and Hendrick fell dead, and the English were thrown into confusion. But Colonel ^^'hiting rallied the troops, returned the enemy's fire, and re- treated toward the lake. St. Pierre, one of the French generals, was killed. The noise of battle was hoard in Johnson's camp, and preparations were made for a general engagement. There were no entrenchments, but trees were hastily felled for breastworks, and the cannons were brought into position. It was Dieskau's plan to rush into the English camp along with the fugitives whom he was driving befoi-e him ; but the In- dians, afraid of Johnson's guns, would not join in the assault ; the Red men retired to a hill at a safe distance. The Canadians M'ere disheartened ; and the handful of French regulars made the onset almost unsupported. It was the fiercest battle which had yet been fought on American soil. For five hours the conflict was incessant. In the beginning of the engage- ment Johnson received a slight wound and left the field ; but the troops of New England fought on without a commander. Nearly all of Dieskau's regulars were killed. At last the English troops leaped over the fallen trees, charged across the field, and com2)leted the rout. Thi'ee times Dieskau was Mounded, but he would not retire. His aids came to bear him off; one was shot dead, and he forbade the others. He ordered his servants to bring him his military dress, and then seated himself on the stump of a tree. A renegade Frenchman belonging to the English army rushed up to make him a prisoner. The wounded general felt for his watch to tender it in token of surrender. The Frenchman, thinking tiiat Dieskau was searching lor a pistol, fired, and the brave counnander tell, mortally ^^•ounded. The victory, though complete, was dearly purchased. Two hun- dred and sixteen of the English were killed, and many others wounded. General .Joluison, M'ho had done but little, was greatly praised ; Parliament made him a baronet for gaining a victory which the provincials gained lor him. Made wiser by the battle, he now constructed on the site of his camp a substantial fort, and named it ^^'illiam Henry. The defences of Fort Edward were strengthened with an additional garrison, and the remainder of the troops returned to their homes. Meanwhile, the French had reinforced Crown Point, and had seized and fortified Ticonderoga, Such was the condition of affairs at the close of 1755. TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. 267 CHAPTER XXXIV. TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. AFTER the death of Braddock the chief command of the English forces in America was given to Governor Shirley. But no regular military organization had been effected ; and the war was carried on in a desultory manner. Braddock had ruined one army ; Shirley had scat- tered another. On Lake George, Johnson had achieved a marked suc- cess. In the beginning of 1756, Washington at the head of the Vir- ginian provincials repelled the French and Indians in the valley of the Shenandoah. At the same time the Pennsylvania volunteers, choosing Franklin for their colonel, marched to the banks of the Lehigh, built a fort, and made a successful campaign. In the preceding December, Shirley met the colonial governors at New York and plamied the move- ments for the following year. One expedition, proceeding by way of tlie Kennebec, was to threaten Quebec. Forts Frontenac, Toronto and Niagara were to be taken. Du Quesne, Detroit and Mackinaw, deprived of tiieir communications, must of course surrender. In the mean time, after much debate in Parliament, it was decided to consolidate and put under one authority all the military forces in America. Tlie earl of Loudoun received the appointment of commander- in-chief General Abercrombie was second in rank ; and forty British and German officers were commissioned to organize and discipline the colonial army. In the last of April, 1756, Abercrombie, with two bat- talions of regulars, sailed for New York. Lord Loudoun was to follow \vith a fleet of transports, bearing the artillery, tents, ammunition and equipage of the expedition. The commander waited a month for his vessels, and tlien sailed without them. On the 15th of June a man-of- war was despatched to America with a hundred thousand pounds to reim- burse the colonies for the expenses of the previous campaigns. At the same time the corps of British officers arrived at New York. Meanwhile, on the 17th of May, Great Britain, after nearly two years of actual hos- tilities, made an open declaration of war, which was followed by a similar declaration on the part of France. On the 25th of June, Abercrombie reached Albany. He began his great campaign by surveying the town, digging a ditch and quartering 268 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. his soldiers with the citizens. In July, Lord Loudoun arrived and assumed the command of the colonial army. The French, meanwhile, profiting by these delays, organized a force of more than five thousand men, crossed Lake Ontario and laid siege to Oswego. The marquis of Montcalm, who had succeeded Dieskau as commander-in-chief, led the expedition. At the mouth of Oswego River there were two forts ; the old block-house on the west and the new Fort Ontario on the east. The latter was first attacked. Thirty pieces of cannon were brought to bear on the fortress. After a brave defence of one day, the little garrison abandoned the works and escaped to the old fort across the river. This place wa-s also invested by the French. For two days the English, num- bering only fourteen hundred, held out against the besiegers, and then sur- rendered. A vast amount of ammunition, small arms, accoutrements and provisions fell to the captors. Six vessels of war, three hundred boats, a hundred and twenty cannon and three chests of money were the further fruits of a victory by which France gained the only important outpost of England on the lakes. To please his Indian allies, Montcalm ordered Oswego to be razed to the ground. During this summer the Delawares, false to their treaty, rose in Western Pennsylvania and almost ruined the country. INIore than a thousand people were killed or carried into captivity. In August, Colonel John Armstrong, at the head of three hundred volunteers, crossed the Alleghanics, and after a twenty days' march reached the Indian town of Kit- taning, forty-five miles north-east from Pittsburg. Lying in concealment until daydawn on tlie morning of September 8th, the English rose against the savages, and after a desperate battle destroyed them almost to a man. The village was burned and the spirit of the barbarians completely broken. The Americans lost sixteen men. Colonel Armstrong and Captain Hugh Mercer, afterward distinguished in the Revolution, M'ere both severely wounded. Lord Loudoun continued at Albany. His forces were amply suffi- cient to capture every stronghold of Canada in the space of six weeks. Instead of marching boldly to the north, he whiled away the summer and fall, talked about an attack from the French, digged ditches, slandered the provincial officers and waited for winter. When the frosts came, he made haste to distribute the colonial troops and to quarter the regulars on the principal towns. The vigilant French, learning what sort of a general they had to cope with, crowded Lake Champlain with boats, strengthened Crown Point and comjileted a fort at Ticonderoga. With the exception of Armstrong's expedition against the Indians, the year 1756 closed with- out a single substantial success on the part of the English. TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. 269 And the year 1757 was equally disastrous. The campaign which was planned by Loudoun was limited to the conquest of Louisburg. Ever since the treaty of Utrecht the French had retained Cape Breton ; and the fortress at Louisburg had been made one of the strongest on the con- tinent. On the 20th of June, Lord Loudoun sailed from New York with an army of six thousand regulars. By the first of July he was at Hal' ifax, where he was joined by Admiral Holbourn with a powerful fleet ot sixteen men-of-war. There were on board five thousand additional troops fresh from the armies of England. Never was such a use made of a splendid armament. Loudoun landed before Halifax, cleared off a mus- tering plain, and set his officers to drilling regiments already skilled in every manceuvre of war. To heighten the absurdity, the fields about the city were planted with onions. For it was said that the men might take the scurv}' ! By and by the news came that the French vessels in the harbor of Louisburg outnumbered by one the ships of the English squad- ron. To attack a force that seemed superior to his own was not a part of Loudoun's tactics. Ordering the fleet to go cruising around Cape Breton, he immediately embarked with his army, and sailed for New York. Arriving at this place, he proposed to his officers to fortify Long Island in order to defend the continent against an enemy whom he outnumbered four to one. Meanwliile, the daring Montcalm had made a brilliant campaign in the country of Lake (jeorge. With a force of six thousand French and Canadians and seventeen hundred Indians he proceeded up the Sorel, entered Lake Champlain, and reached Ticonderoga. The object of the ex|)edition was to capture and destroy Fort "William Henry. The French and the Iroquois, M-ho had now abandoned the cause of the colonies, were fired with enthusiasm. Dragging their artillery and boats across the portage to Lake George, they re-embarked, and on the 3d of August laid siege to the English fort. The place was defended by only five hundred men under the brave Colonel Monro ; but there were seventeen hundred additional troops within suppoi-ting distance in the adjacent trenches. All this while General AVebb was at Fort Edward, but fourteen miles distant, with an army of more than four thousand British regulars. Instead of advancing to the relief of Fort William Henry, Webb held a council to determine if it were not better to retire to Albany, and sent a message to Colonel ]\Ionro advising capitulation. For six days the French pressed the siege with vigor. The ammu- nition of the garrison was nearly exhausted ; half of the guns were burst ; nothing remained but to surrender. Honorable terms were granted. The English, retaining their private effects, were released on a pledge not to 270 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. re-enter the .service for eighteen months. A safe escort was j)romised to Fort Edward. On the 9th of August the French took possession of the fortress. Unfortunately, the Indians procured a quantity of spirits from the English camp. Maddened with intoxication, and in spite of the utmost exertions of Montcalm and his officers, the savages fell upon the prisoners and began a massacre. Thirty of the English were tomahawked and many others dragged away into captivity. The retirement of the garrison to Fort Edward became a panic and a rout. Such had been the successes of France during the year that the English had not a single hamlet or fortress remaining in the whole basin of the St. Lawrence. Every cabin where English was spoken had been swept out of the Ohio valley. At the close of the year 1757, France pos- sessed twenty times as much American territory as England ; and five times as much as England and Spain together. Such liad been the im- becility of the English management in America that the flag of Great Britain was brought into disgrace. CHAPTER XXXV. TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. r^ REAT was the discouragement in England. The duke of Xewcastle ^ and his associates in the government were obliged to resign. A new ministry was formed, at the head of which was placed that remarkable man William Pitt, called the Great Commoner. The imbecile Lord Loudoun was deposed from the American army. General Abercrombie was appointed to succeed him ; but the main reliance for success was placed, not so much on the commander-in-chief, as on an efficient corps of subordinate officers whom the wisdom of Pitt now directed to America. Admiral Boscawen was put in command of the fleet, consisting of twenty- two ships of the line and fifteen frigates. The able general Anihei-st was to lead a division. Yoiuig Lord Howe, brave and amiable, was next in rank to Abercrombie. The gallant James Wolfe led a brigade. General Forbes held an important command ; and Colonel Richard Montgomery was at the head of a regiment. Three campaigns were planned for 1758. Amherst, acting in con- TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 271 junction with the fleet, was to capture Louisburg. Lord Howe, under the direction of the commander-in-chief, was to reduce Crown Point and Ticonderoga. The recovery of the Ohio valley was entrusted to General Forbes. On the 28th of May, Amherst, at the head of ten thousand effective men, reached Halifax. In six days more the fleet was anchored in Gabarus Bay. Wolfe put his division into boats, rowed through the surf under fire of the French batteries, and gained the shore without sei-ious loss. The French dismantled their battery and retreated. AYolfe next gained possession of the north-east harbor and planted heavy guns on the cape near the lighthouse. From this position the island battery of the French was soon silenced. Louisburg was fairly invested, and the siege was pressed with great vigor. On the 21st of July three French vessels were burned in the harbor. Two days later, the Prudent, a seventy-four gun ship, was fired and destroyed by the English boats. The town was already a heap of ruins, and the walls of the fortress began to crumble. For a whole week the French soldiers had no place where they could rest in safety ; of their fifty-two cannon only twelve remained in position. Furtlier resistance was hopeless. On tlie 28th of July Louisburg cajjitulated. Cape Breton and Prince Edward's Island were sur- rendered to Great Britain. The garrison, together with the marines, in all nearly six thousand men, became prisoners of war and were sent to England. Amherst after his great success abandoned Louisburg, and the fleet took station at Halifax. Meanwhile, General Abercrombie had not been idle. On the 5th of July an army of fifteen thousand men, led by Lord Howe, reached Lake George and embarked for Ticonderoga. With heavy guns and abundant stores the expedition proceeded to the northern extremity of the lake and landed on the western shore. The country about the French fortress was very unfavorable for military operations. The English proceeded with great difficulty, leaving their artillery behind. Lord Howe led the ad- vance in person. On the morning of tiie 6th, M'hen the English were nearing the fort, they fell in with the picket line of the French, number- ing no more than three hundred. A severe skirmish ensued ; the French •were overwhelmed, but not until they had inflicted on the English a terrible loss in the death of Lord Howe. The soldiers were stricken with grief, and began a retreat to the landing. Abercrombie was in the rear, but the soul of the expedition had departed. On the morning of the 8th the English engineer reported falsely that the fortifications of Ticonderoga were flimsy and trifling. Again the army was put in motion ; and when just beyond the reach of the French guns, the divisions were arranged to carry the place by assault. For more 2(2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. than four hours column after column clashed with great bravery against the breastworks of the enemy, which were found to be strong and well constructed. The defence was made by nearly four thousand French under Montcalm, who, with coat off in the hot July afternoon, was ever}'- where j)resent encouraging his men. At six o'clock in the evening the English were finally rej)uised. The carnage was dreadful, the loss on the side of the assailants amounting in killed and wounded to nineteen hun- dred and sixteen. In no battle of the Revolution did the British have so large a force engaged or meet so terrible a loss. The English still outnumbered the French three to one ; and they might have easily returned with their artillery and cajitured the fort. But Abercrombie was not the man to do it. He returned to Fort George, at the head of the lake, and contented himself with sending a force of three thousand men under Colonel Bradstreet against Fort Frontenac. This fortress was situated on the present site of Kingston, at the outlet of Lake Ontario. Marching through the country of the Indians who were still friendly to the English, Bradstreet reached Oswego, embarked his forces, crossed the lake and landed within a mile of Frontenac. The place was feebly defended, and a siege of two days compelled a capitulation. The fortress, so important to the French, was demolished. Forty-six cannon, nine vessels of war and a vast quantity of stores were the fruits of the victory. Except in the waste of life, Bradstreet's success more than coun- terbalanced the failure of the English at Ticonderoga. The French were everywhere weakened and despairing. In Canada the crops had failed, and there was almost a famine. " Peace, peace, no matter \\ith what boundaries," was the message which the brave Montcalm sent to the French ministry. Late in the sunnner, Forbes, at the head of nine thousand men, ad- vanced from Philadelphia against Fort du Quesne. Washington led the Virginia provincials, and Armstrong, who had so distinguished himself at Kittaning, the Pennsylvanians. The main body moved slowly, clear- ing a broad road and bridging the streams. "Washington and the pro- vincials were impatient. IMajor Grant, more rash than wise, j)ressed on to within a few miles of Du Quesne. Attempting to lead the Frencl: and Indians into an ambuscade, he was himself ambuscaded, and lost a third of his forces. Slowly the main division approached the fort, which was defended by no more than five hundred men. On the 24th of No- vember, Washington with the advance was within ten miles of Du Quesne. During that night the garrison took the alarm, burned the fort- ress and floated down the Ohio. On the 25th the victorious army marched over the ruined bastions, raised the English flag, and named TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 273 the place Pittsburg. Tlie name of the great British minister was justly written over " the gateway of the West." General Amherst was now promoted to the chief command of the American forces. Parliament cheerfully voted twelve million pounds sterling to carry on the war. The colonies exerted themselves to the utmost. By the beginning of summer, 1759, the British and colonial forces numbered nearly fifty thousand men. The whole population of Canada was only eighty-two thousand ; and the entire French army scarcely exceeded seven thousand. Nothing less than the conquest of all Canada would satisfy Pitt's ambition. Three campaigns were planned for the year. General Prideaux was to conduct an expedition against Niagara, capture the fortress and descend the lake to Montreal. Amherst was to lead the main division against Ticouderoga and Crown Point. General Wolfe was to proceed up the St. Lawrence and finish the work by capturing Quebec. By way of Schenectady and Oswego, Prideaux led his forces to Niagara. On the 10th of July the place was invested. The French general D'Aubry collected from Detroit, Erie, Le Boeuf and Venango a body of twelve hundred men, and marched to the relief of the fort. On the 15th, by the accidental bursting of a mortar, General Prideaux was killed. Sir William Johnson, succeeding to the command, disposed his forces so as to intercept the approaching French. On the morning of the 24th, D'Aubry's array came in sight. A bloody engagement ensued, in which the French were completely routed, leaving their unnumbered dead scattered for miles through the forest. On the next day Niagara capitulated and received an English garrison. The French forces in the to^\^l, to the number of six hundred, became prisoners of M-ar. Commun- ication between Canada and Louisiana was for ever broken. At the same time Amherst was conquering on Lake Charaplain. With an army of more than eleven thousand men he proceeded against Ticonderoga. On the 22d of July the English forces were disembarked near the landing-place of Abcrcrombic. The French did not dare to stand against them. There was a slight skirmish, and then the trenches were deserted. Fort Carillon was given up. On the 26th the French garrison, having partly destroyed the fortifications, abandoned Ticon- deroga and retreated to Crown Point. Five days afterward they de- serted this place also, and entrenched themselves on Isle-aux-Noix, in the river Sorel. The whole country of Lake Champlain had been recovered without a battle. It remained for General Wolfe to achieve the final victory-. As soon as a tardy spring had cleared the St. La^vrence of ice, he began the 18 274 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. VICINITY OF QUEBEC, 1759. ascent of the river. His force consisted of nearly eight thousand men,, assisted by a fleet of forty-four vessels under eoinniand of Admiral Saun- ders. On the 27th of June the armament arrived without accident at the Isle of Orleans, four miles below Quebec. The English camp was pitched at the upper end of the ' island. Wolfe's vessels gave him immediate command of the river, and the southern bank was unde- fended. On the night of the 29th, General Monckton was sent with four battalions to seize Point Levi. The movement was successful, and an English battery was planted opposite the city. From this position the Lower Town was soon reduced to ruins, and the Upper Town nuich injured ; but the fortress seemed im- pregnable. The French, knowing that it would be impossible to storm the city from the river side, had drawn their line of entrenchment from the northern bank of the St. Lawrence, reaching for five miles from the Montmorenci to the St. Charles. Here Montcalm with ten or twelve thousand French and Canadians awaited the movements of his antagonist. Wolfe was restless and anxious for battle. On the 9th of July he crossed the north channel, and encamped with his army on the east bank of the Montmorenci. It was determined in a council of war to hazard an engagement. The Montmorenci was fordable when the tide ran out. The attack was planned for July 31st, at the hour of low water. Generals Townshend and Murray were ordered to ford the stream with their two brigades, and at the same time Monckton's regiments of regulars were to cross the St. Lawrence from Point Levi and aid in the assault. The signal was given, and the grenadiers of Murray and Townshend dashed across the Montmorenci ; but the boats of Monckton ran aground, and there was considerable delav. The impatient grenadiers, without waiting for orders or support, rushed forward against the French entrenchments, and were driven back with great loss. Before the regulars could be formed in line the battle was decided. Night was approaching ; the tide rising ; a storm portended ; and Wolfe, after losing nearly five hundred men, with- drew to his camp. Disappointment, exposure and fatigue threw the English general iuto a violent fever, and for many days he was confined to his tent. A TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 275 council of officers was called, and the indomitable leader proposed a second lines. But the projiosition was overruled, and It assault on the French was decided to ascend the St. Lawrence, and if possible gain pos- session of the Plains of Abraham, in the rear of the city. The camp on the Mont- morenci was accord- ingly broken up, and on the 6th of Septem- ber the troops and ar- tillery were conveyed to Point Levi. Keep- ing the French excited with appearances of activity, Wolfe again transferred his army to a point several miles up the river. He then busied himself with a careful examination of the northern bank, in the hope of finding some jtath among the precipitous cliffs by which to gain the plains. On the 11th he discovered the place called Wolfe's Cove, and decided that here it was possible to make the ascent. Montcalm, deceived by the movements of the fleet, was still in the trenches below the city. On the night of the 12th of September everything was in readi- ness. The English silently entered their transports and dropped down the river to the cove. With great difficulty the soldiers clambered up the almost perpendicular precipice; the feeble Canadian guard on the summit was dispersed ; and in the gray dawn of morning Wolfe mar< shaled his army for battle. Montcalm Avas in amazement when he heard the news. " They are now on the weak side of this unfortunate town," said he ; " and we must crush them before mid-day." With great haste the French were brought from the trenches and thrown between Quebeo and the advancing English. The battle began with an hour's cannonade ; then Montcalm attemj)ted to turn the English flank, but was beaten back. The Canadians and Indians were routed. Then came the weakened bat- GENERAL JAMES WOLFE. 276 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. talions of the French ; but they were poorly disciplined ; the ground was uneTen, and Montcalm's lines advanced brokenly. The English reserved tlieir fire until the advancing columns were within forty yards, and then discharged volley after volley. The French wavered and were in con- fusion. Wolfe, leading the ciiarge, was wounded in the wrist. Again he was struck, but pressed on at the head of his grenadiers. Just at the moment of victory a third ball pierced his breast, and he sank quivering to the earth. " They run, they run !" said the attendant A\ho bent over him. " Who run ?" was the feeble response. " The French are flying everywhere," replied the officer. " Do they rim already ? Then I die hajipy," said the exjjiring hero; and his spirit passed away amid the smoke of battle. Monckton was dangerously wounded and borne from the field. Montcalm, still attempting to rally his broken regiments, was struck with a ball, and fell. " Shall I survive ?" said he to his surgeon, " But a few hours at most," replied the attendant. " So much the better,'' replied the heroic Frenchman. " I shall not live to witness the surrender of Quebec." Further defence of the Canadian stronghold was useless. Five days after the battle the French authorities surrendered to General Town- shend, and an English garrison took possession of the citadel. The year 1759 closed with the complete triumph of the English arms. In the following spring France made a great efibrt to recover lier losses. A severe battle was fought a few miles west of Quebec, and the English were driven into the city. But reinforcements came, and the French M'ere beaten back. On the 8th of September, in the same year, Montreal, the last important post of France in the valley of the St. Lawrence, surren- dered to General Amherst. Canada had passed under the dominion of England. In the spring of 1760 the Cherokees of Tennessee rose against the English. Fort Loudoun, in tiie north-eastern extremity of the State, was besieged by the Red men, and forced to capitulate. Honorable terms were promised to the garrison ; but as soon as the surrender was made, the savages fell upon their prisoners and massacred or dragged into captivity the whole company. Colonels Montgomery and Grant were despatciied by General Amherst to chastise the Indians. After a vigorous campaign the savages were driven into the mountains and compelled to sue for peace. The conquest of Canada was the overthrow of the Frencli power in America. It remained, however, for the English authorities to take actual possession of the immense territory bordering on the Great Lakes. At the time of the capture of INIontreal this vast domain was TWO Y£A^S OF SUCCESSES. 277 held by feeble fortresses, scattered here and there, and garrisoned by detachments of French soldiers. The Marquis of Vaudreuil in sur- rendering Montreal had stipulated that all the western forts under the control of France should be given up to England. In the fall of 1760 Major Robert Rogers was accordingly despatched by General Amherst, with a company of two hundred provincial rangers, to receive the sur- render of the outposts. By the last of November, Rogers, having ascended the St. Law- rence and passed through Lakes Ontario and Erie, reached Detroit. Over this, the most important of the French posts in the West, the English flag was raised ; Forts Miami on the southern shore of Lake ^Michigan and Ouatanon on the Wabash were also given up without resistance. Rogers then pressed on to take possession of Mackinaw, Green Bay and St. Marie, but was turned back by the storms on Lake Huron ; and it was not until the following summer that those remote fortresses wore garrisoned by detachments of British soldiers. No sooner were the English in complete possession of the coun- try than they began by neglect and ill-treatment to excite the dor- mant passions of the Red men. During the progress of the war the 111 lians had become completely subordinated by French influence ; and the English were hated with all the ferocity of the savage na- ture. It was not long till there were mutterings of an outbreak. The tribes could not be made to comprehend that Canada had been finally taken from their friends, the French. They confidently ex- pected the day when the king of France should send new armies and exjjcl the detested English. Infiituated with this belief, instigated by the French themselves, and stung by many insults real and im- aginary, the warriors began their usual atrocities on the frontiers. In the summer of 1761, the Senecas conspired with the Wyandots to capture Detroit by treachery, and massacre the garrison ; and the plot was barely tliwarted by Colonel Campbell, the commandant. In the following summer another attempt of a similar sort was discovered and defeated. It was in this condition of affairs that the celebrate«3 Pontiac came forward and organized the most far-reaching and dan-i gerous conspiracy ever known among the Indian tribes of America. Pontiac was chief of the Ottawas, whose principal seat was the district between Lakes Erie and Michigan. In the somewhat pro- longed interval between the conquest of Canada and the treaty of 1763, this sagacious warrior, doubting the possibility of a peace be- tween the rival nations, conceived the design of uniting all the Indian tribes from the Alleghanies to the Mississippi in an overwhelming 278 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. confederacy, which should upon a given day strike all the English forts upon the frontier a deadly blo\v, and sweeji away in a common ruin every English family west of the mountains. The plot was con- structed with the White man's skill and the Red man's cunning. Tlie 7th of May, 1763, was named as the day of destruction. But when the time came the impatient savage tribes were unable to act in per- fect concert, and ultimate failure was the consequence, though the immediate result was terribly disastrous. Pontiac reserved for himself the most difficult task of all — the capture of Detroit. But in the hour of impending doom, woman's love interposed to save the garrison from butchery. An Indian girl of the Ojibwa nation, came to the fort with a pair of moccasins for THE REVELATION OF PONTIAr'S CONSPIHACY. Major GladwA'u, the commandant, and in parting with him manifested iinusual agitation and distress. She was seen to linger at the street corner, and the sentinel summoned her to return to the major's quar- ters. There, after much persuasion and many assurances of protec- tion, she yielded to his urgent inquiries into tlie cause of her grief and revealed the plot. When Pontiac's band g. George III., who ascended the Eng- lish throne in 1760, was one of the worst monarchs of modern times. His notions of government were altogether despotic. He was a stubborn, stupid, thick-headed man in Avhose mind the notion of human rights was entirely Avanting. It was impossible for him to conceive of a magnan- imous project or to appreciate the value of civil liberty. His reign of sixty years was as odious as it was long. In the management of tJie British empire he employed only those who were the narrow-minded partisans of his own policy. His ministers were, for the most part, men as incompetent and illiberal as himself With sucii a king and sucn a ministry it was not likely that the descendants of the Pilgrims would get on smoothly. CAUSES. 287 The more immediate cause of the Revolution was the passage by Parliament of a number of acts destructive of colonial liberty. These acts M-ere resisted by the colonies, and the attempt was made by Great Britain to enforce them with the bayonet. The subject of this unjust legislation, which extended over a period of twelve years just preceding the war, was the question of taxation. It is a well-grounded principle of English common law that the people, by their representatives in the House of Commons, have the right of voting whatever taxes and customs are neces- sary for the support of the kingdom. The American colonists claimed the full rights of Englishmen. With good reason it was urged that the general assemblies of colonies held the same relation to the American people as did the House of Commons to the people of England. The English ministers replied that Parliament, and not the colonial assemblies, was the proper body to vote taxes in any and all parts of the British empire. But we are not represented in Parliament, was the answer of the Americans ; the House of Commons may therefore justly assess taxes in England, but not in America. Many of the towns, boroughs and shires in these British isles have no representatives in Parliament, and yet the Parliament taxes them, rej)lied the ministers, now driven to eophistrv. If any of your towns, boroughs and shires are not represented in the House of Commons, they ougid to be, was the American rejoinder ; and there the argument ended. Such were the essential points of the controversy. It is now proper to notice the several parliamentarj^ acts which the colonies comjilained of and resisted. The first of these was the Importation Act, passed in 1733. This statute was itself a kind of supplement to the old Navigation Act of 1651. By the terms of the newer law exorbitant duties M'ere laid on all the sugar, molasses and rum imported into the colonies. At first the payment of these unreasonable customs was evaded by the merchants, and then the statute was openly set at naught. In 1750 it was further enacted that iron-works should not be erected in America. The man- ufacture of steel was specially forbidden ; and the felling of pines, outside of enclosures, was interdicted. All of these laws were disregarded and denounced by the people of the colonies as being unjust and tyrannical. In 1761 a strenuous effort was made by the ministry to enforce the Im- portation Act. The colonial ♦courts were authorized to issue to the king's officers a kind of search-warrants, called Writs of Assistance. Armed, with this authority, petty constables might enter any and every place, searching for and seizing goods which were suspected of having evaded the duty. At Salem and Boston the greatest excitement prevailed. The application for the writs was resisted before the courts. James Otis, an 288 HISTOIiY OF THE UNITED STATES. able and temperate man, pleaded eloquently for eolonial rights, and de- nounced the parliamentary acts as unconstitutional. The address M'as a masterly defence of the people, and produced a profound sensation through- out the colonies. Already there were hints at resistance by force of arms. In 1763, and again in the following year, the English ministers undertook to enforce the law requiring the payment of duties on sugar and molasses. The officers of the admiralty Mere authorized to seize and confiscate all vessels engaged in the unlawful trade. Before the passage of this act Avas known at Boston, a great town-meeting was held. Samuel Adams Avas the orator. A powerful argument was produced showing conclusively that under the British constitution taxation and representa- tion were insejiarable. Nevertheless, vessels from the English navy were sent to hover around the American liarbors. A great number of mer- chantmen bearing cargoes of sugar and wine were seized; and the colonial trade with the West Indies was almost destroyed. The year 1764 witnessed the first formal declaration of the purpose of Parliament to tax the colonies. Mr. Grenville was now prime minis- ter. On the 10th of March a resolution was adopted by the House of Commons declaring that it would be proper to charge certain stamp- duties on the American colonies. It was announced that a bill embody- ing this principle would be prepared by the ministers and presented at the next session of Parliament. In the mean time, the news of the pro- posed measure was borne to America. Universal excitement and indig- nation prevailed in the colonies. Political meetings became the order of the day. Orators were in great demand. The newspapers teemed with arguments against the proposed enactment. Resolutions were passed by the people of almost every town. Formal remonstrances -were addressed to the king and the two houses of Parliament. Agents -were aj)pointed by the colonies and sent to London in the hope of preventing the passage of the law. A new turn was now given to the controversy. The French and Indian War had just been concluded with a treaty of peace. Great Britain had incurred a heavy deljt. The ministers began to urge that the expenses of the war ought to be borne by the colonies. The Americans replied that England ought to defend her colonies, from motives of humanity ; ':hat in the prosecution of the war the colonists had aided Great Britain as much as Great Britain had aided them ; that the cession of Canada had amply remunerated England for her losses ; that it was not the payment of money Avhich the colonies dreaded, but the suri-cndcr of their liberties. It was also added that in case of another war the American States would try to fight their own battles. CAUSES. 289 Early in March of 1765, the English Parliament, no longer guided by the counsels of Pitt, passed the celebrated Stamp Act. In the House of Commons the measure received a majority of five to one. In the House of Lords the vote was unanimous. At the time of the passage of the act the king was in a fit of insanity, and could not sign the bill. On the 22d of the month the royal assent was given by a board of commis- sioners acting for the king. " The sun of American liberty has set," wrote Benjamin Franklin to a friend at home. " Now we must light the lamps of industry and economy." " Be assured," said the friend, in reply, " that we shall light torches of another sort." And the answer reflected the sentiment of the whole country. The provisions of the Stamp Act were briefly these : Every note, bond, deed, mortgage, lease, license and legal document of whatever sort, required in the colonies, should, after the 1st day of the following No- vember, be executed on paper bearing an English stamp. This stamped paper was to be fiirnislied by the British government ; and for each sheet the colonists were required to pay a sum varying, according to the nature of the document, from three pence to six pounds sterling. Every colonial pamphlet, almanac and newspaper was required to be printed on paper of the same sort, the value of the stamps in this case ranging from a half- penny to four pence ; every advertisement was taxed two shillings. No C(mtract should be of any binding force unless written on paper bearing the royal stamp. The news of the hateful act swept over America like a thunder- cloud. The people were at first grief-stricken ; then indignant ; and then wrathful. Crowds of excited men surged into the towns, and there were some acts of violence. The muffled bells of Philadelphia and Boston rung a funeral peal ; and the people said it was the death-knell of liberty. In New York a copy of the Stamp Act was carried through the streets M'ith a death's-head nailed to it, and a placard bearing this inscription : The Folly of England and the Ruin of America. The general assemblies were at first slow to move ; there were many loyalists among the members ; and the colonial governors held their offices by appointment of the king. It was hazardous for a provincial legislator to say that an act of the British Parliament was the act of tyrants. But the younger representatives, hot-blooded as well as patriotic, did not hesitate to ex- press their sentiments. In the Virginia House of Burgesses there was a memorable scene. Patrick Henry, the youngest member of the House, an uneducated mountaineer recently chosen to represent Louisa county, waited for some older delegate to lead the burgesses in opposition to Parliament. But the 290 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. older members hesitatetl or went home. Offended at this lukewarmness. Henrv in his passionate way snatched a blank-leaf out of an old law- book and hastily drew up a series of fiery resolutions, declaring that the Virginians were Eng- lishmen with English rights ; that the people of Great Britain had the exclusive privilege of voting their own taxes, and so had the Americans ; tliat the colonists were not bound to yield obedi- ence to any law im- posing taxation on them ; and that who- ever said the contrary was an enemy to the country. The resolu- tions were at once laid before the house. A violent de- bate ensued, in which the patriots had the best of the argument. It was a moment of intense interest. Two future Presidents of the United States were in the audience ; Washington occupied his seat as a delegate, and Thomas .Jeiferson, a young collegian, stood just outside of the railing. The clocpient and audacious Henry bore down all opposition. " Tarquin and Csesar had each his Brutus," said the indignant orator ; " Charles I. had his Cromwell, and George III. — " " Treason !" shouted the speaker. " Treason ! treason !" exclaimed the terrified loyalists, springing to their feet. " — And George III. may profit by their example," continued Henry ; and then added as he took his seat, " If that be treason, make the most of it !" The resolutions were put to the house and carried ; but the majorities on some of the votes were small, and the next day, Avhen Henry was absent, the most violent par- agraph was reconsidered and exj)unged : some of the members were greatly frightened at their own audacity. But the resolutions in their entire form had gone before the country as the formal expression of the PATRICK HtNKY. CAUSES. 291 oldest American commonwealth, and the effect on the other colonies was like the shock of a battery. Similar resolutions were adopted by the assemblies of New York and ^lassachusetts — in the latter State before the action of Virginia was known. At Boston, James Otis successfully agitated the question of an American Congress. It was iiroposed that each colony, acting without leave of the king, should ajjjjoint delegates, who should meet in the fol- lowing autumn and discuss the affairs of the nation. The proposition was favorably received ; nine of the colonies appointed delegates ; and on the 7th of October the First Colonial Congress assembled at New York. There were twenty-eight representatives : Timothy Ruggles of Massachu- setts was chosen president. After much discussion A Declaration of Rights M^as adopted setting forth in unmistakable terms that the Amer- ican colonists, as Englishmen, could not and would not consent to be taxed but by their own representatives. Memorials were also prepared and addressed to the two houses of Parliament. A manly j)ctition, pro- fessing loyalty and praying for a more just and humane jjolicy toward his American subjects, was directed to the king. The 1st of November came. On that day the Stamp Act was to take effect. During the summer great quantities of the stamjied j^aper had been prepared and sent to America. Ten boxes of it were seized by the people of New York and opeidy destroyed. In Connecticut, the stamp-officer was threatened with hanging. In Boston, houses were de- stroyed and the stamps given to the winds and flames. Whole cargoes of the obnoxious paper were reshipped to England ; and every stamp- officer in America was obliged to resign or leave the country. By the 1st of November there were scarcely stamps enough remaining to furnish after times with specimens. The day was kept as a day of mourning. The stores were closed ; flags were hung at half mast ; the bells M-ere tolled ; effigies of the authors and abettors of the Stamp Act were borne about in mockery, and then burned. The people of New Hampshire formed a funeral procession and buried a coffin bearing the inscription of Liberty. A cartoon was circulated hinting at union as the remedy for existing evils. The picture represented a snake broken into sections. Each joint was labeled with the initials of a colony ; the head was marked " N. E." for New England ; and the title was Join or Die ! At first, legal business wa.s almost entirely suspended. The court- houses were shut up. Society was at a standstill ; not even a marriage license could be legally issued. By and by, the people breathed more freely ; the offices were opened, and business went on as before ; but was not transacted with stamped paper. It was at this juncture that the -292 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. patriotic society known as the Soxs of Liberty was organized. The members were pledged to oppose British tyranny to the utmost, and to defend with their lives the freedom of tiie colonies. Equally important ■was the actinn of tiie colonial merchants. The importers of New York, Boston and Philadelphia entered into a solemn compact to purchase no more goods of Great Britain until the Stamp Act should be repealed And the people, applauding the action of their merchants, cheerfully de- nied themselves of all imported luxuries. Great was the wrath of the British government when the news of these proceedings was borne across the ocean. But a large party of Eng- lish tradesmen and manufactm-ers sided with the colonists. Better still, some of the most eminent statesmen espoused the cause of America. Even Lord Camden in the House of Lords spoke favorably of colonial rights. Bef )re the House of Commons Mr. Pitt delivered a powerful address. " You have," said he, "no right to tax America. I rejoice that America iias resisted. Three millions of our fellow-subjects so lost to every sense of virtue as tamely to give up their liberties would be fit instruments to malie slaves of the rest." The new ^^'llig prime minister, the marquis of Rockingham, Avas also a friend of the colonies, and looked with dis- favor on the legislation of his predecessor. On the 18th of ^larch, 1766, the Stamp Act was formally repealed. As a kind of balm to soothe the wounded feelings of the Tories — as the adherents of Grenville were now called — a supplemental resolution was added to the repeal declaring that Parliament had the right to bind the colonics in all cases whatsoever. The joy both in England and America was unbounded. The vessels in the river Thames were decked with flags, and the colonial orators spoke to enthusiastic crowds gathered around bonfires. There was a great calm in all the country ; but it was only the lull before the com- ing of a greater storm. A few mouths after the repeal of the Stamp Act the ministry of Rockingham was dissolved and a new cabinet formed under the leadership of Pitt, who was now made earl of Chatliam. Un- fortunately, iMwever, the prime minister was for a long time confined by sickness to his home in the country. During his absence, Mr. Towns- hend, chancellor of the exchequer, in a moment of unparalleled folly, brought forward a new scheme for taxing America. On the 29th of June, 1767, an act was passed imposing a duty on all the glass, paper, painters' colors and tea which should thereafter be imported into the colonies. At the same time a resolution was ado])ted suspending the powers of the ireneral assembly of New York until that body should vote certain sup- plies for the royal troops stationed in the province. A more rash and disastrous piece of legislation never was enacted. CAUSES. 293 All the smothered resentment of the colonies buret out anew. Another agreement not to purchase British goods was immediately en- tered into by the American merchants. The newspapers were filled with bitter denunciations of Parliament. Early in 1768 tiie assembly of JNIas- sachusetts adopted a circular calling ujjon the other colonies for assistance in the eifort to obtain redress of grievances. The ministers were enraged and required the assembly in the king's name to rescind their action, and to express regret for tliat " rash and hasty proceeding." Instead of that, the sturdy legislature reaffirmed the resolution by a nearly unanimous vote. Thereupon Governor Bernard dissolved the assembly ; but the members would not disperse until they had prepared a list of charges against the governor and requested the king to remove him. In the month of June fuel was added to the flame. A sloop, charged with attempting to evade the payment of duty, was seized by the custom-house officers. The people ro-e in a mob ; attacked the houses of the officers, and obliged the occupants to seek shelter in Castle Williaiu, at the entrance of the harbor. The governor now appealed to the min- isters for help ; and General Gage, commander-in-chief of the British forces in America, was ordered to bring from Halifax a regiment of reg- ulars and overawe the people. On the 1st of October the troops, seven hundred strong, marched with fixed bayonets into the capital of Mas- sachusetts. The people were maddened by this military invasion of their cit)\ When the governor required the selectmen of Boston to provide quarters for the soldiers, he was met with an absolute refusal ; and the troops were quartered in the state-house. In February of 1769, Parliament advanced another step toward war. The people of Massachusetts were declared rebels, and the governor was directed to arrest those deemed guilty of treason and send them to England for trial. The general assembly met tiiis additional outrage with defiant resolutions. Scenes almost as violent as these were at the same time enacted in Virginia and North Carolina. In the latter State a popular insurrection was suppressed by Governor Tryon ; the insur- gents, escaping across the mountains, obtained lands of the Cherokees, and became tiie founders of Tennessee. Early in 1770 a serious affi-ay occurred in New York. The soldiers wantonly cut down a liberty pole which had stood for several years in the park. A conflict ensued, in which the people came out best ; another pole was erected in the northern part of the city. On the 5th of March a more serious difficulty occurred in Boston. An altercation had taken place between a party of citizens and the soldiers. A crowd gathered, surrounded Captain Preston's comjjany of the city guard, hooted 294 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. at them, and dared them to fire. At length the exasperated soldiers dis- charged a volley, killing three of the citizens and wounding several othere. This outrage, known as the Boston Massacre, created a profound sensa- tion. The city was ablaze with excitement. Several thousand men assembled under arms. Governor Hutchinson came out, j)romising that justice should be done and trying to appease the multitude. The brave Samuel Adams spoke for the people. An immediate withdrawal of the troops from the city was demanded, and the governor was obliged to yield. Captain Preston and his company were arrested and tried for murder. The prosecution was conducted with great spirit, and two of the offenders were convicted of manslaughter. On the very day of the Boston massacre. Lord North, who had become prime minister, secured the passage by Parliament of an act re- pealing all the duties on American imports except that on tea. The exception was made only to show that the right of taxing the colonies was not relinquished. The merchants of New York and Boston at once relaxed their non-importation agreement except so far as it related to tea ; to that extent the compact was retained ; and the people voluntarilj'' pledged themselves to use no more tea until the duty should be uncon- ditionally repealed. The antagonism toward the mother country M-a,s abating somewhat, when in 1772 an act was passed by Parliament requir- ing that the salaries of the governor and judges of IMassachusetts should be paid out of the colonial revenues without consent of the assembly. That body retaliated by a declaration that the j)arliamcntary statute was a violation of the chartered rights of the people, and therefore void. About the same time the Gaspee, a royal schooner which had liccn annoy- ing the people of Providence, was boarded by a company of patriots and burned. In 1773 the ministers attempted to enforce the tea-tax by a strat- agem. Owing to the duty, the price of tea in the American market liad been doubled. But there Mas no demand for the article; for the people would not buy. As a consequence the warehouses of Great Britain were stored with vast quantities of tea, awaiting shipment to America. Par- liament now removed the export duty M'hich had hitherto been charged on tea shipped from England. The j)rice was by so much lowered ; and the ministers persuaded themselves that, when the cheaper tea was offered in America, the silly colonists would pay their own import dut)' without suspicion or complaint. To carry out this scheme English ships were loaded with tea for the American market. Some of the vessels reached Charleston ; the tea was landed, but the people forbade its sale. The chests were stored in CAUSES. 295 mouldy cellars, and the contents ruined. At XeM' York and Philadelphia the ports were closed and the ships forbidden to enter. At Boston the vessels entered the harbor. The tea had been consigned to Governor Hut- chinson and his friends ; and special precautions were taken to prevent a failure of the enterprise. But the authorities stul)bornlv stood their ground, and would not permit the tea to bo landed. On the 16th of De- cember the dispute was settled in a memorable maimer. There was a 2;reat town-meeting at which seven thousand people were assembled. Adams and Quincy spoke to the multitudes. Eve- ning came on, and the meeting was about to adjourn, when a war- whoop was heard, and about fitly men dis- guised as Indians pass- ed the door of the Old South Church. The c r o w d followed to Griffin's wharf, where the three tea-ships were at anchor. Then everything became quiet. The disguised men quickly boarded the vessels, broke open the three hundred and forty chests of tea that composed the cargoes, and poured the con- tents into the sea. Such was THE Boston Tea-Pa rty. Parliament made haste to find revenge. On the last day of March, 1774, the Boston Port Bill Mas passed. It was enacted that no kind of merchandise should any longer be landed or shipped at the ■wharves of Boston. The custom-house was removed to Salem, but the people of that town refused the benefits which were proffered by the hand of tyranny. The inhabitants of ]\Iarblehead tendered the free use of tlieir M-arehouses to the merchants of Boston. The assembly stood stoutly by the cause of the people. When the news of the passage of the Port Bill reached Virginia, the burgesses at once entered a protest on the SAMTTEL ADAMS. 296 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. journals of the house. When Governor Dunmoro ordered tlie members to their homes, they met in another place, and passed a recommendation for a general congress of the colonies. On the 20th of May the vener- ated charter of Massachusetts was annulled by act of Parliament. The people were declared rebels ; and the governor was ordered to send abroad for trial all persons who should resist the royal officers. The colonial assembly made answer by adopting a resolution that the powers of language were not sufficient to express the impolicy, injustice, in- humanity and cruelty of the acts of Parliament. In September the Second Colonial Congress assembled at Philadelphia. Eleven colonies were represented. It was unanimously agreed to sustain Massachusetts in her conflict with a wicked ministry. One address was sent to the king ; another to the English nation ; and another to the people of Canada. Before adjournment a resolution was adopted recommending the suspension of all commercial intercourse with Great Britain until the wrongs of the colonies should be redressed. Par- liament immediately retaliated by ordering General Gage, \\ho had been recently appointed governor of Massachusetts, to reduce the colonists by force. A fleet and an army often thousand soldiers were sent to America to aid in the work of subjugation. Ill accordance with the governor's orders, Boston Neck was seized and fortified. The military stores in the arsenals at Cambridge and Charlestown were conveyed to Boston; and the general assembly was ordered to disband. Instead of doing so, the members resolved them- selves into a provincial congress, and voted to equiji an army of twelve thousand men for the defence of the colony. There was no longer any hope of a peaceable adjustment. The mighty arm of Great Britain was stretched out to smite and crush the sons of the Pilgrims. The colonists were few and feeble ; liut they were men of iron wills who had made up their minds to die for liberty. It was now the early spring of 1775, and the day of battle was at hand. THE BEGINNMG. 297 CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE BEGINNING. AS soon as the intentions of General Gage were manifest, the people of Boston, concealing their ammunition in cart-loads of rubbish, conveyed it to Concord, sixteen miles away. Guge detected the move- ment, and on the night of the 18th of April despatched a regiment of eight hmidred men to destroy the stores. Another purpose of the expe- dition was to capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who were sup- posed to be hidden at Lexington or Concord. The fact was that they were not hidden anywhere, but were abroad encouraging the people. Tiie plan of the British general was made with great secrecy ; but the patriots were on the alert, and discovered the movement. About midnight the regiment, under conuuand of Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairu, set out for Concord. The people of Boston, Charles- town and Cambridge were roused by the ringing of bells and the firing of cannons. Two hours before, the vigilant Joseph Warren had de- spatched William Dawes and Paul Revere to ride with all speed to Lex- ington and to spread the alarm through the country. Against two o'clock in the morning the minute-men wei-e under arms ; and a company of a hundi-ed and thirty had assembled on the common at Lexington. The patriots loaded their guns and stood ready ; but no enemy appeared, and it was agreed to separate until the drum-beat should announce the liour of danger. At five o'clock the British van, under command of Pitcairn, came in sight. The provincials to the number of seventy reassembled ; Captain Parker was their leader. Pitcairn rode up and exclaimed: "Disperse, ye villains! Throw down your arms, ye rebels, and dis- perse !" The minute-men stood still ; Pitcairn discharged his pistol at them, and with a loud voice cried, " Fire !" The first volley of the Revolution whistled through the air, and sixteen of the patriots, nearly a fourth of the whole number, fell dead or wounded. The rest fired a few random shots, and then dispersed. The British pressed on to Concord; but the inhabitants had re- moved the greater part of the stores to a place of safety, and there was but little destruction. Two cannons were spiked, some artillerv earriao-es 298 HISTOHr OF THE UNITED STATES. burned, and a small quantity of ammunition tlirown into a mill-pond. While the British -were ra'isaeking the town the minute-men began to assemble from all quarters. Attempting to enter the village, the jiatriots encountered a company of soldiers who were guarding the Xortli Bridge, over C'doeord River. Here the Americans, for the first time, tired under ordei's of tlieir officers, and here two British soldiers were killed. The bridge \vas taken by the provincials, and the enemy began a retreat — first into tlie town, and then through the town on the road to Lexington. This was the signal for the minute-men to attack the foe from every side. For six miles the battle was kept up along the road. Hidden behind roeks, trees, fences and barns, the patriots poured a constant fire upon the thinned ranks of the retreating enemy. Nothing but good discipline and reinforcements which, luider command of Lord Percy, met the fugitives just below Lexington, saved the British from total rout and destruction. The fight continued to the precincts of Charlestown, the militia becoming more and more audacious in their charges. At one time it seemed that the whole Bi'itish force would be obliged to surrender. Such a result was prevented only by the fear that the fleet would burn the city. The American loss in this the first battle of the war was forty-nine killed, thirty-four Mounded and five missing ; that of the enemy was two hundred and seventy-three — a greater loss than the English army sustained on the Plains of Abraham. The battle of Lexington fired the country^ Within a few days an army of twenty' thousand men had gathered about Boston. A line of entrenchments encompassing the city was drawn from Roxbury to Chel- sea. To drive Gage and the British into the sea was the common talk in that tumultuous camp. And the number constantly~increased* John Stark ' came down at the head of the New Hampshire militia. Lsrael Putnam, with a leather waistcoat on, ^vas helping some men to build a ^ stone wall on his farm when the news from Lexington came flyingV^ Hurrying to the nearest town, he found the militia already mastered. Bidding the men follow as soon as jjossible, he mounted a hoi-se and rode to Cambridge, a distance of a hundred miles, in eighteen hours. Rhode Island sent her quota under the brave Nathaniel Greene. Benedict Arnold came with the provincials of New Haven. Ethan Allen, of Vermont, made war in the other direction. This daring and eccentric man was chosen colonel by a company of two hundred and seventy patriots who had assembled at Bennington. Before tlie battle of Lexington, the legislature of Connecticut had pri- vately voted a thousand dollars to encourage an expedition against Tieon- deroga. To capture this important fortress, with its vast magazine of THE BEGINNING. 299 stores was tlie oljject of Allen and the audacious mountaineers of whom he was the leader. Benedict Arnold left Cambridge, and joined the expe- dition as a private. On the evening of the 9th of May, the force, whose movements had not been discovered, reached the eastern shore of Lake Champlain, opposite Ticonderoga. Only a few boats could be procured ; and when daj' broke on the following morning, Imt eighty-three men had succeeded in crossing. ^Vith this mere handful — for the rest could not be waited for — Allen, with Arnold by his side, made a dash, and gained the gateway of the fort. The sentinel was driven in, closely followed by the mountaineers, who set up such a shout as few garrisons had ever heard. Allen's men hastily faced the barracks and stood ready to fire ; he himself rushed to the quarters of Delaplace, the commandant, and shouted for the incumbeut to get up. The startled official thrust out his head. " Surrender this fort instantly," said Allen. " By what authority ?" inquired the astounded officer. " In the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Con- gress !" * said Allen, flourishing his sword. Delaplace had no alternative. The garrison, numbering forty-eight. Mere made prisoners and sent to Connecticut. A fortress which had cost Great Britain eight million pounds sterling was captured in ten minutes by a company of undiscip- lined provincials. By this daring exj^loit a hundred and twenty cannon and vast quantities of military stores fell into the hands of the Americans. Two days afterward Crown Point was also taken without the loss of life. On the 25th of jMay, Generals Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne arrived at Boston. They brought with them powerful reinforcements from Eng- land and Ireland ; the British army was augmented to more than ten thou- sand men. Gage, becoming arrogant, issued a proclamation, branding those in arms as rebels and traitors, offering pardon to all who would submit, but excepting Samuel Adams and John Hancock ; these two were to suffer the penalty of treason — provided Gage could inflict it. It was now rumored — and the rumor was well founded — that the British were about to sally out of Boston with the purpose of burning the neighboring towns and devastating the country. The Americans determined to anticipate this movement by seizing and fortifying Bunker Hill, a height which commanded the peninsula of Charlestown. On the night of the 16th of June the brave Colonel Prescott, grandfather of Prescott the historian, was sent with a thousand men to occupy and entrench the hill. Marching by way of Charlestown Neck, * This saying will appear especially amusing when it is remembered that the "Conti- nental Congress" referred to did not convene until about six hours after Ticonderoya was captured. 300 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. r>S*«W->- ^n the provincials came about eleven o'clock to the eminence ■which they were instructed to fortify. Prescott and his engineer Gridley, not liking the position of Bunker Hill, proceeded down the peninsula seven hundred yards to another height, afterward called Breed's Hill. The latter was within easy cannon range of Boston. On this summit a redoubt eight rods square was planned by the engineer ; and there, from midnight tc day-dawn, the men worked in silence. The British ships in the harboi were so near that the Americans could hear the sentiuels on deck repeat- ing the night call, " All is well." The works were not yet completed when morning revealed the new-made redoubt to the astonished British of Boston. " We must carry those works immediately," said General Gage to his officers. For he saw that Prescott's cannon now commanded the city. As soon as it was light, the ships in the harbor began to cannonade the American position. The British bat^ teries on Copp's Hill also opened a heavy fire. But little damage was done in this way ; and the Americans returned only an occasional shot ; for their supply of ammunition was very limited. Just after noon a British colunni of about three thousand vet- erans, commanded by Generals Howe and Pigot, landed at Morton's Point. The plan was to carry Breed's Hill by assault. The Americans num- They were worn out witii toil and liunger; but there was no quailing in the presence of the enemy, the cannonade Prescott climbed out of the defences and walked around the pai'apct in full view of the British officers. General; and Warren volunteered as privates, and entered the trenches, o'clock in the afternoon Ho^\■e ordered his column forward. At the same time eveiy gun in the fleet and lotteries was turned upon the American position. Charlestown was wantonly set on fire and four himdred build- ings burned. Thousands of eager spectators climbed to the house-tops in Boston and waited to behold the shock of battle. On came the British in a stately and imposing column. The Americans reserved their fire until the advancing line Mas within a hundred and fifty feet. " Fire !" cried Prescott ; and instantly from breastwork and redoubt every gun Avas discharged. The front rank « • SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, 1775. bered in all about fifteen hundred. During leisurely Putnam At three THE BEGINNING. 301 of the British melted away ; there was a recoil, and fifteen minutes after- ward a precipitate retreat. Beyond musket range Howe rallied his men and led them to the second charge. Again the American fire was with- held until the enemy was but a few rods distant. Then with steady aim volley after volley was poured upon the charging column until it was broken and a second time driven into flight. The British officers were now desperate. The vessels of the fleet changed position until the guns were brought to bear upon the iaside of the American works. For the third time the assaulting column was put in motion. The British soldiers came on with fixed bayonets up the hillside strewn with the dead and dying. The Americans had but three or four rounds of ammunition remaining. These were expended on the advancing enemy. Then there was a lull. The British clambered over the ramparts. The provincials clubbed their guns and hurled stones at the assailants. It was in vain ; the heroic defenders of liberty were driven out of their trenches at the point of the bayonet. Prescott lived through the battle, but the brave Warren gave his life for freedom. The loss of the British in this terrible engagement was a thousand and fifty-four in killed and wounded. The Americans lost a hundred and fifteen killed, three hundred and five wounded, and thirty-two prisoners. Prescott and Putnam conducted the retreat by way of Charlestown Neck to Prospect Hill, where a new line of entrenchments was formed which still com- manded the entrance to Boston. The battle of Bunker Hill rather inspired than discouraged the colonists. It was seen that the British soldiers were not invincible. To capture a few more hills would cost General Gage his whole army. The enthusiasm of war spread throughout the country. The news was borne rapidly to the South, and a spirit of determined opposition was every- where aroused. The people began to speak of the United Colonies OF America. At Charlotte, North Carolina, the citizens ran together in a hasty convention, and startled the country by making a declaration of independence. The British ministers had little dreamed of raising such a storm. On the day of the capture of Ticonderoga the colonial Congress, which had adjourned in the previous autumn, reassembled at Philadelphia, Washington was there, and John Adams and Samuel Adams, Franklin and Patrick Henry ; Jefferson came soon afterward. A last appeal was addressed to the king of England ; and the infatuated monarch was plainly told that the colonists had chosen war in preference to voluntary slavery. Early in the session John Adams made a po^^•erful address, in the course of which he sketched the condition and wants of the country and of the 302 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. army. The necessity of appointing a connnandLT-in-chief and the qual- ities requisite in that high officer were dwelt upon ; and then the speaker concluded by putting in nomination George Washingtou of Virginia. As .soon as his name was mentioned, Washington arose and withdrew from the hall. For a moment he was overpowered with a sense of the respon- sibility which was about to be put upon him, and to his friend Patrick Henry he said with tears in his eyes : " I fear that this day will mark the downliiU of my reputation." On the loth of June the nomination was unanimously confirmed by Congress; and the man whet liad saved the wreck of Braddock's army was called to build a nation. George "Washington, descended from the distinguished family of the "Wessyngtons in England, was born in Westmoreland county, A'irgiuia, on the 11th of February (Old Style), 1732. At the age of eleven he was left, by the death of his father, to the sole care of a talented and affectionate mother. His education was limited to the common branches of learning, extending only to geometry and trigonometry. Sur- veying was his favorite study. In his boyhood he was passionately fond of athletic sports and military exercises. As he grew to manhood he was marked above all his companions for the dignity of his manners, the soundness of his judgment and the excellence of his character. At the age of sixteen he was sent by his uncle to survey a tract of land on the South Potomac, and for three years his life was in the wilderness. On reaching his majority he was alreadv more spoken of than any other young man in the colony. The important duties which he performed in the service of the Ohio Company, the beginning of liis military career and his noted campaign with Braddock have already been narrated. After the French and Indian War he was a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses ; was then chosen a member of the Continental Congress ; and was now called by that body to control the destinies of the unorganized mass of men composing the American army. With great dignity he accepted the appointment, refused all compensation beyond his actual expenses, set out with an escort by way of New York, and reached Cam- bridge fifteen days after the battle of Bunker Hill. W^ashington's duties and responsibilities were overwhelming. Con- gress had voted to raise and equip twenty thousand men, but the means of doing so were not furnished. The colonies had not yet broken their allegiance to the British Crown. For six months Congress stood waiting for the king's answer to its address. The country was sound and patri' otic; but its methods of action were irregular and uncertain. Washington had a force of fourteen thousand five hundred men, but they were undis- ciplined and insubordinate. The revenues and supplies of war were THE BEGINNING. 303 almost -wholly wanting. At the time of the battle of Bunker Hill the whole army had but twenty -seven half barrels of powder. The work of organ- ization was at once begun. Four major-generals, one adjutant and eight brigadiers were appointed. The army was arranged in three divisions. The right wing, under General Ward, held Hoxbury ; the left, commanded by General Charles Lee, rested at Prosj)ect Hill, near Charlestown Neck ; the centre, under the immediate direction of the commander-in-chief, lay at Cambridge. Boston was regularly invested, and the siege was pressed with constantly increasing vigor. During the summer and autumn of 1775, the king's authority was overthrown in all the colonies. Tlie royal governors either espoused the cause of the people, were compelled to resign or were driven oif in insur- rections. Lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia, seized the public powder. Patrick Henry led the people, and demanded restitution. The governor was overawed, and paid the value of the powder. Fearing further aggres- sion, he went on board a man-of-war, proclaimed freedom to the slaves, raised a force of loyalists, met the provincials at the village of Great Bridge near Norfolk, and was defeated. Obliged to retire from the coun- try, he gratified his vindictive disposition by burning Norfolk. The American colonies looked to Canada for sympathy and aid. It was believed that the Canadians would make common cause aeainst Great Britain. In order to encourage such a movement and to secure possession of the Canadian government, an expedition was planned against the towns on the St. Lawrence. Generals Schuyler and Montgomery were placed in command of a division which was to proceed by way of Lake Champlain and the river Sorel to St. John and INIontreal. The former fort was reached on tlie 10th of September, but the Americans, finding the place too strong to be carried by assault, fell back twelve miles to Isle-aux-Noix in the Sorel. This place General Schuyler fortified, and then returned to Ticonderoga for reinforcements. Sickness detained him there, and the wliole command devolved on Montgomery. This gallant officer returned to St. John and captured the fortress. Fort Chambly, ten miles farther north, was also taken. Montreal was next invested, and on the 13th of November obliged to capitulate. Leaving garrisons in the conquered towns, Montgomery proceeded with his regiment, now reduced to three hundred men, against Quebec. This stronghold was already threatened from another quarter. Late in the autumn, Colonel Benedict Arnold set out with a thousand men from Cambridge, passed up the Kennebec and urged his way through the wil- derness to the Chaudiere, intending to descend that stream to Point Levi. The march was one of untold hardship and suffering. As winter came 30-i HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. on the men were hrought to the verge uf starvation. The daring leader pressed on in the hope of gathering supplies from some unguarded French village. Before his return the famishing soldiers had killed and devoured every dog that could be found. Then the brave fellows gnawed the roots of trees and ate their moose-skin moccasins until ^Vrnold's I'eturn, when the whole force proceeded to Quebec. Morgan, Greene and Meigs, all three noted leaders of the Revolution, and Aaron Burr, one day to be- come Vice-President of the United States, were in this company of suf- fering heroes. Arnold and his men, climbing to the Plains of Abraham, as Wolfe had done sixteen years previously, ofl'ered battle. But the English gar- rison of Quebec remained in their fortifications awaiting an assault which the Americans were not strong enough to make. Conscious of his weak- ness, Arnold withdrew his men to Point aux Trembles, twenty miles up the river, and there awaited the approach of Montgomery. When the latter arrived, he assumed command of the whole force, which did not exceed nine hundred effective men. Quebec was defended by greatly superior numbers, well fortiiied and Marmly quartered. For three weeks, with his handful of men, Montgomery besieged the town, and then, rely- jjig only on the courageous valor of his men, determined to stake every= thing on an assault. It was the last day of December, 1775. Before daybreak the little army was divided into four colunms. The fii'st division, under Mont- gomery, was to pass down the St. Lawrence and attack the Lower Town in the neighborhood of the citadel. The second column, led by Arnold, was to sweep around the city to the north, attack by way of the St. ('harles, and join INIontgomery in order to storm the Prescott Gate. The Cither two divisions were to remain in the rear of the L^pper Town, making (eigned attacks to draw the attention of the garrison. Montgomery's column reached the point from which the charge was to begin. A battery lay just before, and it was thought that the gunners had not discovered the assailants. " Men of New York," said the bi-ave Montgomery, "you will not fear to follow where your general leads ! Forward !" There were masses of ice and clouds of blinding snow, and bniken ground and the cold gray light of morning. As the Americans A\ere rushing forwaixi, all of a sudden the battery burst forth ^ith a storm of grape-shot. At the first discharge Montgomery and both of his aids fell dead. Tlie column was shattered. The men were heartbroken at the death of their beloved general. They staggered a moment, then fell back, and returned to "Wolfe's Cove, above the city. Arnold, ignorant of what had ha])pened, fought his way into the THE WORK OF 76. 805 Lower Tovvn on the north. While leading the i-harge he was severely wounddfl and borne to the rear. Captain Morgan, wlio succeeded him, Jed his brave band farther and farther along the narrow and dangerous streets until he was overwhelmed and compelled to surrender. Arnold retired with his broken remnant to a point three miles above the city. Reinforcements soon began to arrive; but the smallpox broke out in the ramp, and active operations could not be resumed. As soon as the ice dis- nppeared from the St. Lawrence, Quebec was strengthened by the arrival of fresh troops from England. Governor Carleton now began offensive movements ; the Americans fell back from post to post, until, by the mid- dle of the following June, Canada was entirely evacuated. The worst calamity of the whole campaign was the death of Gen- eral Richard Montgomery. He was one of the noblest of the many noble men who gave their lives in the cause of American liberty. Born of an illustrious Irish family, he became a soldier in his boyhood. He had shared the toils and the triumph of Wolfe. To the enthusiasm of a warm and affectionate nature he joined the highest order of military talents and the virtues of an exalted character. Even in England his death was mentioned with sorrow. New York, his adopted State, claimed his body, brought his remains to her own metropolis and buried them with tears. To after times the Congress of the nation transmitted his fame by erecting a noble monument. CHAPTER XXXIX. THE WORK OF '76. AT last came the king's answer to the appeal of Congress. It was such an answer as George III. and his ministers always made to the petitioners for human rights. The colonies were insulted and spurned ; their petition was treated with contempt. The king of England did not know any such a body as the Continental Congress. The first thing necessary was to disband the army and to submit without conditions. Then the monarch would settle all questions with each colony separately. By this offensive and tyrannical answer the day of independence was brought nearer. Meanwhile, General Howe had succeeded Gage in command of the ■2U 306 HISTORY OF THE VISITED STATES. British troops in Boston. All winter long the city was besieged by "Washington. By the middle of February the American army had in- creased to fourteen thousand men. The country became restless; and Congress urged the commander-in-chief to press the enemy with greater "vigor. Washington, knowing the insufficiency of his supplies, and fear= ing the consequences of rashness more than the charge of inactivity, nai' rowed his lines, strengthened his works, and waited his opportunity. Bj the first day of spring, 1776, he felt himself strong enougli to risk an assault ; the officers of his staff thought otherwise, and a different plan ■was adopted. On the north, Boston was commanded by the peninsula of Charles- town ; on the south, by Dorchester Heights. Since the battle of Bunker Hill the former jiosition had been held by the British ; the latter was, as yet, unoccupied. Washington now resolved to take advantage of the enemy's oversight, to seize the SIEGE OP BOSTON, 1776. Heights and drive Howe out of Boston. A strong entrenching party was prepared and put under com- mand of General Thomas. For t^o days the attention of the British was drawn by a constant fire from the American batteries. Then, on the night of the 4th of March, the de- tachment set out under cover of the darkness, passed over Dorchester Neck, and reached the Heights un- perceived. Through the night the Americans worked with an energy rarely equaled. The British, dis- tracted with the cannonade, noticed nothing unusual ; and when morning dawned, they could hardly trust their senses. There was a line of for- midable entrenchments frowning upon the city ; cannon were mounted, and the Americans in force. Howe saw at a glance that he must imme- diately carry the threatening redoubts or himself abandon Boston. En- raged at being outgeneraled, he ordered Lord Percy to select a coluniQ of two thoasand four hundred men and storm the American works before nightfall. Percy \)\.\i his men in order and proceeded as far as Castle Island, intending to make the assault in the afternoon. Wasliington visited the trenches and exhorted his men. It was the anniversary of the Boston Massacre, and the soldiers were eager to avenge the deaths of their coun- 1775 76 77 78 79 SO 81 Louis Pl Pi George VIRGIN XVI. Capture of 3Io Quebec. — Deat 17,000 Hessi III. Amer lA, Norfolk burn ntreul. ti of Montgom ans hired for lean array eva British ed by Lord Du Alliance ery. the American cuates Canad The British fleet arrives nmore. with France. 1 ^Paul war. a. ministry offer in Chesapeake Jones' victory. War terms to the Bay. between E Americans Bichmond 1 NORTH C'AROl.1 NA. f^ Mount General G SOUTH §2 Chart CAROEI eston. NA. ^^Siege of Blil/OH Charleston, k's Cor-ner. Sanders ( V PiS;r;, CiEORO lA. r^ nah. Sunbury capt ured by the Br Siege of Savan Itish. nah. P^ Ticond EJ^ Crown MEW YO eroga. Point. American RH. New York IJJtsn^ Is ^Pi Arrival of La ^^SagHar Fort Ed army arrives ^Pl taken by the land, ite Plains. Fort Washingt Fayette. bor. ward abandon at New York. nington. Saratoga, and British. on. ed. surrender of ^Stony Arn An Burgoyne. Paint. old's treas( dr6 execub NEW JE RSEY. pi Trenton. ^f^Princeton. Win ter-quarters at Morristown. I^ Spring Mutiny of fidd. Mutiny of NEW HA RHODE 9IPSHIR E. PJ// ubbardlon. fleet in Narra ker Bill. ISEAND. French f^Qua gansett Bay. French fleet arrivv K^ Lexingt MASSAC CONNEC on. her mil. HIJSETTS British evac TICUT. uate Boston. Tryon's expe dition. 1© Penobscot Eiv er. Washing PENNSY itIARYEA ton appointed Declara EVAN I. 4. Silas Deane Ur. Fr commissioner coramander-in tion of Inde Philadel sent to Fran anklin, r^ to France, r^ -chief. pendence. phia captured, ce. British \Brandi/wine. iGermantovm. evacuate Phil adelphia. Arties N». -1 I>EEAW ARE, 83 84 85 86 8^ 88 Setirement Pre 1 and Holla K3 •'Siege of Lord North. liminary trea Supplement nd. Delin of CUbraltar. ty. al treaty. itive treaty. ^W^A. D. 1775-1789.^!^ // CHART III. \ >d by Aruo rktown. Id. Washington Virgin retires to Mou ia cedes the to the Gov nt Vernon. North-western ernment. territory Virginia rat- ifies the Constitution, I. 3 retreat. ^ c. rings. The British evacu ate Charlesto n. South Caro- lina ratifies the Consti- tution. The British evacu ate Savannah. Georgia rati- fies .'he Con- stitution. Dissatis The faction in the British evacu army. ate New York. Decimal currency adop ted. New York ra- tifies the Constitution. ^ew Jersey snnsylvania line, line. New the Jersey ratifies Constitution. New Hamp- shire ratifies the Constitu'n wport. tions. Massa ter chusetts cedes ritory to the Shay's the North-wes Government. rebellion, tern Massachusetta ratifies the Constitution. i's depreda ratifies the Constitution. ' Confeder ation ratifie d. shington re signs his com mission. Annapo yen Constitu ven Constitu Constitu lis Con- tion. tional Cou- tion. tion adopted, tion ratified. Wa Maryland ra titles the Constitution. Dela the ware ratifies Constitution. THE WORK OF 76. 307 tn'men. A battle was momentarily expected ; but while Percy delayed, a violent storm arose and rendered the harbor impassable. It continued to blow for a whole day, and the attack could not be made. Before the following morning the Americans had so strengthened and extended their fortifications that all thoughts of an assault were abandoned. Howe found himself reduced to the humiliating extremity of giving up the capital of New England to the rebels. After some days there was an informal agreement between Washing- ton and the British general that the latter should be allowed to retire from Boston unmolested on condition that the city should not be burned. On the 1 7tli of March the arrangement was consummated, and the whole British army went on board the fleet and sailed out of the harbor. Nearly fifteen hundred loyalists, fearing the vengeance of the patriots, left their liomes and fortunes to escajie with Howe. The American advance at once entered the city. On the 20th, Washington made a tormal entry at the head of the triumphant army. The desolated town, escaping from the calamities of a ten months' siege, broke forth in exultation. The exiled patriots returned by thousands to their homes. The country was wild with delight. From all quartere came votes of thanks and messages of encouragement. Congress ordered a gold medal to be struck in honor «f Washington, victorious over an enemy " for the first time put to flight." The next care of the commander-in-chief was to strengthen the defences of Boston. That done, he repaired with the main division of the army to New York. It was not known to what part of the coast Howe would direct his course ; and Washington feared that his antagonist might make a sudden descent in the neighborhood of Long Island. Gen- eral Lee pressed forward with the Connecticut militia, and reached New York just ill time to bafilc an attempt of Sir Henry Clinton, whose fleet arrived off Sandy Hook and threatened the city. Clinton next sailed southward, and on the .3d of INIay was joined by Sir Peter Parker, in command of another fleet, and Lord Cornwallis with two thou- sand five hundred men. The force was deemed sufficient for any enter- prise, and it was determined to capture Charleston. In the mean time. General Lee had reached the South, and was watching the movements of Clinton. The Carolinians rose in arms and flocked to Charleston. The city was fortified ; and a fort, M'hich com- manded the entrance to the harbor, was built on Sullivan's Island. On the 4th of June the British squadron came in sight, and a strong detach- ment was landed on Long Island, a short distance east of Fort Sullivan. There was a delay until the 28th of the month ; then the British fleet began a furious bombardment of the fortress, which was commanded by 308 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Colonel Moultrie. Tiiree men-of-war, attemjjting to jiass the fort, were stranded. Clinton ordered a storniing-party to wade the ehainiel between Long- It^land and Sullivan's Island and earry the works by assault; but the water was too deep to be foi-ded, and Colonel Thompson, who \\as stationed with a company of riflemen on the opposite bank, drove the British back in confusion. For eight hours the vessels of the fleet poured a tempest of balls upon the fort; but the walls, built of the spongy ])al- metto, were little injured. The four hundred militiamen who composed the garrison fought like veterans. The republican flag was shot away and thrown outside of the parapet ; Sergeant Jasper leaped down from the wall, recovered the flag and set it in its place again. The Are from the fleet was returned with great spirit ; and as evening drew on the British were obliged to retire with a loss of more than two hundrwl men. Lord Campbell, the royal governor of South Carolina, was killed, and Admiral Parker was severely wounded. The loss of the garrison amounted in killed and wounded to thirty-two. As soon as the British could repair their shattered fleet they abandoned the siege and set sail for New York. In honor of its brave defender the fort on Sullivan's Island was named Fort Moultrie. During tiie summer Washington's f(irces were augmented to about twenty-seven thousand men ; I)ut the terms of enlistment were constantly expiring ; sickness prevailed in the camp ; and the ettective force was but little more than half as great as the aggregate. On the other hand, Great Britain was making the vastest preparations. By a treaty with some of the petty German States, seventeen thousand Hessian mercenaries were hired to fight against America. George III. was going to quell his re- volted provinces by turning loose upon them a brutal foreign soldiery. Twenty-five thousand additional English troojis were levied ; an immense squadron was fitted out to aid in the reduction of the colonies, and a million dollars were voted for the extraordinar)- expenses of the war department. By these measures the Americans were greatly exasperated. Until aow it had been hoped that the difficulty with the mother country could be satisfactorily adjusted without breaking allegiance to the British Cro\\n. The colonists had constantly claimed to be loyal subjects of Great Britain, demanding only the rights and liberties of Englishmen. Now the case seemed hopeless ; and the sentiment of disloyalty spread with alarming rapidity. The people urged the general assemblies, and the general assemblies urged Congress, to a more decided assertion of sovereignty. The legislature of Virginia led the way by advising in outspoken terms a declaration of independence. Congress responded by reconnnending all THE WORK OF 76. 309 the colonies to adopt such governments as might best conduce to the hap- piness and safet}- of the people. This action wa.s taken early in May, and in the course of tiie following month nearly all the provinces complied with the recommendation. Finally, on the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia offered a resolution in Congress declaring that the United Colonies arc, ind of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they arc absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown ; and that all political connection between them and Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved. \ long and exciting debate ensued. The sentiment of independence gained ground ; but there was still strong opposition to the movement. After some days the final consideration of Lee's resolution was postponed until the 1st of July. On the 11th of June a committee, consisting of five members, was appointed to prepare a more elaborate and formal dec- laration. Mr. Lee had been called home by sickness ; and his colleague, Thomas Jefferson, was accordingly made chairman of the committee. The other members M'ere John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut and Robert R. Livingston of New York. The special work of preparing the paper was allotted to Jeffei-son and Adams ; the latter deferred to the former, M'hose vigorous style of writing specially fitted him for the task. The great document was accordingly produced in Jefferson's hand, with a few interlinings by Adams and Franklin. On the 1st of July, Lee's resolution was taken up, and at the same time the committee's report was laid before Congress. On the next day the original resolution was adopted. During the 3d, the formal declara- tion was debated with great spirit, and it became evident that the work of the committee would be accepted. The discussion was resumed on the morning of the 4th, and at two o'clock on the afternoon of that memorable day the Declaration of Americax Independence was adojjted by a unanimous vote. All day long the old bellman of the State House had stood in the steeple ready to sound the note of freedom to the city and the nation. The hours went by ; the gray-haired veteran in the belfry grew discouraged, and began to say : " They will never do it — they will never do it." Just then the lad who had been stationed below ran out and exclaimed at the top of his voice, " Ring ! ring !" And the aged patriot did ring as he had never rung before. The multitudes that thronged the streets caught the signal and answered with shouts of exultation. Swift couriers bore the glad news throughout the land. Everywhere -the declaration was received with enthusiastic applause. At Philadelphia the king's arms were torn down 310 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. from the court-house and burned in the street. At Williamsburg, Charleston and Savannah there were bonfires and illuminations. At Boston the declaration was read in Faneuil Hall, while the cannon from Fort Hill and Dorchester shook the city of the Puritans. At New York the populace pulled down the leaden statue of George III. and oast it int(. bullets. Washington received the message with joy, and ordered the declaration to be read at the head of each brigade. Former suffering and future peril were alike forgotten in the general rejoicing. The leading jjrinciples of the Declaration of Independence are these : That all men are created equal ; that all have a natural right to liberty and the pursuit of happiness ; that human governments are insti- tuted for the sole jJurjjose of securing the welfare of the people ; that the people have a natural right to alter their government whenever it becomes destructive of liberty; that the government of George III. had become destructive of liberty; that the desjjotism of the king and his ministere could be shown by a long list of indisputable proofs — and the proofs are given; that time and again the colonies had humbly petitioned for a redress of grievances ; that all their petitions had been spurned with derision and contempt ; that the king's irrational tyranny over his Amer- ican subjects was no longer endurable ; that an appeal to the sword is pref- erable to slavery ; and that, therefore, the United Colonies of America are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States. To the support of this sublime declaration of principles the members of the Continental Cv^ngrcss mutually pledged their lives, their fortunes and their sacred honor. On leaving Boston, General Howe sailed to Halifax. There he remained until the middle of June, when he embarked his forces and set sail for Sandy Hook. Early in July he landed a force of nine thou- sand men on Staten Island. Thither Clinton came from the unsuccess- ful siege of Charleston, and Admiral Howe, brother of General Howe, from England. The whole British force, now gathered in the vicinity of New York, amounted to fully thirty thousand men. Nearly half of them were the hated Hessians whom the king of Great Britain liad hired at thirty- six dollars a head. Washington's army Mas inferior in numbers, poorly equipped and imperfectly disciplined. There was some delay in military ojjerations ; for Lord Howe, the admiral, had been instructed to try conciliatory measures with the Amer- icans. First, he sent to the American camp an officer with a despatch directed to George Washington, Enquire. Of course Washington refused to receive a communication M'hich did not recognize his official position. In a short time Howe sent another message, addressed to George A\'a.sh- THE WORK OF 311 ington, etc., etc., etc. ; and the bearer, \\ho was Howe's adjutant-general, insisted that and-so-forth might be translated General of the American Army. Washington was the last man in the world to be caught with a subterfuge ; and the adjutant was sent away. It was already well known that Howe's authority extended only to granting pardons, and to unes- sential matters about which the Americans were no longer concerned- Washington therefore replied that since no offence had been committed no pardon was required ; that the colonies were now independent, and would defend themselves against all aggression. Baffled in his efforts. Lord Howe and his brother determined to begin hostilities. On the 22d of August the British, to the number of ten thousand, landed on the south-western coast of Long Island, near the village of New Utrecht. The Americans, about eight thousand strong, commanded by Generals Sullivan and Stirling, were posted in the vicinity of Brooklyn. The advance of the British was planned with great skill. From Gravesend, where Howe's forces were landed, there were three roads to Brooklyn ; the British army was accordingly arranged in three divisions. The first colunni, commanded by General Grant, was to ad- vance by way of Utrecht and the Narrows. The second division, com- posed of the Hessians, under command of General Heister, was to proceed to Flatbush, and thence to Bedford and Brooklyn. The third and strong- est column, led by Clinton and Gornwallis, was to make a circuit to the right as far as Flatland, i-each the Jamaica road, and pass by way of Bedford io tlie rear of the American left wing. All of the movements were executed witli perfect ease and fatal precision. The advance from Gravesend began on the morning of the 27th of August. Grant's division proceeded as lar as the hill now embraced in Greenwood Cemetery, where he met General Stirling with fifteen hundred men ; and the battle at once began. But in this part of the field there was no decisive result. Heister, in com- mand of the British centre, advanced beyond Flatbush, and engaged the main body of the Americans, under General Sullivan. Here the battle began with a brisk cannonade, in which the Hessians gained little or no ground until Sullivan was suddeidy ■^'-'^r^ BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND, 1776. 312 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. alarmed by the noij;e of battle ou his left and rear, and the battalions of Clinton came rushing on the field. For General Putnam, who had come over and taken command of the entire force of tiie island, had, neglectful of Washiiigton's orders, failed to guard the passes on the left of the American army. During the ]irevious night C'lintt)n had occupied tlie heights above the Jamaica road, and now his force came down, unopposed and unperceived, by way of Bedford. Sullivan found himself surrounded, cut oif, hemmed in between the two divisions of Clinton and Heister. From that moment it wa^ only a Cjuestion as to what part of the army could be saved from destruction. The men fought desperately, and many broke through the closing lines of the British. The rest were scattered, killed or taken prisoners. Cornwallis's division pressed on to cut off the retreat of Stirling. At first the British Avere repulsed, and Stirling began his retreat toward Brooklyn. At Gowanus Creek a number of his men were drowned and many others captured; the rest reached the American lines in safety. Before the battle was ended Washington arrived on the field, and his soul was wrung with anguish at the sight. At first his army seemed ruined ; but his resolute and tranquil spirit rose above the disasters of the battle. Generals Stirling, Sullivan and ^\'o(Klhull were all prisoners in the hands of the enemy. Nearly a thousand patriot soldiers were killed, wounded or missing. It seemed an easy thing for Clinton and Howe to press on and capture all the rest. Yet in a few hours Washington brought together his shattered forces, reorganized his brigades and stood ready for an assault in the trenches back of Brooklyn. During the 28th, Howe, who was a sluggish, sensual man, ate pudding and waited for a fitter day. On the 29th there was a heavy fog over island and bay and river, '\^';^shington, clearly perceiving that he could not hold his position, and that his army was in great peril, re- solved to withdraw to New York. The enterprise was extremely hazard- ous, requiring secrecy, courage and despatch. By eight o'clock on that memorable night every boat and transport that could be obtained was lying at the I3rooklyn ferry. There, under cover of the darkness, the embarkation began. Washington jjcrsonally superintended every move ment. All night with muffled oars the boatmen rowed silently back and forth, bearing the patriots to the northern side of the channel. At day- l!2:ht on the following morning, just as the last boatload was leaving the wharf, the movement was discovered by the British. They rushed into the American entrenclunents, and found nothing there except a few worth- less gu!)s. After a severe battle which had cost him nearly four l-undred me '., Howe had gained possession of Long Island— and nothing nio-e THE WOBK OF 76 313 General Greene, who was a competent judge, declared that Washington's retreat was the most masterly he ever read or heard of. The defeat on Long Island was very disastrous to the American cause. The army was dispirited. As fast as their terms of enlistment expired the troops returned to their homes. Desertions became alarm- incly frequent ; and it was only hy constant exertion that WashingtoE kept his army from disbanding. To adtl to the peril, the British fleet doubled I>ong Island and anchored witliin cannon-shot of New York. Washington, knowing himself unable to defisnd the city, called a council of war, and it was determined to retire to the Heights of Harlem. On the 15th of September tiie British landed in force ou the east side of Manhattan Island, about tiiree miles above New York. Thence tiiey extended their lines across tiie island to the Hudson, and took possession of the city. It was in this juncture of affairs that Howe made overtures of peace to Congress. General Sullivan was paroled and sent to Philadel- jihia as Howe's agent; but Congress was in no mood to be conciliated. Franklin, on behalf of tiiat body, wrote Howe a letter, telling him many unpalatable truths about what might lienceforth be expected from the American colonies. On the next day after the British gained possession of New York, there was a skirmish between the advance parties of the two armies north of the city. The Americans gained a deeidefl advantage, and the British were driven back with a loss of a hundred men. On the American side the loss included Colonel Knowlton and Major Leitch — two valuable officers — and nearly fifty privates. On the night of the 20th of Septem- ber a fire broke out in New York and destroyed nearly five hundred buildings. On the 16tii of October, while the Americans were still in their entrencliments above the city, Howe embarked liis foi'ces, passed into Long Island Sound and landed in ti>e vicinity of Westchester. The object was to get upon the American left flank and cut off communica- tions with tiie Eastern States. Wasliington, ever on the alert, detected the movement, put his army in motion and faced the British east of Har- lem River. For some days the two generals manoeuvred, and on the 28th a battle was brought on at White Plains. Howe began the engage ment with a furious cannonade, which was answered with spirit. The Americans were driven from one important position, but immediately re- entrenciied themselves in anotiier. Night came on ; Howe waited for reinforcements, and Washington withdrew to the heights of North Castle, Howe remained for a few days at White Plains, and then returned to New York. Washington, apprehending that the British would now jiroceed 314 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. SCENE OF OPERATIONS ABOUT NEW YORK, 1771). against Philadelphia, crossed to the west bank of the Hudson and took post with General Greene at Fort Lee. Four thousand men were left at North Castle under command of General Lee. Fort Washington, on Manhattan Island, five miles north of the cit)-, was defended by three thousand men under Colonel JMatraw. Th'^ fort was a place of great natural and artificial strength. The skill of its construction had attracted the attention of Washington and led to an acquaintance with the engineer, who from tiiat time forth, through the stormy vi- cissitudes of nearly a quarter of a century, en- joyed the unclouded confidence of his ehief; the engineer was Alexaxdkr Hamilton", then a stripling of but twenty years of age. On the 16th of November the British attacked Fort Washington in overwhelming force. The garrison made a stubborn defence. More than five hundred of the assailants were killed or wounded. But valor could not prevail against superior num- bers, and Magaw, after losing a hundred and fifty men, was obliged to capitulate. The garrison, numbering more than two thousand, were made prisoners of war and crowded into the foul jails of New York. Two days after the surrender, Cornwallis crossed tiie Hudson with a body of six thousand men and marched against Fort Lee. Seeing that a defence would onlv end in worse disaster, Washington hastily withdrew across the Hackensack. All the baggage and military stores collected in Fort Lee fell into the hands of the British, who at once jiressed forward after the retreating Americans. AVashington with his army, now reduced to three thousand men, crossed the Passaic to Newark ; but Cornwallis and Kiiyp- hausen came hard after the fugitives. The patriots retreated to Elizabeth- town, thence to New Brunswick, tiience to Princeton, and finally to Trenton on the Delaware. The British were all the time in close pursuit, and the music of their bands was frequently heard by the rearguard of the American army. Nothing but the consummate skill of AA'ashington saved the remnant of his forces from destruction. Despair seemed settling on the country like a pall. On the 8th of December, Washington crossed the Delaware. The British essayed to do the same, but the American commander had secreted or destroyed everv boat within seventy miles. In order to effect his passage, Cornwallis must build a bridge or wait for the freezing of the THE WORK OF 76. 315 river. Tlie latter course was chosen ; and the British array was stationed in detachments in various towns and villages east of the Delaware. Tren- ton was held by a body of nearly two thousand Hessians under Colonel Rahl. It was seen that as soon as tlie river should be frozen the British would march unopposed into Philadelphia. Congress accordingly ad- journed to Baltimore ; and there, on the 20th of the month, a resolution was adopted arming Washington with dictatorial powers to direct all the operations of the war. Meanwhile, the British fleet under command of Admiral Parker had left New York for Narragansett Bay. On the same day that Wash- ington crossed the Delaware the islands of Rhode Island, Prudence and Conanicut were taken ; and the American squadron under Commander Hopkins was blockaded in Blackstone River. During his retreat across Kew Jersey, Washington had sent repeated despatches to General Lee, in command of the detachment at North Castle, to join the main army as soon as possible. Lee was a proud, insul^ordinate man, and virtually disobeyed his orders. Marching leisurely into New Jersey, he reached Morristown. Here he tarried, and took up his quart ei-s at an inn at Basking Ridge. On the 1.3th of December, a squad of British cavalry dashed up to the tavern, seized Lee and hurried him off to New York. General Sullivan, who had recently been exchanged, now took command of Lee's division, and hastened to join Washington. Fifteen hundred volunteers from Philadelphia and vicinity were added, making the entire American force a little more than si.x thousand. The tide of misfortune turned at last. Washington saw in the disposition of the British forces an opportunity to strike a blow for his disheartened country. The leaders of the enemy were off their guard. They believed that the war was ended. Cornwallis obtained leave of absence, left New .Jersey under command of Grant, and made preparations to return to England. The Hessians on the east side of the river were spread out from Trenton to Burlington. Washington conceived the bold design of crossing the Dela\\are and striking the detachment at Trenton before a concentration of the enemy's forces could be effected. The American army was accordingly arranged in three divisions. The fii-st, under General Cadwallader, was to cross the river at Bristol and attack the British at Burlington. General Ewing with his brigade was to pass over a little below Trenton for the purpose of intercepting the retreat. Washington himself, with Greene and Sullivan and twenty-four hundred men, was to cross nine miles above Trenton, march down the river and assault the town. The movement was planned with the utmost secrecy — the preparations made \\ith prudence and care. Christmas night was 316 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. selected a.s the time ; for it was kuown tliat the Hessians -would spend the day in drinking; and carousals. About the :^Oth of the month, the weather became very cold, and by the evening of the 25th the Delaware was filled with floating ice. Ewintr and Cadwallader ^\■ere botii baffled in their efforts to cross the river. Washington's division succeeded in getting over, but the passagf was delayed till throe o'clock in the morning. All hope of reaching Trenton before daybreak was at an end ; but ^\"ashington, believing that the Hessians would .sleep late after their revels, divided his army into two columns and pressed forward. One division, led by Sullivan, j^assed down the river to attack the town on the west; the other, commanded by AVashington and Greene, made a circuit to the Princeton road. The move- ment was entirely successful. At eight o'clock in the morning the American columns came ru.sh- ing into the village from both directions. The a.tember the city was entered without o])position, and the main division of the British army encamped at Germantown. 326 HISTOEY OF THE UJSITED STATES. At the approach of Howe, Congress adjourned to Lancaster. On the 27th of ^ejitemljer the members met at that place, and again adjourned to York, wliere they assembled on the 30tii and continued to hold their sessions until the British evacuated Philadelphia in the following summer. Washington now made his camp on Skippack Creek, about twenty miles from the city. As soon as Howe found himself safe in the " rebel cap- ital," as he was pleased to call it, he despatched a large division of his army to capture forts Mifflin and Mercer on the Delaware. Gcrmantown ■was thus considerably weakened, and Washington resolved to attempt a a surprise. The same plan of attack which had been so successful at Trenton was again adopted. On the night of the 3d of October the American army,* arranged in several divisions, marched silently toward Germantown. The roads were rough, and the different cdlunnis reached the British outposts at irregular intervals. The morning was foggy, and the movements of both armies Mere unsteady and confused. There was much severe fighting, and at one time it seemed that the British would be overwhelmed ; but they gained possession of a large stone house and held it. A foolish attempt to dislodge them gave the enemy time to rally. Some strong columns of Americans were kept out of the battle by the inefficiency of their commanders ; the tide turned against the patriots, and the day was lost. Of the Americans a hundred and fiftv- two were killed, five hundred and twenty-one wounded, and about four hundred missing. Howe reported the British loss at five hundred and thirt\-five. The retreat of the Americans was covered by Greene and Pulaski. On the 22d of October Fort Mercer, on the New Jersey side of the Delaware, seven miles below Philadelphia, was assaulted by twelve hundred Hessians under Count Donop. The garrison, though number- ing but four hundred, made a brave and successful resistance. The assault was like that at Biuiker Hill. Count Donop received a mortal wound, and nearly four hundred of his men fell before the American entrenchments. At the same time the British fleet, assisted by a land- force from Philadelphia, attacked Fort Mifflin on Mud Island, in the Delaware. Here also the assailants met with an obstinate resistance. The assault became a siege, which lasted till the 15th of November. The patriots held out against superior numbers until eveiy gun was dismounted and every ]>alisade demolished. Then at midnight the ruiued fortress was set on fire, and the garrison escaped to Fort Mercer. To make a second attack on this place Howe despatched two thousand men under Cornwallis. Washington sent General Gi'eene to succor the fortress ; but Coruwallis was strongly reinforced, and the American general would not OPERATIONS OF 77. 327 hazard a battle. On the 20th of November Fort Mercer was abandoned to the British ; and thus General Howe obtained undisputed control of the Delaware. After the battle of Germantown Washington took up liLs head- quarters at Whitemarsh, twelve miles from Philadelphia. Winter was ajiproaching, and the j^atriots began to suffer for food and clothing. Howe, knowing the distressed condition of the Americans, determined to surprise their camp. On the evening of the 2d of December he held a council of war, and it was decided to march against Washington on the following night. But Lvdia Darrah, at whose house the council was held, overheard the plan of the enemies of her country. On the follow- ing morning she obtained a passport from Lord Howe, left the city oa pretence of going to mill, rode rapidly to the American lines, and sent information of the impending attack to Washington. When, on the morning of the 4th, the British approached Whitemarsh they found the cannon mounted and the patriots standing in order of battle. The British general manceuvred for four days, and then marched back to Philadel- phia. During the remainder of the winter the city was occupied by nearly twenty thousand English and Hessian soldiers. There they re\-eled and rioted. Everything that the magazines of Great Britain could furnish was lavished upon the army of invaders who lay warmly housed in the city of Penn. In the patriot camp there was a different scene. On the 11th of December Washington left his position at White- marsh and \\'ent into winter-quarters at Valley Forge on the right bank of the Schuylkill. The marcli thither occupied four days. Thousands of the soldiers were without shoes, and the frozen ground was marked with bloody footprints. The sagacity of Washington had pointed to a strong position for his encampment. To the security of the river and hills the additional security of redoubts and entrenchments was added. Log cabins were built for the soldiers, and everything was done that could be done to secure the comfort of the suffering pat- riots. But it was a long and dreary winter ; moaning and anguish were heard in the camp, and the echo fell heavy on the soul of the commander. These were the darkest days of Washington's life. Congress in a mea- sure abandoned him, the people withheld their sympathies. The brilliant success of the army of the North was unjustly compared with the reverses ENCAMPMENT AT VALLEY FORGE, 1777-8. S28 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of the army of the South. Many men liigh in military and civil station left the great leader unsupported in the hour of his grief; even Samuel Adams, impatient under calamity, withdrew his confidence. There was a miserable conspiracy headed by Gates, Conway and JMifilin. Washing- ton was to be superseded, and Gates or Lee was to be made commander- in-chief. But the alienation was only for a moment ; the allegiance of the army remained unshaken, and the nation's confidence in the troubled chieftain became stronger than ever. Still, at the close of 1777, the patriot cause was obscured with clouds and misfortune. CHAPTER XLI. FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. FOUR months before the declaration of independence, Silas Deane of Connecticut was appointed commissioner to France. His business at the French court was to act as the political and commercial agent of the United Colonies. His first service was to make a secret arrangement with Beaumarchais, a rich French merchant, by which the latter was to supply the Americans with the materials necessary for carrying on the war. The king of France and his prime minister, Vergennes, winked at this ])roceeding ; but the agents of Great Britain were jealous and susjiicious, and it was not until the autumn of 1777 that a ship laden witii two hun- dred thousand dollars' worth of arms, ammunition and specie could be '^ent to America. In that ship came Baron Steuben, a veteran soldier and lisciplinaHan from the army of Frederic the Great. Arriving at Ports- .nouth, the baron tarried a short time in New England, and then repaired \o York, where Congress was in session. From that body he received a >ommission, and at once joined AVashington at Valley Forge. His acces- .ion to the American army was an event of great importance. He re- ceived the appointment of inspector-general ; and from the day in which ie entered upon the discharge of his duties there was a marked improve- *^ent in the condition and discipline of the soldiers. The American reg- ulars were never again beaten when confronted by the British in equal numbers. In November of 1776 Ai'thur Lee and Benjamin Franklin were appointed by Congress to negotiate an ojien treaty of friendshiji and com- FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 329 merce witli the French king. In the following month they reached Paris and began their conferences with Vergennes. For a long time King Louis and his minister were M-ary of the proposed alliance. They cor- dially hated Great Britain, they rejoiced that the British empire was about to be dismembered, they gave secret encxiuragoment to the colonies to hold )ut in tiieir rebellion, they loaned money and shipped arms to America ; iut an open alliance was equivalent to a war with England, and that the Frencli court dreaded. Now it was that the genius of Dr. Franklin shone with a peculiar lustre. At the gay court of Louis XVI. he stood as the rcprosentati\e of his countiy. No nation ever had an ambassador of greater wisdom and sagacity. His reputation for learning had preceded him ; the dignity of liis demeanor and the simplicity of his manners added to his fame. Whether as philosopher or diplomatist, no man in that great city of fashion was the equal of the venerable American patriot. His wit and genial humor made him admired ; his talents and courtesy commanded respect ; his patience and perseverance gave him final success. During the whole of 1777 he remained at Paris and Versailles, availing himself of every opportunity to promote the interests of his country. At last came the news of Burgoyne's surrender. A powerful British army had been sub- dued by the colonists without aid from abroad. The success of the Amer- ican arms and the prospect of commercial advantage decided the wavering policy of the king, and in the beginning of winter he made an announce- ment of his determination to accept an alliance with the colonies. On the 6th of February, 1778, a treaty was concluded ; France acknowledged the independence of the United States and entered into relations of reciprocal friendship with the new nation. It was fur+her stipulated that in case England should declare war against France, the Americans and the French should make common cause, and that neither should subscribe to a treaty of peace without the concurrence of the other. In America the news of the new alliance was received with great rejoicing ; in England, with vindictive anger. Benjamin Franklin, the author of the first treaty between the United States and a foreign nation, was born in Boston on the 17th of January, 1706. His father was a manufacturer of soap and candles. To this humble vocation the young Benjamin was devoted by his parents; but the walls of a candle-shop were too narrow for his aspiring genius. At the age of twelve he was apprenticed to his brother to learn the art of |)rinting ; but the brother beat him, and he ran off to New York. There he found no employment. In 1723 he rejiaired to Philadeljihia, entered a printing-office, and rose to distinction. He visited Ent^land ; returned; 330 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. founded the first circulating library in America; became a man of science; edited Poor Richard's Almanac; originated the American Philosophical ; discovered the identity of electricity and lightning; made himself known in both hemispheres ; espoused the cause of the pat- riots ; and devoted the unimpaired energies of his old age to per- fecting the American Union. The name of Franklin is one of the brightest in the history of anv nation. In May of 1778 Congress ratified the treaty with France. A month before this time a French fleet, com- manded by Count d'Estaing, had been despatched to Amer- ica. The object was to sail into the Del- aware and l)l<)ckade the British squadron at Philadelphia. Both France and Great Britain understood full well that war was inevitable, and each, immediately j)rc2Dared for the conflict. George. III. now became willing to treat M'ith his American subjects. Lord North, the prime minister, brought forward two bills in which everything that the colonists had claimed was conceded. The bills were passed by Parliament, and the king assented. Commissioners were sent to America ; but Congress in- formed them that nothing but an express acknowledgment of the inde- pandence of the United States Mould now be accepted. Then the com- missioners tried bribery and intrigue ; and Congress would hold no further conference with them. From September of 1777 until the following June the British army remained at Philadelijhia. The fleet of Admiral Howe lay in the Del- aware. In the spring of 1778, General Howe was superseded by Sir Henry Clinton. 'NA'hen the rumor came that the fleet of D'Estaing was BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 331 approaching, the English admiral withdrew from the Delaware and sailed for New York. Finally, on the 18th of June, the British army evacuated Philadelphia and retreated across New Jersey. Washington occupied tlie city, crossed the river, and followed the retreating foe. At Moumoutli, eighteen miles south-east of New Brunswick, the British were overtaken. On the morning of the 28tli General Lee Mas ordered to attack the enemy. The first onset was made by the American cavalry under La Fayette j but they were driven back by Cornwallis and Clinton. Lee, who had opposed the battle, and was not anxious for victory, ordered his line to fall back to a stronger position ; but the troops mistook the order and began a retreat, the British charging after them. Washington met the fugitives, rallied them, administered a severe rebuke to Lee, and ordered him to tlie rear. During the rest of the engagement the haughty officer, half treacherous in his principles and practices, remained at a distance, making, satirical remarks about the battle. The fight continued till night- fall; the advantage was with the Americans; and Washington, in hope of a complete victory, anxiously waited for the morning. During the night, however, Clinton succeeded in withdrawing his forces from the field, and thus escaped the peril of defeat. The loss of the Americans in the battle of Monmouth was sixty- seven killed and a hundred and sixty wounded. The British left nearly three hundred dead on the field. On the day after the battle Wasliington received an insulting letter from Lee demanding an apology for the lan- guage which the commander-in-chief had used. Wa.shington replied that the language was warranted by the circumstances. This Lee answered in a still more offensive manner, and was thereupon arrested, tried by a court-martial, and dismissed from his command for twelve months. The brave, rash man never re-entered the service, and did not live to see his countiy's independence. The British land and naval forces were now concentrated at New York. Wasiiington followed, crossed the Hudson, and took up his head- quarters at Wliite Plains. On the 11th of July Count d'Estaing's fleet arrived off Sandy Hook and attempted to attack the Britisli squadron in the bay ; but the bar at the entrance prevented the passage of the French vessels. D'Estaing next sailed for Newport, Rhode Island, where the British, commanded by General Pigot, were in strong force. At the same time a division of the American army, led by General Sullivan, proceeded to Providence to co-operate with the French fleet in the attack on New- port. Greene and La Fayette came with reinforcements, and the whole army took post at Tiverton. On tlie 9th of August Sullivan succeeded ui crossing the eastern passage of the baj', and secured a favorable position 332 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. on the island. A joint attack by land and sea was jjlanned for the fol- lowing day. On that morning, however, the fleet of Lord Howe, who had left New York in pursuit of the French, eame in sight ; and D'Estaing, instead of beginning the bombardment of Newport, sailed out to give battle to Howe. Just as the two squadrons were about to begin an en- gagement a violent storm arose by which the fleets were parted and greatly damaged. D'Estaing repaired to Boston, and Howe returned tc New York. Sullivan laid siege to Newport; but when the French squadron sailed away, he found it necessary to retreat. The British jjursued the Americans, and overtook them in the northern part of the island ; a battle ensued, and Pigot was repulsed with a loss of two hundred and sixty men. On the following night Sullivan succeeded in reaching the main- land ; and it was well that he did so ; for on the next day General Clin- ton arrived at Newport with a division of four thousand regulars. The Americans saved themselves by hastily retiring from the neighborhood. Clinton, having sent out a detachment under Colonel Grey to burn the American shipping in Buzzard's Bay, destroy the stores in New Bedford and ravage Martha's Vineyard, returned to New York. The command of the British naval forces in America was now transferred from Lord Howe to Admiral Byron. Sir Henr}' Clinton, unable to accomplish anything in honorable warfare, descended to maraud- ing and robbery. Early in October a band of incendiaries, led by Fer- guson, burned the American ships at Little Egg Harbor. For several miles inland the country was devastated, houses pillaged, barns burned, patriots murdered. To the preceding July belongs the sad story of the Wyoming massacre. Major John Butler, a tory of Niagara, raised a company of sixteen hundred loyalists, Canadians and Indians, and marched into the vallev of Wyoming, county of Luzerne, Pennsylvania. The settlement Mas defenceless. The fathers and brothers were away in the patriot armv. There were some feeble forts on the Susquehanna in the neighborhood of ^Vilkesl)arre, but they were useless without defenders. On the approach of the tories and savages the few militia remaining in the valley, together with the old men and boys, i-allied t!>r the defence of their homes. A battle was fought, and the poor patriots were utterly routed. The fugitives fled to the {)rincipal fort, which was cro\\ded with women and children. On came the murderous horde, and demanded a surrender. Honorable terms were promised by Butler, and the garrison capitulated. On the 5th of July the gates were opened, and the bar- barians entered. Immediately they began to plunder, then to burn, and then to use the hatchet and the scalping-knife. There is no authentic FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 333 record of the horrible atrocities that followed. The savages divided into parties, scattered through the valley, plundered, robbed, burned, and drove almost every surviving family into the swamps or mountains. In this way George III. would subdue the American colonies. November witnessed a similar massacre at the village of Cherry Valley, Otsego county, New York. This time the invaders were led by Joseph Brant, the Mohawk sachem, and Walter Butler, a son of Major John Butler. The people of Cherry Valley were driven from their homes ; every house in the village was burned ; women and children were tomahawked and scalped ; and forty miserable sufferers dragged into cap- tivity. To avenge these outrages an expedition was sent against the savages on the Uf)per Susquehanna ; and they in turn were made to feel the terrors of war. In the preceding December the famous Major Clarke had received from Patrick Henry, then governor of Virginia, a commis- sion to proceed against the Indians west of the Alleghanies. The expe- dition left Pittsburg in the spring of 1778 ; descended to the mouth of the Ohio ; and on the 4th of the following July captured Kaskaskia. Other important posts were taken ; and in August Vincennes was forced to cajjitulate. On the 3d of November Count d'Estaing's fleet sailed from Boston for the West Indies. In December Admiral Byron, in command of the British squadron, left New York to try the fortunes of war on the ocean. A few days previously. Colonel Campbell, with a force of two thousand men, was sent by General Clinton for the conquest of Georgia. On the 29th of December the expedition reached Savannah. The place was de- fended bv General Robert Howe with a reo-iment of five hundred and fifty regulars, and three hundred militia. Notwithstanding the superior numbers of the British, Howe determined to risk a battle ; but the result was disastrous. The Americans -were routed and driven out of the city. Escaping up the river, the defeated patriots crossed into South Carolina and found refuge at Charleston. Such was the only real conquest made by the British during the year 1778. It was now nearly four years since the battle of Concord, and Great Britain had lost vastly more than she had gained in her struggle with the colonies. The city of New York was held by Clinton ; Newport was garrisoned by a division under Pigot ; the feeble capital of Georgia was conquered; all the rest remained to the patriots. 334 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER XLII. MOVEMENTS OF '79. THE winter of 1778-79 was passed by the American army at Middle- brook, New Jersey. With tlie opening of spring there was much disci )uragement among the soldiers ; for they were neither paid nor fed. Only the personal influence of Washington and the patriotism of the camjJ prevented a mutiny. Clinton opened the campaign with a number of predatory incursions into the surrounding country. In February, Tryon, the old tory governor of New York, a man so savage in his nature that the Indians called him the Big Wolf, marched from Kingsbridge M'ith a body of fifteen hundred regulai's and tories to destroy the salt^ ■works at Horse Neck, Connecticut. General Putnam, who chanced to be in that neighborhood, rallied the militia and made a brave defence. The Americans planted some cannon on the brow of a hill and fought with much sjiirit until they were outflanked by the British and obliged to fly. It was hero that General Putnam, pursued and about to be over- taken by a party of dragoons, turned out of the road, spurred his horse down a precipice and escaped.* Tryon destroyed the salt-\vorks, ]»lan- dered and burned the village of West Greenwich and returned to Kings- bridge. In the latter part of May Clinton himself sailed with an armament up the Hudson to Stony Point. This strong position, commanding the river, liad been chosen by Washington as the site of a fort ; the Amer- icans were engaged upon the unfinished works when Clinton's squadron came in sight. The feeble garrison, unable to resist the overwhelming numbers of the enemy, escaped from the fortifications. On the 1st of June the British entered, mounted cannon and began to bombard Ver- planck's Point, on the other side of the river. Here the patriots made a brave resistance; but the British landed a strong force, surrounded the fort and compelled a surrender. Both Verplanck's and Stony Point were strongly fortified and garrisoned by the enemy. About the same time Virginia suffered from an incui-sion of the tories. A vast amount of public and private property was destroyed ; and several towns, including Norfolk and Portsmouth, were laid in ashes. * After all, Putnam's exploit was not so marvelous. In 1825 some of General La f'ayette's dragoons rode down the same hill for sporl. MOVEMENTS OF 79. 335 lu July the ferocious Trj-on again distinguished himself. With a force of twenty-six hundred Hessians and tories lie sailed to New Haven, captured the city and would have burned it but for fear of the gathering militia. Having set East Haven on fire, the destroyers sailed dov,-n the Sound to the beautiful town of Fairfield, which wa.s given to the flames. At Norwalk, while the village was burning and the terrified people flying from their homes, Tryon, on a neighboring hill, sat in a rocking-chair and laughed heartily at the scene. It was not long until these dastardly outrages were made to appear more dastardly by contrast with a heroic ex]iloit of the patriots. Early in July General Wayne received orders to attempt the recap- ture of Stony Point. On the 15th of the month he mustered a force of light infantry at a convenient point on the Hudson and marched against the seemingly impregnable fortress. The movement was not discovered by the enemy. At eight o'clock in the evening Wayne halted a mile from the fort and gave orders for the assault. A negro who had learned the countersign went with the advance ; the British pickets were deceived, caught and gagged. The Americans advanced in two columns, the first led by Wayne, and the second by the gallant Frenchman, Colonel De Fleury. Everything was done in silence. Muskets were unloaded and bayonets fixed ; not a gun was to be fired. The two divisions, attacking from opposite sides, were to meet in the middle of the fort. The assault was made a little after midnight. Within pistol-shot of the sentinels on the height, the Americans were discovered. There was the cry. To arms! the rattle of drums, and then the roar of musketry and caimon. The patriots never wavered. The ramparts were scaled ; and the British, find- ing themselves between two closing lines of bayonets, cried out for quar- ter. Sixty-three of the enemy fell in the struggle ; the remaining five hundred and forty-three were made prisoners. Of the Americans only fifteen were killed and eighty-three wounded. In the days that followed the assault Wayne secured the ordnance and stores, valued at more than a hundred and fifty thousand dollars, then destroyed the fort and marched away. On the 20th a division of the British army, arriving at Stony Point, found nothing but a desolated hill. In honor of his brave deed General Wayne received a gold medal from Congress. Three days after the taking of Stony Point, ]\Iajor Lee with a com- pany of militia attacked the British garrison at Jersey City. Again the assault was successful, the enemy losing nearly two hundred men. On the 25th of the same month a fleet of thirty-seven vessels, which had been equipped by Massachusetts, was sent against a British post recently established at the mouth of the Penobscot. The enterprise, however, was 336 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. managed with little skill and less success. On the 13th of August, while the American ships were still besieging the post, they were suddenly attacked and 'destroyed by a British fleet. In the summer of this year an army of four thousand six hundred men, commanded by Generals Sul- livan and James Clinton, was sent against the Indians of the Upper Sus- quehanna. The atrocities of Wyoming were now fully avenged, and the savages driven to destruction. At Elmira, on the Tioga River, the In- dians and tories had fortified themselves ; but on the 29th of August they were forced from their stronghold and utterly routed. The whole coun- try between the Susquehanna and the Genesee was wasted by the patriots, ^^■ho, in the course of the campaign, destroyed forty Indian villages. In the latter part of October Sir Henry Clinton, alarmed by the rumored approach of the French fleet, withdrew the British forces from Rhode Island. The retirement from Newport was made with so much haste that the heavy guns and large quantities of stores were left behind. Such were the leading military movements in the North. Meanwhile, the war had continued in Georgia and South Carolina ; and the patriots had met with many reverses. At the beginning of the year Fort Sunbury, on St. Catherine's Sound, was the only post held by the Americans south of the Savannah. On the 9th of January this fort was captmx'd by a body of British troops from Florida, led by General Pi'cvost. This officer then joined his forces with those of Colonel Camp- bell, who had just effected the conquest of Savannah, and assumed com- mand of the British army in the South. A force of two thousand reg- ular and loyalists, commanded by Campbell, was at once despatched against Augusta ; for there the republican legislature had assembled after the fall of Savannah. On the 29tli of January the British reached their destination, and Augusta fell a prey to the invaders. For a ^vhile the whole of Georgia was prostrated before the king's soldiery. In the mean time, the tories of Western Carolina had risen in arms and were advancing to join the forces of Campbell at Augusta. While marching thither they were attacked and defeated in a canebrake by the patriots under Captain Anderson. On the 14th of February the tories were again overtaken in the country west of Broad River. Colonel Pickens, at the head of the Carolina militia, fell upon them with such fury that the whole force was annihilated. Colonel Boyd, the tory leader, and seventy of his men were killed. Seventy-five others were captured, tried for treason and condenmed to death ; but only five of the ringleaders were hanged. On receiving intelligence of what had happened, Campbell hastily evacuated Augusta and retreated toward Savannah. The western half of Georgia was recovered more quickly than it had been lost. MOVEMENTS OF 79. 337 While the Britisii were retreating down the river, General Lincoln, \\ho now commanded the American forces in the kSoutii, sent General Ashe with a division of two thousand men to intercept the enemy. Un the 25th of February the Americans crossed the Savannah and pureued Campbell as far as Brier Creek, forty-five miles below Augusta. The bridge over this stream had been destroyed by the retreating British, and the patriots came to a halt. While they were dela^'ed General Prevost marched with a strong force from Savannah, crossed Brier Creek above the American position, and completely surrounded General Ashe's com- mand. A battle was fought on the 3d of March ; the ^Vmericans, after losing more tiian three hundred men in killed, wounded and prisoners, were totally routed and driven into the swamps and river. TJie rem- nants of Ashe's army rejoined General Lincoln at Perrysl)urg. The shock of this defeat again jirostratcd Georgia, and a royal government was estal)]ished over the State. But the Carolinians rallied with great vigor. Within a month Gen- eral Ijincoln was again in the field with a force of more than five thou- sand men. Still hoping to reconquer Georgia, he advanced up the left bank of tiic river in the direction of Augusta ; but at the same time Gen- eral Prevost crossed the Savannah and marched against Charleston. On tiie 12th of May he summoned the city to surrender, but General Moultrie, who commaniled the patriots, was in no humor to do it. Prevost made ])reparations for a siege ; but learning that General Lincoln had turned back to attack him, he made a hasty retreat. The Americans pursued, overtook the enemy at Stono Fcrr\', ten miles west of Charleston, made an imprudent attack and were repulsed with considerable loss. Before retiring from the State, Prevost succeeded in establishing a post at Beau- fort, and then fell back to Savannah. From June until September military operations were almost wholly suspended. And now came Count d'Estaing with his fleet from the West Indies to Carolina to co-operate with General Lincoln in the reduction of Savannah. Prevost was alarmed, and concentrated his forces tor the defence of the city. The storm- winds of the equinox were approaching, and D'Estaing stipulated with the Americans that his fleet should not be long detained on that coast devoid of harbors. On the 12th of September the French, numliering six thousand, effected a landing, and advanced to the siege. Eleven days elapsed before the slow-moving General Lincoln arrived with his forces. Meanwhile, on the 16th of the month, D'Estaing had demanded a surrender ; but Prevost, who asked a day for consulta- tion and used it in strengthening his works and in receiving reinforce- ments from Beaufort, answered with a message of defiance. After Lin- 338 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. coin's arrival the siege was prosecuted with great vigor. The city was bombarded welliiigh to destruction ; tlie people were driven into the cellars, and dared not venture forth on peril of their lives. But the British defences remained unshaken. At last the impatient D'Estaing^ notified Lincoln that the city must be stormed or the siege abandoned. The former course was preferred. On the Sth of ( )ctober a conference was held, and it was determined to make the assault at daylight on the following morning. Accordingly, an hour before sunrise the allies advanced against the redoubts of the British. The attack was made irregularly, l)ut with great vehemence; the defence, with desperate determination. The struggle around the ramparts was brief but furious. At one time it seemed that the works would l)e carried. The French and the patriots mounted the parapet and jtlanted the flags of Carolina and France. But the emljlems of victory, with those who bore them, were hurled into the dust. Here the brave Sergeant Jasper, the hero of Fort IMoultrie, fell to rise no more. After an hour of the most gallant fighting, the allied columns were shat- tered and tlriven back with fearful losses. D'Estaing was twice wounded. The noble Pulaski was struck with a grajie-shot and borne dying from the field. The repulse was complete, humiliating, disastrous. D'Estaing re- tired with his men on board the fleet and sailed for France. Lincoln with the remnants of his army retreated to Charleston. While the siege of Savannah was progressing, the American arms were made famous on the ocean. On the 23d of September Paul Jones, cruisins off the coast of Scotland with a flotilla of French and American vessels, fell in witli a fleet of British merchantmen, convoyed by two men-of-war. The battle that ensued was bloody beyond precedent in naval warfare. For an liour and a half the Sei-apis, a British frigate of forty-four guns, engaged the Poor Bichard* witiiin musket-shot. Then the vessels, both in a sinking condition, were run alongside and lashed together. The marines fought with the fury of madmen until the Serapis struck her colors. Jones hastily transferred his men to the conqueretl shij), and the Poor Richard went down. The remaining British vessel was also attacked and captured. So desperate was the engagement that of the three hundred and seventy-five men on board the fleet of Jones three hundred were either killed or wounded. So closed the year 1779. The colonies were not yet free. The French alliance, which had promised so much, had Ijrought but little benefit. The credit of Congress had sunk almost to notliing ; the national treasury was bankrupt. The patriots of the army were poorly fed, and ■* So naniefl in lionor of Dr. Franklin's almanac. REVERSES AND TREASON. 339 paid only with unkept promises. The disposition of Great Britain was best illustrated in the measures adopted by Parliament for the campaigns of the ensuing year. The levies made by the House of Commons were eighty-five thousand marines and thirty-five thousand additional troops ; while the extraordinary expenses of the War Department were set at twenty million pounds sterling. CHAPTER XLIII. REVERSES AND TREASON. DURING the year 1 780 military operations at the North were, for the most part, suspended. Twice did the British under Kuyphausen advance from New York into New Jersey ; and twice they were driven back. Early in July Admiral De Ternay arrived at Newport with a French squadron and six thousand land-troops under Count Rocham- beau. The Americans were greatly elated at the coming of their allies ; but Washington's army was in so destitute a condition that active co- operation was impracticable. In September the commander-in-chief held a conference with Rochambeau, and the plans of future campaigns were in part determined. In the Soutli there was much activity, and the patriots suffered many reverses. South Carolina was completely overrun with the invading armies. On the 11th of February Admiral Arbuthnot, in command of a British squadron, anchored before Charleston. Sir Henry Clinton and a division of five thousand men from the army in New York were on board the fleet. The plan of the campaign was to subjugate the whole South, beginning with Charleston. The city was defended by fourteen hundred men, under General Lincoln, who began his preparations by fortifying the neck of the peninsula. The British effected a landing a few miles below the harbor, advanced up the right bank of Ashley River, and crossed to the north of the city. A month was spent by Clinton in mak- ing cautious approaches toward the American entrenchments. On the 7th of April General Lincoln was reinforced by seven hundred veterans from Virginia. Two days afterward Admiral Arbuthnot, favored by the wind and tide, succeeded in passing Fort Moultrie with his fleet, and anchored within cannon-shot of the citv. A summons to surrender was 340 HISTORY OF THE UyiTED STATES. answered by Lincoln with the assurance that Charleston would be defended to the last extremity. A siege was at once begun, and j)rosecuted with great vigor. Desir- ing to keep a way open for retreat, Lincoln sent a body of three hundred men under General Huger to scour the country north of Cooper River and rally the militia. Apprised of this movement, Tarleton with a legion of British cavalry stole upon Huger's forces at Monk's Corner, thirty miles north of Charleston, routed and dispei-sed the whole com- pany. The city was now fairly hemmed in, and the thunder of two hundred camion shook the beleaguered ramparts. From the beginning the SIEGE OF CHARLESTON, 1780. dcfcHce luid hccu hopcIcss, aud every day the condition of the town became more desperate. Finally the fortifications were beaten down, and Clinton made ready to storm the American works ; not till then did Lincoln and the civil authorities, dreading the havoc of an assault, agree to capitulate. On the 12tli of May the principal city of the South was given up to the British and the men who had so bravely defended it became j>risoners of war. A few days belbre the surrender Tarleton, who was ranging the country to the north and west, surprised and dispersed a body of militia who had gathered on the Sautee. After the capture of the city, three expeditions were directed into different sections of the State. The Amer- ican ]iost at Ninety-Six, a hundred and fifty miles north-west of the cap- ital, was seized. A second detachment of the British invaded the country bordering on the Savannah. Cornwallis with the ])rincipal division marched to the north-east, crossed the Santee and caj)tured Georgetown, near the mouth of the Great Pedee. Here he learned that Colonel Buford, with a body of fi\'e hundred patriots, who liad left North Carolina for the relief of Charleston, was now retreating through the district north of Camden. Tarleton with seven hundred cavalry pressed rapidly across the country', overtook the Americans on the 'Waxhaw, a tributary of the Catawba, surprised them, and, M'hile negotiations for a surrender were pending, charged upon and massacred nearly the whole company. For this atrocious deed Cornwallis commended Tarleton to the sjiecial favor of the British Parliament. By such means the authority of Great Britain was re-established over South Carolina. As soon as the Avork was done, Clinton and Arbuthnot, Avith about half of the British army, sailed for New York. Cornwallis was left with the remainder to hold the conquered territory; REVERSES AND TREASON. 341 Tor it was the territory, and not the people, who were conquered. In tins condition of affairs, two daring patriot leaders arose to rescue the repub- lican cause. These men, ever afterward famoas, were Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion. Under their leadership the militia in the central and western portions of the State, especially on the upper tributaries of Broad River, were rallied, armed and mounted. An audacious partis;;: warfare was begun, and exposed detachments of the British army wei. swept off as thougii an enemy had fallen on them from the skies. At Rocky Mount, on the Wateree, Colonel Sumter burst upon a party of dragoons, who barely saved themselves. On the 6th of August he attacked a large detachment of regulars and tories at Hanging Rock, in Lancaster county, defeated them and retreated. It was in this battle that young Andrew Jackson began his career as a soldier. The exploits of Sumter were even surpassed by those of Marion. His company consisted at lirst of twenty men and boys, white and black, half clad and poorly armed. But the number constantly increased, and the "Ragged Regiment" soon became a terror to the enemy. Every British outjiost was in jieril. There was no telling when or Avhere the sword of the tearless leader would fall. From the swamjis at midnight he antl Ills men would suddenly dart upon the encampments of the enemy, sweeping everything before them. When the British expected Marion in front, he would assail the rearguard with the utmost fury, and then dis- appear; when they thought him hovering on their flank, he was a hun- dred miles away. During the whole summer and autumn of 1780 he swept around Cornwallis's positions, cutting his lines of communication and making incessant onsets with an audacity as destructive as it was pro- voking. In the midst of tiiis wild and lawless warfare, Marion preserved an unblemished reputation. Fifteen years afterward, when he lay on liis deathbed, he declared that he had never intentionally wronged any man ; and it was trntlifiilly written on his monument that he lived without fear and died without reproach. After the fall of Charleston, General Gates was appointed to com- mand in the South. With a strong force of regulars and such militia as would join his standard, he advanced across North Carolina, and at the l)eginning of August reached the southern boundary of the State. Lord Rawdon, who commanded the British posts in the northern parts of South Carolina, called in his detachments and concentrated his forces at Camden. Hither came also Cornwallis with reinforcements from Charleston and Georgetown. The Americans moved forward and took post at Clermont, tliirteen miles north-west from Camden. By a singular coincidence Corn- wallis and Gates each formed the design of surprising his antagonist in 342 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the night. Accordingly, on the evening of tlie 15th of August, Gates set out for Camden, and at the same time Coruwallis moved toward Cler- mont. About daydawn the two armies met midway on Sander's Creek. Both generals were surprised, but both made immediate preparations for battle. As soon as it was light the con- flict began. Steadiness and courage in all parts of the field would have given the victory to the Americans, but at the first onset the Virginia SCENE OF OPERATIONS IN THE SOUTH, 1780, SI. and Carolina militia broke line, threw their arms away and fled. For a while the Continentals of Maryland and Delaware sustained the battle with great bravery, but at length they were outflank- ed by Webster's cavalry and driven back. The American officers made heroic efforts to save the day, but all in vain ; the retreat became a rout. Baron de Kalb, the friend of La Fayette and fellow-sufferer with Washington at Valley Forge, remained on the field trying to rally his men until he was wounded eleven times and fell in the agony of death. More than a thousand of the Americans were killed, wounded or captured. The shattered remnants continued the retreat to Charlotte, North Carolina, eighty miles distant. The military reputation of Gates, which never had any solid foundation, was blown away like chaff", and he Mas superseded by General Greene, who, after Washington, was the best officer of the Revolution. Comwallis was again master of South Carolina. A few days after the battle of Sander's Creek, Sumter's corps was overtaken by Tarleton at Fishing Creek, thirty miles north-west from Camden, and completely routed. Only Marion and his troopers remained to harass the victorious enemy. The triumph of the British was marked by cruelty and oppres- sion. Comwallis visited the patriots with merciless severity, and the ruined State crouched at the feet of the conqueror. On the 8th of Sep- tember the British advanced from Camden into North Carolina, and on the 25th reached Charlotte, the Americans having retreated to Salisbury. While this movement was in progress, Colonel Ferguson, with a force of REVERSES AND TREASON 343 «leven hundred regulars and tories, was sent into the country west of the Catawba to overawe the ])atriots and encourage the loyalists to take up arms. On the 7th of October, while Ferguson and his men were en- camped on the top of King's Mountain, they were suddenly attacked by a thousand riflemen led by Colonel Campbell. The camp was surrounded; 1 desperate battle of an hour and a half ensued ; Ferguson was slain, and Jiree hundred of his men were killed or wounded ; the remaining eight hundred threw down their arms and begged for quarter. On the morn- ing after the battle ten of the leading tory prisoners were condenned by a court-martial and hanged. During the remaining two months of the year there were no ;iiilitary movements of import;ince. Georgia and South Carolina were in the power of the British, and North Carolina was invaded. Meanwhile, the financial credit of the nation was sinking to the lowest ebb. Congress, having no silver and gold with which to meet the accumulating expenses of the war, had resorted to paper money. At first the expedient was successful, and the continental bills were received at par ; but as one issue followed another, the value of the notes rapidly diminished, until, by the middle of 1780, they were not worth two cents to the dollar. To aggravate the evil, the emissaries of Great Britain €xecuted counterfeits of the congressional money and sowed the spurious bills broadcast over the land. Business was jJaralyzed for the want of a currency, and the distress became extreme ; but Robert Morris and a few ether wealthy patriots came forward with their private fortunes and saved the suffering colonies from nun. The mothers of America also lent a helping hand ; and the patriot camp was gladdened with many a contribu- tion of food and clothing which woman's sacrificing care had provided. In the midst of the general gloom the country was shocked by the rumor that Benedict Arnold had turned traitor. And the news, though hardly credible, was true. The brave, rash man, who, on behalf of the patriot cause, had suffered untold hardships and shed his blood on more fields than one, had blotted the record of his heroism with a deed of treason. After the battle of BemLs's Height, in the fall of 1777, Arnold was promoted by Congress to ihe rank of major-general. Being disabled by his wound, he was made commandant of Philadelphia after tiie evae- aation of the city by the British. Here he married the daut,hter of a (loyalist, and living in the old mansion of William Penn entered upon a career of luxury and extravagance which soon overwhelmed him with debt and bankruptcy. In order to keep up his magnificence, he began a sj'stem of frauds on the commissary department of the army. His bear- ing toward the citizens was that of a military despot; the people groaned under ais tyranny, and charges were preferred against him by Congress. 344 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The cause was finally heard by a court-martial in December of 1779. Arnold was convicteil on two of the charges, and, by the order of the court, was mildly reprimanded by Washington. Professing unbounded patriotism, and seeming to firget the dis- grace which his misconduct had brought upon him, Arnold applied for and obtained command of the important fortress of West Point on tiit Hudson. On the List day of July, 1780, he reached the camp ana assumed control of the most valuable arsenal and depot of stores in Amer- ica. He had already formed the treasonable design of surrendering the fort into tue hands of the enemy. For months he had kept up a secret correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton, and now the scheme ripened, on Arnold's part, into an open proposition to betray his country for gold. It was agreed that on a certain day the British fleet should ascend the Hudson, that the garrison should be divided and scattered, and the iort- ress given up without a struggle. On the 21st of September Sir Henry Clinton sent Major John Andre up the river to hold a personal conference with Arnold and make the final arran^fen'>c.s ard t!:e best THE END. 345 metliod of attack were made out and given to Andre, who secreted the dangerous documents in his stockings. During that day an American battery drove the Vulture from its moorings in the river; and at night- fall Andre was obliged to cross to the other side and proceed ))y land toward New York. He passed the American outposts in safety; but at Tarrytown, twenty-five miles from the city, he was suddenly confronted by three militiamen* wlio stripped him, found his papers, and delivered him to Colonel Jameson at North Castle. Through that officer's amazing stupidity Arnold was at once notified that John Anderson — that being the assumed name of Andre — had been taken with his passport and some papers " of a very dangerous tendency." Arnold, on hearing the news, fled to the river and escaped on board the Vulture. AndrS was tried by a court-martial at Tapjian, and condemned to death. On the 2d of Oc- tober he was led to the gallows, and, under the stern code of war, was hanged. Though dying the death of a felon, he met liis doom like a brave man, and after times have commiserated his sad fate. Arnold received his pay. In the dark days of December there came a ray of light fi-om Europe. For several yeare Holland had secretly favored the Americans ; now she began negotiations for a commercial ti'eaty similar to that already existing between France and the United States. Great Britain discovered the purposes of the Dutfh government ; there were angry remonstrances, and then, on the 20th of December, an open declaration of war. Thus the Netherlands were added to the enemies of England ; it seemed that George III. and his ministers would have enough to do without further efforts to enforce a stamp-act or levy a tax on tea. CHAPTER XLIV THE END. niOR the Americans the year 1781 opened gloomily. The condition J- of the army was desperate — no food, no pay, no clothing. Even the influence of Washington was not sufficient to cpiiet the growing discontent of the soldiery. On the first day of January the whole Pennsylvania line, numbering nearly two thousand, mutinied, left their camp at Morris- * John Paulding, David Williams and Isaac van Wart. Congress afterward rewarded them with silver medals and pensions for life. 346 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. town and marplied toward Pliiladelphia. General Wayne, after trj'ing in vain to prevent the insurrection, went witli his men, still hoping to con- trol them. At Princeton they were met by two emissaries from Sir Henry Clinton, and were teni[)ted with offers of money, clothing and release from military service if tliey woultl desert the American standard. The mu- tinous patriots made answer by seizing the British agents and delivering them to General Wayne to be hanged as spies. For this deed the com- missioners of Congress, who now arrived, offered the insurgents a large reward, but the reward was indignantly refused. Washington, knowing how shamefully the army had been neglected by Congress, was not un- willing that the mutiny should take its own course. The congressional agents were theref()re left to adjust the difficulty with the rebellious troops. But the breach was easily healed ; a few liberal concessions on the part of the government sufficed to quiet the mutiny. About the middle of the same month the New Jersey brigade, sta- tioned at Pompton, revolted. This movement Washington quelled by force. General Robert Howe mai'ched to the camp with five hundred regulai-s and compelled twelve of the principal mutineers to execute the two leaders of the revolt. From that day order was completely restored. These insurrections had a good rather than a bad effect; Congress was thoroughly alarmed, and immediate ])rovisions were made for the better support of the army. An agent was sent to France to obtain a further loan of money. Robert Morris was appointed secretary of finance; the Bank of North America was organized ; and altliough the outstanding debts of the United States could not be paid, yet all future obligations were promptly met, for Morris and liis friends pledged their private fortunes to sustain the credit of the goverinnent. In the North military movements M-ere begun by Arnold. On arriving at New York the traitor had received the promised commission, and was now a brigadier-general in the British army. In the preceding November, Washington and Major Henry Lee formed a jjlan to capture him. Sergeant John Champe undertook the daring enterprise, deserted to the enemy, entered New York, joined Arnold's company, and with two assistants concerted measures to abduct him from the city and convey him to the American camp. But Arnold suddenly moved his quarters, and the plan was defeated. A month afterward he was given command of a fleet and a land-force of sixteen hundred men, and on the 16th of Decem- ber left New York to make a descent on the coasts of Virginia. Early in January the traitor entered James River and began war on his coimtrymen. His jiroceedings were marked with much ferocity, but not with the daring which characterized his former exploits. In the THE END. 347 vicinity of Richmond a vast quantity of public and private property was destroyed. Tlie country along the river was devastated ; and when there was nothing left to excite his cupidity or gratify his revenge, Arnold took up his headquarters in Portsmouth, a few miles south of Hampton Roads. Again Washington planned his capture. The French fleet, anchored at Newport, was ordered to sail for Virginia to co-operate with La Fayette, who was sent in the direction of Portsmouth with a detachment of twelve hundred men. But Admiral Arbuthnot, being apprised of the movement, sailed from New York and drove the French squadron back to Rhode Island. La Fayette, deprived of the expected aid, was forced to abandon the undertaking, and Arnold again escaped. About the middle of April General Phillips arrived at Portsmouth with a force of two thousand British regulars. Joining his troops with those of Arnold, he assumed command of the whole, and again the fertile districts of Lower Virginia were ravaged with fire and sword. Early in May, Phillips died, and for seven days Arnold held the supreme com- mand of the British forces in Virginia. That was the height of his trea- sonable glory. On the 20th of the month Lord Cornwallis arrived at Petersburg and ordered him to begone. Returning to New York, he received from Clinton a second detachment, entered the Sound, landed at New London, in his native State, and captured the town. Fort Griswold, which was defended by Colonel Ledyard M'ith a hundred and fifty militia- men, was carried by storm. When Ledyard surrendered, the British officer who received his sword stabbed him to death ; it was the signal for a massacre of the garrison, seventy-three of wliom were murdered in cold blood ; of the remainder, thirty were wounded and the rest made prisoners. With this bloody and ignominious deed the name of Arnold disappears from American history. Meanwhile, some of the most stirring events of the war had occurred at the South. At the close of the preceding year General Greene had taken command of the American army — which was only the shadow of an army — at Charlotte, North Carolina. Cornwallis had fallen back in the direction of Camden. Greene with great energy reorganized his I'orces and divided them into an eastern and a western division ; the com- mand of the latter was given to General Morgan. In the first days of January this gallant officer was sent into the Spartanburg district of South Carolina to repress the tories and encourage the patriot militia. His suc- cess was such as to exasperate Cornwallis, who immediately despatched Colonel Tarleton with his famous cavalry legion to destroy Morgan's forces or drive them out of the State. The Americans, apprised of Tarle- ton's approach, took a favorable position at the Cowpens, where, on the 348 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 17th of January, tluy Mere attacked by the Britisli, eleven liiindred strong. Tarleton, confident of success, made the onset with impetuosity ; but Mor- gan's men sustained tlie shock with firmuess, and, when tlie enemy's re- serves were called into action, either held their ground or retired in good order. At the crisis of the battle the American eavalrv, commanded by Colonel William "Washington, made a furious charge and scattered the British dragoons like chaff before them. The rout was complete — the vic- tory decisive. Washington and Tarleton had a personal encounter on the field, and the latter fled with a sword-gash in his hand. His corps was annihilated ; ten British officers and ninety privates were killed, and five hundred and twenty-three wore captured. Two pieces of artilleiy, eight hundred muskets and two flags were among the trophies of the battle. When Cornwallis, who was encamped with his army thirty miles down the Catawba, heard of the disaster to his arms, he maile a rapid march up the river to reach the fords in Morgan's rear. But Greene, who had also heard the news, hastened to the camp of Morgan, took com- mand in person and began a liasty retreat. At the same time he sent word to General- Huger, who commanded the eastern division, to fall back toward Charlotte, where it was proposed to form a junction of the two wings of the army. On the 28th of January Morgan's division reached the Catawba and crossed to the northern bank, with prisoners, spoils and baggage. Within two hoiu's the British van arrived at the ford ; l)ut it was already sunset, and Cornwallis concluded to wait for the morning; then he would cross and win an easy victory. During the night the clouds opened and poured down torrents; in the morning the river was swollen to a flood. It was many days before the British forced their way across, dispersing the militia on the opjiosite bank. And now began a second race, this time for the fords of the Yadkin. The distance was sixty miles and the roads wretched. In two days the Americans reached the river. The crossing was nearly effected, when the British appeared in sight, attacked the rearguard and captured a few wagons ; nothing else was injured. That night the Yadkin was made impassable by rains in the mountains, and Cornwallis was again delayed; Greene pressed forward to Guilfortl Court-House, where he arrived on the 7th of February. The British mar'^ied up the Y^adkin to the shallow ford at Huntsville, where, on the 9th of the month, they succeeded in crossing. The lines of retreat and pursi.it were now parallel, and the two armies were less than twenty-five miles apart. A third time the race began, and again the Americans won it. On the 13th, Greene, with the main division, cros.setl the Dan into Yirgi.>ia, and '..n tne loiiowmg aay the American rearg-uanl entered th»^ boats am. wp.i, safe. The British van THE END. 349 was already in sight and the whole array but a few miles distant. Never was a retreat more skillfully conducted. Cornwallis, mortified at his repeated failures, abandoned the pursuit and retired with liis aymy to Hillsborough. Once in Virginia, Greene was rapidly reinforced. After a few days of recruiting and rest he felt himself strong enough to begin offensive movements. On tiie 22d of February he recrossed the Dau into North Carolina. Meanwhile, Cornwallis had despatched Tarlctou with a body of cavalry into the region between the Haw and Deep Rivers to encourage the torles. Being inDjrmed of this movement, Greene sent Colonel Lee into the same district. Three hundred loyalists, already under ariris, were marching to join Tarleton. On the route they were intercejited by the American cavalry, whom, supposing them to be British, they saluted with a shout of " Long live the king !" Colonel Lee and his men quietly surrounded the unsuspecting tories, fell upon them as a band of traitoiv:, and killed or captured the entire company. By the addition of the Virginia militia Greene's army now num- bered four thousand four hundred men. Determining to avoid battle no longer, he marched to Guilford Court-House, took a strong position and awaited his antagonist. Cornwallis, accepting the challenge, at once moved forward to the attack. On the 1 5th of March the two armies met on Greene's chosen ground, and a severe but indecisive battle was fought. The forces of Greene were superior in numbers, and those of Cornwallis in discipline. If the American militia had stood firm, the result would not have been doubtful ; but the raw recruits behaved badly, broke line and fled. Confusion ensued ; the Americans fought hard, but were eventually driven from the field and forced to retreat for several miles. In killed and wounded the British loss \vas greatest ; but large bodies of the militia returned to their homes, reducing Greene's army to less than three thou- sand. Nevertheless, to the British the result was equivalent to a defeat. Cornwallis now boasted, made big proclamations, and then re- treateil. On the 7th of April he reached the sea-coast at Wilmington, and immediately thereafter proceeded to Virginia. How he arrived at Petersburg, supereeded Arnold and sent him out of the State has already been narrated. The British forces in the Carolinas remained under com- mand of Lord Rawdon, who M'as posted with a strong division at Cam- den, ^yith him General Greene, after the departure of Cornwallis, was left to contend. The American army was accordingly advanced into South Carolina. A detachment was sent against Fort Watson, on the east bank of the Santee, and the place M'as obliged to surrender. Greene marched with the main body to Hobkirk's Hill, a short distance north of 350 HISTOnV OF THE UNITED STATES. Camden, posted his men in a strong position and awaited the movements of Rawdon. What that officer would do was not long a question of doubt. On the 25th of April he moved from Camden with his entire force and attacked the American camp. For once General Greene came near being surprised ; but his men were swiftly formed for battle ; Rawdon's column was badly arranged ; and for a while it seemed that the entire British force would be slain or captured. Just at the critical moment, however, some valuable American officers who commanded in the centre were killed; their regiments, becoming confused, fell back; Rawdon saw his advantage, pressed forward, broke the centre, captured the hill, and won the day. The Americans retired from the field, but saved their artillery and bore away the wounded. Again the genius of Greene made defeat seem little less than victory. On the 10th of May Lord Rawdon evacuated Camden and retired to Eutaw Springs, sixty-five miles above the mouth of the Santee. The British posts at Granby, Orangeburg, Fort ]\Iott and Augusta fell suc- '•essively into the hands of the patriots. By the 5th of June only Eutaw Springs, Charleston and Ninety-Six remained in possession of the enemy. Tiie latter place was already besieged by General Greene, who, after the battle of Hobkirk's Hill, advanced to Fort Granby, and thence to Ninety- Six. For twenty-seven days the siege was pressed with vigor. The supply of water was cut off from the fort, and the garrison could not have held out more than two days longer; but Lord Rawdon was rapidly aj)proaching with a force of two thousand men ; and the Ameri- cans, after an unsuccessful assault, were obliged, on the 18th of June, to raise the siege and retreat. Rawdon pursued, but Greene escaped, as usual, and the British, abandoning Ninety-Six, fell back to Orangeburg. Greene, with ceaseless activity, followed the retreating enemy, and would, but for their strength, have assaulted Rawdon's works. Deeming the position impregnable, the American general recrossed the Santee and took his station on the highlands in Sumter district. Here, in the healthful air of the hill-country, he jiassed the sickly months of summer. Sumter, Lee and Marion were constantly abroad, traversing the country in all directions, cutting off supplies from the enemy, breaking his lines of communication and smiting tlie tories right and left. Lord Rawdon now resigned the command of the British forces to Colonel Stuart and went to Charleston. While there he became a jirincipal actor in one of the most shameful scenes of the Revolution. Colonel Isaac Hayne, an eminent patriot who had formerly taken an oath of allegiance to the king, was caugiit in connnand of a troop of American cavalry. He was at once taken to Charleston, arraigned before Colonel Balfour, the commandant. THE END. 3ol burried through the mockery of a trial and condemned to death. Ra-.v- don gave his sanction, and on the 31st of July Colonel Hayne was hanged. Just men in Europe joined with the patriots of America in denouacing the act as worthy of barbarism. On the 22d of August General Greene left the heights of the Santee »nd marched toward Orangeburg. Tlie British decamjjed at his approach dnd took post at Eutaw Springs, forty miles below. The Americans pressed after them and overtook them ou the 8th of September. One of the fiercest battles of the war ensued ; and General Greene was denied a decisive vic- tory only by the bad conduct of some of his men, who, before the field was fairly won, abandoned themselves to eating and drink- ing in the enemy's camp. Stuart rallied his troops, returned to tlie charge and regain- e d his position. Greene, after losing five hundred and fifty- five men, gave over tlie struggle. The British lost in killed and wounded nearly seven hundred, and more than five hun- dred prisoners. On the day after the battle Stuart hastily retreated to Monk's Corner ; Greent followed \vith his army, and after two months of manoeuvring and de- sultory warfare the British were driven into Charleston. In the mean time. General St. Clair had cleared North Carolina by forcing the enemy to evacuate Wilmington. In the m hole country south of Virginia only Charleston and Savannah remained under dominion of the king's army ; the latter city was evacuated by the British on the 11th of July, and the former on the 14th of December, 1782. Such was the close of the Revo- lutioa io the Carolinas and Georgia. GENERAL GREENE. 352 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. But tlie final scene wixs to be enacted in ^'irginia. Tliere, in the last days of April, 1781, Cornwallis took command of the British army and began to ravage tlie country on both banks of the James. In the course of the following two months property, public and private, wa« destroyed to the value of fifteen million dollars. La Fayette, to whom the defence of the State had been entrusted, was unable to meet Con:. %vallis in the field, but watched his movements with sleepless vigilance. While the British were in the vicinity of Richmond a detachment under Tarleton proceeded as far west as Charlottesville, where the ^'irginia legLslature was in session. The town was taken, the country de\-astated, and ticven members of the assembly made prisoners. Governor Jeflersou escaped only by riding into the mountains. ^Mien there was little left to destroy, Cornwallis marclied down the nortli bank of tiie James to Green Springs, eight miles above the site of Jamestown. He had received orders from Sir Henry Clinton to de- scend the river and tiike such a position on the coast as would keej) the army within supporting distance of New York ; for Clinton was very apprehensive that Washington and the French would attack him. La Fayette hovered upon the rear of Cornwallis; and on the Gth of July, when it wa.s su])posed that the main body of the enemy had crossed the James, General Wayne, who led the American advance, suddenly attacked the whole British army. Cornwallis was so surprised by tlie audacious onset that when W^ayne, seeing his mistake, made a hasty retreat, no pur- suit was attempted. The loss of the two armies was ecjual, being a hun- dred and twentv on each side. After the passage of James River, the Britisii marched to Portsmouth, where Arnold had had his lieadquarters in the jirevious spring There Cornwallis would liave fortified himself; l)ut the orders of Clinton were otlierwise; and in the first days of August the army was again embark(>d antl conveyed tn Yorktown, on the southern bank of York River, a few miles above the moutli. La Fayette quickly advanced into the peninsula and took post but eight miles distant from the British. From this position he sent urgent despatches to Washington, beseeching him to come to Virginia and aid in striking tiie enemy a fatal blow. A powerful French armament, coni' manded by Count de Grasse, was hourly exjiected in the Cliesapeake and La Favette saw at a glance that if a fleet could be anchored in tJie mouth of York River, cutting off retreat, the doom of Cornwallis would be sealed. During the months of July and August, ^^'^shington, from his camp on the Hudson, looked wistfully to the South. But all tlie while Clinton was kejit in feverish alarm by false despatches, written for the purpose of falling into his hands. These intercepteld City Hall, on the present site of the Custom-House, in Wall street. Chancel- lor Livingston of Xew York administered the oath of office. The streets and house-tops were thronged with people ; flags flutter- ed ; cannon boomed from the Battery. As 50on as the jiublic cere- mony was ended, Washington retired to the Senate chamber and delivered his in- augural address. The organization of the two houses of Congress had already been effected. (363) "WASHINriTON. 3G4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The new government was embarrassed with many difficulties. The opponents of the Constitution were not yet silenced, and from the begin- ning they caviled at the measures of the adininistwition. By the treaty of 1 783 tlie free navigation of the Mississippi had been guaranteed. Now the jealous Spaniards of New Orleans liindered the passage of American ships. The jK'ople of the West looked to the great river as tlie natural outlet of their commerce ; they nnist be protected in tlieir rights. On many parts of the frontier the malignant Red men were still at war with the settlers. As to financial credit, the United States had none. In the very beginning of his arduous duties Washington was prostrated with sickness, and tiie business of government was for many weeks delayed. Not until September were the first important measures adopted. On tlie 10th of that month an act was passed by Congress instituting a department of foreign affairs, a treasury department and a department of war. As members of his cabinet Wasiiington nominated Jefferson, Knox and Hamilton ; the first as secretary of foreign affairs ; the second, of war ; and the third, of tlie treasuiy. In accordance with the provisions of the Constitution, a sui>reme court was also organized, John Jay receiving the appointment of first chief-justice. With him were joined as associate justices John Rutledge of South Carolina, James Wilson of Pennsyl- vania, William Cushing of Massachusetts, John Blair of Virginia, and James Iredell of North Carolina. Edmund Randolph was chosen attorney-general. Many constitutional anieudments were now brough; forward, and ten of them adopted. By this action on the part of Congress, the objections of North Carolina and Rhode Island were removed and both States ratified the Constitution, the former in No- vember of 1789 and the latter in the following May. On the 29th of September, 1789, Congress adjourned until tlie following January, and Washington availed himself of the opportu- nity thus offered to make a tour of the Eastern States. Accompanied by his secretaries, he set out in his carriage from New York on tiie 15th of October, and nine days afterward reached Boston. At every point on the route the affection of the people, and especially of the Revolutionary veterans, burst out in unbounded enthusiasm. On reaching Boston the President was welcomed by Governor John Hancock and the selectmen of the city. No pains were spared that could add to the comfort and pleasure of the new nation's chief mag- istrate. After remaining a week among the scenes associated with his first command of the American army, he proceeded to Portsmouth and thence returned with improved health and peace of mind by way of Hartford to New York. 1780 03 97 1801 French Geor Kevoliition. Napo 97. Piuckney rejected 94. Partition of i Poland. 93. Execution of Louis XVI. 99. Overth 93. Fall of the Girond ists. 99. Napole 93. Reigu of Te rror. 94. Fall of Robes I pierre. 1 800. Jje III. 90. Gr eat political disturbanc Washington, 91. Vermon the 89. North Carolina rat 90. Rhode Island 90. Seat of govern leon Bonapar by the French Directo 4. The row of the Directory. on,First Consul. . jj President. t admitted into Union. ifies the Constitution. 96. Te ratifies the Constituti ment at Philadelphia. 94. \ 1 1 Wayne's 92. K Wash 91. R|'S'«. 91. Bank of John Adams, Vice- Jo John Jay, Chief- Jefi'erson, Secret Hamilton, Sec Knox, Secre 93. Genet, French min entufky admitted into ington re-elected CJa ir's defeat. the United States estab 94. Whisky Insur 95. Jay's T President. hn Adams re-elected Justice, ary of State. retary of Treasury, tary of War. Bombardment of Copenhagen, llarengo. es in England. ISOO. to nnessee admitted into on. 1800. John Adams, 99. Washin 98. War with Fra victory. ister at Washington, the Union. 99. Treaty President. lished. rectiou. reatv. te. great In oleon, Ei 6. , C.I into the gOTcram and Sedi non, a. 6' milton 1 2. Ohio admitted Removal of the seat of Washington, D. C. the Union. Passage of the Alien President. gton dies at Mount Ver nee. 4. Ha with France. Thomas Jeifer I son, i 5. The s lis! Thomas Jefferson, Vice-President. Vice-President. 1. Aaron Bnrr. Vice- 1. War with Tripoli. 3. Commod 3. Purchase Jeflfe Presiden Georgi ore Prel of Loui 13 17 31 1835 14. Deposition of Napoleon. 9. Divorce of Joseph! ne 14. liOuis XVIII. 21. Napoleon dies. 8. The Peuiusular War. 9"-" 24. Charles X. Delliou. 10. Marriage of N apoleon 1.5. terloo, anH banishment of Napoleon. reaty of Tilsit. to Maria Lonisa. 12. In vasion of Ihi.ssia. Orders in Coua cil. 15. Treaty of Paris. ITto 15. Rise of the Radical Party in England. 9. m 11 U'agrmn. George IV. Tltt. flK-JtS Kfcie.Pa rliamentary reforms. ieofthe coast from Brest to the Elbe. 15. pgiSomft ardment of Algiers. z. 15. War wi th Algiers. James Madison, Presid ent. . 12. Su rrender of Mackinaw. «^12.Su rrender of Detroit. 11. Pi^i^^a canoe. 14. Hartford Co nvention. enry Dearborn appoin ted commander-in-chi ef. 20. M aine admitted into aws. ll.^^raeiV 14. |i 1| Capture esident uud Little Belt. the of York. Union. iu a du el. f^ Madison re-elec ted President. conspir acy. 12. Se cond embargo. 12. W ar declared against Gr eat Britain. 12. Pi IS. The Seminole War. Fort Dearborn. 18. Capture of St. Marks and Pensacola. 24. Vis- George Clinton re- elected Vice-President. it of La 12. Pi 14. Capture and burning of Washingt on. Fayette. Queenstown. James Monro e, President. nt. 12. P The Constitution and the Guerriere. Monroe re-elect- of patro nage estab- ^_^ lie offices. 12. ^2 14. Treaty of Gh cut. ed President. the pub The Wasp and the Frol ic. 12.^ The United States and the Macedonian. 21. Missouri admitted into the Union. I re-elec ted President. !«:» 12. |eS The Constittdion and the Java. ■■irst stea mboat on the Hudson 13. |M^'-f"c/!«owft. 14. ^Qi?orti)/c 18. Illinois admit Henry, Daniel Tompkins, ted into the Union. Vice-President. Attack on the Chesapeake. Klfe IG- Ii diaua admitted into the Union. Passage of the Embargo Act. 13. |J|ji'0rtifCT?S. Tompkins re-elect- ed Vice-President. 13. Iwxi Perry's victo ry. 19. Alabam a admitted iton, Vi ce-President. Vi^^Xi .^ iu to the Union. it to the Mediterranean. 13.fj^T/ir Thames. . 21. Rise of the Slavery 15. ^^XewOrlea ns. agitation. 13.pl Horseshoe Bend. 21. The Missouri Com- promise. 13- Ii3a ^''« Hornet and the Peacock. r~-^ The Chesapea ke a7id the Shannon. 12. Lo uisiana admitted into Elbridge Gerry, Vi 13. ^W The Argus the Union. ce-President. and the Pelican. 14. ^VjI Lundy's Lane. 17. Mississippi admitt ed into the Union. li!^Plattsburg. 19. Florida United ceded to the States. WASHINGTON' S ADMINISTRATION. 365 111 the tir«t months of his administration Washington was much vexed about questions of ceremony and etiquette. How should he appear in public? How often? What kind of entertainment should he give? Who should be invited? What title should he bear? And in what manner be introduced ? In these matters there was no pre- cedent to guide him; for who had ever held such a station before? He must not, on the one hand, demean himself like a king, surrounded with peers and courtiers, nor, on the other hand, must he degrade his high office by such l)lunt democratical ceremonies as would render himself ridiculous and the Pi'esidency contemptible. In his embar- rassment AVashington sought the advice of Adams, Jefferson, Hamilton, and others in regard to a suitable etiquette and ceremonial for the Republican court. Adams in answer would have much ceremony ; Jefferson, none at all. The latter said : " I hope that the terms Excel- lency, Honor, Worship, Esquire, and even Mr. shall shortly and forever disappear from among us." Hamilton's reply favored a mod- erate and simple formality ; and this view was adopted by Washington as most consistent with the new frame of government. In the mean- time Congress had declared that the chief magistrate should have no title other than that of his office ; namely, President of the United States. So with ceremonies few and simple the order of affairs in the 1 )residential office was established. The national deV)t, however, was the greatest and most threat- cuing question; but the genius of Hamilton triumphed over every difiiculty. The indebtedness of the United States, including the revolutionary expenses of the several States, amounted to nearly eighty millions of dollars. Hamilton adopted a broad and honest policy. His plan, which was laid before Congress at the beginning of the second session, proposed that the debt of the United States due to American citizens, as well as the war debt of the individual States, should be assumed by the general government, and that all should be fully jKiid. By this measure the credit of the country was vastly improved, even before actual payment was begun. As a means of augmenting the revenues of the government a duty was laid on the tonnage of merchant-ships, with a discrimination in favor of American vessels ; and customs were levied on all imported arti- cles. Hamilton's financial schemes were violently ojjposed; but his iiolicy prevailed, and the credit of the government was soon firmly established. The proposition to assume the debts of the States had been coupled with another to fix the seat of government. After much discussion it was •AQQ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. agreed to establish the capital for ten years at Philadelphia, and aicerward at some suitable locality on the Potomac. The next important measure was the organization of the territory south-west of the Ohio. In the autumn of 1790 a war broke out with the ]\Iiami Indians. Fort Wash- ington, on the present ^ite of Cincinnati, had been established as the capital of the North-western Territory ; and General St. Clair had re= ceived the appointment as governor. The Indians had fairly relinquished their rights to the surrounding country; but other trilies came forward with pretended claims, and went to war to recover their lost possessions. At the close of September, General Hannai-, with fourteen hundred troops, set out from Fort Washington to chastise the hostile Miamis. After de- stroying several villages and wasting the country as far as the Maumee, he divided his army into detachments. Cdlonel Hardin, wlio connnandcd the Kentucky volunteers, was ambuscaded and his forces routed at a vil- lage eleven miles from Fort Wayne; and on the 21st of October the main division was defeated with srcat loss at the ]\Iaumee Ford. Gen- eral Harmar was obliged to abandon the Indian country and retreat to Fort Washington. In the beginning of 1791 an act was passed by Congress establish- ing THE Bank of the United States. The measure originated with the secretary of the treasury, and was violently opposed by Jetferson and the anti-federal party. About the same time Vermont, which had been an independent territory since 1777, adopted the Constitution, and on the 18th of February was admitted into the Union as the fourteenth State. The claim of New York to the jurisdiction of the province had been pur- chased, two years previously, for thirty thousand dollars. The first census of the United States, completed for the year 1790, showed that the popu- lation of tlie country had increased to three million nine hundred and twenty-nine thousand souls. After tlie defeat of Harmar the government adopted more vigorous measures for the repression of Indian hostilities. On the 6th of Septem- ber, 1791, General St. Clair, with an army of two thousand men, set out from Fort Washington to break the power of the Miami confederacy. On the night of November 3d he reached a point nearly a hundred mile? nortli of Fort Washington, and encamped on one of the upper tribu- taries of the Wabash, in what is now the south-west angle of Mercer county, Ohio. On the following morning at sunrise his camp was sud- denly assailed by more than two thousand warriors, led by Little Turtle and several American renegades who had joined the Indians. After a terrible battle of three hours' duration, St. Clair was completely defeated, with a loss of fully half his men. The fugitive militia retreated pre- WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 367 cipitately to Fort AVashington, where they arrived four days after the battle. The news of the disaster spread gloom and sorrow throughout the land. AVhen the tidings reached Philadelphia the government was for a while in consternation. For once the benignant spirit of Washington gave way to wrath. "Here," said he in a tempest of indignation, — " here, in this very room, I took leave of General St. (_'lair. I wished him success and honor. I said to him, ' You have careful instructions from the secretary of war, and I myself will add one word — heirare of a surprise. You know how the Indians tight us. Beware of a surprise!' He went off with that, my last warning, ringing in his ears. And yet he has suffered that army to be cut to pieces, hacked, butchered, tomahawked by a surprise, — the very thing I guarded him against ! How can he answer to his country ? The blood of the slain is upon him, — the curse of widows and orphans!" Mr. Lear, the secretary, in whose presence this storm of wrath burst forth, sat speechless. Presently Washington grew silent. " What I have uttered must not go beyond this room," said he in a manner of great seriousness. Another pause of several minutes ensued, and then he continued in a low and solemn tone : " I looked at the despatches hastily and did not note all the particulars. General St. Clair shall have justice. I will receive him without displeasure, — he .s-haU. have full justice." Notwithstanding his exculpation by a committee of Con- gress, poor St. Clair, overwhelmed with censures and reproaches, resigned his command and was superseded by General Wayne, Avhom the people had named ]\Iad Anthony. The population of the Territory of Kentucky had now reached seventy-three thousand. Only seventeen years before, Daniel Boone, the hardy hunter of Xorth Carolina, had settled with his companions at Boonesborough. Harrodsbnrg and Lexington were founded about the same time. During the Revolution the pioneers were constantly beset by the savages. After the expedition of General Clarke, in 1779, the frontier was more secure; and in the years following the treaty thousands of immigrants came annually. In the mean time, Virginia had relinquished her claim to the territory; and on the 1st of June, 1792, Kentucky was admitted into the Union. At the presi- dential election, held in the autumn of the same year, Washington was again unanimously chosen; as Vice-President, John Adams was also re-elected. During AVashington's second administration the country was greatly troubled in its relations with foreign governments. Europe was in an uproar. The French Revolution of 1789 was still running 368 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. its dreadful course. After three years of unparalleled excesses, the Ja- cobins of France had beheaded the king and abolished the monarchy. Citizen Genet was sent by the new French republic as minister to the United States. On his arrival at Charleston, and on his way to Phil- adelphia, he was greeted with unbounded enthusiasm. Taking advan- tage of his popularity, the ambassador began to abuse his authority, fitted out privateers to prey on the commerce of Great Britain, planned expeditions against Louisiana, and, although the President had already issued a proclamation of neutrality, demanded an alliance with the government. Washington and the caljinet tirmly refused; and the au- dacious minister threatened to appeal to the pjeojile. In this outrageous conduct he was sustained and encouraged liy the anti-Federal party, and for a while the government was endangered. But Washington stood unmoved, declared the course of the French minister an insult to the sovereignty of the United States, and demanded his recall. The republican authorities of France heeded the demand, and Genet was superseded by M. Fouchet. The President was also much embarrassed by dissensions in his cab- inet. From the beginning of his first official term the secretaries of state and the treasury had maintained towards each other an attitude of constant hostility. They had gradually become the heads of rival parties in the government. Hamilton's financial measures were at- tacked with vehement animosity by Jefferson ; and the policy of tlie latter in his relations and duties as secretary of foreign aiiairs was the subject of much bitter criticism from the former's scathing pen. The breach between the rivals grew wider and wider. Washington's influ- ence was barely sufficient to prevent the breaking njj of his cabinet. Sd great were the abilities and so valuable the experience of the two secretaries that the services of neither could be spared without serious detriment to the government. Both officers were patriots, and both had insisted on Washington's reelection to the Presidency. After that event, however, Jefferson, in January of 1794, resigned his office and retired to private life at Monticello. A year later Hamilton also I'e- tired from the cabinet and was succeeded by Oliver Wolcott of Con- necticut. During the summer and autumn of 1794 the countiy was much disturbed by a difficulty in Western Pennsylvania known as the whisky insurrection. Hoping to improve the revenues of the government. Con- gress had, three years previously, imposed a tax on all ardent spirits dis- tilled in the United States. While Genet was at Philadelphia, he and his partisans incited the people of the distilling regions to resist the tax- H',l,S7/i.V(?r0iV',S- ADiMlXJSTBATION. 309 collectoi's. The disaffected rose in arms. Washington issued two proc- lamations, warning the insurgents to disperse; but instead of obeying, they fired upon and captured the officers of the government. The Presi- dent then ordered General Henry Lee to enter the rebellious district with a sufficient force to restore order and enforce the law. When the troops reached the scene of the disturbance, the rioters had already scattered. The insurrection was a political rather than a social outbreak : the anti- Federalists were in a majority in the distilling region, and the whisky-tax was a measure of the Federal party. Meanwhile, General Wayne had broken the Miami confederacy. In the fall of 1793 he entered the Indian country with a force of three thousand men. Reaching the scene of St. Clair's defeat, he built a stockade named Fort Recovery, and then pressed on to the junction of the Au Glaize and the Maumee, in Williams county, Ohio. Here he built and garrisoned Fort Defiance. Descending the Maumee to the rapids, he sent proposals of peace to the Indians, who were in council but a few miles distant. Little Turtle, more wise than the other chiefs, would have made a treaty ; but the majority W'ere for battle. On the 20th of August Wayne marched against the savages, overtook them where the present town of Waynesfield stands, and routed them with ter- rible losses. The relentless general then compelled the humbled chief- tains to purchase peace by ceding to the United States all the territory east of a line drawn from Fort Recovery to the mouth of the Great Miami River. This was the last service of General Wayne. Re- maining for a while in the Indian country, he embarked on Lake Erie to return to Philadelphia. In December of 1796 he died on board the vessel, and was buried at Presque Isle. The conduct of Great Britain toward the United States became as arrogant as that of France was impudent. In November of 1793 George III. issued secret instructions to British privateers to seize all neutral vessels that might be found trading in the French West Indies. The United States had no notification of this high-handed measure; and American commerce to the value of many millions of dollars was swept from the sea by a process differing in nothing from highway robbery. But for the temperate spirit of the government the country Avould have been at once plunged into war. Prudence prevailed over passion ; and in May of 1794 Chief-Justice Jay was sent as envoy extraordinary to demand redress of the British government. Contrary to expectation, his mission w'as successful ; and in the following November an honor- able treaty was concluded. The terms of settlement, however, wci-e exceedingly distasteful to the partisans of France in America, and they 370 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. determined to prevent its ratification. Every argnment rxnd motive which ingenuity or prejudice couhl supply was eagerly paraded l>efore the people to excite their discontent. Public meetings were held and excited orators harangued the multitudes. In New York a copv of the treaty was burned before the governor's mansion. In Philadel- ]>hia there was a similar proceeding ; and the whole country was in an uproar. "Washington, however, believing the treaty to be just in its main provisions, and earnestly desiring that war might be avoided, favored ratification. The majority in the Senate remained unmoved, and finally in the latter part of June, 1795, the terms of settlement were duly ratified, and signed hy the President. It was specified in the treaty that Great Britain should make ample reparation for the injuries done by her privateers, and surrender to the United States certain Western posts which until now had been held by English gar- risons. Thus was the threatened war averted. In October of 1795 the boundary between the United States and Louisiana was settled by a treaty with Spain. The latter country at the same time guaranteed to the Americans the free navigation of the Mis- sissippi. Less honorable was the treaty made with the kingdom of Algiers. For a long time Algerine pirates had infested the Mediter- ranean, preying upon the commerce of civilized nations ; and those nations, in order to purchase exemption from such ravages, had adojjted the ruinous policy of paying the dey of Algiers an annual tribute. In consideration of the tribute the dey agreed that his pirate ships should confine themselves to the Mediterranean, and should not attack the vessels of such nations as made the jiayment. Now, however, with the purpose of injuring France, Great Britain winked at an agreement -with the dey by which the Algerine sea-robbers were turned loose on the Atlantic. By their depredations American commerce suffered greatly ; and the government of the United States was obliged to })urchasc safety by paying the shameful tribute. In the summer of 1796, Tennessee, the third new State, was organized and admitted into the Union. Six years previously Nortli Carolina had surrendered her claims to the territory, which at that time contained a population of thirty-five thousand ; and within five years the number was more than doubled. The first inhabitants of Tennessee were of that hardy race of pioneers to whom the perils of the wilderness are as nothing provided the wilderness is free. By the addition of the two States south-west of the Ohio more than eighty-three thousand square miles of territory were brought under the dominion of civilization. Nothing in history is morfe surprising than the ascendency which WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 371 Washington, unto the end of his official career, continued to exercise over the minds of his countrymen. In the House of Representatives, during the last two sessions, there had been a clear majority against him and his policy ; and yet the House continued its support of his measures. Even the provisions necessary to carry into effect the hated treaty with Great Britain were made by that body, though the vote was close. So powerful were the President's views in determining the actions of the people that Jefferson, writing to IMonnjc at Paris, said : " Congress has adjourned. You will sec by their proceedings the truth of what I always told you, namely, tliat one man outweighs them all in influence over the people, wlio support his judgment against their own and that of their representatives. Republicanism resigns the vessel to its pilot." Washington was solicited to become a candidate for a third elec- tion to the presidency ; but he would not. His resolution had already been made to end his public career. With the Father of his Country the evening of life drew on, and rest was necessary. Accordingly, in September of 1796, he issued to the people of the United States his Farewell Address — a document crowded with precepts of political wisdom, prudent counsels, and chastened patriotism.^ As soon as tlie President's determination was made known the political parties mar- shaled their forces and ]nit forward their champions, John Adams ap- pearing as the candidate of the Federal, and Thomas Jefferson of the anti-Federal party. Antagonism to the Constitution, which had thus far been tlie chief question between the parties, now gave place to another issue — whether it was the true policy of the United States to enter into intimate relations with the republic of France. The anti- Federalists said, Yes .' that all republics have a common end, and that Great Britain was the enemy of them all. The Federalists said. No ! that the American republic must mark out an independent course among the nations, and avoid all foreign alliances. On that issue Mr. Adams was elected, but Mr. Jefferson, having the next highest num- ber of votes, became Vice-President ; for according to the old provis- ion of the Constitution, the person who stood second on the list was declared the second officer in the government. * See Appendix G 372 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER XLVII. ADAMS'S ADMINISTRA TIOX, 1707-lSOl. JOHN ADAMS, second President of the United States, was born ia the town of Braintree, Massachusetts, October 19th, 1735. He was a great-grandson of that Henry Adams wlio, emigrating from Great Brit- ain iu 1640, founded in America a family made famous l)y many illus- trious names. Eiglit sons of the elder Adams settled around Massachusetts Bay, the grandfather of the President in that part of Braintree after- wards called Quincy. The father of John Adams was a Puritan deacon, a selectman of the town, a farmer of small means, and a shoemaker. The son received a classical ed- ucation, being gradu- ated at the age of twenty from Harvard College. For a while he taught school, but finding that vocation to be, as he expressed it, a school of affiiriioii, he turned his attention to the study of law. In this profes.sion he soon became eminent, removed to Boston, engaged ^vith great zeal in the controversy A\ith the mother country, and was er- sons should be added to tlie embassy; and Oliver Ellsworth and Will- iam U. Davie were accordinglv commissioned to proceed to Amsterdam and join Murray in his important mission to the French capital. ^leanwhile, Napoleon IJonaparte had overthrown the Directory of France and made himself first consul of the repul)lic. More wise and politic than his associates in the government, he immediately sought peace witli the the United States. For he saw clearly enough that the impending war would, if prosecuted, inevitably result in an alliance between America and England — a thing most unfavorable to the interests of France. He was also confident that peaceful overtures on his part would l)e met with favor. The three American ambassa- ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION. 875 dors — Murray, Ellsworth and Davie — reached I'aris, after many delays, in the beginning of March, 1800. Negotiations were at once opened, and, in the following September, were happily terminated with a treaty of peace. In all his relations with the United States Naj^oleou acted the mrt of a consistent and honorable ruler. Before the war-cloud was scattered America was called to mourn Ms loss of Washington. On the 14th of December, 1799, after an illness of only a day, the venerated chieftain passed from among the living. All hearts were touched with sorrow. The people put on the garb of mourn- ing. Congress went in funeral procession to the German Lutheran church, where General Henry Lee, the personal friend of AVashington, delivered a touching and eloquent oration. Throughout the civilized world the memory of the great dead was honored with appropriate ceremonies. To the legions of France the event was announced by Bonaparte, who paid a beautiful tribute to the virtues of " the warrior, the legislator and the citizen witiiout reproach." As the body of Washington was laid in the .sepulchre, the voice of partisan malignity that had not hesitated to assail liis name was hushed into everlasting silence ; and the world with un- covered head agreed with Lord Byron in declaring the illustrious dead to have been among warriors, statesmen and patriots " The first, the last, the best. The Cincinnatus of the West." The administration of Adams and the eighteenth century drew to a -close together. In spite of domestic dissensions and foreign alarms, the new republic was growing strong and influential. The census of 1800 showed that the po[)ulation of the country, including the black men, had increased to over five millions. The seventy-five post-offices reported by the census of 1790 had been multiplied to nine hundred and three; the exports of the United States had grown from twenty millions to nearly .seventy-one millions of dollars. The permanency of the Constitution as the supreme law of the land was now cheerfully recognized. In Decem- ber of 1800 Congress for the first time assemljled in Washington city, the new capital of the nation. Virginia and Maryland had ceded to the United States the District of Columbia, a tract ten miles square lying on both sides of the Potomac ; but the part given by Virginia was afterward re-ceded to that State. The city which was designed as the seat of govern- ment was laid out in 1792 ; and in 1800 the population numbered be- tween eight and nine thousand. With prudent management and unanimity the Federal party might have retained control of the government. But there were dissensions in 376 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Mr. Adanis's cabinet. iVIucli of the recent legislation of Congress had been unwise and unpopular. The alien law, by which the President was authorized to send out of the country any foreigners whose presence should be considered prejudicial to the interests of the United States, was specially odious. Tlie sedition law, which punished with fine and im- prisonment the freedom of speech and of the press when directed abusively against the government, was denounced by the opposition as an act of tyranny. Partisan excitement ran high. Mr. Adams and Mr. Charles C. Pinckney were put forward as the candidates of the Federalists, and Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr of the Rej)ublicans or Democrats. The latter were trium])hant. In the electoral college Jefferson and Burr each received seventy-three votes ; Adams, sixty-five ; and Pinckney, sixty-four. In order to decide between the Democratic candidates, the election was re- ferred to the House of Representatives. After thirty-five ballotings, the choice fell on Jefferson ; and Burr, who was now second on the list, was declared Vice-President. After controlling the government for twelve years, the Federal party passed from power, never to be restored. CHAPTER XLVIII. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION, lSOl-1809. rPHOMAS JEFFERSON was liorn in the county of Albemarle,. J- Virginia, on the "id of April, 1743. Of his ancestry, history has preserved no record otlier than the name of his father. Colonel Peter Jefferson, a man noted for native abilities and force of character. The son found excellent advantages of early training in tlie private school of an exiled Scottish clergyman, and afterwards completed his educa- tion at William and Mary College. He then entered upon the study of law, and soon rose to distinction. Like his predecessor in the pres- idential office, he became in his early manhood deeply absorbed in the controversy with the mother country, and by his radical views in the- House of Burgesses contributed much to fix forever the sentiments of that body against the arbitrary measures of tlie English ministry. From the councils of his native State Jefferson was soon called to the councils of the nation. His coming was anxiously awaited in the famous Congress of 1776; for his fame as a thinker and a demo- JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRA TION. sn orat had preceded him. To his pen and brain the almost exclusive authorship of the great Declaration must be awarded. During the struggles of the Revolution he was among the most distinguished and uncompromising of the patriot leaders. After the war was over, he was sent abroad with Adams and Franklin to negotiate treaties of amity and com- merce with the Eu- ropean nations, and was then appointed minister plenipoten- tiary o f t he n c \v Republic to France. From this high trust he was recalled to become secretary of state under Wash- ington; in 1796 was elected Vice - Presi - dent, and in 1800 President of the United States. The American decimal system of coinage, the statute for relig- ious freedom, the Declaration of Independence, the University of Virginia, and the presidency of the Union are the immutable foun- dations of his fame. At the beginning of his administration Mr. Jefferson transferred the chief offices of the government to members of the Democratic party. This policy had in some measure been adopted by his prede- cessor; but the principle was now made universal. Such action was justified by the adherents of the President on the ground that the affairs of a rejiublic will be best administered when the officers bold the same political sentiments. One of the first acts of Congress was to abolish the system of internal revenues. The unpopular laws against foreigners and the freedom of the press were also repealed. But the territorial legislation of Jefferson's first term was most important of all. In the year 1800 a line was drawn through the North-west THOMAS .lEFFERSON. ;}78 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Territory from the mouth of the Great Miami River to Fort Recovery, and thence to Canada. Two years afterward the country east of tliis line was erected into the State of Ohio and admitted into the Union. The portion west of the line, embracing the present States of Indi- ana, Illinois, AVis(«nsin and a part of Michigan, was organized under the name of the Indiana Tkrritory. Vincennes was the capital ; and General William Henry Harrison received the appointment of govei'nor. About the same time the organization of the Mississippi Tereitoey, extending from the western limits of Georgia to the great river, was completed. Thus another grand and fertile district of a hundred thousand square miles was reclaimed from barbarism. More important still was the purchase of Louisiana. In 1800 Napoleon had compelled Spain to make a secret cession of this vast territory to France. The First Consul then prepared to send an army to New Orleans for the purpose of establishing his authority. But the government of the United States remonstrated against such a pro- ceeding ; France was threatened with multiplied wars at home ; and Bonaparte, seeing the difficulty of maintaining a colonial empire at so great a distance, authorized his minister to dispose of Louisiana by sale. The President appointed Mr. Livingston and James Monroe to negotiate the purchase. On the 30th of April, 1803, the terms of transfer were agreed on by the agents of the two nations ; and for the sum of eleven million two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, Louisi- ana M'as ceded to the United States.* In another convention, which was signed on the same day, it was agreed that the government of the United States should assume the payment of certain debts due from France to American citizens ; but the sum thus assumed should not, inclusive of interest, exceed three million seven hundred and fitly thousand dollars. Thus did the vast domain west of the Mississippi, embracing an area of more thau a million scpiare miles, pass under the dominion of the United States. Four nations — France, the United States, Great Britain, and Spain — were concerned in determining the boundaries of the ceded territory. In regard to tiie eastern limit, all were agreed that it should be the Mississippi from its source to the thirty-first parallel / otw to destroy the most formidable ve.'i.'seh which could be constructed. Finally his plans were matured, and the result was the invention of that sub- marine bomb, called the Torpedo, which has played so important a part in the bay and river battles of modern times. This terrible ma- chine is as distinctly and certainly the fruit of Fulton's brain as is steam navigation itself; but the result has hardly met the expectations of the inventor. As early as 180-i, having completed the invention at Paris, he offered it successively to the governments of France, Hol- land, and Great Britain ; but neither nation would accept the patron- age of so dangerous an engine. In England a public demonstration of its destructive effects was given in the presence of British states- men and men of science.* On the 15th of October, in Walmer Koads, within sight of the residence of William Pitt, the Danish brig Doro- thea, which had been given by the government for that purpose, was blown to atoms on the first trial. But, although the success of the torpedo was manifest, the English ministry refused to accept the in- vention on the ground that Great Britain, already mistress of the seas, did not need torpedoes, and that their use by other nations would de- stroy her supremacy. Logic of habitual selfishness ! In 1807, and again in 1810, Fulton offered his invention to the United States, and in the latter year received an appropriation of five thousand dollars for further experiments. Such was the terror inspired by the torpedo that, although it was not very successfully used in the war that ensued,, the British cruisers were notably shy of the American coast, and many a sea-port town was saved from destruction. * Colonel Congreve, inventor of the "Congreve Kocket," was present on the occasion. 388 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Jefferson's administration drew ti> a close. The territorial area of the United States had been vastly extended. Burr's wicked and dangerous conspiracy had come to naught. Pioneers were pouring into the valley of the Mississippi. Ex2>lorers had crossed the mount- ains of the great West. The woods by the river-shores resounded with the cry of steam. But the foreign relations of the United States were troubled and gloomy. There were forebodings of war. The President, following the example of Washington, declined a tliird election, and was succeeded in his liigh ofliice by James Madison of Virginia. For Vice-President George C'linton was re-elected. CHAPTER XLIX. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION, AND WAR OF 1812. JAMES MADISON, fourth President of the United States, was born at King George, Virginia, on the 16th of March, 1751. He was educated first in a private school and afterwards at I'rinceton College, where he was graduated at the age of twenty. Devoting himself to the profession of the law, he found time for extensive reading and a profound study of morals, metaphysics, and jiolite literature. From these pursuits, so congenial to his disposition, his sterling patriotism called him to take an active part in the struggles of the Revolution. In the councils of his own State and afterwards iu the Continental Congress his influence was marked and powerful. But of all the pa- triot leaders Madison had the calmest and least aggressive spirit. Not by oratory and vehemence of })assion, biit by philosophy and cogent' argument, did he mould the opinicms of his fellow-men. It was he who, in 1786, secured the passage by the legislature of Virginia of the resolution, suggested by Washington, calling for a convention of the States at Annapolis — a work which resulted iu the formation of the Federal Constitution. Afterwards, with Hamilton and Jay, he defended that great instrument in the Federal id ; but with the new division of parties, his views underwent a change and he joined him- self with the Jeffersonian school of statesmen. For eight years he lield the office of secretary of state; and on the 4th of March, 1809. was inaugurated as Jefferson's successor in the presidency. He owed his election to the Democratic party, whose sympatliy with France and hostility to the policy of Great Britain were well known. Three MA DTSOWS ADMINISTRA TION. 389 days before the new administration came into power, the embargo act was i-epealed l)y Congress; but another measure was adopted instead, called the non-intercourse act. By its terms American merchantmen were allowed to go abroad, but were forbidden to trade with Great Brit- ain. Mr. Erskine, the British minister, now gave notice that by the 10th of .Tmie the "orders in council," so far as they affect- ed the United States, should be I'cpcaled. But tlie Britisli gov- ernment disavowed the act of its agent ; and the orders stood as before. In the following spring the emperor of the French issued a decree authoriz- ing the seizure of all American vessels that might approach the ports of France or other harbors held by his troops. But in November of the same year the hostile decree was I'eversed, and all restrictions on the c seven thousand five hundred regulars and forty thousand militia. Back of all these forces and armaments stood the seemingly inexhaust- ible Britisli treasury, v.'ii^i the ambitious young Lord Castlercagh and 394 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. SCENE OF HULL'S CAMPAIGN, 1812. his associate ministers to disburse it. As to George III., old age and incurable insanitv had at hist prevaik'd to disphice him t'roni the throne and to make tlie Prince Regent, George IV., the actual sovereign. In all that appertained to preparation and readiness for the conflict the United States bore no comparison to tiie j)()\v- erful foe. The first movement of the war Mas luaiL i)y General William Hull, governor of Midii- ffan Territorv. A force of twelve hundred Oiiio volunteers, together with three hundred regu- lars, was organized at Dayton for tlie purpose of overawing the Indians on the north-western frontier. Hull was also authorized, should cir- cumstances warrant such a course, to invade and conquer Ganada. The march began on the 1st of June; and it was a full month before the army, toiling through more than two hundred miles of forests, reached the western extremity of Lake Erie. Arriving at the Maumec, Hull despatched his baggage, stores and official papers in a boat to Detroit. But the British forces posted at Maiden had already been informed of the declaration of hostilities ; and Hull's boat with every thing on board was captureil Nevertheless, the American army pressed on to Detroit, where earl\ in July the general received despatches informing him of the dec- laration of war, and directing him to proceed with the invasion of Ganada. On the 12th of the month he crossed the Detroit River to Sandwich with the avowed puri)Ose of capturing Maiden. And this might easily have been accomplished had not the inefficiency of the general checked the enthusiasm of the army. Meanwhile, the news came that the American post at Mackinaw- had been surprised and captured by the British. This intelligence fur- nished Hull a good excuse for rccrossing the river to Detroit. Here he received intelligence that Major Brush, sent forward by Governor Meigs of Ohio, was approaching with reinforcements and supplies. Major Van Home was accordingly desjiatched with a body of troops to meet Brush at the River Raisin and conduct him safely to Detroit. But Teeumtha, assisted by some British troops, had cut the lines of communication and laid an ambush for Van Home's forces in th' neigborhood of Brownstown. The scheme was successful; Van Horm ran into the trap and was severely defeated. Any kind of energetic movement on Hull's part would have retrieved the disaster; but en- MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 395 ergy was altogether wanting; and when, three days later, Colonel Mil- ler with another detachment attacked and routed the savages with great loss, he Mas hastily recalled to Detroit. The officers and men lost all faith in the commander, and there were symptoms of a mutiny. In the mean time. General Brock, the governor of Upper Can- ada, arrived at Maiden and took eomraand of the British forces. Act- ing in conjunction with Tecumtha, he crossed the river, and on the 16th of August advanced to the siege of Detroit. The Americans in their trenches outside of the fort were eager for battle, and stood witli lighted matches awaiting the order to fire. When the British were within five hundred yards, to the amazement of both armies Hull hoisted a white flag over the fort. There was a brief parley and tlien a surrender, perhaps the most shameful in the history of the United States. Not only the army in Detroit, but all the forces under Hull's command, became prisoners of war. The whole of Michigan Territory was surrendered to the British. At the capitulation the American offi- cers in rage and despair stamped the ground, broke their swords and tore off their epaulets. Tlie whole country was humiliated at the dis- graceful business. The government gave thirty British prisoners in exchange for Hull, and he was brought before a court-martial charged with treason, cowardice and conduct unbecoming an officer. He was convicted on the last two charges, and sentenced to be shot ; but the President,. having compassion on one who had served the country in the Revolution, pardoned him. After all the discussions that have been had on Hull and his campaign, the best that can be said of him is that he was a jiatriot and a coward. About the time of the fall of Detroit, Fort Dearborn, on the present site of Chicago, was invested by an army of Indians. The garrison was feeble, and the commandant proposed a surrender on condition that his men should retire without molestation. This was agreed to ; but the savages, finding that the garrison had destroyed the whisky that was in the fort, fell upon the retreating soldiers, killed some of them, and distributed the rest as captives. On the day after the capitulation Fort Dearborn was burned to the ground. These losses, however, were more than compensated by the brill- iant achievements of the young American navy. From the first it became ap])arent tiiat the war was destined to be a conflict on the sea- coast and the ocean. The United States would act for the most part on the defensive, and Great Britain would rely chiefly upon her navy. The condition of both nations was such as to provoke this sort of war- fare. On the one side was the British armament superior to any other 396 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. in the world, and on the other an exposed sea-coast, a few fortresses, and a navy of almost insignificant proportions. From the beginning, the policy of the American government had been distinctly declared against a standing army and a regular fleet. It was held that a citizen soldierv and an extemporized flotilla would be sufficient for every emergency. A large military establishment, said the defenders of the American system, is enormously expensive and a constant menace to civil libertv. After the Kcvolution, especially during the administra- tion of Jefferson, tlie military spirit Mas discouraged and tlie defenses of the country fell into decay. In 1808 the whole coast of Maine was defended only by Fort Sumner, at Portland. New Hampshire had but one fortress, a half ruined block-house at Portsmouth. On the coast of Massachusetts four fortifications — one at C\i]w Ann, one at Salem, one at Marblehead, and Fort Independence in Boston Harbor furnished the only security against attack. In the neighborhood of Newport, Rhode Island, there were six works, some of importance, others insignificant. Xew London, Connecticut, was defended by Fort Trumbull, a block-house of considerable strength but in bad repair. On Governor's Island, in Xew York Harbcn-, stood Fort Jay, which, together with the Batterv at the .south end of IManhattan and some slight fortifications on Ellis's and Bedloc's Islands, furnished a toler- able protection. The whole coast of New Jersey lay open to invasion On Mud Island in the Delaware, a short distance below Pl>iladelphia, stood the formidable Fort Mifflin, an old British fort of the Revolu- tion. Not less in strength and importance was Fort McHenry on the Patapsco, commanding the approach to Baltimore. Annapolis was defended by Fort Severn, then only a grt)up of breast-works. Nor- folk, A'irginia, relied for protection on a fort of the same name and another work, called Fort Nelson, on the opposite side of Elizabeth River. In Charleston Harbor stood Fort Johnson on James's Island, Fort Pinckney in front of the city, aiul Fort ^loultrie of Revolutionary fame. Upon these scattered fortifications and the terror inspired by Fulton's torpedoes the Americans must depend for the defense of a coast-line reaching from Passamaquoddy to the St. ]\Iary's. Such was the attitude and relative strength of the two nations. Great, therefore, was the astonishment of the world when the American sailors, not waiting to be attacked, went forth without a tremor to smite the mistress of the .seas. And greater the admiration Avhen a series of brilliant victories declared for the flag of the Republic. During the summer of 1812 the navy of the United States won a just and lasting renown. On the 19th of August the frigate Consiltidion, MADISOX'S ADMINISTRATION. 397 commanded l)v Captain I.saac Hull, overtook the British ship-of-war Guerrierr, off the coast of Massaeluisetts. Captain Dacres, who com- manded the British vessel, had been boasting of his prowess and send- ing challenges to American vessels to come ont and fight; now there was an opportunity to exhibit his valor. The vessels mananivred for a while, the Conditution closing with her antagonist, until at half-pistol shot she poured in a terrible broadside, sweeping the decks of tlie Guerrierc and deciding the contest. Dacres, after losing fifteen men killed and sixty-three wounded, struck his colors and surrendered his shattered vessel as a prize. The American loss was seven killed and an equal number wounded. On the following morning the Guerriere, being unmanageable, was blown up; and Hull returned to j)ort with his prisoners and spcnls. On the 18th of October the American sloop-of-war Wasji, of eighteen guns, under command of Captain Jones, fell in with a fleet of British merchantmen oif the coast of Virginia. The squadron was under convoy of the brig Frolic, of twenty-two guns, commanded by Captain Whinyates, who put his vessel between the merchantmen and the WoNp, and prepared for battle. A terrible engagement ensued, lasting for three-quarters of an hour. Both ships became nearly help- less; but the Wasp closed with her foe and delivered a final broadside which completely cleared the deck. The American crew then boarded ^he Frolic and struck tlie British flag; for not a seaman was left above deck to perform that service. Scarcely had the smoke of the conflict cleared away when the Poicticrs, a British .seventy-four gun ship, bore down upon the scene, captured the Wasp and retook the wreck of the Frolic. But the fame of Captain Jones's victory was not dimmed by the catastrophe. Seven days afterward. Commodore Decatur, commanding the frigate United Sfatc-s, of forty-four guns, attacked the British frigate Macedonia, of forty-nine guns. The battle was fought a short distance west of the Canary Islands. After a two hours' engagement, in which the Vnilcd States was but little injured, the Macedonia surrendered, witli a loss in killed and wounded of more than a hundred men. On the 12th of December the ship Essex, commanded by Captain Porter, captured the Nocton, a British packet, having on board fifty-five thou- sand dollars in specie. More important still was the capture of the frigate Java by the Constitution, now under command of Commodore Bainbridge. On the 29th of December the two vessels met off San Salvador, on the coast of Brazil. A furious battle ensued, continuing for two hours. Every mast was torn from the British ship, and her 398 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. liiill was biir.st with round shot. The deck was made slippery with tlie blood of more than two hundred killed and wounded seamen. Tiie vessel was reduced to a wreek before her flag was struck ; then the erew and passengers, numbering upward of four hundred, were trans- ferred to the Constitution, and the hull of the Java was burned at sea. The news of these successive victories roused the enthusiasm of the ])eople to the highest pitch. In the course of the year two hundred and fifty British ships, carrying three thousand .sailors, and cargoes of immense value, were captured by the American cruisers. Filled with exultation, the people of the United States saw in these naval tri- umphs the omens of complete overthrow to the arrogant dominion of Britain on the seas. The nations of Europe heard in astoni.shment. France was well pleased ; for in these humiliations of her great enemy she witnessed the fulfillment of Napoleon's prophecy when, at the cession of Louisiana, he exclaimed with delight: " There! I have this day given to England a maritime rival that will sooner or later hum- ble her pride!" For a while the English themselves were well-nigh paralyzed. The British newspapers burst forth raging and declared that the time-honored flag of England had been di.sgraced " by a piece of striped bunting flying at the mast-heads of a few fir-built frigates,' manned by a handful of * ''^ * * and outlaws!" And the com- ment, though stated in unpleasant language, was true ! During the summer and autumn of 1812 military operations were active, but not decisive, on the Niagara frontier. The troops in that quarter, consisting of the New York militia, a few regulars, and recruits from other States, were commanded by General Stephen Van Rensselaer. The first movement of the Americans was made against Queenstown, on the Canada side of the river. On the 13th of October a thousand men were embarked in boats and landed on the western .shore. 'They were resisted at the water's edge, and Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer, the leader, was wounded. Tiie subordinate officers led the charge, and the British batteries on the heights of Queenstown were carried. The enemy's forces were ral- lied, however, by General Brock, and returning to the charge, were a second time repulsed. General Brock fell mortally wounded. The Americans began to entrench themselves, and orders were sent across the river for the remaining division, twelve hundred strong, to has- ten to the rescue. But the American militia on the eastern shore de- clared that they were there to defend the United States, and not to invade Canada. There they stood all afternoon, while their comrades at Queenstown were surrounded by the British, who came with .strong MADISON'S ADMINISTRA TION. 399 rb-'-'".'^ reinforcements from Fort George. The Americans bravely defended themselves until they had lost a hundred and sixty men in killed and wounded, and were then obliged to surrender. General Van Rensse- laer, disgusted at the conduct of the New York militia, resigned his command, and was succeeded by General Alexander Smyth of Virginia. This officer began his career as com- mander by issuing two proclamations that would have put to shame the bulletins of Bonaparte or Caesar. He declared that in a few days his standards should be planted in the strongholds of Canada. After cross- ing Niagara and conquering the British do- minions, he would annex them to the United States ! His predecessors in command of the army had been popular men, but wholly des- titute of skill or experience in the art of war ! The soldiers of the "Army of the Center," as he called the militia under his authority, had now a general who would lead them to cer- tain victory ! Every man who performed a gallant action should have his name immortalized in the annals of liis country ! And so on for quantity and style. In the mean time the Americans, numbering between four and five thousand, had been rallied at Black Rock, a few miles north of Buffalo. From this point, on the 28th of November, a company was sent across to the Canada shore ; but instead of following with a stronger detachment, General Smyth ordered the advance party to return. A few days afterward another crossing was planned, and the Americans were already embarked, when they were commanded to return to winter quarters. The militia became mutinous. Smyth was charged with cowardice and disloyalty, and after three months was deposed from his command. Thus ended the military operations of 1812. In the autumn Madison was re-elected President; the choice for Vice-President fell on Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. In the debates at the opening of Congress the policy of the administration was strongly condemned by the opponents of the war ; but vigorous measures were adopted for strengthening the army and navy. THE NIAGARA FBONTIER, 1812. 400 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER L. WAR OF 1812— CONTINUED. IN the beginning of 1813 the Amerieau army was organized in three divisions: THE Army of the North, commanded by General Wade Hampton, to operate in the country of Ijake Champlain ; THE Army of the Centre, under direction of tlie commander-in-chief, to resume offensive movements on the Niagara frontier and Lake Ontario ■, THE Army of the West, under command of General Winchester, who M'as soon superseded by General Harrison. Early in January the latter division, made up of various detacliraents of militia from the Western States, moved toward the head of Lake Erie to regain the •ground lost by Hull in the previous summer. On the 10th of the mouth the American advance, composed of eight hundred men under Winchester, reached the rapids of the Maumee. A body of British and Indians was posted at Frenclitown, on the river ILaisin, thirty miles from Winchester's camp. A detachment of Americans pressed forward, attacked the enemy, captured the town, encamijcd there, and on the 20th of the month were joined by Winchester \\\t\\ the main division. Two days afterward the Americans were suddenly a.ssaulted by a force of a thousand five hundred British and Indians under command of General Proctor. A severe battle was fought, each party losing nearly three hundred men. The British were checked, and for a while the issue was doubtful ; but General Winchester, having been taken by the enemy, advised his forces to capitulate under a pledge of protection given by Proctor and his subordinates. As soon as the surrender \\as made the British general set off at a rapid rate to return to Maiden. The American wounded were left to the mercy of the savages, who at once began their work with tomahawk and scalping-knife and torch. The two houses into which most of the wounded had been crowded were fired, while the painted barbarians stood around and hurled back into the flames whoever attempted to escape. The rest of the prisoners were di-agged away through imtold sufferinars to Detroit, where thev were ransomed at an enormous price. This shameful campaign has fixed on the name of Proctor the indelible stain of infamy. General Harrison, on hearing the fate of Winchester's division, fell back from the Maumee, but soon returned and built Fort Meigs. Here WAR OF 12. 401 he remained until the 1st of May, when he was besieged by a force of two thousand British and savages, led by Proctor and Teeunitha. Meanwhile, General Clay with twelve hundred Kentuekians advanced to the relief of the fort. The besiegers were attacked in turn, and at the same time the besieged made a successful sally. But for the mistake of Colonel Dudley, who allowed his detachment to be cut off and captured, the British would have been completely routed. Again the American prisoners were treated with savage cruelty until Tecumtha, not Proctor, interfered to save them. In a few days the Indians deserted in large numbers, and Proctor, be- coming alarmed, abandoned the siege, and on the 9th of May retreated U. Maiden. For nearly three months active operations were suspended. In the latter part of July, Proctor and Tecumtha with a force of nearly four thousand men returned to Fort Meigs, now commanded by General Clay. For several da}-s tlie British general beat about the American position, attempting to draw out the garrison. Failing in that, he filed off with about half his forces and attacked Fort Stephenson, at Lower Sandusky. This 2'lace was defended by a hundred and sixty men under command of Colonel Croghan, a stripling but twenty -one years of age. But he ex- hibited the skill and bravery of a veteran. To the enemy's summons, accompanied with a threat of massacre in case of refusal, he answered that the fort should l)e licld as long as there was a man left alive within it. For a while the British cannonaded the ramparts without much effect, and on the 2d of August advanced to carry the place by storm. Croghan filled his only gun with slugs and grape-shot, and masked it in such a position as to rake tlio ditch from end to end. The British, believing the fort to be silenced, crowded into the fatal trench, and were swept away almost to a man. The repulse was complete. Proctor, fearing the ap- proach of Harrison, raised the siege and returned to Maiden. At this time the waters of Lake Erie were commanded by a British squadron of six vessels carrying sixty-three guns. It was seen that a suc- cessful invasion of Canada could only be made by first gaining control of the lake. This serious undertaking was imposed on Commodore Oliver- H. Perry of Rhode Island — a young man not twenty-eight years old who had never been in a naval battle. His antagonist. Commodore Barclay, was a veteran from the sea-service of Europe, ^yith indefatigable energy Perry directed the construction of nine ships, carrying fifty-four guns, and was soon afloat on the lake. On the 10th of September the two fleets met a short distance north-west of Put-in Bay. Careful directions had Iieen given by both commanders for the impending battle ; both were resolved on victory. The fight was begun by the American squadron, Perry's 402 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. flag-sliip, the Lawrence, leading the attack. His principal antagonist was the Detroit, under the immediate command of Barclay. The British guns, being longer, had the wider range, and were better served. The Lawrence was ruined ; nearly all the cannon were dismounted, masts torn away, sailors killed. Between the other ships the battle was proceeding in a desultory W'ay without much damage ; but Barclay's flag-ship was almost as nearly wrecked as the La.wrencc. Perceiving with quick eye how the battle stood, the dauntless Perry, himself unhurt, put on his uniform, seized his ban- Tier, got overboard into an open boat, passed within pistol-shot of the enemy's ships, a storm of balls flying around him, and transferred his flag to the Niagara. A shout went uj) from the American fleet ; it was the signal of victory. With the jiowerful Niagara still uninjured by the battle. Perry bore down upon the enemy's line, drove right through the midst, discharging terrible broadsides right and let"t. In fifteen minutes the work was done ; the British fleet was helpless. Perry with a touch of pride returned to the bloody deck of the Lawrence, and there received the surrender. And then he sent to General Harrison this famous despatch : " We have met the enemy, and they are ours — two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop." This victory gave the Americans full control of Lake Erie. Both Proctor and Harrison awaited the result. If Barclay should win. Proctor would invade Ohio ; if Perry should prove victorious, Harrison would con(juer Canada. For the Americans the way was now opened. On the 27th of September Harrison's army was embarked at Sandusky Bay and landed near Maiden. The disheartened British retreated to Sandwich, the Araericans following hard after. From the latter place Proctor con- tinued his retreat to the river Thames, and there faced about to fight. The battle-field was well chosen by the British, M'hose lines extended from the river to a swamp. Here, on the 5th of October, they were attacked by the Americans led by Harrison and General Shelby, governor of Kentucky. In the beginning of the battle. Proctor, being a coward, ran. The British regulars sustained the attack with firnmess, and were only broken when furiously charged by the Kentuckians under Colonel Richard M. Johnson. When that part of the field was won, the Ameri- cans wheeled against the Indians, who, to the number of fifteen hundred, lay hidden in the swamp to the west. Here the battle raged fiercely. Tecumtha had staked all on the issue. For a while his war-whoop sounded above the din of the conflict. Presently his voice was heard no longer, for the great chieftain had flillen. At the same time Colonel Johnson was borne away severely wounded. The savages, appalled by WAR OF '12. 403 the death of their leader, fled in despair. The victory was complete. So ended the campaign in tlie AVe^;t. The Indian confederacy was broken to pieces. All that Hull had lost was regained. Michigan was recovered. Ohio no longer feared invasicm. Perry swept Lake Erie with liLs fleet. Canada was prostrated before the victorious army of Harrison. Meanwhile, the Creeks of Alabama, kinsmen of the Shawnees, had taken up arms. In the latter part of August, Fort Mims, forty miles north of ]\Iobilc, was surprised by the savages, who appeased their thirst for blood with the murder of nearly four hundred people ; not a woman or child was spared, and but few of the men in the fort escaped. The news of the massacre spread consternation throughout the Southwest. The governors of Tennessee, Georgia and Mississippi Territory made immediate preparations for invading the country of the Creeks. The Tennesseeans, under command of General Jackson, were first to the res- cue. A detachment of nine hundred men, led by General Coffee, reached the Indian town of Tallusiiatchee, attacked it, burned it, left not an Indian alive. On the Sth of Novem- ber a battle was fought at Talladega, east of the Coosa, and the savages were defeated with severe losses. In the latter part of the same month another fight occurred at Autosse, on the south bank of the Tallapoosa, and again the Indians were routed. During the winter Jackson's troops, un- jirovidcd and starving, became mutinous and were going home. But the general set the example of living on acorns ; then rode before the rebellious line and threatened with death the first mutineer who stirred. And no man stirred. On the 22d of January, 1814, the battle of Emucfau was fought on the west bank of the Tallapoosa. The valor of the Tennesseeans again gave them the victory. At Tohopeka, called by the whites the Horseshoe Bend, the Creeks made their final stand. Here the Tallapoosa winds westward and northward, enclosing a large tract of land in the form of a peninsula with a narrow neck. This posi- tion the Indians had fortified with more than their usual skill. The whites, led by General Coffee, surrounded the place, so as to prevent escape by crossing the river. On the 27th of March, the main body of whites under General Jackson stormed the breastworks and drove the Indians into the bend. There, huddled together without the pos- eibility of escape, a thousand Creek warriors, wiih the women and SCENE OF THE CREEK WAR, 1S13-H. 404 HI;STORY OF THE UNITED STATES. children of the tribe, met tlieir doom. Tiie desperate Red men asked no quarter, and none was given. Tlie few chiefs who were still abroad sent in their submission ; the S2nrit of the nation -svas completely broken. On the 25th of A})ril, 1813, General Dearborn, commanding the Army of the Centre, embarked his forces at Sackett's Harbor, near the eastern extremity of Luke Ontario. The object of the expedition was tc capture Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada. Here was the most im- portant depot of supplies in British America. The American fleet under Connnodore Chauncey had already obtained the mastery of the lake, so that Dearborn's passage was unopposed. On the 27th of the month a force of seventeen hundred men, commanded by General Pike, was landed within two miles of Toronto. At the water's edge they were met by the British. The Americans drove the enemy for a mile and a half, stormed a battery, and rashed forward to carry the main de- fences. At that moment the British magazine blew up with terrific violence. The assaulting column was covered with the debris of the explosion. Two hundred men were killed or wounded. General Pike was fatally injured, but lived long enough to hear the shout of vic- tory ; for the Americans, first shocked and then maddened by the calamity, made a furious charge and drove the British out of the town. General Sheaffe with a body of regulars escaped ; the rest were taken prisoners. Property to the value of a half million dollars was secured to the victors. While this movement was taking place the enemy made a descent on Sackett's Harbor. By the withdrawal of the American forces that post had been left exposed. The British succeeded in destroying a quan- tity of stores; but General Brown rallied the militia, ami drove back the assailants with considerable loss. Meanwhile, the victorious troops at Toronto had re-embarked and crossed the lake to the mouth of the Xiagara. On the 27th of I\Iay the Americans, led by Generals Chandler and Winder, crossed the river and stormed Fort George, on the Canada shore. The Britisii hastily destroyed their posts along the Niagara and retreated to Burlington Bay, at the western extremity of the lake. The Americans, pursuing them thither, were attacked in the night, but suc- ceeded in repulsing the enemy with loss. During the months of summer military operations on the frontier were suspended. After the battle of the Thames, General Harrison had transferred his forces to Buffalo, and then resigned his commission. Or. account of old age and ill health General Dearborn also withdrew from she service, and wao succeeded by General M'ilkinson. The next cam- WAR OF 12. 405 paign, which was jjlanned by General Armstrong, secretary of war, em- braced the couquest of Montreal. For this purpose the Army of tlie Centre, under Wilkinson, was ordered to join the Army of the North at some convenient point on the St. Lawrence. The enterprise was attended with many difficulties and not a few delays. Not until the 5th of Novem- ber did a force of seven thousand men, embarking from the mouth of French Creek, twenty miles north of Sackett's Harbor, sail down the St. Lawrence for the conquest of Montreal. Parties of British, Canadians and Indians, gathering on the northern bank of the river, constantly im- peded the progress of the expedition. General Brown was landed with a considerable force to disperse these bands or drive the enemy into the interior. On the 11th of the month a severe battle was fought at a ]>]ace called Chrysler's Field. Neither party gained a victory, but the advantage remained with tlie British. The Americans, having lost nearly tliree hundred men in the fight, passed down the river to St. Regis, on the southern shore, where tlie forces of General Hampton were expected from Plattsburg to form a junction with ^yilkinson's command. But Hampton did not stir; and the project of attacking Montreal had to be abandoned. The Americans then went into winter quarters at Fort Covington, at the fork of Salmon River, nine miles from St. Regis. In the mean time, the British on the Niagara frontier rallied and advanced against Fort George. General McClure, the commandant, aliandoned the place on the approach of the enemy, but before retreating burned the Canadian town of Newark. It cost the people of Northern New York dearly ; for the British and Indians crossed the river, cap- tured Fort Niagara, and fired the villages of Youngstown, Lcwiston and Manchester. On next to the last day of the year Black Rock and Buffalo were laid in ashes. In the sea-fights of 1813 victory generally declared for the British. During the year both nations wasted much blood and treasure on the ocean. Off the coast of Demarara, on the 24th of February, the sloop- of-war Hornet, commanded by Captain James Lawrence, fell in with the British brig Peacock. The ships were ecpially matched. A terrible battle of fifteen minutes ensued, and the Peacock, already sinking, struck her colors. While the Americans were trying to transfer the conquered crew tlie ocean ya\vned and the brig sank out of sight. Nine British sailora and three of Lawrence's men were sucked down in the whirlpool. On returning to Boston the command of the Chesapeake — one of the best frigates in the American navy — was given to Lawrence, and again he put to sea. Before sailing he received a challenge from Captain 406 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Broke, of the British frigate Shannon, to come out and fight liim. Law- rence ought not to have accepted the banter ; for his ecjuijiments were incomplete and his crew ill assorted, sick and half mutinous. But he was young, and the favorite of the nation ; fired with applause, he went un- hesitatingly to meet his foe. Eastward from Cape Ann the two vessels met on the firet day of June. The l)attle was obstinate, brief, dreadful In a short time every officer who could direct the movements of the C'hraapeahe was cither killed or wounded. The brave young Lawrence was struck with a musket-ball, and fell dying on the bloody deck. As they bore him down the hatchway he gave in feeble voice his last heroic order — ever afterward the motto of the American sailor — " Dfjx'T GIVE UP THE ship!" The British were already leaping on deck, and the flag of England was hoisted over the shattered vessel. Both ships were charnel-houses; but the Shannon was still able to tow her prize into the harbor of Halifax. There the bodies of Lawrence and Ludlow, second in command, were tenderly and honorably buried by the British. The next important naval battle was fought on the 14th of August between the American brig Argas and the British Pelican. The former vessel had made a daring cruise about the coasts of England, capturing more than twenty ships. Herself overtaken by the Pelican, she was obliged, after a severe couflict, to surrender. On the 5th of September another British brig, the Boxer, cruising otf the coast of IMaine, was over- liauled and captured by the American Enterprise, commanded by Captain Burrows. The fight raged for three-quarters of an hour, when the Boxer surrendered. Captain Blyth, the British commander, was killed ; and the gallant Burrows received a mortal wound. The bodies of both officers were taken to Portland and buried side by side with military honors. All summer long Captain Porter in the frigate Essex cruised in the South Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. For five months he was tb.e terror of British mei-chantmen in those broad waters. On the 28th of the following March, while the Essex was lying in the harbor of A"al- paraiso, she was beset, contrary to the law of nations, by two powerful British vessels, the Phoebe and the Cherub. The Essex had been crippled by a storm, and was anchored in neutral waters ; in that condition Captain Porter fought his two antagonists until nearly all of his men were killed or wounded ; then struck his colors and surrendered. Notwithstanding the losses sustained by the American na\y, privateers continued to scour ihe ocean and capture British vessels. From honorable Marfare the naval officers of England stooped to marauding along the sea-shore. Early in the }ear a squadron entered THE CAMPAIGNS OF 14. 407 Delaware Bay and anchored before Lewistown. A requisition on the in- liabitants to supply the fleet with provisions was met with a brave refusal, A threat to burn the town was answered with a message of defiance. A bombardment of twenty-four houre' iluration followed ; the houses were mucli injured, and the people fled, carrying their property to places of 3afety. Other British men-of-war entered the Chesapeake and burne6t of stores at Mackinaw. A I'eginient of six hundred men, commanded by Colonel Croghan, famous for liis heroism at Sandusky, marched northward in midsummer from De- troit. Some vessels of Perry's tleet accompanied the land forces as a convoy ; but the movement was slow, and Mackinaw was not I'eached until the 4rth of August. Finding the defences of the place too high and strong to be injured i>v his guns (-roghan ordered an assault, which was made with spirit, lut repulsed. The enterprise was then abandoned, with no further injury to the British than the destruc- tion of some supplies and shipping in Georgian Bay. New England did not escape the ravages of war. On the itth and loth of August the village of Stonington, in the south-eastern corner of Connecticut, was bond)arded by Commodore Hardy; but the British, attempting to land, were beaten back by the militia. The fisheries of the New England coast were for the most part bro- ken Tip. The salt-works at Cape Cod escaped only by the payment of heavy ran.-^oms. All the principal harbors from jSlaine to Dela- * During the niglit of the bombardment Francis S. Kej', detained on board a British sliip and watcliing the .American Hag over Fort McHenry — seen at intervals by the glare of rockets and the flasli of cannon — composed The Slar-f^pawjled Banner. 412 HISTORY OF THE VXITED STATES. Mare were iiiulor a rigorous blockade, and tlu' iiircign commt'rcc of tlie Eastern States was totally destroyed. The beacons in the light- houses were allowed to bum out, and a general gloom settled over the country. From the beginning many <:if the people of Xew England had opposed the war. Their interests centred in ships and factories; tl.c former were captured at sea, and the latter came to a stand-still Industry was paralyzed. The members of the Federal party cried out against the continuance of the contest. The legislature of Massachu- setts advised the calling of a convention. The other Eastern S'^ates responded to the call; and on the 14th of December the delegates assembled at Hartford. Tlie objects of the convention were not very clearly expressed ; but opjiosition to the war and the policy of the administration was the leading principle. The leaders of the Dem- ocratic party, who supported the war-policy of the governnienf, did not hesitate to sav that the purposes of the assembly were disloyal and treasonable. T5e that as it may, the convention ruined the Fed- eral 2)artv. After remaining in session with closed doors for nearly three weeks, the delegates published an address more moderate and just than had been expected; and then adjourned. But little hope of political ]n-eferment remained for those who participated in the Hartford convention. During the j)rogress of the war the Spanish authorities of Flor ida sympathized with the British. In the month of August a de- tachment of the enemv's fleet was allowed liy the commandant of Pensaeola to use that post for the purpose of fitting out an expedition against Fort Bowyer, commanding tlie entrance to the bay of Mobile. On the 15th of September the latter post was attacked, but the assail- ants were driven off. General Jackson, who at that time commanded the American forces in the South, remonstrated with the Spaniards against this violation of neutrality, but received no satisfaction. Jack- son, whose way it was to mete out summary justice to offenders, marched a force against Pensaeola, stormed the town and drove the British out of Florida. This was the beginning of the last campaign of the war. After the taking of Pensaeola, General Jackson returned to his headcpiarters at INIobile. There he learned that the British were mak- ing formidable prepai-ations for the conquest of Louisiana. Eepairing at once to New Orleans, he assumed control of the city, declared mar- tial law, mustered the militia, and adopted the most vigorous meas- ures for repelling the invasion. From Ea Fitte, chief of a band of smngsrlers in the Bav of Barataria, he obtained infoniiation of the THE CAMPAIGNS OF '14. " 4 IB 'enemy's plans. The British army, numbering twelve thousancl, came in a fleet of fifty vessels from Jamaica. Sir Edward Packenham, broth- er-in-law of the duke of Wellington, was commander of the invading forces. On the 10th of December the squadron entered the outlet of Lake Borgne, sixty miles north-east of New Orleans. Four days af- terward a flotilla of gun-boats which had been placed to guard the lake was captured by the British, but not until a severe loss had been inflicted on the enemy. On the 22d of the month Packenham's advance reached the Mississippi nine miles below the city. A detachment was sent to the western bank of the river, but this operation was checked by a counter movement on the part of the Americans. On the night of the 23d ■General Jackson sent a schooner down the Mississippi to bombard the British camp, while at the same time he and General Coffee advanced with two thousand Tennessee riflemen to attack Packenham's camp in front. After a bloody assault Jackson was obliged to retire, the «nemy losing most in the engagement. On the following day Jackson fell back and took a strong position along the canal, four miles below the city. Packenham advanced, and on the 28th cannonaded the American position with but little effect. On New Year's day the attack was renewed. The heavy guns of the British had now been brought into position ; but the Americans easily held their ground, and the enemy was again driven back. Packenham now made arrange- ments to *ead his whole army in a grand assault on tlie American lines. Jackson was ready. Earthworks had been constructed, and a long line or cotton-bales and sand-bags thrown up for protection. On tlie morning of the memorable 8th of January the British moved for- ward. They went to a terrible fate. The battle began with the light of early morning, and was ended before nine o'clock. Packenham hurled column after column against the American position, and col- umn after column was smitten with irretrievable ruin. Jackson's men, behind their breastworks, were almost entirely secure from the enemy's fire, while every discharge of the Tennessee and Kentucky rifles told with awful effect on the exposed veterans of England. Packenham, trying to rally his men, was killed; General Gibbs, second in com- mand, was mortally wounded. General Keene fell disabled; only General Lambert was left to call the shattered fragments of the army •Vom the field. Never was there in a great battle such disparity of losses. Of the British fully seven hundred were killed, fourteen hun- dred wounded, and five hundred taken prisoners. The American loss amounted to eight killed and tJiirteen wounded. 414 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. After the battle Jackson granted a truce for the burial of the British dead. That done, General Lambert recalled the detachment from the west bank of the river and retired with his ruined army into Lake Borgne. At Fort Bowyer he received the news of peace. Jackson marched into New Orleans with his victorious armv, and wa> received with unbounded enthusiasm. Such, so far as ojierations b^ land were concerned, was the close of the war. On the ocean hostili ties lingered until spring. On the 20th of February the American frigate Constitution, cruising off Cape St. Vincent, caught sight of two hostile vessels, gave chase, and after a severe fight captured them. They proved to be British l)rigs — the Ci/aiw, of thirty-six guns, and the Levant, of eighteen. ( )n the 23d of March the American Hornet, commanded by Captain Biddle. ended the conflict by capturing the British Penr/uin off the coast of Brazil. Already a treaty of peace had been made and i-atified. Both na- tions had long desired such a result. In the summer of 1814 Amer- ican commissioners were sent to Glicnt, in Belgium, and were there met by Lord Gambler, Henry Goulbnrn and William Adams, ambas- sadors of Great Britain. The agents of the United States were John Quincy Adams, James A. Bayard, Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell and Albert Gallatin. Several months were spent in negotiations; and on the 24th of December, 1814, a treaty was agreed to and signed. In England the news was received with deep satisfaction; in the United States, with a delight bordering on madness. Before the terms of settlement could be known, the people broke forth in universal jubilee. Nobody stopped to incpiire whether the treaty was good or bad, hon- orable or dishonorable. The Federalists found abundant reason for rejoicing that a war which they had persistently opposed as impolitic and unjust, was at an end. The Democrats sent up a double huzza, shouting first for Jackson's victory and afterward for peace. Nor could the country well be blamed for rejoicing that a conflict which had cost the United States a thousand six hundred and eighty-three vessels and more than eighteen thousand sailors, was ended. The war-ckmd rolled aAvay like an incubus from the public mind. The long blockaded, half-rotten shipping of New England was decked with flags and streamers, and in one dai/ the dock-yards were ringing with the sound of saw and hammer. On the 18th of February the treaty was ratified by the Senate of the United States, and jieace was publicly proclaimed. It was in the interim between the conclusion of the treatx and the reception of the news in the United States that the battle of New Orleans was fought. A telegraph would have saved all that bloodshed. There never was a more absurd treaty than that of Ghent Its THE CAMPAIGNS OF '14. 415 only significance was that Great Britain and the United States, having Leen at war, agreed to be at peace. Not one of the distinctive issues to decide Avhich the war had been undertaken was settled or even men- tioned. Of the impressment of American seamen not a word was said. The wi'ongs done to the commerce of the United States were not re- ferred to. The rights of neutral nations were left as luidetermined as before. Of " free trade and sailors' rights," which had been the battle- cry of the American navy, no mention was made. The principal articles of the compact were devoted to the settlement of unimportant bounda- ries and the possession of some petty islands in tlie Bay of Passama- quoddy. There is little doubt, however, that at tlic time of the treaty Great Britain gave the United States a private assurance that impress- ment and the other wrongs complained of l)y the Americans should be practiced no more. For the space of sixty years vessels bearing the flag of the United States have been secure from such insults as caused the war of 1812. Another advantage gained by America was the recognition of her naval power. It was no longer doubtful that American sailors were the peers in valor and patriotism of any seamen in the world. It was no small triumph for the liejjublic that her flag should henceforth be honored on every ocean. At the close of the conflict the country was burdened with a debt of a hundred million dollars. The monetary affairs of the na- tion were in a deplorable condition. The charter of the Bank of the United States expired in 1811, and in the following years the other banks of the country were obliged to suspend specie payment. The people were thus deprived of the currency necessary for the transac- tion of business. Domestic commerce was paralyzed by the want of money, and foreign trade destroyed by the enemy's fleet. In the year after the close of the war a bill was passed by Congress to recharter the Bank of the United States. The measure being objectionable, the President interposed his veto ; but in the following session the bill was again passed in an amended form. The capital was fixed at thir- ty-five million dollai's. The central banking-house was established at Philadelpliia, and branches were authorized at various other cities. On the 4th of March, 1817, the new financial institution went into operation ; and the business and credit of the country were thereby greatly improved. Meanwhile, the United States had been engaged in a foreign war. During the conflict with Great Britain the Algerine pirates re- newed their depredations on American commerce. As soon as the treaty of Ghent was concluded the government of the United States ordered Commodore Decatur, commyndini:: a fleet of nine vessels, to proceed to 41(5 HISTORY' OF THE UNITED STATES. the Mediterranean and chastise the Barbarv sea-robbers into submission. On tiie 17th of June, Decatur, cruising near Gibraltar, fell in with the principal frigate of the Algerine squadron, and after a severe fight of twenty minutes compelled the Moorish ship to surrender. Thirty of the piratical crew, including the admiral, were killed, and more than four hundred taken prisoners. On the 19th Decatur captured another frigat: bearing twenty guns and a hundred and eight men. A few days aftc ,ward he sailed into the Bay of Algiers, and dictated to the humbled and terrified dey the terms of a treaty. The Moorish emperor was obliged to release his American prisoners without ransom, to relinquish all claims to tribute, and to give a pledge that his ships should trouble American mer- chantmen no more. Decatur next sailed against Tunis and Tripoli, com- pelled both of these states to give pledges of good conduct, and to pay large sums for former violations of international law. From tliat day mitil the present the Barbary powers have had a wholesome dread of the American flag. The close of Madison's troubled administration was signalized by the admission of Indiana — -the smallest of the Western States — into the Union. The new connnonwealth, admitted in December, 1816, caine with an area of nearly thirty-four thousand square miles, and a popula- tion of ninety-eight thousand. About the same time was founded the Colonization Society of the United States. Many of the most distin- guished men in America became members of the association, the objec; of which was to provide somewhere in the world a refuge for fi-ee persons of color. Liberia, on the western coast of Africa, was finally selected as the seat of the proposed colony. A rejiublican form of government was established there, and immigrants arrived in suflScient numbers to found a flourishing negro State. The capital was named Monrovia, in honor of James Monroe, who, in the fall of 1816, was elected as Madison's suc- cessor in the presidency. At the same time Daniel D. Tompkins of New York was chosen Vice-President. CHAPTER LIT. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. IN its political jirinciples the new administration was Democratic. T\v policy of Madison was adopted by his successor. But the storm; times of Madison gave place to many years of almost unbroken peace. The new President was a native of Virginia; a man of great talents and MOy ROE'S ADMINISTEATIOX. 417 a''ComplL-ihments. He liad been a Rcvolutionarv soldier, a member of the House of Representatives; a senator; governor of Virginia; envov- to France ; minister to England ; secretary of state under Madison. The members of the new cabinet were — John Quincy Adams, secretary of state ; William H. Crawford, secretary of the treasury ; John C. Calhoun, secre- :ary of war; William Wirt, attorney-general. The animosities and party itrifes of the previous years were in a measure forgotten. Statesmen of all parties devoted their energies to the payment of the national debt. It was a herculean task ; but commerce revived ; the government was economic- ally administered; population increased; wealth flowed in; and in a few years the debt was honestly paid. In the first summer of Monroe's administration the attention of the United States was directed to the little kingdom of Hayti in tlie northern part of St. Domingo. Christophe, the sovereign of the country, was anxious to secure from America a recognition of Hay- tian inla; and two Englishmen, named Arbuthnot and Ambrister, who fell into Jackson's hands, were charged with inciting the Semi- noles to insurrection, tried liy a court-martial, and hanged. Jackson tiien advanced against Peusacola, captured the town, l)esieged and took the fortress of Barancas, at the entrance to the bay, and sent tlie Span- ish authorities to Havana. These summary proceedings excited mueli I'omment throughout the country. The enemies of General Jackson :'ondemned him in unmeasured terms ; but the President and Gon- irress justified his deeds. A resolution of censure, introduced into the House of Representatives, was voted down by a large majority. The king of Spain complained much ; but his complaint was unheeded. Seeing that the defence of such a province would cost more than it was worth, the Spanish monarch then proposed to cede the territory to the United States. For this purpose negotiations were opened at Washington City; and on the 22d of February, 1819, a treaty was concluded by whieli East and West Florida and the outlying islands were surrendered to the American government. In consideration of the cession the United States agreed to relinquish all claim to the ter- ritory of Texas and to pay to American citizens, for depredations com- mitted by Sftanish vessels, a sum not exceeding five million dollars. By the same treaty the eastern boundary of Mexico was fixed at the River Sabine. The year 1819 was noted for a great financial crisis — the first of many that have occurred to disturb and distress the country. With .'he reorganization of the Bank of the United States in 1817, the im- proved facilities for credit gave rise to many extravagant speculations, generally conceived in dishonesty and carried on by fraud. The great e 420 HISTORY OF THE US WED STATES. branoli bank at Baltimore Nvas especially infested by a \y,\\\A of nnscru- pulous speoulator.s who succeeded, in connivance with the otticcrs, in Avithdrawing from the institution fully two millions of dollars beyond its securities. President Cheves, however, of the superior Board o Directors, adopted a jjolicy which exjjosed the prevailing rascality, and by putting an end to the system of unlimited credits, gi-adually restored the business of the country to a firmer basis. But, for the time being, financial affairs were thrown into confusion; and the Bank of the United States itself was barely saved from susjiension and bankruptcy. Monroe's administration was noted for the great number of new members which were added to the Union. In 1.S18, Illinois, the twenty-first State, embracing an area of more than fifty-five thousand square miles, was organized and admitted. The pojinlation of the new commonwealth Avas forty -seven thousand. In December of the fblloAving year Alabama was added, with a population of a hundred and twenty-five thousand, and an area of nearly fifty-one thousand square miles. About the same time Arkansas Territory was organ- ized out of the southern portion of the Territory of Missouri. Early in 1820 the province of Maine, which had been under the jurisdic- diction of Massachusetts since 1652, was separated from that govern- ment and admitted into the Union. At the time of admission the }X)pulation of the new State had reached two hundred and ninety- eight thousand; and its territory embraced nearly thirty -two thou- sand square miles. In August of 1821 the great State of jNIissouri, with an area of sixty-seven thousand .s([uure miles, and a population of seventy-four thousand, was admitted as the twenty-fourth member (if the Union ; but the admission was attended with a juditical agita- tion so violent as to threaten the peace of the country. The l)ill to organize Missouri as a territory was brought forward in February of 1819. The institution of slaveiy had already been planted there, and the question was raised in Congress whether the new State should be admitted with the existing .system of labor, or whether by congressional action slave-holding should be prohibited. On motion of James Tallmadge of New York a clause was inserted in the territorial bill forbidding any further introduction of slaves into Missouri and granting freedom to all slave-children on reaching the age of twenty-five. The bill as thus amended became the organ law of the territory. A few days afterwards when Arkan.sas was l)resented for territorial organization, John W. Taylor of Xew Yorlc moved the insertion of a clause similar to that in the Missouri bill ; MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 421 but tlie jiropo.scd amendment was voted down after a hot debate. Taylor then made a motion that hereafter, in the organization of ter- ritories out of the Louisiana purchase, slavery should be interdicted in all that part north of the parallel of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes. This proposition was also lost after a very excited discus- sion. Meanwhile, Tallmadge's amendment to the Missouri bill was ilefeatod in the Senate, and as a consecpicnce both the new territories were organized irithoxd rcufridions in the m/ttfcr of .slavery. When the bill to admit Missouri as a State was finally, in Jan- uary of 1820, brought before Congress, the measure was opposed by those who had desired the exclusion of slavery. But at that time the new Free State of Maine was asking for admission into the Union ; and those who favored slavery in Missouri determined to exclude Maine unless Missouri should also be admitted. After another angry debate, which lasted till the 16th of February, the bill coupling the two new States together was actually passed ; and then Senator Thomas of Illinois made a motion that henceforth and forever slavery should be excluded from all that part of the Louisiana cession — Missouri excepted — lying north of the parallel of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes. Such was the celebrated Missouri Compromise, one of the most important acts of American legislation — a measure chiefly sup- ported by the genius, and carried through Congress by the persistent efforts, of Henry Clay. The principal conditions of the plan were these : fruf, the admission of Missouri as a slave-holding State ; .vcc- ondlij, the division of the rest of the Louisiana purchase by the par- allel of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes; thirdly, the admission of new States, to be formed out of the territory south of that line, with or without slavery, as the people might determine ; fourthly, the pro- hibition of slavery in all the new States to be organized out of terri- tory north of the dividing-line. By this compromise the slavery agi- tation was allayed until 1849. Meanwhile, the country had measurably recovered from tlie effects of the late war. With peace and plenty the resources of the nation were rapidly augmented. Toward the close of his term the President's administration grew into high flvvor with the people ; and in the fall of 1820 he was re-elected with great unanimity. As Vice- President, ^Ir. Tompkins was also chosen for a second term. Scarcely !iad the excitement over the admission of Missouri subsided when the attention of the government was called to an alarming system of piracy which had sprung up in the West Indies. Early in 1822 the American frigate Congrens, accompanied with eight smaller vessels, 422 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. was .sent thither; unci in the course of the year more tiian twenty piratical ships were captured. In the following summer Commodore Porter was despatched with a larger fleet tn cruise alxiut ('ui)a and the neighboring islands. tSuch was his vigilance that the retreats of the sea-robbers were completely _ broken up ; not a pirate was left afloat. At this time the countries of South America were disturliet with many revolutions. From the days of Pizarro these states had been dependencies of European monarchies. Now they declared their independence, and struggled to maintain it by force of arms. The ])eople of the United States, having achieved their own liberty, nat- urally sympathized with the patriots of the South. Mr. Clay urged ujion the government the duty of giving oftieial recognition to the South American republics. At last his views jirevailed ; and in March of 1822 a l)ill was jwssed by Congress recognizing the new states as sovereign nations. In the following year this action was followed up by the President with a vigorous message, in which he declared that for the future the American continents irere not to he considered us sub- jects for colonization by an;/ European power. This famous declara- tion constitutes what has ever since been known in the politics and diplomacy of the United States as the Monroe Doctrine — a doe- triuc by which the entire Western hemisphere is consecrated to fret- institutions. Great was the joy of the American people in the summer of 1824. The venerated La Fayette, now aged and gray, returned once more to visit the land for whose freedom he had shed his blood. The honored j)atriots who had fought by his side came forth to greet him. The younger heroes crowded around him. In every city, and on every battle-field which he visited, he was surrounded by a throng of shouting freemen. His journey through the country was a trium]jh. It was a solemn and sacred moment Avhen he stood alone by the grave of "Washington. Over the dust of the great dead the patriot of Fraue(> jxiid the homage of his tears. In Se])tember of 1S2.J he bade a final adieu to the people who had made him their guest, and then sailed for his native land. At his departure, the frigate Brandy- wine — a name significant ii)r }tin> — was prepared to bear him away. "While Liberty remains to cheer the "West, the name of I>a Fayette shall be hallowed. Before the departure of the illustrious Frenchman another pres- idential election had been held. It was a time of great excitement and much division of .sentiment. Four candidates were presented for ADAMS'S ADMINISTRA TION. 423 ^ the siuiiages of the people. There was an appearance of sectionali.sra iu the canvass. John Quincy Adams was put forward as the candi- date of the East; William H. Craw- ford of Georgia as tiio choice of the bouth ; Henry Clay and Andrew Jack- son as the favorites of the West. Nei- ther candidate re- ceived a majority of the electoral votes, and for the second time in the history of the government the choice of Presi- dent was referred to the House of Ee]v resentatives. By that body Mr. Ad- ams was duly elec- ted. For Vice- President, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina had been chosen by the electoral college. LA FAYETTE. CHAPTEP LIII. A DAMS' S ADMINISTIiA TIOX, 1S35-1839. THE new President was inaugurated on tlic 4th of ]March, 1825., He was a man of the highest attainments in literature and .states- manship. At the age of eleven years he accompanied his father, John Adams, to Europe. At Paris and Amsterdam and St. Petersburg the Kon continued his studie.s, and at the same time became acquainted witli the manners and politics of the Old World. The vast opportu- nities of his youth were improved to the fulle.st extent. In his riper years he served his country as ambassador to the Netherlands, Portu- 424 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. gal, Prussia, Russia and Englaud. Sucli were his abilities in the fielc! of (liploniacv as to elieit from Washington the extraordinary i)raise of being the ablest minister of whieh America could boast. His life, from 1794 till 1S17, was devoted almost wholly to diplomatical services at the various European capitals. At that critical period when the rela- tions of the United States with foreign nations were as yet not well established, his genius secured tlie adojjtion of treaty after treaty in which the interests of his country were guarded with patriotic vigi- lance. In 1806 he was honored with the professorship of Rhetoric and Belles- Lettres at Harvard College of which he was an alumnus. He had also held the office of United States senator from !Massachu- setts; and on the accession of Monroe to the presidency w'as chosen secretary of state. To the ]iresidential chair he brought the w'isdom of mature years, great experience and unusual ability. The new administration was an epoch of j)eace and prosperity in the country; but the spirit of jiarty manifested itself with mucii vio- lence. The adherents of General Jackson and ^Ir. Crawford united in opposition to the policy of the President; and there was a want of unanimity between the different departments of the government. In the Senate the political friends of Mr. Adams were in a minority, and their majority in the lower House only lasted for one session. In his inaugural address the President strongly advocated the doc- trine of internal imjirovemcnts ; but the adverse view-s of Congress, prevented his recommendations from being adopted. For a quarter of a century a difficulty had existed between the government of the Ignited States and Georgia in respect to the lands hidd in that State by the Creek Indians. When, in 1802, Georgia n^liiKpiished her claim to Mississippi Territory, the general govern- ment agreed to purchase and surrender to the State all the Creek lands lying within her own borders. This pledge on the jiart of the United States had never been fulfilled, and Georgia complained of bad faith. The difficulty became alarming ; but finally, in March of 1826, a treaty was concluded between the Creek chiefs and tiie Pres- ident, by which a cession of all their lands in Georgia was obtained. At the same time the Creeks agreed to remove to a new home beyond the ^Iississij)pi. Gn the 4tli of July, 1826— just fifty years to a day after the Dec- laration of Independence — the venerable John Adams, second Presi- dent of tlie United States, and his successor, Thomas Jeffi?rson, both died. Both had lifted their voices fi)r freedom in the early and i)er- ilous davs of the Revolution. One liad written and both had signed 18S5 29 33 37 Charles X George IV. Frederick Wil liam III. 27. Acknowl edgment of the independ ence of Greece. 30. French Kevolu tion and election of 28. Abo liOuis lition of the " Test Act." 30. Polish Revolu 31. Fall of 32. Pas .30. William IV. Philippe. tion. Warsaw. sage of the Great Keform 40. Fi 37. Attempted capture o 39. Suppres 40. Th bill by Parliament. 37. Victoria. John Q. Adams, 25. Controversy concern 26. John Adams 26. Thomas Jeff Jolm C. Cam 28. Gr President, ing the lands of the Creek Audrew Jack The d. July 4. erson d. July 4. 01U1, Vice-President. 32. The eat political excitement Calhoun re-elected 32.Grea 32. The 32. Proc Indians. son, President. 36. Ar Black Hawk War. Jackson re-elected 35. Seminole bm to recharter the Uni throughout the country. 35. Removal Vice-President. t tariff excitement, doctrine of nullification de lamatioii by the President. JUartiu'Van Buren, 33. Passage of Mr. Clay's 33. Removal of Govern 37. Michigan admitted kausas admitted into ths President. War. Martin Van Bi ted States Bank vetoed b 37. Failure of the Sul of the Cherokeea. 40. Pa clared by South Carolini Vice-President. Compromise bill. Richard M. Jo) ment funds from the Uej 37. Financial crisis. . i ^^^^SECOj^^ San Antonio 36. 36. 36. taken by the Texans. V M The Alamo. TEX MEXICO. Santa Anna, President. 36. The AS INDEPENDENT 38. Lamar, Preij San JacinU). 38. Vera Cruz besi 'Central Republic" det 37. Bnstamente, Pre 1 L 43 49 33 48. Ou tbreak of the Hungarian Revolution. ;rick William IV. 46. Election of Pius IX. 52. Fall of Kossuth and the Hun- 48. Ee volution in France. ga nan cause. Jrid by Dou Carlos. 48. A republic proclaimed. 48.I.O uis Napoleou Boiiapa rte elected President. of the Carlists in Sp ain. 52. Lo uis Napoleon, Presi- ly of Napoleon return ed to France. dent for ten vears. 52. to uis Napoleon, Emperor. 54. The Crimean War, the Union. 4^. The Dorr 44. First The Webster- Ashbur- ton treaty. n, President. : President, suiy bill. illiam H. Har (Died April 4, i of the Treasury bill, freasury bill repealed. Passage of the Baukru Veto of the United Sta and resignation of the dent's Cabinet. Ollj Vice-President. States bank. >hn Tyler, vice- l President from April, Houston, President. t. Santa Anna, Freeid by the French. i. ■t. James K. Folk, 45. Florida admitted into rebellion in Rhode Island. 46. Iowa admitted President, the Union. Zacliary Taylor, (Died "July 9, into the Union. telegraph line in the Uni ted States. 48. Wis consin admitted into the 46. The north-weste 46. General Taylor 46. Congress declar 46. iPuloAlto. 46. m mResaca de 46. 46. {Capture of h^lHIonlerey. George M. Dallas, 48. Dis rlSOn, President. 1841.) pt law. tes Bank, Presi- 47. roJI-Swe 47.piFer 47.roJ| Cer 47.|l|erotectiye duties is a ijuestion which lias been much debated in all civilized countries. Mr. Adams and his friends decided in favor of a tariff; and in 1828 the duties on fabrics made of wool, cotton, linen and silk, and those on articles manufactured of iron, lead, etc., were much increased. The object of such legislation was to stimulate the manufacturing interests of the country. The rpiestion of the tariff has always been a sectional issue. The people of the Eastern and Middle States, where factories abound, have favored protective du- ties; while in the agricultural regions of the South and West such duties have l)een ojiposcd. The administration of Joiin Qiuncy Adams was the beginning of a new epoch in the history of the United States. The Revolution- 426 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ary sages had gi-adiiail}' tiillcu out of the rauks of leadership; and the influences of the Revolution were not any longer distinctly felt in the decision of national questions. Even the war of 1812, with its bitter party antagonisms, its defeats and victories, and its absurd ending, was fading out of nicmory. New dispositions and tastes arose among the ])eopk' ; new issues confronted the pul)lic; new methods prevailed ii the halls of legislation. Old party lines could no longer be traced, old party names were reduced to a jargon. Already the United State.s had surpassed in growth and development the sanguine ex])ectations of the fathers. But the conflicting opinions and interests of the na- tion, reflected in the stormy debates of Congress, gave cause for con- stant anxiety and alarm. With the fall of 1828 came another presidential election. The contest was .specially exciting. ]\Ir. Adams, supported by Mr. C'lav, the secretary of .state, was put forw'ard for re-election. In accordance with an understanding which had existed for .several years. General Jackson appeared as the candidate of the ojiposition. In the previ- ous election Jackson had received more electoral votes than Adams; but disregarding the jxipular preference, the House of Representa- tives had chosen the latter. Xow the people were determined to have their way; and Jackson was triumphantly elected, receiving a hundred aiiy Mr. Jefferson was pleaded. In his first annual message the President took strong grounds against rechartering the Bank of the United States. Believing that institution to be both inexpedient and unconstitutional, he recom- mended that the old charter should be allowed to expire by its own limitation in 1836. But the influence of the bank, with its many l)ranches, was very great; and in 1832 a bill to recharter was brought before Congress and passed. To this measure the President opposed his veto; and since a two-thirds majority in favor of the bill could m>t ANDREW JACKSON. 428 HISTORY OF THE U XI TED STATES. be .secured, tlio pnipDsitioii t(i grant a new charter failed, and the bank ceased by tlie original limitation. It was in the early part of Jackson's administration that the partisan elements of the country, which for some years had been whirling about in a chaotic condition, was resolved into the two great factions of ^Vhig and Democratic — a form whicli remained as the es- .stablished order in politics for a cpiarter of a century. The old Fed- eral party, under whose auspices the government was organized, had lost control of national aifairs on the retirement of John Adams from the jtri'sidcncy. Still the party lingered, opposed the war of 1812, and became odious from its connection with the Hartford Convention. In 1820 only enough of the old organization remained to be severely handled in the great debates on the Missouri Compromise. Then fol- lowed, during Monroe's second term, what is known in American po- litical history as the Era of Good Feeling. Partisanship seemed ready to expire. On the other side, the line of political descent had begun with the anti-Federalists who after opposing the National consti- tution and the administrative policy of Washington and Adams, became under the name of RepvblicanH the champions of France as against Great Britain. But this name was soon exchanged for that of Demo- crats; and under that title the party came into power with the admin- istration of Jeiferson. Then followed the administrations of Madison, Monroe, and John Qnincy Adams under the same political banner. But in the case of Adams the new forces were already at work. AVhcn Jackson became President his arbitrary measures alarmed the country and drove all the elements of the opposition into a compact j)halanx under the leadership of Clay and Webster. To this new party organi- zation the name of ^Vhig was given — a name taken from the old Scotch Covenanters and English republicans of the .seventeenth cen- tury, worn by the patriots of the American Revolution to distinguish them from the Tories, and now adopted as the permanent title of the opponents of Jeifersonian Democracv. The reojicning of the tariff" fniestilera, and he was prevented from co-oj)erating with the troops of General Atkinson. The latter, however, waged a vigorous campaign against the Indians, defeated them ill several actions, and made Black Hawk prisoner. The cap- tive chieftain was taken to Washington and the great cities of the East, where his understanding was opened as to the jiower of the nation against which he had been foolish enough to lift his hatchet. Returning to his own jx'ople, he advised them that resistance was hopeless. The warriors then aliaiiduned the disputed lands and re- tired into Iowa. Ditticnlties also arose with the C'herokees of Georgia. These were the most civilized and humane of all the Indian nations. They had adopted the manners of the whites. They had pleasant farms, goodly towns, schools, printing-presses, a written code of laws. The government t)f the United States had given to Georgia a pledge to purchase the Cherokee lands for the benefit of the State. The pledge W'as not fulfilled ; the authorities of Georgia grew tired of waiting for the removal of the Indians; and the legislature jiassed a statute by which the government of the Red men was abrogatt'd and the laws of the State extended over the Indian domain. With singular illiberal- ity, it was at the same time enacted tiiat the Cherokees and Creeks should not have tiie use of the State courts or the protection of the laws. This code, however, was declared unconstitutional by the supreme court of the United States. The Indians then appealed to the President for help; but he refused to interpose between them and the laws of Geor- gia. He also recommended the removal of the Cherokees to lands be- yond the Mississippi ; and with this end in view, the Indian Terri- tory was organized in the year 1834. The Indians yielded with great reluctance. More than five million dollars were paid them for their lands; but still they clung to their homes. At last General Scott was ordered to remove them to the new territory, using force if necessary to accomplish the work. The years 1837-38 were oc- JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 431 eupied with the final transfer of the Cherokees to their homes in the West. More serious still was the conflict with the Seminoles of Florida. The trouble arose from an attempt on the part of the government to remove the tribe to a new domain beyond the Mississippi. Hostili- ties began in 1835, and continued for four years. The chief of the Seminoles was Osceola, a half-breed of great talents and audacity. He and Micanopy, another chieftain, denied the validity of a former treaty by which the Seminole lands had been ceded to the government. So haughty was the bearing of Osceola that General Thompson, the agent of the government in Florida, arrested him and put hira in irons. The red warrior dissembled his purpose, gave his assent to the old treaty, and was liberated. As might have been foreseen, lie immedi- ately entered into a conspiracy to slaughter the whites and devastate the country. At this time the interior of Florida was held by General Clinch, who had his headquarters at Fort Drane, seventy-five miles south-west from St. Augustine. The post was considered in danger ; and Majoi Dade with a hundred a!id seventeen men was despatched from Fort Brooke, at the head of Tampa Bay, to reinforce General Clincii. After marching about half the distance, Dade's forces fell into an amljus- cade, and were all massacred except one man who was left alive un- der a heap of the dead. On the same day Osceola, with a band of warriors, prowling around Fort King, on the Ocklawaha, surrounded a storehouse where General Thompson was dining with a company of friends. The savages poured in a murderous fire, and then rushed forward and scalped the dead before the garrison of the fort, only two hundred and fifty yards away, could bring assistance. General Thompson's body was pierced by fifteen balls; and four of his nine companions were killed. On the 31st of December General Clinch fought a battle with the Indians on the banks of the Withlacoochie. The savages were repulsed, but Clinch thought it prudent to retreat to Fort Drane. In the following February General Scott took command of the American forces in Florida. On the 29th of the same month General Gaines, who was advancing from the West with a force of a thousand men for the relief of Fort Drane, was attacked near the battle-field where Clinch had fought. The Seminoles made a furious onset, but were repulsed with severe losses. In May some straggling Creeks who still remained in the country began hostilities ; but they were soon subdued and compelled to seek their reservation beyond the Missis- 432 HISTORY OF THE I 'XI TED STATES. sippi. lu October (if LSoiJ Governor Call of Florida inarched with a force of two thoiisaiid men ap;ainst the Indians of the interior. A division of his army overtook the enemy in the Wahoo Swamp, a short distance from tlie scene of Dade's massacre. A battle ensued, and the Indians were driven into the Everglades with considerable losses. Soon afterward another engagement was fought on nearly the same ground; and again the savages were beaten, though not deci- sively. The remainder of the history of the Seminole War belongs to the following administration. In the mean time the President had given a final quietus to the Bank of the United States. After vetoing the bill to recharter that institution, he conceived that the surplus funds mIucIi had accu- mulated in its vaults would be better distributed among the States. He had no warrant of law for such a step; but believing himself to be in the right, he did not hesitate to take the responsibility. Ac- cordingly, in October of 1833, he ordered the accumulated funds of the great bank, amounting to about ten million dollars, to be distri- buted among certain State banks designated for that purpose. This action on the part of the President was denounced by the opposition as a measure of incalculable mischief — unwarranted, arbitrary, dan- gerous. In the Senate a powerful coalition, headed by Calhoun, Clay, and Webster, was formed against the President; and the new ofticer> who had been ajtpointed to carry out his measures, were reji'cted. A resolution censuring his conduct was then introduced and carried; but a similar proposition failed in the House of Representatives. For a while there was a general cry of indignation, and it seemed that the administration would be overwhelmed ; l)ut the President, ever as fearless as he was self-willed and stubborn, held on his course, un- moved by the clamor. The resolution of censure stood upon the jour- nal of the Senate for four years and was then expunged from the record through the influence of Senator Thomas H. Benton of Mis- souri. The financial panic of 1836-7, following soon after the removal of the funds, was attributed by the o])ponents of the admin- istration to the President's arbitrary action and the prospective .des- truction of the national bank. To ti.ese strictures the adherents of his own party replied that the financial distress of the conntrv was attributable to tiie bank itself, which was declared to be an ini^titution too powerful and despotic to exist in a free government. The Presi- dent was but little concerned with the excitement: he had just en- tered on his second term, with Martin Van Buren for Vice-President instead of Mr. Calhoun. In 1834 the stronsj will of the chief matristrate was lirouijht into {433J JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 435 conflict with Franoc. The American government held an old claim against that country for damages done to the commerce of the United States in the wars of Napoleon. In 1831 the French king had agreed to pay five million dollars for the alleged injuries; but the dilatory government of" France postjroned and neglected the payment until the President, becoming wrathful, recommended to Congress to make reprisals on French commerce, and at the same time directed tlij American minister at Paris to demand his passports and come home. These measures had the desired effect, and the indemnity was promptly paid. The government of Portugal was brought to terms in a similar manner. The cDuntry, though flourishing, was not without calamities. Several eminent statesmen fell by the hand of death. On the 4th of July, 1831, ex-President Monroe passed away. Like .Jefferson and Adams, he sank to rest amid the rejoicings of the national anniyer- sary. In the following year Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, died at the age of ninety-six. A short time afterward Philip Freneau, the poet of the Revolution, departed from the land of the living. The patriot bard had reached the age of eighty. On the 24th of June, 1833, John Randolph of Roanoke died in Philadelphia. He was a man admired for his talents, dreaded for his wit and sarcasm, and respected for his integrity as a statesman. In 1835 Chief-Justice Marshall breathed his last, at the age of fourscore years ; and in the next year ex-Pres- ident Madison, worn with the toils of eighty-five years, passed away. To these losses of life must be added two great disasters to property. On the 16th of December, 1835, a fire broke out in the lower part* of New York City and laid thirty acres of buildings in ashes. Five hundred and twenty-nine houses and property valued at eighteen million dollars were consumed. Just one year afterward the Patent Office and Post-Office at Washington ^yere destroyed in the same manner. But upon the ruins of these valuable buildings, more noble and imposing structures were soon erected. Jackson's administration was signalized by the addition of two new States. In June of 1836 Arkansas was admitted, with an area of fifty-two thousand square miles, and a population of seventy thou- sand. In January of the following year Michigan Territory was organized as a State and added to the Union. The new common- wealth brought a pojmlation of a hundred and fifty-seven thousand, and an area of fifty-six thousand square miles. The administration was already within two months of its close. The President, follow- ing the example of Washington, issued a patriotic farewell address. 436 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The dangers of discord and sectionalism among the States were set forth with all the masculine energy of the Jacksonian dialect. The people of the United States were again solemnly warned, as they had been by the Father of his Country, against the baleful influence of demagogues. The horrors of disunion were poi'trayed in the strong- est colors; and people of every rank and section were exhorted to maintain and defend the American Union as they would the last fortress of human liberty. This was the last of those remarkable public papers contributed by Andrew Jackson to the history of his countiy. Already, in tlic autumn cif the ])revious year, Martin Van Buren had been elected President. The o])posing candidate was Gen- eral Harrison of Ohio, who received the support of the new Whig party. As to the vice-presidency, no one secured a majority in the electoral college, and tlie choice devolved on the Senate. By tl-.at body Colonel Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky was duly elected. CHAPTER LY. VAN BUREN' S ADMINISTRATION, 1S37-1S41. MARTIN VAN BUREN, eighth President of the United States,- was born at Kinderhook, New York, on the 5th of December, 1782. After receiving a limited education he became a student of law, and before reaching his majority was recognized as an influential •democratic politician. In his thirtieth year he was elected to the Senate of his native State ; and six years afterwards, by supplanting De Witt Clinton, became the recognized leader of the Democracy in New York. In 1821, and again in 1827, he was chosen United States Senator; but in the following year he resigned his office to accept the governorship of his native State. Ho also, in 1831, resigned his place as secretary of State in the first cabinet of President Jackson, and was appointed minister to England. But when, in Decemiter of the same year, his nomination was submitted to the Senate the influence of Vice-President Calhoun assisted by the Whig leaders, Clay and Webster, procured the rejection of the appointment. Mr. Van Buren i-eturned from his unfulfilled mission ; became the candidate for the vice-presidency, and M'as elected in the fall of 1832. Four years later he was called by the voice of the powerful party to which he be- longed, to succeed General Jackson in the highest office of the nation. T'.l.V BUR£yS ADMINISTRATION. 437 One of the first duties of the new adininistratiou was to finish the Seminole War. In the beginning of 18o7 the command of the army in Florida was transferred from General Seott to General Jessup. In the following fall Osceola came to the American camp with a flag of truce; but he was suspected of treachery, seized, and sent a prisoner to Fort Moultrie, where he died in 1838. The Seminoles, though disheartened by the loss of their chief, continued the war. In December Colonel Zachary Taylor, with a force of over a thousand men, marched into the Evei-glades of Florida, determined to fight the savages in their lairs. After unjiaralleled sufferings he overtook them, on Christmas day, near Lake Okeechobee. A hard battle was fought, and the Indians were de- feated, but not until a hundred and thirty-nine of the whites had fallen. For more than a year Taylor continued to hunt the Red men through the swamps. In 1839 the chiefs sent in their submission and signed a treaty; but their removal to the "West was made with much reluctance and delay. In the first year of Van Buren's administration the country was afflicted with a monetary panic of the most serious character. The preceding years had been a time of great prosperity. The national debt was entirely liqui- dated, and a surplus of nearly forty million dollars had accumulated in the treasury of the United States. By act of Congress this vast sum had been distributed among the several States. Owing to the abundance of money, speculations of all sorts grew rife. The credit system pervaded every department of business. The banks of the country were suddenly multi- plied to nearly seven hundred. Vast issues of irredeemable paper money stimulated the speculative spirit and increased the opportunities for fraud. The bills of these unsound banks were receivable at the land-offices ; and settlers and speculators made a rush to secure the public lands wiiile money was plentiful. Seeing that in receiving such an unsound currency in exchange for the national domain the government was likely to be le were greatly disheartened. Discontent prevailed ; and the administration was blamed with everything. In the latter j)art of 1837 there was an insurrection in Canada. A portion of the peojile, dissatisfied with the British government, broke out in revolt and attempted to establish their independence. The insurgents found nnich sympathy and encouragement in the United States, especially in New York. From that State a party of seven hundred men, taking arms, seized and fjrtified Navy Island, in the Niagara River. The loyalists of Canada attempted to capture the place, and failed. They suc- ceeded, however, in firing the Caroline, the supply-ship of the adven- turers, cut her moorings, and sent the burning vessel over Niagara Falls. These events created considerable excitement, and the peaceful relations of the United States and Great Britain were endangered. But the Presi- unish the disturbers. The New York insurgents on Navy Island were obliged to surrender, and order was soon restored. VA X B UREN'S ADMIN IS Til A TIOX. 439 Hardly had the excitement attendant upon the Canadian troubles subsided, before the question was raised as to Van Buren's successor in the presidency. The canvass began early and in a very bitter spirit. The measures of the administration had been of such a nature as to call forth the fiercest political controversy. The Whigs, ani- mated with the hope of victory, met in national convention on the 4th jf December, 1839, and again nominated General Harrison as their leader in the coming contest. On the Democratic side Mr. Van Buren had no competitor; but the unanimity of his party could hardly com- pensate for his misfortunes and blunders. The canvass was the most ■exciting in the political history of the country. The President was blamed with every thing. The financial distress was laid at his door. Extravagance, bribery, corruption — every thing bad was charged upon him. Men of business advertised to pay six dollars a barrel for flour if Harrison should be elected; three dollars a barrel if Van Buren should be successful. The "Whig orators tossed about the luckless ad- ministration through all the figures and forms of speech; and the President himself was shot at with every sort of dart that partisan wit and malice could invent. The enthusiasm in the ranks of the oppo- sition rose higher and higher; and the result was the defeat of the Democrats in every State except Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Missouri, New Hampshire, Virginia, and South Carolina. The electoral votes •of these States — numbering sixty — were given to Van Buren; and the remainder, amounting to two hundred and thirty-four, were cast for General Harrison. After controlling the destinies of the govern- ment for nearly forty years, the Democratic party was temporarily routed. For Vice-President, John Tyler of Virginia was chosen. In the last year of Van Buren's administration was completed the sixth census of the United States. The tables were, as usual, replete with the evidences of growth and progress. The national revenues for the year 1840 amounted to nearly twenty millions of dollars. Dur- "'iig the last ten vears the center of population had moved westward ilong the thirty-ninth parallel of latitude from the South Fork of the Potomac to Clarksburg, West Virginia — a distance of fifty-five miles. The area of the United States now actually inhabited, amounted to eight hundred and seven thousand square miles, being an increase in ten years of twenty-seven and six-tenths per cent. The frontier line, circumscribing the population, passed through Michigan, Wiscon- sin, Iowa, and the western borders of Missouri, Arkansas, and Loui- siana — a di.stance of three thousand three hundred miles. The popu- lation had reached the aggregate of seventeen million souls, being an 410 HISTORY Of THE UNITED STATES. increase since 1830 of mtire than six millions. It M'as found from tiie tables that eleven-twelfths of the pet)ple lived outside of the larger cities and towns, showing the strong prejionderanee of the agrienltural over the manufacturing and commercial interest. One of the most interesting lessons of the census was found in the fact that tlie wonderful growth of the United States was in extent and area, and not in rtccK- mulation — in the spread of civilization rather than in intensify. For, since 1830, the average jiopulation of the country had not increased by so much as one ■person to the scpiare mile! The administration of Van Buren has generally been reckoned as unsuccessful and inglorious. But he and his times were unfortu- nate rather than bad. He was the victim of all the evils which fol- lowed hard upon the relaxation of the Jacksouian methods of govern- ment. He had neither the will nor the disposition to rule as his predecessor had done; nor were the people and their representatives any longer in the humor to suffer that sort of government. The pe- riod was unheroic : it was the ebb-tide between the belligerent excite- ments of 1832 and the war with Mexico. The financial panic added opprobrium to the popular estimate of imbecility in the government. " The administration of Van Buren," said a bitter satirist, " is like a parenthesis : it may be read in a low tone of voice or altogether omitted withoid injurlinj the sense!" But the satire lacked one essen- tial (piality — truth. CHAPTER LVI. ADMINISTRATIOXS OF HARRISON AND TYLER, mi-1845. THE new President was a Virginian by birth, and tiie adojited son of Robert Morris, the financier of the Revolution. He was a grad- uate of Hampden-Sidney College, and afterward a student of medicine. Attracted by the military life, he entered the army of St. Clair ; was raj)idly promoted ; became lieutenant-governor and then governor of Indiana Territory, which office he filled with great ability. His mil- itary career in the North-west has already been narrated. He was inaugurated President on the 4th of March, 1841, and began his duties by issuing a call for a special session of Congress to consider "sundry important matters connected with the finances of the coun- trv." An able cabinet was organized, at the head of which was Dan- ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 441 iel Webster as secretary of stuto. Evcrytliing promised well for the new Whig administration ; bnt before Congress could convene, the venerable President, bending under the weight of sixty-eight years, fell sick, and died just one month after his inauguration. It was the first time that such a calamity had befallen the American peo- ple. Profound and universal grief was manifested at the sad event On the 6th of April Mr. Tyler took the oath of office, and became President of the United States. He was a statesman of considerable distinction ; a native of Vir- ginia; a graduate of William and ^Nlary College. At an early age he left the profession of law to enter public life; was chosen a member of Congress; and in 1825 was elected governor of Virginia. From tliat position he was sent to the Senate of the United States; and now at the age of fifty-one was called to the presidency. He had been ])ut upon the ticket with General Harrison through motives of expe- diency ; for although a Whig in political principles, he was k)toiim to be lioM'de to the United States Bank. And this hostility was soon to be manifested in a remarkable manner. The special session of Congress continued from May till Septem- ber. One of the first measures proposed and carried was the repeal of the independent treasury bill. A general bankrupt law was tiien brought forward and passed, by which a great number of insolvent business men were relieved from the disabilities of debt. The next measure — a favorite scheme of the Whiu;s — was the rechartering of the bank of the United States. The old charter liad expired in 1836; but the bank had continued in operation under the authority of the State of Pennsylvania. Xow a bill to recharter was brought forward and passed. The President interposed his veto. Again the bill was presented, in a modified form, and received the assent of both Houses, only to be rejected by the executive. By this action a final rupture was produced between the President and the party which had elected him. The indignant Whigs, baffled by a want of a two-thirds major- ity in Congress, turned upon him with storms of invective. All the members of the cabinet except Mr. Webster resigned ; and he retained his place only because of a pending difficulty with Great Britain. The difficulty was in the nature of a dispute about the north- eastern boundary of the United States. The territorial limit of the country in that direction, not having been clearly defined by the treaty of 1783, had been one of the points under discussion by the commis- sioners at Ghent in 1814. But like other matters presented for adju- dication before that pi^ilite and easily satisfied congress, the boundary 442 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. question had been jwstponed rather tlum settled. It was then agre\ d, however, to refer the establishment of the entire line between the United States and Canada to the decision of three eommissioners to be jointly constituted by the two governments. The first of these bodies accomplished its work successfully by awarding to the United States the islands in the Bay of Passanuiquoddy. The third coniinission also performed its duty by establishing the true boundary line from the intersection of the forty-fifth parallel of latitude witli the River St. Lawrence to the western point of I^ake Huron. To the second commission was assigned the more difficult task of settling the bound- ary from the Atlantic to tlie St. Lawrence ; and this work they failed to accomplish. For nearly twenty-five years the limit of the United States on the northeast remained in controversy; and at times the dif- ficulty became so serious as to endanger the peace of the two nations. Finally the whole matter at issue was referred to Lord Ashburton, acting on the part of Great Britain, and Mr. Webster, the American Secretary of State. After an able discussion of all the points in dis- pute, the boundary was definitely established as fi)llows: From tlie mouth of the River St. Croix ascending that stream to its western fountain; from that fountain due north to the St. John's; tlience with tliat river to its source on the watershed between the Atlantic and the St. Lawrence; thence in a southwesterly direction along the crest of the highlands to the northwestern source of the Connecticut; and down that stream to and along the forty-fifth parallel to the St. Law- rence. The work of the commissioners extended also to the estab- lishment of the boundary from the western point of Ijake Huron through Lake Superior to the northwestern extremity of the Lake of Woods, thence — confirming the treaty of October, 1818, — southward to the forty-ninth parallel of latitude, and thence with that parallel to the Rocky Mountains. This important setblement, known as the Web- STER-AsHBURTON Tre-^ty, Mas Completed on the 9th of August, 1842, and wa.-; ratified by the Senate on the 20th of the .same month. In the next year the country was vexed with a domestic trouble. For nearly two centuries the government of Rhode Island had been administered under a charter granted by Charles II. By the terms of tiiat ancient instrument the right of suffrage was restricted to those who held a certain amount of property. There were other clauses re- pugnant to the spirit of republicanism ; and a proposition was made to change the constitution of the State. On that issue the people of Rhode Island were nearly unanimous ; but in respect to the manner of abrogating the old charter there was a serious division. One fac- ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 442 tioa, called the " law and order party," proceeding in accordance with the former constitution, chose Samuel W. King as governor. The other faction, called the " suffrage party," acting in an irregular way, elected Thomas W. Dorr. In May of 1842 both parties met and or- ganized their rival governments. The " law and order party " now undertook to suppress the faction of Dorr. The latter resisted and made an attempt to capture the State arsenal. But the militia, under the direction of King's officers, drove the assailants away. A month later the adherents of Dorr again appeared in arms, but were dispersed by the troops of the United States. Dorr fled from Rhode Island; returned soon afterward, was caught, tried for treason, convicted, and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was then offered pardon on condition of taking an oath of allegiance. This he stubbornly refused to do; and in June of 1845 obtained his liberty without conditions. The year 1842 was noted for the completion of the Bunker Hill Monument. No enter])rise of a similar character had, in the whole history of the country, called forth so much patriotic enthusiasm. The foundation of the noble struc- ture was laid on the 17th of June, 1825, the corner-stone being put into its place by the venerable Iva Fay- ette. Daniel Webster, then voung in years and fame, delivered the ora- tion of the day, while two hundred Revolutionary veterans — forty of them survivors of the battle Ibught on tluit li ill-crest just fifty years be- fore — gathered with the throng to hear him. But the work of erection went on slowly. More than a hun- dred and fifty thousand dollars were expended, and seventeen years elapsed before the grand shaft — com- memorative of the heroes living: and dead — was finished. At last the work was done, and the mighty column of Quincy graiiite, thirty-one feet square at the base and two hundred and twenty-one feet in height, stood out sublimely against the clouds and sky. It was deemed fit- ting, however, to postjjone the dedication until the next anniversary of the battle ; and preparations were made accordingly. On the 17th IU\NK1,1; HILL .Mm^lWIL.N I , 444 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of June, 1843, an iinnion.se multitude of people — iuehuling most of the Revolutionary soldiers who had not yet fallen — gathered from all parts of the Republie to witness the imposing eereniony. Mr. Web- ster, now full of years and honors, was chosen to deliver the address of dedication — a duty which he performed in a manner so touching and eloquent as to add new luster to his fame as an orator. The celebra- tion was concluded with a pulilic dinner given in Faneuil Hall, the cradle of American liberty. In the latter part of Tyler's administration the State of Xew York was the scene of a serious social disturl)ance. Until tlie year 1840 the descendants of Van Rensselaer, one (if the old Dutch pa- troons of New Xetherland, had held a claim on certain lands in the counties of Rensselaer, Columl)ia and Delaware. In liquidation of this claim they had continued to receive from the farmers certain trifling rents. At last the farmers grew tired of the payment, and rebelled. From 1840 until 1844 the question was frequently dis- cus.sed in the New York legislature ; but no satis&ctory .settlement was reached. In the latter year the anti-rent party became so bold as to coat with tar and feathers tho.se of their fellow-tenants who made the payments. Officers were sent to apprehend the rioters; and them thev killed. Time and again the authorities of the State were invoked to (|Ucll the disturbers; and tiie ([uestion in dispute has never been permanently .settled. Of a diffi'rent sort was the difficulty with the Mormons, who now began to play a jxirt in the history of the country. Under the leader- ship of their prophet, Jo.seph Smith, they made their first important set- tlement in Jack.son county, Mi.s.sauri. Here their numbers increased to fully fifteen hundred ; and they began to say that the great West wa.s to be their inheritance. Not liking their neigiibors or their practices, the people of Missouri determined to be rid of tlieni. As soon as op- portunity offered, the militia was called out, and the Mormons were obliged to leave the State. In' the spring of 1839 they cros.sed the Missi.ssippi into Illinoi.s, and on a high blufl' overlooking the rivei laid out a city which they called Nauvoo, meaning the Beaufifid. Here thev built a splendid temple. Other Mormons from different parts of the Union and from Europe canie to join the community, imtil tiie number was swelled to ten thousand. Again popular sus- picion was aroused against them. Under the administration of Smith, laws were enacted contrary to the statute of Illinois. The people charged the Mormons with the commission of certain thefts and mur- ders; and it was believed that the courts in the neighborhood of Nau- voo would be powerless to convict the criminals. ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 445 In the midst of imicli excitement Smith and his brother were ar- rested, taken to Carthage, and lodged in jail. On the 27th of June, 1844, a mob gathered, broke open the jail doors and killed the prisoners. Dur- ing the rest of the summer there were many scenes of violence. In 1845 the charter of Nauvoo was annulled by the legislature of Illinois. Most of the Mormons gave up in despair and resolved to exile themselves be- yond the limits of civilization. In 1846 they began their march to the far West. In September Nauvoo was cannonaded for three days, and the remnant of inhabitants driven to join their companions at Council BluiFs. Thence they dragged themselves wearily westward; crossed the Rocky Mountains; reached the basin of the Great Salt Lake, and founded Utah Territory. Meanwhile, a great agitation had arisen in the country in regard to the republic of Texas. From 1821 to 1836 this vast territory lying be- tween Louisiana and Mexico, had been a province of the latter country. For a long time it had been the policy of Spain and Mexico to keep Texas uninhabited, in order that the vigorous race of Americans might not encroach on the Mexican borders. At last, however, a large land- grant was made to Moses Austin of Connecticut, on condition that he would settle three hundred American families within the limits of his do- main. Afterward the grant was confirmed to his son Stephen, with the privilege of establishing five hundred additional families of immigrants. Thus the foundation of Texas was laid by people of the English race. Owing to the oj^pressive jiolicy adopted by Mexico, the Texans, in the year 1835, raised the standard of rebellion. Many adventurers and some heroes from the LTnited States flocked to tlicir aid. In the first battle, fought at Gonzales, a thousand Mexicans were defeated by a Texan force numbering five hundred. On the 6th of March, 1836, a Texan fort, called the Alamo, was surrounded by a Mexican army of eight thousand, commanded by President Santa Anna. The feeble garrison was overpowered and massacred under circumstances of great atrocity. The daring David Crocket, an ex-congressman of Tennessee, and a famous hunter, was one of the victims of the butchery. In the next month was fought the decisive battle of San Jacinto, which gave to Texas her freedom. The independence of the new State was ao' knowledged by the United States, Great Britain and France. As soon as the peo])le of Texas had thrown off the Mexican yoke they asked to be admitted into the Union. At first the proposition was declined by President Van Buren, who feared a war with Mex- ico. In the last year of Tyler's administration the cpiestion of annex- ation was again agitated. The population of Texas had increased to more tlian two liundred thousand souls. Tlie territory embraced an 44C HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ^■^A area of two hundred and thirty-seven thousand square miles — a do- main more than five times as large as the State of Pennsylvania. It was like annexing an empire. The proposition to admit Texas into the Union was the great (piestion on which the people divided in the presidential elec- tion of 1844. The annexation wa:^ fa vored by the Demo- crats and opposed by the Whigs. The parties were equally matched in sti-ength; and the contest .sur- passed in excitement anything which liad been known in Amer- ican ])olitics. James K. Polk of Tenncs.see was put forward as the Democratic can- didate, while the Whigs chose their favorite leader, Hen- pRoFJissoR MORSE. • Ty CUiy. Tlic former was elected, and the hope of the latter to reacli tlie presidency was forever eclipsed. For Vice-President, George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania was chosen. The convention by which Mr. Polk was nominated was held at Baltimore. On the 29th of May, 1844, the news of the nomination was sent to Washington by the Magnetic Telegr.\ph. It was the first despatch ever so transmitted ; and the event marks an era in the his- tory of civilization. The inventor of the telegraph, which has proved so great a blessing to mankind, was Professor Samuel F. B. Morse of Massachusetts. The magnetic principle on which the invcntiot depends had been known since 1774 ; but Professor Morse was the first to aj)ply that principle for the benefit of men. He began his experi- ments in 1832: and five years afterward succeeded in obtaining a patent on his invention. Then followed another long delay ; and it was not until the last day of the session in 1843 that he procured fron\ Congress an appropriation of thirty thousand dollars. With that appropriation was constructed between Baltimore and Wash- POLK'S ADMINISTRATIOX 447 ington the first telegraphic line in tlie world. Perhaps no other invention has exercised a more Ijeneficent influence on the welfare and happiness of the human race. When Congress convened in Decemlier of 1S44, the proposition to admit Texas into the Union was formally brought forward. Dur- ing the winter the question was frequently debated ; and on the 1st of March — only three days before Tyler's retirement from the presi- dency — the bill of annexation was adopted. The President imme- diately gave his assent; and the Lone Star took its place in the constellation of the States. On the day before the inauguration of Mr. Polk bills for the admission of Florida and Iowa were also signed; but the latter State — the twenty-ninth member of the Amer- ican X^nion — was not formally admitted until the following year. CHAPTER LVII. POLJC'S ADMINISTRATION, AND THE MEXICAN WAR, 1S45-184S. PRESIDENT POLK was a native of North Carolina. In boyhood he removed with his father to Tennessee ; entered the legislature of the State ; and was then elected to Congress, where he served as member or speaker for fourteen years. In 1839 he was chosen gov- ernor of Tennessee, and from that position was called, at the early age of forty-nine, to the presidential chair. At the head of the new cabinet was placed James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. It was an of- fice requiring high abilities; for the threatening question with Mexico came at once to a crisis. As soon as the resolution to annex Texas ■was adopted by Congress, Almonte, the Mexican minister at Washing- ton, demanded his passports and left the country. On the 4th of July, 1845, the Texan legislature ratified the act of annexation ; and the union was completed. Knowing the warlike determination of Mexico, the authorities of Texas sent an immediate and urgent request to the President to despatch an army for their pro- tection. Accordingly, General Zachary Taylor was ordered to march from Camp Jessup, in Western Louisiana, and occupy Texas. The real question at issue between that State and Mexico was concerning boundaries. The foundation of the difficulty had been laid as early as 448 HISTORY OF THE UMTED STATES. the Mex'u'aii revolution of 1821. Ey that event Mexieo had achieved her inde[)endenee of Spain, and in rearranging her civil administra- tion had united C'oahuila and Texas — the two frontier States east of the Ivio Grande — under one provincial government. Such was the condition of uftliirs at the time of the Texan rebellion of 1836. Texas, being successful in her struggle with Mexico, naturally claimed that her own independence carried with it the indei)enden?e of Coahuila, and that, therefore, the territory of the latter province became an in- tegral part of the new Texan republic. This theory the joint legis- lature of Texas and Coahuila made haste to put into statutory form by a resolution of December 19th, 1836. Mexico, however, insisted that Texas only, and not C^oahuila, had revolted against her authority, and that, therefore, the latter province, was still rightfully a part of the Mexican dominions, Thus it came to ])ass that Texas — now a State in the American Union — claimed the Rio Grande as her west- ern limit, while Mexico was de- termined to have the Nueces as the separating line. The ter- ritory between the two rivers was in disjnite. The govern- ment of the United States made a proposal to settle the contro- versy by negotiation, but the authorities of Mexico scornfully refused. This refusal was con- strued l)y the Americans as a virtual acknowledgment that the Mexicans were in the wrong, and that the Rio Grande might justly be claimed as the boundary. Instructions were accordingly sent to General Tavlor to advance his army as " , , . . " TEXAS AND COAHIULA, ISJ.'i. near to that river as circum- stances would warrant. Under these orders he moved forward to Cor- pus Christi, at the mouth of the Nueces, established a cami), and by the beginning of November, 1845, had concentrated a force of between four and tive thousand men. In the following January General Taylor was ordered to advance to the Rio Grande. It was known that the Mexican government had resolved not to receive the American ambassador sent thither to ne- FOLIC S A D MINIS TBA TION. 449 SCENE OFTAYLOR S CAMPAIUN, 1846-47. gotiate a settlement. It had also transpired tliat an army of Mexicans wus gathering in the northern part of the country for the invasion of Texas, or, at any rate, for the occupation of the disputed territory. On the 8th of March the American army began the advance from Corpus Christi to Point Isabel, on the gulf. At that place General Taylor established a depot of sup- plies, and then pressed forward to the Rio Grande. Arriving at the river a few miles above the mouth, he took his station opposite Matamoras and hastily erected a fortress, after- ward named Fort Brown. On the 26th of April, General Arista, who had arrived at Matamoras on the previous day and assumed com- mand of the Mexican forces on the frontier, notified General Tay- lor that hostilities had begun. On the same day a company of Amer- ican dragoons, commanded by Captain Thornton, was attacked by a body of Mexicans, east of the Rio Grande, and after losing sixteen men in killed and wounded, was obliged to surrender. This was the first bloodshed of the war. At the same time large bodies of Mexi- cans — marauders, infantry, and cavalry — crossed the Rio prande be- low Fort Brown and threatened the American lines of communication. General Taylor, alarmed lest the Mexicans should make a circuit and capture the stores at Point Isabel, hastened to that place and strength- ened the defences. The fort opposite Matamoras was left under the command of Major Brown M'itli a garrison of three hundred men. Tlie withdrawal of the American general with the greater part of his forces was witnessed by the Mexicans in Matamoras, who, mistaking the movement for a retreat inspired by fear, were in great jubilation. The Eepuhlican Monitor, a Mexican newspaper of Matamoras, pub- lished on the following day a flaming editorial, declaring that the cowardly invaders of Mexico had fled like a gang of polti'oons to the 8ea-coast and were using every exertion to get out of the country be- fore the thunderbolt of Mexican vengeance should smite them. Ar- ista himself was confident that the Americans, becoming alarmed at their exposed position, had shrunk from the conflict and that it was only necessary for him to bombard Fort Brown in order to end the war. As soon as his supplies at Point Isabel were deemed secure, General Taylor set out with a provision-train and an army of more than two thousand men to return to Fort Brown. Meanwhile, the Mexicans to the number of six thousand had crossed the Rio Grande 29 450 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and taken a strong position at Palo Alto, directly in Taylor's route. At noon on the 8tli of May the Americans came in sight and immediately > V joined battle. After a severe engagement of five hours' duration the . "^J Mexicans were driven from the field, with the loss of a hundred men. \y The American artillery was served with signal effect; while the fighting ' of the enemy was clumsy and ineffectual. Only four Americans were killed and forty wounded ; but among the former was the gallant and much-lamented Major Ringgold of the artillery. On the following day General Taylor resumed his march in tlie direction of Fort Bi'own. When within three miles of that place, he again came upon the Mexicans, who had rallied in full force to dispute his advance. They had selected for their second battle-field a place called Resaca do la Palma. Here an old river-bed, dry and overgrown with cactus, crossed the road leading to the fort. The enemy's artilleiy was well posted antl better served than on the previous day. The Ameri- can lines were severely galled until the brave Captain May with his regi- ment of dragoons charged through a storm of grape-shot, rode over the Mexican batteries, sabred the gunners, and captured La Vega, the com- manding general. The Mexicans, abandoning their guns and flinging away their accoutrements, fled in a general rout. Before nightfall they had put the Rio Grande between themselves and the invincible Americans. On reaching Fort Brown, General Taylor found that during his absence the place had been constantly bombarded by the guns of IMatamoras. But a brave defence had been made, which cost, with other losses and suffering, the life of Major Brown, the commandant. Such was the be- ginning of a war in which Mexico exjiericnced a long list of humiliating defeats. When the news of the battles on the Rio Grande was borne through the Union, the war spirit was everywliere aroused. Party dissensions were luished into silence. The President, in a message to Congress, noti- fied that body that the lawless soldiery of Mexico had shed the blood of American citizens on American soil. On tin 11th of May, 1846, Con- gress promptly responded with a declaration that war already existed by the act of the Mexican go\ernment. The President was authorized to accept the services of fifty thousand volunteers, and ten million dollars vcere placed at his disposal. War meetings were held in all parts of the country, and within a few weeks nearly three hundred thousand men rushed forward to enter the ranks. A grand invasion of Mexico was plainied by General Scott. The American forces were organized in three divisions : the Army of the West, under General Kearney, to cross thu Rocky Mouutaiu.« and conquer the northern Mexican provinces ; POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 451 THE Army of the Centre, under General Scott as commander-in- chief, to niaroh from the gulf coast into the heart of the enemy's country , THE Army op Occupation, commanded by General Taylor, to subdut: and hold the districts on the Rio Grande. The work of mustering the American troops was entrusted to Gen» eral Wool. By the middle of summer he succeeded in despatching tc General Taylor a force of nine thousand men. He then established hiL camp at San Antonio, Texas, and from that point prepared the gathering recruits for the field. Meanwhile, Taylor had resumed active operations on the Rio Grande. Ten days after the battle of Resaca de la Palma he crossed from Fort Brown and captured Matamoras. Soon afterward he began his march up the right bank of the river and into the interior. The Mexicans, grown wary of their antagonist, fell back and took post at the fortified town of Monterey. To capture that place was the next object of the campaign ; but the American army M'as feeble in numbers, and General Taylor was obliged to tarry near the Rio Grande until the latter part of August. By that time reinforcements had arrived, increasing his numbers to six thousand six hundred. With this force the march against Monterey was begun ; and on the 19th of September the town, defended by fully ten thousand troops, under command of Ampudia, was reached and invested. The siege was pressed with great vigor. On the 21st of the month several assaults were made, in which the Americans, led by General AYorth, carried the fortified heights in the rear of the town. In that part of the defences only the bishop's palace — a strong building of stone — re- mained ; and this was taken by storm on the following day. On the morning of the 23d the city was successfully assaulted in front by Gen- erals Quitman and Butler. In the face of a tremendous cannonade and an incessant tempest of musket-balls discharged from the house-tops and alleys, the American storming-parties charged resistlessly into the town. They reached the Grand Plaza, or public square. They hoisted the vic- torious flag of the Union. They turned upon the buildings where the Mexicans were concealed ; broke open the doors ; charged up dark stair- ways to the flat roofs of the houses ; and drove the terrified enemy to an ignominious surrender. The honors of war were granted to Ampudia^ who evacuated the city and retired toward the capital. The storming of Monterey was a signal victory, gained against great superiority of num- bers and advantage of position. After the capitulation General Taylor received notice that overtures of peace were about to be made by the Mexican government. He there- fore agreed to an armistice of eight weeks, during which time neither party 452 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. should renew hostilities. In reality the Mexicans had no thought of peace. They employed the whole interval in warlike jireparations. The famous general Santa Anna was called home from his exile at Havana to take the presidency of the country. In the course of the autumn a Mexican army of twenty thousand men was raised and sent into the field. In the mean time, the armistice had expired ; and General Taylor, acting under ordere of the War Department, again moved forward. On the 15th of November, the town of Saltillo, seventy miles south-west from ISIon- terey, was captured by the American advance under General Worth. In the following month, Victoria, a city in the province of Tamaulipas, was taken by the command of General Patterson. To that place General Butler advanced from JNIonterey on the march against Tampico, on the river Panuco. At Victoria, however, he learned that Tampico had already capitulated to Captain Conner, commander of an American flotilla. Meanwhile, General Wool, advancing with strong reinforce- ments from San Antonio, entered Mexico, and took a position within sup- porting distance of Monterey. It was at this juncture that General Scott arrived and assnmed the command of the American forces. The Army of the ^^\'St had not been idle. In June of 1846 General Kearney set out from Fort Leavenworth, on tlie Missouri, for the conquest of New Mexico and California. After a long and wearisome march he reached Santa Fe, and on the 18th of August captured and gar- risoned the city. The whole of New Mexico submitted without further resistance. With a body of four hundred dragoons Kearney then con- tinued his march toward the Pacific coast. At the distance of three luui- dred miles from Santa Fe he was met bv the famous Kit Carson, who brought intelligence from the far West that California had already been subdued. Kearney accordingly sent back three-fourths of his forces, and ■with a party of only a hundred men made his way to the Pacific. On that far-off coast stirring events had happened. For four years Colonel .John C. Fremont had been exploring the country west of the Rocky Mountains. He liad hoisted the American dag on the highest peak of the great range, and then directed his route by Salt Lake to Oregon. Turning southward into California, he received despatches informing him of the impending war with Mexico. Deter- mined to strike a blow for his country, lie urged the people of California, many of whom were Americans, 'to declare their independence. The hardy frontiersmen of the Sacramento valley flocked to his standard; and a campaign was at once begun to overthrow the Mexican authority. In several petty engagements the Americans were victorious over greatly superior numbers. Meanwhile, Commodore Sloat, commanding an ^iLMiiiLiiii^iiMieliyiiiiiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiyiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiu POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 453 American fleet, had captured the town of Monterey, on the coast, eighty miles soutii of San Francisco. A few days afterward Commodore Stock- ton took command of the Pacific squadron and made himself master of San Diego. Hearing of these events, Fremont raised the flag of the United States instead of the flag of California, and joined the naval com- manders in a successful movement against Los Angelos, which was taken without opposition. Before the end of summer the whole of the vast province was subdued. In November General Kearney arrived with his company and joined Fremont and Stockton. About a month later the Mexicans rose in rebellion, but were defeated on the 8th of January, 1847, in the decisive battle of San Gabriel, by which the authority of the United States was completely established. A country large enough for an empire had been conquered by a handful of resolute men. In ths mean time, Colonel Doniphan, who had been left by Kear- ney in connnand of New IVIexIco, had made one of the most brilliant movements of the war. With a body of seven hundred fearless men he began a march through the enemy's country from Santa F6 to Saltillo, a distance of more than eight hundred miles. Reaching the Eio Grande on Christmas day, he fought and gained the battle of Bracito ; then, crossing the river, captured El Paso, and in two months pressed his way to within twenty miles of Chihuahua. On the l)an]ly of the North was that the argument could apj>ly only to a part of the new State, that the Missouri Compromise had respect only to the Louisiana purchase, and that the people of California had framed their constitution in their own way. Such was the issue; and the debates grew more and more violent, until the stability of the Union was seriously endangered. Other exciting questions added fuel to the controversy. Texas claimed New Mexico as a jiart of her territory, and the claim was resisted by the people of Santa Fe, who desired a separate government. The peo- ple of the South complained bitterly tiiat fugitive slaves, escaping from their masters, were aided and encouraged in the North. The opponents of slavery demanded the abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia. Along the whole line of controvei-sy there was a spirit of suspicion, recrimination and anger. The illustrious Henry Clay appeared as a peaceniaker. In the spring of 1850 he was appointed chairman of a committee of thirteen, to whom all the questions under discussion were referred. On the 9th of May he brought forward, as a compromise covering all the points in dis- pute, THE Omnibus Bii-i., of whicii the jirovisions were as follows: First, the admission of California as a free State ; second, the formation of now States, not exceeding ibur in number, out of tlie territory of Texas, said States to permit or exclude slavcrv as the peo]ile sliould determine; third, the organization of territorial governments for New ^Mexico and Utah, without conditions on the question of slavery; fourth, the establishment of the present boundary between Texas and New Mexico, and the pay- ment to the former for surrendering the latter the sum of ten million dol- lars from the national treasury ; fifth, the enactment of a more rigorous law for the recovery of fugitive slaves ; sixth, the abolition of the slave- trade in the District of Columbia. AVhen the Omnibus Bill was laid before Congress, the debates began ADMISISrEATIOys OF TAYLOR AXI) FILLMORE. 465 anew, and seemed likely to be interminable. While the discussion was at its heiglit and the issue still undecided, President Taylor fell sick, and died on the 9th of Jul}', 1850. In accordance with the provisions of the constitution, !Mr. Fillmore at once took the oath of office and entered upon the duties of the presidency. A new cabinet Mas f(M-med, with Daniel Webster at the head as secretary of state. Notwithstanding the death of the chief magistrate, the government moved on without disturbance. The compromise proposed by Mr. Clay and sustained by his elo- quence was at length appi'ovcd by Congress. On the 18th of Sc]i- teraber the last clause was adopted, and the whole received the im- mediate sanction of the President. The ex- citement in the couu- tiy rapidly abated, and the distracting contro- versy seemed at an end. Such was the last, and perhaps the greatest, of those pacific mea- sures originated and carried through Con- gress 1)}' tlie genius of Henr\^ Clay. He shortly afterward bade adieu to the Senate, and sought at his be- loved Ashland a brief rest fi-om the arduous cares of public life. The passage of the Omnibus Bill brought a political quiet ; Dut the moral convictions of very few men were altered by its provisions. Public opinion remained as before: in the North, a general, indefinite, but growing hostility to slavery ; in the South, a fixed and resolute purpose to defend and extend that institution. To the President, whose party was in the ascendency in most of the Free States, the measure was fotal ; for although his cabinet had advised hira to sign the bill, the Whigs were at heart opposed to the fugitive slave law* so HENKY CLAY. 466 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and when he gave his assent they turned coklly from him. In the Whig National convention, two years afterwards, although the policy of tlie President was approved and the eomjjromise measures ratified by a vote of two hundred and twenty-seven against sixty, not twenty Northern votes could be obtained for his renomination. Thus do political parties jninish their leaders for hesitating to espouse a prin- ciple which the parties themselves are afraid tr) avow. The year 1850 was marked by a lawless attempt on the part of some American adventurers to gain possession of Cul)a. It was thought tiuit tlie people of that island were anxious to throw off the Spanish yoke and to annex themselves to the United States. In order to encourage such a movement. General Lopez organized an expedi- tion in the South, and on the 19th of May, 1850, effected a landing at Cardenas, a port of Cuba. But there was no uprising in his favor; neither Cubans nor Spanish soldiers joined his standard, and he Mas obliged to seek safety by returning to Florida. Renewing the attempt in the following year, he and his band of four hundred and eighty men were attacked, defeated and captured by an overwhelming force of Spaniards. Lopez and the ringleaders were taken to Havana, tried, condemned and executed. The first annual message of the President ^vas a document of great al^ility. Among the many important measures pressed upon the attention of Congress were the following: a system of cheap and uni- form postage ; the establislimcnt, in connection with the Department of the Interior, of a Bureau of Agriculture; lil)eral appropriations for tlie improvement of rivers and harbors; the building of a national asylum for disabled and destitute seamen ; a permanent tariff with specific duties on imports and discrimination in favor of American manufactures; the opening of communication between the Mississippi and the Pacific coast ; a settlement of the land difiiculties in Califor- nia ; an act for the retirement of supernumerary officers of the army and navy; and a board of commissioners to adjust the claims of pri- vate citizens against the government of the United States. Only two of these important recommendations — the asylum for sailors and the settlement of the land claims in California — were carried into effect. For the President's party were in a minority in Congress; and the majority refused or neglected to approve his measures. In 1852 a serious trouble arose with England. By the terms of former treaties the coast-fisheries of Ne\vfoundland belonged ex- clusively to Great Britain. But outside of a line drawn three miles from the shore American fisherman enjoyed ef,ual rights and privi- ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 467 leges. Now the dispute arose as to whether the line shouhl be drawn from one headland to another so as to give all the bays and inlets to England, or whether it should be made to conform to the irregulari- ties of the coast. Under the latter construction American fishing- vessels would have equal claims in the bays and harbors; but this privilege was denied by Great Britain, and the quarrel rose to such a height that both nations sent men-of-war to the contested waters. But reason triumphed over passion, and in 1854 the difficulty was happily settled by negotiation; the right to take fish in any of the bays of the British possessions was conceded to American fishermen. During the summer of 1852 the celebrated Hungarian patriot Louis Kossuth made the tour of the United States. Austria and Russia had united against his native land and overthrown her liber- ties. He came to plead the cause of Hungary before the American people, and to obtain such aid as might be privately furnished to his oppressed countrymen. Every-where he was received with expres- sions of sympathy and good-will. His mission was successful, though the long-established policy of the United States forbade the govern- ment to interfere on behalf of the Hungarian patriots. About this time the attention of the American people was di- rected in a special manner to explorations in the Arctic Ocean. In 1845 Sir John Franklin, one of the bravest of English seamen, went on a voyage of discovery to the extreme North. He believed in the possibility of passing through an open polar sea into the Pacific. Years went by, and no tidings came from the daring sailor. It was only known that he had passed the country of Esquimaux. Other expeditions were despatched in search, but returned without success. Henry Grinnell, a wealthy merchant of New York, fitted out several vessels at his own expense, put them under command of Lieutenant De Haven, and sent them to the North ; but in vain. The govern- ment came to Mr. Grinnell's aid. In 1853 a new Arctic squadron was equipped ; the command of which was given to Dr. Elisha Kent Kane ; but the expedition, though rich in scientific results, returned without the discovery of Franklin. During the administrations of Taylor and Fillmore the country ■was called to mourn the loss of many distinguished men. On the 31st of March, 1850, Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina passed away. His death was much lamented, especially in his own State, to whose interests he had devoted the energies of his life. His earnest- ness and zeal and powers of deliate have placed him in the front rank of American orators. At the age of sixty-eight he fell from his place ^ 468 HmTORY OF THE UNITED .'STATES. like a scarred oak of the forest never to rise again. Then followed the death of the President; and then, on the 28th of June, 1852, Henry Clay, having fought his last battle, sank to rest. On the 24th of the following October the illustrious Daniel Webster died at his home at Marshficld, Massachusetts. Tht place of secretary of State, made vacant by his death, was conferred on Edward Everett. In Europe the news of Lopez's ri- diculous invasion of Cuba created great excitement. Not- withstanding a dis- tinct disavowal of the whole proceeding on the part of the Federal government, notwithstanding tlie immediate dismissal of the officer at New Orleans who had al- lowed the expedition of Lopez to escape from that port, — the governments of Great Britain and France affec- ted to believe that the covert aim and purpose of the United States was to acquire Cuba by conquest. Acting upon this presumption the British and French ministers proposed to the American government to enter into a Tripartiic Treuiy — so called— in which each of the con- tracting nations was to disclaim then and forever all intention of pos- sessing Cuba. To this j'l'oposal Mr. Everett replied in one of the most masterly State pa^iers on record. Great Britain and France were informed that the annexation of Cuba was regarded by the United States as a measure hazardous and impolitic ; that entire good faith would be kept with Spain and with all nations; but that the Federal government did not recognize in any European power the right to meddle with affairs purely American, and that, in accordance with the doctrine set forth by President Monroe, any such interference JOHN C. CALHOl'X. PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 469 would be resented as an affront to the sovereignty of the United States. As Fillmore's administration drew to a close the political parties again marshaled their forces. Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire appeared as the candidate of the Democratic party, and General Win- field Scott as the choice of the Whigs. The question at issue before the country was the Compromise Act of 1860. But the parties, in- stead of being divided, were for once agreed as to the wisdom of that measure. Both the Whig and Democratic platforms stoutly reaffirmed the justice of the Omnibus Bill, by which the dissensions of the coun- try had been quieted. A third party arose, however, whose members, both Whigs and Democrats, doubted the wisdom of the compromise of 1850, and declared that all the Territories of the United States ought to be free. John P. Hale of New Hampshire was put forward as the candidate of this Free Soil party. Mr. Pierce was elected by a large majority, and William R. King of Alabama was chosen Vice- President. CHAPTER LIX. PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION, 1S53-1S57. rPHE new chief magistrate was a native of New Hampshire, a graduate -L of Bowdoin College, a lawyer, a politician, a general in the Mexican War, a statesman of considerable abilities. Mr. King, the Vice-Presi- dent, had for a long time represented Alabama in the Senate of the United States. On account of failing health lie was sojourning in the island of Cuba at the time of the inauguration, and there he received the oath of office. Growing still more feeble, he returned to his own State, where he died on the 18th of April, 1853. As secretary of state under the new administration William L. Marcy of New York was chosen. In the sunniier of 185.3 the first corps of engineers was sent out by the government to exjilore the route for A Pacific Railroad. The enterprise was at first regarded as visionary, then believed in as possible, and finally undertaken and accomplished. In the same year that marked the beginning of the project tlie disputed boundary between New Mexico and Chihuahua was satisfactorily settled. The maps on which the former treaties with Mexico had been based were found to be erroneous. Santa 470 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Anna, who had again become president of the Mexican republic, at- tempted to take advantage of the error, and sent an army tcror. ^Vfter much delay and hesitancy consent was o])tained to hold an interview with that august personage, xlccordingly, on the 14th of July, the commodore with his officers obtained an audience with the dusky monarch of the East, and presented a letter from the President of tlie United States. Still the government of Japan was wary of accepting the proposition, and it was not until the spring of 1854 that a treaty could be concluded. The privileges of commerce were thus conceded to American merchant vessels, and two ports of entry were designated for their use. On the very day of Commodore Perry's introduction to the em- peror of Japan the Crystal Palace was opened in the city of New York for the second World's Fair. The palace itself was a marvel in ar- chitecture, being l)uilt exclusively of iron and glass. Thousands of specimens of the arts and manufactures of all civilized nations were put on exhibition within the spacious building. The enterprise and inventive genius of the whole country were quickened into a new life by the beautiful and instructive display. International exhibitions are among the happiest fruits of an enlightened age. During the administration of Pierce the country was frequently disturbed by the filibustering expeditions of General William Walker into Central America. This audacious and unscrupulous adventurer began his operations in 1853 by escaping with a band of followers from the port of San Francisco and making a descent on La Paz in Ijiiwer California. In the spring of 1854 he marched overland with a hundred men and raised the standard of revolt in the state of Sonora; PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 471 but the company was dispersed and himself made prisoner. In May of the same year he was tried by the authorities of San Francisco and acquitted. But not satisfied with his previous experience, he again raised a band of sixty-two followers and proceeded to Central America. Being joined by a regiment of natives he fought and gained a battle at Rivas, on the 29th of June, 1855. In a second battle at Virgin Bay he was also successful. Fighting continued until the following summer when his influence had become so powerful that he was elected president of Xicaraugua. Then came a change in his fortunes. A great insurrection ensued ; and the other Central American states, assisted b}' the Vanderbilt steam-ship company, whose rights he had violated, combined against him and on the 1st of May, 1857, he was again made prisoner. But in a ohort time he was foot-loose at New Orleans, where he organized a third company of adventurers — men who had everything to gain and nothing to lose — and on the 25th of November succeeded in reaching I'unta Arenas, Nicaraugua. Within less than a month, however, he was again obliged to sur- render to Commodore Paulding of the United States navy. For a while the great filibuster was a prisoner at New York ; hut getting his liberty, he continued his scheming, and in June of 1860 a third time reached Central America at the head of a considerable force. This time the descent was made at Truxillo. Honduras. But the president of that state, assisted by a British man-of-war, soon overpowered and captured the whole band. On the 3d of September Walker was tried by a court-martial at Truxillo, condemned, and shot. The courage with which he met his fate has half redeemed his forfeited fame and left after times in doubt whether he shall be called fanatic or hero. * To this period also belongs the history of what is known in American diplomacy as thb Martin Koszta Affair. Martin Koszta was a leader in the Hungarian revolt against Austria, in 1849. After the rebellion was suppressed he fled to Turkey whence he was demanded by the Austrian government as a refugee and traitor. The Turkish authorities, however, refused to give him up but agreed that he should be sent into exile to some foreign land never to return. Koszta chose the United States as his asylum, came hither, and took out partial but not complete papers of naturalization. In 1854 he returned to Tur- key, contrary — as it was alleged — to his former promise. At the city of Smyrna he received a passport from the American consul residing there, and went ashore. But the Austrian consul at Smyrna, hearing *It will be observed tbnt the narrative of Walker's e.Kploits and end, extends nearly to tlic conclusion of Buchanan's administration. 472 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of Koszta's arrival and having no power to arrest him on shore, indiice(\ some bandits to seize him and tlirow iiim into the water of tlie bay where a boat in waiting picked him up and carried him on board an Austrian frigate. The American officials immediately demanded his release, which was refused. Thereupon Captain Duncan Ingraham, commanding the American sloop of war St. Louis, loaded his guns, pointed them at the Austrian vessel, and was about to make hot work, Avhen it was agreed by all parties that Koszta should be put in charge of tlie French government until his nationality should be decided. In this condition of affairs the (juestion was given over for discussion to Baron Hiilseman — the Austrian minister at Washington — and William L. Marcy, the American secretary of state. The correspondence was one of the ablest on record and extended, before its termination, to almost every question affecting naturalization and citizenship, and in- deed to many other important topics of international law. Mr. Marcy was completely triumphant in his argument and Koszta was remanded to the United States. Of so much importance is the life of one man, when it involves the great question of human rights. In the years 1853-54, the peaceable relations of the United States and Spain were again endangered by Cuban difficulties. Presi- dent Pierce believed that owing to the financial embarrassment of the Spanish government, Cuba might now be purchased at a reasonable price and annexed to the United States. The delicate business of ne- gotiating was intrusted at first to Mr. Soule, the American minister at Madrid. But afterwards James Buchanan and John Y. Mason wera added to the mission. A convention of the ambassadors of the vari- ous governments concerned was held at Osteud, and an important in- slrument was there drawn up — chiefly by Mr. Buchanan — known as THE OsTEND MANIFESTO. Tlie document was chiefly devoted to an elaborate statement of tlie arguments in favor of the purchase and an- nexation of Cuba by the United States, as a measure of sound wisdom to both the Spanish and American governments. But nothing of prac- tical importance resulteci from the embassy or the manifesto. And now the great domain lying west of Minnesota, Iowa and Missouri was to be organized ii.to territorial governments. Already into these vast regions the tide of immigration was pouring, and it be- came necessary to provide for the future. In January of 1854, Sen- ator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois brought before the Senate of the United States a proposition to organize the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. In the bill rejiorted for this purpose a clause was inserted providing tliat tlio ])eople of tlie two Territories, in forming their con- PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 473 stitutions, should decide for themselves whether the new States should be tree or slavehokling. This was a virtual repeal of the Missouri Com- promise, for both tlie new territories lay north of the parallel of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes. Thus by a single stroke the old settlement of the slavery question was to be undone. From Jan- uary until May, Mr. Douglas's report, known as the Kansas-Ne BRASKA Bill, was debated in Congress. All the bitter sectional antagonisms of the past were aroused in full force. The bill was violently opposed by a majority of the representatives from the East and North ; but the minority, uniting with the congressmen of the South, enabled Douglas to carry his measure through Congress, and in May of 1854 the bill received the sanction of the President. Kansas itself now became a battle-field for the contending par- ties. Whether tlie new State should admit slavery now depended upon the vote of tlio people. Wherefore both factions made a rush for the territory in order to secure a majority. Kansas was soon filled with an agitated mass of people, thousands of whom had been sent thither to vote. An election held in November of 1854 resulted in the choice of a pro-slavery delegate to Congress, and in the general territorial election of the following year the same party was triumphant. Tlie State Legislature thus chosen assembled at Lecompton, organized the government and framed a constitution permitting slavery. The I<"ree Soil pai'ty, declaring the general election to have been illegal on ac- count of fraudulent voting, assembled in convention at Topeka, framed a constitution excluding slavery, and organized a rival government. Civil war broke out between the factions. From the autumn of 1855 until the following summer the Territory was the scene of constant turniiiil and violence. On the 3d of September the President ap- pointed .Tolin W. Geary of Pennsylvania military governor of Kansas, with full powers to restore order and punish lawlessness. On his ar- rival the liostile parties were quieted and peace restored. But the agitation in the Territory had already extended to all parts of the Union, and became the issue on which the people divided in the presi- dential election of 1856. The parties made ready for the contest. James Buchanan of Pennsylvania was nominated as the Democratic candidate. By plant- ing himself on a platform of principles in which the doctrines of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill were distinctly reaffirmed, he was able to secure a heavy vote both North and South. For many Northern Democrats, though opposed to slavery, held firmly to the opinion that the people of every Territory ought to have the right to decide the question for 474 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. themselves. As the candidate of the Free Soil or People's party, John C. Fremont of California was bronght forward. The exclusion of slavery from all the Territories of the United States by congres- sional action was the distinctive principle of the Free Soil platform. Meanwhile, an American or Know-Nothing party had arisen in the country, the leaders of which, anxious to ignore the slavery question and to restrict foreign influences in the nation, nominated Millard Fill- more for the presidency. But the slavery question could not be put aside; on that issue the people were really divided. A large majority decided in favor of Mr. Buchanan for the presidency, while the choice for the vice-presidency fell on .John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. CHAPTER LX. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION, 1857-1S61. TAMES BUCHANAN was a native of Pennsylvania, born on the 13th of April, 1791, educated for the profession of law. In 1831 he was appointed minister to Russia, was afterward elected to the Senate of the United States, and from that position was called to the office of secretary of state under President Polk. In 1853 he received the appointment of minister to Great Britain, and resided at London until his nomination for the presidency. As secretary of state in the new cabinet, General Lewis Cass of Michigan was chosen. A few days after the inauguration of the new chief magistrate, the Supreme Court of the United States delivered the celebrated opin- ion known in American history as the Dred Scott Decision. Dred Scott, a negro, had been held as a slave by Dr. Emerson of Missouri, a surgeon in the United States army. On the removal of Emerson to 'lock Island, Illinois, and afterwards, in 1836, to Fort Snclling, Min- nesota, Scott was taken along; and at the latter place he and a negro woman, who had been bouglit by the surgeon, were married. Two cliildren were l)orn of tlic marriage, and then the whole family were taken back to St. Louis and sold. Dred thereupon brought suit for his freedom. The cause was heard in the circuit and supreme courts of ^lissouri, and, in May of 1854, was appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States. After a delay of nearly three years a decision was finallv reached in March of 1857. Chief-Justice Taney, speaking BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 475 for the court, ilecided that negroes, whether free or slave, loere not cit- izens of the United States, and that they could not become such by any pr-ocess Jcnown to the Constitution; that under the hivvs of the United States a negro could neither sue nor be sued, and that therefore the court had no jurisdiction of Dred Scott's cause ; that a slave was to be regarded in the light ot a personal chattel, and that he might be removed from place to place by his owner as any other piece of prop= erty ; that the Constitution gave to every slave-holder the right of re- moving to or through any State or Territory with his slaves, and of returning at his will with them to a State where slavery was recog- nized by law; and that therefore the Missouri C'DUipromise of 1820, as well as the compromise measures of 1850, was unconstitutional and void. In these opinions six of the associate justices of the supreme bench — Wayne, Nelson, Grier, Daniel, Campbell, and Catron — con- curred ; while two associates — Judges McLean and Curtis — dissented. The decision of the majority, which was accepted as the opinion of the court, gave great satisfaction to the ultra slave-holding sentiments of the South, but excited in the North thousands of indignant com- ments and much bitter opposition. In the first year of Buchanan's administration there was a Mor- mon rebellion in Utah. The difficulty arose from an attempt to ex- tend the judicial system of the United States over the Territory. Thus far Brigliam Young, the Mormon governor, had had his own way of administering justice. The community of Mormons was organized on a plan very different from that existing in other Territories, and many usages had grown up in Utah which were repugnant to the laws of the country. When, therefore, a Federal judge was sent to preside in the Territory, he was resisted, insulted and driven violently from the seat of justice. The other officials of the Federal government were also expelled, and the Territory became the scene of a reign of terror. The Mormons, however, attempted a justification of their conduct on the ground that the character of the United States offi- cers had been so low and vicious as to command no respect. But the excuse was deemed insufficient, and Brighani Young was super- seded in the governorship by Alfred Cumming, superintendent of Indian affiiirs on the Upper Missouri. Judge Delana Eckels of In- diana was appointed chief-justice of the Territory; and an army of two thousand five hundred men was organized and despatched to Utah to put down lawlessness by force. But Young and the Mormon ciders were in no humor to give up their authority without a struggle. The approaching American 476 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. army was denounced as a liordc of barbarians, and preparations were made for resistance. In September of 1857 tlie national forces reached the Territory ; and on the 6tli of October a company of Mormon ran- gers made good the threats of Young by attacking and destroying most of the suj^ply trains of the army. Winter came on, and the Federal forces, under command of Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston, were obliged to find quarters on Black's Fork, near Fort Bridges. Meanwhile, however, the President had despatched Thomas L. Kane of Pennsylvania with conciliatory letters to the Mormons. Going by way of California, he reached Utah in the spring of 1858, and in a short time succeeded in bringing about a good understanding between Governor Gumming and the insurgents. In the latter part of May, Governor Powell of Kentucky and Major McCuUoch of Texas ar- rived at the quarters of the army, bearing from the President a proc- lamation of pardon to all who would submit to the national authority. The passions of the Mormons had by this time somewhat subsided and they accepted the overture. In the fall of 1858 the army pro- ceeded to Salt Lake City, but was soon afterwards quartered at Camp Floyd, forty miles distant. The Federal forces remained at this place until order was entirely restored, and in May of 1860 were withdrawn from the Tei'ritory. Earlv ill 1858 an American vessel, while innocently exploring the Paraguay Eiver, in South America, was fired on by a jealous gar- rison. When reparation for the insult was demanded, none was given, and the government of the United States was obliged to send out a fleet to obtain satisfaction. A commissioner was sent with the squad- ron who was empowered to offer liberal terms of settlement for the injury. The authorities of Paraguay quailed before the American flag, and suitable apologies were made for the wrong which had been committed. The 5th of August, 1858, was a memorable day in the history of the world. On that day was completed the laying of the first TELEGRAPHIC CABLE across the Atlantic Ocean. The successful ac- complishment of this great work was due in a large measure to the energiv and genius of Cvrus W. Field, a wcalthv merchant of New York. The cable, one thousand six hundred and forty miles in length, was stretched from Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, to Valentia Bay, Ireland. Telegraphic communication was thus established be- tween the Old AYorld and the New, and the fraternal greetings of peaceful nations were for the first time transmitted through the depths of the sea. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 477 In 1858 Minnesota was added to the Union. The area of the new State was a little more than eighty-one thousand square miles, and its population at the date of admission a hundred and fifty thousand souls. In the next year Ore- gon, the thirty-tliird State, was admitted, with a population of forty-eight thousand, and an area of eighty thousand square miles. On the 4th of the pre- ceding March General Sam Houston of Texas bade adieu to the Sen- ate of the United States and retired to private life. His ca- reer had been marked by the strangest vicis- situdes. He was a Virginian by birth, but his youth was hardened among the mountains of Tennes- see. He gained a mil- itary fame in the Sem- inole War, then rose to political distinction, and was elected governor of his adopted State. Overshadowed with a domestic calamity, he suddenly resigned his office, left his home, and exiled himself among the Cherokees, by whom he was made a chief. Afterward he went to Texas, joined the patriots, and be- came a leading spirit in the struggle for independence. It was he who commanded in the decisive battle of San Jacinto; he who became first president of Texas, and also her first representative in the Senate of the United States. Through all the misfortunes, dangers and trials of hi life his character stood like adamant. In the fall of 1859 the people of the United States were called to mourn the death of Washington lEriNG, the Prince of Amer- ican Letters. For full fifty years the powers of his sublime genius had been unremittingly devoted to the great work of creating for his native land a literature that should adorn and glorify his own and GENERAL SAM HOUSTON. 478 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. after age: On both sidos of tlic Atlantic, in every civilized country, his name had become familiar as a Jiousehold word. He it was, first of all, who wrung from the reluctant and proscriptive reviews of Enjj-land and Scot- land an acknowledg- ment of tiie power and originality of Aniercan genius. The literature of the New World was no longer a scoff and a by-word when Murray, the bookseller of London, was obliged to pay for the raanuscrijjt of " Bracebridge Hall " — which he had not yet seen — the sum of a thousand guineas. Except Sir AYalter Scott and Lord Byron no other author of Irving's times re- ceived such a munifi- cent reward for his labor — no other was so much praised and loved. Whether as humorist or writer of prose fiction, historian or biogra- pher, his name ranks among the nolilest and brightest of the world. When the petty revolutions of society and the bloody conflicts of the battle field are forgotten, the monument which the affections of his countrymen have reared to the memory of the illustrious Irving shall stand unshaken and untarnished, transmitting to all after times the record of his virtues and achievements. From the beginning the new administration had stormy times The slavery question continued to vex the nation. The Dred Scott Decision, to which the President had looked as a measure calculated to allay the excitement, had only added fuel to the flame. In some of the Free States the opposition rose so high that Personal Lib- erty Bills were passed, the object of which was to defeat the exe- cution of the Fugitive Slave law. In the fall of 1859 the excitement was still further increased by the nuid attempt of John Brown of Kansas to excite a general insurrection among the slaves. With a WASHINGTON IRVING. BUCHANAX'S ADMINISTRATION. 471^ party of twenty-one men as daring as himself, he made a sudden d'!- scent on the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, captured the place, and held his ground for nearly two days. The national troops and the militia of Virginia were called out in order to suppress the revolt. Thirteen of Brown's men were killed, two made their escape, and the rest were cai^tured. The leader and his six companions were given over to the authorities of Virginia, tried, condemned and hanged. In Kansas the old controversy still continued, but the Free Soil party gained ground so rapidly as to make it certain that slavery would be interdicted from the State. All these facts and events tended to widen the breach between the people of the North and the South. Such was the alarming condition of affairs when the time arrived for holding the nineteenth presidential election. The canvass was one of intense excitement. Four candidates were presented. The choice of the Peoj)le's party — now called Re- publican — was Abraham Lincoln of Illinois. The platform of prin- ciples adopted by this party again declared opposition to the extension of slavery to be the vital issue. In the month of April the Democratic convention assembled at Charleston. The delegates were divided on tlie cpiestion of slavery, and after much debating the party was dis- rupted. The Southern delegates, unable to obtain a distinct expres- sion of their views in the platform of principles, and seeing that the Northern wing was determined to nominate Mr. Douglas — the great defender of popular sovereignty — withdrew from the convention. The rost continued in session, balloted for a while for a candidate, and on the 3d of May adjourned to Baltimore, where the delegates, reassem- bling on the 18th of June, chose Douglas as their standard-bearer in the approaching canvass. The seceding delegates adjourned first to Richmond, and afterwards to Baltimore, where they met on the 28th of June and nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The American party — now known as Constitutional Unionists — chose John Bell of Tennessee as their candidate. The contest resulted in the election of Mr. Lincoln. He received the electoral votes of all the Northern States except those of New Jersey, which were divided between himself and his two opponents. The support of the South- ern States was for the most part given to Breckinridge. The States of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee cast their ballots, thirty-nine in number, for Mr. Bell. Mr. Douglas received a large popular but small electoral vote, his supporters being scattered through all the States without the concentration necessary to carry any. Thus after controlling the destinies of the Re]uiblic for sixty years, with only 480 HISTORY OF THE UMTED STATES. the temporary overthrow of 1840, the Democratic party was broken into fragments and driven from the field. The result of the election had been anticipated. The leaders of the South had openly declared that the choice of Lincoln M'ould l)e regarded as a just cause for the dissolution of the Union. The Kepublicans of the populous North crowded to the polls, and their favorite was chosen. As to the government, it was under the control of the Douglas Democracy ; l)ut a majority of the cabinet and u large number of senators and repre- sentatives in Congress were supporters of Mr. Breckinridge and the advo- cates of disunion as a justifial)]e measure. It was now evident that with the incoming of the new administration all the departments of the govern- ment would pass under the control of the Republican party. The times were full of passion, animosity and rashness. It was seen that disunion was now possible, and that the possibility would shortly be removed. The attitude of the President favored the measure. He was not himself a disunionist. He denied the right of a State to secede ; but at the same time he declared himself not armed with the constitutional power neces- sary to prevent secession by force. The interval, therefore, between the presidential election in November of 1860 and the inauguration of the following spring ^vas seized by the leaders of the South as the opportune moment for dissolving the Union. The actual work of secession began in South Carolina. On the ITtli of Decembei-, 1860, a convention assembled at Charleston, and after three days of deliberation passed a resolution that the union hitherto existing between South Carolina and the other States, under the name of the United States of America, was dissolved. It was a step of fearful importance. The action M'as contagious. The sentiment of disunion spread with great ra})idity. The cotton-growing States were almost unanimous in support of the measure. By the 1st of February, 1861, six other States — Mississijipi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas — had passed ordinances of secession and withdrawn from the Union. Nearly all of the senators and representatives of those States, following the action of their constituents, resigned their seats in Congress and gave themselves to the disunion cause. In the secession conventions there Mas but little opposition to the movement. In some instances a considerable minority vote was east. A few of the speakers boldly denounced disunion as bad in principle and ruinous in its results. The course of Alexander H. Stephens, afterward Vice-President of the Confederate States, was peculiar. In the con- vention of Georgia he undertook the task of jireventiug the secession of his State. He delivered a long and powerful oration in which he de- B UCHANAN'S ADMINISTBA TIQX. 481 fended the theory of secession, advocated the doctrine of State sove- reignty, declared his intention of abiding by the decision of the conven- tion, but at the same time spoke against se- cession, on the ground that the measure was mpolitic, unwise, dis- astrous. Not a few prominent men at the South held similar views; but the oppo- site opinion prevailed, and secessioi) was ac- complished. On the 4th of February, 1861, dele- gates from six of the seceded States assem- bled at Montgomery, Alabama, and formed a n e M' government, under the name of The Confederate States of America. On the 8th of the month the government M'as organized by the election of Jefferson Davie of Mississippi as jirovis- ional President, and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice-President. On the same day of the meeting of the Confederate Congress, at Montgomery, a peace conference assembled at Washington. Delegates from twenty-one States were present; certain amendments to the Constitution were pro- posed and laid before Congress for adoption, but that body gave little heed to the measures suggested, and the conference adjourned without practical results. The country seemed on the verge of ruin. The national govern- cient was for the time being paralyzed. The army was stationed in de- tachments on remote frontiers. The fleet was scattered in distant seas. The President was distracted with hesitancy and the advei-se counsels of his friends. With the exception of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in Charleston Harljor, Fort Pickens near Pensacola, and Fortress Monroe in the Chesapeake, all the important posts in the seceded States had beea ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. 482 HISTOMY UF THE UNITED STATES. seized by tlie Confederate authorities, even before the organization of their government. All this while the local warfare in Kansas had continued ; but the Free State party had at last gained the ascendency, and the early admission of the new commonwealth, with two additional Republican senators, was foreseen. Early in January the I-'resident made a feeble attempt to reinforce and provision the garrison of Fort Sumter. Tlu steamer Star of the West was sent with men and supplies, but in approach- ing the harbor of Charleston was fired on by a Confederate battery and compelled to return. Thus in gloom and grief, and the upheavals of revolution, the administration of Buchanan drew to a close. Such was the dreadful condition of aftairs that it was deemed prudent for the new President to apjjroach the capital without recognition. For the first time in the history of the nation the chief magistrate of the republic slipped into Washington city by night. CHAPTER LXI. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, AND THE CIVIL WAR, isei-iS65. ABRAHAM LINCOLN, sixteenth President of the United States, was a native of Kentucky, born in the county of Larue, on the 12th of February, 1809. His ancestors had emigrated thither from Rockingham County, Virginia : both father and mother were Virgin- ians by birth. The childhood of the future President w'as passed in utter obscurity. In 1816 his father removed to Spencer County, In- diana — just then admitted into the Union — and built a cabin in the woods near the present village of Gentryville. Here was the scene of Lincoln's boyhood — a constant struggle with poverty, hardship, and toil. At the age of sixteen we find him managing a ferry across the Ohio, at the mouth of Anderson Creek — a service for which he was paid six dollars j)er month. In his youth he received in the aggregate about one year of schooling, which was all he ever had in the way of education. In the year of his majority he removed with his fothcr's family to the north fork of the Sangamon, ten miles west of Decatur, Illinois. Here another log-house was built and a small farm cleared LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRA TION. 483 and fenced; and here Abraham Lincohi began for himself the hard battle of life. The uncleared forest, the unbroken soil, The iron bark that turns the lumberer's axe, The rapid that o'erbears the boatman's toil, The prairie, hilling the mazed wanderer's track.!. The ambushed Indian, and the prowling bear;— Such were the needs that helped his youth to train — Eough culture ! — but such trees large fruit may bear, If but their stocks be of right girth and grain ! After serving as a flatboatman on the Mississippi, Lincoln re- turned to New Salem, twenty miles from Springfield, and became a clerk in a country store. Then, as cap- tain of a company of volunteers, he served in the Black Hawk war. From 1833 to 1836 he was engaged in merchandising, but a dissolute partner brought him to bank- ruptcy. Turning his attention to the prac- tice of the law, for which pro f e s s i o n he had always had a liking, he gradually gained the attention of his fellow-men and .soon rose to distinc- tion. His j)eculiar power — manifested at all periods of his life — of seizing the most difficult thought and presenting it in such quaint and homely phrase as to make the truth appreciable by all men, made him a natural leader of the people. As candidate for the office of United States senator from Illinois he first revealed to the nation, in his great debates with Senator Douglas, the full scope and originality of his genius. Now, at the age of fifty-two, he found laid upon him ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 484 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. siK'li a burden of care and responsil)ility as liad not been l)orne by any ruler of modern times. On the occasion of his inauguration he delivered a long and thoughtful address, declaring his fixed purijose to uphold tlie Constitution, enforce the laws, and preserve the integ- rity of the Union. The new cal)inet was organized with William H. Seward of New York as secretary of state. Salmon P. Chase of Ohio was chosen sec- retary of the treasury, and Simon Cameron secretary of war ; but he, in the following January, was succeeded in office by Edwin M. Stan- ton. The secretaryship of the navy was conferred on Gideon Welles. In his inaugural address and first official papers the President indi- cated the policy of the new administration by declaring his purpose to repossess the forts, arsenals and public property which had been seized by the Confederate atithorities. It was with this purpose that the first military prejjarations were made. In the moan time, on the 12th of March, an eifort was made by commissioners of the seceded States to obtain from the national government a recognition of their indejjendence ; but the negotiations were unsuccessful. Then followed a second attempt on the part of the government to reinforce the gar- rison of Fort Sumter; and with that came the beginning of actual hostilities. The defences of Charleston Harbor were held by Major Robert Anderson. His entire force amounted to seventy-nine men. Owing to the weakness of his garrison, he deemed it prudent to evacuate Fort Moultrie and retire to Sumter. Meanwhile, Confederate volun- teers had flocked to the city, and powerful batteries had been built about the hai-bor. When it became known that the Federal gov- ernment would reinforce the forts, the authorities of the Confederate States determined to anticipate the movement by compelling Ander- son to surrender. Accordingly, on the 11th of April, General P. T. Beauregard, commandant ot Charleston, sent a flag to Fort Sumter, demanding an evacuation. Major Anderson replied that he should hold the fortress and defend his flag. On the following morning, at half-past four o'clock, the first gun was fired from a Confederate battery. A terrific bombardment of thirty-four hours' duration fol- lowed ; the fort was reduced to ruins, set on fire, and obliged to ca- pitulate. The honors of war were granted to Anderson and his men, \ ho had made a brave and obstinate resistance. Although the can- nonade had been long continued and severe, no lives were lost either in the fort or on the shore. Thus the defences of Charleston Harbor were secured 1)V tiic Confederates. LIXCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION. 485 The news of this startling event went tlirough the country like a flame of fire. There had been some expectation of violence, but the actual shock came like a clap of thunder. The people of the towns poured into the streets and the country folk tiocked to the villages to gather the tidings and to comment on the coming conflict. Gray- haired men talked gravely of the deed that was done, and prophesied of its consequences. Public opinion in both the North and the South was rapidly consolidated. Three days after the fall of Sumter Presi- dent Lincoln issued a call for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve three months in the overthrow of the secession movement. Two days later Virginia seceded from the Union. On May 6th Arkansas followed the example, and then North Carolina on the 20th of the same month. In Tennessee — especially in East Tennessee — there was a powerful op- position to disunion, and it was not until the 8th of June that a secession ordinance could be passed. In Missouri, as will presently be seen, the movement resulted in civil war, while in Kentucky the authorities issued a proclamation of neutrality. The people of Maryland were divided into hostile parties, the disunion sentiment being largely prevalent. On the 19t]i of April, when the first regiments of Massachusetts volunteers were passing through Baltimore on their way to Washington, they were fired upon by the citizens, and three men killed. Tills was the first bloodshed of the war. On the day before this event a body of Con- federate soldiers advanced against the armory of the United States at Harper's Ferry. The officer in connnand hastily destroyed a portion of the vast magazine collected there, and then escaped into Pennsylvania. On the 20th of the month another company of Virginians assailed the great navy yard at Norfolk. The officers commanding fired the l)uild- ings and shij>s, sjiikcd the cannon and withdrew their forces. Most of the guns and many of the vessels were afterward recovered by the Con- federates, the property thus captured amounting to fully ten millions of dollars. So rapidly was Virginia filled with volunteers and troops from the South that, for a while, Washington city was in danger of being taken. But the cajjital was soon secured from i mediate danger; and on the 3d of May the President issued another call for soldiers. This time the number was set at eighty-three thousand, and the term of service at three years or during the war. Lieutenant-General Winfield Scott was made connnander-in-chief. As many war ships as could be provided were sent to blockade the Southern ports. On every side were heard the notes of ]ire])aration. In the seceded States there was boundless and in- cessant activity. Already the Southern Congress had adjourned from Montgomery, to meet on the 20tli of July at Richmond, -which waa 486 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. chosen as the capital of the Confederacy. To that place had already come Mr. Davis and the officers of his cabinet, for the purpose of direct- ing the affairs of the government and the army. So stood the antag- onistic powers in the beginning of June, 1861. It was now evident to all men (how slow they had been to believe it !) that a great war, perhaps the greatest in modern times, was impending over the nation. It is appropriate to look briefly into the Causes of the approaching conflict. CHAPTER LXII. CA USES. THE first and most general cause of the civil war in the United States was tlie different consfrucfion put upon the national Constitution by the people of the North and the South. A difference of opinion had always existed as to how that instrument was to be undei-stood. The question at is.sue was as to the relation between the States and the general govern- ment. One party held that under the Constitution the Union of the States is indissoluble ; that the sovereignty of the nation is lodged in the central goverinnent ; tliat the States are subordinate ; that the acts of Congress, until they are repealed or pronounced unconstitutional by the supreme court, are l)inding on the States; that the highest allegiance of the citizen is due to the general government, and not to his own State ; and that all attempts at nullification and disunion are in their nature dis- loyal and treasonable. The other party held that the national Constitu- tion is a compact between sovereign States ; that for certain reasons the Union may be dissolved ; that the sovereignty of the nation is lodged in the individual States, and not in the central government; that Congress can exercise no other than delegated powers ; that a State feeling ag- grieved may annul an act of Congress ; that the highest allegiance of the citizen is due to his own State, and afterward to the general goverinnent ; and that acts of nullification and disunion are justifiable, revolutionary and honorable. Here was an issue in its consequences the most fearful that ever disturbed a nation. It struck right into the vitals of the government. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION. 487 It tlireateued with each renewal of the agitation to undo the whole civil structure of the United States. For a long time the parties who disputed about tlie meaning of the Constitution were scattered in various sections. In the earlier history of tiie country the doctrine of State sovereignty was most advocated in New England. With the rise of the tariff question the position of parties changed. Since the tariff — a congressional mea- sure — favored the Eastern States at the expense of the South, it came to pass naturally that the people of New England passed over to the advo- cacy of national sovereignty, while the people of the South took up the doctrine of State rights. Thus it happened that as early as 1831 the right of nullifying an act of Congress was openly advocated in South Carolina, and thus also it happened that the belief in State sovereignty became more prevalent in the South than in the North. These facts tended powerfully to produce sectional parties and to bring them into conflict. A second general cause of the civil war was the different system of ■labor in the North and in the South. In the former section the laborers were freemen, citizens, votei"s ; in the latter, bondmen, property, slaves. In the South the theory was that the capital of a country should own the labor ; iu the North that both labor and capital ai'e free. In the begin- ning all the colonies had been slaveholding. In the Eastern and INIiddle States the system of slave-labor was gradually abolished, being unprofit- able. In the five great States formed out of the North-western Territory slavery was excluded by the original compact under which that Territory was organized. Thus there came to be a dividing line drawn through the Union east and west. It was evident, therefore, that whenever the question of slavery was agitated a sectional division would arise between the parties, and that disunion and war would be threatened. The danger arising from this source was increased and the discord between the sections aggravated by several subordinate causes. The first of these was the invention of the Cotton Gin. In 1793, Eli Whitney, a young collegian of Massachusetts, went to Georgia, and resided with the family of Mrs. Greene, widow of General Greene, of the Revolution. While there his attention was directed to the tedious and difficult process of picking cotton by hand — that is, sejjarating the seed from the fibre. So slow was the process that the production of up- land cotton was nearly profitless. The industry of the cotton-growing States was paralyzed by the tediousness of preparing the product for the market. j\Ir. Whitney undertook to remove the difficulty, and succeeded in inventing a gin which astonished the beholder by the rapidity and excellence of its work. From being profitless, cotton became the most profitable of all the staples. The industry- of the South was revolution- 48» HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ized. Before the civil war it was estimated that A\'hitney"s gin had added a thousand millions of dollars to the revenues of the Southern States. The American crop had grown to be seven-eighths of all the cotton produced in the world. Just in proportion to the increased ])rofit- ableness of cotton slave-labor became important, slaves valuable and the system of slavery a fixed and deep-rooted institution. From this time onward there was constant danger that the slavery question would so embitter the politics and legislation of the country as to bring about disunion. The danger of such a result was fully mani- fested in THE Misscn-Ri Agitation of 1820-21. Threats of dissolving the Union were freely made in both the North and the South — in the North, because of the proposed enlargement of the domain of slavery'; in the South, because of the proj)osed rejection of Missouri as a slave-holding State. When the Missouri Compromise was enacted, it was the hope of Mr. Clay and his fellow-statesmen to save the Union by removing for ever the slavery question from the politics of the country. In that they suc- ceeded for a while. Next came the Nullification Acts of South Carolina. And these, too, turned upon the institution of slavery and the profitableness of cotton. The Southern States had become cotton-producing ; the Eastern States had given themselves to manufacturing. The tariff measures favored manufactures at the expense of producers. Mr. Calhoun and his f"iends proposed to remedy the evil complained of by annulling tlie laws of Congress. His measures fliiled ; but another eonij)romise was found necessary in order to allay the animosities which had been awakened. The Annexation of Texas, with the consequent eidargement of the domain of slavery, led to a renewal of the agitation. Those who 0})posed the Mexican War did so, not so much because of the injustice of the conflict as because of the fact that thereby slavery would be extended. Then, at the close of the war, came another enormous acquisition of territory. Whether the .same should be made into free or slave-holding States was the question next agitated. This controversy led to the passage of the Omnibus Bill, by which again for a brief period the excitement was allayed. In 1854 the Kansas-Nebra.ska bill was passed. Thereby the Missouri Compromise was repealed and the whole question opened anew. Meanwhile, the character and the civilization of the Northern and the Southern people had become quite difierent. In population and wealth the North had far outgrown the South. In the struggle for territorial dominion the North had gained a considerable advantage. In 1860 the division of the Democratic party made certain the election of Mr. Lincoln CHART VI, NATIONAL PERIOD- 1857 61 65 69 Frederick Williani IV. 66. \%'ar between l>rnssia 71. King 1 :iii4l AuNtria* Em 70. Beginning of tl 67. Hanover absorbed by Prussia. m. Tre aty of Peace between Chi iia and England. IVNi»oleon III. 68. For mation of a Nortli Gei 61. William I. 6,5. Fenian troubles in Ire land. 70. p^ Sedan. 70. Downfall of J Vl<-torin. 62. Death of Friiic e Albert, the Consoi-t. ^l-KllJ-e? 68. Pas sage of the Reform Bill 70. Disc'stalilislim 71. Bill forb 5S. Mutiny iu the E ast India array. 72. P JAMES BUCHAKAN, ABR AII.AM I.IXCUI.IV President. UliYSSES S. CRA.M President. Hannibal Hamlin. Vi ce- President. Schnyler Colfax, Vi Jobn C.Breckinrldgre, Ul. Ten of the ooutlieru S tales secede. 69. The Pacific Ilailroa Vice-President. 61. Tlie"Starof the West" fired upon. 69. Edwin M. Stanton d .57. Tlie Dred Scott De- 61. @ Fall 0/ Port Sumte ,._ 66. The Atlantic Ca blelaid. 70. Tlie Fifleentl cision 61. Tlie President calls lor 7.1,000 volunteei-s. 70. Robert E. Le 61. The Confederate Cong ress at Montgomery. 70. Admiral Farr .57. Personal Liberty BUI. 61. The President calls for u, tm ^"U Run. "l- Mi Ball's Bluff. .500,000 men. 70. Virginia, Mis. 70. Population, , 62. pi Mill Spring. ()5. Reoonstructionof the seceded States undertak( 57. The Mormon rebellion ANURKW .lOHX.SOK President after April 1 ill Utah. 61. Mason &SIideUc:i|)t'd. 65. Amnesty Proclain ntlon. 61. Kansas admitted into the Union. r:'> K>l Fort Donels "^- Pi Pittsburg La on- 66. Tennessee re-ad milled into the Union 58. The first Atlan- nding. tic Telegraph ™ Ifpj The Monitor 8-- ga the Mrrri and Oable. mac. 67. Purchase of Alaslja. a.t K^ Murfrecsbor *>- pli Front Royal ougti. oS. Minnesota ad- mitted into the Union. and Port Republic. ,.,, in--, Fair Oaks. --' U_i Seven Days' 68. Imp battles. 68. The eaclimeut of Pre.sident . Fourteenth .\inendmen 62. f^ Antietanl. 68. Arli ansas, Alabama, Ueorgi 60. Wal Iter's fililms- 6:!.TIieEma ncination Proclainat of 1 icksburg. ion. teri ug schemes ,.., lOl Siege eated. ^^- Pi Chick 71. Burning def amauga. 58. The great camp Mr. Lincoln an aigu of „., f .Ti Lnoko d Senator "'• U-i .Vm/o ut Miiuniain. 69 Great monetary pan nary Riitge. Douglas. (a. WeHl Vir piiiia a'lmitted into the Union. 72. Tl «3.PiS;?- *;/" Knnxrille. 72. W an's raid. 72. « 68. Troubles with P araguay. „,j_ ^ Chan cellorsville. nvades Pennsylvania. 59. Washiugt on Irving <^3. P| «<>%, burg. 72. H died, age d 76. 6:!. The Presi dent orders a draft for 200, 000 troops. 72. G( 61. Tbe President calls for 300,000 men. 72. G e Japanese Com- r*4 Italian, Resaca. 72. Bi 60. Til Dallas, Kenesaw. m V ission in the .., Wii iiited States. "^- Mi Siege 0/ Atlanta. 60. Di sruption of the ^' V^X Franklin. yashrille. 67. Nebraska admitted into the Unio D emocralic Party 64. She rniaiiN march. at CharleslOQ. ,^ ^ Fort M'Allister. Petersburg. pulation, 31,443,231. g^ ^ Mobile Bay. 60. Po Fort Fisher. 64!^ The Alabama and the Ke arsarge. 60. De feat of the Dem- o, |Ci) ratio party. "• k-Si The Wilderness. oc Cold Harbor 64. 1,1 NCOLSr re-elected. 60. So uth Carolina secedes. (i.5 IRl ^^^'^ Forks. "•'• tii\ Lee's surrender. 58. Oregon admitted into the 6.5. President Lincoln assa ssinated. Union. 61. Ne vaila admitted into the Union. i 62. French invasion of Mexico. 1 I -57. DLstracted condition of affairs m Mexico. 1 • 64. Ma xinillian eleete<^l Eniper or. 67. The Frenc h army withdrawn. 67. Maximil ian executed at Q.ni IIRD SECTION, A. D. 1857-1888. 77 81 85 1888 m proclaimed iiot-Prnssinn War 'onfederatiou. I'lie Irisli University 74. Oveitliiow of th 7J. Uisrnell, Prim »iii III. ins; Vace. tlie Irish Church. tlic sale of Coiuissio ;ou of the United Kin 77. The ICusso-Tnrkista 7? 1^ Capture o/ Plevna "■ N'i Collapse of the Ot 78. Treaty of San 7S. Treaty of Bcr Bill defeated. e Gladstone Ministry. e Minister. 79. The Zulu 79. Death of 79. Death of 79. Accession 79. Overthrow 79. Gladstone SO. Bril U.S. ;dom, 31,^1,480. ident. idciit. pleted. :ed iKi. fndinent adoptetl. , aged 63. ed, aged 69. , and Texas re-admitt 1. he President. ed into the Union. ited. Ida, Louisiana, North :iicago. lew Yoik City, ibaiiia ClaiiUN settl ed. H. Sewai'd died, aged 71. r re-elected. iiry Wilson, Vice. 31'eeley died, aged 61. George G. Meade died 'e in Boston, •y dispute between Hodoc War. [^he Credit Mobilier in ;^hief-Justice Chase di Sreat financial crisis, 74. Charles Sumner 76. I'he 76. The 76. €o 76. Cen RCTHERFOHD B. H William A. Wlicelor, The disputed Presiden . New policy adopted 77. Tlie great Kailroad Str War bi'eaks out. by the Russians, toman Empire. Stefano. __. IlfVoIutidU j[) Bul^'aria. 87. Emperor William cele- brates 90tb birthday, Uueen Victoria's Jubi- lee. Death of Kaiarr Wil- liam. War. the Prince Imperial. Pius IX. of Leo XIII. of tile DiSi'aeli Ministry. Premier of England, ish tioubles in Afghanista SI. Assassination of the Czar of Russia. Si. Accession of Alexandler III. 87, Sadi-Cnrnot, French iPresldeiit. AYES, President. Vice-President. .IA3II<:SA.«ARFIEI.I», President. «'lie»ter A. A rthnr, Vice-President. cy IS settled b.v a Joint Hierli Commission. toward the Southern States. ikes and Riots. 81, President Garlicju assaS|Sinated. 77. The STez Perce War. Great financial depres . Oliver P, Morton died. 78. The act remonet 78. The Halifax Fis lai-s against the 78. William Cullen 78. The Yellow Fey 78, Bayard Taylor 78. Establishment 78. The Life-saving Carolina, and South Carol hery Commission make United States. Bryant died, aged 84. er scourges the Southern died, aged 54, of a Cliinese Embassy in Service established by the ina re-admitted iutothe 79, Resumpti 77-79. Tour of 79, Zaeliariah 80. The 80. The on of Specie Payments byi tbe Government. General Grant around thje world. Chandler died. President, died Novemb aged 57. the United States and Gre vestigatlon. ed, aged 65. died, aged VR. Kionx War. Custer Massacre. orado admitted into the teiinial 4'elebratiou at 1887. Fisheries Dispute wit.'i Canada. ion in the country. aged 54. CHESTER A.ABTHURI' President after September 19, 18,51. ( izing silver passed by Con gress. an award of 5,.')00,000 del- States. the United States. Government. Union. RefundingQuestion in Congress. Tentli Census: Population, 50,152,866. er 22, 1875. at Britain settled. 81. Matt, H, Carpenter 83. Brooklyn Bridge opened 84. New Orleans Exposition CLBVE- Presldent, reform Union. Philadelphia. 85. 6ROVEB LAND, Marcli 4. 85. Civil Service prominent. I. General Grant dies. I. Charleston earthquake i. Statue of Libertv un- veiled. 86. John A, Logan dies, died. 86. Fall of Gladstone Ministry 86. Maiquis of Salisbury Premier of England. 86. Passage of Septennate Military Bill by German Keichstag, 87. Land troubles in Ireland. 87. Jubilee of Queen Vit-turia. 87. Reaction in favor of the Gladstone Land-Bill. 87. Overthrow of Freycinet Ministry in France, 87. Hesignatiuu of President Grevy. 37. Dismissal from oflQce of Gen. Boulanger, 87. Emperor William cele- brates his ninetieth birth- day, 88, Death of EmperorWilliam and Accession of Fred- erick III. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION. 48& by the votes of the Northern States. The ]5eople of the South were exasperated at the choice of a chief-magistrate whom they regarded as indifferent to their welfare and hostile to their interests. The third general cause of the civil war was the loant of intercourse between the people of the North and the South. The great railroads and thoroughfares ran east and west. Emigration flowed from the East to the West. Between the North and the South there was little travel or inter- change of opinion. From want of acquaintance the people, without in- tending it, became estranged, jealous, suspicious. They misjudged each other's motives. They misrcjirescnted each other's beliefs and purposes. They suspected each other of dishonesty and ill-will. Before the out- break of the war the people of the two sections looked upon each other almost in the light of different nationalities. A fourth cause was found in the publication of sectional books. Dur- ing the twenty years preceding the war many works were published, both in the North and the South, whose popularity depended wholly on the animosity existing between the two sections. Such books were generally filled with ridicule and falsehood. The manners and customs, language and beliefs, of one section were held up to the contempt and scorn of the people of the other section. The minds of all classes, especially of the young, were thus prejudiced and poisoned. In the North the belief was fostered that the South was given up to inhumanity, ignorance and bar- barism, while in the South the opinion prevailed that the Northern people were a selfish race of mean, cold-blooded Yankees. 11. Tlie evil influence of dcmarfogucs may be cited as the fifth general cause of the war. It is the misfortune of republican governments that they many times fall under the leadership of bad men. In the United States the demagogue has enjoyed sjieeial opportunities for mischief, and the people have suffered in proportion. From 1850 to 18G0 American statesmanship and patriotism were at a low ebb. Many ambitious and scheming men had come to the front, taken control of the political parties and proclaimed themselves the loaders of public opinion. Their purposes were wholly selfish. The welfare and peace of the country were put aside a"? of no value. In order to gain power and keep it many unprincipled men in the South were anxious to destroy the Union, while the dema- gogues of the North were willing to abuse the Union in order to accom- plish their own bad purposes. Such, in brief, were the causes which led to the civil war, one of the most terrible conflicts of modern times. -I at) HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER LXIII. FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. ON the 24tli of IMay the Union army erossed the Potomac from Wash- ington city to Alexandria. At this time Fortress Monroe, at the mouth of James River, was held by twelve thousand men, under command of General B. F. Butler. At Bethel Church, in the immediate vicin- ity, was stationed a detachment of Con- federates commanded by General Ma- gruder. On the lOtb of June a body of Union troops was sent to dislodge them, but was repulsed with consider- able loss. Meanwhile the conquest of West Virginia had been undertaken by General George B. M'Clellan. In the last days of May General T. A. Morris moved iiirward from Parkers- burg to Grafton with a force of Oiiio and Indiana troops, and on the 3d of June came upon the Confederates stationed at SCENE OF OPEKATIONS IN WEST VIliGlNIA, 1S61. Philipi)i. After a brief engngenient the Federals were successful ; the Confede- rates retreated toward the mountains. General McClellan now arrived, took command in person, and on the 11th of July gained a victory at Rich Mountain. General Garnett, the Confederate commander, fell back with his forces to Carrick's Ford, on Cheat River, made a stand, was again de- feated and himself killed in the battle. On the 10th of August General Floyd, conuuanding a detachment of Confederates at Carnifex Ferry, on Gauley River, was attacked by General Rosecrans and obliged to retreat. On the 14th of September a division of Confederates under General Rob- ert E. Lee was beaten in an engagement at Cheat Mountain — an action which completed the restoration of Federal authority in West Virginia. In the mean time, other movements of va-st importance had taken place. In the beginning of June General Robert Patterson marched from Chambersburg with the intention of recapturing Harper's Ferry. On the 11th of the month a division of the armv commanded by Colonel FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 491 Lewis Wallace made a sudden and successful onset upon a detachment of Confederates stationed at Romney. Patterson then crossed the Poto- mac with the main body, entered the Shenandoah Valley, and pressed back the Confederate forces to Winchester. Thus far there hatl been only petty engagements, skirmishes and marching. The time had now come when the first great battle of the war was to be fought. After the Union successes in West Virginia the main body of the Confederates, under command of General Beauregard, was concentrated at Manassas Junction, on the Orange Railroad, twenty-seven miles west of Alexandria. Another large force, commanded by General Joseph E. Johnston, was within supporting distance in the Shenandoah Valley. The Union army at Alexandria was commanded by General Irwin McDowell, while General Patterson was stationed in front of Johnston to watch his movements and prevent his forming a junction with Beauregard. On the 16th of July the national army moved forward. Two days afterward an unimportant engagement took ])lace between Centreville and Bull Run. The Unionists then pressed on, and on the morning of the 21st came upon the Confederate army, strongly posted between Bull Run and ]Manassas Junction. A general battle ensued, continuing with great severity until noonday. At that hour the advan- tage was with McDoweU, anattle of A[urfrccsl)orou2:h. After his successful defence of Cor- inth General Rosecrans was trans- ferred to the command of the Army of the Cumberland. Late in the fall lie made his headrpiarters at Nash- ville, and there collected a powerful army. Meanwhile, General Bragg, on his retirement from Kentucky, had thrown his forces into Murfreesborough. Thus the two generals found themselves face to face, and but thirty miles apart. Late iu December Rosecrans moved forward to attack his antagonist, and on the evening of the 30th came npon the Confederates strongly posted on Stone's River, a short distance north-west of AInrfreesbo rough. During the night preparations wei'e made on both sides for tlie impending battle. The plan of attack adopted by the Federal commander contem- plated the massing of liis forces on the left in such numbers as to crush the Confederate right Aving under Breckinridge before assistance could i)e brought from the west side of the river. Bragg's plan of battle wa-^ the exact counterpart of that adopted by Rosecrans. Before daylight the Confederates were heavily massed under Hardee on the left; and in the early morning the battle began by a furious and unexpected BATTLE OF JlrP.FREESBOROUGH, DEC. 31ST, 1S62. CAMPAIGN OF '62. 501 charge ou MeCook who commanded the right wing of the Federals. McCook's outcry for help was at fir.st unheeded by Rosecrans, who did not realize the real nature of the Confederate onset. After a terrible struggle which lasted until noonday the Union right was shattered to fragments and driven from tlie field. The brunt of the battle now fell •iipon General Thomas, who commanded the Federal right center; and he, too, after des- perate fighting, was obliged to fall back to a new position. Here, however, he rallied his forces and held his ground until Gen- eral Rosecrans readjusted his whole line of battle. While this work was s-oinsr on. the Confederates were barely prevented from a complete and overwhelming triumph by tlie almost unparalleled heroism of the division of General William B. Hazen. Witli only thirteen hundred men he stayed the oncom- ing tide of victorious assailants until the Federal lines were completely restored. At nightfall more than seven thousand Union soldiers were missing from the ranks. But General Rosecrans, though de- feated, was by no means disposed to abandon battle of MURFREESBOKor.in. nx. the contest. During the night after the bat- tle, a council of war was held and complete preparations were made for renewing the struggle on the morrow. On New Year's morning Gen- eral Bragg found his antagonist strongly posted, with shortened lines, and manifest dis])osition for battle. The Confederate commander grew cautious; and the day was spent in indecisive skirmishing and artillery firing at long range. Early on the morning of the 2d, the conflict V)roke out afresh on the east side of Stone's River, and for some hours there was terrific cannonading in that quarter. At three o'clock in tlie afternoon the Confederates were massed against the Union left, and the Nationals were driven across the river by the fliock. But at this juncture the Federal artillery, advantageously j)Osted on the hills west of the stream, opened a murderous fire on the assailing columns. At the same time, the discomfited Federals, rallying to the charge, turned upon their pursuers and in one tremendous onset drove them from the field with the slaugh- ter of thousands. General Bragg had lost the prize. Dui-ing the night he withdrew his broken and exhausted columns through 602 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. Murfreesborougli and retreated in tlie direetion of Tiillahnma. The Union loss in the two battles was a tliousand five hundred and thirty- three killed, seven thousand two hundred and forty-five wounded, and nearly three thousand prisoners; that of the Confederates amounted in killed, wounded, and jirisoners to between ten and eleven thou- sand men. In Virf!;inia the campaigns of 1862 were even more grand am destructive than those in the West. The first stirring scenes of the year were enacted in the Shenandoah Valley. Desiring to occupy this important district, the Federal government sent forward a strong division under General Banks, who pressed his way southward, and in the last days of March occupied the town of Harrisonburg. In order to counteract this movement, the gallant Stonewall Jackson was sent with a force of twenty thousand men to pass the Blue Ridge and cut off Banks's retreat. At Front Royal, on the Shenandoah, just before the gap in the Mountains, the Confederates fell upon a body of Federals, routed them, captured their guns and all the military stores in the town. Banks succeeded, however, in ])assiiig with his main division to Strasburg. Tliere he learned of the disaster at Front Royal, and immediately began his retreat down tlie valley. Jackson pursued him hotly, and it was only by tlie utmost exertions that the Federals gained the northern l)ank of the Potomac. The Confederate leader, tliough completely victorious, now foumi himself in great peril. For General Fremont, at the head of a strong force of fresh troops, had been sent into the valley to intercept the re- treat of the Confederates. It was now Jackson's time to save his army. With the utmost celerity he sped up the valley, and succeeded in reaching Cross Keys before Fremont could attack him. Even then the battle was so little decisive that Jackson pressed on to Port Republic, attacked the division of General Shields, defeated it, and then retired from the scene of his brilliant campaign to join in the defense of Richmond. On the 10th of March the grand army of the Potomac, num- bering nearly two hundred thousand men, under command of General McClellan, set out from the camps about W^ashington to ca|)ture the Confederate capital. The advance proceeded as far as ]\ianassas Junc- tion, the Confederates falling back and forming a new line of defences on the Rappahannock. At this stage of the campaign ^IcClellan, changing his plan, embarked a juindred and twenty thousand of his men for Fortress Monroe, intending from that point to march up the peninsula between the James and tlie York. By the 4th of April the CAMPAIGNS OF '62. 503 transfer of troops was completed, and the Union army left Fortress Monroe for Yorktown. This place was garrisoned by ten thousand Confederates under General Magruder; and yet with so small a force McClellan's advance was delayed for a whole month. When at last, on the 4th of May, Yorktown was taken by siege, the Federal army pressed forward to Williamsburg, where the Confederates made a ^ stand, but were defeated with se- vere losses. Four days afterward, in an engagement at West Point, at the confluence of the Matta- pony and Pamunkey, the Confed- erates were again overpowered and driven back. The way to Rich- mond was now open as far as the Chickahominy, ten miles north of the city. The Union army reached that stream without fur- ther resistance, and crossed at Bottom's Bridge. Meanwhile, General Wool, the commandant of Fortress Mon- roe, had not been idle. On the 10th of May he led an expedition against Norfolk and captured the town ; for the Confederate garri- son had been withdrawn to aid in the defence of Richmond. On the next day the celebrated iron-clad Virf/inia Avas blown up to save her from capture by the Federals. The James River was thus opened for the ingress of national transports laden with supplies for the Army of the Potomac. That army, now advanced toward Richmond, and when but seven miles from the city was attacked on the 31st of May liy the Confederates at a place called Fair Oaks or Seven Pines. Here for a part of two days the battle raged with great fury. At last the Confederates were driven back; but McClellan's victory was by no means decisive. The Confederate loss was largest, amounting to nearly eight thousand in killed and wounded; that of the Feder- als was more than five thousand. Among the severely wounded was General Joseph E. Johnston, the commander-in-chief of the Con- federates. Two days after the battle his place was filled by the appointment of General Robert E. Lee, a man of military genius, SCENE OF CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA, MARYLAND AND PENNSYLVANIA, 1862. 504 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. who, until its final downfall, remained the chief .stay of the Confed- eracy. In the lull that followed the battle of Fair Oaks, MeClellan formed the design of changing his base of supplies from the White House, on the Paniunkey, to some suitable point on the James. The movement was one of the utmost haz- ard, and before it was fairly begun General Lee, on the 25th of June, swooped down on the right wing of the Union army at Oak Grove, and a hard -fought battle ensued without de- cisive results. On the next day an- other dreadful en- gagement occurred at Mechanicsville, and this time the Federals won t h e field. But on the following morning Lee renewed the struggle at Gaines's Mill, and came out victorious. On the 28th there was but little fighting. On the 29th MeClellan's retreating army was twice attacked — in the morning at Savage's Station and in the afternoon in the White Oak Swamp — but the divisions defending the rearguard kept the Confederates at bay. On the 30th was fought the desperate but indecisive battle of Glendale or Frazier's Farm. On that night the Federal army reached Malvern Hill, on the north bank of the James, twelve miles below Richmond. Although this position was protected by the Federal gunboats in the river, General Lee deter- mined to carry the place by storm. Accordingly, on the morning of the 1st of July the whole Confederate army rushed forward to the as- sault. All day long the furious struggle for the possession of the high grounds continued. Not until nine o'clock at night did Lee's shat- tered columns fall back exhausted. For scnn ildt/x the terrific roar (iENEliAL ROBERT E. LEE. CAMPAIGNS OF '62. 505 VICINITY OF RICHMOND, 1SC2. of battle had been heard almost without cessation. No such dreadful scenes had ever before been enacted on the American continent. Although victorious on Malvern Hill, General McClellan, instead of advancing at once on Richmond, chose a less hazardous movement, and on the 2d of July retired with his army to Harrison's Landing, a few miles down the river. The great campaign was really at an end. The Federal army had lost more than fifteen thousand men, and the capture of Richmond, the great object for which the expedi- tion had been undertaken, seemed further off than ever. The losses of the Confederates had been heav- ier than those of the Union army, but all the moral effect of a great victory rcmainetl with the exultant South. General Lee, perceiving that Richmond was no longer endan- gered, immediately formed the de- sign of invading Maryland and capturing the Federal capital. The LTnion troops between Richmond and Washington, numbering in the aggregate about fifty thousand, were under command of General John Pope. They were scattered in detachments from Fredericksburg to Winchester and Harper's Ferry. Lee moved northward about the middle of August, and on the 20th of the month Pope, concentrating his forces as rapidly as possible, put the Rapjiahannock between his army and the advancing Confederates. Meanwhile General Banks, while attempting to form a junction with Pope, was attacked by Stone- wall Jackson at Cedar Mountain, where nothing but desperate fighting saved tiie Federals from complete rout. No sooner had Pope gotten his forces well in hand than Jackson shot by with his division on a flank movement, reached Manassas Junction, and made large captures of men and stores. Pope with great audacity threw his army between the two divisions of the Confederates, hoping to crush Jackson before Lee could come to the rescue. On August 28th and 29th there was terrible but undecisive fighting at Manassas Junction, the old Bull Run battle-ground, and Centreville. At one time it seemed that Lee's army would be completely defeated; but Pope's reinforcements were purposely delayed by General Porter, 506 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. and oil the 31st of the month the Confederates bore down on the Union army at C'hantilly, fonght all day, and won a victory. Gen- erals Stevens and Kearney were among the thonsands of brave men who fell in this battle. On that night Pope withdrew his shattered columns as rapidly as possible, and found safety within the defences of AVashington. His wish to be relieved of his command was imme- diately complied with; his forces, known as the Army of Virginia, were consolidated with the Army of the Potomac, which had now been recalled from the peninsula below Richmond ; and General Mc- Clellan was placed in supreme command of all the divisions about Washington. General Lee proseciited his invasion of Maryland. Passing up the right bank of the Potomac, he crossed to Point of Rocks, and on the 6tli of September captured Frederick. On the 10th Hagerstown was taken, and on the IStli a division of the Confederate army, led bv Stonewall Jackson came upon Harper's Ferry and frightened Colo- nel Miles into surrender by which the garrison, nearly twelve thou- sand strong, became prisoners of war. On the previous day there was a hard-fought engagement at South Mountain, in which tlie Federals, led by Hatch and Doubleday, were victorious. McClellan's whole army was now in the immediate rear of Lee, who, on the night of the 14th, fell back to Antietam Creek, and took a strong position in the vicinity of Sharpsburg. On the morning of the loth there was sinu' sh'i.rp but desultory fighting between the Union and Confederate cav- alry. During the afternoon the Federal advance, coming in on the Sharpsburg road from Keedysville, received the oi>ening salutes of the Confederate guns on the Antietam. But nightfall came without a se- rious conflict. On the following morning there was great activity of preparation in both armies. Later in the day the corps of General Hooker, wiio commanded on the Federal right, was thrown across the stream which separated the combatants and brought into a favorable position for action. In this quarter of the field the Confederate left under Getieral Hood was assaulted and driven back a half mile in the direction of Shari)sburg. The rest of the day was spent in an irregu- lar cannonade. During the night General Mansfield's corps crossed the Antietam on tlie north bridge and joined Hooker. On the morning of the 17th both commanders had their armies well into position, the Federals being strongest in numbers and the Confederates having the advantage of an unfordable stream in their front. It was of the first importance tliat General McClellan siiould gain and iiold tiie four stone bridges by which only his forces could CAMPAIGNS OF '62. 507 MatisrieM Eve^oriBUi. X-^"" be thi'owii to the other side. General Burnside, who was ordered to take the lower bridge, cross over, and attack the division of A. P. Hill, encountered nnexpected delays and was greatly retarded in his movements. On the right, Hooker renewed the battle at sunrise, and until late in the afternoon the conflict raged with almost unabated fury. Here fell the veteran General Mans- field and thousands of his comrades. Mean- while, Burnside had forced the lower cross- i n g and carried the battle far up in the di- rection of Sharpsburg. But the Confederates being reinforced from other parts of the iield made a rally, and the Federals were driven back nearly to tlie An- tietam. It ^\•as only by terrible fighting that General Burnside suc- ceeded in holding his position on the west bank of the s t r e a in . But on the ajjproach of darkness the great- er part of the Union army had gained a safe lodgment between the creek and Sharpsburg. Nevertheless, the Confederate forces occupied nearly the same ground as in the morning; and it seemed that the final .struggle was reserved for tlie morrow. On that day, however, General McGlellan acted on the defensive. Two strong divisions of reinforcements, under Generals Humphreys and Coucli, arrived, and it was resolved to renew the at- tack on the following morning. But in the mean time. General Lee had taken advantage of the delay, withdrawn his shattered legions from their position, and recrossed the Potomac into Virginia. The great conflict which had cost each army more than ten thousand men had THE BATTLE OF ANTIETAM, SEPTEMBER 17 608 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. • ended in a drawn Ijattle in which there is little to be praised except the heroism of the soldiery. To the Confederates, however, the result ■was almost as disastrous as defeat. The promised uprising of the people of Maryland in behalf of the Confederate cause did not occur and General Lee was obliged to give up a fruitless and hopeless in- vasion which, in the short space of a month, had cost him near);, thirty thousand men. On the other side, the expectations which had been inspired by t'le movements and despatch- es of the Luiur. coinmander previous to the battle had beeni s( irely disappointed. On the SGth of October,. General McClellan, following the reti'eating Confederates, again entered Virginia, and reached Rectortown. It was the ])urpose of the Federal' government that the Army, of the Potomac should, be- fore the ajiproach of M'inter, be thrown forward in a sec- ond attempt against Rich- mond. The Union ctymmand- er still preferred to advance- by the route M-hich he had taken the previous spring, making his base of supplies at West Point on the Pamunkey. But this plan was open to tlie objection that Wash- ington city would thereby be again uncovered and exposed to a coun- ter movement on the part of the Confederates. Yielding to the pro- test of the President and his cabinet, McClellan altered his plans and chose Alexandria on the Potomac as his base of operations. From, this point it was proposed to advance on the Confederate capital by way of the Orange Railroad through Culpepper to Gordonsvillo, and thence by the Virginia Central to its junction with the line reaching from Fredericksburg to Richmond. The month of October Avas wasted with delays, and November was well begun before the Federal general with his army of a hundred and twenty thousand men, an- nounced himself ready for the forward movement. On the 7th oi THE rr.opo^En routes from washingtox to Rich- mond, 18(52. CAMPAIGKS OF '62. 509 tlie month, just as the Union commander was about to begiu the cam- paign, he was superseded and his command transferred to General Burnside. Right or wrong, tlie President at last reached the decision that General McClellan was a man over-cautious and slow — too pru- dent and too much absorbed in preliminaries to lead the armies of the Republic to victory. General Burnside immediately changed the plan of the proposed campaign. It was decided to form a new base of supplies at the mouth of Acquia Creek, fifty-five miles below Washington and from that point to force a way by battle southward through Fredericks- burg. But again movements were much delayed, and that, coo, when everything depended on celerity. The pontoons, which were neces- •sary for tlie crossing of the Rappahannock, were not forthcoming, and a fortnight was lost in preparations. General Lee found abun- dant time to gather his legions and occupy the heights in the vicinity of Fredericksburg. It was not a part of his plan to dispute the pas- sage of the river but to allow the Federals to cross over and then beat them back from his entrenchments. On the 11th of December the Union army was brought into position on the east bank of the Rappahannock. The divisions lay from the village of Falmouth to a point opposite the mouth of the Massapouax, about three miles be- low. In front of the corps of General Franklin, who commanded the Federal left wing, the pontoons were successfully laid and the cro.ssing of the river was effected without serious opposition. Bu* opposite Fredericksburg, where tlie divisions of Generals Sumner and Hooker, who held the Union center and right, were to cross, the work of laying the bridges was hindered by the Confederate sharpshooters lying concealed in the town. General Burnside ordered the Federal guns to be turned in that direction, and in a short time Fredericks- burg was battered and burned into ruins. Some Union regiments were next ferried over in boats, and the Confederate picket lines were driven l)ack to the heights. The bridges were completed, and by niglitfall of the r2th the army had been transferred to the western side of the river. On the morning of the 13th the battle began on the left where Franklin's division encountered the corps of Stonewall Jackson. A gallant charge was made by General Meade and a gap was made in the Confederate lines; but no reinforcements were sent forward; the Confederates rallied, and the Federals were driven back with a loss of three thousand seven hundred men. Jackson's loss was almost as 510 HlSiORY OF THE UNITED STATES. great, and in this part of the field neither side niiglit claim a deeisive victory. Not so in tlie center and on the right. Here a portion of General Sumner's men were ordered forward against the Confederates securely and impregnably jwsted on Marye's Hill. They were mowed down by thousands and hurled back in disdain, Avhile the defenders of the heights hardly lost a man. Time and again the assault wa' i-ecklessly renewed. A part of Hooker's gallant troops, led Ijy Gen eral Humjihreys, came forward ; charged with unloaded guns ; and iic fifteen minutes one-half of the four thousand brave fellows went dowc in death. Xight came and ended the useless carnage. General Burn- side would liave renewed the battle; but his division commander.- finally dissuaded him and on the night of the 15th the Federal arm\ was silently withdrawn across the Rappahannock. The Union lossci" in this terrible conflict amounted to a thousand five hundred killed, nine thousand one hundred wounded, and sixteen hundred and fifty prisoners and missing. The Confederates lost in killed five hundrec! and ninety-five, four thousand and sixty-one wounded, and six hun- dred and fifty-three missing and prisoners. Of all the important movements of the war only that of Fredericksburg was undertaken with no probabilitv of success. Under the plan of the battle — if plan it might be called, nothing could l)e reasonal)ly expected but repulse, rout, and ruin. Thus in gloom and disaster to tiie Federal cause ended the great campaign of 1862. CHAPTER LXV. THE WORK OF 'G3. THE war had now grown to enormous proportions. The Confederatt States were draining every resource of men and means in order to support their armies. The superior energies of the North, though by no means exhausted, were greatly taxed. In the previous year, on the day after the battle of Malvern Hill, President Lincoln had issued a call foi three hundred thousand additional troops. During the e.Kciting days of Pope's retreat from the Rappahannock he sent forth another call for three THE WORK OF '63. 511 liundred thousand, and to that was added a requisition for a draft of three hundred thousand more. Most of tliese enormous demands were promptly met, and it became evident that in respect to resources tlie Federal gov- ernment was vastly superior to the Confederacy. On the 1st day of January, 1863, the President issued one of the most important documents of modern times: The Emancipation Proclamation.* The war had been begun with no well-defined inten- tion on the part of the government to free the slaves of the South. But the President and the Republican party looked M'ith disfavor on the in- stitution of slavery; during the progress of the war the sentiment of abolition had grown with great rapidity in the Korth ; and when at last it became a military necessity to strike a blow at the labor-system of the Southern States, the step was taken with but little hesitancy or oppo- sition. Thus, after an existence of two hundred and forty-four years, the institution of African slavery in the United States was swept away. The military movements of the new year began on the ]\Iississippi After his defeat at Chickasaw Bayou, General Sherman laid a jilan for the capture of Arkansas Post, on the Arkansas River. In the first days of January an expedition set out for that purpose, the land-forces being commanded by General McClernand, and the flotilla by Admiral Porter. Entering the Arkansas, the Union forces reached their destination on the 10th of the month, fought a hard battle with the Confederates, gained a victory, and on the next day received the surrender of the post with nearly five thousand prisoners. After this success the expedition returned to the vicinity of Vicksburg, in order to co-operate M'ith General Grant in a second effort to capture that stronghold of the Confederacy. Again the Union forces were collected at Memphis, and embarked on the Mississippi. A landing was effected at the Yazoo; but the cap- ture of the city from that direction was decided to be impracticable. The first three months of the year were spent by General Grant in beating about the bayous, swamps and hills around Vicksburg, in the hope of getting a position in the rear of the town. A canal was cut across a bend in the river with a view to turning the channel of the Mississippi and opening a passage for the gunboats. But a flood in the river washed the works away, and the enterprise ended in failure. Then another canal was begun, only to lie abandoned. Finally, in the first days of April, it was determined at all hazards to run the fleet past the Vicksburg batteries. Accordingly, on the night of the 16th, the boats were made ready and silently dropped down the river. All of a sudden the guns burst forth with terrible discharges of shot and shell, pelting the passing * See Appendix H. 51:^ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. VKKSBURG AND VICINITY, 1863. now swept around to the rear of steamers; but thoy went by with comparatively little damage, and fliund a safe jiosition below the city. Elated with the successful pas- sage of his fleet, General Grant now marched his land-forces down the right bank of the Mississippi and formed a junction with the squadron. On the 30th of April he crossed the river at Bruinsburg, and on the following day fought and defeated the Confederates at Port Gibson. Tiie evacuation of Grand Gulf, at the mouth of the Big Black River, followed imme- diately afterward. The Union army Vicksburg. On the morning of the 12th a strong Confederate force was encountered at Raymond, and after a severe engagement was repulsed. Pressing on toward Jackson, the capital of Mississippi, General Grant's right wing, under Sherman and McPherson, met the advance of General J(_)hnston's division coming to reinforce the garrison of Vicksburg. Here, on the 14th of the month, a decisive battle was fought ; the Confederates were beaten, and the city of Jackson captured. The communications of Vicksburg were now cut off, and General Pemberton was obliged to rej)el the Federals or suffer a siege. Sallying forth with the greater part of his forces, lie met the Union army on the 16tli at Champion Hills, on Baker's Creek. In the battle that followed, as well as in a conflict at the Black River Bridge on the 17th, Grant was again victorious, and Pemberton retired ^^■ith his dis- heartened troops within the defences of Vicksburg. The investment of the city was ra]iidly comj)leted. Believing that the Confederate works coidd be carried by storm. General Grant, on the 19th of May, ordered an assault, which resulted in a repulse with terrible losses. Three days afterward the attemjit was renewed, but the assailants were again hurled back with a still greater destruction of life. The Union loss in these two imsuccessful assaults aniounied to nearly three thousand men. Finding that A^icksburg could not be taken liy storm, General Grant began a regular siege, and pressed it with ever-increasing severity. Admiral Porter got his gunboats into position and bombarded the unfortunate town incessantly. Reinforcements swelled the Union ranks. On the other hand, the garrison of the city was in a starving con- dition. Still, Pemberton held out for more than a month ; and it was THE nVRk' OF '03. 513 not until tlie 4th of July that he was driven to surrender. By the act of capitulation the defenders of Vicksburg, numbering nearly thirty thousand, became prisoners' of war. Thousands of small-arms, hundreds of cannon, vast quantities of ammunition and warlike stores were the fruitS of tiiis great Union victory, by which the national government gained niore and the Confederacy lost more than in any previous struggle of the Vvar. Meanwhile, General Banks, who had superseded General Butler in comruanfj of the department of the gulf, had been conductiiig a vigor- ous campaign on the Lower Mississippi. Early in January, from his headquartere at Baton Rouge, he advanced into Louisiana, reached Brash- ear City, and shortly afterward gained a victory over a Confederate force at a place called Bayou Teche. Returning to the Mississippi, he moved northward to Port Hudson, invested the place and began a siege. The beleaguered garrison, under General Gardner, made a brave defence ; and it was not until the 8th of July, when the news of the fall of Vicksburg was borne to Port Hudson, that the commandant, with his force of more than six thousand men, was obliged to capitulate. By tliLs important surrender the control of the Mississippi throughout its whole length was recovered by the National government. During the progress of the war cavalry raids became more and more frequent. Of this nature was Stonewall Jackson's campaign down the Shenandoah valley in the summer of 1862. Later in the same year, just after the battle of Antietam, the Confederate General Stuart, with a troop of eighteen hundred cavalrymen, made a dash into Pennsylvania, reached Chambersburg, captured the town, made a complete circuit of the Army of the Potomac, and returned in safety to Virginia. Just before the in- vestment of Vicksburg, Colonel Benjamin Grierson, of the Sixth Illinois Cavalry, struck out with his command from La Grange, Tennessee, en- tered Mississippi, traversed the State to the east of Jackson, cut the rail- roads, destroyed projierty, and after a rapid course of more than eight hundred miles gained the river at Baton Rouge. By these raids the border country of both sections was kept in perpetual agitation and alarm. For a while after the battle of Murfreesborough Rosecraus re- mained inactive. Late in the spring Colonel Streight's command went on a raid into Georgia, met the division of the Confederate general Forrest, was surrounded and captured. In the latter part of June, Rose- crans by a series of flank movements succeeded in crowding General Bragg out of Tennessee into Georgia. The union general followed his antago- nist and took post at Chattanooga, on the left bank of the Tennessee, During the summer months General Bragg was heavily reinforced by 33 514 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES'. Johnston from Mississippi, and Longstreet from Virginia. On tlie 19th of September he turned upon the Federal army at Chickamauga Creek, in the nortli-west angle of Georgia. During this day a hard battle was fought, but night fell on the scene with the victory undecided. During the night the Confederates were reinforced by the arrival of General Lonffstreet, who was stationed with his division on tlie left wing of Bragg's army. The right was given to General Polk, while the center was lield l)y Ewell and John.ston. The Federal left wing was (•(immanded by General Thomas, the center by Crit- tenden, and the right by Mc- Cook. The plan of tlie Con- federate commander was to crush tlie Union line, force his way through a gap in Missionary Ridge, capture Rossville and Chattanooga, and annihilate Rosecrans's army. The battle began at half jiast eight o'clock on the morning of the 20th, the Confederates moving on i n ji o w e r f n 1 masses, and the Federals holding their ground with unflinching courage. After the conflict had continued for some hours, the national battle-line was opened by General Wood, acting under mistaken orders. The Confederate general, seeing hi.s advantage, thrust forward a heavy column into the gap, cut the Union army in two, and drove the .shattered right wing in utter rout from the field. General Thomas, with a desperate firmness hardly equaled in the annals of war, held the left until nightfall, and then, under cover of darkness, withdrew into Chattanooga, where the defeated army of Rosecrans had already fi)und shelter. The Union losses in this dreadful battle amounted in killed, wounded and missing to nearly nineteen thousand, and the Confederate loss was even more appalling. General Bragg at once j)ressed forward to besiege Chattanooga. The Federal lines of communication were cut off", and for a while the army of Rosecrans was in danger of being annihilated. But General BATTLE OF CHK'K AMAUGA, SEPT. 10. 20, 1.S6.S. THE WOBK OF (53. 515 Hooker arrived witli two corps from the Army of the Potomac, opened the Tennessee River, and brought relief to the besieged. At the same time General Grant, being promoted to the chief command of the Western armies, assumed the direction of affairs at Chattanooga. Gen- eral Sherman also arrived with his division, so strengthening the Army ■:>f the Cumber- land that offen- sive ojjerations were at once renewed. The left wing of the Confederate army now rest- ed on L o o k - out Mountain, and the right on Missionary Ridge. A po- sition seemingly more impregna- ble could hard- ly be conceived of. General Bragg was not only confident of his ability to hold his lines against any ad- vance of the Federals but even contemplated the storming of Chatta- nooga. On the 20th of November he gave notice to General Grant to remove all non-combatants as the town was about to be bombarded; but no attention was paid to the despatch. On the 23d General Hooker threw his corps across the river below Chattanooga and gained a foot- ing at the mouth of Lookout Creek facing the mountain. From this position the assault was made on the following morning. Hooker was supported by the divisions of Generals Geary and Osterhaus, and the remainder of the Union army was kept in a state of activity in order to prevent the reinforcement of Lookout from Missionary Ridge. A dense fog hung like a hood over the mountain, effectually concealing the movements of the Federals. The charge began between eight and nine o'clock, and in the space of two hours the ranges of Confederate rifle-pits among the foot-hills had been successfully carried. It had LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN AND MISSIONARY RIDGE, NOV. 23-25, 1863. 516 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. been General Hooker's purpose to pause when tliis work slioukl be accomplished, but the enthusiasm of his army rose to sueli a jnteli as to suggest the still greater achievement of carrying the whole Confed- erate position. Taking advantage of the fog and the spirit of his soldiers Hooker again gave the command to charge ; and up the almost inaccessible slopes of the mountain the troops sprang forward with re- sistless enorgv. It was such a scene of dauntless heroism as has rarclj been portrayed in the records of battle. The charging columns, strug- gling against the obstacles of nature and facing the murderous fire of the Confederate guns, could not be checked. The Union flag was carried to the top; and before two o'clock in the afternoon Lookout Mountain, with its cloud-capped summit overlooking the town and river, was swarming with Federal soldiers. The routed Confederates retreated down the eastern slope and across the intervening hills and valleys in the direction of Missionary Ridge. The second great conflict was reserved for the morrow. During the night of the 24th General Bragg concentrated his forces and made preparations to defend his position to the last. On the following morning Hooker's victorious troops poured down from Lookout, crossed the Chattanooga, and renewed the battle at the southwestern extremity of Missionary Ridge. General Sherman had already built pontoon bridges over the Tennessee and Chickamauga, thrown his corps across those streams, and gained a lodgment on the northeastern declivity of the Ridge. General Thomas, commanding the LTnion center, lay with his impatient soldiers, on the southern and eastern slopes of Orchard Knob, awaiting the result of Sherman's and Hooker's onsets. At two o'clock in the afternoon orders were given by Gen- eral Grant for an assault along the whole line. And the command was instantly obeyed. The thrilling scene of Lookout Mountain was again enacted. The Federal soldiers charged to the summit of Mis- sionary Ridge and the Confederates were driven into a disastrous rout. During the night General Bragg Mithdrew his shattered columns and retreated in the direction of Ringgold, Georgia. The Federal losses in the two great battles amounted to seven hundred and fifly-seven killed, four thousand five hundred and twenty-nine wounded, and three hundred and thirty missing; the loss of the Confederates in killed, wounded and prisoners reached considerably lieyond ten thousand. The results of the conflict were so decisive as to put an end to the war in Tennessee until it Mas renewed by Hood at Franklin anu Nashville in the winter of 1864. In the mean time, General Burnside was making an effort to hold East Tennessee. On the 1st of September he arrived with his command THE WORK OF "63. 617 at Knox ville, where he was received by tlie pcojjle with lively satisfac- tion. After the battle of Chickamauga, General Longstreet was sent into East Tennessee to counteract the movements of the Unionists. On his march to Knoxville he overtook and captured several small detachments of Federal troops, then invested the town and began a siege. On the 29th of November the Confederates made an attempt to carry Knoxville oy storm, but were repulsed with licavy losses. After the retreat of Bragg from Chattanooga, General Sherman marciied to the relief of Burnside; but before he could reach Knoxville, Longstreet raised the siege and re- treated into Virginia. In the early part of 1863 tiie Confederates, led by Generals Mar- raaduke and Price, resumed activity in Arkansas and Soutiiern Missouri. On the 8th of January they made an attack on Springfield, but were re- pulsed with considerable losses. Three days afterward, at the town of Hartsville, a battle was fouglit with a similar result. On the 26th of April, General Marmaduke attacked the post at Cape Girardeau, on tlie Mississippi, but the garrison succeeded in driving the Confederates a^\•av. On the day of the surrender of Vicksburg the Confederate general Holmes, with a force of nearly eight thousand men, made an attack on Helena, Arkansas, but was repulsed with a loss of one-fifth of his men. On the 13th of August the town of La'WTence, Kansas, was sacked and burned, and a hundred and forty persons killed by a band of desperate fellows led by a chieftain called Quantrell. On the 10th of September the Federal general Steele reached Little Eock, the capital of Arkansas, captured the city and restored the national authority in the State. To the summer of this year belongs the story of General John Morgan's great raid tln-ough Kentucky into Indiana and Ohio. His starting-point was Sparta, Tennessee; the number of his forces three thousand. Pushing northward through Kentucky, he gathered strength, reached the Ohio at Brandenburg, crossed into Indiana, and began his march to the north and east. He was resisted at Corydon and other points by bodies of home-guards, and hotly pursued by a force under General Hobson. Morgan crossed into Ohio at Harrison, made a circuit to the north of Cincinnati, and attempted to recross the river. But the Ohio was now guarded by gunboats, and the raiders were driven back. "With numbers constantly diminishing the Confederate leader pressed on, fighting and flying, until he came near the town of New Lislion, where he was surrounded and captured by the brigade of General Shackelford For nearly four mouths Morgan was held as a prisoner; then mak- ing his escape, he fled to Kentucky, and finally reached Richmond. The year 1863 was marked by some movements of importance on 518 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the sea-coast. On tlie 1st of Jumiarv General Marmaduke, by a brilliant exploit, captured Galveston, Texas. By this means tlie Confederates se- cured a port of entry, of which they \vere greatly in need in the South- west. On the 7tli of April Admiral Du])ont, with a powerful fleet of iron- clads, made an attempt to capture Charleston, but the squadron was driven back much damaged. In the last days of June the siege of the city wa* begun anew by a strong land-force, under command of General Q. A Gillmore, assisted by the fleet under Admiral Dahlgren. The Federal army first etiected a lodgment on Folly Island, and soon afterward on the south end of Morris Island, where batteries were planted bearing upon Fort Sumter in the channel and Fort Wagner and Battery Gregg at the northern extremity of the island. After the bombardment had continued lor some time, General (xillniore, on the 18th of July, made an attempt to carry Fort Wagner by assault, but was repulsed with a loss of more than fifteen hundred men. The siege then progressed until the night of the 6th of September, when the Confederates evacuated the fort and Bat- tery Gregg, and retired to Charleston. Gillmore thus obtained a position within four miles of the city, and brouglit his guns to bear on the wharves and buildings of the lower town. Meanwhile, the walls of Fort Sumter on the side next to Morris Island had been pounded into powder by the land- batteries and guns of the monitors. The harbor and city, however, still remained under control of the Confederates, the only gain of the Federals being the establishment of a blockade so complete as to seal up the port of Charleston. During the spring and summer of 1863 the Army of the Potomac was engaged in several desperate conflicts. After his fatal repulse at Fredericksburg General Burnside was superseded by General Joseph Hooker, who, in the latter part of April, moved forward with his army in full force, crossed the Rappahannock and the Rapidan, and reached Chancellorsville. Here, on the evening of the 2d of May, he was at- tacked by the veteran Army of Northern Virginia, led by Lee and Jack- son. The latter general, with extraordinary daring, put himself at the head of a division of twenty-five thousand men, filed off from the battle- field, outflanked the Union army, burst like a thunder-cloud upon the right wing, and swept everything to destruction. But it was the last of Stonewall's battles. As night came on, M'ith ruin impending over the Federal army, the brave Confederate leader, riding through the gather- ing darkness, received a volley from his own li7ies, and fell mortally wounded. He lingered a week, and died at Guinea Station, leaving a gap in the Confederate ranks which no other man could fill. On the morning of the 3d the battle was furiously renewed. Gen- eral Sedgwick, attempting to reinforce Hooker from Fredericksburg, was THE WORK OF '63. 51!^ dofeated and driven across the Rappaliannock. The main army was crowded between Cliancellorsville and the river, where it remained in the utmost peril until the evening of the 6th, when General Hooker succeeded in withdrawing his forces to the northern bank. The Union losses in these terrible liattles amounted in killed, wounded and prisoners to about seventeen thousand ; that of the Confederates was less by five thousand. Taken altogether, the campaign was the most disastrous of any in which the Federal army had yet been engaged. The defeat of General Hooker was to some extent mitigated by the successful cavalry raid of General Stoneman. On the 29th of April he crossed the Rajjpahannock with a body of ten thousand men, tore up the Virginia Central Railroad, dashed on to the Chickahominy, cut General Lee's conmiunications, swept around within a few miles of Rich- mond, and on the 8th of May recrossed the Rappahannock in safety. At the same time, General Peck, the Federal command- ant of Suffolk, on the Nansemond, was suc- cessflilly resisting a siege conducted by General Longstreet. The Confederates re- treated from before the town on the very day of the Union disaster at Chancellorsville. Elated with his success on the Riippa- hannock. General Lee determined to carry the war into Mary- land and Pennsylvania STONEWALL JACKSON.* In the first week of June he moved forward * The true name of this reraark.ible man was Thnmas Jonathan Jackson. In the be- grinning of the battle of Bui! Run, when the Confederates in one part of the field were routed and flying, General Bee, pointing to an immovable column of men, cried out, "Here is Jackson, standing like a slone mill /" From that day the man at the head of that column was called Stonewall Jackson. 520 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. with liis whole army, crossed the Potoiiiac, and eai^tured Hagerstown. On the 2"2d of June the invaders entered Chambersburg, and then pressed on tlirough Carlisle to within a few miles of Harrisburg. The militia of Pennsylvania was called out, and volunteei-s came pouring in from other States. General Hooker, at the head of the A.rmy of the Potomac, jmshed forward to strike his antagonist. It was evident that a great and deci- sive battle was at h and. General Lee, abandoning his purpose of invasion, raj)i(IIy concentrated his forces near Get- tysburg, the cap- ital of Adams County, Penn- sylvania. On the very eve of bat- tle the command of the Union ar- my was transfer- red from General Hooker to Gen- eral (Tcorge G. i\Ieade, who has- tily advanced his forces thro u g h the hill -country in the direction of Gettysburg. After more than two years of indecisive warfare it seemed that the fate of the Amer- ican Republic Mas to be staked on the issue of a single battle. On the morning of the 1st of July the Union advance, led by Generals Reynolds and Buford, while moving westward from Gettysburg, en- countered the Confederate division of General Hill, coming up on the road from Hagerstown ; and tlie struggle began. In the afternoon strong reinforcements were received and a severe battle was fought for the possession of Seminary Ridge. In this initial conflict the BATTLE OF GETTYSEIT.G, JULY 1, 1S63. THE WORK OF '63. 521 Confederates were victorious, drivint; the Union line from its posi- tion, througli the viUage, and back to the high grounds southward. Here at nightfall a stand was made, and a new battle-line was formed reaching from an eminence called Round Top, where the left wing rested, around the crest of the ridges to Cemetery Hill, where the center was j^osted, and thence to Wolf Hill on Rock Creek. To this position, well-chosen and strong, the whole Union army, ex- cept Sedgwick's corps, was hurried forward during the night. The Confederate forces were all brought into position on Seminary Ridge and the high grounds to the left of Rock Creek, forming a semi- circle about five miles long. The cavalry of both armies hung upon the flanks, doing effective service but hardly participating in the main conflict of the center. On the morning of July 2d, the corps of General Longstreet on the Confederate right moved forward impetuously and attacked the Union left under Sickles. The struggle in this part of the field was for the possession of Great and Little Round Top; and after terrible fighting, which lasted until six o'clock in the evening, these strong positions remained in the hands of the Federals. In the center a iiimilar conflict, lasting for the greater part of the day, ensued for the possession of Cemetery Hill. Here, too, notwithstanding the desper- ate assaults of the Confederates, the integrity of the National line wa.s l^reserved till nightfall. On the right the Confederate onset was more successful, and tlie Union right under General Slocum was somewhat shattered. But at ten o'clock at night, when the fighting ceased, it was found that the position of the two armies had not been materially changed by a conflict which had left forty thousand dead and wounded men on the field of battle. Under cover of the darkness both generals made arrangements to renew the struggle on the morrow, but when morning came both were loath to begin. For each felt that this day's action must be de- cisive. General Meade had some advantage in the fact that Lee, in in order to continue his invasion, must carry the Union position or retreat. The whole forenoon of the 3d was spent in preparations. At midday there was a lull. Then burst forth the fiercest cannonade ever known on the American continent. Until after two o'clock the hills were shaken with the thunders of more than two hundred heavy puns. The Confederate artillerymen concentrated their fire on the Union center at Cemetery Hill which became a scene of indescribable uproar and death. Then came the crisis. The cannonade ceased. A Confederate column, nearly three miles long, headed by the Vir- 522 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ginians luuler General Pickett, made a final and desperate charge on the Union centre. But the onset was in vain, and the brave men who made it were mowed down with terrible slaughter. The victory remaiueitulate. The port of Mobile was effectually .sealed up. Not less important to the Union cause was the capture of Fort Fisher. Tliis powerful fortress commanded the entrance to Cape Fear River and Wilmington — the last sea-port held by the Confederates. In December Admiral Porter was sent with the most powerful American squadron ever afloat to besiege and take the fort. General Butler, witii a land-force of six thousand five hundred men, accompanied the expedi- tion. On the 24tli of the month the bombardment began, and the troops were sent ashore with orders to carry the works by storm. When Gen eral Weitzel, who led the column, came near enough to the fort to recon- noitre, he decided that an assault could only end with the destruction of his army. General Butler held the same opinion, and the enterprise was abandoned. Admiral Porter remained before Fort Fisher \vith his fleet, and General Butler returned with the land-forces to Fortress Monroe. Early in January the same troops were sent back to Wilmington, under conuuand of General Terry. The siege was at once renewed by the armv and the fleet, and on the 15th of the month Fort Fisher was taken by storm. In the previous October the control of Albemarle Sound had been secured by a daring exploit of Lieutenant Cushing of the Federal navy. These waters were commanded by a tremendous iron ram called the Albe- marle. In order to destroy the dreaded vessel a number of daring volun- teers, led by Cushing, embarked in a small steamer, and on the night of the 27th of October entered tlie Roanoke. The ram was discovered lying at the harbor of Plymouth. Cautiously approaching, the lieutenant with his own hands sank a terrible torpedo under the Confederate ship, ex- ploded it, and left the ram a ruin. The adventure cost the lives or cap- ture of all of Cushing's party exceut himself and one other, who escaped. A few days afterward the town of Plymoutli was taken by the Federals. During the progress of the war the commerce of the United Stat<^s had suflered dreadfullv from tlie attacks of Confederate cruisei-s. As THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 533 early as 1861 the Southern Congress had granted commissions to priva- teers ; but neutral nations would not allow such vessels to bring prizes into their ports, and the Privateering Act was of little direct benefit to the Confederacy. But the commerce of the United States was greatly injured. The first Confederate ship sent out was the Savannah, which was captured on the same day that she escaped from Charleston. In June of 1861 the Sumter, commanded by Captain Semmes, ran the blockade at Xew Orleans, and for seven months did fearful work with the Union merchantmen. But in February of 1862 Semmes was chased into the harbor of Gibraltar, where he \\as obliged to sell his vessel and discharge his crew. In the previous October the Nashi'il/e ran out from Charles- ton, went to England, and returned with a cargo worth three millions of dollars. In March of 1863 she was sunk by a Union iron-clad in the mouth of the Savannah River. The ports of the Southern States were now so closely blockaded that war-vessels could no longer be sent abroad. In this emergency the Confederates turned to the ship-yards of Great Britain, and from that vantage-ground began to build and equip their cruisers. In spite of the remonstrances of the United States, the British government connived at this proceeding ; and here was laid the foundation of a difficulty which afterward cost the treasury of England fifteen millions of dollars. In the harbor of Liverpool the Florida was fitted out ; and going to sea in the summer of 1862, she succeeded in running into Mobile Bay. Escaping in the following January, she destroyed fifteen merchantmen, was cap- tured in the harbor of Bahia, Brazil, and brought into Hampton Roads, where an accidental collision sent her to the bottom. The Georgia, the Ofiistee, the Shenandoah and the Chiclmmauga, all built at the ship-yards of Glasgow, Scotland, escaped to sea and made great havoc with the mer- chant-ships of the United States. At the capture of Fort Fisher the Chickamauga and another cruiser called the Tallahassee were blown up by the Confederates. The Georgia was captured in 1863, and the Shen- andoah continued abroad until the close of the war. Most destructive of all the Confederate vessels was the famous Alabama, built at Liverpool. Her commander was Captain Raphael Semmes, the same who had cruised in the Sumter. A majority of the crew of the Alabama were British subjects ; her armament ^\•as entirely British; and whenever occasion required, the Bi'itish flag was carried. In her whole career, involving the destruction of sixty-six vessels and a loss of ten million dollars to the merchant service of the United States, she never entered a Confederate port, but continued abroad, capturing and burning. Early in the summer of 1864 Semmes entered the harbor 534 HISTOEV OF THE VNITED STATES. of Cherbourg, Fi-ance, and was there discovered by Captain Winslow, commander of the steamer Kearsarge. The French government gave the Confederate captain orders to leave the port, and on the 19th of June he went out to give his antagonist battle. Seven miles from the shore the two ships closed for the death-struggle; and after a desperate battle of an hour's duration, the Alabama was sliattered and sunk. Semmes and a part of his officers and crew were picked up by the English yacht Ihcrliound and carried to Southamjiton. After the great battle of Gettysburg, the Confederate army under General T^ee was withdrawn into the Shenandoah valley. The Union cavalry, led by General (iregg, jiressed after iiim and at Shepherds- town gained some advantage over the division of Fitzhugh Lee. Meade himself, at the head of the Army of the Potomac, entered Vir- ginia near Berlin and moved southward through Lovettsville to War- renton. The Blue Ridge was again interjjosed between the two armies. It was the policy of the Union commander to preoccupy and hold the passes of the mountains and to strike his antagonist a fatal blow when he should attempt to return to Richmond. But Lee's movements were marked witli his usual caution and sagacity. Making a feint of crowding his army through Manassas Gap, he succeeded in drawing thither the bulk of the Federal forces, and then by a rapid march southward gained Front Royal and Chester Gap, swept through the pass, and reached Culpepper in safety. General Meade, disappointed in his expectations of a battle, advanced his army and took up a po- sition on the Rappahannock. In the lull that ensued from July till September of 1863, both generals were much weakened by the witiidrawal of large numbers of their troops to take part in the struggles of the Southwest. From Lee's army Longstreet's whole corps had been detached for the aid of Bragg who was hard pressed Ijy Rosecrans, in Tennessee. General Meade, learning of the weakened condition of his foe, crossed the Rappahannock, pressed him back to the south bank of the Rapidan and himself occuoied Culpepper. Soon, however, Howard's and Slo- cum's corps were withdrawn from the Army of the Potomac, and Meade was in turn obliged to act on the defensive. But his ranks Avere soon filled with reinforcements and the middle of October found liim planning a forward movement. Lee, however, had already as- sumed the offensive and by skillful manoeuvers had again thrown his army on the Union flank. Then began the old race for the Potomac, and in that the Federals were successful, reaching Bristow Station and taking uj) a strong position on the Heights of Centrcville. Lee in THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 535 turn fell back and the two great armies at last came to rest for the winter, the one at Culpepper and the other on the Upiier Rap2)ahan- noek. In the following spring no movements of importance occurred until the beginning of the campaign of the Army of the Potomac, now commandtnl by Generals Grant and Meade ; and this, which may well be consider- ed as one of the great cam- paigns of history, has been reserved for the closing nar- rative of the war. On the night of the 3d of May, 1864, the national camp at Culpep- per was broken up, and the march on R i c h m o n d w a s begun. In three successive eummers the Union army had been beaten back from that metropolis of the Confed- eracy. Now a hundred and forty thousand men, led by the lieutenant-general, were to begin the final struggle with the veterans of Lee. On the first day of the ad- vance Grant crossed the Ra])- idan and entered the Wilder- ness, a country of oak woods and thickets west of Chancellorsville. He was immediately confronted and attacked by the Confederate army. During the 5th, 6th and 7th of the month the fighting con- tinued incessantly with terrible losses on both sides; but the results were indecisive. Lee retired within his intrenchments, and Grant made a flank movement on the left in the direction of Spottsylvania Court-house. Here followed, from the morning of the 9th till the night of the 12th, one of the bloodiest struggles of the war. The Federals gained some ground and captured the division of General Stewart ; but the losses of Lee, who fought on the defensive, were less dreadful than those of his antagonist. After the battle of Spottsylvania, Grant again moved to the left, crossed the Pamunkey to Hanovertown, and came to a place called OPERATIONS IN VIRGINIA, '64. AND '6o, 536 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Cold Harbor, twelve miles north-east of Richmond. Here, on the 1st of June, he attaeked the Confederates, strongly posted, but was re- pulsed with heavy losses. On the morning of the 3d the assault was renewed, and in the brief space of half an hour nearly ten thousand Union soldiers fell dead or wounded before the Confederate entrench- ments. The repulse of the Federals was complete, but they held their lines as firmly as ever. Since the l)eginning of the campaign the losses of the Army of the Potomac, including the corps of Burnside, had reached the enormous aggregate of sixty thousand. During the same period the Confederates had lost in killed, wounded and pris- oners about thirty-five thousand men. General Grant now changed his base to James River with a view to the capture of Petersburg and the conquest of Richmond from the south-east. General Butler had already moved with a strong division from Fortress Monroe, and on the 5th of May had taken Bermuda Hun- dred and City Point, at the mouth of the Appomattox. Advancing against Petersburg, he was met on the 16th by the corps of General Beauregard and driven back to his position at Bermuda Hundred, where he was obliged to entrench himself and act on the defensive. Here, on the 15th of June, he was joined by General Grant's whole army, and the combined forces moved against Petersburg. On the 17tli and 18th sev- eral assaults Mere made on the Confederate entrenchments, but the works could not be carried. Lee's army was hurried within the defences, and in the latter part of June Petersburg was regularly besieged. jSIeanwhilc, movements of great importance M-cre taking place in the Shenandoah valley. When General Grant moved forward from the Rapidan, he sent General Sigel up the valley with a force of eight thou- sand men. While the latter M'as advancing southward he was met at jVew Market, fifty miles above Winchester, by an army of Confederate cavalry, under General Breckinridge. On the 15th of May Sigel was attacked and routed, and the command of his flying forces M-as transferred to General Hunter. Deeming the valley cleared, Breckinridge returned to Richmond, whereupon Hunter faced about, marched toward Lynchburg, came upon the Confederates at Piedmont, and gained a signal victory. From this jilace he advanced witli his own forces and the cavalry troops of General Averill against Lynchburg; but finding that he liad run into peril, he was obliged to retreat across the mountains into '\\'est Virginia. By this movement the valley of the Shenandoah was again exposed to an invasion by the Confederates. In the hope of compelling Grant to raise the siege of Petersburg, Lee immediately despatched General Early witli orders to cross the Blue THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 537 Ridge, sweep down the valley, invade Maryland and threaten Washing- ton city. With a force of twenty thousand men Earl)^ began his move- ment northward, and on the otli of July crossed the Potomac. On the 9th he met the division of General Wallace on the Monocacy, and de- feated him with serious losses. But the check given to the Confederates by the battle saved Washington and Baltimore from capture. After dashing up within gunshot of these cities, Early ordered a retreat, and on the 12th his forces recrossed the Potomac with vast quantities of plunder. General Wright, who was sent in pursuit of Early's army, fol- lowed him as far as Winchester, and there, on the 24th of July, defeated a portion of his forces. But Early wheeled upon his antagonist, and the Union troops were in turn driven across the Potomac. Following up his advantage, the Confederate general next invaded Pennsylvania, burned Chambersburg, and returned into the valley laden with spoils. Seeing the necessity of putting an end to these devastating raids. General Grant in the beginning of August appointed General Philip H. Sheridan to the command of the consolidated army on the Upper Potomac. Tlie troops thus placed at Slieridan's disposal numbered nearly forty thousand, and with these he at once moved uj) the valley. On the 19tli of September l>e came upon Early's army at Winchester, attacked and routed him in a hard-fought battle. On the 22d he overtook the defeated army at Fish- er's Hill, a-ssaulted Early in his entrenchments, and gained another com- plete victory. In accordance M"ith orders given by the commander-in-chief, Sher- idan now turned about to ravage the valley. The ruinous work wa.s fear- fully well done; and what with torch and axe and sword, there was noth- ing left between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghanies worth fighting for. Maddened by this destruction and stung by his defeats, the veteran Early rallied his shattered forces, gathered reinforcements, and again entered the valley. Sheridan had posted his army in a strong position on Cedar Creek, a short distance from Strasburg, and feeling secure, had gone to Washington. On the morning of the 19th of October Early cautiously approached the Union camp, surprised it, burst in, carried the position, captured the artillery, and sent the routed troops flying in confusion to- ward Winchester. Tlie Confederates pursued as far as Middletown, and there, believing the victory complete, paused to eat and rest. On the previous night Sheridan had returned to Winchester, and was now com- ing to rejoin his army. On his way he heard the sound of battle, rode twelve miles at full speed, met the panic-struck fugitives, rallied them with a word, turned upon the astonished Confederates, and gained one o38 HISTORY OF THE US IT ED STATES. of the most signal victories of the war. Early's army was disorganized and ruined. Such was the end of the strife in tlie valley of the Shenan- doah. All fall and winter long, General Grant pressed the siege of Peters- burg with varying success. On the 30th of July a mine Avas exploded under one of the forts. An assaulting colunni sprang forward to carry the works, gained some of the defences, but was finally repulsed with heavy losses. On the 18th of August a division of the Union army seized the Wcldon Railroad and held it against several desperate a&saults, in which each army lost thousands of men. On the 28th of September Battery Harrison, on the right bank of the James, was stormed by the Federals, and on the next day General Paine's brigade of colored soldiers carried a powerful redoubt on Spring Hill. On the 27th of October there was a hard-fought battle on the Boydton road, south of Petersburg ; and then the army went into quarters for the winter. Late in February the struggle began anew. On the 27tli of the month General Sheridan, who had moved from the Shenandoah, gained a victory over the forces of General Early at Waynesborough, and then joined the commander-in-chief at Petereburg. On the 1st of April a severe battle was fought at Five Forks, on the Southside Railroad, in which the Confederates were defeated with a loss of six thousand prisoners. On the next day Grant ordered a general assault on the lines of Petersburg, and the works were carried. On that night the army of General Lee and the members of the Confederate government fled from Richmond ; and on the following morning that city, as well as Petersburg, was entered by the Federal army. The warehouses of the ill-fated Confederate capital were fired l>y the retreating soldiers, and the better part of the city was reduced to ruins. The strife lasted but a few days longer. General Lee retreated as rapidly as possible to the south-west, hoping to join the army of General Johnston from Carolina. The Confederates, flying from Pe- tersburg, joined those on the retreat from Richmond at Amelia Court House. To this place General I^ee had ordered his supply-trains; but the officer having the same in charge, had foolishly mistaken his orders and driven the train on in the direction of Danville. Nearly one- half of the Confederate army, now growing hopeless, had to be dis- persed to gather supplies by foraging. The 4th and 5th of April — days precious to the sinking heart of Lee — were consumed with the delay. The victorious Federals were pressing on in full pursuit; and on the morning of the 6th nearly the whole Union army was at Jet- tersville, on the Danville railroad, ready to strike the Confederates at THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 539 Amelia. Sheridan pressed on by the left flank in the direction of Deatonsville. Ord came up with liis division by way of the South Side Railroad to Burke's Station. Lee fell back to the west from Amelia Court House and reached Deatonsville where a severe battle was fought, in which Swell's division six thousand strong was over- whelmed and captured by Sheridan. The main army of the Confed- erates, however, gained tiic Appomattox at Farmville, crossed to the northern bank, and burned the bridges. Lee now endeavored to in- terpose the river as a barrier between himself and his relentless pur- suers; but it was all in vain. Hoping against hope, he made a des- _.--. CoNfEDRRATE RSTBBAT "— — Federal advance R0AD3 \. PETERSBURG, RICHMOND, APPOMATTOX, 1865. perate effort to hold the line of the Lynchburg Railroad, but the vig- ilant Sheridan was there before him. On the 7th of April a slight success in battle gave a momentary encouragement to the exhausted army ; but the flame of hope was blown out as soon as kindled. On that day General Grant, now at Farmville, addressed a note to the Confederate commander expressing a desire that the further effusion of blood might be saved by the surrender of the Confederate army. To this General Lee replied by declaring his desire for peace but add- ing that the occasion for the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia had not arrived. On the morning of the 9th, however, when it became known that the left wing of the Union army had se- cured the line of the Lynchburg Railroad — when the wreck of Long- street's veterans, attempting to continue the retreat, were confronted and driven back by Sheridan — then the iron-souled Confederate leader, seeing the utter uselessness of a further struggle, sent General Grant a note asking for a meeting preliminary to a surrender. The Union commander immediately complied with the request. At two o'clock in the afternoon of Palm Sunday, the 9th of April, 1865^ the two 540 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. great generals met each other in the parlor of William McLean at Appomattox Court House. There the terms of surrender were dis- cussed and settled. It was agreed that General Grant should put his proposition in the form of a military note to which General Lee should return a formal answer. The Union commander accordingly drew up and presented the following memorandum : Appomattox Court House, Va., April 9, 1865. General: In accordance with the substance of my letter to you of tlie Sth inst- ant, I propose to receive the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia on the fol- lowing terms, to-wit: Rolls of all the officers and men to be made in duplicate; one copy to be given to an officer to be designated by me, the other to be retained by such other officer or officers as you may designate. The officers to give their individual paroles not to take up arms against the Government of the United States until properly exchanged; and each company or regimental commander to sign a like parole for the men of their commands. The arms, artillery, and public property, to be parked, and stacked, and turned over to the officers appointed by me to receive them. This will not embrace the side-arms of the officers nor their priv.ate horses or baggage. This done, eacli officer and man will be allowed to return to his home, not to be disturbed by United States authority so long as they observe their paroles and the laws in force where thev reside. ^^ ^, ,,„,,tt, t- , ,/. , U. S. GR.\]ST, Lieutenant-Geiieral. To this memorandum General Lee responded as follows: Head-Quarters, Army of Northern Virginia, April 9, 1865. General: I received your letter of this date, containing the terms of the surren- der of the Army ot Northern Virginia, as proposed by you. As they are substantially the same as those expressed in your letter of the Sth instant, they are accepted. 1 will proceed to designate tlie proper officers to carry the stipulations into efieot. E. E. LEE, G'e)i«-o/. Thus the work Avas done! How the ariuy of General Johnston was surrendered at Raleigh a few days later has already been nar- rated. After four dreadful years of bloodshed, deva.station, and sorrow, THE Civil War in the United States was at an end. Tlie Federal authority was rapidly extended over the Southern States. After the surrender of Lee and Johnston, there was no fiu'ther hope of reorganizing the Confederacy. INIr. Davis and his cabinet escaped to Danville, and there for a few days kept up the forms of government. From tiiat place they fled into North Carolina and M'ere scattered. The ex-President with a few friends continued his flight tlirough South Caro- lina into Georgia, and encamped near the village of Irwinsville, where, on the 10th of May, he was captured by General Wilson's cavalry. He was conveyed as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe, and kept in confinement until May of 1867, when he was taken to Richmond to be tried on a charge of ^ ^ THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 54t treason. He was admitted to bail ; and his cause, after remaining untried for a year and a half, was finally dismissed. At the presidential election in the autumn preceding the downfall of the Confederacy, Mr. Lincoln was chosen for a second term. As Vice- President, Andrew Johnson of Tennessee was elected in place of Mr. Hamlin. The opposing candidates, supported by the Democratic party, were General George B. McClellan and George H. Pendleton of Ohio. Mr. Lincoln's majority was very heavy. General McClellan carrying only the States of Kentucky, Delaware and New Jersey. In the summer pre- ceding the election the people of Nevada framed a constitution, in accord- ance with an act of Congress, and on the 31st of October the new common- wealth was proclaimed as the thirty-sixth State of the Union. The gold and silver mines of Nevada were developed with such rapidity that they soon surpassed those of California in their yield of the precious metals. At the outbreak of the civil war the financial credit of the United States had sunk to a very low ebb. By the organization of the army and navy the exjienses of the government were at once swelled to an enormous aggregate. The price of gold and silver advanced so raj)idly that the redemption of bank-notes in coin soon became impossible; and on the 30th of December, 1861, the banks of New York, and afterward those of the whole country, suspended specie payments. Mr. Cha.se, the secretary of the treasury, first sought relief by issuing Treasury Notes, receivable as money and bearing seven and three-tenths per cent, interest. This expedient was temporarily successful, but by the beginning of 1862 the expenses of the government had risen to more than a million of dollars daily. To meet these tremendous demands other measures had to be adopted. Congress accordingly made haste to provide AN Internal liEVEXUE. This was made up from two general sources : first, a tax on manufactures, incomes and salaries; second, a stamp-duty on all legal documents. The next measure was the issuance by the treasury of a hundred and fifty millons of dollars in non-interest-bearing Legal Tender Notes of the United States, to be used as money. These are the notes called Greenbacks. The third great measure adopted by the government was the sale of United States Bonds. These were made redeemable at any time after five and under twenty years from date, and were from that fact called Five- Twenties. The interest upon them M-as fixed at six per cent., payable semi-annually in gold. Another important series of bonds, called Ten-Forties, was afterward issued, being redeem- able by the government at any time between ten and forty years from date. In the next place. Congress passed an act providing for the estab- 542 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. lishment of Xationai. Banks. The private banks of the country had been obliged to suspend operations, and the people were greatly distressed for want of money. To meet this demand it was provided that new banks might be established, using national bonds, instead of gold and silver, as a basis of their circulation. The currency of these banks was furnished and the redemption of the same guaranteed by the treasury of the United States. By these measures the means for prosecuting the wai were provided. At the end of the conflict the national debt had reached the astounding sum of nearly three thousand millions of dollars. On the 4th of March, 1865, President Lincoln was inaugurated for his second term. A month afterward the military power of the Confed- eracy was broken. Three days after the evacuation of Richmond by Lee's army the President visited that city, conferred with the authorities, and then returned to Washington. On the evening of the 14th of April he attended Ford's theatre with his wife and a party of friends. As the play drew near its close a disreputable actor, named John Wilkes Booth, stole unnoticed into the President's box, leveled a pistol at his head, and shot him through the brain. Mr. Lincoln fell forward in his seat, was borne from the building, lingered in an unconscious state until the following morning, and died. It was the greatest tragedy of modern times — the most wicked^ atrocious and diabolical murder known in American history. The assassin leaped out of the box upon the stage, escaped into the darkness, and fled. At the same hour another murderer, named Lewis Payne Powell, burst into the bed-chamber of Secretary Seward, sprang upon the couch of the sick man, stabbed him nigh unto death, and made his escape into the night. The city was wild with alarm and excitement. It was clear that a plot had been made to assassinate the leading members of the govern- ment. Troops of cavalry and the police of Washington departed in all directions to hunt down the conspirators. On the 26th of April Booth was found concealed in a barn south of Fredericksburg. Refusing to surrender, he was shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett, and then dragged forth from the burning building to die. Powell was caught, convicted and banged. His fellow-conspirators, David E. Herrold and Geo. A. Atzerott, together with Mrs. Mary E. Surratt, at whose house the plot was formed, were also condemned and executed. Michael O'Laugh- lin, Dr. Samuel A. Mudd, and Samuel Arnold were sentenced to im- prisonment for life, and Edward Spangler for a term of six years. So ended in darkness, but not in shame, the career of Abraham Lincoln. He was one of the most remarkable men of any age or country — a man in whom the qualities of genius and common sense were strangely mingled. He was prudent, far-sighted and resolute; thoughtful, calm THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 543 rnd just; patient, tender-hearted and great. The manner of his death consecrated his memory. From city to city, in one vast funeral procession, the mourning people followed his remains to their last resting-place at Springfield. From all nations rose the voice of sym- pathy and shame — sympathy for his death, shame for the dark crime 4aat caused it. He h.id been born a destined work to do, And lived to do it ; four long-suffering years — Ill-fate, ill-feeling, ill-report lived through — And then he heard the hisses change to cheers, The taunts to tribute, the abuse to praise And took tliem both witli his unwavering mood; But as he came on light from darkest days, And seemed to touch the goal from where he stood, A felon hand, between that goal and him, Reached from behind his head, a trigger pre^t, And those perplexed and patient eyes were dim, Those gaunt long-laboring limbs were laid to rest! The words of mercy were upon his lips. Forgiveness in his heart and on his pen, When this vile murderer brought swift eclipse To thoughts of peace on earth, good-will to men. The Old World and the New, from sea to sea, Utter one voice of sympathy and shame! Sore heart, so stopped when it at last beat free, Sad life, cut short just as its triumph came ! A deed accurst ! Strokes have been struck before By the assassin's hand, whereof men doubt If more of horror or disgrace thev bore; But thy foul crime, like Cain's stands darkly out I Vile hand ! that branded murder on a strife, What e'er its grounds, stoutly and nobly striven, And with the martyr's crown crownest a life With' much to praise, little to be forgiven ! * •These verses are from the London Punch of May 6th, 1865. For years that paper had caricatured Mr. Lincoln and ridiculed the National government ; but now that the deed was done, the British heart reiicted and spoke out for humanity. 544 HISTORY OF THE US IT ED STATES. CHAPTER LXVII. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION, 1865-1869. ON the day after the assassination of Mr. Lincoln, Andrew Johnson took the oath of office, and became President of the United States. He was a native of North Carolina, born in Raleigh, on the 29th of December, 1808. With no advantages of education, he passed his boy- hood in poverty and neglect. In 1826 he removed with his mother to Tennessee and settled at Greenville. Here he was married to an in- telligent lady who taught him to write and cipher. Here by dint of native talent, force of will, and strength of character, he first earned the applause of his fellow-men. Here, through toil and hardship, he rose to distinction, and after holding minor offices was elected to Con- gress. As a member of the United States Senate in 1860-61 he op- posed secession with all his zeal, even after the legislature had declared Tennessee out of the Union. On the 4th of March, 1862, he was ap- pointed military governor of that State, and entered upon his duties at Nashville. He began his administration and carried out his measures with all the vigor and vehemence of his nature. There was no quail- ing or spirit of compromise. His life was many times in peril; but he fed on danger and grew strong under the onsets of his enemies. He held the office of governor until 1864, when he was nominated for the vice-presidency in place of Mr. Hamlin. Now, by the tragic death of the President, he was suddenly called to assume the responsibili- ties of chief magistrate. In his first congressional message he fore- shadowed a policy of great severity towards the civil and military leaders of the overthrown Confederacy. On the 1st of February, 1865, Congress adopted an amendment to the Constitution by which slavery was abolished and forbidden in all the States and Territories of the Union. By tlie 18th of the following De- cember the amendment had been ratified by the legislatures of twenty- seven States, and was duly proclaimed as a part of the Constitution. The emancipation proclamation had been issued as a military measure ; now the doctrines and results of that instrument were recognized and incor- porated in the fundamental law of the land. On the 29tii of ]\Iay the Amnesty Proclamation was issued by President Johnson. By its provisions a general jiardon was extended to all persons — excejrt those specified in certain classes — who had ]iartieipated in the organization and defence of the Confederacv. Tlie condition of the pardon was that those receiving it should take an oath of allegiance to the JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 545 United States. The excepted persons might also be pardoned on special application to the President. During the summer of 1865 tlie great armies were disbanded, and the victors and vanquished re- turned to their homes to resume the work of peace. The finances of the nation were in an alarming condition. The war- debt went on increasing until the beginning of 1866, and it was only by the most herculean exertions that national bankruptcy could be warded off. The yearly interest on the debt had grown to a hundred and thirty- three million dollars in gold. The expenses of the government had reached the aggregate of two hundred millions of dollars annually. But the augmented revenues of the nation proved sufficient to meet these enormous outlays, and at last the debt began to be slowly diminished. On the 5th of December, 1865, a resolution was passed in the House of Representatives pledging the faith of the United States to the full pay- ment of the national indebtedness, both principal and interest. During the civil war the emperor Napoleon III. interfered in the affairs of INIexico, and succeeded, by overawing the people with a French army, in setting up an empire. In the early part of 1864 the crown of Mexico was conferred on Maximilian, the archduke of Austria, who established his government and sustained it with French and Austrian soldiers. But tlie Mexican president Juarez headed a revolution against the usurping emperor ; the government of the United States rebuked France for liaving violated the Monroe doctrine; Napoleon, becoming alarmed, withdrew his army ; and Maximilian was overthrown. Flying from Mexico to Queretaro, he was there besieged and taken prisoner. On the 13th of June, 1867, he was tried by court-martial and condemned to be shot ; and six days afterward the sentence was carried into execu- tion. The scheme of Napoleon, who had hoped to profit by the civil N\ar and gain a foothold in the New "NA'orld, was thus justly brought to shame and contempt. After a few weeks of successful operation the first Atlantic telegraph, laid by Mr. Field in 1858, had ceased to work. The friends of the enter- prise were greatly disheartened. Not so with Mr. Field, who continued both in Europe and America to advocate the claims of his measure and to plead for assistance. He made fifty voyages across the Atlantic, and finally secured sufficient capital to begin the laying of a second cable. The work began from the coast of Ireland in the summer of 1865. When the steamer Great Eastern had proceeded more than twelve hundred miles on her way to America, the cable parted and was lost. Mr. Field held on to his enterprise. Six millions of dollars had been spent in unsuccessful attempts, but still he persevered. In July of 1866 a third cable, two thousand miles in length, was coiled in the Great Eastern, and again the 546 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. vessel started on her way. This time tlie work was completely suc- cessful. After twelve years of uiu'emitting eiFort Mr. Field received a gold medal from the Congress of his country, and tlic plaudits of all civilized nations. By an act of Congress, passed on the 1st of November, 1864,. THE Postal Money-Order System was established in the United States. The design of the measure was to secure a safe and conven- ient method of transferring small sums of money through the mails. The money-order is divided into two parts — the order proper and the advice. From the order, which is received and transmitted by the purchaser, the name of the payee is omitted. In the advice, which is sent by the post-master of the issuing office to the post-master of the paying office, the name of the payee is inserted. The advice and the order receive the same stamp and number, and being transmitted sep- arately, constitute an almost perfect check against loss, robbery, and fraud. The largest sum which may be transmitted in one order is fifty dollars, though larger amounts may be sent in separate orders. The amount charged for issuing is trifling, varying with the value of the order, and the security is perhaps as great as human sagacity can provide. Notwithstanding the invaluable benefits of the system, it was at first received with little favor. In 1870 there were two thou- sand and seventy-six post-offices from which money-orders were issued. During tiiat year tlie orders numbered a million six hundred and sev- enty-one tiidusand two luindred and filty-three; and tlie amount trans- mitted was above thirty-four millions of dollars. On the 1st of October, 1875, tlie number of money-otfices in operation was three thousand six hundred and ninety-six ; the number of orders issued during the fiscal year ending on the 30th of June amounted to five millions six thou- sand three hundred and twenty-three; the amount of money sent to more than seventy-seven millions of dollars. Of all the orders issued during that year only twenty-seven were paid to persons not entitled to receive them. Such have been the advantages of the system as to require its extension to foreign lands. Postal conventions have al- ready been held and arrangements completed for the exchange of iiKiney-orders with Switzerland, Great Britain and Ireland and Ger- many. The requirements of civilization will no doubt soon demand a similar compact with every enlightened nation. The administration of President Johnson is noted as the time Avhen the Territories of the United States assumed their final form. The vast domains west of the ^Slississijipi were now reduced to proper limits and organized with a view to early admission into the Union as States. A 23 Longin 100 Ldngitud JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 547 large part of the work was acconipli,shed during the administration of President Lincohi. In Marcli of 1861 the Territory of Dakota, Avith an area of a hundred and fifty thousand square miles, was detached from Nebraska on the north, and given a distinct territorial organization. In February of 18G3 Arizona, with an area of a hundred and thirteen thou- sand square miles, was separated from New Mexico on the west and organized as an independent Territory. On the 3d of Marcli in the same year Iilaho was organized out of portions of Dakota, Nebraska and Wash- ington Territories ; and on the 26th of May, 1864, Montana, with an area of a hundred and forty-six thousand square miles, was cut off from the eastern part of Idaho. By this measure the area of the latter Territory was reduced to eighty-six thousand square miles. On the 1st of March, 1867, the Territory of Nebraska, reduced to its present area of seventy- si.x thousand miles, was admitted into the Union as the thirty-seventh State. Finally, on the 25th of July, 1868, the Territory of Wyoming, with an area of ninety-eight thousand square miles, was organized out of portions of Dakota, Idaho and Utah. Thus were the Territories of the great West reduced to their present limits as represented in the accom- panying map. The year 1867 was signalized by the Purchase op Alaska. Two years previously the territory had been explored by a corps of scientific men with a view of establishing telegraphic communication with Asia by way of Behring Strait. The report of the exploration showed that Alaska was by no means the wortliless country it had been supposed to be. It was found that the coast-fisheries were of very great value, and that the forests of white pine and yellow cedar were among the finest in lie world. Negotiations for the purchase of the peninsula were at once opened, and on the 30th of March, 1867, a treaty was concluded by Avhich, for the sum of seven million two hundred thousand dollars, Russia ceded Alaska to the United States. The territory thus added to the domains of the Republic embraced an area of five hundred and eighty thousand square miles, and a population of twent}'-nine thousand souls. Very soon after his accession to the chief magistracy a serious dis- agreement arose between the President and Congress. The difficulty grew out of the great question of reorganizing the Southern States. The particular point in dispute was as to the relation which those States had sustained to the Federal Union during the civil war. The President held that the ordinances of secession were in their very nature null and void, and that therefore the seceded States had never been out of the Union. The majority in Congress held that the acts of secession were illegal and unconstitutional, but that the seceded States had been b^' those acts 548 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. actually detached iVoni tlie Union, and that special legislation and special guarantees were necessary in order to restore them to their former rela- tions under the government. Such Avas the real foundation of the diffi- culty by which the question of reconstructing the Southern States was so seriously embarrassed. In the summer of ISGo measures of reconstruction were begun by tlie President in accordance with his own views. On the 9th of May a proclamation was issued for tlie restoration of Virginia to the Union. Twenty days afterward another proclamation was issued establishing a provisional government over South Carolina; and at brief intervals similar measures were adopted in respect to the other States of the late Confederacy. On the 24th of June all restrictions on trade and inter- course with the Soutiiern States were removed by proclamation of the President. On the 7th of the following September a second amnesty proclamation was issued, by which all persons who had upheld the Con- federate cause — excepting the leaders — were unconditionally pardoned. ]\Ieanwhile, the State of Tennessee had been reorganized, and in 18G6 was restored to its place in the Union. Meanwhile, the national Con- gress was pursuing its own line of policy in regard to the reconstruc- tion of the Southern States. During the session of 1865-66, a com- iuittee of fifteen was appointed by that body to whom all matters appertaining to the reorganization of the States of the overthrown Confederacy should be referred. Soon afterwards the celebrated Civil Rights Bill was passed, the olyect of which was to secure to the freedmen of the South the full exercise of citizenship. The measure was opposed and vetoed by the President, but was immediately re- passed bv a two-thii'ds congressional majority. On the occasion of the celebration of Washington's birthday at the Capital, the bill was se- verely denounced by the President in a speech delivered in front of the executive mansion ; and the position assumed by Congress was de- clared to be a new rebellion against the government of the United States. In subsequent speeches and messages the same sentiment was reiterated, and the attitude of the executive and legislative departments became constantly more unfriendly. In the summer of 1866 a call was issued for a national conven- tion to be held in Philadelphia on the 14th of August. The objects had in view were not very clearly defined ; but it was understood that the general condition of the country would be considered, measures of national jiolicy discussed, and all the political elements, in opposi- tion to the majority in Congress be consolidated into a new political party, with which the President's name would be associated in leader- JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 549 ship. At the appointed time delegates from all the States and terri- tories were present ; many members of the Repnblican jiarty took part in the movement, and the convention was not lacking in enthusiasm. Htill, the meeting exercised but very little permanent influence on the affairs of the country. Soon afterwai'ds the President made another effort to rally jiub- lic opinion in favor of his policy. In the latter part of August lie set out from Washington, accompanied by Secretaries Seward, Welles, and Randall, General Grant, Admiral Farragut, and other prominent officials, to make a tour of the Northern States. The ostensible ob- ject had in view was that the President should be present at the laying of the corner stone of a monument to Senator Douglas at Chicago. Departing from the Capital, the presidential party passed through Phil- adelphia, New York, and Albany, and after taking part in the cere- monies at Chicago, returned by way of St. Louis, Indianapolis, Louis- ville, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg. At all the principal towns and cities through which he passed, the President spoke freely to the crowds in defence of his own jwlicy and in denunciation of that of Congress. The whole journey was a scene of intense excitement and partisan ani- mosity. The general effect of the President's course was disastrous tf) him and his political adherents ; for in the elections of the follow- ing autumn the measures of Congress were sustained and the members reelected by increased popular majorities. Nevertheless, the result of the election had very little effect in altering the President's views or softening his feelings towards the legislative department of the gov- ernment. By degrees the affairs of the administration grew critical. When Congress convened in December of 1866 the policy of the President was severely condemned. The congressional committee, appointed at the session of the previous year, now brought forwai'd a report em- bodying a full plan of reorganizing the Southern States. After much discussion the measures proposed by the committee were adopted by Congress, and the work of reconstruction was begun. As the first condition for the reiidmission of a State into the Union it was enacted that the people of the same, by their legislative assembly or other- wise, should ratify the fourteenth amendment to the constitution which declaimed the citizenship of all persons born or naturalized in the United States. In furtherance of this policy Congress, at the same session, passed an act recpiiring that in the national territories the elective franchise should be granted without distinction of race or color, before such territories should be admitted into the Union. A 550 UlSrORY OF THE UNITED STATES. similar measure was adopted in respect to the District of Columbia, forbidding the further restriction of the right of suffrage to white men. To all of these acts President Johnson opposed his veto ; but in every case his objection was overcome by the two-thirds majority in Congress. Concerning the reorganization of the Southern States, the rca! question at issue was as to M'hether a civil or a military method of re- construction ought to be adopted. From the beginning, the President had urged the superiority of the civil process. But in Congress the opposite opinion prevailed, and the views of the majority were rather intensified by the hostility of the executive. On the 2d of March, 1867, an act was passed by which the ten seceded States were divided into five military districts, each district to be under the control of a governor apjwinted by the President. After appointing the comman- ders required by this law, the chief magistrate asked the opinion of Mr. Stanbery, his attorney-general, as to the validity of the con- gressional measures of reconstruction. An answer was returned that most of the acts were null and void ; and the President accordingly issued to tlie military commanders an order which measurably nulli- fied the whole proceeding. But Congress passed a supplemental act declaring the meaning of the previous law, and the process of reor- ganization was continued under tlie congressional plan. The work, however, was greatly retarded by the distracted counsels of the gov- ernment and the chaotic condition of affairs in the South. But in due time the States of Arkansas, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina were reconstructed, and in the months of June and July, 1.S68, readmitted into the Union. In every case, howevei", the readmission was effected against the protest, and over the veto of the President. In the nu'an time, a difficulty had arisen in the President's cabinet which led to his imjteachment. On the 21st of February, 18(i8, he noti- fied Edwin M. Stanton, secretary of war, of his dismissal from office. The .act was regarded by Congress as a usurpation of authority and a violation of law on the part of the President. The reconstruction diffi- culties had already broken off all friendly relations between the two Houses and the executive. Accordingly, on the 3d of !March, articles of impeachment were agreed to by the House of Representatives, in ac- cordance with the forms of the Constitution, and the cause was im- mediately remanded to the Senate for trial. Proceedings began before that body on the 23d of March and continued until the 26th of May, when the President was acquitted. But his escape was JOHNSON S ADMINISTRA 2 ION. 551 very narrow; a two-thirds majority was required to convict, and but one vote ivas warning. Chief-Justice Salmon P. Chase, one of the most eminent of American statesmen and jurists, presided over thia remarkable trial. The time for holding another presi- dential election was al ready at hand. General Ulysses S. Grant was nomina- ted by the Republi- cans, and Horatio Seymour of New York by the Demo- crats. The canvass was attended w i t h great excitement. The people were still agitated by the recent strife through which the nation had passed, and the questions most discussef the great banking-house of Jay Cooke & Company of Philadelphia. Other failures followed in rapid succes- sion. Depositors everywhere hurried to the banks and withdrew their money and securities. Business was suddenly paralyzed, and many months elapsed before confidence was sufficiently restored to enable merchants and bankers to engage in the usual transactions of trade. The primary cause of the panic was the fluctuation in the volume and value of the national currency. Out of this had arisen a wild spirit of speculation which sapped the foundations of lousiness, destroyed financial confidence, and ended in disaster. Not the least of the evil results of the great monetary distnrl)- ance was the cheek given to the Northern Pacific Raii>road. As early as 1864 a company had been organized under a congressional charter to construct a railway from Lake Superior to Pugct Sound. The work also contemplated the running of a branch road, two hun- dred miles in length, down the valley of the Columbia River to Port- land, Oregon. Large subsidies were granted to the company by Con- gress, and other favorable legislation was expected. In 1870 the work GBA^T'S ADMINISTRATION. 561 of construction was begun and carried westward from Duluth, Miuue- soiii. Jay Cooke's banlving-iiouse made heavy loans to the company, accepting as security the bonds of the road; for it was confidently expected that such legislation would be obtained as should secure the success of the enterprise and bring the bonds to par. In this condi- tion of affairs the Credit Mobilier scandal was blown before the coun- try; and no Congress would have dared to vote further subsidies to a railroad enterprise. Jay Cooke's securities became comparatively worthless ; then followed the failures and the panic. The work of constructing the road was arrested by the financial distress of the country, and has since been pushed forward but slowly and with great difficulty. In 1875 the section of four hundred and fifty miles, ex- tending from Duluth to Bismarck, Dakota, had been put in opera- tion; and another section, a hundred and five miles in length, between Kalama and Tacoma, in Washington Territory, had also been com- pleted. Meanwiiile, the attention of the country was turned to the Texas and Pacific line, which had been projected from Shreveport, Louisiana, and Texarkana, Arkansas, by way of El Paso to San Diego, California — a distance from Shreveport of a thousand five hundred and fourteen miles. In 1875 the main line iiad been carried west- ward a hundred and eighty-nine miles to Dallas, Texas, while the line from Texarkana had progressed seventy-five miles towards El Paso. On the 4th of March, 1875, the Territory of Colorado was au- thorized by Congress to form a State constitution. On the 1st of July, in the following year, tiie instrument thus provided for, was ratified by the people ; a month later, the President issued his proc- lamation, and " the Centennial State " took her place in the Union. The new commonwealth embraced an area of a hundred and four thousand five hundred square miles, and a population of forty-two thousand souls. Public attention was directed to the territory by the discovery of gold, in the year 1852. Silver was discovered about the same time, and in the winter of 1858-9, the first colony of miners was established on Clear Creek and in Gilpin County. The entire yield of gold up to the time of the admission of the State was esti- mated at more than seventy millions of dollars. Until 1859, Colo- rado constituted a part of Kansas ; but in that year a convention was held at Denver, and in 1861 a distinct territorial organization was effected. Since 1870, immigration has been rapid and constant. The last years of the history of the Republic have been noted for the number of public men who have fallen by the hand of death. In December of 18G9, Edwin M. Stanton, secretary of war under 36 562 HISTORY OF THE LJyiTED STATES. President Lincoln, and more recently justice of the supreme court of the United States, died. In 1870 General Robert E. Lee, president of AVashington and Lee University, General George H. Thomas and Ad- miral Farragut passed away. In 1872 William H. Seward, Professor Morse, Horace Greeley and General Meade were all called from the scene of their earth- ly labors. On the 7th of May, 1873, Chief-Justice Chase fell under a stroke of paralysis at the home of his daugh- ter in Xew York City; and on the 11th of March in the following year. Senator Charles Sumner of Massa- chusetts died at Washington. He was a native of Bos- ton ; born in 1811 ; liberally educated at Harvard College. At the age of thir- ty-five he entered the arena of public life, and in 1850 succeeded Daniel Webster in the Senate of the United States. This position he retained until the time of his death, speaking much and powerfully on all the great questions that agitated the nation. His last days were spent in considering the interests and welfare of that country to whose service he had given the life- long energies of his genius. On the 22d of November, 1875, Vice- President Henry "Wilson, whose health had been gradually failing since his inauguration, sank under a stroke of paralysis and died at Washington city. Like Roger Sherman, he had risen from the shoe- maker's bench to the highest honors of his country. Without the learning of Seward and Sumner — without the diplomatic skill of the one or the oratorical fame of the other — he nevertheless possessed those great abilities and sterling merits which will trajismit his name to after times on the roll of patriot statesmen. (TIAKLER SrVNER. ORA^^T'S ADMINISTRATION. 563 As the Centennial of American Independence drew near, the people made ready to celebrate the great event with appropriate ceremonies. A hundred years of national prosperity — though not unclouded by ominous shadows and not unhurt by the devastations INDEPENDENCE HALL, 1S76. jf war — had swept away, and at last the dawn of the centennial aiorning was rising in the eastern sky. It was not to be supposed that the thoughtful and patriotic of the land would allow so lustrous &n epoch to go by without impressing upon the jjresent generation tha 564 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. lesson of tlie past and the hope of the futiu-e. As early as 1866, a proposition was made by Professor John L. Campbell of "Wabash College, that steps should be taken looking to the proper celebration of the great national anniversary. Al)out the same time the question of an international exhibition in honor of our independence, was agitated by the Honorable John Bigelow, a former minister of the United States to France. A correspondence was soon afterward begun and carried on by the Honorable INIorton McMichael, Mayor of Philadelphia, Senator Henry S. Lane of Indiana, M. R. Muckle of Pennsylvania, and General Charles B. Norton, who had served as a commissioner of the United States at the Exposition Internationalr of 1867. To these men, more than to others perhaps, must be awarded the honor of having originated the Centennial Exposition. But it is hardly to be supposed tiiat the American people would have failed, from the want of leaders or any other circumstance, to mark with an imposing display the hundredth year of the Republic. Such was the origin of the movement ; but the development of the project was discouraged for a while with considerable opposition and much lukewarmness. The whole scheme was a vision of enthu- siasm, a Quixotical dream, — said the critics and objectors. No such an euterjjrise could be carried through except under the patronage of the Government, and the Government had no right to make appi'opri- ations merely to preserve an old reminiscence. We had had enough of the Fourtii of July already. Besides, — said the wits and caricatur- ists, — the other nations would present a ludicrous figure in helping us to celebrate the anniversary of a rebellion which they had tried to crush a hundred j'ears ago. Victoria was expected — so said they — to .send over commissioners to heap contumely and contempt on the gi'ave of her grandfather ! No nation of Europe would consent to its own stultification by joining in the jubilee of republicanism. Besides all this caviling, it was foreseen that Philadelphia would quite certainly be selected as the scene of the proposed display, and on that account a good deal of local jealousy was excited in the other principal cities of the Union. Nevertheless, the advocates of the enterprise continued to urge the feasibility and propriety of the exposition ; the more enlightened newspapers of the country lent their influence, and the popular voice .soon declared in favor of the measure. As early as the beginning of 1870, the general plan and princi- pal features of the celebration had been determined in the minds of its projectors. As to the form of the display, an International Expo- GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 565 sition of Arts and Industries was decided on ; as to the scene, the city of Philadelphia, hallowed by a thousand Revolutionary memories, was selected; as to the time, from the 19th of April to the 19th of October, 1876. The lirst organized body to give aid and encourage- ment to the enterprise was the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia. Through the influence of that patriotic organization, a Centennial Commission, consisting of seven members appointed by the city council, was constituted, with John L. Shoemaker as chairman. Shortly afterwards a resolution was adopted by the Legislature of Pennsylvania, invoking the aid of Congress in behalf of the proposed celebration ; and on the 3d of March, 1871, a bill was passed by the House of Representatives, which became the basis of all subsequent proceedings relating to the Centennial. In this bill it was provided that an exhibition of American and Foreign arts, products and manufactures should be held under the auspices of the Government of the United States, in the city of Phil- adelphia, in 1876; that a Centennial Commission, consisting of one member and one alternate from each State and Territory, should be appointed by the President; that to this board of commissioners should be referred the entire management and responsibility of the enter- prise ; that the members of the board should receive no compensa- tion ; that the United States should not be liable for any of the expenses of the exposition ; and that the President, when officially informed that suitable buildings had been erected and adequate pro- visions made for the proposed exhibition, should make proclamation of that fact to the people of the United States and to all foreign nations. Daring the year 1871, the Centennial Commission was con- stituted in accordance with the act of Congress. On the 4th of March, 1872, the members assembled at Philadelphia and effected a perma- nent organization by the election of General Joseph R. Hawley of Connecticut as President. Orestes Cleveland of New Jersey, John D. Creigh of California, Robert Lowry of Iowa, Robert Mallory of Ken- tucky, Thomas H. Coldwell of Tennessee, John McNeill of Missouri, and William Gurney of South Carolina, were chosen as the seven vice- presidents of the organization. As secretary, Professor John L. Camp- bell of Indiana was elected. The important office of director-general was conferred on Alfred T. Gosliorn of Ohio ; and as counselor and solicitor John L. Shoemaker of Pennsylvania was chosen. The question of money next engaged the attention of the man- agers. How to provide the funds necessary for carrying forward so vast an enterprise became a source of much discussion and no little 566 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. anxiet}'. The positive refusal of the govermneiit to heeonie respon- sible for any part of the expenses of the Exhibition added to tlie em- barrassmcnt ; for it was now seen that ])rivate resources and the good will of the people must furnish the entire sum necessary for the suc- cess of the enterprise. Several measures were accordingly adopted by the Centennial Commis sion looking to the creation of a treasury. By an act of Congress, passed on the 1st of June, 1872, provision was made for the organization ol a Centennial Board of Fi- nance, to which the whole monetary management ol the Exposition should be entrusted. This board was organized by the election of John Welsh of Philadel- phia as president. William Sellers and John S. Barbour were chosen vice-presidents. The office of secretary and treasurer was conferred on Frederick Fraley ; that of auditor, on H. S. Lansing; and that of financial agent, on M'illiam Bigler. The board was au- thorized to issue stock in shares of ten dollars each, the whole num- ber of shares thus issued not to exceed one million. It was also pro- vided that a series of Centennial Memorial Medals should be struck at the mint of the United States, and that the sale of such medals should be under the exclusive control of the Board of Finance. The medals were elegantly executed in several styles and sizes — of gilt, silver, and bronze — furnishing for after ages an impressive token of the American Republic in its hundredth year. Careful estimates, made by the Centennial Commission and the Board of Finance, jdaced the entire expense of the Exposition at e'u/ht million five hundred tliousand dollars. Of this sum about two and a half millions were raised by the sale of stock — a work whicii was at first entrusted to the banks of the country and afterward to a Bureau of Revenue established for that ])urj)ose. Long before this amount was secured, however, the legislature of Pennsylvania made a glorious GENERAL .TOSKI'H P.. HAWI.ET. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 567 record for that State by appropriating one million dollars for the Exhibition. The " City of Brotherly Love " did better still by voting the sum of one million five hundred thousand dollars. The people of New York City made a contribution of a quarter of a million. The State of New Jersey gave a hundred thousand dollars; New CENTENNIAL MEDAL.— OBVERSE. CENTENNIAL MEDAL.— REVERSE. Hampshire, Connecticut, and Delaware, ten thousand dollars each. But notwithstanding these magnificent contributions, the aggregate iwm. fell far short of the estimates; and the Centennial Commission — »n the face of the former illiberal action of Congress — resolved to Tiake a second appeal to that body for help. A bill was accordingly prepared, asking for an appropriation of three million dollars from the national treasury; but on the 6th of May, 1874, the bill was decisively defeated — an act well calculated to bring the American name into contempt and shame.* The managers of the Exposition were again thrown back upon the people for sympathy and aid. Meanwhile, the sale of stock and of medals, as well as other enterprises for the increase of the Centennial funds, was going on successfully. The Exposition gained constantly in public favor. Even in the Far West, Centennial orators traveled through the country districts, stirring up the enthusiasm of the people. The public Free Schools, by exhibitions and excursions, contributed their part towards the success of the great celebration. In June of 1874, * After times may be astonished to know tliat the empire of Japan cheerfully contributed .six ^undred thou.iand dollars lo the success of the American CentenHial after the Congresa or the United States had twice refused to vote a cent. 568 HISTORY OF THE IJXITEB STATES. the President of the United States extended a cordial invitation to all tlie civilized nations of tlie world to participate in an Interna- tional Exhibition of Arts, Mannfaetures, and Prodncts of the Soil and Mine, to be held in tlie city of Philadelphia in 1876, in honor of the one hundredth anniversary of American Independence. By and by, the contagion spread even to Congress, and that body passed an act appropriating five hundred and, five thousand dollars for the erection of a Centennial Building in honor of the United States and for the illustration of the functions and resources of the American Government in times of peace and of war. The legislatures of sev- eral of the States also became interested in the enterprise, and made appropriations — ranging from five thousand to fifty thousand dollars — for the purpose of erecting State Buildings on the Exhibition grounds, the sum thus contributed amounting to nearly a half million dollars. Finally, as the success of the Exposition became more and more assured, the patriotism of the people a.nd the clamors of the press drove the national Congress into an appropriation of a million five hundred thousand dollars to supply the deficit which was still reported by the Board of Finance. Such were the principal measures by which the Centennial fund was finally secured. One of the first matters to which the attention of the Centennial Commission was directed, was the selection of suitable grounds for holding the Exposition. But that problem was soon solved in the most satisfactory manner. By the act of March 3d, 1871, it was decided by Congress that the Exhibition should be held within the corporate limits of Philadelphia. The authorities of that city, throw- ing their wliole energies into the enterprise, at once proffered to the commissioners the free use of Fairmount Park, one of the largest and most magnificent in the world. This beautiful tract, presenting every variety of surface, well wooded and well watered, extends on both sides of the Schuylkill for more than seven miles, and along the banks of the Wissahickon for nearly the same distance. The entire park embraces two thousand seven hundred and forty acres, and presents to the eye every thing that is lovely and refreshing in Avoodland scenery, beautified and adorned by the hand of art. The portion of the grounds more particularly set apart for the purposes of the Exposition, including an area of four hundred and fifty acres, lies on the right bank of the Schuylkill, below Belmont, and was formerly known as the old Lansdowne Estate. The formal transfer of the grounds to the Centennial Commission was made on the 4th of July, 1873. An immense throng of citizens (569) 570 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and strangers gathered in the park to witness the eeremonies. The address of presentation Mas made by the Honorable Morton Mc- Micliael of Pliiladelphia, and the response by General Hawley, president of the Commission. The dedicatory oration was then delivered by Governor Hartranft of Pennsylvania, who, after reciting the congressional acts and various other measures upon which the Centennial enterprise had thus far proceeded, continued in the following eloquent manner : " We have assembled here to dedicate a portion of this beauti- ful park to the uses of a great International Exhibition, which is to commemorate the anniversary of our country's birth. Upon the threshold of the century to expire in 1876, thirteen poor and feeble colonies, with no common ties other than their love of liberty and hatred of oppression, declared their independence. These Thirteen Colonies, with their offspring, now increased in number to thirty-seven, stretch their empire across a continent, and afford the grandest exhibition of a nation's progress in the world's history. In all the wondrous changes wrought in the nineteenth century, none are so wondrous and conspicuous as the industrial, moral, and physi- cal growth of this our native land. With those powerful auxiliaries, steam and the telegraph — both of which our country gave to man- kind — we are striding with majestic steps toward a dominion unri- valed by any other nation on the face of the earth. Let us, then, from every State — north, south, east, and west — bring to this great city, the consecrated place where our liberty was born, the evidences of our culture, the proofs of our skill, and our vast and varied resources, that the world may have a glimpse of our enlargement, industry, wealth, and power. To the myriads who will gather here, let us accord a welcome which shall be in keeping with the dignity and magnitude of our country. Here, too, let our own people gather, garnering new and fresh ideas from a survey of the world's arts and industries ; and let us dedicate ourselves to a higher civilization, to more extensive fields of development, to more liberal and more widely diff'used education, to the purification of our institutions, and to the preservation of that liberty Avhich is the foundation-stone of our prosperity and happiness." Governor Hartranft was followed by George M. Robeson, secre- tary of the navy, who read a proclamation by the President of the United States ; and then the General Regulations for the government of the Exposition were announced as follows : GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 571 I. The International Exhibition of 1876 will be held in Fair- mount Park, in the city of Philadelphia, in the year 1876. II. The date of opening the Exhibition will be April 19th, 1876, and of closing will be October 19th, 1876. III. A cordial invitation is hereby extended to every nation of the earth to be represented by its arts, industries, progress, and development. IV. A formal acceptance of this invitation is requested previous to March 4th, 1874. V. Each nation accepting this invitation is requested to appoint a Commission, through which all matters pertaining to its own inter- ests shall be conducted. For the purpose of convenient intercourse and satisfactory supervision, it is especially desired that one member of every such Commission be designated to reside at Philadelpiiia until the close of the Exposition. VI. The privileges of exhibitors can be granted only to citizens of countries whose governments have formally accepted the invitation to be represented, and have appointed the aforementioned Commis- sion; and all communications must be made through the Govern- mental Commissions. VII. Applications for space within the Exposition buildings, or in the adjacent buildings and grounds under the control of the Cen- tennial Commission, must be made previous to March 4th, 1875. VIII. Full diagrams of the buildings and grounds will be fur- nished to the Commissioners of the diiferent nations which shall accept the invitation to participate. IX. All articles intended for exhibition, in order to secure proper position and classification, must be in Philadelphia on or before January 1st, 1876. X. Acts of Congress pertaining to custom-house regulations, duties, etc., together with all special regulations adopted by the Cen- tennial Commission in reference to transportation, allotment of space, classification, motive power, insurance, police rules, and other matters necessary to the proper display and preservation of materials, — will be promptly communicated to the accredited representatives of the sev- eral governments cooperating in the Exposition. On the day after the dedication of the grounds in Fairmount Park, a copy of the President's proclamation, already mentioned, was transmitted to each of the foreign ministers resident at Washington. At the same time, the American secretary of state notified the minis- 5/2 HISTORY OF THE UXITEB STATES. ters that the proposed display was intended as an International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and Mine ; that the special design of the Exi^osition was to commemorate the Declaration of the Independence of the United States ; that another prime object was to furnish to all nations an opportunity for mutual improvement and a higher culture in beholding the products of each other's civilization ; that the President of the United States indulged the hope that all the diplomatic representatives of foreign nations would bring the Exposition and its objects to the attention of the people of their respective countries; and that the Exliibition might greatly conduce to the establishment and perpetuation of in- ternational friendship and good will. These official communications were cordially received by the foreign ministers and by the govern- ments which they represented. The President's invitations were quickly accepted ; and before the expiration of the allotted time, the following nations had notified the American Government of their desire and intention to participate in the Exposition : The Argentine Confederation, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Chili, China, Den- mark, Ecuador, Egypt, France (including Algeria), German Empire, Great Britain and her Colonies, Greece, Guatemala, Hawaii, Hayti, Honduras, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Mexico, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Norway, Orange Free State, Persia, Peru, Portugal, Russia, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tunis, Turkey, United States of Colom- bia, Venezuela. One of the earliest and most difficult of the subjects which engaged the attention of the Centennial Commission was the proper analysis and classification of the materials to be exhibited. Until this c|UGstion w'as settled it could not be known what buildings to erect or how to erect them. Nor could the various nations know in advance how to select and arrange their products so as to come into proper competition Avith each other, until a General Classification should be prepared and reported. It was foreseen, moreover, that a mistake in this regard would be in a great measure fotal to the .success of the Exposition, as a bad classification would be sure to result in heaping up in the Centennial buildings a vast and chaotic mass of materials which nobody could appreciate or understand. In this important work of classification the Commissioners — considering the magnitude and novelty of the task imposed upon them — succeeded admirably. It was decided to arrange all of the materials which i;hould be presented for exhibition in ten great classes or departments, GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 573 the names of which shoiikl suggest, even to the commou beholder, the particular object on display. The following was the General Classification adopted by the Commission : I. Raw Materials ; Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal. II. Materials and Manufactures used for Food or in THE Arts ; the results of Extractive or Combining Processes. III. Textile and Felted Fabrics ; Apparel, Costumes, and Personal Ornaments. IV. Furniture and Manufactures of General Use in Construction and in Dwellings. V. Tools, Implements, Machines, and Processes. VI. Motors and Transportation. VII. Apparatus and Methods for the Increase and Dif- fusion OF Knowledge. VIII. Engineering ; Public Works, Architecture, etc. IX. Plastic and Graphic Arts. X. Objects illustrating Efforts for the Improvement OF THE Physical, Intellectual, and Moral Condition of Man. Each of these genei'al departments was divided and subdivided until a proper classification of all the materials about to be exhibited was secured. To erect buildings suitable in character and capacity — buildings illustrative of the taste, equal to the enterprise, and worthy of the genius of the American people — was the next great duty devolved upon the Centennial Commission. Here success was necessary. To succeed was to elicit the admiration of every people ; to fail was to fail ingloriously. The reputation of the United States was at stake. For the foremost men of all the world, the savants of Europe and Asia — art critics, wits, and journalists; statesmen, poets, and philoso- phers; admirers of the beautiful, keen-scented satirists, and dislikers of republicanism out of every clime under heaven — were sure to gaze upon and criticise whatever should be built in Fairmount Park, and to carry abroad the story of our honor or our disgrace. Grand and imposing structures would add to the dignity of the great occasion. ]\Iean and insignificant I^uildings would insure a mean and insignificant exhibition, and that, in its turn, would produce among all nations a contemptuous estimate of the American people and their institutions. After much deliberation, the Centennial Commission determined upon the erection of five principal buildings, the name and character 574 HISTOR Y OF THE UXITET) STA TES. of each to be iletermined by the nature ^A the niaterial.s therein to be displayed. The first of these, called the Main Building; was de- signed with special reference to the exhibitictn of Products of the Mine, Workmanship in the Metals, Manufactures in general, Edu- cational and Scientific displays. The second building — called the Memorial Hall, or Art Gallery — was planned for the exhibi- tion of the Fine Arts in all their various branches and modifications — Sculpture, Painting, Engraving, Lithogra})hy, Photography, Indus- trial and Architectural Designs, Decorations, and Mosaics. Tiic third principal building was named Machinery Hall, and was designed for the display of Machines of every pattern and purpose known to man — Motors, Generators of Power, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Appa- ratuses, Railway Enginery, and Contrivances for Aerial and Water Transportation. The fourth edifice projected by the Commissioners was called Agricultural Hall, and was planned for the exhibition of all Tree -and Forest Products, Fruits of every grade and descrip- tion. Agricultural Products proper. Land and Marine Animals includ- ing the Apparatus used in the Care and Culture of the same. Animal and Vegetable Products, Textile Materials, Implements and Processes peculiar to Agriculture, Farm Engineering, Tillage and General Man- agement of Field, Forest, and Homestead. The fifth and last build- ing, called Horticultural Hall, was designed for the proper dis- play of Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, and Flowers — Hot-houses, Conserv- atories, Graperies; Tools, Accessories, Designs, Construction, and Management of Gardens. Such was the general plan under which the jjrincipal edifices of Fairmount Park were begun. On the 4th of July, 1874, the foundations of Memorial Hall were laid with appropriate ceremonies. In the following September, work was begun on the Main Building, and was steadily carried for- ward during the whole of the next year and until the beginning of February, 1876, when the immense structure was completed. Machin- ery Hall was built between the months of January and October, 1875. On the 1st of May, in the same year, the foundations of Horticultural Hall were laid, and the building was brought to comj)leti()n April 1st, 1876. Agricultural Hall was not begun until September of 1875, but the work was carried forward so rapidly that the edifice was com- pleted by the middle of the following April. Meanwhile, the work on THE Government Building, the construction of which had been provided for by the congressional act of March od, 1875, was pressed to completion early in 1876. Moreover, it had become appar- ent *,o the Commissioners that the space provided in Memorial Hall GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 575 •would by no means accommodate the immense exhil)ition of Fine Arts which was now confidently expected; and an Art Annex was accordingly planned and built. It was also found from the rapidly accumulating applications for space that the Main Building itself would be filled to overflowing ; and two Annexes — the principal one for carriages and the other for the display of the Minerals of the United States — were- accordingly added to that immense structure. Other buildings — illustrative of various interests and enterprises brought together from the ends of the earth — were rapidly planned and constructed. A Woman's Pavilion, projected and carried to completion by an organization called the Women's Centennial Exec- utive Committee, was begun in the middle of October, 1875, and fin- ished in the following January. The building was designed for the special exhibition of whatever woman's skill, patience and genius have produced, and are producing, in the way of handicraft, inven- tion, decorations, letters, and art. Next came the several States and Territories, selecting grounds and constructing a series of State Buildings, commemorative of the spirit and illustrating the re- sources of the respective commonwealths of the Union. Nearly all the foreign nations participating in the Exposition made haste to erect, for their own convenience and for the honor of native land, elegant Government Buildings — French, Spanish, or British — which became a kind of head-quarters and rendezvous for the sev- eral nationalities. Then came model dwellings and Bazaars, School- houses and Eestaui-ants, Judges' Halls and model Factories, News- paper Buildings and Ticket Offices, — until the Centennial grounds (capacious as they were) were filled with — shall it be called a city? — the most imposing, spacious, and ornate ever seen in the world. A more complete description of some of those grand structures will here be appropriate. The first and largest of them all was the Main Building, situated immediately east of the intersection of Belmont and Elm Avenues. The edifice was in the form of a parallelogram, having a length from east to west of eighteen hundred and eighty feet,* and a breadth from north to south of four hundred and sixty-four feet. The build- ing throughout its greater extent was one story high, the main cornice being forty-five feet from the ground. The general height within was seventy feet, rising to ninety feet under the principal arcades. From each of the four corners of the building rose a rectangular tower forty-eight feet square and seventy-five feet high. Over the central * Eighteen luindred and seixnty-six feet (the Centennial number) in the clear. 676 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED NT A TES. portion of the main stmcture a raised roof one hundred and eigh- ty-four feet square was likewise surmounted at the corners by four towers a hundred and twenty feet in height. In the middle of the two sides, looking north and south, were the principal projections, four hundred and sixteen feet in length. The corresponding projections at the . ends were two hundred and sixteen feet long, and extended, the western in the direction of Machinery Hall, and the eastern towards the city. In these four projections were placed the main entrances to the building; that on the east facing the carriage-ways to the city; the southern receiv- ing passengers from the street-cars and the dejwt of the Pennsylvania Railway ; the M'estern being rath- er an exit to other j)arts of the grounds than an entrance proper; and the northern facing Memorial Hall and the Schuylkill. In the ground-plan of this immense building a central nave or avenue, a hundred and twenty feet in width, traversed the main diameter to the distance of eight- een hundred and thirty-two feet. Parallel with this, two side aisles a hundred feet wide, and of the same length with the principal nave, divided the spaces between the same and the sides of the building. These three main ave- nues were intersected at right an- gles by cross aisles forty-eight feet in width, dividing the whole area GRANTS ADMINISTRATION. 577 of the floor into blocks or squares, with spacious avenues entirely around them. The principal nave and its parallel aisles wei'e likewise inter- sected by the main and two subordinate transepts, dividing the cen- tral space of the ground-floor into nine great squares, free from columnar support, and embracing an area of over a hundred and seventy-three thousand square feet. The entire area of the ground- floor was eight hundred and seventy-two thousand three hundred and twenty square feet ; of the floors in the projections, thirty- .seven thousand three hundred and forty-four feet; of the tower floors, twenty-six thousand three hundred and forty-four feet; — making an aggregate area of nine liundFed and thirty-six thousand and eight square feet, or twenty-one and forty-seven hundredths acres! The ground-floor proper covered a space of a little more than twenty acres.* The building was chiefly of iron and glass, and contained a mass of material unprecedented in the history of architecture. The outer walls were carried up in brick-work to the height of seven feet from the foundations, which consisted of stone piei's of the most substantial masonry. Above the brick-woi-k the panels between the columns of .support were occupied with glazed sash, sections of which were movable for i)urposes of ventilation. The roof was of tin, laid solidly on boards of pine ; and the exterior ornaments — abounding on all the corners, angles, and towers — were of galvanized iron. The columns of interior support — uumbcring six hundred and seventy-two, aud ranging from twenty-three to one hundred and twenty-five feet in length — were of rolled iron, and had an aggregate weight of two million two hun- dred thousand pounds. The roof trusses and girders were of the same material, and weighed about five million pounds. No less than seven million feet of lumber were used in the construction of the building. * A comparison of the leading Centennial buildings (in respect of dimensions) witU other famous edifices may prove of interest. Name of Stricture. Area of GROiiND-lloon. Main Exposition Buildiiis, . . . 872,320 Square feet, 20.02 Acres. Machinerv Hall 558,440 " " 12.82 " Asrioultiiral Hall 442,800 " " 10.16 " Memorial Hall, 7G,650 " " 1.76 " Horticultural Hall, 73,912 " " 1.69 " The Louvre (including the court), . . 309,888 " " 7.11 " St. Peter's, 273,927 " " 6.28 " The Capitol 261.348 " " 6.00 " The Coliseum, 245,340 " " 5.63 " St. Paul's, 142,500 " " 3.27 " Cathedral of Milan, 139,968 " " 3.21 " Tuileries, 108,864 " " 2.50 " Westminister 103,733 " " 2.38 '• St. Sophia, 82,600 " " 1.89 " St. Stephen's, 81,420 " " 1.86 " Kotre Dame, 56,160 " " 1.27 " 37 0?8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The water ami drainage pipes — laid for tlie most part underneath the floor — were four miles in length. Light — whether streaming thi'ough acres of stained and fretted glass by day, or blazing from thousands of gas-jets and burnished reflectors by night — was equally and abun- dantly distributed. Hydrants — everywhere and ever full — promised .security against the destroyer. Such were the principal features of the largest, if not the most imposing, edifice in the world. The general effect, notM'ithstanding the immense size of the building, was especially airy and pleasing. Happy proportions and the regularity of irregularity reduced the apjjarent dimensions of the mammoth pavilion till the vision was nowhere oppressed with a sense of cumbrous outlines or heaviness of structure. In practical adaptation to the purposes for which it was designed, the building was all that could be desired ; and in its effect upon that sense — call it by what name you will — which takes cognizance of the sublime and beautiful, there was small room for caviling and criticism. From the great towers and observatories, rising grandly above the roof, the eye of the beholder, sweeping around the horizon, drank in without fatigue the historic outline of the surrounding country and the midsummer glories of Fair- mount Park. Here wound the Schuylkill. Yonder was Laurel Hill, where Elisha Kent Kane sleeps in an uninscribed grave on the rocky hillside. No need of epitaphs for such as him ! Farther on there came a glimpse of Germantown, where through the fogs and deso- lations of that forbidding October day-dawn a iiundred years ago the greatest man of all history, at the head of his ragged and half-starved army, struggled against the foe. Here to the east, spreading away from the very feet of the beholder to the distant rolling Delaware, and right and left to the skirts of the horizon, slumbered under the summer sun the old City of Penn, where in those same heroic days, now gliding dreamily into the shadows of the past, Adams and Jef- ferson and Franklin did the bravest deed in the civil history of the human race. Such were the .thrilling associations which clustered around the great Centennial Building. Only one melancholy reflec- tion arose to trouble the soul of tlie beholder: the grand edifice was designed only as a temporary structure — meant to subserve the fleeting purposes of the International Exhibition. The building second in importance, though not in size, among the Centennial structures, was the Memorial Hall, or Art Gallery. It stands upon a broad terrace in the Lansdowne Plateau, at the dis- tance of two hundred and fifty feet from the north projection of the 580 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Main Building, and a iumdred and sixteen feet above the level of the Schuylkill. The structure is of iron, granite, and glass, and is in that modern style of architecture called the Rcnakmnce. The build- ing is in the form of a rectangular parallelogram, and is three hun- dred and sixty-five feet in length, two hundred and ten feet wide, and fiftv-nine feet in height above a twelve-foot basement of stone. The dome, also rectangular in form, rises a hundred and fifty feet above the terrace, and is surmounted with a colossal bell bearing a mag- nificent statue of the goddess America, cast in zinc, twenty-three and a half feet in height, and weighing six thousand pounds. At the fi)ur corners of the base of the dome are seated other statues representing the four quarters of the globe. The floor of the main hall below has an area of more than a half acre, and is capable of accommodating eight thousand spectators at one time. In its architectural elements the building embraces hints derived from many styles, some of which — as, for instance, the arcades — date back as far as the villas of An- cient Rome ; but the general effect is that of nnity, elegance, and grandeur. The Centennial surroundings of Memorial Hall were appropriate and striking. Before the main entrance and on either hand were sta- tioned two colossal bronze pegasi curbed by the Muses. On the south- west angle of the terrace a group of statuary, also in bronze, repre- sented the firing of a mortar and the flight of the shell, watched by the men of the battery; while on the southeast angle a corresponding group depicted a dying lioness, surrounded l)y her whelps and guarded by her lord. Opposite the main entrances of the edifice the terrace was ascended by flights of stone steps, spacious and grand ; and the beholder, when for the first time he reached the plateau, found him- self face to face with an edifice among the most novel and beautiful in the New World. As he stood midway between the site of the Main Building and Memorial Hall, he saw, on the one hand, a mammoth structure designed for the exhibition of all things practical, utilitarian, and profitable among the products of thought and application ; and, on the other, a temple fit for the repose and revelation of all things ideal, beautiful, and sublime among the trophies of human genius. The Art Gallery was built at a cost of a million five hundred thousand dollars. The funds for this purpose were the joint contri^- bution of Philadelphia and the State of Pennsylvania. The building was designed as a permanenf structure, affording for present time i. euitable gallery for the Fine Art display of the International Exhibi- tion, and, in its final purpose, becoming a national memcriai of the GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 681 Centennial year. After the close of the Exposition, the edifice was converted, according to the pur- pose of its founders, into a recep- tacle for the Pennsylvania Museum if Industrial Art, — an institution similar to that of South Kensing- ton, in London. AVhen the other structures, many in purpose and fashion, which the Centennial cel- ebration had caused to spring up in Fairmount Park, were struck from their foundations — disappear- ing even as they came, like an exhalation of the night, — Memo- rial Hall, with its higher purpose and destiny, was happily preserved for after ages as an enduring mon- ument of the artistic taste and pa- triotism of the American people. In its general plan and out- line Machinery Hall was similar to the Main Exposition Building, and only second thereto in dimensions. The ground-plan was a rectangu- lar parallelogram fourteen hun- dred and two feet in length, and three hundred and sixty feet in width. On the south side the cen- tral transept of the main hall pro- jected into an Annex, two hun- dred and eight feet in depth by two hundred and ten feet in breadth. On the north the front of the prin- cipal structure was on a right line with the corresponding front of the Main Building, and the two edifices were separated by an inter- vening space or promenade of only five hundred and forty-two feet ; so that, gluuciug from the east end 582 HLiTOMY OF THE UyiTEl) , STATES. of the Main Buildinsj to the Avesteni oxtreme of Machinery Hall, the eye wwept along an almost unbroken front line tiwrc than .scvrnty- hvo hundredfh.s of a mile in length ! The principal materials used iu the construction of Machinery Hall Mere iron and glass. The piern of the foundation were of stone, and the supporting columns, for the most part, of wood. The main cornice without was forty feet from the ground, and the general height within was seventy feet. The build- ing was painted in a pleasing tint of purplish blue, relieved by various hues of contrasted colors. At the four corners and over the main side-entrances stood the towers, a hundred feet in height, breaking up in some measure the otherwise monotonous outline of the building. In the north-east tower Mas hung the famous chime of bells, thirteen in number, M'eighing twenty-one thousand pounds, — many-tongued and clamoi'ous M'ith the silver music which they flung out upon the air in honor of the Old Tliirteen States. Over the central gallery a royal bald-eagle looked down upon the great clock which calmly marked the hours of the Centennial summer. Machinery Hall could hardly be called a thing of beauty : it was too long and low for that ; — but if adaptability to the purpo.ses for which it was designed be a criterion, the .structure was by no means wanting in taste. American civilization is the civilization of utility, invention, and mechanism. The engine is the emblem, and Qvlatc glass ; then the exhibit of the German jewelers ; and then the court of armory, where were displayed the uniforms, accouterments, and weapons of the German soldiery, from the Crusading times to the present. Next came a section filled with toys from Niirnberg, and next the displays of Elberfeld silks and Saxon hosiery. On the southern aisle the objects of chief interest were the ivories exhibited by Meyer of Hamburg, the woven wire goods of Dresden, the gold and silver leaf exhibit of Bavaria, and the perfumes of Cologne. Nearer to the southern wall was the display of the German chem- ists. Then came the Leipsic lamps and lanterns, and then the Lin- den pavilion of velvets. The southwest section of the German department was occupied with what musical instruments soever are played upon in Fatherland. But here again, as in the de]>artment of France, the inadequacy of the pianos and organs to compete with the instruments of the Fnitcd States was plainly apparent. Along the southern wall was placed an interesting collection of articles illustrating the apjiliances and * Tlio nianufacture of Amerlnm jilate gla.'is is yet in its incipicncy, ami is heset with special difficulties. Chief among the embarrassments which have attended tlie enter- prise is the want of adequate protection, and the inveterate determination of foreign establishments to prevent the success of such manufacture in the I'nited States. Never- theless, it is known to the author that but for the .serious misfortune of breaking the finest plate in packing, the Honorable W. C. De Pauw, president of the Star Glass ■Works of New Albany, Indiana, would have contributed to the E.icposition specimens of his work fairly rivaling the liest of the French exhibit. The largest of the De Pauw colleclion was a magnilieent plate having a supeifcial area (i/'21,095 My»ni-e inekex. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 603 method.'^ of a Gernuin army hospital. Near by was the exhibit of the Schwartzwokl clock-makers — a quaint and beautiful collection. Models of the Hamburg steamships were found in the southeastern sections, and, tinally, the elegant pavilion of the German booksellers — best of the kind from Europe. A description of the departments of the leading Western nations, and of the exhibits made thereby, is in some measure a description of the rest. True, the beholder as he wandered from court to court was ever impressed with the multifarious aspects of human life and the ever-varying phases of civilization. Still, so far as the displays made by the different branches of the Aryan race were concerned, tiiere was unity in variety — a generic similarity with specific modifi- cations. As to the Oriental nations, there was a wider departure from the common type, but a noticeable similarity of features among their t)wn displays. The thoughtful observer rarely failed to find in the various courts an exhibit typical of a known civilization, but he also found more than that. Thus, for instance, the Austrian sections presented the expected treasures of Bohemian cut-glass ; of amber- work and meerschaums; of pipes ad infinitum; of Viennese porte- monnaies, diaries, and albums ; and the tMiexpected treasures of the silk-weavers of the Danube. Also in the Italian court were found the anticipated reproductions of ancient art; trophies commemorative of the Italian Radicals from Columbus to Garibaldi ; the religious halo over every thing ; and the i(?)anticipated display of Venetian pottery. The Belgian section presented the finest of Brussels linens, laces, and tapestries ; and, as if in contrast with these, an elaborate display of fire-arms and an illuminated advertisement of the min- eral waters of Sjxi. Holland made an exhibit of what things soever the Netherlander prizes — from dikes to pipe-stems, from magnificent bridges to humble roofs of thatch. Nor had the conquerors of the North Sea forgotten the refinements of letters ; for the Dutch book- sellers' pavilion was among the finest at the Exposition. Here stood the cuckoo clocks of Switzerland. Geneva, city of political philosophy and quaint watches, was present with all iier arts. The embroidered lace curtains of St. Gall hung tastefully over pho- tographs of the Alpine glens, and the Swiss pavilion of education stood near by. Sweden contributed a court of exceptional elegance, wt'll filled with the products of her arts and industries. The chief attractions of the display were the specimens of Bessemer steel and cutlery, Swedish arms and armor, woolens and silks, safety-matches and j)ottery. Norway presented her glassware from Christiana. An- 604 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATEfs. cient weapons were placed in contrast with a modern 5forwegian school-house, and old coins and medals with n].odern jewels and sil- verware. Among the sections of chief interest were the courts of Den- mark, Egypt, and Spain. These were set contiguous, fronting the main aisle, and representing in their style and contents three diverse types of civilization. The articles most atti-active in the Danish court were terra cotta ornaments, silverware from Copenhagen, Esquimau apparel, and a rich collection of furs. Across the entrance-way to the Egyptian court was this inscription: "Egypt — Soudan — tiik OLDEST PEOPLE OF THE WORLD SENDS ITS MORNING OREETING TO THE YOUNGEST NATION." Entering, the visitor was confronted witli a bust of Kameses the Great and a model of the Pyramid of Gizeh. Then came a gorgeous display of the caparisons and gold-studded harness of the steeds of the modern Phai-aohs; then cabinets of ebony, costly and quaint ; and then an exhibit of Arabic books and manuscripts. The court of Spain was richly hung with Spanisli tro- phies and curtains of velvet. Within were the portraits of those dar- ing adventurers, Cortez, De Leon, De Soto, and Pizarro. The articles displayed were typical of the country and people. Scarfs and shawls silks and woolens, porcelain tiles and glassware, chemicals and fire- arms, were tlic chief products exhibited. Opposite the departments allotted to Sweden stood the court of Japan. The contents surpassed description. The display of bronzes attracted universal attention and universal praise. The porcelains were, beyond comparison, the finest of tlie whole Exposition — finest in quality and in the immense variety of the exhibit. Kiclmess of coloring — vivid hues of scarlet, green, and gold — prevailed every- where. Lacquered ware of every variety, superb cabinets, and silken screens embroidered with figures infinite, curious faces, and Japanese costumes, made uj) a display which astonished the Western mind with the profusion of Eastern art. China did not half so well — yet well. About the whole dis]ilay were the anticipated characteristics of overdone conservatism. Here was the exjtected array of drawings without perspective and designs, consisting wliolly of color. Here was a ])agoda painted in flxntastic hues, and here that China ware — a ridi profusion of plates and vases — for which the Celestial empire has had immemorial tame. Here, too, were the beautiful silks, and clotlis with gold embroidery, and elab- orate bedsteads carved with dragons' heads, and woven forms unnam- able in tapestry and screen. The polite and impassive man of tlie GRANT'S ADMINISTBATION. 605 almond eyes and cue — manager of the exhibit — walked among the trophies of his civilization and did reverence before a wooden image of Fo. The Russian court was placed between the sections of Spain and Austria. An iron statue of the inspired barbarian, Peter the Great, stood like a grim sentinel to guard the treasures of his empire. ISIuch line silverware, of excellent design and workmanship, was displayed as the exhibit of Moscow. A magnificent piece in Repousse, called The Adoration of the Magi, elicited universal praise. St. Peters- burg had sent a similar collection, and also a unique group of bronzes illustrative of the life and manners of the Russian peasants. Another section contained a superb chandelier, together with statuettes, cas- kets, cabinets, and mantels. The exhibit of Russian furs was luisur- passed ; and the display of embroidered cloths, velvets, and silks was well calculated to excite the jealousy of more favored lands. The section of Portugal was found in the rear of the court of Egypt. Glassware, porcelain, and pottery constituted a large part of the exhibit. The life, costumes, and manners of the Portuguese peas- antry were here represented by groups of statuary in plaster. The Azores made a beautiful display of phantom ships and flower-baskets woven of the fiber of the fig-tree. Along the south wall of the sec- tion was placed a fine collection of geological and topographical maps and charts illustrating the physical aspect of Portugal. The exhibit of raw silk, cotton goods, blankets, and embroidery, Nvas exceiitionally good. Of the African kingdoms — after Egypt — the best and only dis- plays were made by the Orange Free State and Tunis. The court of the latter was located in the rear of the sections of Denmark and Turkey, and was almost exclusively occupied with the personal ex- hibit made by the Dey. The collection consisted of articles illustra- tive of the manners and customs of the Bedouins, and of antiquities from the ruins of Carthage. The court of the Orange Free State occupied the southwestern angle of the building, and was wholly devoted to the governmental exhibit made by the authorities of that country. An unexpected array of minerals, native woods, ivory, grains, mohair, and wool, composed the chief part of the collection. But the cases containing the wealth of the feathery races of South- eastern Africa, from the infinitesimal humming-birds of Madagascar to the straggling descendants of the dinornis, were of 6till greater interest and beauty. No department in the Main Building was more admired and 606 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES. praised than tlic court of Brazil. Dom Pedro and his queen had i o cause of sliame in the presence of their national exhibit. The Bra- zilian pavilion was located between the courts of the Netherlands and Belgium, and was characterized throughout by elegant magnificence of structure and contents. At the entrance was a brilliant display of flowers and designs delicately woven from the ])lumage of Brazilian birds. Topographi<'al maps and photographs illustrated the physical aspect of the country; while the splendid display of tropical woods, together with the finest of coffees, yams, ginger, and rice, revealed the true riches of the empire. The minor South American States were also fairly represented. The pavilion of Peru was tastefully ornamented ; the contents, of value and interest. Gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, iron, and lead, were the principal minerals exhibited; coffee, pepper, cinnamon, co- coa, caoutchouc, and cinchona, the chief vegetable products. The court of Chili was of similar sort, and contained some fine specimens of silk and worsted-work; but the most interesting part was the case filled with the stuffed skins of Chilian wild animals. The exhibit of the Argentine Confederation was chiefly of ores — gold, silver, copper, and lead. The displav also embraced fine specimens of Iniilding- stone, quartz, and plumbago. The manufactures were, for the most part, of leather ; and handicraft was mainly illustrated in a collection of native weaj)ons. — Far Hawaii, also, had a pavilion of considerable interest, containing a collection of birds, shells, and sea-weed ; fans, ferns, and feather-work. Mexico, with her pseudo-Latin civilization and anarchic repub- licanism, had pitched her court next to that of the United States. Tlie pavilion was Aztec in its style, with hints of a more modern rfate. The exhibit was principally historic, consisting of antiquities and remains. The display of manufactures embraced some fine silks and elegant leather goods. Here were effigies of Mexican cavaliers, formidable as Quixote in armor. Here were native wines and me- dicinal plants, and here a fine collection of ores — silver, galena, and iron. But the exhibit in its entirety was neither striking nor ex- lensive. In the Carriage Annex the observer found much to instruct and amuse. For here were the ridiculous vehicles which the fathers made their journeys in — old Virginia or Concord coaches, heavy enough for a fortification. But here, in contrast, was the full triumph of modern art in the combination of the ornate and the useful. All things elegant and luxurious of silver-palace car or private carriage GRANr'S ADMINISTRATION. 607 studded with gold, and all things prosy of spokes and hubs and har- ness, were here displayed in i)rofusion. Here again Brazil, compet- ing with Pullman and Woodruif, presented a splendid coach from the Rio Janeiro Railway. Here Canadian sleighs and sledges were contrasted with the diminutive coaches of Italy and the substantial vehicles of Old England. — And so the rambler, passing under the western arches of the Main Building, found himself in the open air, facing the Bartholdi Fountain. The way across the beautiful esplanade led to Machinery Hall. INTERIOR VIEW OF MACHINERY HALL. Entering at the southeastern portal of that great edifice, the observer came at once into the department of the German Empire. Immedi- ately before him stood the famous Krupp guns, gigantic twelve hun- dred pounders, black and terrible as the Miltonic artillery. Several rifled cannon of smaller caliber were set in contrast; and just across the aisle was a pyramid of iron-ore, showing the material out of which tlie great guns were cast. On the opposite side of the battery was exhibited a brick-making machine from Berlin. Near the southeast- ern angle of the building, the Gas Motor Factory of Deutz displayed a peculiar engine in which the piston is propelled by the explosion of gas. The best steam-engines exhibited in the German section were ♦rom the works of Leipsic. 608 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The department of France embraced the northeastern division of the ground-floor. Near tiie entrance thereto was pUiced an elegant pavilion in which were illustrated the processes of working in brass and copper. The confectioners' section, where bon-bons were made and sold, came next, and then the department of Parisian soaps and cosmetics. In this jiart also stood the silk-looms of Lyons, and fur ther to the north a set of machines illustrating the processes of li- thography. An apparatus for the manufacture of beet-sugar was also exhibited, and an ice-nuiking machine from Paris. The rest of the French contrivances had respect, for the most part, to fashionable wants and the avocations of polite society. Further westward was placed tiie section of Belgium. Cliaudron of Brussels led the exhibit with an effective and tremendous machine for boring wells.* Car-wheels and axles from Louvain, a trip-ham- mer and steam shears from Marcinelle, and models of machinery for the manufacture of stearine, were the next attractive features of the display. A splendid exhibit of wool-carding apparatus was presented as the contribution of Verviers; and the city of Ghent added a superb horizontal engine, built for the mint at Brussels. The Northern nations had contributed little in the way of ma- chinery: Denmark nothing at all. Sweden made a small but respect- able display in the way of trip-hammers, stationary engines, one small locomotive, a fire-engine, and several sewing-machines. The con- tribution of Norway consisted of some odd-looking machinery for working in wood and metal. The Russian display was almost wholly of artillery — partly good, partly indifferent in its quality. In the same vicinity was the fine exhibit made by Brazil, consisting of models of dry docks and men-of-war; military and naval enginery; arms, ac- couterments, and munitions; stationary, locomotive, and fire-engines; pumps, pin-making apparatus, and machinery employed in the Impe- rial mint. The best of the exhibits made by foreign nations was that of Great Britain. Two of the Eochester traction-engines, standing near the eastern entrance to the hall, were much wondered at and praised. So, also, the fine carding-machine just opposite. Manchester made a fine display of steam hammers, circular saws, and enginery of coinage and stamping dies. The armor-plate exhibited here was tiie best ever produced, ranging from nine inches to twenty-two inches in thickness, ■•■ It is clear that, in respect to macliines for upland excavation, the Americans have much to learn. That whole line of contrivance, beginning with the plow and ending with the dredging-machine, is subject to great and radical improvements. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 609 seemingly impenetrable. The Applebys of London exhibited two of their tremendous cranes — giants after tlieir kind. English sewing- machines — mostly of the hand-power pattern — were plentifully dis- played. In the sections near by, the spinning and winding of cotton thread was illustrated, and further on, the delicate looms for weaving ■silken badges were in operation. Gadd of Manchester exhibited an engine capable of printing calicoes in eight colors at one impression. An effective system of railway switching and signaling was shown by Brierly and Reynolds of London. In an adjoining square stood a fine model of an Inman steamship, and east of this a Walter printing- press in operation. Farther on, Tait and Watson of London displayed a collection of machines, including a sugar-mill, a valveless engine, and centrifugal drying-pans. — Across the aisle was the exhibit of Can- ada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, — embracing turbine wheels, a set of railway signals, quartz-mills from Halifax, Toronto marbles, fire-engines, sewing-machines, and Indian canoes. Of the American department — three-fourths of the whole in ex- tent — the greatest trophy was the Corliss vertical engine, standing in the middle of the central aisle. The platform was fifty-six feet in diameter ; the stroke of the piston, ten feet ; the weight of the fly- wheel, a hundi-ed and twelve thousand jiounds. It required twenty tubular boilers of large capacity to furnish the pro]ier amount of steam. The periphery of the fly-wheel was geared with cogs into the underground line of shafting, and the powei- applied was equivalent to that of fourteen hundred horses; but the movements of the great engine were smooth and noiseless. From the central station, the observer, glancing down the south transept, had a full view of the Hydraulic Annex. Here pumps of every grade and fashion were pouring their torrents into a vast tank having a capacity of sixty-three thousand cubic feet of water. An interesting display of steel ware was made in a section near by, and further on, an exhibit of metal piano-frames by the Steinways. Here the process of making nails and tacks was illustrated, and there a machine was cutting corks. On this hand was an extensive collec- tion of files and screws, and on that a pyramid of grindstones. Far- ther on, to the west, was an exhibit of rolled iron, and next, a large display of axles and machinists' tools. A huge brick-making ma- chine, capable of moulding four thousand bricks in an hour, was fairly matched with a mammoth planing machine, Mcighing a hundred and sixty-two thousand pounds, and having a traverse of forty-four feet. In an adjacent section, paper envelopes were made by an automatic 610 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. a}iparatiis at the rate of a hmiclrefl and twenty per minute. "Worces- ter, Massachusetts, contributed a eoliection of edged tools, dies, and presses; and Paterson, New Jersey, a machine for spinning silk. On the central aisle model steamers, men-of-war, yachts, and life-boats were exhibited. Xext came the sections occupied with Hoe and Bul- lock printing-presses; then the book-binding, stereotyping, and elec- trotyping display, and then the splendid roller-drum book-press of Cottrell and Babcock, New York. A type- writer stood near by, and farther on was a section where all the steam- and sailing-vessels owneil in the ports of Massachusetts were exhibited by models. In the department of confections the American display rivaled that of France. Close to the bon-bon section were placed some fine wheat-cleaning and centrifugal sugar-drying apparatuses. Then came an old Virginia tobacco factory, where all the processes of making were exhibited. And the colored people, as they wrought, made the hall resound with the weird plantation melodies of the Southland. Farther east the manufacture of India-rubber shoes of all sorts and sizes was illustrated by the actual processes of the art. Then came the glass-blowers' exhibit, and then an excellent display of wall- paper by the Howells of Philadeljjhia. A collection of washing- and wringing-machines caught the attention for a moment, and then the observer found himself before the huge sugar-refining a|)paratus ex- hibited by the Colwell Iron Works of New York. The Wharton automatic switch was exhiliited near by, and then came a splendid display of common and platform sc^ales. INIining machinery was shown by the Dickinson Company of Scranton, and American loco- motives — unsurpassed by any in the world — by the Baldwin Works and the Pennsylvania Railway. In the adjacent section the AVesting- house air-brake and the Henderson hydraulic-brake were exhibited in sharp competition. The Backus water-motor here attracted much attention, as did also an odd hydraulic-ram near the western entrance. The department of American power-looms — rivaling those of the best European factories — was constantly thronged with visitors, and the section where Waltham watches were made was a similar scene of eager interest. The Pyramid Pin Company of New Haven exhibited a quaint little machine for sticking pins in papers. A powerful hy- draulic cotton-press was shown by the Taylor Iron Works of Charles- ton, and a magnificent collection of wire ropes and cables by the Roeblings of Trenton. The display of railway bars — iron and steel — was, for the most part, made by the works of Pittsburgh. Among the western sections GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. Gil of the hall some fine ditching and draining enginery was exhibited; and near by wa.s the display of American knitting-machines. Of sew- ing-machines the exhibit was unrivaled. The competition reminded the observer of that among the piano-fortes in the Main Building. Every form of patent, from the original Howe to the most recent in- novation, was duly praised by its group of advocates and admirers.i The American Steamship Company exhibited their vessels by models, and eastward from their section stood a handsome pavilion contain- ing an unlimited assortment of saws. The department of fire-engines and extinguishers was adjacent; and near by, the famous Weimar blowing-engine and an apparatus for charging blast-furnaces were displayed. Many relics of old machinery were exhibited in various parts of the liall. Chief of these antiquated contrivances was a section of the FIRST STEAM-ENGIXE evcr used in the United States, — an odd piece of mechanism of the Cornish pattern, which was brought to America in 1753 and set in operation in a copper-mine near Newark, New Jersey. The first saw-maker's anvil, imported in 1819, was exhibited near by. In another section were several pieces of excellent work- manship from the mechanical department of Cornell University. An automatic shingle-machine, having a working capacity of twenty-five thousand shingles per day, was an attractive object in an adjoining division; and in the same sjjace the work of dovetailing, moulding, carving, and paneling by machinery was illustrated. Then came the work of barrel-making, shown by the actual processes; then an ex- hibit of scroll-saws in operation; then blast-furnaces by models, steam drills, gas apparatus of every variety, and a machine for crushing an- thracite coal. — -Taken all in all, the exhibit of American machinery was the finest display of the kind ever made by man. On his way from the western entrance of Machinery Hall to the Government Building of the United States, the observer would hardly fail to pause and admire the Roman Catholic Total Abstinence Fount- ain, one of the most beautiful of the outdoor works of Fairmount Park. Thence a brief walk northward on Belmont Avenue brought him to the edifice erected by Congress for the exhibition of the functions of the American Government in times of peace, and its resources in war. The building itself has already been described. Without, to the east, stood a model monitor, having the same dimensions and appearance as the original. In the same vicinity a huge Rodman twenty-inch gun and others hardly less formidable were exhibited. On the south, also, many pieces of heavy artillery were displayed, together with shot. 612 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. shells, and projectiles of various kinds. Here, too, were the boats Faith and Advatice, usetl by De Haven and Kane in their Arctic voyages. Near by, two ))ostal cars, for the fast-mail service of the United States, were exhibited by the Post-office Department. On the north, the War Department made a disjday of ]>ontoons, bridge trains, and army wagons. Witiiin, the south division of the principal tran- sept was occupied with the Centennial Post-office. Here the mails were regularly received and distributed with systematic precision. The subordinate sections of this dejiartment were named respectively tlie divisions of Topography, of Books and Blanks, of Mail E(juipment, and of Stamps. In the last section a machine of unimaginable inge- nuity was displayed, having an automatic capacity to cut, fold, gum, stamp, count, and pack, the Government envelopes. Anotlier large display in the Government Building was made under the auspices of the Agricultural Bureau. The subordinate di- visions of this exhibit were of Statistics, Chemistry, Botany, Micros- copy, Entomology, and Horticulture. In the first named of these sections were large outline maps of the United States, showing the areas of forest- and farming-lands, the various products and capaci- ties of soils, the distribution of animals, etc. In the department of chemistry was a fine and well-arranged exhibit of the earths, together with illustrations of the processes of growth, fermentation, distilla- tion, and tlu^ like, as well as the methods of manufacturing veget-nljle products. In the botanical division the various woods of the United States were exhaustively exhibited. The collection was very exten- sive and valuable, emliracing sections of nearly every species of wood growing between Central America and Canada, and from Passama- quoddy to the Golden Gate. The microscopic section was oecujiied Avith a scries of charts and drawings illustrative of vegetable diseases. The entomological division was chiefly devoted to an exhibit of insect- eating birds and of what creatures soever prey upon the farmer's fruits and grains. In the horticultural section a display was made of those plants which have an economic and commercial value, such as coi-n. tobacco, cotton, and flax. The exhibit made by the Department of the Interior was com- posed chiefly of the well-known treasures of the Patent Office and the National Museum at Wasliington. In addition to these, special dis- plays were made by the Land and Indian offices, and by the Bureaus of Education and Pensions. Here, also, was cxliibited a complete set of the census reports from 17!tO to 1S70, inclusive. But surpassing all in interest and value was the magnificent exhibit made by the GBANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 613 Smithsonian Institution. This extraordinary disphiy embraced, first of all, a classified collection of the animals of America. These ani- mals were grouped according to the relation which they bear to man, as useful or injurious; and the exhibit included all those contrivances and implements which man employs in capturing them when wild, or subjecting and controlling them when domesticated. The collection illustrative of the fishery resources of the United States was equally complete and full of interest. In the department of American eth- nology an extensive exhibit was made of aboriginal im})lemcnts and contrivances peculiar to the primitive modes of life. The last branch INTKIUOK VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT Bl'IlJilNG. of the Smithsonian contribution was that illustrating the mineral re- sources of the United States — a collection of great extent and value. The first section under the auspices of the Treasury Department was devoted to the exhibition of the money, money-nuiking, and med- als of the national mint. The special display, made by the Light- house Board, of lanterns, reflectors, sea-signals, and electrical and calcium lights, fairly rivaled the great exhibit of similar ajiparatus made in the government building of France. The whole collection was of the highest order, and gave token that no branch of humani- tarian science is making more rapid strides than that which apjjcr- tains to the perfection of light-houses and the safety of mariners. Tlie Navy Department made an exhibit of torpedoes, and of the 614 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. methods of using them in naval warfare. The collection embraced all of tiic patterns of that terrible engine, from the original as invented by Fulton, to the more modern forms produced by Ericsson and Lay Another section was devoted to marine arms and armor, shot, shell,-,, munitions, uniforms, and what weaponry soever is peculiar to men of-war. The Naval Observatory exhibited — besides its own publica tions — a fine collection of photographs and chronometers. Here, too. were found most of the precious relics of the Arctic explorations, fron- the voyage of De Haven to that of Hall. The exhibit made by the War Department was still larger anr/ more complete. In this division was arranged the splendid display of the Signal Service under direction of General Albert J. Meyer, chief signal officer of the army. Here were exhibited all of the del- icate instruments and tentative apparatus peculiar to the half-formed science of meteorology ; and here the methods of observing and re ■ cording the multiform and many times capricious phenomena of earthy air, and sky, were fully illustrated. The Engineering Corps also con- tributed an interesting exhibit, chiefly composed of maps and draw- ings illustrative of the coast, lake, and river improvements of the United States during the past century. The section of the Ordnance Service was devoted to the display of fire-arm manufacture as the same is carried on at the Government Armory at Springfield, IVIassa- chusetts. The making of cartridges was also fully illustrated by the actual processes. Next came the exhibits made by the Post Hospital and the Laboratory — full of interest after their kind — and, last of all, the model light-house standing at the northeast angle of the building, without, and not far off the tremendous fog-horn called the Siren. In the extensive exhibits of Agricultural Hall — varied and full of interest, as they were — there was, of course, a less display of hu- man skill and a greater revelation of the beneficence of nature. For here the products exhibited were, for the most part, the offspring of llie ground — the fruits of air, water, and sunshine. In this vast hall, the agency of man extended but little further than the modification and utilization of the gratuitous riches of the world. The display, there- fore, was in a large measure limited to the collection and exhibition of things uncommon and prodigious. — A brief summary of the objcct.s of principal interest in the various departments of the hall may here suffice. The products of the United States occupied more space than did those of all other nations combined. And the general superiority of American exhibits over those of foreign lands was noticeable from the GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 615 first. la the northeastern division of the hall were placed the sec- tions of agricultural implements, plows being a specialty. The ex- hibit made by Speer and Sons of Pittsburgh, as well as that by Oliver Ames and Sons of North Eastoii, Massachusetts, was specially varied and excellent. In a section to the north were shown rakes and threshers of the most approved patents, and in the same collection a specimen of Foust's hay-lifting machine, which called forth many commendations. Near by stood the superb plows manufactured by the Oliver Chilled-Plow Company of South Bend, Indiana.* Far- ther on was another collection, by the Higganuni Plow Company of Connecticut; and then came a section of gang-plows, exhibited by Collins and Company of New York. In the department of reapers and mowers all the great makers were fully represented. The Sweepstakes, Harvester, McCormick, Champion, and Buckeye machines were s])ecially conspicuous in the exhibit. The Union Corn Planter, from the shops of Peoria, Illi- nois, attracted much attention, and the superb Westinghouse steam- thresher was greatly praised. An excellent reajier, called the Planet, was shown by the Wayne Agricultural Works of Richmond, Indiana. Slosser's self-loading excavator — a powerful ditch-digging machine — stood close by; and near the eastern entrance was exhibited one of the well-known Adams Power Cornshellers. Grain-drills next attracted attention, especially the display made by the Fariiers' Friend Company of Dayton, Ohio. In the south end of the central transept several excellent cider-mills were exhibited in operation — that of Boomer and Boschert leading the collection. Farm scales were shown by the Howe Manufacturing Company, and farm saw-mills by Harbert and Raymond of Philadelphia. In this vicin- ity two models of stables — one of wood, and the other of iron — were exhibited, and also some fine horse-powers from Racine, Wisconsin. The observer next found himself in other scenes, amid the Amer- ican wine-growers' exhibit, near the northern entrance. The Califor- nia display was first in excellence and extent. After the vintage of the Pacific Slope came the fine exhibits of Ohio, Missouri, and New York. South of the wine collection, at the bisection of the nave and transept, stood a large bronze fountain, throwing high its cooling waters ; and at the four angles round about was set the display of canned fruits and meats, hops, malts, and spices. Here, too, was a ''One plow exhibited by tliis firm was perhaps the finest ever made. Tlie metallic I)arts were plated with nickel, and the rosewood frame was splendidly embossed with agricultural emblems. G16 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. spleii'lid exhil)it of starches, chief of which was the fine perfumed starch manufactured by Erkenbrecher of Cincinnati. Here, more- over, the appetite of whatsoever creatures live by bread was provoked by the bountiful disphiy of that article. Close by, in the middle of the avenue, stood a huge windmill, purposely old-fashioned, thirty teet in height, dated 177G. Next came the zoological exhibit, com- j)osod of stuffed animals and birds, but more especially of a magnifi- cent museum of plaster casts prepared by Professor Henry A. AVard of IJoihcster Universitv. Alona; the western wall of the buildinsr all INTEKI K \ U \ ^ \ varieties of edible fishes, out of the fresh and salt waters of the United States, were exhibited alive in a series of aquaria. The northwestern courts of the building were occupied with the tobacconists' pavilions. The display was very extensive, embracing every variety and caprice of manufacture. North of the tobacco sec- tion the Delta Moss Company of New Orleans exhil)ited a tree bear- ing a rich array of Southern moss; and the prepared product was shown in bales near by. A huge evaporator for drying fruits, and a massive road-roller driven by steam, next caught the attention ; and then came the sections set apart for the general display of the woods, grains, vegetables, and fruits of the various States — perhaps the larg- est and most imposing collection of such articles ever brought to- gether. In the court of New Hampshire were exhibited, along with GRANT'S ADMINISTRA TION. 61 7 other wonders, two enormous swine, stuffed, stupid, and prodigious as nature and taxidermy could make them. Farther on was the fish and fishery exhibit of Massachusetts, and farther still, the silk-worm display of California. South of the central transept the rich soils of Iowa were exhibited in large glass cylinders ; and beyond was placed a fine collection of the minerals of Nevada. — Such were the objects of chief interest in the departments allotted to the United States. The exhibit of Great Britain occupied the southeast division of the hall. First of all, the display of condiments was equal to the expectancy of the most accomplished epicure. Equally commendable ■were the exhibits of preserved meats, patent coffees and teas, prepara- tions of milk, sugar, and the like, presented by the Colonial Produce Company of London. An adjoining section contained a full assort- ment of the fiimous English ales ; and farther south was placed the def»artment of British agricultural machinery, embracing some fine road-wagons, portable engines, and the smaller implements peculiar to field, orchard, and garden. Last of all came a display of mill- stones, tiles, and ornaments in terra cotta. The Canadian section, in the southwest quarter of the hall, was well filled with interesting products. And the exhibit was specially well arranged. The front line of cases was occupied with an exten- sive display of root vegetables, pulse, and cereals. In the next line, secondary products, such as wool, feathers, and pelts, were shown ; and in the third tier of cases, prepared animal and vegetable mate- rials — cured fish, flour, salt, pickles, and cheese — were displayed. Of agricultural implements the list was varied and extensive. Plows, rivaling the best of the American collection, were exhibited by Spar- die of Stratford, Ontario, and by Ross of Chatham. Fine threshing- machines, adjustable platform reapers, and turnip-drills of superior pattern, were the other objects of chief interest in the collection. — British Columbia, also, made a creditable display of her products, consisting chiefly of wheat and oats, woods, barks, and woolen goods of Indian manufacture. France displayed her vintage. The exhibit was complete, em- bracing the whole list of vinous liquors from claret to brandy. In the same section were shown the unrivaled chocolates manufactured by Menier and Company of Paris. Vilmorin and Andrieux of the same city exhibited the products of their famous flower-gardens; and Strasbourg displayed her preserved fruits, sardines, and condiments. The process of manufacturing mineral waters was illustrated by Ga- zaubon of Paris, and near by was shown the method of bottling wine. 618 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Millstones, crucibles, cements, and artificial stone, were displayed in another department; and last of all, the fine cocoons and raw silks for which Southern P^rance is so justly celebrated. Along the south wall of the building was arranged tiie exhibit of the German Empire. Here, again, the display of wines was pre- eminent. The vintage of the Rhine elicited most praise. Nor did Gambrinus the king look down displeased from the florid labels of the Bavarian and Prussian beer-mugs. The exhibit of smoking- and chewing-tobacco was next in extent and importance; after that, the display of confections. Then came a palm-tree with the mowing scythes of Wurtemberg for its branches ; then specimens of curled hair out of the shops of Frankfoi't, and then some beautiful tufts of wool from the sheepcotes of Silesia. The products of Austria and Hungary were displayed together. The cereals of the difierent parts of the empire were well exhibited. Vienna sent a fine collection of canned fruits, Pesth her boxes of nuts, and Prague her offering of wine and raisins. Flax, and wool, and liemp, were the staples of the Hungarian section, and leather of the exhibit of Bohemia. On the south side of the central transept lay the court of Russia. And the display was unexpectedly complete and well arranged. The strictly agricultural element predominated throughout the whole ex- hibit, only a small space being devoted to wines and liquors. Wheat, oats, rye, and barley — all of the finest quality — constituted the major part of the display, and gave token of abundant wealth in the al- most sunless fields of the Muscovite. The fiber-produjing plants, of many' and superior kinds, were shown ; and excellent candied fruits and confections — the contribution of Poland — compjj'.ed one of the most interesting divisions of the hall. Among the best of the exhibits made by the Southern nations, was that of Spain, located on tlie south side of the central transept, adjoining the Russian court. Here, again, the true agricultural idea was maintained, and the wine and liquor exhibit given a secondary rank. The dis])lay of Spanish cereals, fruits, pulse, and nuts, was set in glass-encased panels, around the sides of the court, presenting a fair summary of the field and garden products of the kingdom. The exhibit of wools was among the finest of the Exposition, and the col- lection of wines admirable after its kind. Specimens of the gum- and resin-bearing trees of the Philipj)ine Islands were exhibited in an adjoining section ; and near by, Havana displayed her cigars and chocolates. The space allotted to Portugal was well filled with her GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 619 products, the exhibit being similar to that of Spain, and equally meritorious. The Italian court occupied the southeast division of the hall. The collection embraced specimens of all those products for which the peninsula has been immemorially famous. Here were grains, and fruits, and nuts ; olive-oil and raisins ; oranges, figs, and lemons ; citrons, pomegranates, and liquorice ; and wine — such as the Latin wits and poets quaifed when Britain belonged to the Druids. The court of the Netherlands joined that of Austria on the south. The Dutch display was arranged with much skill and tastefulness ; and neither Gambrinus nor the grape was the be-all and the end-all of the exhibit. But the collection was as intensely national as those of Germany. The products were mostly shown under the auspices of the Giilderland and Zealand agricultural societies. The various sections presented a full array of grains, plants, and pulse, as well as the more valuable woods, especially those used in the manufacture of dyes. Fine specimens of the famous Holland cheese and flour were shown, and in the sections to the west an assortment of choc- olates and cod-liver oil. The Dutch fishing interests were also well illustrated with tackles, seines, and boats. The beet-sugar makers of Arnhem made a fine display of their product, as did also the manu- facturers of those peculiar pungent beers, gins, and heavy liquors, which are so popular in Holland. In the court of Norway the section of greatest interest was that containing the exhibit of her fisheries. The collection of fishing ves- sels and apparatus was extensive and complete. Cured specimens of nearly all the fishes known in the Norwegian marts were included in the display. The space devoted to agricultural implements contained some rude but characteristic machines and tools from the fields and shops of the North. But the display of leather was excellent, and that of the waterfowl of Norway especially interesting. — Similar in sort were the exhibits made by Sweden and Denmark. In the Japanese court the principal product displayed was tea — a large and varied collection. Here, again, the fishing interest was well represented, nets and tackle being a specialty! Then came illus- trations of the silk culture, by the actual processes, from the worm to the web. The woods of Japan were displayed to good advantage as were also the grains and vegetables of the empire. — No exliibit of their agricultural resources was made by the other nations of the East. Among the South American States, Brazil here — as elsewhere — was preeminent. Before the Brazilian court stood a much admired 620 HISTORl^ OF THE UNITED STATES. rustic pavilion so flecked on post and rafter with tufts of fleecy cotton as to look like the greatcoat of St. Nicholas. Within was the coffee exhibit — a full and complete display of the leading industry of the empire. Leaf-tobacco was also shown, and near by was an unsur- passed collection of the tropical woods for which Brazil is famous. In a section farther on were exhibited fine Brazilian sugars, rivaling those of Cuba and the United States. Last of all came the display of the silk interest of Brazil, beginning with the mild-mannered worm peculiar to that country, and ending with the finished fabric. — Vene- zuela and the Argentine Republic also made small but interesting ex- hibits of their resources, ranging from feathers, waxes, and native gums to leather-work, silk, and liquors. Here, too, Liberia made a display of her resources and industries. Entering the Mauresque doorways of the Horticultural Building, the rambler stopped to admire the Foley Fountain in the center of the hall. Around him was the luxuriance of the tropics. Fragrance bathed the air, and silence sat like a plumed but songless bird on all the motionless leaves of this green world of wonders. Here was the great central conservatory, filled with the choicest plants and richest flowers culled out of every clime where sunshine and air are woven into leaf and petal. Here were the date-tree and the palm, fern, and cactus, lemon shrub and banana — a wilderness of blossoms and fruits, cool and silent as the bowers visited in dreams. Along the sides of the main conservatory were the green-houses for the propagation of plants. The floors were sunk ten feet below the level of the main hall, and the aisle in each was a hundred feet in length. Passing up and down these avenues, the observer found on either side an indescribable array of whatever the hand of nature has done of quaint or beautiful in moss, or fern, or flower. No ex- tended account will here be attempted of the variety and beauty of this, the kingdom of the plants. — The collections of Horticultural Hall were the floral ofl'ering of the United States — a wreath for the altar of Inde- jtendence. But the leaves of the garland were gathered from all climes. No structure of Fairmount Park was more characteristic of the epoch than the Woman's Pavilion. The building and its contents illustrated one of the grandest tendencies of American civilization — the complete emancipation of woman. In ancient times her chains were forged; the Middle Age re-riveted them upon her; the Modern Era — even the Reformatian — has mocked her with the semblance and the xhow of liberty. America sets her free and lifts her to the seat of Jionor. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 621 The collections of the Pavilion were rich and varied. The southeast division was set apart for the display of woman's inven- tions. The contrivances were mostly of such sort as appertain to, domestic economy and the improvement of home. Now and then, however, some capricious apparatus of fashion, invented in the realm of whim, attracted the gaze of the curious. Photographs of such benevolent institutions as are under the conduct of women formed an interesting exhibit, as did also the worsted and silk embroideries whicii were displayed in an adjoining court. The art collection em- braced some creditable — even excellent — specimens of drawing, a fair IMLIUI MEH (F HOKTICILTLP4L H\LL display of paintings, and several commendable pieces of statuary. In the center of the hall was an elegant printing office, where The New Century for Women was published and distributed during the Exposition. Tiie southwestern quarter was occupied by foreign exhibitors. Here, too, the display of woman's work was varied and of a high or- der of merit. The royal ladies of tlie Old World had contributed much to the excellence and interest of the exhibit. Queen Victoria's School of Art and Needlework made some splendid oiferings of em- broidery. Many contributions of similar sort were presented by the women of France, Sweden, and Canada. Egypt had its section of artistic designs in gold and silver thread-work; even the queen of Tunis had heard of Independence and sent some superb gold-em- broidered velvets as a token of her good will. The Jajianese exhibit 622 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. was composed for the most part of silken screens, writing desks, and cabinets, delicately ornamented after the style of the country. The Brazilian women, also, had honored the pavilion with some beautiful specimens of gold lace, shell work, and silk and worsted embroideries. But it was among the art treasures of Memorial Hall that the stranger in Fairmount Park tarried longest: and then came again and again. For the variety was wellnigh infinite — the pageant ever new. Here were the bright ideals which flit for a moment across the vision of genius, and in that moment are made immortal. Here was a scene where the human imagination had transfused itself into the radiant imagery of the canvas and the imperishable forms of marble. Here, for a season, the scales fell from the sordid eyes of Utility, and the gaze was lifted up in the serener air of the True and the Beautiful. In the arrangement of the exhibits in the Art Gallery, Italy was given the preference. The main hall, before the southern entrance, was set apart for her treasures. Here the best of the Italian sculj)- tors were represented by their works. Caroni of Florence exhibited his Africaine and several other fine pieces of statuary. The Boy Franklin from the studio of Zocchi and Washington and his Hatchet from that of Eomanotti attested how much American legends are loved in Italy; and a colossal bust by Gaurnerio of Milan showed the heroic estimate placed upon the Father of his Country in that land. The humorous in art was well represented in The Forced Prayer by the same noted artist. The Milanese sculptor, Baroaglio, was repre- sented by several fine pieces, chief of which was a colossal statue called Flying Time. Hardly less attractive were the Berenice by Peduzzi, and Sunshine and Storm by Popatti. The Florentine TorcUi presented Eva St. Clair as a specimen of his work; and Ropi of Milan contributed a bust of Garibaldi. The Night of October 11th was the name of a piece by P'Amore, illustrating the discovery of Guanahani; while a number of child-statues were shown as the work of the Milanese sculptor Peroda. A Miltonic Lucifer from the studio of Corti was a work of the highest order of merit, as was also the beautiful Madonna by Romanelli. A Psyche by Pagani attracted much attention; and a Bacchus by Braga was greatly praised. Of Italian paintings — mostly copies from the famous productions of the old masters — the collection was large and attractive. One of the finest of the exhibit was Galileo before the Inquisitio7i, after Ra- phael. The original pictures, mostly of the Renaissance, were of va- rious degrees of merit, the Columbus in Chains by Fumigalli deserving GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 623 special praise. — Nor must mention be omitted of the famous Cas- tellani Museum of Antiquities, which was exhibited in the northeast- ern quarter of the hail — a display unsurpassed in interest by any other of the whole Exposition. The exhil)it embraced one of the rarest, most valuable, and best classified collections of ancient and mediseval gems, classic busts, and personal ornaments, now in existence. The museum was under the care of Professor Castellani himself, and the section was the especial haunt of scholars and antiquaries. The American exhibit in Memorial Hall was divided between the ROTUNDA OF MEMORIAL HALL. main edifice and the annex. The collection was very extensive, em- bracing several thousand works in painting and statuary. The chief display of paintings was made in the great north corridor of the main hall. Here were exhibited a vast number of pieces, ranging from second-class and mediocrity to the highest productions of genius. The eastern end of the corridor was wholly occupied Avith Rothermel's immense painting of The Battle of Gettysburg. Page's Farragut in Mobile Bay was also exhibited as a historic sketch ; and as an alle- gorical work, Thorpe's Westward the Star of Empire takes its Way was shown. Here, also, were exhibited six of Bierstadt's famous land- scapes — splendid scenes from the Pacific coast. Then came a num- 624 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. beriess array of portraits, landscapes, sketches, and ideal works, bv well-known American artists and new aspirants for fame, amonf whose productions, though furnishing abundant room for comment and criticism, it M-oukl be invidious, within this narrow limit, to dis- criminate. Of American statuary, also, a large exhibit was made — chiefly in the central hall. Under the dome was set a fine group in terra cotta, being the allegory of America from the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park, London. Not fl^r off stood Connelly's Thdis with the Infant Achilles, much and justly admired. Story's Medea gave proof of that artist's genius ; and Margaret Foley's Cleopatra was a work of great beauty. Several busts of Americans by Americans, attested the skill of the artists, especially that of Charles Sumner by Preston Powers. In the northwest corridor was exhibited The Dying Cleopatra — a work of remarkable beauty and power — by Edmonia Lewis, the colored sculptress. Too much praise could hardly be bestowed upon the British col- lection of paintings. It was generally conceded that the exhibit, both in the merit of the works themselves and in the admirable grouping which had been effected by the managers, was the best of the Ex- position. If any doubt existed as to whether the first artists had contributed their choicest works to the American collection, no such doubt existed in respect to the genius of England. For here was The Buttle of Nasehy by Sir John Gilbert ; a Sumuier Moon by Fred- erick Lcighton ; The Railway Station by Powell ; Armitage's Julian the Apostate; Sir Edwin Landseer's Lions and Marriage of Griselda; Maclise's Banquet Scene in Macbeth; Sir Thomas Lawrence's Three Partners of the House of Baring ; William Powell Frith's Marriage of the Prince of Wales; "West's Death of Wolfe; and a vast number of landscapes, sketches, portraits, drawings, water-colors, pencilings and crayon-work — making a collection so complete and meritorious as to awaken the pride of every Briton. The art department of France was hardly representative of the genius of that country. Still, the collection embraced many pieces deserving of high jiraise. Among the best was Rizpah protecting the Bodies of her Sons, by George Becker ; The Conspiracy of the Medici, by Louis Adan ; and The Death of Caesar, liy Clement. Hillcmacher's Napoleoyi I. villi Goethe and Wicland, and Viger's Josephine in 1814, were notable pieces of portraiture. Leda and the Swan, by Jules Saintin, and The First Step in Crime, by Pierre Antigua, received GBANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 625 many commendation.s, and Duran's exquisite portrait of Mademoi- selle Croixette of the Theatre Fran9ais was universally praised. In the German collection the most striking picture was Steffeck's Croten Prince in the Front of Battle. Louis Braun and Count Harras each contributed a Surrender of Sedan — striking sketches of that his- toric event. The Arrest of Luther, likewise by Harras, was a picture r.f great merit, as was also Elizabeth signing the Death Warrant of Mary Stuart, by Julius Schrader. In the way of humorous pictures, After the Qiurch Festival was exhibited by Ferdinand Meyer, and the Village Gossij^s by Meyer of Bremen. Nor should mention be omitted of The Flight of Frederick V. from Prague, by Faber du Tour — one of the best historic pieces in Memorial Hall. Another work of the same sort, and almost equally meritorious, was Briicke's Discovery of America. Last of all — exhibited in a separate corridor — was Wag- ner's great painting, A Scene in the Circus Maximus at Pome. In the way of portraits, that of Pauline Lucca by Begas, and of George Ban- croft by Gustave Richter, were worthy of special praise. In the eastern gallery was placed the collection of Austria. Here was John Makart's magnificent picture, entitled Venice Paying Hom- age to Catharine Comoro — a historic study of great interest. As speci- mens of figure-painting Ernest Ldfitte contributed a Girl of Upper Austria, and Aloysius Schoun a Siesta of an Oriental Woman. Of similar sort were the two fine pictures, A Page and ^l Girl vjith Fruit, by Canon of Vienna — works in imitation of Rembrandt. Friedlan- der was represented in the collection by Tasting the Wine, and Miiller by an English Garden at Palermo. — Several fine pieces of statuary were shown as a part of the Austrian exhibit. The principal of these were the busts of Francis Joseph, Maximilian I., and Charles V. To this collection also belonged Tlie Freedman, by Pezzicar — a bronze statue emblematical of the emancipation of the slaves by Lincoln. In the Spanish department The Landing of Columbus was the sub- ject of two paintings — the first by Gisbert, and the second by Puebla. Here also was shown a Christ on the Cross by Murillo. Columbus before the Monks of La Pabida was the title of a large and striking work by Gano. But the painting most esteemed in the Sj)anish ex- hibit was a superb production called Tlie Burial of St. Ljorenzo, by Alejo Vera of Rome. — The Portuguese painters and sculptors were not represented in the collections of the hall. The Northern nations — Sweden, Norway, Denmark — made a creditable showing of their art. The Swedish collection was ar- 4U 626 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ranged along the eastern wall of the western gallery, and was com- posed of several fine and some commonjjlace productions. One of the best was Hie Burniny of the lioyal Palace at Stockholm — a paint- ing by Hockert. Then came The Winter Day, The First Snow, and TJie Poor Pcoplc^s Burying Ground, by Baron Hermelin, the Swedish art commissioner at the Exposition. A fine work called Bark Mo- ments was exhibited by Baron Cederstrom, and Sigurd Ring l)y Se- verin Nilsson. Several otlier legends of the Vikings were represented in the works of Winge, exhibited near by; while a Market Day in Di'isseldorf illustrated the genius of August Jernberg. — The Norwe- gian collection was made up of two fine pieces by Professor Gude ; one excellent picture entitled A Scene in Romsdalsfiord, by Norman ; The Hardengerfiord , from the studio of Thurman ; and several pro- ductions of less conspicuous merit. — The Danish group embraced The Discovery of Greenland in A. D. 1000, by Rasmussen ; Two Greenland Pilots, by the same artist; and A Midsummer Night under Iceland's Rough Weather, by Wilhclm Melby. The Belgian pictures constituted a notable collection. Here, first of all, was Autumn on the Meuse, by Asselberg — a work of great ex- cellence; as was, also, Rome from the Tiber, by Bossuet. De KeyserV Dante and the Young Girls of Florence attracted much admiration Then came The Sentinel at the Gate of the Harem, by St. Cyr; Sundax^ at the Concent, by Mcerts ; Xavier jMellery's Woman of the Romau Campagna ; Mols's Dome of the Inralideji ; Smits's War; Stallaert's Cave of Diomede; and After the Rain, by Van Luppen. The Desde- mona of Van Kiersbilck, and The Deception by Jean Portaels, were works deserviug the highest praise. Next in interest was the art exhibit of the Netherlands. Nor did the collection in its entirety suifer by comparison with the best at the Exposition. Here again the observer was constantly reminded of the nationality — botii of the artist and his work. Everv thing was distinctly marked with the characteristics of Lowland life, method, and manners. First in the display were four large pieces by Altmann of Amsterdam — all excellent paintings — entitled respectively The Banquet of the Civic Guards, The Five Masters of the Drapers, The Masters of the Harlem Guild, and The Young Bidl — a copy from Paul Potter. Then came Roster's View on the Yo, Rust's Amsterdam in the Sixteenth Century, and A Landscape on the Mediterranean Coast by Hilverdink. The other principal pieces of the collection were Four Weeks after St. John's Day by Huybers, Bosboom's Church of Trier, and Mesdag's Evening on the Beach. Besides these, many minor GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 627 paintings in the exhibit testified of the genius of the Lowland artists. In the eastern galleries of the annex were placed a few meritor- ious pictui'es by the painters of Brazil and Mexico. But the collec- tions were comparatively unimportant. Among the Brazilian produc- tions the best were The Defense of Cabrito and The Battle of Humaita — both scenes from the recent war with Paraguay. In the Mexican gallery the most interesting pieces were The Valley of Ilexico by Val- esquez, and portraits of Bartholomew de las Casas and Donna Isabella of Portugal. — Such is a brief survey of the art treasures of Memorial Hall. During the months of early summer, every day brought its throng to Fairmount Park. The enthusiasm of the people rose with the occasion. The fame of the great Exposition spread through all the land. Success had crowned the enterprise. As the Anniversary of Independence drew near preparations were made for an elaborate celebration at Philadelphia. The day came. Countless multitudes thronged the streets.* The city was alive with flags and banners. Battery answered battery with thunderous congratulation. The scene was set in Independence Square, in the rear of the old Hall, on the very spot where liberty was proclaimed a century ago. Platforms were erected and awnings spread above them, where four thousand in- vited guests could be seated to witness the ceremonies. The jieople crowded into the open space to the south until the whole square was a sea of upturned faces. Senator Ferry of Michigan, acting Vice- President of the United States, was the presiding officer. General Ilawley and other members of the Centennial Commission acted as his assistants. Dom Pedro II. and Prince Oscar of Sweden sat near by, and distinguished citizens of many nations were present. At ten o'clock the exercises were formally opened. Centennial hymns were sung, and the national airs were played by the finest bands of the country. Richard Henry Lee, grandson of him who oifered the fa- mous Resolution of Independence, then read the Declaration from the original manuscript. Other music followed ; and then came the read- ing of The National Ode by Bayard Taylor. Last of all came The Centennial Oration by William M. Evarts of New York. The throng receded, and the ceremonies were at an end. But the pageant was re- vived at night with a display of fireworks and a brilliant illumination of the city. *It was estimated that on the night of the 3d of July there were fully two hun- dred and fifty thousand strangers in Philadelphia. 628 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The daily attendance at the Exhibition grounds during the sum- mer varied from five thousand to two hundred and seventy-five thou- sand. And the interest in the Centennial was intensified near its close. The whole number of visitors attending the Exposition, as shown by the registry of the gates, was nine million seven hundred and eighty-six thousand one hundred and fifty-one. The daily average attendance was sixty-one thousand nine hundred and thirty-eight. The grounds were open for one hundred and fifty-eight days, and the total receipts for admission were three million seven hundred and sixty-one thousand five hundred and ninety-eight dollars. On the 10th of November — in accordance with the purpose of the Centennial Commissioners — the International Exhibition of 1876 was formally closed. At two o'clock in the afternoon the President of the United States attended by General Hawley, Director-General Goshorn — ujion whom for his successful management of the Exposi- tion too great praise can hardly be bestowed — other members of the Commission, and distinguished foreigners — ascended the platform, and the ceremonies began. Theodore Thomas's magnificent orchestra again furnished music worthy of the occasion. A hundred thousand people were present to witness the closing exercises. Brief addresses were delivered by the Honorable Daniel J. Morrell of Pennsylvania and the Honorable John Welch, president of the Board of Einance. The history of the Exposition and of its management was then re- counted in appropriate orations by Major Goshorn and General Haw- ley. The hymn Amerka was sung by the audience, led by the or- chestra ; and then President Grant arose and said: — "I DECLARE THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION CLOSED." . The valves of the great Corliss engine were shut, and the work was done. In its general character and results the Exposition had (lutranked all of its ]iredecessors, and had left an impress upon the minds of the American people likely to endure for a generation and then become a patriotic tradition with posterity.* *■ Since the close of the Exhibition steps have been taken to secure as far as practi- cable the permanmc;/ of tlie Centennial ilisplav. Machinery Hall has been purchased by the Common Council of Philadelphia, and is to stand intact. The Main Building; also, has been sold by auction, and the purchasers have decided that it shall remain as a permanent Exposition hall. The 'Woman's Executive Committee have voted that their Pavilion shall also stand in its present state. The authorities of Great Britain, Ger- many, and France have given their respective Government Buildings to the city of Philadelphia as permanent ornaments of the grounds and as tokens of international good will ; and it seems not unlikely that the principal features of the delightful park, where so many thousand people have spent the holiday hours of the Centennial sum. mer, will be preserved as they were during the Exposition. 2 a GJiAXT'S ADMIXISTRATION. 620 During the last year of President Grant's administration the country was disturbed by A war with the Sioux Indians. Tiiese fierce savages had, in 1867, made a treaty witli the United States agreeing to relinquisli all the territory south of the Niobrara, west of the one hundred and fourth meridian, and north of the forty-sixth parallel of latitude. By this treaty the Sioux were confined to a large reservation in southwestern Dakota, and upon this reservation they agreed to retire by the 1st of January, 1876. Meanwhile, how- ever, gold was discovered among the Black Hills — a region the greater part of which belonged, by tiie terms of the treaty, to the Sioux reservation. But no treaty t'ould keep the hungry horde of gold-diggers and adventurers from overrunning the interdicted dis- trict. This gave the Sioux a good excuse for gratifying their native ^"^^^"^ °'' ™^ '^■o^'-'^ '^''^^< !■'*'''• disposition by breaking over the limits of the reservation and roam- ing at large through Wyoming and Montana, burning houses, steal- ing horses, and murdering whoever opposed them. The Government now undertook to drive the Sioux U])()n their reservation. A large force of regulars, under Generals Tony and Crook, was sent into the mountainous country of tlie Upper Yellow- stone, and the savages to the number of several thousand, led liy their noted chieftain Sitting Bull, were crowded back against the Big Horn Mountains and River. Generals Custer and Reno, who were sent forward with the Seventh Cavalry to discover the whereabouts of the Indians, found them encamped in a large village extending for nearly three miles along the left bank of the Little Horn. On the ioth of June, General Custer, without waiting for reinforcements, charged headlong with his division into the Indian town, and Avas immediately surrounded by thousands of yelling warriors. Of the details of the struggle that ensued very little is known. For General Custer and every man of his command fell in the fight. The conflict equaled, if it did not surpass, in desperation and disaster any other Indian battle ever fought in America. The whole loss of the Sev- enth Cavalry was two hundred and sixty-one killed, and fifty-two wounded. General Reno, who had been engaged with the savages 630 EISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. at the lower end of the town, held his position on the bluffs of the Little Horn until General Gibbon arrived with reinforcements and saved tiie remnant from destruction. Otlier divisions of the army were soon hurried to the scene of hostilities. During the summer and autumn the Indians were beaten in several engagements, and negotiations were opened looking to the removal of the Sioux to the Indian Territory. But still a few des- perate bands held out against the authority of the Government; be- sides, the civilized Nations of the Territory objected to having the fierce savages of the Xorth for their neighbors. On the '24th of No- vember, the Sioux M'cre decisively defeated by tlie Fourth Cavalry, inider Colonel !McKenzie, at a pass in the Big Horn Mountains. The Indians lost severely, and their village, containing a hundred and eeventy-three lodges, was entirely destroyed. The army now went into winter-quarters at various points in the hostile country; but active operations were still carried on by forays and expeditions during December and January. On tlie uth of the latter month, the sav- ages were again overtaken and completely routed by the division of Colonel ISIiles. Soon after this defeat, the remaining bands, under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, being able to offer no further serious resistance, escaped across the border and became subject to the authorities of Canada, Here they remained until tlie following autumn, when the Govern- ment opened negotiations witii them for their return to their reserva- tion in Dakota. A commission, headed by General Terry, met Sitting Bull and his warriors at Fort Walsh, on the Canadian frontier. Here a conference was held on the 8th of October. Fidl pardon for past offenses was offered to the Sioux on condition of their peaceable re- turn and future good behavior. But the irreconcilable Sitting Bull and his savage chiefs rejected the proposal with scorn; the conference was broken off, and the Sioux were left at large in the British domin- ions north of ISIilk River.* The excitement occasioned by the outbreak of tlie war with the Sioux, and even the interest felt in the Centennial eelelnation, Avas soon overshadowed l)y the agitation of the ))ublic mind, attendant ujion tlie tweiitv-third Presidential election. Before the close of .June tlie national conveutions were held and standanl-bearers selected by the two leading p ilitieal parties. General Hutherfu-d B. Hayes of Ohio and William ■•» The result of the Fort Walsh CdntVivnce w.is by no means (listasli.'lul tu the fiovern- miMt. Bv formally refusing to return to their reservation, the Indians virtually re- noiineeal cities grew clamorous for a speedy and peaceable adjustment of the difficulty. The spirit of compromise gained ground; and after much debating in Congress it was agreed that all the disputed election returns should be referred to A Joint High Commission, consisting of five members to be chosen from the United States Senate, five from the House of liepresentatives, and five from the Supreme Court. The judgment of this tribunal should be final in all matters referred thereto for de- cision. The Commission was accordingly constituted. The counting was begun as usual in the presence of the Senate and the House of Representatives. When the disputed and duplicate returns were reached they were referred, State by State, to the Joint High Commis- sion , and on the 2d of March, only Iwo days before the time for the in- augurntion, a final decision was rendered. The Republican candidates were declared elected. One hundred and eighty-five electoral votes were cast for Hayes and Wheeler, and one hundred and eighty-four foi Tilden and Hendricks. The greatest political ci'isis in the history of the country passed harmlessly by without violence or bloodshed. HA YES' S AD MINIS TEA TION. 6aa CHAPTER LXIX. HA YES S ADMINISTRATION, 1877-lSSl. RUTHEEFORD B. HAYES, nineteenth President of the United States, was born in Delaware, Ohio, on the 4tii day of October, 1822. His ancestors were soldiers of the Revolution. His primary education was received in tlie public schools. Afterwards, his studies were extended to Greek and Latin at the Nor w a 1 k Academy; and in 1837 he became a stu- dent at Webb's p r e p a r a t o r y school, at Mid- dletown, Con- necticut. In the following year, he en- t e r e d the Fresh m a n class at Ken- yon College, and in 1842 was graduated from that in- stitution with the highest honors of his class. Three years after his graduation, he completed his legal studies at Harvard University, and soon afterward began the practice of his profession, first at Marietta, then at Fremont and finally as city solicitor, in Cincinnati. Here he won distinguished reputation as a lawyer. During the Civil War he performed much honorable service in the Union cause, rose to the rank of major- PRESIDENT HAYES. 834 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. general, and in 1864, while still in the field, was elected to Congress. Three years later he was chosen governor of his native State, and was reelected in 1869, and again in 1875. At the Cincinnati conven- tion of 1876, he had the good fortune to be nominated for the presi- dency over several of the most eminent men of the nation. In his inaugural address, delivered on the 5th of March,* President Haves indicated the policy of his administration. The patriotic and conciliatory utterances of the address did much to quiet the bitter spirit of partisanship which for many months had disturbed the country. The distracted South was assured of right purposes on the part of the new chief-magistrate ; a radical reform in the civil service was avowed as a part of his policy ; and a speedy return to specie payments was recommended as the final cure for the deranged finances of the nation. The immediate effect of these assurances — so evidently made in all good taith and honesty — was to rally around the incipient administration the better part of all the parties and to introduce a new "Era of Good Feeling" as peaceable and beneficent in its character as the former turbuhMice had been exciting and dangerous. On the 8th of March, the President named the members of his cabinet. Here, again, he marked out a new departure in the policy of the government. For the cabinet, though exceptionably able and statesmanlike, was noticeably non-partisan in its character. As secre- tary of state AYilliam M. Evai'ts, of New York, was chosen; John Sherman, of Ohio, was named as secretary of the treasury; George W. McCrary, of Iowa, secretary of war; Richard W. Thompson, of Indiana, secretary of the navy; Carl Scliurz, of Missouri, secretary of the interior; Charles E. Devens, of Massachusetts, attorney-general; and David M. Key, of Tennessee, postmaster-general. These nomina- tions were duly ratified by the Senate ; and the new administration and the new century of the republic were ushered in together. In the summer of 1877 occurred the great labor disturbance known as THE Eaileoat* Strike. For several years the mining districts of the country had been vexed with disputes and outbreaks iiaving their origin in the question of wages. The manufiicturing towns and cities had witnessed similar troubles, and the great cor- porations having control of the lines of travel and commerce were frequently brought to a stand-still by the determined opposition of their employes. The workingmen and the capitalists of the country » The 4(A of March fell on Sunday. The same thing has happened in the following years: 1753, 1781, 1821 (Monroe's inauguration, second term), 1849 (Taylor's inaug- uration), 1877 (Hayes's inauguration); and the same will hereafter occur as follows: 191" i9a:>. 1073, 2001, 2029, 2057, 2085. 2125, 2153. HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. G35 had for some time maintained towards each other a kind of armed neutrality alike hurtful to the interests of both. In the spring of this year, the managers of the great railways leading from the seaboard to the West declared a reduction of ten per cent in the wages of their workmen. This measure, which was to take effect at the middle of July, was violently resisted by the employes of the companies, and the most active steps were taken to prevent its success. The workmen of the various roads entered into combinations, and the officers stood firm. On the 16th of July, the employes of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad left their posts and gathered such strength in Baltimore and at Martinsburg, West Virginia, as to prevent the running of trains and set the authorities at defiance. The militia was called out by Governor Matthews and sent to Martinsburg, but was soon dispersed bv the strikers who, for the time, remained masters of the line. The President then ordered General French to the scene with a body of regulars, and the blockade of the load was raised. On tlie 20th of the month, a terrible tumult occurred in Baltimore; but the troops succeeded iu scattering the rioters of whom nine were killed and many wounded. Meanwhile the strike spread everywhere. In less than a week tiie trains had been stopped on all the important roads between the Hudson and the Mississippi. E.xcept in the cotton-growing States the insurrection was universal. Travel ceased, freights perished en route, business was paralyzed. In Pittsburgh the strikers, rioters, and dan- gerous classes gathering in a mob to the number of twenty thousand, obtained complete control of the city and for two days held a reign of terror unparalleled in the history of the country. The lawless violence and madness of the scene recalled the fiery days of the French Revolution. The Union Depot and all the machine shops and other railroad buildings of the city were burned. A hundred and twenty-five locomotives, and two thousand five hundred cars laden with valuable cargoes, were destroyed amid the wildest havoc and uproar. The insurrection was finally sup])ressed by the regular troops and the Pennsylvania militia, but not until nearly a hundred lives had been lost and property destroyed to the value of more than three mill- ions of dollars. On the 25th of the month, a similar but less terrible riot occurred at Chicago. In this tumult fifteen of the insurgents were killed by the military of the city. On th« next day, St. Louis was for some hours in peril of the mob. San Francisco was at the same time the scene of a dangerous outbreak which was here directed against the 636 HLSTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Chinese immigrants and the managers of tlie lumber yards. Cincin" nati, Columbus, Louisville, Indianapolis, and Fort Wayne were for a while in danger, but escaped without serious loss of life or property. By tiie close of the month, the alarming insurrection was at an end. Business and travel Ho wed back into their usual channels; but the sudden outbreak had given a great shock to the public mind, and revealed a hidden peril to American institutions. In the mean time, a war had broken out with the Nez Perce Indians of Idaho. This tribe of natives had been known to the Gov- ernment since 1806, when the first treaty was made with them by the explorers, Lewis and Clarke. Afterwards, missionary stations were established among them, and the nation remained on friendly terms until after the war witli Mexico. In 1854 the authorities of the L^nited States, purcliascd a parr of the Nez Perce territory, large reser- vations being; made in North-western Idaho and North-eastern Oregon ; but some of the chiefs refused to ratify the purchase and remained at large. This was the beginning of difficulties. The war began with the usual depredations by the Indians. Gen- eral Howard, commanding the Department of the Columbia, marched against them with a small force of regulars; but the Nez Percys, led by their noted chieftain Joseph, fled first in this direction, and then in that, avoiding battle. Daring the greater part of the summer the pur- suit continued; still the Indians could not lie overtaken. In the fall they were chased through the mountains into Northern Montana, where they were confronted bv other troops commanded by Colonel ]\Iiles. The Nez Perc6s, thus hemmed in, were next driven across the Missouri River, near the mouth of the Musselsiiell, and were finally surrounded in their camp, north of the Bear Paw Mountains. Here, on the 4th of October, they were attacked by the forces of Colonel j\Iile^. A hard battle was fought, and the Indians were completely routed. Only a few, led by the chief White Bird, escaped. All the rest were either killed or made prisoners. Three hundred and seventy-five of the captive Nez Percys were brought back to the American post on the Missouri. The troops of General Howard had made forced marches through a mountainous country for a distance of sixteen hundred miles.' — The campaign was crowned with complete success. During the year 1877, the public mind was greatly agitated concerning the Remonetization of Silver. By the first coinage regulations of the United States, the standard unit of value was the American Silver Dollar, containing three hundred and seventy-one HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 637 and one-fourth grains of pure silver. From the date of the adoption of this standard, in 1792, until 1873, the quantity of pure metal in this standard unit had never been changed, though the amount of alloy contained in the dollar was several times altered. Meanwhile, in 1849, a gold dollar was added to the coinage, and from that time forth the standard unit of value existed in both metals. In the years 1873- '74, at a time when, owing to the premium on gold and silver, both metals were out of circulation, a series of acts were adopted by Con- gress bearing upon the standard unit of value, whereby the legal- tender quality of silver was first abridged and then abolished. These enactments were completed by the report of the Coinage Committee in 1874, by which the silver dollar was finally omitted from the list of coins to be struck at the national mints. The general effect of these acts was to leave the gold dollar of twenty-three and twenty-two- lumdredths grains the single standard unit of value in the United States. In January of 1875, the Resumption Act was passed by Con- gress, whereby it was declared that on the 1st of January, 1879, the Government of the United States should begin to redeem its outstand- ing legal-tender notes in coin. As the time for resumption drew near, and the premium on gold fell off, the question was raised as to the meaning of "coin" in the act for resuming specie payments; and now, for the first time the attention of the people at large was aroused to the fact that by the acts of 1873-'74, the privilege of paying debts in silver had been taken away, and that after the beginning of 1879 all obligations must be discharged according to the measure of the gold dollar only. A great agitation followed. The cry for the remonetiza- tion of silver was heard everywhere. The question reached the Gov- ernment, and early in 1878 a measure was passed by Congress for the restoration of the legal-tender quality of the old silver dollar, and pro- viding for the compulsory coinage of that unit at the mints at a rate of not less than two millions of dollars a month. The President re- turned the bill with his objections, but the veto was crushed under a tremendous majority; for nearly three-fourths of the members of Con- gress, without respect to party affiliations, gave their support to tho measure,' and the old double standard of values was restored. In the summer of 1878, several of the Gulf States were scourged with a Yellow Fever Epidemic, unparalleled in the history of the country. The disease made its appearance in New Orleans in the latter part of May, and from thence was quickly scattered among the other towns along the Mississippi. Unfortunately, the attention of 638 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the people in the Gulf country had been but little gi\en to sanitary precautions, and the Southern cities were nearly all in a condition to invite the presence of the scourge. The terror soon spread from town to town, and the people began to fly from the pestilence. The cities of Memphis and Grenada became a scene of desolation. At Vicks- burgh the ravages of the ]>lague were almost equally terrible; and even in the parish-towns remote from the river, and as far north at Nashville and Louisville, tlie horrors of the scourge were felt. All summer long the disease held on unabated. The helpless populations along the Lower Mississippi languished and died by thousands. A regular system of contributions was established in the Northern States, and men and treasure were poured out Avithout stint to relieve the suffering South. The efforts of the Howard Association at New Or- leans, Memphis, and elsewhere, were almost unequaled in heroism and sacrifice. After more than twenty thousand people had fallen victims to the plague, the grateful frosts of October came at la.st and ended the pestilence. By the XVIIIth Article of the Treaty of Washington,* it was agreed that the right of the inhabitants of the United States in cer- tain sea-fisheries which had hitherto belonged exclusively to the sub- jects of Great Britain, should be acknowledged and maintained. It was conceded, moreover, that the privilege of taking fish of every kind — except shell-fish — on the sea-coasts and shores, and in the bays, harbors, and creeks of the provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward's Island, and the islands thereunto adjacent, without restriction as to distance from the shore, should be guaranteed to American fishermen, without ])rejudice or partiality. On the other hand, the government of the United States agreed to relinquish the duties which had hitherto been charged on certain kinds of fish imported by British subjects into American iiarbors. Several other concessions of minor importance were mutually made by the contracting parties; and in order to balance any discrejiancy that might appear in the aggregate of svich concessions, and to make the settlement of a vexed question full, fair, and final, it was further agreed that any total advantage to the United States arising from the treaty, might be compensated by a sum in gross to be paid by the American government to Great Britain. And in order to determine what such sum should be, a Commission was provided for, the same to consist of one commissioner to be appointed by the Queen, one by the President, and a third (provided the Queen and the Presi- •■ See page 556. • HAYEh'S ADMINISTRATION. 639 (lent should not agree on a third) by the Austrian ambassador at the Court of St. James!* Accordingly, in the summer of 1877, the Commission was constituted, and the sittings began at Halifax. But iittle attention was given to the proceedings of the body until No- vember, when the country was startled by the announcement that by the casting vote of Mr. Delfosse, Belgian minister to the United States, who had been named as third commissioner by the Atistrian ambassador at London, an award of five millions of dollars had been made against the American government ! The decision was received with general surprise, both in the United States and in Europe; and for awhile it seemed probable that the arbitration might be renounced as iniquitous. It was decided, however, that the award, whether just or unjust, would better stand; and accordingly, in November, 1878, the amount was paid — not without great popular dissatisfaction — to the Britisli government. The year 1878 witnessed the establishment of a resident Chinese EMBASSY at Washington. For twenty years the great and liberal treaty negotiated by Anson Burlingame had been in force between the United States and China. Under the protection of this compact, the commer- cial relations of the two countries had been vastly extended, and a knowl- edge of the institutions, manners, and customs prevalent in the Celes- tial Empire so widely diifused as to break down in some measure the race-prejudice existing against the Mongolians. The enlightened policy of the reigning emperor had also contributed to establish more friendly intercourse with the United States, and to promote such measures as should make that intercourse lasting. The idea of send- ing resident ambassadors to the American government had been en- tertained for several years. The emperor had been assured that the people of China — more particularly iier ministers — would be received with all the courtesy shown to the most favored nation. The officers chosen by the imperial government as its representatives in the United States were Chen Lan Pin, minister plenipotentiary, Yung Wing, assistant envoy, and Yung Tsang Siang, secretary of legation. On the 28th of September the embassy was received by the President. "A strange and inexplicable provision. As a matter of fact, it came to pass that the Dian who by the terms of the treaty held the power of appointing, and who did appoint, •.he umpire in the Halifax Commission, was Count Von Beust, a Bourbon of the Bour- bons in politics, a Saxon renegade, an upholder of the House of Hapsburg by choice, and a hater of all republican institutions. It thus happened that a question which had proved too much for the Joint High Commission itself, was remanded for settlement to a political adventurer temporarily resident in London I To understand the proceeding requires the wisdom of a — statesman! 640 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The ceremonies of the occasion were among the most novel and in- teresting ever witnessed in ^^'asllington. The speech of Chen Lan Pin was equal in dignity and appropriateness to the best efforts of a European diplomatist. Addressing the President the Chinese minister said : "Mk. President: His Majesty, the Emperor of China, in ap- pointing us to reside at Washington as ministers, instructed us to present your Excellency his salutations, and to express his assurances of friendship for you and the people of the United States. His Majesty hopes that your administration may be one of signal success, and that it may bring lasting peace and prosperity to the whole country. On a former occasion tlie Chinese government had the honor to send an embassy to Washington on a special mission, and the results were most beneficent. His Majesty cherishes the hope that this embassy will not only be the means of establishing on a firm basis the amicable relations of the two countries, but may also be the starting-point of a new diplomatic era which will eventually unite the East and West under an enlightened and progressive civil- ization." The history of modern times contains many 2>leasing evidences of the growing estimate placed by civilized states upon the value of human life. In the legislation of Congress several important acts bear witness to the general interest felt in the United States on the subject of better protection for those who are exposed by land and sea. The question of affording adequate succor to shipwrecked sailors has especially engrossed the attention of the government, and many meas- ures have l)een proposed with a view of giving greater security to "them that go down to the sea in ships." During the last session of the Forty-fifth Congress a bill was brought forward by S. S. Cox, of New York, for the reorganization of the IjIfe-Saving Service of THE United States, under the patronage and control of the govern- ment. This service had existed as a private enterprise since 1871. The plan propo.sed and adopted June 18, 1878, embraced the establish- ment of regular stations and light-houses on all the exposed parts of the Atlantic coast and along the great lakes. Each station was to be manned by a band of surfmen experienced in the dangers peculiar to the shore in times of storms, and drilled in the best methods of rescue and resuscitation. Boats of the most approved pattern — capable of sur- viving any storm that ever lashed the sea — were provided and equipped. A hundred appliances and inventions suggested by the wants of the service — life-cars with hawsers, and mortars for firing HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 641 shot-lines into vessels foundering at a distance from the shore — were supplied and their use skillfully taught to tlie brave men who were employed at the stations. The success of the enterprise has been so great as to reflect the highest credit on its promoters. The number of lives saved through the direct agency of the service reaches to thou- sands annually, and the amount of human suffering and distress alleviated by this beneficent movement is beyond computation. So carefully are the exposed coasts of the United States now guarded that it is almost impossible for a foundering ship to be driven within sight of the shore without at once beholding through the darkness of the otherwise hope- less night the sudden glare of the red-light signal flaming up from the beach, telling the story of friends near by and rescue soon to come. On the 1st of January, 1879, THE Resumption of Specie Pay- ments was formally accomplished by the treasury of the United States. For more than seventeen years, owing to the disorders arising from the Civil War, gold and silver coin had been at a premium over the legal-tender notes of the Government. During this whole period the monetary affairs of the Nation had been in a state of dis- traction. As a matter of fact, the monetary unit had been so fluctu- ating as to render legitimate business almost imjiossible. The actual purchasing power of a dollar could hardly be predicted from one week to another. Resulting from this, a spirit of rampant specula- tion had taken possession of most of the market values of the coun- try. The lawful transactions of the street, carried forward in obedi- ence to the plain principles of political economy, suffered shipwreck, while parvenu statesmen gave lectures on the nature of debt and the evils of overproduction ! After the passage of the Resumption Act, in 1875, owing to the steady and rapid appreciation of the value of the monetary unit, the debtor classes of the country entered a period of great liardship; for their indebtedness constantly augmented in a ratio beyond the probability, if not the possibility, of payment. It was an epoch of financial ruin and bankruptcy, which was only checked, but not ended, by the abrogation of the Bankrupt Act, in 1878. With the near approach of Resumption, however, a certain degree of confidence supervened ; and the actual accomjjlishment of the fact was hailed by many as the omen of better times. The presidential election of 1880 was accompanied with the usual excitement attendant upon great political struggles in the United States. The congressional elections of 1878 had generally gone against the Republican party, in5omuch that in both houses of the Forty-sixth Congress the Democrats had a clear majority. It was G42 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. therefore not unreasonable to exj^ect that in tlie impending contest for the presidency the Democratic party woukl prove successful. The leaders of this party were hopeful of success and entered the campaign with renewed zeal and energy. The Republican national convention was held in Chicago on the ■2d and 3d of June. A platform of prin- cijiles was adopted largely retrospective. The history of the pait> during the twenty years of its supremacy in the government wa- recited as the best reason why its lease of power .should be continued by the people. Tlie platform reaffirmed and emphasized the doctrine of nationality as opposed to the theory of states' rights; declared in favor of popular education; advocated a system of discriminating duties- in favor of American industries; called on Congress to limit Chinese immigration; avoided the question of finance; complimented the administrati(5n of President Hayes; and arraigned the Democratic party as unpatriotic in its principles and fraudulent in its practices. Upon this platform- — -after the greater part of two days had been con- sumed in balloting — General James A. Garfield, of Ohio, was nom- inated for President, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, for Vice- President. The Democratic national convention assembled in Cincinnati, on the 22d of June. The platform of principles declared adherence to the doctrines and traditions of the party; opposed the tendency to central- ization in the government; adhered to gold and silver money and paper convertible into coin; advocated a tariff for revenue only; pro- claimed a free ballot; denounced the administration as the creature of a conspiracy; opposed the presence of troops at the polls; compli- mented Samuel J. Tilden for his patriotism ; declared for free ships and an amendment to the Burlingame treaty as against Chinese im- migration ; and appealed to the acts of the Forty-sixth Congress as proof and illustration of Democratic economy and wisdom. After adopting this platform tlie convention nominated for the presidency General Winfield S. Hancock, of New York, and for the vice-presi- dency AVilliam H. English, of Indiana. Meanwhile the National Greenback party had held a convention in Chicago, on the 9th of June, and nominated as standard-bearers General James B. "Weaver, of Iowa, for President, and General Benja- min J. Chambers, of Texas, for Vice-President. The platform of principles declared in favor of the rights of the laborer, as against the exactions of capital; denounced monopolies and syndicates; proclaimed the sovereign power of the government over the coinage of metallia and the issuance of paper money; advocated the abolition of the HA r£S','i ADMINISTRA TION. 643 National banking system and the substitution of legal-tender currency; declared for the payment of the bonded debt of the United States as against all refunding schemes; denounced land-grants; opposed Chinese immigration and an increase of the standing army; favored the equal taxation of all property and unrestricted suftrage; demanded reform in the methods of congressional proceedings; and appealed ibr support to the sense of justice in the American jieople. The canvass had not jirogressed far until it became evident tliat the contest lay between the Republican and the Democratic party, and that the long-standing sectional division into Nortli and South was likely once more to decide the contest in favor of the former. That part of the Democratic platform which declared for a tariff for revenue only, alarmed the manufacturing interests and consolidated them in suj)port of the Republican candidates. The banking and bond-hold- ing classes rallied with great unanimity to the same .standard, and tiie old war spirit, aroused at the appearance of a ".solid South" insured a solid North against the Democracy. The election resulted in the choice of Garfield and Arthur. Two hundred and fourteen electoral vote.s, embracing those of all the Northern States except New Jersey, Nevada, and four out of the five votes of California, were cast for the Republican candidates, and one hundred and fifty-five votes, including those of V ry Southern State, were given to Hancock and Engli.sh. The can- didates of the National party secured no electoral votes, though the popular vote given to Weaver and Chambers aggregated 307,000 as against 81,000 cast for Cooper and Cary in 1876. The administration of President Hayes and the last session of tiie Forty-sixth Congress expired together on the 4th of March, 1881. The closing session had been chiefly occupied with the matter of refunding the national debt. About seven hundred and fifty millions of dollars of five and six per cent, bonds became due during the year; and to provide for the payment or refunding of this large sum was the most important matter claiming the attention of Congress. Late in the session a bill was passed by that body providing for the issuance by the government of new bonds of two classes, both bearing three ]>er cent.; the first class payable in from five to twenty years, and the second class in from one to ten years. The latter bonds were to be issued in small denominations, adapted to the conditions of a popular loan. One provision of the bill required the national banks holding five and six per cent, bonds to surrender the same — the bonds having fallen due — and to receive in.stead the new three per cents. This clause of the law aroused the antagonism of the bank"- and by every tU4 HISroRY OF THE UNITED STATES. possible laeans they sought to prevent the passage of the bill. On the last day of the session, the measure having been adopted by both houses of Congress, the act was laid Ix'fore the President for his approval, which was witiilidd. A veto message was returned to Con- gress; the advocates of the bill being unable to command a two-third's majority in its favor, the bill failed to become a law and the session closed without any jirovision for the refunding of the 750,000,000 dollars of bonds falling due in 1881. Soon after retiring from the presidency, General Grant with hi.s family and a company of personal friends, set out to visit the countries of Europe and Asia, and to make a tour of the world. Though the expedition was intended to be private it could but attract the most conspicuous attention both at home and abroad. The departure from Philadelphia on the 17th of May, 1877, was the beginning of a pageant which, in its duration and magnificence, was never before extended to any citizen of any nation of the earth. Wherever the distinguished ex> President went he was welcomed with huzzas and dismissed with plaudits. First in England — at Liverpool, Manchester, London — and afterwards, in midsummer, in Belgium, Switzerland, Prussia, and France, everywhere the General's coming was announced by the thunder of cannon, the tlironging of multitudes, and a chorus of cheers. A short stay in Italy was followed by a voyage to Alexan^ dria, and a brief sojourn in Egypt. Thence the company proceeded to Palestine and afterwards to Greece. The following spring found the ex-President and his party again in Italy — at Rome, Florence, Venice, and Milan; and the summer carried them into Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. The next countries visited were Austria and Russia, while for the winter the distinguished tourists chose the south of France and Spain. Ireland was visited, and in January of 1879 the company era- barked from Marseilles for the East. The following year was spent in visiting the great countries of Asia — India first; then Burmah and Siam; then China; and then Japan. In the fall of 1879 the party returned to San Francisco, bearing with them the highest tokens of esteem which the great nations of the Old World could bestow upon the honored representative of the civilization of the New. The census of 1880 was undertaken with more system and care than ever before in the history of the country. The work was entrusted to the general superintendency of Professor Francis A. Walker, under whose direction the admirable census of 1870 was conducted. During the decade the same astounding progress M'hich had marked the pre- vious historv of the United States was more than ever illustrated. I"* HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 64.3 every source of national power, in every element of national vigor, the development of the country had continued without abatement. The total population of the states and territories of the Union now amounted to 50,152,866 — an increase since 1870 of more than a milVton inhabit- ants a year! New York was still the leading state, having a popula- tion of 5,083,173. Nevada was least populous, showing an enumera- tion of but 62,265. Of the 11,584,188 added to the jropulation sinci the census of 1870, 2,246,551 had been contributed by immigration, of whom about 85,000 annually came from Germany alone. The number of cities having a population of over 100,000 inhabitants had increased during the decade from fourteen to twenty.* The center of population had moved westward about fifty miles, and now rested at the city of Cincinnati. The statistics of trade and indu.stry were likewise of a sort to gratify patriotism, if not to excite national pride. The current of the precious metals which for many years had flowed constantly from the United States to foreign countries turned strongly, in 1880, towards America. The importation of specie during the year just mentioned amounted to $93,034,310, while the exportation of the same during the year reached only $17,142,199. During the greater part of the period covered by the census abundant crops had followed in almost unbroken succes.sion, and the overplus in the great staples peculiar to our soil and climate had gone to enrich the country, and to .stimulate to an unusual degree those fundamental industries upon which national perpetuity and individual happiness are ultimately founded. f * The following table will show the population and rate of increase in the ten lead- ing cities in the United States, according to the censuses of 1870 and 1880: City. State. Population Per cent, of increa.se. New York . . . Philadelphia . . Brooklyn .... St. Louis .... Chicago .... Baltimore .... Boston Cincinnati .... New Orleans . . . San Francisco . . New York .... Pennsylvania . . New York .... Missouri .... Illinois Maryland .... Massachusetts Ohio Louisiana .... California .... 1870 942,292 674,022 396,099 310,864 298,977 267,354 250,526 216,239 191,418 149,473 1880 1,206,590 846,984 586,689 350,522 503,304 333,190 362,535 255,708 216,140 233,956 28 25 48 13 72 24 44 22 13 56 t At the date of sending this edition to the press, only the preliminary results of the census of 1880 have been given to the public. 646 UIsrOJtY OP THE UNITED STATES. During the administration of President Hayes several eminent Americans passed from tlie scene of their earthly activities. On the 1st of November, 1S77, tlie distinguished Senator Oliver P. Morton, of Indiana, after battling for many years against the deadl}^ en- croachments of paralysis, died at his home in Indianaj^olis. His death, though not unforeseen, was mueli lamented. Still more universally felt was the loss of the great poet and journalist, William Cullen Bryant, who, on the 12th of June, 1S7S, at the advanced age of eighty-four, passed from among the living. For more than si.xty years his name had been known and honored wherever fhe English language is spoken. His life had been an inspiration, and the brightest light of American literature was extinguished in his death. On the 19th of December, in the same year, the illustrious Bayard Taylor, who had recently been appointed American minister to the German Empire, died suddenly in the city of Berlin. His life had been exclusively devoted to literary work ; and almost every depart- ment of letters, from the common tasks of journalism to the highest charms of poetry, had been adorned by his genius. His death, at the early age of fifty-four, left a gap not soon to be filled in the shining ranks of literature. On the 1st day of November, 1879, Senator Zaehariah Cliandler, of Michigan, one of the organizers of the Re- ])ublican party, and a great leader of that party in the times of the civil wai-, died suddenly at Chicago ; and on the 2-lth day of February, 1881, another senator, the distinguished Matt. H. Carpenter, of Wisconsin, after a lingering illness, expired at AVashington. One by one the strong men who battled for the preservation of American nationality in the stormy days of the civil war are passing or have passed into the land of rest. ADMimSTEATIONS OF GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. 6-1:7 CHAPTER L X X . ADMINISTRATIONS OF GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. JAMES A. GARFIELD, twentieth President of the United States, was born at Orange, Cuyahoga county, Ohio, November 19th, 18:31, By the death of liis father he was left in infancy to the sole care •of his mother and to the rude surroundings of a backwoods home. Blest with great native energy and an abundance of i^hysical vigor, the boy gathered fi'om country toil a sound constitu- tion, and from country schools the rudiments of education. In boyhood his services were in frequent demand , , vN\i. js,;n\«4 \ i.|,,i.ii,| , II by the farmers ot the neighbor- hood — for he de- veloped unusual skill as a me- chanic. After- wards he served as a driver and pilot of a canal boat plying the Ohio and Pennsylvania canal. At the age of seventeen he attended the High School in Chester, where he applied himself with great dili- gence, extending his studies to algebra, Latin, and Greek. In the fall of 1851, he entered Hiram College, in Portage county, Ohio, where he remained as student and instructor until 1854. In that year he entered 648 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Williams College, from which, in August of 1856, he was graduated with honor. He then returned to Ohio, and was made first a professor and afterwards president of Hiram College. This position he held until the outl)reak of the civil war when he left his post to enter the army. Meanwhile he had studied law, imbibed a love for politics, and been elected to the Ohio State Senate. As a soldier Garfield was first made lieutenant-colonel and after- wards colonel of the Forty-second regiment of Ohio volunteers. Ad- vancing with his men to the front he was soon promoted to a brigadier generalship, and did good service in Kentucky and Tennessee. He was made chief of staff" to General Rosecrans, and bore a distinguished part in the battle of Chiekamauga. Soon afterwards, while still in the field, he was, in 1862, elected by the people of his district to the lower house of Congress, where he continued to serve as a member for seven- teen years. In 1879 he was elected to the United States Senate, and hard ujion this followed his nomination and election to the presidency. American history has furnished but few instances of a more steady and brilliant rise from the poverty of an obscure boyhood to the most dis- tinguished elective office in the gift of mankind. On the 4th of March, 1881, President Garfield, according to the custom, delivered his inaugural address. A retrospect of the progress of American civilization during the last quarter of a century was given and the country congratulated on its high rank among the nations. The leading topics of politics were briefly reviewed, and the policy of the executive department of the government with respect to the great questions likely to engross the attention of the people, set forth with clearness and precision. The public school system of the United States should be guarded with jealous care; the old wounds of the South should be healed' and the heartburnings of the civil war be buried in oblivion; the present banking system should be maintained; the practices of polygamy should be repressed; Chinese immigration should be curbed by treaty; the equal rights of the enfranchised blacks should be asserted and maintained. On the day following the inauguration the President sent to the Senate for confirmation the names of the meml^ers of his cabinet. The nominations were, for secretary of state, James G. Blaine, of Maine; for secretary of the treasury, William Windom, of Minnesota ; for secretary of war, Robert T. Lincoln, of Illinois; for secretary of the navy, William H. Hunt, of Louisiana; for secretary of the interior, Samuel J. Kirkwood, of Iowa; for attorney-general, Wayne MacVeagh, of Pennsylvania; for postmaster-general, Thomas L. James, of New ADMINISTRATIONS OP GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. 64'J York. These nominations were promptly confirmed, and the new administration entered upon its course with omens of an auspicious future. One of the first issues which engaged the attention of the govern- ment after Garfield's accession to the Presidency, was the question of Reform in the Civil Service. This question had been inherited from the administration of Hayes, by whom several spasmodic efforts had been made to introduce better methods in the selection of men to fill the appointive offices of the United States. The real issue was whether the choice of the officials of the government should be made on the grounds of the character and fitness of the candidate, or on the principle of distributing political patronage to those who had best served the party — whether men should be j)romoted from the lower to the higher grades of official life, and retained according to the value and proficiency of the service rendered, or be elevated to posi- tion in proportion to their success in carrying elections and maintain- ing the party in power. The members of Congress to whom the help of efficient supporters in their own districts and states seemed essential, and by whom the patronage of the government had lieen dispensed since the days of Jackson, held stoutly to the old order, unwilling to relinquish their influence over the appointing power. President Hayes, after vainly attempting to establish the opposite policy, aban- doned the field near the close of his administration. Tiie national Republican platform of 1880, however, vaguely endorsed "civil service reform" as a principle of the party, and some expectation existed that Presidciit Garfield would follow the policy of his predecessor. With the incoming of the new administration the rush for office was unpre- cedented in the previous history of the country. The politicians and place-seekers, who claimed to have "carried the election," swarmed into Washington and thronged the executive mansion, clamoring for office, until, for the time, all plans and purposes of reform in the civil service were quite crushed out of sight and forgotten. As always hitherto, ambition for political power and hunger for the spoils of office triumphed over the better sense of the American people. The prospects of the new administration were soon darkened with political difficulties. A division arose in the ranks of the Re- publican party, threatening the disniption and ruin of that organiza- tion. The two wings of the Republicans were nicknamed the " Half- breeds " and the " Stalwarts : " tlie latter, headed by Senator Conkling, of New York, being the division which liad so resolutely supported General Grant for the Presidency in the Chicago Convention ; the 650 UISTOItT OF THE UNITED STATES. former, led by jMr. Blaine, now Secretary of State, and indorsed by the President himself, had control of the government, and were numerically stronger than their opponents. The Stalwarts claimed the right of dispensing the appointive offices of the Government, after the manner which prevailed for several preceding administrations,' that is, the distrilmtion of the offices in the several States, under the name of patronage, by the Senators and Representatives of those States in Congress. The President, supported by his division of the party, and in general by the reform element in politics, insisted on naming the officers in the various States according to his own wishes and what he conceived to be the fitness of things. The chief clash between the two influences in the party occurred in respect to the ofiices in New York. The coUectorship of customs for the port of New York is the best appointive office in the gift of the Government. To fill this position the President appointed Judge William Robertson, and the appointment was bitterly antagonized l)y the New York Senators, lloscoe Conkling and Thomas C. Piatt, who, failing to prevent the confirmation of Robertson, resigned their seats, returned to their State, and failed of a reelection. The Ijreach thus effected in the Rejuiblican ranks was such as to threaten the dis memberment of the party. Such was the condition of affairs at the adjournment of the Senate in June. A few days afterward tlie President made arrangements to visit Williams College, where his two sons were to be placed at school, and to pass a short vacation with his sick wife at the sea-side. On the morning of July 2d, in oomjjany with Secretary Blaine and a few friends, he entered the Baltimore depot at Washington, preparatory to taking the train for Long Branch, N. J. A moment afterward he was approached by a miserable political miscreant named Charles Julius Guiteau, who, from behind, and unperceived, came within a few feet of the company, drew a pistol, and fired upon the chief -magistrate of the Republic. The aim of the assassin was too well taken, and the second shot struck the President centrally in the right side of the back, infiicting a dreadful wound. The l)leeding chieftain was quickly liorne away to the executive mansion, and the vile wretch who had coiii- nntted the crime was hurried to prison. For a week or two the hearts of the American people vibrated between hope and fear. Tlie best surgical aid was procured, and bul- letins were daily issued containing a brief outline of the President's condition. The conviction grew day by day that he would ultimately recover. Two surgical operations \vere performed with a view of im- ADMINISTRATIONS OF GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. 651 proving liis chances for life ; but a series of relapses occurred, and the President gradually weakened txnder his sufferings. As a last liope he was, on the 6th of September, carefully conveyed from Washington City to Elberon, where he was 25la<^ed in a cottage only a few yards from the surf. Here, for a brief period, hope again revi\'ed, but the symptoms were aggravated at intervals, and the patient sank iay by day. At half past ten on the evening of September 19tli, the anniversary of the battle of Chickamauga, in which President Garfield had won his chief military reputation, his vital powers suddenly gave way under the destructive influence of blood poisoning and exhaustion, and in a few moments death closed the scene. For eighty days he had borne the pain and anguish of his situation with a fortitude and heroism rarely witnessed among men. The dark shadow of the crime M-liich had laid him low heightened rather than eclipsed the luster and glory of liis great and exemplary life. On the day following this deplorable event Vice-President Arthur took the oath of office in New York, and immediately repaired to Washington. For the fourth time in the history of the American Republic the duties of the presidency had been devolved by death apon the man constitutionally provided for such an emergency. The heart of the people, however, clung for a time to the dead rather than to the living President. The funeral of Garfield was observed first of all at Washington, whither the body was taken and placed in state in the rotunda of the Capitol. Here it was viewed by tens of thousands of people during the 22d and 23d of September. In his life-time the illustrious dead had chosen as the place of his burial the Lakeview Cemetery, at Cleveland, Ohio, and thither, on the 24th of the month, the remains were conveyed by way of Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. As in the case of the dead Lincoln, the funeral processions and ceremonies were a pageant, exhibiting eveiy-where the loyal respect and love of the American people for him who had so lately been their pride. On the 26th of September his body was laid in its final resting-place. The day of the burial was observed throughout the country in great as- semblies gathered from hamlet and town and city, all anxious to tes- tify, by some appropriate word or token, their sorrow for the great national calamity, and their appreciation of the grand example of James A. Garfield's life. Chester A. Arthur, called by this sad event to be the President of the United States, was born in Franklin County, Vermont, October 5, 1830. He is of Irish descent, and was educated at Union College, from which 652 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. institution he was graduated in lS-t9. For a while he taught school in his native State, and then came to New York City to study law. Here he was soon admitted to the bar and rapidly rose to d istinetion. During the Civil War he was Quarter- master-Gener- al of the State of New York, a very impor- tant and try- ing o ih c e, whicdi he tilled with great credit to him- self and the government. After IStir) he returned to the practice of law, and was appointed Col- lector of Cus- toms for the port of New York in isTl. This position wlien he was removed by President Hayes, law practice, but was soon called by the voice of his party to be a standard-bearer in the presidential canvass of 1880. His election to the vice-presidency followed, and then, by the death of President Garfield, he rose to the post of chief honor among the American people. The assumption of the duties of his high office by President Arthur was attended with but little ceremony or formality. On the 22d of September the oath of otfice was again administered to him in the Vice-President's room, in the Capitol, Chief-justice Waite officiat- ing. After this, in the jiresence of the few who were gathered in the apartment, he delivei-ed a brief and appropriate address, referring, CUESTEll A. ARTHl U. 10 held until July, 1878, Again he returned to his ADMINISTRATIONS OF QAliFIELD AND ABTHUli. 053 in a, toiicliing manner, to the death of his predecessor. Those jiresent — inchidiug General Grant, ex-President Hayes, Senator Sherman, and his brother the General of the army — then paid their respects, and the ceremony was at an end. In accordance with the custom, the members of the Cabinet, as constituted so recently by President Garfield, immediately tendered their resignations. These were not at once accepted, the President in- stead inviting all of tlie members to retain their jjlaces as his consti- tutional advisers. For the time all did so except Mr. Windom, Secre- tary of the Treasury, who was succeeded by Judge Folger, of New York. Mr. MacVeagh, the Attorney General, also resigned a short time afterward, and the President appointed as his successor Hon. Benjamin H. Bi-ewster, of Philadelphia. The next to retire from the Garfield Cabinet were Mr. lUaine, Secretary of State, and Mr. James, Post- master General, who were succeeded in their respective offices by Hon. F. T. Frelingluiysen, of New Jersey, and Hon. Timothy A. Howe, of Wisconsin. Mr. Lincoln — so great was the charm of that illustrious name — remained, as if by common consent, at the head of the Dej^art- ment of "War. Besides those changes in his constitutional advisers, not much disposition to revolutionize the policy of the Govermnent was manifested by the new administration ; and the people generally, without respect to party lines, gave a tolerably cordial support to him who had been so suddenly called to the chief magistracy of the Union. From its predecessor the administration of President Arthur in- herited not a few complications and troubles. The chief of these was the series of important State trials i-elating to the alleged Stae Route Conspiracy. Under the recent conduct of affairs in the Post-office Department of the Government there had been organized a class of fast mail routes, known as the Star Routes, the ostensible object being to carry the mails with rapidity and certainty into certain distant and almost inaccessible porti(jns of the Western States and Territories. The law governing the letting of mail contracts was of suc'i sort as to restrict the action of the Postmaster General and his subordinates to definite limits of expense ; but one clause of the law gave to the De- partment the discretionary power to " expedite " such mail routes as seemed to be weaker and less efficient than the service required. This gave to certain officers of the Government the opportunity to let the contracts for many mail lines at a tmnimuin, and then under their dis- cretionary power to expedite the same lines into efficiency at exorbitant rates — the end and aim being to divide the spoils with the contractors. This alleged Star Route conspiracy to defraiid the Governniojit was 654 HISTOliY OF THE UNITED STATES. unearthed during the Garfield administration, and Attorney-General MacVeagh was directed by the President to prosecute the reputed conspirators. Indictments were found by the Grand Jury against ex- United States Senator Stephen AV. Doi'sey, of Arkansas ; second assistant Postmaster-General Thomas J. Brad}', of Indiana, and several others of less note. Mr. MacVeagh, however, seemed in the conduct of the Department of Justice to act with little spirit and no success ; but on the coming into office of Attorney-General Brewster, matters were rpiickened into sharp activity, and those indicted for conspiracy were brought to trial. After several weeks of stormy prosecution and defence, the case went to the jury, who brought in a verdict absurdly convicting certain subordinates of ]iarticipating in a conspiracy which could not have existed without the guilt of their superiors. This scandal, occupying the public mind in the summer of 1882, contributed much to the defeat of the Republican party in the State elections of the November following — a defeat so general as to remand by over- whelming majorities the control of the Congress of the United States to the Democrats. It is fortunate that the pen of history is sometimes occupied with events of a nature and tendency wholly difEerent from the public affairs of the State. Perhaps the most striking feature of the civiliza- tion of our times is exhibited in the advancement of science, as illus- trated in the thousand applications of discovery and invention to the wants of mankind. At no other age in the history of the world has the practical knowledge of nature's laws been so rapidly and widely diffused ; and at no other epoch has the subjection of natural relations to the will of man been so wonderfully displayed. The old life of the human race is giving place to the new life, based on science, and energized by the knowledge that the conditions of man's environment are as benevolent as they are immutable. Vain would it be to attempt to enumerate all the ways in which the beneficent work of science lias been extended in our day ; but perhaps a sjjecification of a few of the most remarkable of the recent applica tions of scientific knowledge may prove of interest to the reader of our current history. It has remained for the present to solve the problem of oral connnu- nication between persons at a distance. A knowledge of the laws of sound and electricity has enabled the scientists of our day to transmit, or at least reproduce, the human voice at a distance of hundreds or even thousands of miles. The history of the Telephone will ever stand as a perpetual reminder to after ages of the inventive skill and scientific ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION. 655 progress of the last quarter of the nineteenth century. This instru- ment, like many similar inventions, seems to have been the work of several ingenious minds directed at nearly the same time to the same problem. The solution, however, may be properly accredited to Mr. Elislia P. Gray, of Chicago, and Professor A. Graham Bell, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It should be mentioned, however, that Professor A. C. Dolbear, of Tufts College, Massa- chusetts, and Mr. Thomas A. Edison, of Menlo Park, New Jersey, have also succeeded in solving the original difficulties in the way of telephonic communication, or at least in answering practically some of the minor questions in the way of success. The Telephone may be defined as an instru- ment for the reproduction of sound.s, particularly the sounds of the liunian voice, by the agency of electricity, at long distances from the origin of the vocal disturb- ance. It is now well known that sound consists of a wave agitation, communi- cated through some me- dium to the organ of hear- ing. Every particular sound has its own physical equiv- alent in the system of waves in which it is written. The only thing that is necessary in order to carry a sound in its integrity to any distance is to transmit its physical equivalent, and to redehver that equivalent to some or- gan of hearing capable of receiving it. Upon this idea the TeleiDlione is created. Evei-y sound which falls by impact upon the sheet-iron disk of the instrument communicates thereto a sort of tremor ; this tremor causes the disk to approach and recede from the magnetic pole placed just behind the diaphragm. A current of electricity is thus induced, pulsates along the wire to the other end, and is delivered to the }ne- talllc disk of the second instrument, many miles away, just as it was THE TELEPHONE. (jo6 UIsrOHY OF THE UNITED STATES. produced in the first. The car of tlie hearer receives from tlie second iiistnunent the exact physical equivalent of the sound or sounds which were delivered against the disk of the first instrument, and thus the utterance is received at a distance just as it was given forth. As already said, the invention of the Telephone stands chiefly to the credit of Professors Gray and Bell. It should be recorded that as early as 1837 the philosoj^her Page succeeded, by means of electro- magnetism, in transmitting mnsical tones to a distance. It was not, however, until 1877 that Professor Bell, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at a public lecture given at Salem, astonished his audience, and the whole country as well, by receiving and ti'ansmitting vocal messages from Boston, twenty miles away. Incredulity had no more a place, as it respected the feasibility of talking to others at a dis- tance. The experiments of Mr. Gray at Chicago, a few days later in the same month, were eqnally successful. Messages were distinctly transmitted between that city and Milwaukee, a distance of eighty-five miles ; nor could it be longer doubted that a new era in the means of communication had come. The Bell Telephone, witli many modifi- cations and improvements, has sprung into rapid use. Within reason- able limits of distance the new method of transmitting intelligence by direct vocal utterance is rapidly taking the place of all slower and less convenient means of inter-communication. The appearance of this simple instrument is one of the many harbingers of that auspicious time when the constant interchange of thought and sentiment between man and man, community and community, nation and nation, shall conduce to the peace of the world and the goodfellowship of all mankind. From the Telephone to the Phonoorapu was but a step. Both iti- struments are based upon the same principle of science. The dis- covery that every sound has its physical equivalent in a wave or agita- tion which affects the particles of matter composing the nuiterial through which the sound is transmitted, led almost inevitably to the other discovery of caiching and retaining that physical equivalent or wave in the surface of some body, and to the ix-production of the original sound therefrom. Such is the fundamental princijile of the interesting, liut thus far little useful, instrument known as the Phono- graph. The same was invented by Thomas A. Edison in the year 1877. The Phonograph differs considerably in structure and purpo.sc from the Vibrograph and the Phonautograph which preceded it. The latter two instruments were made simply to wnt-t' sound vibrations ; the former to reproduce aud'thhj the sounds themselves. AUTULirS AUillSLsTILiTIOX. 657 The Phonograph consists of three principal parts : tlie scndei', or fimuel-shaped tube, with its open mouth-piece standing toward the operator ; the diapliragra and stylus united thei-ewith, which receive the sound spoken into the tube ; and, thirdly, tlie revolving cylinder, with its sheet-coating of tin-foil laid over the surface of tlie spiral •groove, to i-eceive the indentations of the point of the st3dus. The mode of operation is very simple. The cylinder is revolved- and the point of the stylus when there is no sound-agitation in the funnel or mouth-piece makes a smooth continuous depression in the tin-foil over the spiral groove. But when any sound is thrown into the mouth-piece the iron disk or diaphragm is agitated ; this agitation is carried tlirough tlie stylus and written in irregular marks, dots, and peculiar figures in the tin-foil groove. When the utterance which is to be reproduced has been completed the instrument is stopped, the stylus thrown back from the groove, and the cylinder revolved backward to the place of starting. The stylus is now returned to its place in the groove, and the cylinder is revolved at the same rate of rapidity as before. As the point of the st3'lus plays up and down in the indentations and through the figures of the tin-foil produced by its own previous agitation, a quiver exactly equivalent to that which was produced by the utterance in the mouth-piece is now communicated backward to the diaphragm, and by it is flung through the mouth-piece into the air. This agita- tion is, of course, the exact physical equivalent of the original sound, ur more properly is the sound itself. Thus it is that the Phonograph is made to talk, to sing, to cry, to utter, in short, any sound sufficiently powerful to produce a perceptible tremor in the mouth-piece and dia- phragm of the instrument. Some experiments have already been made looking to the utilization of the Phonograph as a practical addition to the civilizing apparatus of our times. It has been proposed to stereotype the tin-foil record of what has been uttered in the mouth-piece, and thus to preserve in a permanent form the potency of vanished sounds. If this could be successfully and perfectly accomplished the invention of the Phono- graph would, doubtless, take rank with the greatest of the age, and might possibly revolutionize the wliole method of learning. It would seem, indeed, that nature has intended the ear, rather than the eye, as the organ of education. It seems to be against the everlasting fitness of things that the eyes of all mankind should be strained, weakened, permanently injured, in childhood with the unnatural tasks which are imposed upon that delicate organ. It would seem to be more in accordance with the nature and capacities of man and the general 4 '2 658 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. character of the external world to reserve the eye for the disceriuneut and appreciation of beaiity, and to impose upon the ear the tedious and hard tasks of education. Tlie Phonograpli makes it possible to read hi/ the ear, instead of by the eye ; and it is not beyond the range of probability that the book of the future, near or remote, will be written in phonograpliic plates and made to reveal its story to the waiting ear rather than through the medium of print to the enfeebled and tired eye of the reader. Perhaps the most marked and valuable invention of the age — the one best calculated to affect favorably the welfare of the people, especially in great cities — is that of The Electric LktUT. The intro- duction of this superior system of illumination marks an epoch more interesting and important in the history of our country than is any political conflict or mere change of rulers. About the beginning of the last decade the project of introducing the electric light for general purposes of illumination began to be agitated. It was at once per- ceived that the advantages of such lighting were as conspicuous as they were obvious. The light is so powerful as to render practicable the performance of many mechanical operations as easily by night as by day. Again, the danger of tire from illuminating sources is obvi- ated by the new system. The ease and expedition of all kinds of night employment are greatly enhanced. A given amount of illumi- nation can be produced nmch more cheaply by electricity' than by any means of gas-lighting or ordinary combustion. Among the first to demonstrate the feasibility of Electric Lighting was the philosopher Gramme, of Paris. In the early part of 1875 he successfully lighted his laboratory by means of electricity. Soon afterward the foundry of Ducommun & Company, of Mulhouse, was similai'ly lighted. In the course of the following year the apparatus for lighting by means of carbon candles was introduced into many of the principal factories of France and other leading countries of Europe. It may prove of interest in this connection to sketch brielly the principal features of the Electric Light system, and to trace in a few paragraphs the development of that system in onr own and other countries. Lighting by electricity is accomplished in several ways. In general, however, the principle by which the result is accomplished is one, and depends upon the resistance ivMch the el-ectriral current meets in its transmission through various siibstances. There are no perfect con- ductors of electricity. In proportion as the non-conductive quality is present in a sultstance, especially in a metal, the resistance to the pas- ARTUUli'S ADMINISrUATION. 6513 sage of electricity is pronounced, and the consequent disturbance among the molecular particles of the substance is great. Whenev-er such resistance is encountered in a circuit, the electricity is converted into heat ; and when the resistance is gi'eat the heat is in turn con- verted into light ; that is, the substance which offers the resistance glows with the transformed energy of the impeded current. Upon this simple principle all the apparatus for the production of the Electric Light is constructed. Among the metallic substances the one best adapted by its low conductivity to such resistance and transfor- mation of force is platinum. The high degree of heat necessary to fuse this metal adds to its usefulness and availability for the purpose indicated. When an electrical current is forced along a platinum wii-e too small to transmit the entire volume it becomes at once heated, first to a red and then to a white glow, and is thus made to send forth a radiance like that of the sun. Of the non-metallic elements which offer similar resistance the best is carbon. The infusibility of this substance renders it greatly superior to platinum for purposes of the Electric Light. As much as seventy years ago it was discovered by Sir Humphry Davy that carbon points may be rendered incandescent by means of a powerful electrical current. That philosoj^her in 1809 made the dis- covery here referred to while expei'imenting with the great battery of the Royal Institution in London. He observed, rather by accident than by design or previous anticipation, that a powerful electrical cur- rent, passing between two pointed bits of wood charcoal, produces tremendous heat and a light like that of the sun. It appears, how- ever, that the philosopher regarded the phenomenon rather in the nature of an interesting display of force than as a suggestion of the possibility of turning night into day. For nearly three quarters of a century the discovery made by Sir Humphry lay dormant among the great mass of scientific facts revealed in the laboratoi-y. In the course of time, however, the potency of the new fact began to be apprehended. The electric lamp in many forms was proposed and tried. The scientists Jfiardet, Wilde, Brush, Fuller, and many others of less note busied themselves with the work of invention. Especially did MM. Gramme and Siemens devote their scientific genius to the work of turning to good account the knowledge now fully possessed of the trausformability of the electric current into light. The experiments of these two distinguished inventors seemed to bring us to the dawn of a new era in artificial lighting. Tlie Russian 660 HISTORY OF THE UNITFW STATES. philosoplier Jabloclikoff carried the work still further hy the practical introduction of tlie carbon candle. Other scientistis — Carre, Foucault, Scri-in, EapiefF, and Werdei-rnann — had at an earlier or later day thrown much additional information into the common stock of knowl- edge relative to the illuniinating possibilities of electricity. Finally this accumulated material of science fell into the hands of our own untutored but remarkably brilliant and radical inventor, Thomas A. Edison, who gave himself with the utmost zeal to the work of remov- ing the remaining difficulties in the problem. He began his investiga- tions in this line of invention in September of 187S, and in December of the following year gave to the public his first formal statement of results. After many experiments with platinum, he abandoned that material in favor of the carbon-are in vacuo. The latter is, iiuleed, the essential feature of the Edison light. A small semicircle, or liorsi-- shoe, of some substance reduced to the form of jnire carbon, the two ends being attached to the poles of the generating machine, or '• dynamo," as the engine is popularly called, is enclosed in a glass bulb from which the air has been carefully withdrawn, and iij rendered incandescent l)y the passage of an electric current. The other impor- tant features of Edison's discovery relate to the divisibility of the cur- rent and its cf)ntrol and regidation in volume by the operator. These matters have been so fully mastered in the Edison invention as to render the apj^aratus as completely suliject to the management of even an unskilled manipulator as are the other varieties of illuminating apparatus. It were vain to speculate ujion the future of electric lighting. Doubtless the old systems of illumination are destined soon to give place altogether to the splendors of the electric glow. The general effects of the change upon society will, no doubt, be as marked as they are salutary. Darkness, the enemy of good government and morality in great cities, will in a great measure be dispelled by the beneficent agent over which the genius of Davy, Gramme, Brush, Edison, and a host of other explorers in the new continents of science has so nearly triumphed. The case, comfort, happiness, and welfare of mankind will be vastly multiplied; and we shall ever be reminded in the glow of the " light of the future " of that splendid fact, that the prog- ress of civilization depends in a large measure ujion the knowl- edge of nature's laws and the dift'usion of that knowledge among the ]>cople. The last decade has also been conspicuous for the number and character of the public works which have been projected or broughi AUTJiuii'.'^ Au.unyj.sriiA noN. 661 to completion within the period. In these the immense physical capacity of onr country and people has been am- ]ily illnstrated. Among the most important of the enterprises here re- ferred to may be men- tioned the great suspen- sion bridge over the strait known as the East Kiver, between N e w York and Brooklyn. The completion and for- mal opening of this work, which occurred on the 24th of May, 1883, was an event of such interest as to evoke universal at- tention and elicit many descriptions. The Brooklyn Bridge is the longest and largest structure of the kind in the world. The design was the work of the distinguished John A. Roebling, the originator of wire sus- pension bridges, under whose supervision and that of his son, Wash- ington A. Roebling, the structure was com- pleted.* * The personal history of ilie Roeblings, father and son, in connection with the great bridge, is as pathetic as it is interesting. The elder engineer was injured while laving th.e 662 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The East River striu'tiire is what is known as a suspension bridge, being supjtorted by four enormous wires or cables sti-etching from pier to pier a distance of 1,595 feet. From tlie main towers to the anchor- ages on eitlier side is 930 feet. From tlie ancliorages outward to the termini of tlie approaches is, on the New York side a distance of 1,562 feet, and on the Brooklyn side 972 feet, giving a total length of bridge and approaches of 5,989 feet. The total weight of the structure is (5,4-70 tons. The estimated capacity of support is l,7iO tons, though tiie ultimate resistance is calculated at 49,200 tons. The Brooklyn Bridge was first projected by William C. Kingsley, president of the bridge trustees, and his predecessor in that office, Henry C. Murphy ; the first plans and estimates were prepared in 1865. The company for the construction was organized two years afterward. The capital was fixed at $5,000,000. The enterprise was not pressed with due vigor until 1875, when the work was taken up bv the State of New York. A Board of Managers was appointed to bring tlie bridge to completion at as early a date as possible. Con- gress also patronized the enterprise to the extent of authorizing the construction of the work, which act was passed in June of 1869. The formal 'opening of the bridge in May of 1883 drew the attention of the whole nation to the metropolis, and proved by the interest which the event excited that the American people are still able to appreciate a great enterprise in art and mechanics, and to show by such appi-e- ciation that, even in America, politics is not the best vocation of mankind. On the whole, the administration of President Arthur proved to be uneventful. The government pursued the even tenor of its way, and the progress of the countiw was unchecked by serious calam- ity. In tlie domain of politics we may note the gradual obliteration of those sharply defined issues which for the last quarter of a century have divided the two great parties. As a consequence there has been a healthful abatement of partisan rancor. It is becoming every year more apparent that the (juestions at issue in the political arena are merely foundation of our of the shore piers on the 22d of July, 18611, and died of lockjaw. W. A. Roebling then took np his father's unfinished task. He continued the work of super- vision for about two years, wlieu lie was prostrated with a peculiar form of paralysis known as the " caisson disease," from wliicli he never fully recovered. His mental faculties, however, remained unimpaired, and he was able to direct with his eye what his hands could no longer touch. While tluis prostrated his wife discovered a genius almost equal to that other husband and her fatlier-iri-law. The palsied engineer, tlius re-enforced, continued for tive years to furnish plans lor the work wliich had been projected by his father. These (ilans were almost all drawn liy his wife, who never flagged in the great work which had fallen to her prostrate husband. la 1876 he was partly restored to health, and lived tu hear the applause which his genius and enterprise had merited. ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION. 6(13 factitious, and that tlie clamor of partisausliip is kept up for the most part by those wlio hope to gather tlie spoils of the political battle- iield. How much longer these ill-founded cries of alarm will serve the purpose of holding the people in line under the old party names is a question which none may solve with certainty. Meanwhile, the man who plows, or keeps the flock — the mechanic, the artisan, the merchant — will for the present, no doubt, continue to come forth at the call of the party leaders and vote as has been his wont on issues that are more imaginary tlian real, and whose only merit consists in the fact that a certain residue of patriotism is still the motive-force in the average American election. To the general tact, that party questions are no longer vital and dis- tinct, there is one general exception. It cannot be doubted that the American people are really and sincerely divided on the question of THE TARIFF. Whether the true policy of the United States is that of free trade or of a protective system is a fundamental issue, and the decision is not yet. Ever and anon, from the very foundation of the government to the present hour, this question has obtruded itself upon the attention of the people. It may be well, therefore, in this connection to state the various views which may be entertained on the subject. First, we have the doctrine of free trade pure and simple. The theory is this: The indications of profitable industry are founded in nature. A rich soil means agriculture ; a barren soil means something else. Beds of ore signify mining ; veins of petroleum, oil wells ; a headlong river, water-power ; a hill of silicon, glass-works ; a forest of ]iine, ship masts and coal-tar; bays, havens, and rivers, commerce. Free trade says that these things are the hints of the natural world as to liow human industry shall be exerted. The way to wealth, pros- perity, happiness, is to follow nature whithersoever she leads. To go against nature is to go against self-interest and common sense. " Let alone " is the motto of the system — hands off and no meddling with the plain conditions which are imposed on man by his environment. Let him who lives in the fecund valley till the soil and gather a hun- dred-fold. Let him who inhabits the rocky upland by river-side or bed of pent-up coal devote his energies to manufacturing. Let each procure from the other by exchange the necessities and conveniences of life which he could not himself produce but at a great disadvantage. Let the producer of raw material send it near or far to the manufacturer and receive in return the fabric which he must wear; the food wherewith lie must sustain his life. AVhy should he do otherwise? It is intend- ed that men should live together in amity. Neighbors should be at 664 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. peace. Different corainiiiiities should not quarrel. Nations should not iiglit. The harmonious order of civilization requires a world-wide exchange of products. Men are happier and richer when they give themselves freely to the laws of their environment, and toil in those holds of industry to which both their own dispositions and the benevo- lent linger of nature points the way. All contrivances of law which controvert or oppose these funda- mental conditions of legitimate industry are false in theory and per- nicious in application. If civil society assume to direct the industries of her people against the plain indications of nature, she becomes a tyrant. All laws which tend to divert the industrial energies of a nation from these pursuits which are indicated by the natural sur- roundings are hurtful, selfish, self-destructive, and, in the long run, weakening and degrading to the people. A tariff duty so laid as to build up one industry at the expense of another is a piece of barbarous intermeddling alike with the principles of connnoii sense and the in- herent rights of man. If free trade makes one nation dependent on another, then it also makes that other nation dependent on the first. The one can no more afford to fight the other than the other can af- ford to fight it. Hence free trade. It is beneficent and just. Hence a tariff' for revenue only. It is the true policy of government rela- tive to the interests of the people. Such is the theory of the free trader. The first remove from the doctrine of free trade proper is that of INCIDENTAL PRiiTECTioN. The primary assumptions of this theory are nearly identical with those above presented. Nearly all of the propo- sitions advanced by the free trader are accepted as correct by the inci- dental protectionist. The latter, however, holds some peculiar doc- trines of his own. He claims that men — as the doctrine of free trade teaches — should labor according to the indications of nature, and that the attempt on the part of government to divert the industries of the people from one channel to another is contrary to right reason and sound policy. But he also holds that since a tariff is the common means adopted by most of the civilized States of the world to produce the revenue whereby the expenses of the State are met and sustained, the same should be so levied as to be incidentally favorable to those industries of the people which are placed at a natural disadvantage. He does not hold that any tariff should be levied with the intention- of protecting and fostering a given industry, lint that in every case the tax should be laid for public purposes only — that is, with the intention of siistaininy the State, and be only incidentally directed to the pro- ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRA TION. 605 tection of the weaker iudiistiy. These last assumptions fnriiisli the ground of political divergence between free traders proper and in- cidental protectionists. The latter take into consideration both the fun- damental conditions of the argument and the peculiar character of the industries of the people. They claim that given pursuits may thus be strengthened and encouraged by legislative provisions, and that natural and political laws may be made to co-operate in varying and increasing the productive resources of the State. The third view as relative to this question is that of limited pro- tection. The fundamental difference between this theory and the preceding is this : The incidental protectionist denies, and the limited protectionist afiirms, the wisdom of levying tariff duties with the in- tention and j>urpose of protecting home industries. The limited pro- tectionist would have the legislation of the State take particular cog- nizance of the character of the industries of the jieople, and would have the laws enacted with constant reference to the encouragement of the weaker — generally the manufacturing — pursuits. The doctrine of incidental protection would stop short of tliis ; would adopt tlie theory of " let alone," so far as the original purpose of legislation is concerned, but would at the same time so shape the tariff that a needed stimulus should be given to certain industries. The limited protec- tionist agrees with the free trader in certain assumptions. The former as well as the latter assents to the proposition that the original con dition of industry is found in nature — in the environment of the laborer. But he also urges that the necessity for a varied industry is so great, so important, to the welfare and independence of a people as to justify the deflection of human energies by law to certain pursuits which could not be profitably followed but for the fact of protection. This he makes a reason for tariff legislation. He would make the weaker industry live and thrive liy tiie side of the stronger. He would modify the crude rules of nature by the higher rules of human reason. He would not only adapt man to his environment, but would adapt the environment to him. He would keep in view the strength and dignity of the State, and would be willing to incur temporary r some years alarmed lest through the failure of living issues the old combinations which have divided the country for a quarter of a century should go to pieces and leave the field to the people. But thus far the skill of partisans has been sufficient to cajole the masses into the l)elief that the old questions are still vital, and thus to keep alive the fires of a well-nigh extinct party strife. During the year 1883 many eminent men were named in coniiec-- tion with the presidential office. Among those most prominently and ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION. 6tjl) warmly advocated by the Republicans were James G. Blaine, of Maine ; George F. Edmunds, of Vermont ; President Arthur, of New- York; Joseph R. Hawley, of Connecticut; John Sherman, of Ohio; John A. Logan and Robert T. Lincoln, of Illinois ; and General Will- iam T. Sherman, of Missouri. Among the Democrats, the statesmen most frequently urged for the nomination in 1884 were General B. F. Butler, of Massachusett* ; Samuel J. Tilden and Grover Cleveland, of New York ; Samuel J. Randall, of Pennsylvania; Thomas F. 15ayard, of Delaware ; Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio ; John G. Carlisle, of Ken- tucky ; Joseph E. M'Donald and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. Early in 1884 Chicago was selected as the place of both the national conventions. Meanwhile the Greenback-Labor party held its conven- tion at Indianapolis in the month of April, and nominated Gen. B. F. Butler as a candidate for the presidency, and A. M. West, of Missis- sippi, for the vice-presidency, of the United States. The Republican convention met on the 3d of May, and after a spirited session of three days' duration brought its labors to an end by the nomination of James G. Blaine, of Maine, for president, and Gen. John A. Logan, of Illinois, for vice-president ; the Democratic delegates assembled on the 9th of July, and on the 11th of the month concluded their session by the nomination of Gov. Grover Cleveland, of New York, for the first place, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for the second, on the national ticket. Both the Republican and Democratic nominations were re- ceived with general enthusiasm, but large and powerful factions in both parties refused to support the nominee ; nor could it well be foreseen at the opening of the canvass of 1881: which party was likely to come out victorious in the battle of the ensuing autumn. As the summer wore away and the issues which the political parties had attempted to create were discussed before the people, the uncer- tainty became still greater. When the election drew^ nigh every thing seemed to depend upon the electoral votes of New^ York and Indiana. A close study of the situation revealed the fact that the latter State was Democratic, and would so record her vote. This fact narrowed the contest to the great State of New^ York. The event proved favorable to the Democrats, though their majority in the popular vote of the State was only 1,142. This small preponderance, however, was suffi- cient to determine the result ; it gave the vote of the Empire. State to ( 'leveland and Hendricks, assuring to them 219 ballots in the Electoral Colleee asainst 182 votes for Blaine and Logan. Do ' The sequel of the presidential election of this year was less happy than generally happens under like circumstances. It could hardly be 670 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. expected that the Ivepublicau managers and otRce-holders long occupy- ing the places of power would abdicate without expressions of dis- pleasure. Mr. Blaine himself soon after the election delivered a speech which, so far from being pacific in its tone, was, for the most part, a bitter invective against the South. The Republican newspapers, espe- cially in the West, took up the hue and cry, and for a while filled their columns with such matter as might well have appeared in the first year after the Civil War. By degrees, however, this feeling subsided and near the close of Artliur's administration the office-holders as a clas.s began to trim their sails with the evident hope that the breezes of Civil Service Reform, to which the President-elect was pledged, might waft them still farther on the high seas of power and emolument. Before the retirement of President Arthur the command of the Army of the United States was transferred from General William T. Sherman to General Philip H. Sheridan. The former distinguished officer, one of the most talented and eminent soldiers of the century, having reached the age at which, according to an act of Congress, he might retire from active service, availed himself of the provision and laid down his command. Tlie formal papers with which he concluded his official relations with the army were marked with the same fervor and patriotism which had characterized all of his utterances since the time when he gave his services to the country in the dark days of dis- union. Nor could it be said that the new chieftain, to whom the com- mand of the American army was now given, was less a patriot and sol- dier than his illustrious predecessor. The recurrence of the birthday of Washington, 1SS5, was noted for the dedication of the great monument which had been a-building for so many years at the capital. The erection of such a structure was sugajested as early as 1799. It was not, however, iintil 1835 that an organization was effected with a view to undertaking the work. For many years after the incipiency of the enterprise the building lagged, and it was not until the work had been energized by Congress that it was brought to completion. The cost of the completed monument was about a million live hundred thousand dollars. The structure is the highest in the world. Tiie shaft itself, without reckoning the founda- tion, is live hundred and fifty -five feet in height, being thirty feet higher than the Cathedral at Cologne, and seventy-five feet higher than the Pyramid of Cheops. The structure is composed of more than eighteen thousand blocks of stone. They are mostly of white marble and weigh several tons each. One hundred and eighty-one memorial stones, con- tributed by the different States of the Union and by friendly foreign AltTJIUR S ADMINISTRATION. 671 nations, are set at various places in the structure. The dedication occurred on Saturday, the 21st of February. The ceremonies were of the most imposing character. A procession of more than six thousand persons proceeded from the base of tlie monument along Pennsylvania Avenue to the Capitol, while salutes were fired from the batteries of the Navy Yard. At the Capitol the procession was reviewed by the GENERAT, PHILIP II. President of the United States. The concluding ceremonies were lield in the House of Representatives, where a great throng had assembled to honor the memory of the Father of his Country. The principal ora- tion, written by the Flonorable Roljert C. Winthrop, as well as the less formal addresses of the occasion, was well worthy of the event and cal- culated to add,— if aught could add — to the fame of him who was " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." ^i'l Hl^TOllY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER LXXI. CLEVELAND'S ADMINLSTRATION, 1S8S— G1 ROVER CLEVELAND, twenty-second President of the United ' States, was born at Caldwell, New Jersey, on the ISth of Marcli, 1837. Three years afterward he was taken by his father and mother to Fayetteville, near Syracuse, New York. Here in his boyhood he received such limited education as the schools of the place afforded. For a while in his youth he was clerk in a village store. Afterward the family removed lirst to Clinton and then to Holland Patent. At the latter place his father died, and young Cleveland, left to his own resources, went to New York and became a teacher in a blind asylum, in which an elder brother held a like position. After a short time, however, the young man finding such a pursuit uncongenial to his tastes, went to Buffalo and engaged in the study of law. He was admitted to the bar in 1859, and four years afterward began his public career as assistant dis- trict-attorney. Li 1869 he was elected sheriff of Erie County, and in 1881 was chosen mayor of Buffalo. Mr. Cleveland's next promotion by liis fellow-citizens was to the governorship of New York, to whicli position he was elected in 1882 by the astonishing majority of 192,s5-4— the majority being, perhaps, unparalleled in the history of American elections. It was M'hile he still held this office that, in July of 1884, he was called by the Demo- cratic national contention to be the .standard-bearer of his party in the presidential contest. GKOVEr: CLEVELAND. CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 673 The first duty of the new chief executive was to frame his cabinet. Public interest was not a little excited with the probabilities of the President's choice. On the day following the inauguration the nomi- nations were sent to the Senate, and were as follows : for secretary of state, Thomas F. Bayard, of Delaware ; for secretary of the treasury, Daniel Manning, of New York ; for sec- retary of the interi- or, Lucius Q. C. La- mar, of Mississippi ; for secretary of war, Wm. C. Endicott, of Massachusetts ; for secretary of the' na- vy, Wm. C. Whit- ney, of New York ; for postmaster-gen- eral, Wm. F. VHas, of Wisconsin ; for at- torney-general, Au- gustus H. Garland, of Arkansas. The peculiarity of the ap- pointments was that two of them were from NewYork ; but the prejudice which might arise on this account was fully counter-balanced by the high character and undoubted abil- ities of the men whom the President had chosen as the responsible advisers of his administration. The most serious question which confronted the new President, was the distribution of official patronage. The Democratic party had come into power on a platform distinctly enunciating the doctrine of reform in the civil service. From almost the beginning of the gov- ernment, it had been the custom of the party in power to distribute to its own partisans all the appointive offices. This usage, well estab- 43 THOMAS F. BATAED. OU HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. THOMAS A. HENDRICKS. it became all imjxirtaiit that lioth tlic ate, at least by professions of sj'iii- patliy, the growing phalanx of civil service reformers. They it was who, in the late election, be- lieving in the sincerity of Mr. Clcvelanch had thrown their in- fluence in his favor and thereby secured his elevation to tlie pres- ide^c^^ He went into office pledged to carry out the views of those by whose suffrages he liad been raised to power. These views, moreover, were his own, and it thus happened that the new administration was launched with " Civil Service Reform " in- ecribed on its pennon. It was oommant lished since the daye of President Jackson, had been the origin and canse of the great- er part of the abuses which had existed in the various depai't- ments of the govern- ment. Extreme party men had claimed al- ways that " to the vic- tors belong the spoils " of office. Of late years,- however, the best political opinion of the country has turned with disgust from the gross practice (if rewarding men for mere ])arty services ; and in the evenly bal- anced presidential con- tests of 1880 and 1884- larties should conciH- OEORGE n. McCLELLAN. CLEVELAND'^ ADMimsTIiA TION. 675 4MBK0SK E. BllCXSIDE. eoon seen, however, that the President would liave serious difficulty in carrying out his purpose. From the day of the inauguration, a great crowd of office-seekers thronged the capital, and the chief magistrate was besieged by Imn- dreds and thousands of those whose principal claims to preferment were that they had served the party. During the first year of the new administration it was a grave ques- tion whether or not the President would be able to stand by the flag of reform, or whether he would be (h'iven to re-adopt the cast-oif policy (if satisfying with official appoint- ments the hungry horde that surged around the presidential mansion. The last years of the Republic have been noted for two circum- stances, both of historical interest, and l)Oth relating to the Civil War. The first of these is the revival of the memory of that conflict, in au- thoritative publications, by some of the leading i)articipants. This work, so important to the right understanding of the great strug- gle for and against the Union, was begun by General AVilliam T. Sherman, who, in 1875, pub- lished his Memoii's, narrating the story of that part of the war in which he had been a leader. This had been preceded by the history of the Wae between THE States, by Alexander H. Stephens, late Vice-President of the Confederacy. In 1884 Gen- eral Grant began the publication of a series of war articles in the CenUiry Magazine, which at- tracted universal attention, and which led to the preparation and publication of his Memoirs in 1885-86. Similar contributions jo.sei'h hooker. 676 IIiarORT OF THE UNITED STATES. by other eminent commanders of the Union and Confederate armies followed in succession, until a large amount of able and impartiallitera- ture was left on record for the instruction of after times. The second fact referred to is the death, within the compass of a single year, of a number of the great Union generals who had led their armies to victory in the War of the Hebellion. It was in the early summer of 1885 that the attention of the people was called away from public affairs by the announcement that the veteran Gen- eral Ulysses S. Grant had been stricken with a fatal malady, and that his days would be but few among the living. The heart of the Na- tion M-as greatly sad- dened by the intelli- ence ; but not even the sj'mpathy of a great people could l)revail against or even postpone the approaching hour of fate. The hero of Vicksburg and Ap- pomattox sank under the ravages of a ma- lignant cancer, which had fixed itself in his throat, and, on July 23. died at a summer cottage on Mount McGregor, New fork. His last days were hallowed by the sympathies of the Nation which he had so gloriously defended. The news of his death passed over the land like the shadow of a great cloud. Almost every city and hamlet showed, in some appropriate way, its emblems of grief. The funeral ceremonies equaled, if they did not surpass, any which had ever been witnessed. The procession in New York city was, perhaps, the most solemn and imposing pageant ever exhibited in honor of the dead. On August 8, the body of General Grant was laid to rest in Eiverside Park, overlooking the Hudson. There, on a summit, from which may be seen the great river and the metropolis WINFIELU .S. HANCOCK. CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTUA TION. 677 of the Nation, is the tomb of him whose courage and magnanimity in war will forever give him rank with the few master spirits who, by their heroic deeds, liave honored the human race and changed the course of history. Within less than three months from the funeral of Grant another GEORGE G. MEADE. distinguished Union general fell. Ou the 29th of October. General George B. McCIellan, first commander of the Army of the Potomac, at one time general-in-chief, subsequently Democratic candidate for the presidency, and at a later period governor of New Jersey, died at his home at St. Cloud, in that State. The conspicuous part which he had borne during the first two years of the Civil War, his eminent abilities as a soldier and civilian, and his unblemished character as a 678 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. man and citizen, combined to lieigliten the estimate of his ilfe and services, and to evolve the sincerest expressions of national sorrow on the occasion of his deatli. After another Ijrief intci-val a tliird great military leader fell, in the person of General Wintield S. Hancock. Tiiis brave and generous commander was, at the time of his death, the senior major-general of the American army. Always a favorite with the people, he had, since the close of the war, occupied a cons])icuons place before the public. In 1880 he was the Democratic candidate for the presidency, and though defeated by (Tcneral Garfield, the defeat was without dis- honor. His death, which occurred at his home on Governor's Island, on the 9th of February, 18S6, was universally d( plored, and the pco])le omitted no mark of respect to the memory of him who, in the great struggle for the preservation of the Union, had been honored with the title of " Hero of Gettysburg." Thus have passed away the gal- lant generals of the Army of the Potomac. George B. McClellan, Ambrose E. Burnside, Joseph Hooker, George G. Meade, and Wiulield S. Hancock have one by one joined "Tlif iiinumorable caravan that moves To tluit mysterious realm where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death." Before the close of the year 1S86 still another, worthy to rank among the greatest of the Union commanders of the Civil War, ended his career on eartli. Late in December, Major-General John A. Logan, United States Senator from Illinois, fell sick at his home, called Calumet Place, in Washington City. His disease was rheu- matism, to which he had been subject at intervals since liis exposure and hardships in the early Western campaigns of the war. After a few days' illness he became suddenly worse, sank into a comatose con- dition, and on the 26tli of the month quietly l)reathed his last. His military and civil career had been distinguished in the highest degree. At the outbreak of hostilities, in 1861, few men did more than Logan to strengthen and unify the Union sentiment in the wavering Border States. His voice was a clarion, heard shrill and far above the con- fusion and uproar of the times. Besigning his seat in Congress he joined the first advance of the Union army, and fought in the battle of Bull Run. Without previous military training he rose rapidly to distinction, and became the volunteer general par excellence of the war. After the close of the conflict he returned to political life, and was chosen United States Senator from Illinois. In 1884 he was CLE VELAJSTD'S ADMINLS TRA TION. 679 nominated for the vice-presidenc}' on the Republican ticket with James G. Blaine. That ticket being defeated, he I'esumed his duties in the Senate, and remained at his post until his death. The ceremonies of his funeral and the general voice of the American press indicated in an unmistakable manner the enduring place which he had mer- ited and won in the alfections of the people. In the meantime a great civilian had fallen at his post of duty. On Nov. 25, 1885, Vice-President Thomas A. Hendricks, after what was supposed to be a trifling illness of a single day, died suddenly at his home in Indianapolis. The fatal message came in the form of paral- ysis. Not a moment's warning was given of the approach of that pale courier who knocks iiupartially at the door of the peasant and the portal of the great. The life of Mr. Hendricks had been one of singular purity, and the amenities of his character had been for many years conspicuous in the stormy arena of American politics. The goodness and greatness of the man, combined with his distinction as governor, senator, and vice-president, served to draw /"rom the peo- ple every evidence of public and private respect for his memory. The body of the dead statesman was buried in Crown Hill Cemetery, near Indianapolis, the funeral pageant surpassing in grandeur and solemnity any other display of tlie kind ever witnessed in the Wes- tern States, except the funeral of Lincoln. The death of the Vice-President was soon followed by that of Horatio Seymour, of New York. On the 12th of February, 1886, this distinguished citizen, who had been governor of the Empire State, and, in 1868, candidate of the Democratic party for the presi- dency against General Grant, died at his home in Utica. He had reached the age of seventy-six, and, though for many years living in retirement, had never ceased to hold a large share of the attention of his fellow-citizens. Still more distinguished in reputation and ability was Samuel J. Tilden, also of the Empire State, who died at his home. JOHN A. LOOAN. 680 HISTORY OF TUB UNITED STA TBS. called Greystone, at Yonkers, near New York City, on the dtli of August, 1886. Mr. Tilden had lived to make a marked — perhaps inef- faceable — impression on the political thouglit of the epoch. lie had acquired within the lines of his own jiarty an influence and ascendency far greater than that of any other statesman of his times. His intel- lectual force could not be doubted, nor could it be claimed that he failed to apply his faculties assid- uously to the greatest political questions of the age. Mr. Tilden was born on the l-±th of February, 1814, and was thus in the 73d year of his age at the time of his death. He had been a ])rominent figure in his native State for fully forty years, and had held many places of public trust and honor. In 1870-71 he was among the foremost in unearthing the astounding frauds and robberies which had been perpetrated on the city of New York, and in the fol- lowing year was sent to the General Assembly, where his services were invaluable. In 1874 he was elected Governor of New York by a inajoi-- ity of more than 50,000 votes. In the executive office he was one of the ablest and most thorough-going who ever occupied the gubernatorial chair of the State. In 1876 he was nominated for the presidency, and at the election of that year received a large majority of the popular vote, only failing of a majority in the electoral college because of the tactics of the leaders of the party in power. Neither he nor General Hayes was clearly elected, the Democrats having carried two or three States with the shot-gun, and the Eepublicans, by the aid of the Electoral Commission, having counted in the electoral votes of a State or two which they did not carry at all. After the contest Mr. Tilden retired to private life, but continued to guide the counsels of his party and to influence public opinion up to tiie date of his death. Perliaps one of his ablest — as it was his last — public paper was a general letter on the subject of " The Coast and Harbor Defenses of the United States," a jmblication which clearly led to the legislation of the Forty -ninth Con- SAMLEL J. TILDEN. CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRA TION. 681 gress on that iiiiportaiit subject. Thus, within tiie space of less than eleven months, four of those eminent American statesmen who had been candidates of the Democratic party for the presidency of the United States, and the distinguished Vice-President recently chosen by tliat party to the second place of honor in the Government, had fallen from their places in the ranks of the living. To this list of the American great whose earthly activities have recently ended in death must still be added the illustrious name of Henry Ward Beecher. To liim, with little reservation, must be as- signed the first place among our orators and philanthropists. Nor is it likely that his equal in most of the sublime qualities of energ^^ and manhood will soon be seen aijain on the great stage of life. His personality was so large, so unique, and striking, as to consti- tute the man in some sense sui generis. His kind is rare in the world, and the circumstances which aided in his development have passed away. That fact in Amer- ican history — the institution of slavery — which brought out and displayed the higher jnoods of his anger and stormy eloquence cannot again arouse the indigna- tion of genius. The knight and his dangerous foil sleep together in the dust. Mr. Beecher had the happy fortune to retain his faculties unim- paired to the very close of his career. On the evening of the 5th of March, 1887, at his home in Brooklyn, surrounded by his family, with no premonition or portent, the message came by apoplexy. An artery broke in the magnificent, heavy brain, that had been for more than forty years one of the greatest batteries of thought and action in the world, and tiie aged orator, nearing the close of his seventy-fourth year, sank into that deep sleep from which no power on earth could wake him. He lived until the morning of the 8th, and quietly entered the shadows. The sentiments awakened by his death, the circum- stances of his sepulture, and the common eulogium of mankind, proved HENRY WARD BEKtHER. 682 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. beyond doubt the supreme place which lie had occupied in the ad- miring esteem, not only of his own countrymen, but of all the great " peoples of the world. Another distinguished name to Ije added to the American necrology of the decade is that of Morrison Keniich Waite, Chief Justice of the United States. His death occurred at his home, in "Washington City, on the 23d day of March, 1S8S. The event suggests and justifies the addition of a few jjaragrajjhs rela- tive to the history and personnel of that great tribunal over which Judge AVaite presided during the last fourteen years of his life. In the formation of the Consti- tution of the United States it was intended that the three general de- jiurtments of the Government should be of correlative rank and iuHuence. The sequel, liowever, as developed and illustrated in the actual working of our national system, has shown that the execu- tive and legislative departments ]>redominate, naturall}', perhaps in- evitably, over the judicial branch, and that, in the popular estimate, at least, the supreme court is of small importance as compared with the ]iresidency and the two houses of Congress. This disesteem of the judiciary is not verified by a broader and more philosophical view of the subject. The importance, especially, of the conservative 0]iiiiion of our great national court, in determining, at least negatively, the final validity of all legislati and 1884, the critical States were New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Indiana. In all of the other Northern States the Republicans were almost certain to win, while the Democrats were equally certain of success in all the South. In the last weeks of the campaign General Harrison grew in favt>r, and his party gained perceptibly to the close. The result showed success for the Repuljlican candidate. He received 233 electoral votes, against ItiS votes for Mr. Cleveland. The latter, however, appeared to a better advantage on the popular count, having a considerable majority over General Harrison. General Fisk, the Prohibition candidate, received neai-ly three hun- dred thousand votes ; but under the system of voting no electoral \-ote of any State was obtained for him in the so-called " College," by which the actual choice is made. As soon as the result was known the excite- ment attendant upon the campaign subsided and political questions gave place to other interests. CLEVELAND'S ADMINiaTRATION. 695 The last days of Cleveland's administration and of the Fiftieth Congress were signalized by the admission into the Union of Fouk New States, making the number forty-two. Since the incoming of Colorado, in 1876, no State had been added to the Eepublic. Mean- while the tremendous tides of population had contimied to flow to the west and north-west, rapidly tilling up the great Territories. Of these tlie greatest was Dakota, with its area of 150,932 square miles. In 1887 the question of dividing the Territory by a line running east and west was agitated, and the measure finally prevailed. Steps were taken bj' the people of both sections for admission into the Union. Montana, with her 145,776 square miles of territory, had meanwhile acquired a sufficient population ; and Washington Territory, with its area of 69,994 square miles, also knocked for admission. In the closing days of the Fiftieth Congress a bill was passed raising all these four Territories — South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana, and "Washington — to the plane of Statehood. The Act contemplated the adoption of State Constitutions, and a proclamation of admission by the next President. It thus happened that the honor of bringing in this great addition to the States of tlie Union was divided between the outgoing and incoming administrations. Another Act of Congress was also of national importance. Hith- erto the government had been administered through seven departments, at the head of each of which was placed a Cabinet officer, the seven together constituting the advisers of the President. No provision for such an arrangement exists in the Constitution of the United States ; but the statutes of the Nation provide for such a system as most in accordance with the republican form of government. Early in 1889 a measure was brought forward in Congress and adopted for the institu- tion of a new department, to be called the Department of Agriculture. Practically the measure involved the elevation of what had previously been an Agricultural Bureau in the Department of the Interior to the rank of a Cabinet office. Among foreign nations France has been con- spicuous for the patronage which the Government has given to the agricultural pursuits of that country. Hitherto in the United States, tlioiigh agriculture has been the greatest of all the producing interests of the people, it has been neglected for more pohtical and less useful departments of American life and enterprise. By this act of Congress the Cabinet offices were increased in number to eight instead of seven. 696 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER LXXII. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION, 1SS9 . BENJAMIN HARRISON, twenty-third President of tlie United States, was born at Nortli Bend, (.)hio, on the 2(ltli of Angust, 1833. He is the son of Jolm Scott Harrison, a prominent citizen of liis native State ; grandson of President William Henry Harrison ; great- grandson of Benjamin Harrison, signer of the Declaration of Inde- pendence. In countries wliei'e attention is paid to honorable lineage the circumstances of General Har- rison's descent would be considered of much importance ; but in Amer- ica little attention is paid to one's ancestry, and more to himself. Harrison's early life was passed as that of other American boys, in attendance at school and at home duties on the farm. He was a student at the institution called Farmers' College for two years. Afterwards he attended Miami University, at Oxford, Ohio, and was graduated therefrom in June, 1852. He took in marriage the daughter of Dr. Jolm W. Scott, President of the University. After a course of study he entered the profession of law, removing to Indianapolis and establishing himself in that city. With the outlireak of the War he became a soldier of the Uniy a deputation from Congress to escoi-t him to tlie city. The passage of the harbor was sufficiently beautified with civic ceremonies ; the boats were decorated with flags, and gay barges glided through the shining water. The President himself crossed over in a barge. It is said tliat every vessel in the great harbor was in full dress of streamers and flags, wliile at several points groups of singers saluted tlie President with music as he passed. Governor George Clinton, of New York, liad been commissioned to receive Washington at the ferry. The stairs were carpeted leading u]) from the water to the shore ; there Clinton received tlie Father of his Country. As soon as Washington's figure I'ose to view the assembled peo])le broke out in shouts long con- tinued and the excitement swirled tlirough tlie city when it was known that the new President liad really arrived. Tliis was on the 23d of April, 1789. New York at tlie time of which we speak was limited to the lower 704 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. end of Manliattan Island. It was no more than a speck in comparison with tlie Centennial Metropolis of the nation. Its northern limits were marked by the building of the New York Times. Immediately north of this lay a lake, called the Collect Pond, about sixty feet in depth, covering that part of the city now occupied l)y the Tombs. It is said that tlie capitalists, even the adventurers, of that day, were without faith as to the futui-e extension of the city northward. The population was apjiroximiitely forty thousand. Water was dis- tributed to the citizens in hydi'ants and drawn from what was known as the Old Tea-Water Pump standing at the head of Pearl Street. No system of public sti-ect cleaning had been adopted. The streets were lighted with oil lamps. Much of tlie work was done by slaves, and slave auctions wei-e at that time still a common occurrence. General Washington ^\-as conducted to the residence which had been prepared for him in Franklin Square, and a programme was made out by Congress for the inauguration, which was set for the 3()th of April. The stately and yet successful formalities of the oc- casion ai'e fully set forth in the following memorandum fi-om the first records of Congress: A])ril 2(lth, 1789. The committees of both houses of Congress, appointed to take order for conducting; tlie ceremonial of the formal reception, &c., of the President of the United States, on Thursday next, have agreed to the following order thereon, viz. : That General Webb, Colonel Smith, Lieutenant Colonel Fish, Lieutenant Col- onel Franks, Major L'Enfant, Major Bleecker, and Mr. John R. Livingston, be re- quested to serve as assistants on the occasion. ■ That a chair be placed in the Senate Chamber for the President of the United States. That a chair be placed in the Senate Chamber for the Vice-President, to the right of the President's chair; and that the Senators take their seats on that side of the chamber on which the Vice-President's chair shall be placed. That a chair be ))laced in the Senate Chamber for the Speaker of the House of Repre- sentatives, to the left of the President's chair — and that the Representatives take their seats on that side of the chamber on which the Speaker's chair shall be placed. That seats be provided in the Senate Chamber sufficient to accommodate the late president of Congress, the governor of the Western teiTitory, the five persons being the heads of three great departments, theMinister Plenipotentiary of France, the Encargado de negocios of Spain, the chaplains of Congress, tlie persons in the suite of the President, and also to accommodate the following Public Officers of the State, viz.: The Governor, the Lieutenant-Governor, the Chancellor, tlie Chief Justice, and other judges of the Supreme Court, and the Mayor of the city. That one of the assistants wait on these gentlemen, and inform them that seats are pro- vided for their accommodation, and also to signify to them that no precedence of seats is intended, and that no salutation is expected from them on their entrance into, or their departure from, the Senate Chamber. MABRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 705 That the members of both houses asserabU' in their respective Chambers pre- cisely at twelve o'clock, and that the representatives preceded by the Speaker, and attended by their clerk, and other officers, proceed to the Senate Chamber, there to be received by the Vice-President and the senators rising. That the Committees attend the President from his residence to the Senate Chamber, and that he be there received by the Vice-President, tlie senators and representatives rising, and be by the Vice-President conducted to his chair. That after the President shall be seated in his chair, and the Vice-President, senators and representatives sliall be again seated, the Vice-President shall an- nounce to the President, that the members of both houses will attend him to be present at his taking the Oath of Office required by the Constitution. To the end that the Oath of Office may be administered to the President in the most public manner, and that the greatest number of the people of the United States, anl without distinction, may be witnesses to the solemnity, that therefore the Oath be administered in the outer gallery adjoining to the Senate Chamber. That when the President shall proceed to the gallery to take the Oath, he be attended by the Vice-President, and be followed by the Chancellor of the State, and pass through the middle door; that the Senators pass through the door on the right; and the Representatives, preceded by the Speaker, pass through the door on the left; and such of the persons who shall have been admitted into the Senate Chamber, and may be desirous to go into the gallery, are then also to pass through the door on the right. When the President shall have taken the Oath, and returned into the Senate Chamber, attended by the Vice-President, and shall be seated in his chair, that the Senators and the Kepresentatives also return into the Senate Chamber, and that the Vice-President and they resume their respective seats. Both Houses having resolved to accompany the President, after he shall have taken the Oath, to St. Paul's Chapel, to hear divine service, to be performed by the chaplain of Congress, that the following order of procession be observed, viz.: The door-keeper and messenger of the House of Representatives. The clerk of the House. The Representatives. The Speaker. The President, with the Vice- President at his left hand. The Senators. The Secretary of the Senate. The door-keeper, and messenger of the Senate. That a pew be reserved for the President, Vice-President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and the Committees ; and that pews be also reserved sufficient for the reception of the Senators and Representatives. That after divine service shall be performed, the President be received at the door of the Church, by the Committees, and by them attended in carriages to his residence. That it be intrusted to the assistants to take jjroper precautions for the keep- ing the avenues to the Hall open, and that for that purpose, they wait on his Ex- cellency, the Governor of this State, and in the name of the Committees request his aid, by an order of recommendation to the Civil Officers, or militia of the city, to attend and serve on the occasion, as he shall judge most proper. New York, as New York then was, had made great preparations to receive the Chief Magistrate. On the morning of the 30th, a national salnte was fired; tlie hells Imrst out merrily from all the 45 70tj HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. steeples of the city. The newspapers of tlie day desci-ihed the scene as especially impressive. Tlie people were called to attend church at nine o'clock in the morning. The beginning of the inangnral procession was set for noon-day ; and promptly at that hour the President's car- riage, followed by a train of attendants, proceeded from the house in Cherry Street, which had been appointed as his residence, tlirougli what was then Queen, Great Dock, and Broad Streets to the Old Federal Hall, where the ceremonies of the inauguration were to take place. The order of march is worthy of commemoration ; for this, as well as many other circumstances, tends to set in .strongest conti'ast tlie first inauguration with that of its Centemiial recun-ence. Col. Mi)R(;an Lewis, Attended t)y two officers. Capt. Stakes, With the Troop of Horse. Artillery. Maj. Van IIohne. Grenadiers, under Capt. Harsin. German Grenadiers, very gayly attired, under Capt. Scriba. Major Bicker. The Infantry of the Brigade. Major Chryslie. Sheriff. Committee of the Senate. . President-elect, Assistants. \ In a tharidt drawn liy four horses. )■ Assistants. •■5 I ' His Suite. G '. Committee of the Re])rcscntatives. Hon. Mr. -Jay, Secretary of Foreign AfTairs. Gen. Knox, Secretary of War. Chancellor Livingston. Several gentlemen of distinction. Arrangements had lieen made for the reception ;TML B ST. 1 [ MK. -I CHANCELLOR EGBERT K. LIVINGSTON AMUSL A, OTIS, GEORGE WASHINGTON JOHN' ADAMS. WASHINGTON TAKING THE OATH AS PRESIDENT, APRIL 30, 1789, ON THE SITE OF THE PRESENT TREASURY BOILDING, WALL STREET, NEW YORK CITV. 708 UlsrOltY OF THE UNITED STATES. President-elect, with the Chief Officers of the new Republic, the Senate and House of Representatives, repaired by the left and right to the balcony in front of the Hall, looking down in Wall Street, wliere the assembled throng awaited the administration of the oath of office. To this duty Chancellor Robert R. Livingston, Chief -justice of Kew York, had been appointed. Perhaps no scene of public induction into (.>ffice was ever more solenm or impressive. The chief figure was that of the Fatlier of his Country, conspicuous by his height, and still more conspicuous by the grandeur and impress! veness of his demeanor. Tlie oath of office was administered on tlie Biljle, opened before Washington, whereon he laid his hand, and to which he pressed his lips at the conclusion of the oath. This done. Chancellor Livingston raised his voice, and witli a gesture cried : '* Long live George Wash- ington, President of the United States." Immediately afterward the throng burst out in wild cheering ; shouts echoed through the city, and the bells rang out their peal of gladness at the auspicious event. Re- turning to the Senate Chamber Wasliington delivered an inaugural address, not elaborate and formal, as such papers have become in the course of our history, but brief, and affecting to those who heard it.* As soon as the exercises at the Federal Hall were over Washing- ton, attended by the chief officers of tlie government, and the Senate, repaired to the old St. Paul's Chapel, where divine services were held, and a sermon preached by Bishop Provost of the Protestant Epis- copal Church. This concluded the formal exercises of the day. With the coming of night the city was brilliantly illuminated. The people poured into the streets ; shouts rang out on the evening air, and a uni- versal joy seemed to prevail, which was but the conspicuous example of the common rejoicing in all tlie States. It is fitting to note once more that Washington furnishes the only purely and altsolutely non-partisan figure in the history of the United States of America. Already in the Colonial times local *It is worthy of note that AVasliington, at the time of the inauguration, though only 51 years of age. was already an old man. He had gone into the Revohitiou a young man, but was now aged, gray, enfeebled by the strenuous services and great anxieties to which he had been subjected through a period of fourteen years. He was still erect, majestic, firm in his step, with a certain serene dignity of countenance which has hardly had a parallel among all the great men who have risen on this side of the sea. But it was noticed by those in the Senate Chamber, on the day of his inauguration, that his voice was not a little enfeebled. He spoke in a low tone, and could be heard only by those who were sitting near. Perhaps tlie premonitory shadows of the serious and long-continued illness, which fell upon him within two months after his inauguration, were already gathering on the day of his accession to the Presidency. HAHJilSON'ii ADMINISTRA TION. 709 Ul.ll fil'. PAILS CilUKCll, JiRdADWAV, NEW YOKK. divisions had given rise to local partisan controversy, and at the time of Washington's inanguration — even before that inauguration — a great dis- pnte, relative lirst of all to the Constitution itself, whether it should or should not be, and after that, relative to the construction of the great instrument, had broken out in all the States. Little jets of flame were already springing through the placid surface of public affairs, indica- tive of the great Federal and Democratic partisan disputes which have hardly yet ceased to agitate the American mind. But in this Wash- ington had no part or lot. He stood proudly above it. His theory was to introduce into his administration the diverse elements of polit- ical belief, and to harmoDize under his benign, fatherly influence the 710 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. opposing forces wliicli tlireatened to distract, if not to destroy, tlie very system to wbich he liad now pledged his all. Tiii'iiiiig from the actual inaiiguratioii of the lirst President to the conimeiuoration of that event one hundred years afterward, we notice first of all the incipiency of the enterprise. As early as March of 1SS3, a resolution was introduced into the Legislature of Tennessee re- questing Congress to make a suitable appro])riation for the observance of the Centenary of the Ameiican government. The measure is said to have originated with Colonel J. E. Peyton of New Jersey, who, thougli an Englishman by birth, had for a number of years l)een prominent as a mover and deviser of Centennial celebrations. It is perhaps true that to him the first movement in favor of the comniemoi-ative exer- cises of 1S89 must be attributed. Practically, however, the celebi-atiou originated with the New York Historical Society. In March of 1884 that body passed a resolu- tion to undertake the enterprise. The project was then espoused l)y the Chamber of Commerce ; and Congress and the State of New York were asked to indorse and support the measure. So far as the citizens of New York were concerned, their first public interest was excited l)y Colonel Peyton and Algernon S. Sullivan. A meeting was held at the Fifth Avenue Hotel, on tiie 1st of September, 188-t, and formal steps began to be taken for the celebration. It was not, however, until 1887, and near the close of that year, that a committee of forty -nine citizens, with Mayor Abram S. Hewitt as chairman, was appointed for genei-al supervision of the project. Many prominent citizens of New York, capitalists, military men, merchants, and othei-s esiJoused the cause, and by the beginning of 1888 the enterprise was well under way. At an early date it was determined that the commemorative cele- bration should conform as nearly as practicable to the actual inaugura- tion of Washington. To this end it was decided to invite the President of the United States, whoever he should be, to visit New York, going approximately by the same route which had carried Washington thither one hundred years ago, to be received in like maii- ner. conducted across the harbor in a similar vessel, and to be presented in Wall Street, on the very spot M-here Washington was inaugurated, and where a Centennial oration commemorative of the progress and glory of the Ameiican people was to l)e delivered. About this central idea all the other features of the celeln-ation were clustered. The event was totally different in character from the great expositions which had been connected with most Centennial celebrations. The Juliilees of France ; the great World's Fairs of England ; and our own Cen- HARBISON'S ADMINISTMATION. 711 teimial Exposition at Philadelphia, in 1870, were of this kind. Eut in the case of the uoninienioration of the American government, now undertaken, the feature of exposition was wholly omitted. Every thing was made truly commemorative — designed to point backward to the events of a century ago, and to evoke, through the shadows of several generations, a vivid recollection of the condition of the American people and the American Republic, when the latter was instituted. During the whole of 1888, and the first months of 1889, the pre- liminaries were prosecuted with zeal by the C'itizens" Committee of New York. Meanwhile the presidential election had been held in which the temporary ascendency of the Democratic party was replaced by Republican success. Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, was chosen President. Ex-President Cleveland retired at the close of his adminis- tration to New York city, and became a resident of that metropolis. Happily enough, the incoming Chief Magistrate was intimately asso- ciated in his family relations with the great events of the Revolution. His great-grandfather, also named Benjamin Harrison, had presided in the Colonial Congress when the Declaration of Independence was adopt- ed, Mr. Hancock being absent from the chair on that ever memorable day. The son of that distinguished statesman liad become ninth Pres- ident of the United States, and now the great-grandson was chosen by the election of the American people to the same high office and dignity. It was foreseen that the celebration would Ijring to New York city a vast concourse of people, and the event justified the expectations. It had been decided by the conmiittee to devote two days to the com- memorative exercises, namely, the 30th of April, and the 1st of May. For perhaps two weeks before these days the great trains on the many railways centering in the metropolis began to pour out an unusual cargo of Inmian life. They grew longer, and darker with their burden, until, by the 2!»th of April, the city of New York was a mass of living beings gathered from all parts of the Republic, but principally froiri the old thirteen States. Next after these, the five great States com- posing what was a hundred years ago the territory north-west of the river Ohio were best represented. It is probable that at the time of the celel)ration New York proper held for her own population about 1,750,000 inhabitants, and a fair estimate would perhaps place the strangers then in the city at fully a half million. For three days before the formal opening of the celebration, the Atlantic coast in the region of New York was visited with a great rain storm, which threatened to mar all that had been attempted, but on the 29th of the month the skies cleared, the air became fresh, and 712 BISTORT OF THE UNITED STATES. the sunshine bright. Tlie morning of the Centennial day was nsliered in as auspiciously as could be desired, and the metropolis was early astir for the great event. Meanwhile arrangements lunl been made for President Harrison, Vice-Pi-esident Morton, the meml)ers of the Cabinet, and other promi- nent men connected with the government, to go to tlie city from Washington. To this end a magnificent train was prepared by the managers of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and a little after micjnight on the morning of the 29th the President and his companions left Wash- ington. They were received at several points eti route with nnicli enthusiasm, and as the train drew near New York the stations and towns were crowded with people. At Elizabethtown the i"eal imitation of of the Washington inaugural began. Here a committee sent out from New York met the President and prepared to conduct him across the bay. A steamer called the Despatch had been prepared for this es- pecial purpose. She was gaily decked with flags and streamers. The upper harljor of New York had been given up to the shipping, which was placed under the command of Admiral Porter. The scene pre- sented from the observatory of the Field Building, erected on the site of Washington's old head-quarters at the lower end of the island, was one of the finest ever witnessed. The broad harbor w^as covered with vessels, and gaily decorated ships of foreign nations \ied ^vith the American craft in flinging their streamers to the breeze. We may here speak of tlie general appearance of the city. Every pains had been taken to put the meti'opolis into gala dress and to present to tlie eye the most inspiring spectacle. Never was a city more completely clad in gay apparel. Every street on both sides as fiir as the eye could reach was ornamented with flags and streamers, mottoes, and emblems of jubilee. In this respect Broadway and Fifth Avenue were the most elaborately and beautifully adorned. It is doubtful whetlier in the history of mankind a finer display has been made in the streets of any city. The decorations extended to every variety of public and private edifices. Scarcely a house on Manhattan Island but had its share in the display. Indeed, if one had been lifted in a balloon above old Castle Garden, sweeping northward with his glass he would have seen flags on flags from the Battery to Spuyten Duyvil. Along both sides of the North River and East River and in the islands of the bay the universal emblems were flung to the breeze. And the purest of sunshine glorified the scene with a blaze of morning light. The convoy of the Despatch., under command of Captain Am- brose Snow, of the New York Marine Society, was rowed by twelve EARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 713 venerable retired sea captains. The scene was sufficiently picturesque as they brought the President safely to land in the barge called tiie Queen Kap'wlani. The landing was effected a little after noon-day. The President was received by Mayor Grant, Governor Hill, and Stnyvesant Fish. The procession had been arranged from the foot of Wall Street to the great building of the Equitable Assurance Company in Broadway, where, under the auspices of the Lawyers' Club of New York, the first formal reception of the President occurred. As soon as General Harrison had taken his carriage the procession moved to the Equitable Building, where, on a raised platform, the President, the Vice-President, and Gov- ernor Hill were introduced to the invited guests, most of whom had taken part in the procession. In the next place the President lunched in an adjoining private room, the ornamentation of which, for this oc- casion, is said to have cost nearly $5,000. At this time the narrow streets in the lower part of tlie metropolis were packed with eager people. It was with difficulty that the troops, drawn up in a hollow square in front of the Equitable building, were able to keep back the crowds. Meanwhile many bands, especially those of Gilmore and Cappa, discoursed national airs, while in distant parts of the city the hum and roar of the rising excitement could be distinctly heard. It must be borne in mind that the part assigned to President Har- rison in these commemorative exercises was the part of Washington. He was to impersonate the Father of his Country. Tiie next movement of the concourse was from the Equitable Building to the City Hall, where another reception was given. A splendid platform, covered with plush materials, railed in with brass, was erected on the spot where the bodies of Abraham Lincoln and General Grant had lain in state in death, and where the Marquis of Lafayette had stood on his visit to New York in 1824. About 5,000 persons at this place were received by the President. After the close of the exercises at City Hall the President was taken to the residence of Vice-President Mor- ton on Fifth Avenue, whither his wife had already preceded him. In the evening he dined with Mr. Stuyvesant Fish in Gramercy Park, and at a later hour attended the great ball in the Metropolitan Opera House, which had been prepared in imitation and commemoration of the Washingtonian ball given on the occasion of the first inauguration, at which the Father of his Country led the first cotillon. Thus closed the ceremonies of the 29th of April, the day preceding the comtnemo- rative exercises proper. On the followincr morning the inhabitants of New York, and hun- '-' - r ,e¥mm«'' sun- IKEASTRY, WALL AS'D NASSAU STRKKTS. NF.W YORK. HARRrSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 715 dreds of tliousands of strangers, poured into the streets to witness tiie great military parade which was to be the feature of the day. Mean- while in the lower part of the city the exercises which had been planned in imitation and eommenioratiou of Washington's accession to the presidency were under way. Wall Street and Broad Street were packed with people. A great platform had been erected in front of the Treasury building, now occupying the site of old Federal liall, and marked by the presence of Ward's colossal statue of Washington. It was here that the oratorical and literary exercises were to take place. These were to consist of a Centennial oration by Hon. Chauncey M. Depew, also of an address by President Harrison, of a poem by John Greenleaf Whittier, and of such religious services as were appropriate to the occasion. Several of the leading clergymen of the metropolis were present on the stand. Archbishop Corrigan, Dr. Richard S. Storrs, and Dr. Henry C. Potter, bishop of New York, were the most distinguished of the group. The exercises were opened by Mr. Elbridge T. Gerry, who in a few explanatory words introduced Dr. Storrs, who pronounced the invoca- tion. The accessories were all in keeping with the occasion. President Harrison sat in a chair which had been much used by Washington. The table also was Washington's, and the Bible which was laid thereon was that on which the Father of his Countr}- had taken the solemn oath to support and defend the Constitution of the United States. The Whittier poem was then read by Mr. C. W. Bowen, secretary of the Citizens' Committee, as follows : THE VOW OF WASHINGTON. BY JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. The sword was sheathed; in April's sun Lay green the fields by freedom won ; And severed sections, weary of debates, Joined hands at last, and were United States. O, city sitting by the sea! How proud the day that dawned on thee; When the New Era, long desired, began. And in its need the hour had found the Man! One thought the cannon's salvos spoke; The resonant bell-tower's vibrant stroke; The voiceful streets, the plaudit-echoing halls. And prayer and hymn borne heavenward from St. Paul's. 716 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. How felt the land iu every part The strong throb of a nation's heart As its great leader gave, -with reverent awe, His pledge to Union, Liberty, and Law. That pledge the heavens above him heard ; That vow the sleep of centuries stirred ; In world-wide wonder listening peoples bent Their gaze on freedom's great experiment. Could it succeed? Of honor sold And hopes deceived all history told ; Above the wrecks that strewed the mournful jiast Was the long dream of ages true at last ? Thank God! The people's choice was just; The one man equal to his trust ; Wise beyond lore and without weakness good, Calm in the strength of flawless rectitude. His rule of justice, order, peace, Made possible the world's release ; Taught prince and serf that power is but a trust, And rule alone which serves the ruled is just. That freedom generous is, but strong In hate of fraud and selfish wrong — Pretense that turns her holy truths to lies, And lawless license masking in her guise. Land of his love! with one glad voice Let thy great sisterhood rejoice ; A century's suns o'er thee have risen and set And, God be praised ! we are One Nation yet. And still we trust the years to be Shall prove his hope was destiny; Leaving our flag with all its added stars Unrent by faction and unstained by wars. Lo! where with patient toil he nursed And trained the new set plant at first, The widening branches of a stately tree Stretch from the sunrise to the sunset sea. And in its broad and sheltering shade, Sifting with none to make afraid, Were we now silent through each mighty limb The winds of heaven would sing the praise of him. Our first and best ! his ashes lie Beneath his own Virginian sky. Forgive, forget, O true and just and brave, The storm that swept above thy sacred grave. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 717 Forever in the awful strife Aud dark Iiours of the nation's life, TliroLigli the fierce tumult pierced his warning word; Their father's voice his erring children heard. The change for which he prayed and sought In that sharp agony was wrought; No partial interest draws its alien line 'Twixt North and South, the cypress and the pine. One people now, all doubt beyond. His name shall be our union bond; We lift our hands to heaven, and here and now Take on our lips the old Centennial vow. For rule and trust must need be ours; Chooser aud chosen both are jjowers; Equal in service as in rights, the claim Of duty rests on each and all the same. Then let the sovereign millions where Our banner floats in sun and air. From the warm palm-lands to Alaska's cold, Repeat with us The Pledge a century old! The oration of Mr. Depew was of a high order, eulogistic of tlie present — the voice of a patriot who believes in the past and trusts the future. The address by the President was also able and patriotic. The exercises were closed with a benediction by Archbishop Corrigan, of the archdiocese of New York. In the nieantitne the great military pai-ade — the greatest of all such displays in the United States, with the single exception of the review of the soldiers at Washington at the close of the war — was in preparation for the march. The principal streets in the lower part of the city had been assigned for the formation of the various divisions of the parade. At last the procession was ready to move. A number of magniticent carriages bearing the President, theVice- President, the members of the Cabinet, and other distinguished representatives of the government, swept up to the head of the column and led the way to the great re- viewing stand which had been prepared on the west side of Madison Square, looking down into Fifth Avenue. Here the President and his companions took their places to review the column as it passed, and for six hours the chief magistrate stood up to recognize, in his official capacity, the passing squadrons of the greatest parade ever known in a time of peace west of the Atlantic. It were difficult to describe the great procession. It was admirably (IS HIsTonT OF THE UNITED STATES. inimaged — wliolly military. Tlie ditfei-ent divisicms were arranged in files from eighteen to twenty-two men abreast. In many places the inarching was in close rank, so that the knees of those in the rear rank fitted almost geometrically into those of the men in front. Tlie pas- sage was at the rate (jf more than 9,(in() per hour. The best estimates place the number in line at over .')2,0()U. Major General John M. Scho- field was commander-in-chief. The course of march was from Wall Street into Broadway ; up Broadway to Waverly Place ; through Wav- erly Place into Fifth Avenue ; along that magnificent tlioroughfare to Fourteenth {Street ; thence around Union Square, through to Fifth Avenue and thence northward to Central Park. Through all this distance and on both sides of the street was a solid wall of human beings, rising to the rear by every kind of con- trivance which human ingenuity could invent, so as to gain a view of the procession. The mass on tlie sidewalks was from twenty to fifty jiersons deep. In every advanta- geous position scafl^olding with as- cending seats had been erected for the accommodation of the multi- tudes, and not a seat was left un- occupied. At the street crossings every variety of vehicle had l)een drawn up, and the privilege of stand- ing on boxes or sitting in carts, wagons, or hacks was sold at hitrh figures to the eager ])eople wiio pressed into the crowd. Windows and every other available point of view, liou.setops, balconies, stoop.s, verandas, were crowded to their utmost capacity. In favorite local- ities fabulous prices were charged for the privilege of looking from a windo\v upon the jiassing cavalcade. The latter was, as we have said, preceded by the Pi-esidential company. General Schofield, senior Major-General of the American Army, as chief marshal, rode at the liead of the column. After liim, and leading the van of the j)i'o- cession proper, M-ere over 2,0(.»0 regulars, infantry and cavalry, drawn from the Army ; then came the cadets from West Point, whose march- ing and uniform and liearing were of such excellence as to excite a chorus of cheers from end to end of the long march. Next followed the artillery and batteries of the regular army. Many of the guns and JOHM M. SCHOFIELD. 720 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. niucli of tlie armor was resplendent for its brilliancy. After these came the marines and naval cadets, a vast column of apprentices, whose march, by its peculiar rolling movement, denoted that the coluum had been recently gathered from the decks of ships. Thus closed the first division of the procession — that is, those who were taken from the Army and Navy of the United States. Then followed the militiamen — the National Guard of the different States. At the head was a column of 370 men from Delaware ; for Delaware had been lirst of the old thirteen States to adopt the Constitution, and was thus given a place of honor on the centennial anniversary. The Governor of each State represented in the parade rode at tlie head of the division from his own Commonwealth. Most of the governors were in civil attire. General Beaver, of Pennsylvania, General Fitzhugh Lee, of Virginia, and General John B. Gordon, of Georgia, were con- spicuous at the head of their divisions. It was noticed that those wlio were present from the Southern States were received with unstinted ajiplause. Governor Beaver rode at the head of the Pennsylvania troops, numbering fully 8,000 men. Then came Governor Green, with the soldiers of New Jersey 3.700 strong ; then Georgia, with General Gordon and his staff. The Foot Guards from Connecticut, preceded by the Governor, numbered 600. Governor Ames, of Massachusetts, headed the column of 1,500 from the old Bay State — a noble division, containins the Ancient and Honoral)le Artiilerv of Boston, all uni- formed after the most antique pattern. The men of Maryland were 500 strong. Then came New Hampshire; then Vermont, with a di- vision of 700. Governor Eichardson, of North Carolina, followed with a l)ody of 500 men. This division was fortunate in bearing an old Hag belonging to North Cai-olina in the pre-Re^olutionary epoch. After this came the great division of New York. Twelve thousand men, arranged in four brigades of eighteen regiments, one battalion, and five liatteries, were the contribution of the Empire State to the great display. At the head of the line rode Governor David B. Hill. In this column the Seventh Eegiment, made up of prominent men of New York city, and numbering over 1,000, was, perhaps, the most conspicuous single body in the whole procession. The Twenty -second Eegiment vied with its rival ; and it might l)e difficult to decide whether the palm for marching and other evidences of elegant training should te awarded to the West Point Cadets, the Seventh Regiment of New York, the Twenty-second Eegiment of the same State, the squadron from the Michigan Military Academy, av the Twenty -third Eegiment, of Brooklyn. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. Y21 Behind this magniticent display of the mihtary came the veterans of the Civil War, the men of the Grand Army of the Repnblic, headed by their conimander-in-chief, Genei-al William Warner. These were arranged column after column to an aggregate of 12,000, according to the locality from which they were gathered, the rear being closed with a magniticent body of old soldiers, numbering nearly 4,000, from Brooklyn and Kings County. It was already nightfall wlien this ex- treme left of the column passed the reviewing stand, and the parade for the day was at an end. The evening of the yOth was occupied with one of the most elabo- rate and sumptuous banquets ever spread in the United States. For this purpose the Metropolitan Opera House, in Broadway, had been pro- cured and decorated. It was claimed by those experienced in such matters that the floral ornamentation of the hall was far superior in costliness and beauty to any thing of like kind ever before displayed in the country. The boxes of the theater were adorned with the national colors, with the shields and coats-of-arms of the various States of the Union. Over the proscenium arch was a portrait of Washington, ar- ranged in a cluster of evergreens and flowers. The auditorium was brill- iantly illuminated, and the scene of splendor on every hand might well dazzle the eye and surprise the imagination of the beholder. The ban- queters, embracing many of the chief men of the nation, were seated at a series of tables, the first and principal one being occupied by the President of the United States, the Governor of New York, the Vice- President, the Lieutenant-Governor, Chief-Justice Fuller, Judge An- drews, General Schofield, Admiral Porter, Senator Evarts, Senator Hiseock, Ex-President Hayes, Ex-President Cleveland, Bishop Potter, Speaker Cole, of the New York Assembly, Secretar}- Proctor, Hon. S. S. Cox, General William T. Sherman, Clarence W. Bowen, and El- bridge T. Gerry, the last two representing the Citizens' Committee. At this table Mayor Grant presided, and read the toasts of the evening. The feast began at 9 o'clock in the evening. At the close a series of brief addresses were delivered by the Governor of New York, Ex- President Cleveland, E.x-President Hayes, General Sherman, Senator Evarts, President Eliot, of Harvard ; James Eussell Lowell, Senator Daniel, and others. The closing address was by the President of the United States. Nearly all the speeches were faultless in their subject- matter, eloquent in ilelivery, and worthy to he regarded as classics of the occasion. The programme prepared by the Citizens' Committee embraced a general holiday of three days' duration, during which business was sus- 46 722 niSTORT OF THE UNITED STATES. peiided tlirongliout tlie city. On the 29th and 30tli of April and oti the 1st day ot' May tlie restriction was faithfully regarded. One might traverse Broadway and lind hut few business establishments open to the public. This was true ]iarticularly of the two principal days ol tlie festival. It now remains to notice the great civic parade of the 1st of May, with which the commemorative e.xercises were concluded. The desigTi was that this should represent the industries, the progress, and in gen- eral the civic life of the Metropolis of the Nation and of the country at large, as distinguished from the military display of the preceding day. It was found from the experience of the .'idth that the line of march was too lengthy, and the second day's course was made somewhat shorter. It is not intended in this connection to enter into any elaborate account of the civic procession of tlie third day. It was second only in impor- tance to the great military parade which liad preceded it. The proces- sion was composed, in large part, of tliose various civic orders and broth- erhoods with which modern society so much al)Ounds. In these the foreign nationalities which liave ol)tained so large a footing in New York city were largely prevalent. The German societies wei-e out in fnll force. Companies representing almost every nation of the Old World were in the line, carrying gay banners, keeping step to the music of magnificent bands, and proudly lifting their mottoes and emblems in the May-day morning. The second general feature of this procession was the historical jiart. The primitive life of Manhattan Island, the adventures of the earlv explorers and discoverers along the American coast, the striking incidents in the early annals of the old Thirteen States, were allegorized and mounted in visible form on chariots and drawn through the streets. All the old heroes of American History, from Cohnnlius t(.> Peter Stuy- vesant, were seen again in iiKirtal foiMu, received obeisance, and heard the shouts of the multitudes. From ten o'clock in the foivnoon till half-past three in the afternoon the procession was under way, the principal line of march being down Fifth Avenue and through the principal squares of the city. With the coming of evening the pyro- technic display of the preceding night was renewed in many parts of the metropolis, though it could hardly be said that the fireworks were ecpial in brilliancy, beauty, and impressiveness to the magnificent day pageants of the streets. One of the striking features of the celebration was the ease and rapidity with which the vast multitudes were breathed into and breathed out of the city. In the principal hotels fully 15( »,<•(»() .strangers were HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 723 registered as quests. More than twice this miinber were distributed in the smaller lodging-houses and private dwellings of New York and Brooklyn. Yet the careful observer abroad in the streets saw neither the coming nor the going. With the appearance of the days of the celebration the throngs were present ; on the following days they were gone. The great railways centering in the metropolis had done their work noiselessly, speedily, effectively. It may well be recorded as one of the marvels of modern times that only two persons are said to have lost their lives in this tremendous assemblage, extending through sev- eral days, and that at least one of these died suddenly from heart dis- ease, while the manner of the death of tlie other was unknown. Such is the triumph which tiie mastery of the human mind over tlie forces of the material world has easily achieved in our age, under the guidance of that beneticent science by which the world is at once enlightened and protected from danger. The close of the year 1888 and the beginning of 1889 were marked by a peculiar episode in the history of the country. An unexpected and even dangerous complication arose between the United States and Germany relative to the Samoan Islands. This comparatively unim- portant group of the Soutli Pacific lies in a south-westerly direction, at a distance of about five thousand miles from San Francisco and nearly two thousand miles eastward from Australia. The long-standing pol- icy of the government, established under the administration of Wash- ington and ever since maintained, to have no entanglements with foreign nations, seemed in this instance to be strangely at variance with the facts. During 1888 the civil affairs of the Samoan Islands were thrown into extreme confusion by what was really the progressive disposition of the people, but what appeared in the garb of an insurrection against the established authorities. The government of the islands is a mon- archy. The country is ruled by native princes, and is independent of foreign powers. The capital, Apia, lies on a bay of the same name on the northern coast of the princii^al island. It was here that the insur- rection gained greatest headwa}'. The revolutionary movement was headed by an audacious chief- tain called Tamasese. The king of the island was Malietoa, and his chief supporter, Mataafa. At the time the German Empire was rep- resented in Samoa by its Consnl-General, Herr Knappe ; and the United States was represented by Hon. Harold M. Sewall. A German armed force virtually deposed Malietoa and set up Tamasese on the throne. On the other hand, the representative of the United States, following 724 ni.sTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the pulicy of his government, stood by the established authority, sup- porting tlie native sovereign and Mataafa. The American and German authorities in the island were thus brought into conflict, and serious difficulties occurred between the ships of the two nations in the harbor. AVhen the news of this state of affairs reached Germany, in April, 1889, several additional men-of-war were sent out to the island to up- hold the German cause. Mataafa and the Germans were thus brought to war. Meanwhile the American government took up the cause of its consul and of King Malietua as against the insurrection. A section of the American navy was dispatched to the distant island, and the ships of war of two of the greatest nations of Christendom were thus set face to face in a harbor of the South Pacific Ocean. In this condition of affairs, on the 22d of March, 1889, one of the most violent hurricanes ever known in the islands blew up from the north, and the American and German war-vessels were driven upon the great reef which constitutes the only break-water outside of the harbor of Apia. Here they were wrecked. The American war-ships Nipsic, Trenton, and Vandalia were dashed into ruins. The German vessels Adler, Olga, and Eher were also lost. The English vessel Calliope, which was caught in the storm, was the only war-ship which escaped by steaming out to sea. Sei'ious loss of life accompanied the disaster : 4 American officers and 46 men, 9 German officers and 87 men sank to rise no more. Meanwhile England had become interested in the dispute, and had taken a stand with the United States as against the decision of Germany. The matter became of so great importance that President Harrison, who had in the meantime acceded to office as chief magistrate, ap- pointed, with the advice of the Senate, an Embassy Extraordinary, to go to Berlin and meet Prince Bismarck in a conference with a view to a peaceful solution of the difficulty. Tlie embassadors appointed for tliis purpose were J. A. Kasson, of Iowa ; William W. Phelps, of New Jersey ; and G. H. Bates, of Delaware. The commissioners set out on the 13th of April, and on their arrival at the capital of the German Empire opened negotiations with the Chancellor Bismarck and liis son. The attitude and demand of the American government was that the independence of Samoa, under its native sovereign, should be acknowledged and guaranteed by the great nations concerned in tlie controversy. The conference closed in May, 1889, with the restoration of King Malietoa and the recognition of his sovereignty over the island. The closing week of May, 1889, was made forever memorable in the history of the United States by the destruction of Johnstown, HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 725 Pennsylvania. The calamity was caused by the bursting of a reser- voir and the pouring out of the deluge in the valley below. A large artificial lake had been constructed in the ravine of the South Fork River, a tributary of the Conemaugh. It was a fishing lake, the prop- erty of a company of wealthy sportsmen, and was about five miles in length, varying in depth from fifty to one hundred feet. An immense volume of water was thus accumulated in a gorge at the foot of the mountains, and was, as it were, suspended over the valley of Cone- maugh. The country below the lake was thickly peopled. The city of Johnstown, with a population of more than ten thousatid, lay at the junction of the South Fork with tlic Conemaugh. In tlie last days of May unusually heavy rains fell in all that region, swelling every stream to a torrent. The South Fork Lake became full to overflowing. The dam had been imperfectly ciuistructed. On the afternoon of May 31 the dam of the reservoir burst wide open in the center and a solid wall of water from twenty to fifty feet in height rushed down tlie valley with terrific violence. The countiy was already inundated, and on toji of the swollen streams was poured a veritable flood. The destruction wliich ensued was among the greatest which the modern world has witnessed. In the path of the deluge every thing was swept away. The manufacturing city of Johnstown was totally wrecked, and was thrown in an indescribable heap of liorror against the aqueduct of tlic Pennsylvania railway, which spanned the river below the town. Here the ruins caught fire, and the wild shrieks of hundreds of miserable victims were drowned in the holocaust. Ac- cording to the best estimates more than 5,000 people perished in the flood or were burned to death in the ruins. The heart of the nation responded quickly to tlie sufferings of the survivors, and millions of dollars in money and supplies were poured out to relieve the despair of those who survived the calamity. Thus has the Ilistor}' of the United States been traced from the beginning of our national career to the dawn of yesterday. The Republic has passed through stoi'my times, l)ut has at last entered her second century in safety and peace. The clouds that were recently so black above her have sunk behind the hoi-izon. Tiie equality of all men before the law has been written with the iron pen of war in the Constitution of the Xation. The union of the States has been conse- crated anew by the blood of patriots and the tears of the lowly. The temple of freedom, reared by the fathers, still stands in undiminished glory. TuE Past has taught rrs Lesson, the Present has its Duty, and the Future its Hope. 726 CONCLUSION. CHAPTEK LXXIII. CONCL USION. 117IIAT, then, of the outlook for tlie American Republic? What ' ' shall another century bring forth ? What is to be the destiny of this' vio'orous, atrffressive, self-sovernina: A na:lo- American race? How will the picture, so well begun, be completed l>y the annalists of posterity? Is it the sad fate of humanity, after all its struggles, toils, and sighing, to turn forever round and round in the same beaten circle, climbing the long ascent from the degradation of sav- age life to the heights of national renown only to descend again into the fenlands of despair? Is Lord Byron's gloomy picture of the rise and fall of nations indeed a true portrayal of the order of the world ?— Here is tlie moral of all huriian tales, — 'Tis but the same rehearsal of the past. First freedom and then glory — when that fails, Wealth, vice, eorniption, barbarism at last; And History with all her volumes vast Hath but une page ! Or has the human race, breaUing the bonds of its servitude and es- caping at last from its long imprisonment, struck out across the fields of sublime possibility the jtromised pathway leading to the final tri- umjjh? There are still doubts and feare — perplexities, anxieties, and sometimes anguish — arising in tne soul of the philanthropist as he turns his gaze to the fubure. But there are hopes also, grounds of confidence, ai spicious omens, tokens of the substantial victory of truth, inspirations of faith welling up in the heart of the watcher as he scans the dappled horizon of the coming day. As to present achievement the American peo])le have far sur- passed the expectations of the fathers. The visions and dreams of the Revolutionary patriots have been eclipsed by the luster of actual ac- complishment. The territorial domains of the Republic enclose the grandest belt of forest, valley, and plain that the world has in it. Since the lieginning of time no other people have possessed such a territeoplc. Of this wrote Hamilton and Adams. For this pleaded Webster in his great orations. Upon this the far- seeing statesmen of the present day, rising above the strifes of party and the turmoils of war, plant themselves as the one thing vital in American politics. The idea that the United States are one Nation, and not thirty -eight nations, is the grand cardinal doctrine of a sound political faith. State pride and sectional attachment are natural pas- sions in the human breast, and are so near akin to patriotism as to be distinguished from it only in the court of a higher reason. But there is a nobler love of country — a patriotism that rises above all placea and sections, that knows no County, no State, no North, no South, but only native land; that claims no mountain slope; that clings to no river bank; that worships no range of hills; but lifts the aspiring eye to a continent redeemed from barbarism by common sacrifices and made sacred by the shedding of kindred blood. Such ». patriotism is the cable and sheet-anchor of our hope. A second requisite for the preservation of American institutions is THE Universal Secular Education of the People. Monarchies govern their subjects by authority and precedent; republics by right reason and free will. Whether one method or the other will be better, 728 CONCL VSION. turns wholly upon the intelligence of the governed. If the subject have not the knowledge and discipline necessary to govern himself, it is better that a king, in whom some skill in the science of government is presupposed, should rule him. As between two stupendous evils, the rational tyranny of the intelligent few is preferable to the furious and irrational tyranny of the ignorant many. No force which has moved among men, impelling to bad action, inspiring to crime, over- turning order, tearing away the bulwarks of liberty and right, and converting civilization into a waste, has been so full of evil and so powerful to destroy as a blind, ignorant, and factious democracy. A republic witliout intelligence — even a high degree of intelligence — is a paradox and an impossibility. What means that principle of the Declaration of Independence which declares the consent of the gov- erned to be the true foundation of all just authority? What kind of "consent" is referred to? Manifestly not the passive and unresisting acquiescence of the mind which, like the potter's clay, receives what- ever is impressed ujion it ; but that active, thinking, resolute, conscious, personal consent which distinguishes the true freeman from the puppet. When the j)euj)le of the United States rise to the heights of this noble and intelligent self-assertion, the occupation of the party leader — most despicable of all the tyrants — will be gone forever; and in order that the people may ascend to that high plane, the means by which intel- ligence is fostered, right reason exalted, and a calm and rational pub- lic opinion produced, must be universally secured. The public Free School is the fountain whose streams shall make glad all the lands of liberty. We must educate or perish. A third thing necessary to the perpetuity of American liberties is Toleration — toleration in the broadest and most glorious sense. In the colonial times intolerance embittered the lives of our fathers. Until the present day the baleful shadow has been n]wn the land. The proscriptive vices of the Middle Age have flowed down witli the blood of the race and tainted the life that now is, with a suspici(m and distrust of freedom. Liberty in the minds of men has meant the privi- lege of agreeing with the majority. Men have desired free thought, but fear has stood at the door. It remains for the United States to build a highway, broad and free, into every field of liberal inquiry, and to make the poorest of men who walks therein, more secure in life and reputation than the soldier who sleeps behind the rampart. Pro- scription has no part nor lot in the American system. The stake, the gibbet, and the rack, thumb-screws, sword, and pillory, have no place on this side of the sea. Nature is diversified ; so are human faculties. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 729 beliefs, and practices. Essential freedom is the right to differ; and that right must be sacredly respected. Nor must the privilege of dis- sent be conceded with coldness and disdain, but openly, cordially, and with good will. Xo loss of rank, abatement of character, or ostracism from society must darken the pathway of the humblest of the seekers after truth. The right of free thought, free inquiry, and free speech, is as clear as the noonday and bounteous as the air and ocean. With- out a full and cheerful recognition of this right, America is only a name, her glory a dream, her institutions a mockery. The fourth idea, essential to the welfare and stability of the Re- public, is THE Nobility of Labor. It is the mission of the United States to ennoble toil and honor the toiler. In other lands to labor has been considered the lot of serfs and peasants; to gather the fruits and consume them in luxury and war, the business of the great. Since the medieval times European society has been organized on the basis of a nobUity and a people. To be a nobleman was to be distin- guished from the people; to be one of the jieople was to be forever debarred from nobility. Thus has been set on human industry the stigma of perpetual disgrace. Something of tliis has lieen transmitted to the new civilization in the West — a certain disposition to renew the old order of lord and laborer. Let the odious distinction perish : the true lord is the laborer and the true laborer the lord. It is the genius of American institutions, in the fullness of time, to wipe the last opprobrious stain from the brow of toil and to crown the toiler with the dignity, luster, and honor of a full and perfect manhood. The scroll of the century is rolled together. The work is done. Peace to the memory of the fathers! Green be the graves where sleep the warriors, patriots, and sages! Calm be the resting-place of all the brave and true ! Gentle be the summer rains on famous fields where armies met in battle! Forgotten be the animosities and heart- burnings of the strife ! Sacred be tiie trusts committed to our care, and bright the visions of the coming ages! APPENDIX A. SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE'S ARGUMENT ON THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH. [Since the jiaragrapli in the text lias hccn (lie suhject of some ilouhts niid criticism, the original of Sir John Mandeville's argument is lieie appended. The ortliograpliy and pliraseology are not more quaint tlian tlie higio i-^ invMicible. In order that the ar- gument may he more easily folloued and clearly underslood, a translation or paraphrase, is added. It must not be forgotten that the date of Sir John's book is loot! — a hundred and thirty-six years before the discovery of .\merica by Columbus. — The Author.] In that Lond, ne in many othere bezonde that, no man may see the Sterre trans- montane, that is clept the Sterre of the See, that is unmevable, and that is toward the Nortlie, that we clepen the Lode Sterre. But men seen another Sterre, the contrarie to him, that is toward the Southe, that is clept Antartyk. And right as the Schip men taken here Avys here, and governe hem be the Lode Sterre, right .so don Schip men bezonde the parties, be the Sterre of the Southe, the whiche Sterre apperethe not to us. And this Sterre, that is towanl the Northe, that wee clepen the Lode Sterre, ne apperethe not to hem. For whiche cause, men may wel perceyve, that the Lond and the See ben of rownde schapp and forme. For the partie of the Firmament schewethe in o Contree, that schewethe not in another Contree. And men may well preven be experience and sotyle compassement of Wytt, that zif a man fond passages be Schippes, that wolde go to serchen the World, men myghte go be Schippe alle alioute the World, and aboven and benethen. The whiche thing I prove thus, aftre that I have .seyn. For I have ben toward the parties of Braban, and beholden the Astrolabre,' that the Sterre that is clept the Transmontayne, is 53 Degrees liiglie. And more forthere in Almayne and Bewme, it bathe 58 Degrees. And more fortlie toward the parties septeratrioneles, it is 62 Degrees of heghte, and certeyn Mynntes. For I my self liave niesured it by the Astrolabre. Now schulle ze knowe, that azen the Transmontayne, is the tother Sterre, that is clept Antartyke; as I have seyd before. And tho 2 vSterres ne meeven nevere. And be hem turnethe alle the Firmament, righte as dothe a Wheel, that turnethe be his .\xille Tree: so that tho Sterres beren the Firmament in 2 egalle parties; so that It bathe als niochel aboven, as it liathe benethen. Aftre this, I have gon toward the parties meridionales, that is toward the Southe: and I have founden, that in Lybye, men seen tirst the Sterre Antartyk. And so fer I have gon more forthe in tho Contrees, that I have founde that Sterre mf)re highe ; so that towanl the highe Lybye, it is 18 Degrees of heghte, and certeyn Minutes (of the whiche, 60 Minutes maken a Degree). Aftre goynge be See and be Londe, toward this Contree, of that I have spoke, and to other Yles and Londes bezonde that Contree, I have founden the Sterre Antartyk of 33 Degrees of heghte, and mo mynutes. .\nd zif I hadde bad Companye and Schippynge, for to go more bezonde, I trowe wel in certeyn, that wee scholde have seen alle the "In Manflcvini''s time, Astronomers hafl attaiin'il but very little iici'uracy in t ;tiivj obscrvntioiis. F E o c « a E U >U _l U O => s < = H •=£ 3 C'2 rt *-< +j •aW u C o ■- tfl 3 tfl c • yon •5 '5 2 m p O °^ d 4J.- o-a « l- b M ■? :^ Jaw? O < a. * Si p< 1.= H V £ O SS9 < a 3 < < (0 z < < a < > u z < 111 =1 o CO « o I- a < 3 o o o o a o I > I- < z < > APPENDIX A. 731 rouniinesse of the Firmament alle aboute. * * '' * * * Be tlie whiche I seye zoii certeynly, that men may envirowne alle the Erthe of alle the World, as wel undre as aboven, and turnen azen to his Contree, that hadde Companye and Schippynge and Conduyt; and alle weyes.he scholde fynde Men, Londes, and Yles, als wel as in this Contree. For zee wyten welle, that thei that ben toward the Antartyk, thei ben streghte, feet azen feet of hem, that dwellen undre transmontane; als wel as wee and thei that dwellyn under us, ben feet azenst feet. For alle the parties of See and of Lond han here appositees, habitables or trepas-sables, and thei of this half and bezond half. * * * * '•■' '■' And whan men gon bezonde tho iourneyes, toward Ynde and to the foreyn Yles, alle is envyronynge the roundnesse of the Erthe and of the See, undre oure Contrees on this half. And therfore hathe it befallen many tymes of o thing, that I have herd cownted, whan I was zong; how a worthi man departed sora- tyme from oure Contrees, for to go serche the World. And so he passed Ynde, and the Yles bezonde Y'nde, where ben mo than 5000 Yles: and so longe he wente be See and Lond, and so enviround the World be many seysons, that he fond an Y'le, where he herde speke his owne Langage, callynge on 0.\en in the Plowghe, suche Wordes as men speken to Bestes in his owne Contree: whereof he hadde gret Mervayle : for he knewe not how it myghte be. But I seye, that he had gon so longe, be Londe and be See, that he had envyround nlle the erthe, that he was comen azen envirounynge, that is to seye, goynge aboute, unto his owne Marches, zif he wolde have passed forthe, til he had founden his Contree and his owne knouleche. But he turned azen from thens, from whens he was come fro; and so he loste moche peynefulle labour, as him self seyde, a gret while aftre, that he was comen hom. For it befelle aftre, that he wente in to Nor- weye; and there Tempest of tlje See toke him ; and he arryved in an Y'le ; and whan he was in that Y'le, he knew wel, that it was the Y'le, where he had herd speke his owne Langage before, and the oallynge of the O.xen at the Plowghe : and that was possible thinge. But how it semethe to symple men unlerned, that men ne mowe not go undre the Erthe, and also that men scholde falle toward tlie Hevene, from undre! But that may not be, upon lesse, than wee mowe falle toward Hevene, fro the Erthe, where wee ben. For fro what partie of the Erthe, that men duelle, outher aboven or benethen, it semethe alweys to hem that duellen, that thei gon more righte than ony other folk. And righte as it semethe to us, that thei ben undre us, righte so it semethe hem, that wee ben undre hem. For zif a man myghte falle fro the Erthe unto the Firmament; be grettere resoun, the Erthe and the See, that ben so grete and so bevy, scholde fallen to the Firmament: but that may not be. * * * And alle be it that it he possible thing, that men may so envyronne alle the World, natheles of a 1000 persones, on ne myghte not happen to returnen in to his Contree. For, for the gretnesse of the Erthe and of the See, men may go be a 1000 and a 1000 other weyes, that no man cowde redye him perfitely toward the parties that he cam fro, but zif it were be aventure and happ, or be the grace of God. For the Erthe is fiille large and fulle gret, and holt in roundnesse and aboute envyroun, be aboven and be benethen 20425 Myles, aftre the opynyoun of tlie olde wise Astronomeres. And here Seyenges I repreve noughte. But aftre my lytylle wytt, it semethe me, savynge here reverence, that it is more. And for to have bettere understondynge, I seye thus. Be ther ymagyned a Figure that hathe a gret Compas; and aboute the poynt of the gret Compas, that is clept the Centre, be made another litille Compas: than aftre, be the gret Compas devised be Lines in raanye parties; and that alle the Lynes meeten at the Centre ; so that in as many parties, as the grete Compas schal be departed, in als manye schalle be departed the litille, that is aboute the Centre, alle be it that the spaces ben lesse. Now thanne, be the gret compas represented for the firmament, and the litille compas represented for the Erthe. Now thanne the Firmament is devysed, be Astronomeres, in 12 Signes ; and every Signe is 732 MANDEVILLE'S ARGUMENT. devysed in 30 Degrees, that is 3G0 Degrees, tliat the Firmament liathe aboven. Also, be the Krtlie devysed in als many parties, as the Firmament; and lat every partye an- Bwere to a Degree of the Firmament: and wytetlie it wel, that aftre the Auctoures of Astronomye, 700 Furlonges of Erthe answeren to a Degree of tlie Firmament; and tho ben 87 Miles and 4 Furlonges. Now be that here multiplyed by 360 sithes; and than tliei ben ol500 Myles, every of 8 Furlonges, aftre Myles of oure Contree. So moclie hathe tlie Ertlie in roundncsse, and of lieghte enviroun, aftre uiyn opynyoun and myp andirstondynge. [paraphrase.] In that land and in others beyond no man may see the hxed star of the North which we call the Lode Star. But there men see another star called the Antarctic, opposite to the star of the North. And just as mariners in this hemisphere take their reckoning and govern their course by the North Star, so do the mariners of tlie South by the Antarctic. But the star of the North appears not to the people of tlie South. Wherefore men may easily perceive that Ihe land and the sea are rf round sltape and figure. For that part of the firmament which is seen in one country is not seen in another. And men nmy prove both by experience and sound reasoning that if a man, having passage liy sliiii, should go to searcli the world, he miyht with his veg.-iel .sttiY aromul Ihe uvrld, both above and under it. This proposition I prove as follows : I have myself in Prussia seen the North Star oy the astrolabe fifty-three degrees above the horizon. Furtlier on in Bohemia it rises to the height of fifty-eight degrees. And still farther northward it is sixty-two degrees and some minutes high. I myself have so measured it. Now the South Pole Star is, as I have said, opposite the North Pole Star. And about these poles the whole celestial sphere revolves like a wheel about the axle; and the firmament is thus divided into two equal parts. From the North I have turned southward, passed the equator, and found that in Lybia the Antarctic Star first appears above the horizon. Farther on in those lands that star rises liigher, until in southern Lybia it readies the height of eighteen degrees and certain minutes, sixty minutes making a degree. After going by .sea and by land towards that country [.\ustralia perhaps] of which I have spoken, I have found tlie Antarctic Star more than thirty-three degrees above the horizon. And if I had had company and shipping to go still farther, 1 knmc of a certainty that I should have seen the whole circumference of the heavens. '•' * ••' * ■'' * A nd I repeat that inen may environ the whole world, as well under as above, and return to their oun C(mntry, if they had cOiiijxiny, and ships, ajid conduct. And always, as well as in their own land shall (hey find inhabited continents and islands. For know you well that they who dwell in the southern hemisphere are feet against feet of them who dwell in the northern hemi- sphere, j«,'<< as we and they thai dwell under ws are feet to feet. For every part of the sea and the land hath its antipode. * * * * * Moreover when men go on a journey toward India and the foreign islands, they do, on the whole route, circle the circumference of the earth, even to those countries which are under ns. And therefore hath that same thing, which I heard recited when I was young, happened manv times. Howbeit, upon a time, a worthy man departed from oiir country to explore the world. And so he passed India and the islands beyond India — more than five thou.sand in number — and so long he went hy sea and land, environing Ihe world for many .seasons, that he found an island where be beard them speaking his own language, hallooing at the oxen in the plow with the identical words spoken to beasts in his own country. Forsooth, he was astonished; for he knew not how the thing might happen. But I assure you that APPENDIX A. TA-i he Iiad gone so far by land and sea that he had actually gone around the world and was come again through the long circuit to his own district. It only remained for liiiii to go forth and find his particular neighborhood. Unfortunately he turned from the coast which lie had reached, and thereby lost all his painful labor, as he himself after- wards acknowledged when he returned home. For it happened by and by that he went into Norway, being driven thither by a storm ; and there he recognized an island as being the same in which he had heard men calling the oxen in his own tongue ■ 3nd that was a possible thing. And yet it seemeth to simple unlearned rustics that men may not go around the world, and if they did they would fall off! But that absurd thing never could happen unless we ourselves from where we are should fall toward heaven 1 For upon what part soever of the earth men dwell, whether above or under, it always seemeth to them that they walk more perpendicularly than other folks I And just as it seemeth to us that our antipodes are under us head downwards, just so it seemeth to them that we are under them head downwards. If a man might fall from the earth towards heaven, by much more reason the earth itself, being so heavy, should fall to heaven — an impossible thing. ***** Perhaps of a thousand men who should go around the world, not one niiglit succeed in returning to his own particular neighborhood. For the earth is indeed a body of great size, its circumference being — according to the old wise astronomers — twenty thousand four hundred and twenty-five miles. And I do not reject their estimates: but according to ray judgment, saving their reverence, the circumference of the earth u somewhal, more than that. And in order to have a clearer understanding of the matter, I use the following demonstration: Let there he imagined a great sphere, and about the point called the center another smaller sphere. Then from different parts of the great sphere let lines be drawn meeting at the center. It is clear that by this means the two spheres will be divided into an equal number o; parts having the same relation to each other; but between the divisions on the smaller sphere the absolute space will be less. Now the great sphere represents the heavens and the smaller sphere the earth. But the firmament is divided by astronomers into twelve Signs, and each Sign into thirty degrees, making three hundred and sixty de- grees in all. On the surface of the earth there will be, of course, divisions exactly cor- responding to those of the celestial sphere, every line, degree and zone of the latter answering to a line, degree or zone of the former. And now know well that according to the authors of astronomy* seven hundred furlongs, or eighty-seven miles and four fur- longs, answer to a degree of the firmament. Multiplying eighty-seven and a half miles by three hundred and sixty — the number of degrees in the firmament — we have thirty- one thousand five hundred English miles. And this according to my belief and dem- onstration is the true measurement of the circumference of the earth. * An everlasting shame be to the " olde wise .\stronon1ere9"! If they had given Sir Jolin the cor- rect measurement of a de^ee of latitinle, he would not have missed the circumference of the worid hi^ at much as ten miles t Hia argument is absolut^^ly correct. This, too, in A. D. 1351>. APPENDIX B. A PLAN OF PERPETUAL UNION, FOB HIS majesty's colonies in north AMERICA: PROPOSED BY BENJ. FRANKLIN, AND Adopted by the Colonial Convention at Albany, July 10th, 1754. [This document will be found of special interest as containing the germ of tlie Articles of Confederation and the Constitution of the United States. It should be remembered that (his "Plan of Union," though adopted by the Congress at Albany- only the delegates from Connecticut dissenting — was rejected both by the colonial assemblies and the British Board of Trade, — by the former as being too despotic a constitution and by the latter as a piece of high-handed presumption. — The Author.] That the general government of His Majesty's Colonies in Nortli America be administered by a President-General, to be appointed and supported by the crown ; and a Grand Council, to be chosen by the representatives of the people of tlie several colonies met in their respective Aasemblies ; Who shall meet for the first time at the city of Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania, being called by the President-General as soon as conveniently may be after his apixiintment; That there shall be a new election of the members of tiie Grand Council every three years; and on the death or resignation of any member, his place should be supplied by a new choice at the next sitting of the Assembly of the colony he represented ; That after the first three years, when the proportion of money arising out of each colony to the general treasury can be known, the number of members to be chosen for each colony shall frfiui time to time, in all ensuing elections, be regulated by that propor- tion, yet so as that the number to be chosen by any one province be not more than seven, nor less than two ; That the Grand Council shall meet once in every year, and oftener if occasion require, at such time and place as they shall adjourn to at tlie last preceding meeting, or as they shall be called to meet at by the President-General on any emergency ; he having first jbtained in writing the consent of seven of the members to such call, and sent due and timely notice to the whole; That the Grand Council have power to choose tlieir speaker; and shall neither be dissolved, prorogued, nor continued sitting longer than six weeks at one time, witliout their own consent or the special command of the crown ; That the members of the Grand Council shall be allowed for their service ten shil- lings per diem, during their session and journey to and from the place of meeting; twenty miles to be reckoned a day's journey ; That the assent of the President-General be requisite to all acts of the Grand Council, and that it be liis office and duty to cause them to be carried into execution : That the Presi(lent-(ieiieral, with tlie advice of the (irand Coumsil, liold or direct all T:;4 FRAXA'LIN.'i CONSTITUTION. 735 Induin treaties, in wliich the general interest of the colonies may be concerned; ami uiuke peace or declare war with Indian nations; Tliat they in:ike Buch laws as they judge necessary for regulating all Indian trade; That tiiey make all purchases, from Indians for tlie crown, of lands not now within the bounds of particular colonies, or tliat shall not be within their bounds, when some of them are reduced to more convenient dimensions; That they make new settlements on such purchases, by granting lands in the kingV :iame, reserving a quit-rent to the crown for the use of the general treasury ; That they make laws for regulating and governing sucli new settlements, till the CTOwn shall think fit to form them into particular governments; Tliat they raise and pay soldiers and build forts for the defence of any of the colo- nies, and equip vessels of force to guard the coasts and protect the trade on the ocian, lakes, or great rivers; hut they shall not impress men in any colony, without the consent of the legislature ; That for these purposes they have power to make laws, and lay and levy such general duties, imposts, or taxes, as to them shall appear most equal and just (considering the ability and other circumstances of the inhabitants in the several colonies,) and such as maybe collected with the least inconvenience to the people; rather discouraging luxury, than loading industry with unnecessary burthens; That they may appoint a (ieneral Treasurer and Particular Treasurer in each gov- ernment, when necessary ; and from time to time may order the sums in the treasuries oi each government into tlie general treasury, or draw on them for special payments, as they find most convenient ; Yet no money to issue but by joint orders of the President-General and Grand Council ; except where suras have been appropriated to particular purposes, and the President-General is previously empowered by an act to draw such sums; That the general accounts shall he yearly settled and reported to the severa! Assemblies; That a quorum of the Grand Council, em|)owered to act witli the President-Geiwral, do consist of twenty-five members; among whom there shall be one or more from a ma- jority of the colonies; That the laws made by them for the purposes aforesaid shall not be repugnant, but as near as may be, agreeable to the laws of England, and shall be transmitted to the King in Council for approbation, as soon as may be after their passing ; and if not disap- proved within three years after presentation, to remain in force; That, in case of the death of the President-General, the Speaker of the Grand Council for the time being shall succeed, and be vested with the same powers and authorities to continue till the King's i)Ieasure be know; That all military commission oflicers, whether for land or sea service, to act under this general constitution, shall be nominated by the President-General; but the appro- bation of the Grand Council is to be obtained, before they receive their commissions; and all civil officers are to be nominated by the Grand Council, and to receive the President- General's approbation before they officiate ; But, in case of vacancy by death or remioval of any officer civil or military under this constitution, the Governor of the province in which such vacancy happens, may appoint, till the pleasure of the President-General and Grand Council can be known; That the particular military as well as civil establishments in each colony remain in their present state, the general constitution notwithstanding; and that on sudden emergencies any colony may defend itself; and lay the accounts of expense thenc« arising before the President-General and General Council, who may allow and order payment of the same, as far as they judge such accounts just and reasonable. APPENDIX C. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, Adopted by Congress, July 4, 1776. A. DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE ITNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one peo])Ie to dissolvs l»ie political bands which have connected tliem with another, and to assume among the j-uwera of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and oi nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they s'nould declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal ; tliat they arfl endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liliertv, and the pursuit of happiness; that, to secure these riglits, governments are insti- tuted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that govern- ments long establislied should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accord- ingly, all experience hath sliown that mankind are more disposed to suflTer, while evila are sufTerable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to whicli they are accus- tomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw ofT such a government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient suflerance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former .systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world : — He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public go d. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operations, till his assent should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to atteml to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, Hnless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature; a right ines''riiable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He ha^ cal'ud together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and di.s. tant from the repo-sitory of their public record.s, for the sole purpose of fatiguing thenj into compliance witli his measures. 736 DECLARATIOX OF INDEPENDENCE. "iST He lias dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing, with manly firmness^ hi'^ invasions on the riglits of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereliy the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, liave returned to the people at large, for their exercise ; tlie .State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dan- gers of invasions from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent tlie population of these States; for that purpose, obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to e.icourage their migration hither, and raising tlie conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his as.sent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges depemltnt on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their .salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers, to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has afl'ected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He har combined with others to subject us to 'a jurisdiction foreign to our consti- tution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : — • For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; For protecting them, by mock trial, from punishment for any murders which thej fihould commit on the inhabitants of these States; For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; For imjxising taxes on us without our consent ; For depriving us, in many ca.ses, of the benefits of trial by jury; For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences; For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establish- ing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and tit instrument for introducing the .same absolute rule into these Colonies; For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, funda- mentally, the powers of our governments; For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He ha.s abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He ha-s plundered our se:is, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to Ijeconie the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrections among.st us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of w.■l^ fare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. i7 738 APPENDIX a In every stage of these <)|i|iressions, we liave petitioned for redress in llie most luim- ble terms; our repeated petitions liave been answered by repeated injury. A prince whose character is tlius niarlied by every act wliich luay define a tynint, is unfit to be tlie ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our Ijritisli brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to e-xtend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we liave conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war; in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general congress as.sembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these Colo- nies, solenmly publish and declare, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be. Free and Independent Slates ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as Free and Independent Stalex, they have full power to levy war, conclude pe;ice, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which Independent Slates may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. John Hancock. New H.\mpshire. — Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. Masschusetts Bay. — Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. I Rhode Island, etc. — Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. '•' Connecticut. — Roger Sherman, Saniuil nuntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. Nfw York. — William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. ^' New Jersey. — Kichard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. Pennsylvania. — Rotert Jlorris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, Geoige Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. Delaware. — Ca\sar Rodney, George Read, Thomas I\['Kean. Maryland. — Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton. J ViRfilNlA. — George Wythe, Richard Henry Ix'e, Thomas .Jeflerson, Benjamin Har- rison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Bra.xton. North Carolina. — William Hooper, Jo.seph Hewes, .John Penn. South Carolina. — Edward Rutledge, Thomas Hayward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. / Georoia. — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. APPENDIX D. ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. [The Articles of Confederation were drawn up by a committee of gentlemen, who were appointed by Congress for this purpose, June 12, 1770, and finally adopted, No- vember 15, 1777. The committee were Messrs. Bartlett, Samuel Adams, Hcjpkins, Sher- man, R. R. Livingston, Dickinson, M'Kean, Stone, Nelson, Howes, E. Rutledge, and Gwinnet.] ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION. Between the Stales of JVft« Hampshire, MassachuseMs Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plan- tatiom, Connecticut, Kew York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Cirolina, and Gem-gia, ARTICLE I. The style of this confederacy shall be, " The United States of America." ARTICLE II. Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, wliich is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States in Congress assembled. ARTICLE III. Tlie said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselve.s to assist each other against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever. ARTICLE IV. Section 1. — The better to secure and jierpetuate mutual friendsliip and intercourse among the people of the different States in this union, the free inliabitants of eacli of tlie.He States — paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted — shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the people of each State shall have free ingress and egress to and from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the .«ame duties, impositions, and restrictions, as the inhabitants thereof respectively; provided, that such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any State, to any other State, of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided also, that no imposition, duties, or restriction, shall be laid by any State on the property of the United States, or either of them. Sec. 2. — If any person, guilty of, or charged with treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor, in any State, shall flee fiom justice, and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon the demand of the Governor or executive power of the Stale from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having jurisdiction of his ofTence. ray 740 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. Sec. 3. Full faith and credit sliall be given, in eacli of these States, to tlie records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State. AKTVCLt V. Section 1. — For the more convenient management of the general interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature fif each State shall direct, to meet in Congres,s on the first Monday in November in every year, with a power reserved to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any ihne within the year, and to send others in their stead, for the remainder of the 3'ear. Sec. 2. — No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor more than seven members ; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years, in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United Slates, for which he, or any other for his benefit, receives any salary, fees, or emolument, of any kind. vSec. 3. — Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the States, and while they act as members of the committee of these States. Sec. 4. — In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each State shall have one vote. Sec. 5. — Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impe.iched or questioned in any court or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments during the time of their going to and from, and attendance on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace. ARTICLE VI. Section 1. — No State, without the consent of the United States in Congress assem- bled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any confer- ence, agreement, alliance, or treaty with any king, prince, or State, nor shall any j)erson holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept oi any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state; nor shall tlie United States in Congre.ss as.sembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility. Sec. 2. — No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation, or alli- ance whatever, between them, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue. Sec. 3. — No Slate shall lay any imposts or duties which may interfere with any stipulations in treaties entered into by the United States in Congress assembled, with any king, prince, or State, in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress to the courts of France and Spain. Sec. 4. — No vessels of war shall be kept u|> in time of peace by any State, except such number onlv as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in Congress assem- bled, for the defence of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State, in time of peace, except such number only as, in the judgment of the United States in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts neces.sary for tlie defence of such State; but every State .shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and shall provide and constantly have readv for use, in public stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition, and camp e(iuipase. Sec. b. — No Stale shall engage in any war witboul the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade APPENDIX n. 741 fluch State, aiul tlie danger is so imminent as not to admit of delay till the United States in Congress assembled can be consulted ; nor shall any State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war by the United States in Congress assembled, and then only against the icingdom or State, and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be established by the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the United States in Congress assembled shall determine otherwise. ARTICLE VII. When land forces are raised by any State for the common defence, all officers of oi under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each State respect- ively by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment. ARTICLE VIII. All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defence or general welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several States, in proportion to the value of all land within each State, granted to or surveyed for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be esti- mated, according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled .shall, from time to time, direct and appoint. The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legisl.atures of the several States within the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled. ARTICLE IX. Section 1. — The United States in Congress assembled shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases men- tioned in the sixth ariicle, of sending and receiving ambassadors; entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made, whereby the legisla- tive power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever; ol establishing rules fur deciding in all cases what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or appropriated; of granting letters of marqi.e and reprisal in times of peace; appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies committed on liie high seas; and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of capture; provided that no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts. Sec. 2. — The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last resort oc appeal in all disputes and diflferences now subsisting, or that hereafter may arise between two or. more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction, or any other cause whatever; which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following: Whenever the legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any State in controversy with another, shall present a petition to Congress, stating the matter in question, and pray- ing for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress to tlie legislative or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of tin- parties by tlieir lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint. 742 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. by joint consent, comiuissiiiners or jiulges to constitute a court for liearing and deter- mining tlie matter in question ; but it' tliey can not agree, Congress shall name three persons out of each of the United States, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from that numlier not less than seven, nor more than nine names, as Congress shall direct, shall, in the presence of Congress, be drawn out by lot; and the persons whose names shall be so drawn, or any five of them, shall be comuiis- sioners or judges to hear and finally determine tlie controversy, so always as a major uart of the judges, who shall hear the cause, shall agree in the determination : and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day ajjpointed, without showing reasons which Congress shall judge sufficient, or being present, shall refuse to strike, the Con- gress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secretary of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing ; and the judgment and sentence of the court, to be appointed in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive ; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court sliall nevertlieless proceed to pronounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner be final and decisive; the judgment or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts of Congress, for tlie security of the parties concerned: pro- vided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath, to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State where the cause shall be tried, " well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgment, without favor, affection, or hope of reward." Provided, also, that no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States. Sec. .3. — All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under dif- ferent grants of two or more States, whose jurisdiction, as they may respect such lands, and the States which passed sucli grants are adjusted, the .said grants or either of tliem being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such .settlement of jurisdiction, shall, on the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, be finally determined, as near as may be, in the same manner as is before prescribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different States. Sec. 4. — The United States in Congress a.ssembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating tlie alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective States; fi.xing the standard of weights and mea.s- ures throughout the United States; regulating the trade, and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States; provided that the legislative right of any State, within its own limits, be not infringed or violated; establishing and regu- lating post offices from one State to another throughout all the United States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same, as may be requisite to defray the expen.ses of the said office; apiiointing all officers of the land forces in the service of the United States, excepting regimental officers; appointing all the oflScers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the .service of the United States; making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations. Sec. 5. — The United States in Congress a.ssembled shall have authority to appoint a committee to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated, "-4 Commxtie.e of the States," and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other com- mittees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under their direction; to appoint one of their number to preside; pro- vided that no per.son be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year In any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for APPENDIX D. 743 the service of the United States, aiul U> ajuiropriate and apply the same for de:!^ying tlie public expenses; to borrow money or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transmitting every half-year to the respective States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted ; to build and equip a navy ; to agree upon tlie number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion to tlie number of white inhabitants in such State, which requisition sliall be binding; and thereupon the legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men, clothe, arm, and equij) "them, in a soldier-like manner, at the expense of the United States; and the officers and men so clothed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within tlie time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled ; but if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances, judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number than its quota, and that any other State sliould raise a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, clothed, armed, and equijiped, in the same manner as the quota of such State, unless the legis- lature of such State shall judge that such extra number can not be safely spared out o£ the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, clotlie, arm, and equip, as many of such extra number as they judge can be safely spared, and the officers and men so clothed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. Sec. 6. — The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and exi)enses necessary for the defence and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war to be bnilt or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same : nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day, be determined, unless by the votes of a majority of the United States in Congress assembled. Sec. 7. — The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months, and shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances, or military operations, as in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State, on any question, shall be entered on the journal, when it is desired by any delegate ; and the delegates of a State, or any of them, at his or their request, shall be furnished with a transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States. ARTICLE X. The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be autliorized to execute> in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States, in Con- gress assembled, by the consent of nine States, shall, from time to time, think expedient to vest them with ; provided that no power be delegated to the said committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States, in the Congress of the United States assembled, is requisite. ARTICLE XI. Canada, acceding to this Confederation, and joining in the measures Oi the United UStates, shall be admitted into and entitled to all the advantages of this Union: But 744 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. BO other colony sliall be aiimitted into the same, unless such ailniissjon be agreed toly nine States. ARTICLE XII. All bills of credit emitted, moneys borrowed, and debts contracted by or under the authority of Congress, before the assembling of tlie United States, in jmrsuance of the present Confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the United States, for payment ami satisfaction whereof the said United States and tlie public faitt ire hereby solemnly pledged. ARTICLE Xni. Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress assembled, in all tjuestions which by this Confederation are submitted to them. And the articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them ; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislature of every State. And whereas it hath pleased the great Governor of the world to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent in Congress to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify the said Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, Know ye, that we, the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said Articles of Confed- eration and Perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things therein con- tained. And we do further solemnly plig'iit and engage the faith of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in Con- gress assembled, in all questions which by the said Confederation are submitted to them; and that the articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we respectively represent, and tliat the union shall be perpetual In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. Dmie at PliiUulelpliia, in the State of Pennsylvania, the 9lh day of July, in the year oj our Lard 1778, and in the third year of the Independence of Ameiica. New Hampshire. — Josiah Barllett, John Wentworth, Jr. Massachusetts Bay. — John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Elbridge Gerry, Francis Dana, James Lovel, Samuel Holton. Rhode Island, etc. — William Ellery, Henry Marchant, John Collins. Connecticut. — Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, Oliver Wolcott, Titus Hos- mer, Andrew Adams. New York.— James Duane, Francis Lewis, William Duer, Gouverneur Morris. New Jersey. — John Witherspoon, Nath. Scudder. Pennsylvania. — Robert Morri-s, Daniel Roberdeau, Jona Bayard Smith, Willi:ii Ciingan, Joseph Reed. Delaware.— Thomas M'Kean, John Dickinson, Nicholas Van Dyke. Maryland. — John Hanson, Daniel Carroll. Virginia. — Richard Henry Lee, John Banister, Thomas .\dams, John Harvie, Francis Lightfoot Lee. North Carolina. — John Penn, Cons. Harnett, John Williams. South Carolina.— Henry Laurens, Wra. Henry Drayton, John Matthews, Richard Hutson, Thomas Hey ward, Jr. Georgia. — John Walton, Edward Telfair, Edward Langworthj. APPENDIX E. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the gen- eral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of North America. ARTICLE I. Section 1. — All legislative powers herein granted sliall he vested in a Con- gress of the United States, whicli shall consist of a Senate and House of Repre- Bentatives. Sec. 2.— The House of Representatives shall be composed of members cliosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualiBcations requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of th« State legislature. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age ol twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States wliich may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including tliose bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all otlier persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and witliin every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as tliey .shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand ; but eac)> State shall have at least one representative; and until .sucli enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire sliall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts, eight, Rhode -Island and Providence Plantations, one, Connecticut, five, New York, six, New Jersey, four, Pennsylvania, eight, Delaware, one, Maryland, six, Virginia, ten. North Carolina, five, South Carolina, five, and Georgia, three. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill sucli vacancies. Tlie House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other oflBcers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Sec. 3. — The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the 745 T46 comriTurioN of the usited states. eecond class, at tlie expiration of tlie fourth year, ami of tlie tliird class at the expira- tion of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies hajipen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof mK.y make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. No person sliall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, l)e an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unle.ss they be equally divided. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the ab.sence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office as President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the chief-justice shall ])reside ; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, .shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. Sec. 4. — The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and rep- re.sentatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Con- gress may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. The Congress shall a.ssemhle at least once in every year; and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a dif- ferent day. Sec. 5. — Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members; and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the .same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either hou.se, on any question, shall, at the desire of one- fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Sec. 6. — The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance on the session of their respective hou.ses, and in going to and returning from the .same ; and, for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. No .senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; APPENDIX E. 747 and no person lioUling any office under the United States shall be a member of eithej house during liis continuance in office. Sec. 7. — All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Eepresenta- tives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on otlier bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Kepresentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it. but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall lun-e originated, who shall enter the objections at large on Iheii journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But, in all such cases, the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays; and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment), sliall be presented to the President of the United States; and, before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two- thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limita- tions prescribed in the case of a bill. Sec. 8. — The Congress shall have power: — To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts, and provide for the common defence and general welfare, of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States: To borrow money on the credit of the United States : To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and ■with the Indian trilies: To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject oi bankruptcies throughout the United States: To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures: To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States : To establish post-offices and post-roads : To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries: To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court: To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations: To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rule^ concerning captures on land and water : To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years : To provide and maintain a navy : To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces : 748 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppreea Insurrections, and repel invasions: To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing «uch part of them as may be employed in the service of the United Stales, reserving to the States respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress: To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings: — And To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in tlie govern- ment of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. Sec. 9. — The migration or importation of such persons, as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax, or duty, may be imposed on Buch importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration, hereinbefore directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State ovef those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties, in another. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United Stales; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, witliout the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. Sec. 10. — No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post Jacto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts; or grant any title of nobility. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties or. imports or exports, except what may be absolutely neces.sary for executing its in.spec- tion laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congres.s, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a fe-eign jiower, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent dacgei «r will Dot admit of delay. APPENDIX E. Y49 ARTICLK n. Section 1. — The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, tnd together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : — • Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a .lumber of electors equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to .vhich the State may be entitled in the Co. „ress ; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two per- sons, of whom one, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with them- selves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certiticates ; and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the •greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the ■whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Kepresentatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said house shall, in like manner, choose the President. But, in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States; the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States ; and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be Vice- President. But, if there should remain two or more v/ho have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the Vice-President. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, .shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to thai, offi.^e who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powtrs or duties of the said office, the .same shall devolve on the Vice-President ; and the Congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring .vhat officer shall then act as President; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increa.sed nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected ; and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States or any of them. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oatli or affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of Pres ident of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, pre.serve, protect, and defend the Co.istitution of the United Slates." 750 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STA TES. Sec. 2. — The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy (if the United >States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the pririci|)al officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against tlie United States, except in cases of irapeacliraent. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law : but the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in tiie heads of departments. The President .shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. Sec. 3. — He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the slate of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he sliall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and, in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he .shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed ; and shall commission all the officers of the United States. gEC. 4. — The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. Section 1. — The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in a Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior; and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compen- sation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Sec. 2. — The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to contro- versies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States, between a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of difierent States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, oi subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate juri-sdic- tion both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and Buch trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed i APPENDIX E. 751 but, when not committed witliin any State, the trial shall be at such place or places ai the Congress may by law have directed. Sec. 3. — Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but nc ittainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. Section 1. — Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by gen- eral laws prescribe the manner in which snch act.s, records, and proceedings shab be proved, and the effect thereof. Sec. 2. — The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. A person cliarged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service or labor in one State under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Sec. 3. — New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new Slate sliall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislature of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regu- lations respecting the territory or other properly belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Sec. 4. — The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a repub- lican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature caa not be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shail jopose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this Consti- tution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by con- ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may he proposed by the Congress; Provided, that no amendment, which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 752 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. ARTICLE VI. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before tlie adoption of tliis Con- •ti'.ution, shall be as valid against the United States under tliis Constitution, as under the Confederation. Tliis Constitution, and the laws of tlie United States which shall be m.ade in pursu- ance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall oe bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or law.s of any State to the contrary not- witliftanding. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial oflficer.s, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be hound by oath or affirmation to support this Con- stitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the estab- lishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in Convenlkm by the uimnimmis consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of Sep tennber, in the year of nw Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In ici/hcss whereof we have hereunto subscribed our imnies. George Washington, President, and Deputy from Virginia. New Hampshire. — .John Langdon, Nicliolas Oilman. Mass.\chusetts. — Nathaniel Ciorham, Rufus King. Connecticut. — William Samuel .Johnson, lioger Sherman. New York. — .\le.Kaiider Hamilton. New Jersey. — William Livingston, David Bearly, William Patterson, .Jonathan Dayton. Pennsylvania. — Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, .fJeorge Cly- mer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouvernenr Morris. Delaware. — George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bas- sett, Jacob Broom. Maryland. — James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. Virginia. — .John Blair, .James Madison, Jr. North Carolina. — William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. .South Carolina. — John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinck» ley, Pierce Butler. Georgia. — William Few, Abraham Baldwin. Attest : William Jackson, Secretary, APPENDIX K 753 AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting 4he free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE UI. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the person or things to be seized. ARTICLE V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject, for the same ofTence, to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall pri- vate property be taken for public use without just compensation. ARTICLE VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an inipnrtiul jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district sliall have been previously ascertained by law; and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the wit- nesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor- and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. ARTICLE VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury sliall be preserved ; and no fact tried by a jury shall be other- wise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law. 48 754 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. ARTICLE VIII. Excessive bail sball mil be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual j)iinisliinents inflicted. ARTICLE IX. The enumeration in tbc Conslitution of certain rights, shall not be construed lo .Jeny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. ARTICLE XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. ARTICLE XII. The electors s*hall meet in their respective Slates, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same Stato witli themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted U\v as Vice-President; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate; the president of the Senate shall, in tlie presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the per- son having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding tbicc on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Kepresentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But, in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Repre- sentatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the Pres- ident. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, .shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President, shall be eligiblb to that of Vice-President of the United States, APPENDIX E. 755 ARTICLE XIII. Section 1. — Neitlier slavery nor iiivoliintarv servitude, except as a piinisliment for crime, whereof tlie parly sliall have been duly coiivioted, shall exist williin the United States, or any place suhject to their jurisdiction. Sec. 2. — Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by ai>propriate leg- islation. ARTICLE xrv. Section 1. — All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject tc the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Sec. 2. — Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States, according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in C(m- gress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of .such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Sec. 3. — No person shall be a senator, or representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or militarj', under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Con- gresF, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, .shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof; but Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each hou,se, remove such disability. Sec. 4. — The validity of the public debt of the United States authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions, and bounties for services in suppress- ing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States, nor any State, shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United vStates, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; hut all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Sec. 5. — The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation the Drovisions of this Article. article XV. Section 1. — The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied IT abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Sec. 2. — The Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appropriate legifilatioD. APPENDIX F. WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. FRrEKDS AND FeLLOW-CiTIZENS : — The period for a new election of a citizen to administer the executive government of the United States being not far distant, and the time actually arrived when your thoughts must be employed in designating the person who is to be clothed with that Important trust, it appears to me proper, especially as it may conduce to a more dis- tinct expression of the public voice, that I should now apprise you of the resolution I have formed, to decline being considered among the number of those out of whom a tlioice is to be made. 1 beg you, at the same time, to do me the justice to be assured that this resolution has not been taken without a strict regard to all the considerations appertaining to the relation which binds a dutiful citizen to his country ; and that, in withdrawing the tender of service, which silence in my situation might imply, I am influenced by no diminution of zeal for your future interest; no deficiency of grateful respect for your past kindness; but am supported by a full conviction tliat the step is compatible with both. The acceptance of, and continuance hitherto in, the oflSce to which your suffrages have twice called me, have been a uniform sacrifice of inclination to the opinion of duty, and to a deference for what appeared to be your desire. I constantly hoped that it would have been much earlier in my power, consistently with motives which I was not at liberty to disregard, to return to that retirement from which I had been reluc- tantly drawn. The strength of my inclination to do this, previous to the last election, had even led to the preparation of an address to declare it to you; but mature reflec- tion on the then perplexed and critical posture of our affairs with foreign nations, and the unanimous advice of persons entitled to my confidence, impelled me to abandon the idea. I rejoice that the state of your concerns, external as well as internal, no longer renders the pursuit of inclination incompatible with the sentiment of duty or propriety: and am persuaded, whatever partiality may be retained for my .services, that, in th" present circumstances of our country, you will not disapprove of my determination to retire. The impressions with which I first undertook the arduous trust were explained on ihe proper occasion. In the discharge of this trust, I will only say that I have, with good intentions, contributed towards the organization and administration of the gov- ernment the Ijest exertions of which a very fallilde judgment was capalile. Not uncon- scious in the outset of the inferiority of any qualifications, e.xperience, in my own eyes — perhaps still more in the eyes of others — has strengthened the motives to difiidence of myself; and every uiy the increasing weight of years admonishes me, more and moro, that the shade of retirement is as necessary to me as it will be welcome. Satisfied thnt if any circumstances have given peculiar value to my services they were tempurary, I 750 APPENDIX F. 757 have the consolation to believe that, while choice and prudence invite me to quit the political scene, patriotism does not forbid it. In looking forward to the moment wliich is intended to terminate the career of my public life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep acknowledgment of that debt of gratitude which I owe to my beloved country for the many honors it has con- ferred upon me ; still more for the steadfast confidence with which it has supported me- and for the opportunities I have thence enjoyed of manifesting my inviolable attach- ment, by services faithful and persevering, thotigh in usefulness unequal to my zeal. If benefits have resulted to our country from tnese services, let it always be remembered to your praise, and as an instructive example in our annals, that, under circumstances in which the passions, agitated in every direction, were liable to mislead ; amidst appearances sometimes dubious, vicissitudes of fortune often discouraging; in situations in which, not nnfrequentiy, want of success has countenanced the spirit of criticism — the constancy of your sujiport was the essential prop of the efforts, and a guarantee of the plans, by whicli they were effected. Profoundly penetrated with this idea, I shall carry it with me to my grave, as a strong incitement to unceasing wishes, that Heaven may continue to you the choicest tokens of its beneficence ; that your union and broth- erly affection may be perpetual ; that the free Constitution, which is the work of your hands, may be sacredly maintained ; that its administration, in every department, may be stamped with wisdom and virtue; that, in fine, the happiness of the people of these States, under the auspices of liberty, may be made complete, by so careful a preserva- tion and so j^rudent a use of this blessing as will acquire to them the glory of recom- mending it to the applause, the afi'ection, and adoption of every nation which is yet a stranger to it. Here, perhaps, I ought to stop; but a .solicitude for your welfare, which can not end but with my life, and the apprehension of danger natural to that solicitude, urge me, on an occasion like the present, to offer to your solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, some sentiments wliicli are the result of much reflection, of no inconsiderable observation, and which appear to me all-important to the permanency of your felicity as a people. These will be offered to you with the more freedom, as you can only see in them the disinterested warnings of a parting friend, who can possibly have no personal motive to bias his counsels; nor can I forget, as an encouragement to it, your indulgent reception of my sentiments on a former and not dis.similar occasion. Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your hearts, no recom- mendation of mine is necessary to fortify or confirm the attachment. The Unity of Government, which constitutes you one people, is also now dear to you. It is justly so ; for it is a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence — the support of your tranquillity at home, your peace abroad, of your safety, of your ]irosperity, of that very liberty which you so highly prize. But as it is easy to foresee that, from different causes and fmin different quarters, much pains will be taken, many artifices employed, to weaken in your minds the conviction of this truth ; as this is the point in yotir political fortress against which the batteries of internal and external ene- mies will be most constantly and actively (though often covertly and insidiously) directed— it is of infinite moment that you should properly estimate the immense value of your National Union to your collective and individual happiness; that you should cherish a cordial, habitual, and immovable attachment to it; accustoming your.selves to think and speak of it as the palladium or your political .safety and prosperity; watching for its preservation with jealous anxiety; discountenancing whatever may suggest even a suspicion that it can, in any event, be abandoned; and indignantly frowning upon the first dawning of every attempt to alienate any portion of our 758 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. country from tlie rest, or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now link together tha various parts. For this you have every inclucoraent of sympathy and interest. Citizen.^ by birth or choice, of a common country, tliat country lias a right to concentrate your aflections. The name of American, which belongs to you in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism, more tlian any appellation derived from local dis- criminations. With slight shades of difTerence, you have the same religion, manners habits, and political principles. You have, in a common cause, fought and triumphed together; the independence and liberty you possess are the work of joint counsels ana ioint efforts — of common dangers, sufferings, and successes. But these considerations, however powerfully they address themselves to your sensibility, are greatly outweighed by those whicli apply more immediately to your interest: here every portion of our country finds the most commanding motives for carefully guarding and preserving the union of the whole. The North, in an unrestrained intercourse with the South, protected by the equal laws of a common government, finds, in the productions of the latter, great additional resources of maritime and commersial enterprise, and precious materials of manu- facturing industry. The South, in the same intercourse, benefiting by the agency ot the North, sees its agriculture grow, and its commerce expand. Turning partly into its own channels the seamen of the North, it finds its particular navigation invigorated; and while it contributes, in different ways, (o nourish and increase the general mass oi the national navigation, it looks forward to the protection of a maritime strength to which itself is unequally adapted. The East, in a like intercourse with the West, already finds, and in the progressive improvement of interior communications, by land and water, will more and more find a valuable vent for the commodities wl\icli it brings from abroad, or manufactures at home. The West derives from the East supplies requisite to its growth and comfort — and what is perhaps of still greater consequence, it must of necessity owe the secure enjoyment of indispensable outlets for its own pro- ductions to the weight, influence, and the future maritime streiiglb of the .\tlantic side of the Union, directed by an indissoluble community of interest as one nation. Any other tenure by which the West can hold this essential advantage, whether derived from its own separate strength, or from an apostate and unnatural connection with any foreign power, must be intrinsically precarious. While, then, every part of our country thus feels an immediate and particular interest in Union, all the parts combined can not fail to find in the united mass of means and efforts, greater strength, greater resource, proportionably greater security from external danger, a less frequent interruption of their peace by foreign nations; and what is of inestimable value, they must derive from Union an exemption from those broils and wars between themselves, which so frequently afllict neighboring countrie.1, not tied togetlier by the same government; which their own rivalsliips alone would be sufficient to produce, but which opjiosite foreign alliances, attachments, and intrigues would stimulate and embitter. Hence, likewise, they will avoid the necessity of those overgrown military establishments, which under any form of government are inauspicious to liberty, and which are to be regarded as particularly ho.stile to Repub- lican Liberty. In this sense it is, that your Union ought to be considered as the main prop of your liberty, and that the love of the one ought to endear to you tlie preserva- tion of the other. These considerations speak a persuasive language to every reflecting and virtuous mind, and exhibit the continuance of the Union as a primary object of patriotic desire. Is there a doubt whether a common government can embrace so large a sphere? Let experience solve it. To listen to mere speculation in such a case were criminal. We APPENDIX F. 75',) are authorized to hope that a proper organization of the whole, with the auxilian agency of governments for the respective subdivisions, will afford a happy issua to the experiment. It is well worth a fair and full experiment. With such pow- erful and obvious motives to Union affecting all parts of our country, while expe- rience shall not have demonstrated its impracticability, there will always be reason to distrust the patriotism of those who in any quarter may endeavor to weaicen its bands. In contemplating the causes which may disturb our Union, it occurs as matter o£ ion another. The spirit of encroachment tends to con- eolidate the powers of all the departments in one, and thus to create, whatever the foriF of government, a real despotism. A just estimate of that love of power, and prone- ness to abuse it, which predominates in the human heart, is sufficient to satisfy ur of the truth of this position. The necessity of reciprocal checks in the e.xercisF nf political power, by dividing and distributing it into different depositories, anrf constituting each the guardian of the public weal against invasions by the others, has been evinced by experiments ancient and modern ; some of them in our country and under our own eyes. To preserve them must be as necessary as to institute them. If, in the opinion of the people, the distribution or modification of the constitutiona) powers be in any particular wrong, let it be corrected by an amendment in the way which the Constitution designates. But let there be no change by usurpation ; for though this, in one instance, may be the instrument of good, it is the customary weapon by which free governments are destroyed. The precedent must always greatly overbalance in permanent evil any partial or transient benefit which the use can at any time yield. Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, religion and morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim the tribtite of patriotism, who should labor to subvert the.se great pillars of human happiness, the.se firmest props of the duties of men and citizens. The mere politician, equally with the pious man, ought to respect and to cherish them. A volume could not trace all their connections with private and public felicity. Let it simply be asked, where is the security for property, for reputation, for life, if the sense of religious obligation desert the oaths which are the instruments of investigation in courts of justice? And let us with caution indulge the supposition, that morality can be maintained without religion. Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle. It is substantially true, that virtue or morality is a necessary spring of popular government. The rule indeed extends with more or less force to every species of free government. Who that is a sincere friend to it, can look with indifference upon attempts to shake the foundation of the fabric? 762 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. Promote then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for th? general dif- tasion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened. As a very important source of .strength and security, cherisli public credit. <_)ne method of preserving it is to use it as sparingly as possible, avoiding occasions of ex- pense by cultivating peace; but remembering also that timely disbiir.sements to prejiars for danger, frequently prevent much greater disbursements to repel it; avoiding like- wise the accumulation of debt, not only by sliunning occasions of expense, but by vig- orous exertions in time of peace to discU.vrge the debts which unavoidable wars may have occasioned, not ungenerously throwing upon posterity the burden which we our- selves ought to bear. The execution of tliese maxims belongs to your Representatives, but it is neces.sary that public opinion sliould co-operate. To facilitate to tliem the performance of their duty, it is ei^sential that you should practically bear in mind, that toward the payment of debts there must be revenue; that to have revenue there nuist be taxes ; that no taxes can be devised which are not more or less inconvenient and unpleasant ; that the intrinsic embarrassment inseparable from the selection of the proper objects (which is always a choice of difficulties) ought to be a decisive motive for a candid construction of the conduct of the government in making it, and for a .spirit of acijuiescence in the measures for obtaining revenue which the public exigencies may at any time dictate. Ob.serve good faith and justice towards all nations, cultivate peace and harmony with all ; religion and morality enjoin this conduct, and can it be that good policy cioes not equally enjoin it? It will be worthy of a free, enlightened, and, at no distant period, a great nation, to give to mankind the magnanimous and too novel example of a people always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence. Who can doubt but that in the course of time and things, the fruits of such a plan would richly repay any temporary advantage which might be lost by a steady adherence to it? Can it be that Providence has not connected tlie permanent felicity of a nation with its virtue? The experiment, at least, is recommended by every sentiment which ennobles human nature. Alas! is it rendered impossible by its vices? In the execution of such a plan, nothing is more essential than that permanent, inveterate antipathies again.st particular nations, and passionate attachments for others, Bhould be excluded ; and that in place of them just and amicable feelings towards all should be cultivated. The nation which indulges toward another an habitual hatred or an habitual fondnes.s, is in some degree a slave. It is a slave to its animosity or its aflec- tion, either of which is sufficient to lead it astray from its duty and its interests. Antip- atliy ill one nation against another, disposes each more readily to offer insult and injury, to lay hold of slight cau.ses of umbrage, and to be haughty and intractable, when accidental or trilling occasions of dispute occur. Hence fretpient coUi.sions, obstinate, envenomed, and bloody contests. The nation, prompted by ill-will and resentment, Bometimes impels to war the government, contrary to the best calculations of policy. The government sometimes participates in the national propensity, and adopts through passion what reason would reject ; at other times, it makes the animosity of the nation subservient to projects of hostility instigated by pride, ambition, and other sinister and pernicious motives. The peace often, sometimes perhaps the liberty, of nations haa been the victim. So, likewise, a passionate attachment of one nation for anotlier produces a variety of evils. Sympathy for tfie favorite nation, facilitating the illusion of an imaginary common interest in cases where no real common interest exists, and infu.sing into one the enmities of the other, betrays the former into a participation in the quarrels »nd wars yf the latter, without adequate inducement or justification. It leads also APPENDIX F. 763 to concessions to the favorite nation of privileges denied to others, which is apt douhiy to injure the nation making the concessions, by unnecessarily parting with what ought to have been retained; and by exciting jealousy, ill-will, and a dispo- sition to I'etaliate, in the parties from whom equal privileges are withheld. And it gives to ambitious, corrupted, or deluded citizens (who devote themselves to the favorite nation) facility to betray or sacrifice the interests of their own countiy, without odium, sometimes even with popularity; gilding with the appearance of a virtuous sense of obligation a commendable deference for public opinion, or a laudable zeal for public good, the base or foolish compliances of ambition, corruption, or infatuation. As avenues to foreign influence in innumerable ways, such attachments are particularly alarming to the truly enlightened and independent patriot. How many opportunities do they afford to tamper with domestic factions; to practice the arts of sedition, to mislead public opinion, to influence or awe the jjublic councils! Such an attachment of a small and weak, towards a great and powerful nation, dooms the former to be the satellite of the latter. Against the insidious wiles of foreign influence (I conjure you to believe me, fellow-citizens,) the jealousy of a free people ought to be constantly awake; since history and experience prove that foreign influence is one of the most baneful foes of Republican Government. But that jealousy be useful must be impartial; else it becomes the instrument of the very influence to be avoided, instead of a defence against it. Excessive partiality for one foreign nation, and excessive dislike of another, cause those whom they actuate to see danger only on one side, and serve to veil and even second the arts of influence on the other. Real patriots, who may resist the intrigues of the favorite, are liable to become suspected and odious; while its tools and dupes usurp the a|)plau.se and confidence of the people, to surrender their interest. The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is, in extending our commercial relation.s, to have with them as little political connection as possible. So far as we have already formed engagements, let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith. Here let us stop. Europe has a set of primary interests, which to us have none, or a very remote relation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it must be unwi.se in us to impli- cate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary vicii^situdes of her politics, or the ordi- nary combinations and collisions of her friendship* or enmities. Our detached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a different course. If we remain one people, under an efficient government, the period is not far ofT when we may defy material injury from external annoyance ; when we take such an attitude as will cau.se the neutrality we may at any time resolve upon to be scrupulously respected; when belligerent nations, under the impossi- bility of making acquisitions upon us, will not lightly hazard the giving us provo- cation ; when we may choo.se peace or war, as our interest, guided by ju.stice, shall counsel. Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation? Why quit your own to stand upon foreign ground? Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of any part of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in the toils of European ambition, rival- ship, interest, humor, or caprice? It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world — so far, I mean, as we are now at liberty to do it; for let me not be understood as capable of patronizing infidelity to existing engagements. I hold the maxim no less applicable to public than to private affairs, that honesty is always 7f)4 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. the best policy. I rjpeat it, theiefore, let those engagements be observed in their genuine sense. But, in my opinion, it is unnecessary, and would be unwise to extend them. Taking care always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, on a respectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary alliances for extraordinary emer- gencies. Harmony, and liberal intercourse with all nations, are recommended by policy, bnmanity, and interest. But even our commercial policy should hold an equal and impartial band ; neither seeking nor granting exclusive favors or preferences; — consulting the n.atural course of things; difiusing and diversifying by gentle means tbe streams of commerce, but forcing nothing ; establishing, with powers so disposed, in order to give trade a stable course, to define the rights of (mr merchants, and to enable the government to support them, conventional rules of intercourse, the best that present circumstances and mutual opinion will permit, but temporary, and liable to be from time to time abandoned or varied, as experience and circumstances shall dictate ; constantly keeping in view, that it is folly in one nation to look for disinterested favors from another; that it must pay with a portion of its independence for whatever it may accept under that char- acter; that by such acceptance, it may place itself in the condition of having given e(iuivalents for nominal favors, and yet of being reproached with ingratitude for not giving more. There can be no greater error than to expect, or calculate upon, real favors from nation to nation. It is an illusion which experience must cure, which a just pride ought to discard. In offering to you, my countrymen, tliese counsels of an old and affectionate friend. I dare not hope they will make the strong and lasting impres.sion I could wish — that they will control the usual current of the pas.sions, or prevent our nation from running the course which has hitherto marked the destiny of nations. But if I may even flatter my- self that they may be productive of some partial benefit, some occasional good; that they may now and then recur to moderate the fury of party sjiirit, to warn against the mis- chiefs of foreign intrigue, to guard against the impostures of pretended patriotism ; this liope will be a full recompense for the solicitude for your welfare by which they have been dictated. How far in the discbarge of my official duties I have been guided by the principles which have been delineated, the public records and other evidences of my conduct must witness to you and to the world. To myself, the assurance of my own conscience is, that I have at least believed myself to be guided by them. In relation to the still subsisting war in Europe, my proclamation of the 22d of April, 1793, is tbe index to my plan. Sanctioned by your approving voice, and by that of your Representatives in both Houses of Congress, the spirit of that measure has continually governed me, uninfluenced by any attempts to deter or divert me from it. After deliberate examination, with the aid of the best lights I could obtain, I was well satisfied that our countrj-, under all the circumstances of the case, had a right to take, and was bound in duty and interest to take, a neutral position. Having taken it, I determined, as far as .should depend upon me, to maintain it with moderation, perse- verance, and firmness. The considerations which respect the right to hold this conduct, it is not necessary on this occasion to detail. I will only observe, that, according to my understanding of (he matter, that right, so far from being denied by any of the belligerent Powers, has 6een virtually admitted by all. The duty of bidding a neutral conduct may be inferred, without any thing more. APPENDIX F. 7-C5 from the obligation whlcli justice and humanity imposes on every nation, in cases in which it is free to act, to maintain inviolate the relations of peace and amity towards other nations. The inducements of interest for observing that conduct will best be referred to your own reflections and experience. With me, a predominant motive has been to endeavor to gain time to our country to settle and mature its yet recent insti- tutions, and to progress, without interruption, to that degree of strength and con- sistency which is necessary to give it, humanly speaking, the command of its owr fortunes. Though, in reviewing the incidents of my administration, I am unconscious oi intentional error, I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects, not to think it prob- able that I may have committed many errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indul- gence ; and that after forty-five years of my life dedicated to its service, with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of rest. Relying on its kindne.ss in this as in other things, and actuated by that fervent love towards it, which is so natural to a man who views in it the native soil of him- self and his progenitors for several generations; I anticipate with pleasing expec- tation that retreat, in which I promise myself to realize, without alloy, the sweet enjoyment of partaking, in the midst of my fellow-citizens, the benign Influence of good laws under a free government — the ever favorite object of my heart, and the happy reward, aa I trust, of our mutual cares, labors, and dangers. U. WA^HUKaTOH. United States, Vllk September, 1796. APPENDIX G. THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. {If the Emancipation Proclamation is to be regarded as the cause of the freedom cf the African race in tlie United States, then indeed must it be considered as among the most important documents known in history: perhaps the most important of all. The truer view of the case, however, seems to be this: The inexorable Logic of Events was rapidly bringing about the emancipation of the slaves. The National government fell under a stringent necessity to strike a blow at the labor system of the Southern States. With every sti-uggle of the war the sentiment of abolition at the North rose higher and higher. The President him.self and the chief supporters of his administra- tion had for years made no concealment of their desire that all men everywhere ehould be free. The occasion was at hand. Mr. Lincoln seized and generalized the facts, embodied them in his own words, and became for all time the oracle and inter- preter of National Necessity. — The Author.] Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a Proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, containing among other things the following, to wit: "That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-tliree, all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward and forever free, and the executive government of the United State.s, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and main- tain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of tnem, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom." " That the executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in whicli the people thereof resjiectively shall then lie in rebellion against the United States, and (lie fact that any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith represented in the Congress of the United States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the quali- fied voters of such State shall have participated, shall, in the absence of strong coun- tervailing testimony, be c'eemed conclusive evidence that such State and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the LTnited States." Now, therefore, I, .\braham Lincoln, President of the United Slates, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government •f the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said T^ifi APPENDIX G. 767 rebellion, do, on this first day of January, in tlie year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaim for the full period of one hundred days from the day the first above- mentioned, order and designate, as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof respectively are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, to wit: Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, .Tefi'erson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terre Bonne Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), Mis- sissippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty-eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Ann, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are, for the present, left precisely as if this Proclamation were not i.ssued. And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforward .shall be fiee ; and that the executive government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. And I herel>y enjoin upon the people so declared to be free, to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defence, and I recommend to them that in all cases, when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. And I further declare and make known that such persons of suitable condition will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke tlie considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my name, and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. Done at the City of Washingtcm, this first day of January, in the year of our [ L. s. ] Lord one thousand eiijht hundred and sixty-three, and of the Independence of the United States tfie eiyhty-seventK Abraham Lincoln. Sy the President : ' William H. Seward, Secretary of State. PR0I^^TJ]S^CIAT10]S^ OF PPvOPEB NAMES. [E., English; F., French; S., Spanish; P., Portugese; It., Italian; G., German; N., Norse; Sw, Swedish ; Pol., Polish ; L., Latin ; I., Indian.] Abenaki [I.], ilb-e-nah-ki. A.bercronibie [E.], Sb-er-krum-bi. A-det [F.]. ah-da. \dolpluis [L], a-dol-ffis. Aix-la-Clucpelle [F.]. aks-lah-shah-p6l. Algonqniii [I.], il-gon-keii. Almonte [S.], al-nion-te. Alvarado [S.], al-va-rah-do. Ambrister [E.], dni-bris-ter. Amerigo Vespucci [It.], ah-mer-e-gO ves- poot-i'be. Amidas [E], iim-id-ils. Ampudia [•S.], am-poo-di-a. Andre [F.], aii-dia. Antietam [E.], an-te-t&m. Antonio de Kspego [8.], ahn-to-ni-O da es- psi-lio. Arbuthnot [E.], alirbuth-not. Arista [S.], ah-ris-la. Armada [S.], ahr-mah-di. Ashe [E.], flsh. Au Giaize [F.], O-glaz. Avavalia [S.], i-ab-vahl-ya. Ayotla [S.], l-ot-la. Aztecs [I.], ftz-teks. Bahia [S.], bah-e a. Balfour [K.], bal-foor. Barron [E.], bahr-ron. Baum [E.], bawm. Baumarcbais [F.], bo-mahr-sha. Bayard [E.], blahrd. Beaujeu [F.], b("5-zhu. Beauregard [F".], bo-ra-gahrd. Beau-Sejour [F.J, IjO-.sa-zhoop. BeUomont [E.], bOI-o-mont. liernard [E.], ber-nahrd. Bienville [F.], be-ong-vel. Bleiinerba.'isett [E.], blen-ner-hSs-set. BIytb [E.], blith. Boscawen [E.], bos-kaw-en. Buddhist [Sanscrit], bood-dist. Bulkeley [E.], bulk-li. Burgovne [E.], biir-^oin. Cabot [E.], kftb-ot. Cadwallader [E.], kad-wahl-li-der. Canonchet [I.], ka-noii-shet. Canonicus [1.], ka-non-i-ku.s. Canseau [F.], kan-so. Carleton [E.] kahrl-tiin. Cartier [F.], kabr-ti-a. Casimer [Sw.], kfts i-m6r. Castiii [F.], k;'is-tftn. Chabot [F'.], sha-bo. Cham [Tartar], kdm. Chanipe [E.l, kdnip. Champlain [F.], sham-plan. Tt;s Chapultepec [S.], kali-pool-ta-p6k. Cbaudiere [F.], sho-de-ar. Chauncey [E.], chawn-se. Cherbourg [F.]. sher-boorg. Cherokee [I.], cher-O-ke. Chickamauga [E.], chik-a-inaw-g3,. Chickasavvs [I.], cliik-a-sawz. Chicora [8.], che-ko-ra. Chignecto [I.], she-nfk-tfs. Chihuahan [.S.], slie-wah-wah. Choctaw.'i [I.], chok-tawz. Cliristison [8w.], kris-ti-aun. Chri.stophe [.S.], kris-to-fe. Chrysler [E.], kris-ler. Churubusco [S.], koo-roo-boos-kO. Clarendon [E.], klftr en-dun. Cochrane [E.], kok-ran. Coligni [F.J, ko-leii-ye. Columbu.^ [L.], ko-luni-bfis. Comanclies [I.], ko-niftn cliez. Conde [F.], kon-da. Contreras [S.], kOn-tra-ris. Copernicus [L.], ko-per-ni-kiis. Copley [E.], kop-le. Corces [I.], ko-rez. CorMwallis [E.], kawrn-wahl-lis. Credit Mobilier [F.], cra-dlmO-bil-i-ac. Croghan [E.], krog-han. Dacres [E.], dflk-erz. Dahlgren [E.], dftl-gren. Darrali [E.], dahp-rah. D'.Vuville [F.], dong-vel. D'Aubrev [F.], dO-bra. Dave [E.], da. De Barras [F.], dii bahr-rah. Decatur [E.j, de-kii-tur. De Fleury [F.], dii flnr-i. De (irasse [F.], dfi grfls. De Kalb [F.], dii kahlb. Delaplace ['/.], dii-la-pias. De Monts [F.], du inoiig'. D'Estaing [F.], da-stflng. De Trrnay [F.], du ter-na. De Vaca [S.], da vah-kS. De Vcrg(ir [F.], dii-vnr-gor. De Villiers [F.], dii-vel-yar. De Vries [F.]. du vrez. Dieskau [F.], de-es-ko. Dominic de Gourges [F.], dO-man-ek dii Dongau [E.], dfni-gan. Doniplian [E.], doii-ilaii. Dupont [E.], du-pont. Du Quesne [F.], de-kan. Dyar [E.], dl-ar. Eldorado [S.], el-do pah-d(5. PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES. T69 Elkswatawa [I.], elks-wah-tah-wah. Eiiiiicrau [I.], e-niook-faw. Endicott [E.], eii-di-kot. Ericsson [E.]. er-iks-suii. Erskine [E.], er-skiii. Es()|iiis [E.], e-so-ptis. Esqiiiiiuuix [I.], e«-ki-ni(")Z. Earragiit [E.] fahr-ia-gn. Ferdinand de Soto [S.], fer-di-nahnd da so-tO. Ferdinand Gorges [E.], f grdi-nand gor-jez. Ferdinand Magellen [P.], fer-dinand nia- jel-Ian. Ferguson [E.], fur-gu-siin. Fernandez de Cordova [S.], fer-nahn-deth da k6r-d0-%a. Fernando (Jortez [S.], fer-nalin-dO kOr-teth. Foucliet [F.], loo-sha. Fraser [E.], fra-zer. Freneau [E.], fre-no. Frobisher [E], frob-lsli-er. Frontenac [F.], fron-te-nftk. Gabarus [E.], ga-bflr-us. Galileo [It.], gah-li-la-O. Gambler [F.], galiiu-bi-a. Ganowanian [I], galmo-wahn-i.an. Gaapar CortereaJ [P.], gahs-palir kor-ta-ra- ahl. Gasp^ [F.], gas-pa. Gawen [E.], gaw-en. Genet [F.], zhe-na. Gillis [G.], gil-lls. Gladwyn [E.], giad-win. Gloucester [E.], glos-ter. Godyn [E.], gO-diii. Gofle [E.], gawf. Gorgeana [£•], gor-je-Sn-a. Gosnold [E.], gos-nOld. Goulburn [E.]. gool-burn. Grierson [E.], grer-sun. Grijalva [S.], gre-hahl-va. Giierriere [F.], ger-rl-ar. Gnstavus [L.], gus-ta-viis. Hakluyt [E.], hak-Uiot. Havre de Grace [F.], bahver-dii-grfis. Hayne [E.], haii. Heister [G.], his-ter. Herjulfson [N.], hfir-yoolf-sOn. Herkimer [E.], hur-ki-mer. Hertel [F.], Iier-tel. Hochelaga [I], hok-e lah-ga. Hosset [G.], hos-set. Houston [E.], hows-tun. Hovenden [E-], ho-ven-den. Hugenots [F.], hu-ge-nots. Iroquois [I.], ir-O-Kwah. Isabella [S.], iz-a-bel-la. Isle-au.x-Noix [F.], el-o-nooah. luka [E.], I-yoo-ka. Jameson [E.J, jam-e-sun. Joris [G.], yo-ris. Juan Ponce de Leon [S.], hwahn pon-tlia da la-on. 49 Juarez [S.], hwaw-rgth. Juraonville [F.], zliS-niong-vel. Kamtcbatkans [I.], kam-tchfit-k&nz. Kearney [E.], kahr-ne. Kearsarge [E.], hahr-sabr-gg, itv U^r sniirj Kieft [E.], keft. Klamatlis [I.], klflm-albs. Knowlldii [E], iiOI-lnn. Knypbaiistii [<;.], iiep-bow-sen. Kosciusko [Pol.], kOs-sI-iis-ko. Kossuth [G.], kos-shoot. Koszta [Hungarian], kot-ta. La Colle [F.], la-kol. La Favette [F.], la-fa-ft. La Fitle [F.], la-fit. La Roche [F.], la-rosh. La Roque [F.], la-rok. La Salle [F.], la-sftl. Lathrop [E.], la-tbrflp. Laudonniere [F.], lo-don-ni-ar. Laurie [E.], law-ri. La Vega [S.], lab va-ga. Le B.euf [F.],'lii-buf. Leddra [E.], led-ra. Ledyanl [E.], led-yahrd. Leisler [G.], li.s-ler. Leitcb [E], lech. Leverett [E.], If v-er-et. Leyden [G], ll-den. Lief Eriekson [N], lef 6r-Ik-siin. Lionel [E.], li-O-nel. Lopez [S.], 16-peth. Loudoun [E.], loo-doon. Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon [S.], lao-kahs vahs-keth da il-yon. Liitzen [G.], letz-en. Luzerne [Swiss], loo-zerii. Macdonough [E.], niak-don-O. Maedougall [E.], inak-doo-gal. Macomb [E.], ma-kom. Magaw [E.], ina-gaw. Mandeville [E.], mSn-de-vil. Manteo [I.], niahn-le-o. Manuel [P.], mahii-oo-al. Markham [E.], mahrk-ani. Marlborough [E], mahrl-brii. Massasoit [I.], nias-sfts-O-It. Mather [E.], mftthe-er. Matoaka [I.], mat-o-ak-a. Matthews [E.], niath-tiz. Maurepas [F.], mo-re-pah. Maximilian [G.], niax-I-mil-yiln. McCulloiigb [E.], mak-Hnl-lo. Mcintosh [E.], mdk-In-tosh. Meacluini [E ], me-cham. Meigs [E.], niegz. Meta Incognita [L.], me-ta in-cog-ni-tS. Miantonomidi [I.], mi-an-tO-no niO. Micanopy [I.], ml-kan-o-pi. Minuit [G.], min-oo-it. Mobfgan [I.], nio-he-gan. Moiicktori [E.], niuuk-tun. Monk [E.], muiik. 770 PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES. Montcalm [F.], moiit-Ualinn. Monteano [S.], iiioii-ta ahii-O. Montezuma [I.], iiion-te-y-oo-ina. Montmoreiici [F.], mont-niO-ren-si. Mosley [E.], mos-le. Moultrie [E.], niOl-tri. Naii-ne [E.], iiftm. Nassau [F.], nils-so. Naumkoag [I.], nawm-ke-ftg. Nipmiicks [I.], iiip-muks. Nueces [S.], iiwa-ses. Ocklawalia [I.], dk-la-\vah-liah. Odeneal [E.], o-ileii-el. Osletlioipe [E.], 6-gel-tli6rp. O'Haia [E.], o-hahr-ia. OJeda [S.], 0-lia-a-l6u-deth. Peinaquid [I.], p6m-a-kwid. Pepperell [E.], pepper-el. Peouod [I.], pe-kw6d. Perole [8.], pa-rote. Pigot [E.], pig-6t. Pinta [S.], peii-ta. Pitcaini [E.], pit-karn. Pizarro [S.]. pe-thahr-rO. Pocahontas [I.], p6k-a-h6ii-tas. Poictiers [F.], pwah-te-ft. Point au 'l'reiiil>les[F.], pwan to Iratambl. Pontciiartrai" [F.], pon-sliahr-tran. Pontrincourt [F.], poo-traii-koor. Powhatan [I.], pow-hat-aii. Presque Isle [F.]. pre.sk el. Previist [F^], prev-ost. Prideanx \V.\ pre-do. Pulaski [Pol], poo-lahs-kT. Qiiantrell [E.], kwahn-trel. Qiieretaro [S.], k.a-ra-tah-rO. Rahl [G.], rahl. Keleigh [E.J, raw-li. Ratclitte [E.], rSt-klif. Rawdon [E.], raw-dun. Kavmbault [F.], ram-bo. Revere [E. ], re-ver. Riall [F:.], rl-al. Kiliault [F ], re-bo. Roberval [F.}, rOb-er-vahl. Rochambeau [F.], rO-sham-bS. Rocbelle [F.], rO-shel. Roderigo Triana [S.], rOd-re-go Ire-ah-na. Kosecrans [t>.], ros-e krahns. Rvswick [G.], rps-wik. ^ Sallillo [.S.], sahl-te|yo. Sainosset [1.], sftni-O-set. Santa Maria [S.], sahn-ti mah-re-i. Sass:icus [i.], sfts-sak-iis. Sayle [E.], sal. Scbuyler [E-], ski-ler. Selisb [I.], se-lish. Seminoles [1.], sem-i-r.Olz. Sheati'e [G.J, shftf-te. Sboshonees [I.], shC-sho-nfiz. Sicklemore [E], sik-el-mOr. Sloughter [E.], slo-ter. Squanto [I.], >,kwahii-tO. St. Croix [F.J, saiit-ltroi. Steuben [G.J, stu-ben. Stirling [E.J, stur-ling. St. Leger [F.J, sftn la-zha. Sliiughton [E.J, sto-tun. St. Pierre [F".J, san pe-ar. Stnyvesant [G.J, sti-ves ant. Subercase [F-J, se-ber-kahs. Talladega [I.J, tiihl-la-de-ga. Tamaulipas [S.J, labm-aw-le-piis. Tanacbarisson [L.J, tan-a-kflr-is-sun. Teciimtha [I. J, tekum-tha. Theresa [G.J, ter-ts-a. Thortiiin Karlsefne [N.], tor-fin kalirt> set-ne- Thorstein Erickson [N.J, tor-.stIn gr-ik-siiii. Tituba [I.J, ti-too-ba. Tohopeka [I.J, lo-lio-pe-ka. Tomo-Chiclii [I.J, to-ii]o-clic-clii. Van Ren.sselaer [E.J, van rf ns-se-lahr. Van Twiller [G.J, van twel-ler. Vasco de Gaina [P.J, valis-ko da {;ah-m3 Vasco Nunez de Balboa [S- J, vahs-kOnoon yeth da babi bo-a. Vaudreuil [F.J, vo-drii-el. Vaughan [E.J, vawii. Vergennes [F.J, ver-zheii. Verhulsl [ti.J, var hoolst. Verrazzani [It. J, ver-rat-tsah-ne. Wainnian [E.J, wan-man. Walloons [G,J, walil-loonz. Wampanoags [I.J, wabm-pan-o-agz. Warwick [E.J. wahr-rick. Wavmoulli [E.J, wa-muth. Weide [E.J. w«-l-de. Weitzel [ti.J, wit-zel. Wballey [E.J,_ hwahl-li. Whinyates [E.J, liwin-yats Whitetield [E.J, hwit-feld Wingina [I.J, win-ge-na. Worcester [E.J, woos-tfer Wonter [*».J, woo-ter. Xeres [S.J, ha-retli. Yamacraws [1], yahm-'.-W'av*, YeamaBS [E.J, ye-nianz. Yeardley [FIJ, yurd-li. Youghiogbeny [I.J, y6b-li3-gC-nI. Ynset [MoorisbJ, .Too-seJ'. Zenger [(i-J, zen-ger. GENERAL INDEX. ABENAKIS, THE, War with, 148, l.'i4. ABERCROMBIE. GENERAL, Expedition uf against Ticonderoga, 271. ACADIA, Name of. 75 ; ruin of, 261-264. ADAMS, JOHN, Predicts American hnifju'inicnre, isn ; nom- inates Wasiifcffton f"i t,'rticriil-in-(tiief, 301 ; member of t-onimiMee lo diuft I)Hclaration, 309; coiiuiiis.sinner to Paris, 354; Vice-Presi- dent, 362; ski'tcii of. 372; administration of, 372-376; deutli of. 4-J4. ADAMS, John Qiincy, Secretary of State, 417; elected President. 423 ; sketcli of. 423; administration of, 423-426; deatii of. 461. ADAMS, Samuel, Speaks out for liberty, 295. ADET, M., Evil influence of in United Stales, 373. ADOLPHUS. GUSTAVUS, Plans an American colony, 164. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Treaty of, 158. ALABAMA, Admission of. 420. ALABAMA. THE, Career of, 53;J. ALABAMA CLAIMS, THE, Settlement of, 556. ALASKA, Purchase of, 547. ALGIEnS, Tribute paid to, 370 ; brought to term.s, 416. ALGONyuINS, The, Territorial position of, 42 and Map I. ALLE.V, Ethan, E,\pedition of against Ticonderoga, 298. AMENDMENTS TO CONSTITUTION, Notice of. 361 ; passage of Fourteenth and Fif- teenth, 553. AMES, Fisher, Letter of. 701. AMHERST, GENERAL, Commander-in-chief in America, 273. AMIDAS, Philip, Voyage of, 81. AMNESTY PROCLAMATION, THE, Account ()f, .^44. ANDERStJN. 1!(.I)ERT. At Foit siiiiiter. 484. ANDRE, JOHN, Connection of with Arnold's treason, 344 ; ex- ecution of, .345. ANDROS, Sir Edmcnd, Career of in America, 123, 146, 147. 174. 191, 197, SOO. 207. ANTIETAM. Battle of. .506. ANTI-FEDERALIST PARTY, THE, Rise of. 3.59. ARCHDALE, JOHN, Governor of South Carolina. 234. ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS, Account of. 4ii7. ARGALL. Samuel, Expeditions of, 108, 109. ARKANSAS. Organization of, 420 ; aduiission of, 435. 771 ARMADA, The INVINCIBLE, Mentioned, 83. ARNOLD, Benedict, At Ticonderoga, 299; at Quebec, 303 ; heroism of at Saratoga, 323; treason of. 343; in Vir- ginia, .346. ARREARS OF PENSIONS ACT, Account of, 6&4. ARTHUR, CHESTER A., Vice-President, ii43 ; becomes President, 652; administration of, 602-671. ATLANTA, Capture of. 526. BACON, Nathaniel, Rebellion of. 120. BALBOA, Discovery of the PaciDc by, 57. BALTIMORE, Siege of, 410 ; attack on Union soldiers in, 486. BALTIMORE. The Lords. Colonize Maryland. 217. BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. Organization of, 366 ; expiration of charter of, 415 ; re-chartering of vetoed by Jackson, 427 ; new charter of vetoed by Tyler,'44l. BANKS, N. P.. In West Virginia, 502 ; in command of the Red River expedition, 524. BARCLAY, ROBERT, Governor of New Jersey, 207. BARLdW. ARTHUR, Voviige of, 81. BA.XTER. (;KoIUiE. Bearer of charter of Rhode Island, 107. BAYARD, Thomas F., Secretary of State. 673. BEECHER. Henry Ward, Notice and death of, 681. BELL, PROFESSOR A. G.. Inventttr of telephone, 625. BELLOMONT. EARL OF. Governor of New York, 179. BENNINGTON. Battle of. 322. BENTON. Thomas H.. Prnciiies tlic expunging of resolutions of cen- sure against Jackson. 4;32. BERKELEY, SIR William, Governor of Virginia. 116; vengeance of, 121 ; proprietor of New Jersey, 203. BLACK FRIDAY, Story of, .5.53. BLACK HAWK WAR, THE, Account of, 429. - BLAINE, James G., Candidate for the presidency, 669 ; Secretary of State, 648; a second time, 697. BLOCKADE. The Question of in Europe, 384, 385. BOBADILLA, Mentirmed, 56. BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON, Policy of toward the United States, .374 ; sells; Louisiana, 378 ; measures of against Great Britain, 38:^ ; issues Milan Decree. -386 ; in- vasion of Russia by. 393. BONAPARTE, LOUIS Napoleon, Intrigue of respectitjg Mexico, 545. TTj! BLSTOBY OF THE UNITED STATES. BOONE, Daniel, t^olonizes Keutucky, 3B7. BOOTH, John Wilkks. Assassination of Lincoln by, 543. B( ISTON, Fininded. 13^'; ciccupled by che British army, 203 : massacre at. 2a3 ; sleRe of, 2a8-307 ; evac- uation of, 307 ; great Are in, 568. BOURNE, SYLVESTER, Meiuioneil, T't3. BRADD(XK, Edward, Campaign of, 338-261 ; death of, 3U1. BRADFORD, WILLIAM, Governor of Massachusetts, 134. BRACti, BRAXTON. At Murfreeshorough, 500 ; at Chlckamauga, 514 ; at Loolvout and Missionary Ridge, 514, 515. BRANDYWINE, Battlf of, 3-J4. BRE('K1NRIDi;e. John C, Vicc-l'ii'sidiMit, 474 ; in commaDd In the Shen- andoah Vall.v. .5.30. BROOKLYN HRlIlliE, THE, BulldlMi; ..f. Iii;i-Uti3. BROOKS. .loHN A., CandidaU' for the Vice-Presidency, 694. BROWN. John, Insurrection led by, 478. BRYANT, WILLIAM CtlLLEN, Death of, 639. BUCHANAN, JAMES, Part of in Ostend Manifesto, 473: President, 474: sketch of, 474 : administration of, 474-183. BUENA VISTA. Battle of, 453. BULL RUN, Battle of, 491 : second battle of. 505. BUNKER HILL, FortiBcation of by Americans, 399 ; battle of, .300. BUNKER HILL MONUMENT, THE, History of, 44;i, BURGESSES. HOfSE OF, Estal>lislin]cnt of, 110; scene In, 389. BURtiOVNE. GENERAL, Invasion of, 331: at Bemis's Heights, -33:5; capitulation of, 331. BURNSIDE, AMBROSE E., In command of army, .509; at Fredericksburg. 509; death of. 678. BURR, AARON, Elected Vice-President, 376; kills Hamilton, .■!83 ; conspiracy of, .38.3. BUTLER, B. F., At New Orleans, 498 : at Fort Fisher, 6.33 ; at Bermuda Hundred, 5:36. CABINET, THE, Organization of, 364. CABLE, THE ATLANTIC, Laying of. 476, .545. CABOT, John, Vovage of, 76. OABot, Seba.stia.n, Vcivage and explorations of, 77. CALHOUN, JOHNC, In Congress, 391 ; secretary of war, 417 : Vice- President, 433 ; as a nullifler. 439 ; death of, 467. CALIFORNIA, Discovery of gold In, 459 ; organization of, 4(3 ; admissiifn of, 464. CALIFORNIANS. THE, Ten itnrial position of, 44 ami Map 1. CALVERT. SIR GeoRUE, Sketch of, 317. CALVERT, SIR CECIL, Colonizes Maryland, 318, CAMDEN, Battle of, 341. CANADIAN INSURRECTION, THE. Account of, 438. CANONCHET, Notice of, 141 ; execution of, 14.3. CANONICUS, Notice of, 139. CAPE BRETON, Conquest of. 157, 158. CARTERET, SIR GEORtiE, Proprietor of New Jersey, 303. CARTIEU, James, Vovage of, 71. CARVER, John, Leader of the Pilgrims, 91 ; death of, 13;i. CENSUS, Of 1790and 1800, 375 ; of 1810, 390; of 1840, 439; of 1870. 5.55; of 1880, 646. CENTENNIAL OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT, Account of, 6!>7-733. CENTENNIAL OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, Acc'iunt of, .'i63-G:J1. CERHO (iliKllo. Hiittl.- i.f. !.->.-,. CHA.MI'E. seki^eant John, Atti-iu|ii of to capture Arnold, 346. CHAMPION HILLS, Battle of. 513. CHAMPLAIN, Samuel, Career of in America, 75, 76. CHANCELLORSVILLE, Battle of, ^.18. CHAPULTEPEC, Battle of, 4X. CHARLES I., Relations of with American colonies. See ilaniachusetts and Virginia. CHARLES II., Relations of with American colonies. See M(i.-<.-ins on.284; dis- pute of with Eiiglaud, 2s:i-:;i(t,; independence of, 309, aw. COLONIZATION SOCIETY, THE, Organization of, 416. COLORADO, Admission of, 561. COLUMBIA, District OF. Organization of. 416. COLUMBUS, Christopher, Sketch of, 55; discovery of America by, 55; misfortunes of, 66. COMANCHES, THE, Terril^>rial position of, 44 and Map I. CONCORD, Founding of, 130; battle of, 298. CONFEDERATION, The, History of, :i56-358; Articles of. Appendix E. CONGRESS, THE First COLO.NIAL, Meeting of. 291. CONtiRKSS liFTHE REVOLUTION, Asseriihlingiif. 296. CONKLlNti. ItoSCOE, 685. CONNECTICUT. (oloiiization of, 130; history of, 184-192. CONSTITUTII IN OF THE UNITED STATES, Analysis of, .■i60; adoption of by the States, 361 ; Texliif. Aiiiiiiidix F. CONSTITUTION. THE, Affair of, 397. COOPER, Sir Ashley, Proprietor of Carolina, 225. CORDOVA, Explorations of, 58. CORINTH, Battle of, 499. CORNBURY, Lord, Governor of New York, 179. CORNWAI.I.IS, Lord, Pursiiis Wiishington across New Jersey. 314 ; considers tlie war ended, 315; returns to ihe work, 317 ; at Princeton, 318; at Brandy wine, 325; in Carolina, 874 ; in Virginia, 3.52; surren- der of, 3.53. CORTEREAL, GaSPAR, Voyages of. 69. CORTEZ, Fernando, Conquest of Mexico by. 58-61. COTTON GIN, THE, As a factor of the Civil War, 487. CRANFIELD. Edward, (toveriior of New Hampshire, 145 ; career of in the province, 2tlO. CREDIT MOBILIER, THE, Uproar concerning, 560. CREEKS, The, War with, 40:j ; difflculties with, 434. CROMWELL, Oliver, Relations of with Virginia, 115-118; favors New England, 135. CROWN POINT, Expediton of Johnson against, 265. CUBA, Difficulties concerning, 466. ID DAKOTAS, THE. Territorial position of, 43 anil yUtp I. DALE, Sir Thomas, Governor of Virginia, 107. DARE, Virginia, Birth mentioned, 83, DARRAH, LVDIA, Story of, 327. DAVIS, Jefferson, President of the Confederacy, 481 ; sketch of, 492; flight of, 538 ; capture arid trial of, 540. DAYE, Stephen, First printer in America, 133. DEARBORN, HENRY, Commander-in-Chief of American army, 393. DE AYLLON, Discovery of Carolina by, 62. DECATUR. COMMODORE, In the Mediterranean, 415. DE GAMA, Circumnavigation of Africa by, 78. DE GOURGES, Settles with the Spaniards, 74. DE KALB, Baron, Fights for Liberty, 320; killed, :j42. DELAWARE, Colonization of, 165 ; secession of from Penn- sylvania, 213. DE LEON, PONCE, Discovery of Florida by, 57. DEMAGdGUES. InflUHiicc "(. 189. DEMOCRATIC PARTY. THE, Comes into power, 376 ; notice of, 428. DE MONTS, In America, 75. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Instituted, 695. DEPENDE.NT PENSION BILL, Account of, 684. DEPEW, CHAl'NCEY M., Delivers centennial oration, 717. DE S( )T( 1, FERDINAND, Explorations, 64-67; discovery of Mississippi, 65; DETROIT. Capture of by the British, 395. DONIPHAN. Colonel, Campaign of, 4.^3. DORR INSURRECTION, THE, Account of, 442. DOUffLAS, Stephen A., Favors popular sovereignty, 472. DRAFT, THE, ( irdered by Congress, 522. DRAKE, Sir Francis, Career of. 80; carries otT Raleigh's colony, 82. DRED SCOTT DECISION, THE, History of, 474. EAST INDIA COMPANY, THE DUTCH, Mentioned, 92. EDISON. Thomas a.. Inventor of telephone, phonograph, and elec- tric light, 655, 656, 659. 774 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. EDUCATION. Favored by tbe Puritans. 159 ; character and extent of in the colonies. ^2; necessary to perpetuity of American institutions, 643. ELEl'TKir LIGHT, THE, lutroduclion '4, U5T-6t)0. ELIZABETH, (Jl'EE.N, Death of, 84. EMANOIP.iTION PROCLAMATION, THE, Issued by Lincoln, 511 ; text of. Appendix II. EMBAKGOAOT, THE, Pa.-isas'e of, 385 ; ridicule of, .386. ERIl'KSON, Life, Disi'overv of America by, 5L ERIl'KSON, Thorwald and Thorstein, Mentioned. 51, 52. ERICSSON. JoHX. Invention of Monitor bv, 497. ESPEtiO, Founder of Santa Fe, 63. ESQUIMAUX, THE, Territorial position of, 43 and Jfiip I. EUTAW SPRIN(iS, Battle of, 351. FAIR OAKS, Battle of. .503. FAIIRAUUT, Admiral, On the Mississippi, 498 ; capture of Mobile by, .531. FEDERALIST PARTY, THE, Rise of, 3.59 ; overthrow of. 375. FENDALL, JoSIAS, (iovernorof Maryland, 833. FIELD, CVKl-s W., LavitiL' of Atlantic cable bv, 476, .545. FILLMORE. Millard. Vice-Piesidi-ut, 463 ; became President, 465; wise measures recommended by, 466. FINANCIAL CRISIS, Of 1819, 419; of ia37, 4.37; of 1873, 560. FISK, Clinton b.. Candidate for the Presidency, 694. FIVE FORKS, Battle of, 5;J8 FLETCHER, BEN.IAMIX, Oovernor of New York, 178. FLORIDA, ('oloMization of, 68 ; cession of, 419. FORREST, N. B.. Raid of throug^h Tennessee and Kentucky, 53:i. FORT DONELSON, Capture of. 496. FORT 1)1' m^ESNE. See Fort Pitt. FORT FISHER, <.'apture (if, 533. FORT JACKSON, Capture of. 498. FORT LE BfEUF, Affairs at, 3.53. FORT Mchenry, Defense of. 411. FORT MEIOS. Siece of, 401. FORI" MIFFLIN. Defense iif, 336. FORT Moultrie. Attack on, 307. FORT ORANGE (NASSAU), Building of, 94, 163. FORT NASSAU. Built, 30.3, FORT NECESSITY, Built and defended bv WashiURton, 355, 3.56. FORT PITT, Built, 254; captured by French, 254; retaken, 372. FORTS, A list of at the beginning of the War of 1812, 396. FCIRT ST. PHILIP, Capture of, 498. FORT SUMTER. Bombardment of. 484. \ FORT WILLIAM HENRY, ^ Sieffe of, 369. FRANCE, Possessions of in America, 370 : incites the col- onies, 385; alliance "ith, 338-,330 ; difficulties with, 373. FRANKLIN, Benjami.v, Plans Union for America, 257; editor of New Euf^Iaiid r,„ In command against the Creeks, 403; at New Orleans 412; against the Seminoles, 419; elected President, 426 ; sketch of, 426 ; administratioa of 426-4:36 ; censured by Congress, 432 ; Fare- well Address of, 435; death ot, 461. JACKSON, STONEWALL, „..,,, At Cedar Mountain, 505 ; at Fredericksburg, 509 ; at Chancellorsville, 518 ; death of, 518. JAMES II., , , „ „ Relations of with American coloniea. See ilffflssochusftts and Virginia. JAMESTOWN, , Founding of, 87; affairs at, 95-113. JAPAN, . ^ ,„. Opening of intercourse with, 4,0. 776 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. JAVA. THE. Affair of, 397. JAY COOKE AND COMPANY, Failure of, 560. JAY, John. Dcfemls th*^ Ci'Dsiitulion, 359 ; appointed cbief- justice, .iiii : ne{rotiaU;s treaty, 369, JEFFKIisiiN, riioMAS, Author of tbe Declaration. 309 ; drafts ordi- nance for the North-western Territory, 3.59 ; opposes the Constitution. 302; Secretary of State, 364 ; Vice-President, 371 : elected Presi- dent, .376 ; sketch of, 376; administration of, 376-388 ; death of, 4-i4. JESUITS, THE, Discoveries and explorations of, 348, 249. JOHNSON, ANDREW, Elected Vice-President. 441 ; becomes Presi- dent, 544; sketch of, 514; adiniuistration of. 54t-.551 ; impeachment tif, 5.50. JOHNSTfiN, Joseph E., At Manassas, 491; wounded, 503; generalship of, Nil); surrender of, 5.30. KANSAS, Troubles in, 473. KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL, THE, Acc.Mint ..r. 473. KEAKNKV. I'llll.lP. Expcilitioiiuf toCaliforuid, 4.5i ; killed at Ctian- Iilly,.5(i6. KEARSARtiE, THE, DestruiHion of the Alabama by, 5.34. KENKSAW MOUNTAIN, Ball If of, 525. KENTCCKY, Colonization of, 367 ; admission of, .367. KIDD, William, Career of, 179. KIEFT, SIR WILLIAM, (ioverniir of New Netherland, 165. KILPATRICK, H. J., Fieht of with Hampton, 529. KLAMATIS, Teiritorial position of, 44 (i?ifi Man I. KOSSUTH, LoflS. Visit of to the United States, 467. KOSZTA. MARTI.V, Aflauof, 471. LABOR TROUBLES, Account of, 6:M-636; 679-683^. La FAYETTE, MARQUIS DR, (iives himself to the cause of liberty, 320 ; cam- paign of in Virginia, 352; visit of to America, 42. LANE, RALPH, Governor of Raleigh, 83. La ROCHE, Marquis of. Plans a colony, 74. La SALLE, Robert de. Explorations of, 248. LAUDONNIERRE, In Florida, 74. LAWRENCE, CAPTAIN, Death of, 406. LEE, CHARLES, Conduct of as a general, 315; disobedience of at Monmouth, ■3;il ; dismissal of from service, .331. LEE, Richard Hexrt. Resoluti ns of Independence offered by, 309. LEE, ROBERT E., In W. Virginia, 490 ; commander-in-chief of the Confederates, 503; invades Maryland, 506; ill Aiiliciani, 50(i; at Fredericksburg, 509; at Cliancelhirsville, 518; invades Pennsylvania, 519 ; at (jiettyshurg, 520 ; in the Wilderness, 535; retreat of from Richmond, .5.38; surrender of. 540 ; death of, 562. LEISLER, Jacob. Leader of insurrection in New York, 176. LEOPARD. THE. Affair of. :i85. LEWIS. Captain. Exploring expedition of, 382. LEWISTOWN, Founding of, 163. LEXINIiTON, liatlleof, 2'.IS. LIFE-SAVlN(i SERVICE, Est.ihii>hmeni of, 640. LI.NCOL.N, Abraham. Elected President, 479; sketch of, 482; admin- istration of, 4H2-.54:^ ; issues Emancipation Proc- lamation, 511 ; re-elected, 541 ; assassioatioD of, 542 ; character of, 542, 543. LITTLE BELT, THE, Affair of. .391. LIVINOSTO.V, EDWARD. Agent to purcha.se Louisiana, 378. LOCKE, John, Prepares the Grand Model, 225. LOGAN, John A., N.iili'cand death of, 679. LON'I)ii.\ CdMPANY, Organization of, 85; grant to, H5a//(( Afd.p III ; charter of, 86 ; fleet sent to America by, 86. LONG ISLAND. Battle of. 311. LONIiSTREKT. GENERAL, See L" '.V rinitlKJiiins. LOIIKDIT MOUNTAIN, Storming of, 515. LOUDOUN. LORD, Career of in America, 267-270. LOUISBURG, Siege of, 157, 158. LOUISIANA, Purchase of, 378; boundary of, 378; discord in. 5,59. LUNDYS LANE, Battle of, 408, LVO.V. NATHANIEL. In Missouri, 492, ISA. MacIiiinoi'i;ii. Commodore, At IMatt>lMLrg, 409. MADISIIN. .lAM|.;s. Fuvnrs tlii-Cciiisiiiuticin, 362; elected President, .38K; sketch of, ;lns ; administration of, 388-416 ; unwarlike disposition of. 39J; death of, 435. MAtJELLAN, FERDINAND, Circumnavigation of globe by, 61. MAINE, Colonization of, 1.36; admission of, 421. MALIETOA, King of Samoa, 72^3, 724. MALVERN HILL, Battle.. f, .504. MANASSAS, Battle of, 491. MANDEVILLK, SIR JOHN, On the ngure of the earth, 54, and Appen- ilijr A. MANHATTAN ISLAND, Purcha,se of, 162. MARION, FRANCIS, Career of, .'Ml, :»2, .150. INDEX. 777 MARSHALL, JOHN, Embassy of to France, 373; m the chlef- justicesh'p, 379. MARYLAND. _^ , ,,„ „, (Colonization of, 216; history of, 31b-324. MASON, J. M., Erntiassador of the Confederacy, 494 ; capture of, 494; liberation of. 495. MASONIAN DIFFICULTIES, THK Concerning New Hampshire, 198-202. MATAAFA, Leader in Samoa, 723, i24, MATHER, COTTON, . . „, Responsible for witchcraft atrocities, 151- MAY CORNKLIUS, Governor of New Netherland, lt)2. MCCLELLAN, GKoRCiE B., , Campaign of in West Virginia, 490; m com- mand of the Army of the Potomac. 494 ; penin- sular campaign of, 5(B-505; at Antietam, .506; superseded, .509; candidate for the presidency, 541 ; death of. K7S. MEADE. liKOKciK (i., „ ^ , .^ At Frern\.Mies of in .America, 69. POSTAL .MdNEYORDER SYSTEM, THE. Establishment of, 546. POWHATAN, Relations of with the colony at Jamestown, 96-112. PREBLE, Commodore, In till' Mediterranean, 380. PRESCIITT, (iENKRAL, Captllivof. 320. PBESlllENT, THE, Affair of, 391. PRINCETON. Battle of, 31K. PRlNii, Martin, V..vayv..f, S4. PRINTING-PRESS, THE, In Cambridge, 132; work of In the colonies, 282. PROHIBITION. An issue in politics, 694. PRDTECTIdN. Doctrine of explained, 663-067, 693. PULASKI, COINT, Honored for services at Brandy wine, 325. PURITANS, THE, Rise of, 88; at Leyden, 89; purposes of, 89; voyage of to America, 90; compact of, 91 aml- Apfwudtr B; colonization of MassachiiSetla bv, 91 ; character of, 159. PUTNAM, Israel, Exploit of, SU. Q QUAKERS, THE, Arrival of at Boston, 136 ; persecutions of, 136, 137 ; in New Jersey, 206 ; colonization of Penn- sylvania by, 209-215. QUEBEC, Founding of, 76 ; expedition of Walker against, '" • capture of by Wolfe, 276; expedition of Arnold against, :W3. RAILROAOS. ExtiMit in the United States, 556. RAlLUllAl) STRIKE. THE, History 01,634-6-36. RALEIGH, Sir WALTER, Attempts to colonize America, 81 ; founds city of RaleiETh, 8:). RECl iNS'l'Rn TK IN OF SOUTHERN STATES DilllculDcs i-ciiii-iTiliog, 547, .549. .554. RED RlVEll EXPEDITION, THE, .Account of, 524. RESACA DE LA PALMA, Battle of, 450. RESUMPTION OF SPECIE PAYMENTS, History of, 637-641. INDEX. TT'J REVERE, PAOL, Ride iif. S'-IV. REVOLUTIDN, The, Causes of, -is.vsse: history of, 39T-356. RHIIIlK ISLAND, c:i)lnniz;iiiiiii of. 193; history of. 193-198; lib- ei:il instil utions of, 194; traces of Norsemen In, 1>J5 ; domestic diOlculties iu, 448. RIBAULT, John, Voyages of, 73. RICHMOND, Capital of the Confederacy, 4a'>; evacuated, 538. ROAMlKR ISL.\ND. Aiteiiii'I toc-.>lonize,81. R0BINSI1N..I..HV. Leader of the Pilgrims, 89 ; counsels of, 145. ROEBLING, J. A. ktiO W. A., Architects of Brooklyn Bridge, 661, 662. ROGERS, Major Robert, Expedition of, 37T. ROLFE, John. Account of, 108. ROSECEANS, W. S., At Murfreesborough, 500; at Chickamauga, 514. ETSWICK. Treaty of, 150. SAG HARBOR, Capture of, 313. SALEIM, Founded, 136 ; witchcraft at, I50-1E.3. ' SAMOA. . Account of difficulties concerning, ia3-i24. SAMOSET, Visit of tip Plymouth. 133. SANDER'S (UF.EK, Battle of, 343. SANDYS, SIR EDWYN, Governor of Virginia, 111. SANTA ANNA, „ ^ ^.^ At Buena Vista. 453 ; at Cerro Gordo. 4o5 ; drives from Mexico, 467. SANTO DOMINGO. Project to annex, 555. SAVANNAH, ^„, . , Founding of, 3,39 ; conquest of, 33.J ; capture of by Sherman. .537. SAYLE, William, Governor of South Carolina, 2.30. SCHOFIELD, JOHN M., Commands centennial procession, 1 18. SCHUYLER, General. In command of the Northern army, -331. SCOTT. WINFIELO, At Lundv's Lane. 408 ; plans the invasion of Mexico, 450 : at Vera Cruz, 454 ; at Cerro Gor- do, 455 ; enters Mexico, 45T ; commander-in- chief of the Union army, 485. SEA-KING. THE. Character of, 53. SECESSION, Account of, 480, 485. SELISH.The, ^ ,^ ^ „ , Territorial position of. 44 and Uap I. SEMINOLES, The, War with, 418, 4:)1. SEVEN DAYS' BATTLES, THE, Account of, 504. SEWARD. WILLIAM H., ,,„,,„. Secretary of State, 484; diplomacy of 495; at- temptcdassassination of, 542; death of, 563. SEYMnnt. HuRATio, N.iti.e and deatli of, 678. SHERIDAN. PHILIP H.. . . In the Shenandoah Valley, 537: in pursuit of Lee. .539; in command of army. 671. SHERMAN, W. T.. At Chicliasaw Bayou. .500; campaign of fruui ChattanuDfra I" Ailania. .5-;j. .5;.'(> ; march to tlie sea, 537; from Savaniiali to Raleigh. 528-.'>34 : .lav's. 369; of Ghent, 414; with Nortb-westi-rn Indians, 417; of Washiugloni 18191,419; the Ufhster-Ashburton, 442; of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 45s ; the Tripartite, 468; of Washington (1872), 556. TRENT, The, Affair of, 494. TRENTON, Battle of, 316. TRIPOLI, Besieged by Preble, 381. TUSI'ARORAS, The, Migration of, 181. TYLER, John, Vice-President. 4:19 ; President, 441 ; sketch of, 441 ; administration of, 441-447. UTAH, Colonization of, 446 ; rebellion in, 475. UTRECHT, Treaty of, 156. "V VALLEY FORGE. American army at. 327. Van BUREN, Martix. Elected I'resiiient. 4.36; sketch of, 4.36; admin- istratiiMi of. 4:iii-44(i. VANE, Sir Henry. In New England, i:W; governor of Ma.ssacl)H- setts, i:*l: defends liberty, 135; execution of, VERMONT, Admission of, 366. VERRAZZANI, JOHN. Voyage of, 70. VESPUC:CI, Voyages of, 56. VICKSBURG, Siege of, 512. VINLAND, Limits of, 52. VIRGINIA, Name of, 82; colonization of, 95; history of. 95-123. "W WADSWORTH. William, Hides the charter, 191 ; baffles Fletcher, 191. WAITE, MiiRKIsoN Remii-H, 682. WALKER. SIR HoVENIiEN, Expedition of against Quebec, 155. WALKER, William, Expeditions of into Central America, 470, 471. WALLACE, LEWIS, At Romney, 491 ; in defense of Cincinnati, 499; on the Monocacy, 5:37. WALLOONS, THE, In America, 161. WAR, King Philip's, 139; King William's, 147; Queen .\nne's, 153; King George's. 1.57 ; Pequod, 183; French and Indian, 247 27:i ; Revolutionary, 2«7-:i56; of 1812. :388-4I9; with Mexico, 447-458; the Civil, 482-540; the Sioux, 6'29; Nez Perce, 6:i6. WARNER, William, ('(■iiimander of G. A. R., 721. WARREN. COMMODORE. Ex[)eilitionof against Louisburg, 157. WARUKN. Joseph, Al Hunker Hill,:Ml. WASHINGTON, Admission of, 695. WASHINGTON. Treaty of, 556. WASHINGTON CITY, Founding of, .375; capture of by the British, 410. WASHINGTON. AlTfiFSTINE, Mentioned, '250. INDEX. rsi WASHINGTON. GEORGE, Sent. l)v Dimvlilcllc to the French, 352; builds and (ii'fHntls F'ori NrrHssity, ■-^25 : campaign of with liiiuitlnck. -riS-'JOl; made^eneral-in-ehief, 302 ; slietuh of, .WS; negotiations of with Howe, 310; saves the army at Long Island, 312; retreat of across New Jersey, 314 ; at Trenton. 31ti ; at Princeton, 317; at Brandywine, 334; sorrows of, 327: at Monmouth, 331 ; at Yorktuwii. 3.M; favors Union, 358: chosen President, 3fl2; ad- ministration of, 3B.3-371 ; tour of, 3(U ; wrath of, :J67: re-elected, 3IJT ; Farewell Address of, 371 and Aiipfiiilij- (i ; re-appoiriled I'oni- inander-in-ctiief, 373; death of, 37-'>: centen- nial i>f inaiii^nration of, 697-71H: appearance of, 70M ; non-paitisan Character of, 709, WASHINGTON, .lolIN, Mentioned, 119. WASP, The, AfTair of, ;»7. WAYMOUTH, George, Voyage of, 85. WAYNE, ANTHONY, At Stony Point, $J5 : expedition of against the Indians, 3119 ; death of, 3tj9. WEBSTKIt, Daniel, Debate i>f witli Hayne, 429 ; concludes the Ash- Imrton treaty, 442. WESLEY, Chaki.e.s, Methodist and poet, 241. WESLEY, JOHN, In (ieorgia, 240. WEYMOUTH, Founding of, 125. WHIG PARTY, THE, Notice of. 428; iu power, 439, 440; again triumphant, 462. WHISKY INSURRECTION, THE, Account of, 368. WHITE, JOHN, Governor of Raleigh, 83. WHITEFIELD. GEORGE, Iu Georgia, 241. WHITNEY, ELI, Inventor of the Cotton Gin, 487. WHITTIER, John G., Centennial poem of, 715-717. WILDERNESS, THE, Battles in, .5:J5. WILKINSON, GENERAL, Commander-in-Chief of the American army, 404. WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE, Founding of, 122. WILLIAMS FAMILY, THE, Story of, 154. WILLIAMS, ROGER, Minister of Salem, 128; banishment of, 12H; founder ot Providence, 129 ; sketch of, 193. WILMOT PROVISO. THE, Account of, 462. WILSON, Henry, Vi«-.e-Preslilent. 558 ; death of, 562. WINGFIELD. EDWARD, President of Virginia, 96. WINCilNA, Murder of, 82. WINTHROP, JOHN. Governor of Massachusetts, 127. WINTHROP, THE Y'OUNGER, Votes against persecution, 136; leader of the Connecticut colony, 184. WISCONSIN, Admission of, 461. WITCHCRAFT, THE SALEM, Story of, 150-1.5:1. WOLFE, JAMES, Expedition of against Quebec, 27-3-276; death of, 276, WOOL, GENERAL, Musters forces tor Mexican War, 451. WORLD'S FAIR, THE, Account of, 470. WYATT, SIR Francis, Governor of Virginia, 112. WYOMING, Msssacre of, ■3.33. YALE COLLEGE, Founding of, 192. YAMASSEES, THE, War with. 236. YEAMANS, SIR JOHN, Governor of Carolina, 225. YEARDLY, SIR GEORGE, Governor of Virginia, 110. YELLOW FEVER EPIDEMIC, Story of, 6:37. YORKTOWN, Siege of, 3.53. YUSEF, THE Emperor, Is brought to his senses, 381. W 65 •- -^^ k» *J :*' * '^' \>7^-\«*' -o .G' ^V'- ■'>i '*'- s^ V ■%?> •';i^^^ m(^^^ * '^^ d« •** o^ .'".'« : ^^ *' «o ^"-nK. ♦•*^' -^^ if. 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