EDUCATIO WOOD WORKING FOR SCHOOL and i mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm JOSEPH C- PAR JMUJ mm m ii i m nuiuAOHneHti Class Book , Y __ Copyright^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING FOR HOME AND SCHOOL -s h£^*&° THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING FOR HOME AND SCHOOL BY JOSEPH C. PARK STATE NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOL OSWEGO, NEW YORK Nefo gotk THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1908 All rights reserved \ \< LIBRARY of CONGRESS.] iwo Copies Heceivtiv MAR 17 S 908 Ttbuyj .W*. %oti8S CO^Y a. Copyright, 1908, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published ; March, ic . « > Norfoooti ^presg J. S. dishing Co. - Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. We are always in these days endeavoring to separate intellect and manual labor; we want one man to be always thinking, and another to be always working, and we call one a gentleman, and the other an operative ; whereas the workman ought often to be thinking, and the thinker often to be working, and both should be gentlemen in the best sense. As it is, we make both ungentle, the one envying, the other despising, his brother ; and the mass of society is made up of morbid thinkers and miserable workers. — John Ruskin. a _, PREFACE The increased popularity of manual training as a part of the curriculum of the public schools and the demand for a text-book that can be put into the hands of pupils so that they may be held responsible for important subject-matter in connection with wood- work are the two main reasons which have led to the publication of this volume. The book, for convenience, is divided into parts, but it is not intended that Part I shall be completed before Part II is taken up. On the other hand, work should be given from the different parts from the beginning, and pupils should be held responsible for the work given just as they are held responsible for work in arithmetic or geography. The book is intended to be used under the direction of a skilled instructor who has sufficient technical knowledge and teaching ability to lead his pupils to become capable in this line of work. Many illustra- tions of positions while at work are therefore omitted, because the instructor should show correct positions in the use of tools and should insist that the pupils acquire correct habits in their use. The " Schedule of Work" (page 14) gives in a general way the plan of the work. In some schools it may be necessary to make a few changes in this schedule, owing to local conditions, but as far as possible it should be followed. The work under "Topics for Study," vii Vlll PREFACE " Technical Operations," and " Tools " should be given in the form of regular recitation work, having both oral and written work. Pupils should have sufficient work with the " Key " so that they may be able to know the names and characteristics of common woods. The work in all of its phases should be vigorous and full of well-directed activity. The writer wishes to acknowledge his gratitude for helps given in the preparation of this volume, aside from the various sources which are given in the foot- notes, to the following : — Herbert H. Smith, Editor Forest Service Publica- tions, for permission to use the key given in Appendix A; President Cree T. Work, College of Industrial Arts, Denton, Texas, for the cuts given in Appendix B, also for the cuts shown under Figs. 148 and 263, all of which were taken from his San Francisco " Outlines of Manual Training " ; Professor C. R. Richards, Dean of Engineering, the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, for the cuts shown in Figs. 208, 210, 211, 213, 214, 215, 224, and 225, which were taken from his "A Manual of Wood Turning." The writer is also deeply indebted to the following people, who so kindly sent to him for publication in this volume drawings of successful projects which have been used in some of the leading manual training centers in the United States : — Mr. L. A. Bacon, Director of Manual Training, In- dianapolis, Indiana ; Mr. L. R. Abbott, Director of Manual Training, and Mr. Emil Wydman, Grand Rapids, Michigan ; Mr. C. E. Karlson, Director of Manual Train- ing, Altoona, Pennsylvania; Mr. Louis C. Butler and PREFACE IX Mr. R. F. J. Raebel, St. Louis, Missouri; Mr. B. H. Van Oot, Director of Manual Training, Normal Uni- versity, Las Vegas, New Mexico ; Mr. T. W. Breck- heimer, North High School, Minneapolis, Minnesota ; and Mr. Bradley S. Joice and Mr. Donald S. McGuire, Maryland School for the Blind, Baltimore, Maryland. The manuscript has been read by Dr. William C. Bagley and Professor Amos W. Farnham of the State Normal and Training School, Oswego, New York, both of whom have offered valuable criticisms, for which the writer wishes to express his gratitude. The writer is also indebted to the following manu- facturers for cuts used in this publication and for information regarding tools and machines : — Sargent & Company, 149 Leonard Street, New York. Hammacher, Schlemmer & Company, New York. Stanley Rule and Level Company, New Britain, Connecticut. Henry Disston & Sons, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Cincinnati Tool Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. Bickford & Francis Belting Company, Buffalo, New York. American Woodworking Machinery Company, Rochester, New York. J. T. Towsley Manufacturing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company, Providence, Rhode Island. Millers Falls Company, 28 Warren Street, New York. Grand Rapids Hand Screw Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Pike Manufacturing Company, Pike, New Hampshire. The Carborundum Company, Niagara Falls, New York. The Cleveland Stone Company, Cleveland, Ohio. Ridgway Dynamo and Engine Company, Ridgway, Pennsylvania. The David Maydole Hammer Company, Norwich, New York. Buck Brothers, Millbury, Massachusetts. Syracuse Twist Drill Company, Syracuse, New York. X PREFACE Columbus Forge and Iron Company, Columbus, Ohio. Utica Drop Forge Company, Utica, New York. Coes Wrench Company, Worcester, Massachusetts. C. Parker Company, Meriden, Connecticut. E. C. Stearns & Company, Syracuse, New York. Nicholson File Company, Providence, Rhode Island. Fox Machine Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Snell Manufacturing Company, Fiskdale, Massachusetts. F. E. Reed Company, Worcester, Massachusetts. The Russell Jennings Manufacturing Company, Deep River, Connecticut. The tables given under Wood (Part III) are taken from Bulletin No. 10, United States Division of Forestry. Some of the matter given in the Introduction, and on nails and nailing, screws and glue, is taken from articles which were written by the author for American Education, and are published here by agreement. The writer also wishes to acknowledge his gratitude to Dr. Isaac B. Poucher, Principal of the State Normal and Training School, Oswego, New York, for the many suggestions and encouragements which he has given in the working out of experiments in manual training work, which have contributed largely to the success of this volume. JOSEPH C. PARK. State Normal and Training School, Oswego, New York, June, 1907. CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 1 Manual training : what it is and its place in education; suggestions to students ; schedule of work ; tool list ; technical terms. PAET 1 Woodworking Tools 21 1. Benches. 2. English measure. 3. The metric system. 4. Rule. 5. Try-square. 6. Bevel. 7. Fram- ing square. 8. Rafter table directions. 9. Brace meas- ure. 10. Octagon scale. 11. Essex board measure. 12. History of framing square. 13. Plumb and level. 14. Marking gauge. 15. Mortise gauge. 16. Gauge attachment. 17. Dividers or compasses. 18. Calipers. 19. Wire gauge. 20. Sloyd knife. 21. Socket firmer- chisel. 22. Tang firmer-chisel. 23. Corner chisel. 24. Gouge. 25. Wood-turning tools. 26. Wood-carv- ing tools. 27. Planes. 28. Spokeshave. 29. Metal snips. 30. Saws and their construction. 31. Rip saw. 32. How to sharpen a rip saw. 33. Cross-cut saw. 34. How to sharpen a cross-cut saw. • 35. Back saw. 36. Bracket saw. 37. Hack saw. 38. Miter box. 39. Files. 40. Wood rasps. 41. File cleaner. 42. Auger. 43. Auger bits. 44. Short auger or dowel bits. 45. Wood drills. 46. Gimlet bits. 47. Auger bit gauge. 48. Counter- sink. 49. Brace or bit brace. 50. Screw-driver. 51. Screw-driver bit. 52. Screw and plug bit. 53. Plug cutter. 54. Hand screw. 55. Screw clamp. 56. Ad- justable steel bar clamp. 57. Stationary iron vise. 58. Wrench. 59. Flat nose plier. 60. Round nose xi Xll CONTENTS PAGE plier. 61. Saw vise. 62. Picture frame vise. 63. Ham- mer. 64. Mallet. 65. Anvil. 66. Nail set. 67. Belt punch. 68. Carver's punch. 69. Grindstone. 70. Oil stone. 71. Carborundum stones. 72. How to sharpen edge tools. 73. Cabinet scraper. 74. Oiler. 75. Bench brush. 76. Handles. 77. Steel letters and figures. 78. Trimmer. PART II Woodworking Machines . 99 79. Work. 80. Energy. 81. Power. 82. Band saw. 83. Scroll saw. 84. Swing saw. 85. Combination saw bench. 86. Saw guard. 87. Circular saws. 88. The speed of circular saws. 89. Rules for calculating the speed of saws, pulleys, and drums. 90. Single surfacer. 91. Jointer. 92. Wood-turning lathe. 93. Belts. 94. Formulae used in selecting belts. 95. Belt lacings. 96. Old style lace. 97. New style lace. 98. Single hinge lace. 99. Double hinge lace. 100. Belt hooks. PART III Wood (Outline Study) 119 I. Classification of trees as to kinds of leaves and structure of wood. II. Composition of wood. III. De- cay of trees. IV. Lumbering. V. Properties of wood, tables and laws. PART IV Fastening Devices used in Wood Construction. . 129 Nails and nailing. The screw as a fastening device in wood construction. Glue. Glue heaters. Wood fasten- ings (dowels, pins, cleats, keys, and wedges). CONTENTS Xlll PART V PAGE Wood Finishing 149 Aims. Pale tints in oil. Deep tints in oil. Stains. Varnishes. Shellacs. Fillers. Specifications for finishes. PART VI Exercises 163 Knife work for schools without shops. Drawings. Instructions. Bench work, involving joinery and cabi- net making. Drawings and instructions. PART VII Wood Turning 215 History. Tools. Uses and care of tools. Instructions and drawings. Appendix A : Key to the More Important Woods of North America 233 Appendix B : Problems in Construction and Geometric Helps 283 Appendix C : Useful Tables 293 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING FOR HOME AND SCHOOL INTRODUCTION Manual Training: What it is and its Place in Education Manual Training is a term used extensively by edu- cators in denning a part of a system of general education. One would infer from the term "manual," meaning hand, that this branch of education is the training of the hand, but it is more than this. Not all that is done with the hand is manual training in the school sense of the term. In laboratory work in physics and chemistry the hand is trained to use apparatus in a skillful way, but this is not considered as manual training. Manual training is a general term which signifies the expressing of ideas in things by means of tools in working with such materials as paper, cardboard, clay, wood, iron, brass, copper, tin, etc. Manual training does not include work with apparatus, neither is its purpose to teach a trade. Man is by nature a "tool-using animal " and has been so from remote periods of antiquity. Let us stop to consider briefly how much of the history of mankind is written in the tools that have come down to us. We look at the pens made of reeds which were used by the 2 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING ancient Egyptians and a series of facts are revealed by means of those tools which were used by man more than four thousand years ago. Axes made of stone, copper, bronze, etc., are dug out of the earth, and each tells a different story of the life of savage peoples of antiquity. The story of man's development is written in his tools just as plainly as the histoiy of our earth is written in the rocks. It is almost impossible to conceive of man without tools, yet in the beginning of human existence he had no tools. He was naked and without food and fire, living in caves and hollow trees, searching for fallen nuts under the trees and for fish and game in the streams and moun- tains. He was ever hiding from stronger animals and always seeking an opportunity to attack weaker ones. Some one has wisely said that human culture began with fire, but no one has said when fire was first used by man. Doubtless some rude tools were invented before fire was discovered, and these tools probably led to the discovery of fire. With fire came protection and comfort. It drove away the fierce animals, which were afraid of fire; it protected man from cold. The weaker members of the family were left by the fireside while the stronger ones went out in search of food. But man needed more than fire for his protection, for he was one of the weakest of animals. In expressing the weakness of man in this early period, Katharine Elizabeth Dopp * says : " He could not run as fast as the horse, swim as well as the fish, fly as the eagle, crawl as the serpent, or 1 " The Place of Industries in Elementary Education," p. 19, The University of Chicago Press. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 6 render himself inconspicuous by changing his color to cor- respond with the natural objects with which he habitually came in contact, or by maintaining such a control of his muscles as the wild calf and other animals do when they remain motionless in order to be unobserved. He was not protected with armor as the turtle is, with a thick skin as the rhinoceros, with a heavy coat as the mam- moth, or with feathers and fur as the birds and beasts of prey. In his conflicts he could not strike as the cave bear, kick as the horse, crush as the rhinoceros, gore as the urus, or pierce and rend as the tiger. In the exercise of his senses and in muscular force he was sur- passed by many of them." What man needed most in his weak condition was tools, and being endowed with intelligence he was able to construct them, although very crude ones, out of the materials at his command. At first his hands and teeth were substitutes for tools. His first constructed tool was the hammer. This he may have used in opening the shells of oysters, nuts, etc. In combat he fought at close range and therefore his blows were weak. Later he found that by using a club as a hammer he could strike a harder blow and thus slay even much stronger animals than himself. Still later it became necessary for man to fight at long range, and out of this necessity grew the need of, and therefore the invention of, the bow and arrow — tools of great utility among primitive people. The development of the bow and arrow was a great step in man's advancement, for at long range he could kill large animals, which furnished materials for food and clothing. In making and operating the bow and arrow 4 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING man developed physically and mentally. Many problems came up in the construction and use of these tools, the solution of which demanded the activity of reason. In making the bow there was the kind of wood to be con- sidered, when it should be cut, the seasoning of the timber, the shape and length of the bow. In making the string for the bow and in making the arrows other problems arose, all of which were carefully worked out in the course of time. Among some of the Indian tribes of to-day certain rules regarding the bow and arrow which were worked out centuries ago are still in use. Of course, a boy could not use a bow that was made for a man, and two men differing in physical strength could not well use the same bow; so a difference in the size and strength of the individual led to modifications of these tools so that they could meet the requirements of each individual. Each individual made his own bow and arrow, and in making them certain units of measurement were and are still employed. The Indian hunter in making his bow does not use a standard length; the bow must be exactly eight times the span from the thumb to the little finger of the hunter using it, and the length of the arrow must be exactly the distance from the armpit to the end of the thumb, measuring on the inside of the extended arm. Similar methods were employed in the making of all tools. In writing of the bow and arrow, Thomas AYilson * says : " The bow and arrow was the greatest of all human inventions — greatest in that it marked man's first step in mechanics, greatest in adaptation of means to the 1 Smithsonian Report, 1894, p. 980. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 5 end, and as an invented machine it manifested in the most practical and marked manner the intellectual and reason- ing power of man, and his superiority over the brute crea- tion. It, more than any other weapon, demonstrates the triumph of man over the brute, recognizing the limitations of human physical capacity in contests with his enemies and the capture of his game." His necessity demanded the bow and arrow, and this led to its construction and use. As man increased his variety of tools, he was grad- ually lifted to a higher plane of civilization. Economists have classified the activities of the race into three main divisions, as follows: First, the house industries, or the period of domestic economy, which lasted from the earliest times until the beginning of towns in the tenth century. Second, the period of town economy, or the period of handicrafts, extending from the tenth century to the beginning of modern times. Third, the period of national economy, or the age of machinery and the factory, in which we now live. In passing through these activities many stages are represented. We note the hunting stage, the fishing stage, the pastoral stage, the agricultural stage, the age of metals, the stage of trade, travel, and transportation, the city state, the feu- dal system, the handicraft system, and the factory system. It is believed that the child in the course of its develop- ment passes through practically all of the stages that the race has passed through, and manual training in the home and in the school helps to supply the needs of the child in passing through the different stages of his devel- opment. Manual training not only helps the child to appreciate the activities of life of to-day, but it also shows 6 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING the relation between the activities of the past and the present. Manual training deals with life, and is one of the serious considerations in the history of child develop- ment. In Carl Bucher's "Industrial Evolution" 1 he writes : "After all, the comforting result of every serious consideration of history is, that no single element of culture which has once entered into the life of men is lost, that even after the hour of its predominance has expired it continues in some more modest position to cooperate in the realization of the great end in which we all believe, the helping of mankind toward more and more perfect forms of existence." The rough highway between the aboriginal and man has been paved by means of the seven hand tools — the hammer, the axe, the saw, the plane, the square, the chisel, and the file. The influence of tools upon civilization is expressed most graphically by Carlyle in these words: "Man is a tool-using animal. He can use tools, can devise tools; with these the granite mountains melt into light dust before him; he kneads iron as if it were soft paste; seas are his smooth highways, winds and fire his unwearying steeds. " Nowhere do we find him without tools; without tools he is nothing, with tools he is all." In early times, before the institutions of society be- came so complex and so far reaching in their demands and influences, the home was one of the most potent factors in education. In rural communities to-day and in the best regulated homes wherever they may be this institution is still a powerful influence in the cause of 1 Page 184. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 7 education. The homes of our ancestors were made by men and women of great practical efficiency and this efficiency was imparted to the rising generation largely through the influences of the home. In speaking of the influence and efficiency of men and women in early times, Henry Turner Bailey, in " The Arts and Crafts in the Public Schools/' * says: — " The Man. — Cleared land, cut wood, made rails and posts, built stone walls; built barns and sheds, made simple furniture and farm utensils, involving carpentry, blacksmithing, and painting; cared for bees, poultry, sheep, cattle, horses ; could break colts and steers ; milk, shear sheep, butcher ; could plow, plant, cultivate and harvest vegetables ; sow, mow, reap, thresh, and winnow grain; could read the sky, tell birds, wild animals, insects, and common plants and trees at sight ; could plant, prune, and graft trees; make maple sirup and vinegar, cure ham and bacon; fish, trap, and hunt successfully; make shoes, harnesses, and simple tools; weave baskets; make kites, bow guns, darts, whistles, etc., for the children; repair anything; shave himself; make a telling speech at town meeting. " The Woman. — Understood all phases of house- work, sweeping, dusting, washing, ironing; could cook, make yeast, soap, candles, butter, cheese, sausages, pre- serves of all sorts, candy, wines, and cordials; could spin yarn from wool and thread from flax; dye and knit, weave and embroider; shrink cloth, bleach cloth; 1 An address before The American Institute of Instruction at New Haven, Conn., July, 1906. Published in the January, 1907, School Arts Book, The Davis Press, Worcester, Mass. 8 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING cut out and make ordinary garments, darn, and mend anything well; braid rugs, paper a room, cut hair; gather medicinal herbs, nurse the sick, rear children; manage a flower garden, have potted plants bloom all winter indoors; milk, make hay, and have all the children clean and neatly dressed at church on time, Sunday morning." The average home of to-day has not the discipline which gives the efficiency that the old home life used to give, and this naturally puts greater responsibility on the schools of to-day which are called upon to provide ade- quate training in hand work, training that formerly was given in the home. Industry has always been a domi- nant force in the upbuilding of all social structures. Nowhere is this seen more clearly than in child develop- ment. Professor O'Shea, in speaking of the child's first absorbing interest which is based upon industrial activity, says : * " In the earliest years the pupil's chief interest is in constructive activity. If he be given free- dom to do as he chooses, and suitable equipment, by far the larger part of his time will be spent in construction, in imitation of the activities going on about him. If he has blocks, he will be building; if paper and scissors, he will be cutting; if sand, he will be modeling; if tools, he will be framing a box or a house or what not; all, of course, in a crude, imperfect way." These constructive activities, as Professor Dewey expresses it, 2 " evoke and direct what is most fundamental and vital in the child, 1 In " Dynamic Factors in Education," New York, 1906, p. 59. (Macmillan.) 2 In Manual Training Magazine, July, 1901, page 97. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 9 that in which he is the heir of all the ages, and through which he recapitulates the progress of the race. It was certainly a gain for educational theory and practice when appeal to personal and immediate sense perception dis- placed reliance upon symbols and abstract ideas. But, after all, to have sensations, to receive impressions through sight or hearing, is not the ultimate thing. To do, to perform, to execute, to make, to control and direct activity — it is for the sake of such things that perceptions and impressions exist. Indeed, to see and to hear is more than to have impressions ; to see and to hear is to do, to do in cooperation with head, arm, hand, and leg." In writing along this line, showing the child's interests in the activities of life, Dr. Grant Karr says, 1 " Another one of these centers is the child's occupations. From the day of his birth he has been doing things and has had the unalloyed pleasure of accomplishing things. He has been making things, at first in response to an impulse to act and then later in order to realize an ideal. He has been using hands and feet, arms and legs, eyes and ears, mouth and nose and all his members, in satisfying his wants and needs. From this action and accom- plishment, he has profited immensely, for he has not only been making and learning 'things ' in the outside world, but he has been building up a structure within, 'a house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens/ the temple of his soul. If his life is to amount to a great deal, this center of his occupations will never diminish 1 In "The Means of Education," Journal of Pedagogy, March, 1905. 10 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING in strength, but will rather grow in complexity and finer organization until his power to do will be greatly in- creased and his influence be enlarged not only in his own day and generation, but with the generations that are yet to come. It is so in the great world, for we see on every hand the doers, the men of affairs and influence. ' Men, my brothers, men the workers, ever reaping some- thing new, That which they have done but earnest of the things that they shall do.' The inventors, the scholars, the servants, the ministers and teachers, doctors and lawyers, captains of industry, bankers and business men of all sorts, reformers, toilers and labor leaders, and all successful men are all ex- amples of those who, like the little child, do, and do, and still DO. They organize their deeds into power, with which they do still greater deeds. This interest is also universal and eternal." Colonel Francis W. Parker, in showing the value of expression, said : 1 " Evolution has brought us the funda- mental doctrine of all thinking, of all discoveries in science, indeed of all progress. A human being is the product of countless generations, reaching down into the beginnings of animal life. The fundamental law of evolution is self -activity. . . . Education is evolution assisted; when man began to help his fellow to grow in body, mind, and soul, education began. We have had 1 In "Expression in Its Relation to Education," a paper read before the Eastern Manual Training Association, in Buffalo, June, 1901. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 11 the doctrine of the survival of the fittest, but now comes the doctrine of fitting every one to survive. The agents of expression must have that exercise, determined by the nature of the body and its growth, which will develop the body as an instrument of the will and make it responsive to the will. . . . " Without expression growth is absolutely impossible. One kind of expression alone means attenuation. All- sided expression is the foundation of complete living. "The child enters into the industrial, commercial activity and the life of the world through his hands and his brain. He has very little interest, in general, in things outside his immediate environment, until that interest is stimulated through the work of his hands. To illustrate : Work m wood means images of woodwork, realization of images, interest in all things made of wood, from the simple box to the magnificent structure. The child cannot make an article of furniture without always being more or less interested in furniture." Quoting again from Colonel Parker, 1 " Making, or manual training, has done more for the human race than the exercise of any, if not all, of the other modes of expres- sion. It is absolutely indispensable to normal physical development ; it has had a mighty influence upon brain building ; it has cultivated ethics as a basis of all moral growth." The thought that manual training when properly taught and applied helps to make the pupil a critic of all woodwork and cultivates his aesthetic taste cannot be overestimated. A piece of furniture, or any article for 1 In " Talks on Pedagogics," page 253. 12 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING that matter, to be artistic must be made in such a way that its attractions consist in (1) strength, (2) purity of outline, and (3) capacity to fill adequately the functions for which it should be constructed. As Gustav Stickley * puts it, the two fundamental principles are simplicity and adaptability to purpose. On this point of con- struction Dr. James P. Haney, Director of Manual Train- ing, New York City, says, " The best construction necessarily includes artistic elements, i.e. soundness of structure, propriety of material, suitability to purpose, good proportions, and good relationships." Manual training projects to be successful must be worked out with these ideas of construction in mind. Professor James 2 says : — " The most colossal improvement which recent years have seen in secondary education lies in the introduc- tion of manual training schools; not because they will give us a people more handy and practical for domestic life and better skilled in trades, but because they will give us citizens with an entirely different intellectual fiber. " Laboratory work and shop work engender a habit of observation. They confer precision ; because, if you are doing a thing, you must do it definitely right or definitely wrong. They give honesty; for, when you express yourself by making things, and not by using words, it becomes impossible to dissimulate your vague- ness or ignorance by ambiguity. They beget a habit 1 Editor and publisher of The Craftsman, New York and Syracuse. 2 In " Talks to Teachers," page 35. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 13 of self-reliance, they keep the interest and attention always cheerfully engaged, and reduce the teacher's disciplinary functions to a minimum." In this connection Scripture 1 says: " 1. Manual training develops the intellectual side of the mind as nothing else can. 2. Manual training develops char- acter as nothing else can. 3. Manual training fur- nishes the pupil with real knowledge; it teaches him something. The laboratory method — the method of learning by doing — is after all the only method of learn- ing anything, whether it be drawing, or Greek, or chemistry, or mathematics. The attempt to commit facts to memory by reading books is hopeless. What is memorized in this way fades in a short time, leaving little or no trace." "Two of the direct results of art instruction and manual training," as Professor Charles A. Bennett 2 puts it, " are, first, power to do, and, second, ability to appreciate what is done by others." The importance of industrial work as a subject which helps to give definite ideas of the value of toil and the real worth of things that are made by the sweat of the brow cannot be overestimated. The rich boy works along with the poor boy, each endeavoring to produce something which will express tangible results. Manual training work to be valuable must be strenuous. Boys must be made to plane and saw and sweat. They must produce shavings that have the artistic curl of the crafts- 1 Edward W. Scripture, in " Manual Training and Mental De- velopment," Manual Training Magazine, October, 1899, page 25. 2 In " The Development of Appreciation," Manual Training Magazine, January, 1907. 14 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING man, not meaningless chips. Shopwork should give ability to plan and execute work according to good technique. " The capacity for work/' as Dr. Bagley 1 expresses it, " is the capacity for sustained effort. It means concentration, organization, and permanency of purpose. The intense desire for activity is not in itself sufficient. Children and savages possess this in great abundance. Not activity alone, but sustained and directed activity, has been the keynote of human prog- ress." Through industrial efforts in education and through other influences at work in the world to-day the time may come when intellect and manual labor will be united. John Ruskin said : " We are always in these days endeavoring to separate intellect and manual labor; we want one man to be always thinking, and another to be always working, and we call one a gentleman, and the other an operative; whereas the workman ought often to be thinking and the thinker often to be working, and both should be gentlemen in the best sense. As it is, we make both ungentle, the one envy- ing, the other despising, his brother ; and the mass of society is made up of morbid thinkers and miserable workers." William Morris expresses the same truth in these words: "I had thought that civilization meant the attainment of peace and order and freedom, of good- will between man and man, of the love of truth and the hatred of injustice, and, by consequence, the attainment of the good life which these things breed, 1 In " The Educative Process," New York, 1907, page 102. zu. i/iiauuer pjamug. 21. Gluing. 22. Using screws. 23. Sharpening edged tools. ill. UUICVY VjllUllJf. 25. Bar clamp. 26. Mallet. 27. Nail set. 24. Review. 28. Review. 25. Kinds of joints, their 29. Planes. uses and construction. 26. Selected operations. 30. Framing square. 31. Level. 32. Calipers. 33. Wire and screw gauge. 34. Turning tools. 35. Carving tools. 36. Miter box. 37. Pliers. 38. Grindstone. 39. Oilstone and slips. )tional) 27. Review. 28. Paneling. 29. Doweling. 30. Use of cabinet scraper. 31. Saw sharpening. 32. Truing grindstone. 33. Truing oilstone. 40. Review. 41. Trimmer. 42. Screw and plug bit. 43. Plug cutter. 44. Anvil. 45. Iron vise and saw vise. 46. Picture frame vise. 47. Belt punches. 48. Woodworking ma- chines. SCHEDULE OF WORK Required Projects Optional Projects Topics for Study Technical Operations Sixth Grade (one hour per week) 1. Match strike, Fig. 151. 2. Match box, Fig. 154. 3. Whisk broom holder, Fig. 155. 4. Practice exercises (if necessary) . 1. Measuring and lining, Fig. 150. 2. Match strike, Fig. 153. 3. Plant marker, Fig. 178. 4. Bed marker, Fig. 178. 1. Basswood. 2. Sandpaper. Seventh Grade (two hours per week) 5. Shelf, Fig. 156. 6. Coat hanger, Fig. 157. 7. Bread-cutting board, Fig. 159. 8. Toothbrush holder and shelf, Fig. 160. 9. Towel roller, Figs. 161 and 162. 10. Book rack, Figs. 163 and 164. 11. Key rack, Fig. 168. 12. Practice exercises (if necessary) . 5. Combination coat and trousers hanger, Fig. 158. 6. Mantel shelf, Fig. 187. 7. Inkstand, Fig. 176. 8. Windmill vane, Fig. 202. 9. Book rack, Fig. 193. 10. Footstool, Fig. 194. 11. Floor broom holder, Fig. 197. 12. Towel roller, Fig. 180. 3. Review. 4. English measure. 5. Brads and nails. 6. Glue. 7. Burnt umber. 8. Burnt sienna. 9. Shellac. 10. Varnish. 11. Wood (outline study) , topics under I, II, III, and IV. 1. Measuring. 2. Lining. 3. Cutting with knife. 4. Sharpening of knife. 5. How to use sandpaper. Review. Making and using a working corner. Sawing with back saw, cross-cut and rip saw. Planing — face, edge and end. Ellipse. Squaring. Gauging. Perpendicular chiseling. Oblique chiseling. Perpendicular gouging. Oblique gouging, Scroll sawing. Modeling with knife. Boring. Chamfer planing. Gluing. Using screws. Sharpening edged tools. Tools 1. Uses. 2. Name of parts. 3. Adjustments. 4. Care of. 5. How to sharpen. 1. Whittling tray. 2. Rule. ■ 3. Try-square. 4. Compasses. 5. Sloyd knife. 6. Hammer. 7. Review. 8. Bench. 9. Marking gauge. 10. Mortise gauge. 11. Bevel. 12. Back saw. 13. Cross-cut saw. 14. Rip saw. 15. Bracket saw. 16. Hack saw. 17. Spokeshave. 18. Brace. 19. Auger bits. 20. Countersink. 21. Screw-driver. 22. Chisels and gouges. 23. Hand screw. 24. Screw clamp. 25. Bar clamp. 26. Mallet. 27. Nail set. Eighth Grade (two hours per week) 13. Whisk broom holder, Fig. 165. 13. Picture frame, Fig. 169. 12. Review. 24. Review. 28. Review. 14. Blotter pad, Fig. 166. 14. Counting board, Fig. 170. 13. Screws. 25. Kinds of joints, their 29. Planes. 15. Knife box, Fig. 182. 15. Book rack, Fig. 171. 14. Metric system. uses and construction. 30. Framing square. 16. Camp stool, Fig. 174. 16. Sweet pea rack, Fig. 191. 15. Rafter table. 26. Selected operations. 31. Level. 17. Book rack, Figs. 195 and 183. 17. Footstool, Fig. 188. 16. Brace measure. 32. Calipers. 18. Practice exercises (if necessary). 18. Umbrella rack, Fig. 201. 17. Octagon scale. 33. Wire and screw gauge. 19. Wood-turning exercises. 19. Brush broom holder, Fig. 165. 18. Board measure. 34. Turning tools. 20. Jardiniere stand, Fig. 196. 19. Wood (outline study) , topics under V. 20. Work with key. 21. Wood finishing. 35. Carving tools. 36. Miter box. 37. Pliers. 38. Grindstone. 39. Oilstone and slips. 20. Practice exercises. 21. Selected projects. 22. Wood-turning exercises. High School (five hours per week — number of weeks optional) 21. Chessboard, Fig. 190. 22. Box, Fig. 172. 23. Folding screens, Fig. 189. 24. Combination desk and bookcase, Fig. 203. 25. Towel rack, Fig. 175. 26. Bookcase, Figs. 192 and 184. 27. Corner medicine shelf, Fig. 181. 28. Plate rack, Fig. 199. 29. Dutch plate rack, Fig. 186. 30. Magazine rack, Fig. 200. 31. Picture frames, Fig. 198. 32. Sleeve board, Fig. 179. 33. Tabourets, Figs. 185, 177, and 173. 34. Picture frame, Fig. 169. 35. Sawing exercise, Fig. 204. 36. End dovetail joint, Fig. 205. 37. Half dovetail joint, Fig. 206. 38. Through mortise-and-tenon joint, Fig. 207. 22. Review. 23. Circular saws. 24. Machines. 25. Belts. 26. Wood finishing. 27. Carborundum. 27. Review. 28. Paneling. 29. Doweling. 30. Use of cabinet scraper. 31. Saw sharpening. 32. Truing grindstone. 33. Truing oilstone. 40. Review. 41. Trimmer. 42. Screw and plug bit. 43. Plug cutter. 44. Anvil. 45. Iron vise and saw \ i"'. 46. Picture frame vise. 47. Belt punches. 48. Woodworking ma- chines. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 15 a life free from craven fear, but full of incident ; that was what I thought it meant, not more stuffed chairs and more cushions, and more carpets and gas, and more dainty meat and drink — and therewithal more and sharper differences between class and class." Suggestions to Students 1. Provide yourselves with a serviceable apron, or something that will protect your clothing from being- soiled. 2. If your locker has a combination lock, learn that combination as soon as possible. Always keep your locker locked when you are not working. 3. There is a place in your bench for each tool. When you finish your work each day, see that each tool is in its proper place in the bench. Also, see that the top of your bench is clean. Order and neatness are very impor- tant factors in the formation of desirable habits. 4. Always stand at your bench while you work. Do not sit while working, for you cannot get good results. We must have concentrated and strenuous efforts in order to get the most out of this work. 5. Do not make mistakes. Mistakes always waste time and materials. Work carefully, thoughtfully, and accurately. Let the last piece of work be the best that you have done. 6. When you begin a new exercise, say to yourself: " Using all of my powers, I will strive to make this piece of work as nearly perfect as possible." Remember that it is the product (that which you produce) that counts 16 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING when your worth is estimated. In any vocation or calling in life these questions are always asked: "What can you do ? How well can you do that thing ? " Form the habit now of doing everything well. 7. Try to get some tools of your own, as soon as you can, so that you can work at home. In every home some place can be found where a bench can be placed. Have a little workroom of your own where you can "make things " after school, or on rainy Saturdays. Hundreds of boys have "shops " in the attic, down by the furnace, in vacant rooms, in the barn, or even in the back kitchen. Have such a place in which to work. It will pay you in the end. 8. Find out all that you can about tools, — kinds of tools, uses of tools, and care of tools. Learn the names of all of the parts of each tool. Learn all of the adjust- ments of each tool. Always keep your tools sharp. 9. Study to find out all that you possibly can about all of the materials that you are using, such as woods, screws, nails, glue, stains, etc. Each has interesting matter connected with its use and history. 10. Call tools by their proper names. Use proper language in describing the different processes. Use all of the technical terms that are most commonly used, and see that you use them correctly. Get a few good books and magazines on the work, if you can. Your teacher will gladly recommend good books to you. 11. Remember that you are not doing this work to learn a trade, yet you should strive to do just as good work as an artisan. The purpose of this work for you is to help lay a good foundation for your general education. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 17 TOOL LIST* BENCH NO. I. Measuring, Marking, AND IV. Boring Tools. Testing Tools. Price Price Bit brace, No. $1.25 Metric rule, No. $.10 Auger bit 4 -inch, No. .25 2-ft. rule, No. .15 Auger bit §-inch, No. .35 Try-square, No. .30 Auger bit |-inch, No. .40 Bevel, No. .30 Auger bit f-inch, No. .50 Marking gauge, No. .40 Countersink, No. .15 Mortise gauge, No. .60 Screw-driver bit, No. .10 Dividers, No. .30 II. Edge Tools. Price Chisel 1-inch, No. $.60 Chisel f-inch, No. .55 V. Pounding Tools Chisel 3-inch, No. .50 Price Chisel f-inch, No. .45 Hammer, No. $.60 Chisel |-inch, No. .40 Mallet, No. .50 Chisel |-inch, No. .35 Chisel 4-inch, No. .30 Chisel g-inch, No. .25 Sloyd knife, No. .40 Jack plane, No. 1.25 Fore plane, No. 1.35 VI. Extras. Price Smoothing plane, No. 1.00 Cabinet scraper, No. $.10 III. Tooth Tools. Oilstone, No. .75 Price Oil can, No. .25 Rip saw, No. $1.50 Nail set, No. .10 Cross-cut saw, No. 1.50 Screw-driver, No. .25 Back saw, No. 1.00 Bench brush, No. .35 *1. Number each tool. 2. Tools not numbered, mark thus [X], 3. Missing tools, mark thus [O]. 4. Broken tools, mark thus [B]. I have received the tools as indicated above and agree to take good care of them while I am a member of the class. If I should lose or break a tool, I agree to pay for the same at the close of the term. Signature of Student Date. 18 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 12. " Which habit do you want to form — Carefulness or Carelessness ? Neatness or Slovenliness ? Attention or Heedlessness? Accuracy or Errancy ? Honesty or Deception ? Economy or Wastefulness? Industry or Idleness? Success or Failure ? " l 13. If there are enough individual benches for each student, an official record should be made of the tools in the bench equipment and the student should be held responsible for those tools as well as for the care of the bench. In keeping this record forms similar to the one on the preceding page should be used. The instructor and student should fill two forms for each bench, the student keeping one form and the instructor the other. Technical Terms 1. "Blue Print." — A drawing which has been made by the blue print process is called a "blue print." 2. Stock. — Rough lumber which has been cut to approximate sizes for class use is called stock. 3. Working Face. — A surface of a block of wood that has been planed perfectly flat, so that it will lie flat on a flat surface without rocking, is called a working face. It is the surface from which the other surfaces are trued. It is the surface from which measurements are started. 1 Croc T. Work, " Outlines of Manual Training," San Francisco Public Schools, Teachers' Edition, 1903, page 38. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 19 4. Bottom. --The surface of a block of wood opposite the working face is called the bottom. 5. Front Edge. — The edge nearest the observer is called the front edge. This edge is squared from the working face and is perpendicular to it. 6. Back Edge. — The edge farthest from the observer is the back edge. This edge is also squared from the working face and is perpendicular to it. 7. Right End. — The end of the block of wood at the right of the observer is called the right end. It is per- pendicular to the working face, bottom, and edges. 8. Left End. — The end of the block of wood at the left of the observer is called the left end. It is per- pendicular to the working face, bottom, and edges. 9. " Square" or "true a Block." — To plane a block of wood so that the working face and bottom are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the ends and edges is called " squaring " or " truing a block of wood." 10. "Lay out Work." — To draw lines on wood which represent the form of the different parts of the object and to show the waste parts to be cut away are known as "laying out work." 11. "Dress down a Surface." — To plane perfectly smooth, or to plane a block to desired thickness is called "dressing down a surface." 12. "Grain," "Across the Grain," "With the Grain," and "Against the Grain." — These terms refer to the direction of the fibers in the wood that is being worked. 13. "Object," "Model," or "Project." — These terms are used in naming that which is to be constructed. The term "model " should be used when the object to be 20 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING constructed is to be made from a drawing or design of another person. When the pupil designs or helps to design the object to be made, then the term "project " should be used. The term "object " may take the place of the terms "model" or "project." At the present time the term 'project" is tho most popular term. These terms may also be defined as follows: — Object: The name of anything to be 4 constructed. It may be constructed from a model, from a drawing designed by another, or it may be constructed from a drawing made and designed by the teacher and pupil together. Model: ''Anything o{ a particular form, shape, or construction, intended for imitation." —Webster. Project: "A project is something o( a practical na- ture thrown out for consideration as to its being done.' 1 — Webster. II. "Scribe." — To draw a line parallel to a straight line, or to draw a curved line from a curved edge, using compasses or dividers, is called "scribing." 15. "Checks." — ("racks in wood extending radially and following pith rays are called " checks." lb. "Coarse-grained." — Trees in which the annual lings are wide give "coarse-grained" lumber. 17. "Fine-grained." — Trees in which the annual rings are narrow give "fine-grained" lumber which is capable oi a high polish. IS. "Bird's-eye Maple." — A particular ami beautiful contour that is sometimes seen in the grain o( maple which has been sawed at a tangent is called "bird's-eye maple." PART I Woodworking Tools i. Benches. — One of the most important parts of a manual training equipment is the workbench, and it should be selected with great care. There; are very Fig. 1. — Manual training bench. many excellent benches on the market at the; present time from which selections can be made One of the best in style and make is shown in Fig. 1. It is practi- cal, substantial, and complete in every way. The same style of a bench may be had in a double bench. A bench serves as a working table. It is supplied with devices 21 22 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING to support and to hold wood that is being worked upon. The best benches are provided with cabinets, drawers, or racks to hold tools when not in use. The construc- tion necessarily depends upon the design of the bench. The parts of a bench are the framework, working bed, side vise, tail vise, stops, and cabinet, drawers, and rack to hold tools. The working bed should be made of the Fig. 2. — Cabinetmaker's bench. best grade, thoroughly seasoned, hard maple glued up in narrow strips to prevent warping. In fact the best of materials and workmanship should go into the bench in order that it be serviceable and stand the test of climatic conditions. Fig. 2 shows a cabinetmaker's bench. There should be a few of these benches in every shop for use when heavy work is done. These benches may also be ob- tained with cabinet or drawers underneath. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 23 A workbench should receive proper care at all times. Great care should be exercised in the use of saws and chisels and auger bits not to cut or mar the bench. At the close of each lesson the vises should be closed, the bench and tools should be dusted, and the tools should be put away in their proper places so that the bench is left perfectly clean and in order. Standards of Measure and Tools used in Measuring and Testing 2. English Measure. — The usefulness of a system of measure depends upon the unvarying identity of its unit together with its terminations. History informs us that from the earliest periods of civilization the unit of all systems of measure has been fixed by law or cus- tom. In early periods there were many systems, and the multiplicity of systems of measure naturally led to much embarrassment to the commerce of the world. To transform values in trade from one system to an- other has always been a difficult task in regulating trade between nations. The term "foot " has been in use for more than 2000 years, but with different meanings, having its origin in the republics of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Tradition tells us that the Olympic foot was derived from the length of the foot of the mythological Hercu- les. The Greeks also had several other foot measures differing in length. These varying standards of length in early periods were the causes of much trouble in the exchange of commodities. 24 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING The unit of English measure is the yard. It was recommended by the Royal Society and became a legal standard Jan. 1, 1826. Part of the statute is as follows: " The straight line or distance between the centers of the two points in the gold studs in the straight brass rod now in the custody of the clerk of the House of Commons, whereon are the words and figures 1 Standard Yard, 1760/ shall be, and is hereby de- clared to be, the unit, or only measure of extension whatsoever, whether the same be linear, superficial, or solid, shall be derived, computed, and ascertained." In case such standard be lost or injured in any way, the act provided that it should be restored by referring to the length of "the pendulum vibrating seconds of mean time in the latitude of London in a vacuum at the level of the sea." The length of this pendulum was declared to be 39.1393 inches. The House of Parliament was destroyed by fire in 1834 and the standard yard was lost. A commission was appointed in 1838 to restore the standard. The commission reported that a standard bar of gun metal, 38 inches long and 1 inch square, the distance between two lines on which, crossing two gold studs, is one yard, at 62° F. and 30 inches atmospheric pressure. This standard was legalized in 1878. In 1814 a brass scale by Troughton, of London, was obtained by the United States Coast and 'Geodetic Sur- vey. This scale was 82 inches long and the part from the 27th to the 63d inch line was adopted as the unit of length. In 1830 the United States Treasury Depart- ment adopted the Troughton scale as a standard of FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 25 length. The Constitution of the United States pro- vides that: — " The Congress shall have power to fix the standards of weights and measures." (Art. I., Sec. 8, CI. 5.) For table of linear measure see Appendix B. 3. The Metric System. — Some one has said that the metric system is a product of the French Revolution. By a law passed on Aug. 1, 1793, the metric system was established as the only legal standard of weights and measures for France and the French possessions. The system has since been adopted by Mexico, Brazil, Chile, Peru, and by all European nations except Russia and Great Britain, and its use is permitted in these nations. The population of the countries in which this system has been legalized aggregate about 350,000,000, or about one-fourth the entire popula- tion of the earth. Its value and usefulness is in the simplicity of its multiples. The Metric System was legalized in the United States by Congress, July 27, 1866. Part of the act is as follows : " The tables in the schedule hereto annexed shall be recognized in the construction of contracts, and in all legal proceedings, as establishing, in terms of the weights and measures now in use in the United States, the equivalents of the weights and measures expressed therein in terms of the metric system, and the tables may lawfully be used for computing, determining, and expressing in customary weights and measures the weights and measures of the metric system." The units of the metric system are as follows : 1. The unit of length is the meter. It is nearly the ten-millionth 26 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING part of a quadrant of a meridian, or the distance between the equator and a pole. It is also defined as the dis- tance between two lines on a platinum-iridium bar at zero degree Centigrade. This bar is deposited in the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Paris, France. 2. The unit of surface is the are. 3. The unit of capacity is the liter. 4. The unit of solidity is the stere. 5. The unit of weight is the gram. The tables with their values, multiples, and sub- multiples referred to in the above act are found in Appendix B. 4. Rule. — A rule is an instrument or tool used in measuring. Its graduations are recorded in inches, Fig. 3. — Rule. Boxwood, two-feet, four-fold, square joiut, bound. halves, quarters, eighths, and sixteenths. For con- venience in shop practice, a rule is made to fold, such as " fourfold/' "sixfold/' etc. Rules are also made in different lengths, but the most common size is the 2-foot, fourfold length. For accurate measuring a rule should be held on its edge against the object to be measured, so that the graduations on the rule can be located exactly. Rules are usually made of boxwood which has been thoroughly seasoned. Some of the more expensive rules are made of genuine ivory, but these are not practical in a manual training equipment on account of their expense. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 27 3 ijijip £ i|iii|i Fig. 4. Try-square, a, blade ; b, handle. 5. Try-square. — The try-square is used in laying out work and in testing faces, edges, and ends to see that they are true. In testing a block of wood to see whether a face and an edge are true or not, the handle of the try-square should be placed firmly against the face and then slid down until the blade touches an adjoin- ing edge. If the face and edge fit the try- square perfectly, they are "true " to each other, i.e. they form a right angle. The parts of the try-square are the blade (a) and handle (b) . These parts are riveted firmly together so that they form a right angle. The blade is graduated in inches, halves, quarters, and eighths. Try- squares may also be obtained graduated in the metric system. The blade differs in length from 2 to 12 inches. A 6-inch blade is about practical purposes. The shown in Fig. 4 is nickel- die is sometimes made of having a brass face plate to wood. These are more ex- pensive than nickel-plated FlG 5 _ Bevel ^ blade . 6j handle . handles. c, set-screw. 6. Bevel. — The bevel consists essen- tially of a handle (b) with a movable the right size for all handle of the one plated. The han- rosewood and protect the 28 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fig. 6 . — Framing square (face), a, body or blade ; b, tongue. blade (a) which is held in place by a set screw (c). It is used in drawing lines at an angle with a straight edge and in testing angles. The handle and blade are made of the same kind of materials as the try-squares. There are no gradations on the blade of the bevel. The lengths of blades range from 6 to 14 inches. 7. Framing Square, also called " Square/" " Carpenter's Square," and " Steel Square." — The framing square consists of a long arm, called the body (24 inches long, 2 inches wide), and a short arm, called the tongue (16 or 18 inches long, 1|- inch wide), arranged at right angles to each other. On both sides and on each edge of the body and tongue are gradua- tions used in measuring, testing, and comput- ing. Some one has said that the graduations and rulings on an ordinary framing square number 2571 with 870 figures. The usefulness of its graduations makes it a very valuable tool. The square shown in Fig. 6 was patented June 5, 1900, and is very complete and accu- rate. It gives the Patent Rafter Table, used in de- termining the length of rafters for any one of seven pitches of roof and for buildings of any width; the Brace Measure, which gives the length of common FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 29 15 I 14 I 13 I '12 I 11 !7 — 30" 33"" 3 I | 12 I 111 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 Fig. 6. — Framing square (back) . braces ; the Octagon " Eight-square " Scale, used for laying off lines to cut an "eight- square " or octagon stick of timber from a square one; and the Essex Board Measure, which gives the contents in feet and inches of boards of various lengths and widths. 8. Rafter Table Directions. — The rafter table includes the outside edge graduations of the back of the square on both body and tongue, and is in twelfths. The inch marks may represent inches or feet, and the twelfth marks may represent twelfths of an inch or twelfths of a foot (that is, inches) as a scale. The edge graduation figures above the table represent the "run" of the rafter, and under the proper figure on the line representing the " pitch " will be found, in the table, the rafter length required. The "pitch" is represented by the figures at the left of the table and in the illustration under the word "Pitch." HI III iili 11 12 feet run to 12 feet run to 12 feet run to 12 feet run to 12 feet run to 12 feet run to 12 feet run to 4 feet rise is 6 feet rise is 8 feet rise is 10 feet rise is 12 feet rise is 15 feet rise is 18 feet rise is J pitch. J pitch. J pitch. A pitch. J pitch. f pitch, f pitch. 30 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING -24-FEET-WIDE- The Eun of a rafter set up in place is the hori- zontal measure from the extreme end of the foot to a plumh line from the ridge end. From A to B. - — — —- — 24--FEET-WIOE The Rise is the distance from the top of the ridge end of the rafter to the level of the foot. From C toD. The Pitch is the proportion that the rise hears to the whole width of the building. The above illustra- tion shows h pitch ; the rise of 8 feet being 5 of the width of the building. The Cuts or angles of a rafter are obtained by ap- plying the square so that the 12-inch mark on the body and the mark on the tongue that represents the rise shall both be at the edge of the rafter. The illus- tration shows 8-foot rise, the line A the cut for the foot end of rafter and B the cut for ridge end. Fig. 7. — Rafter table. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 31 li A a / \ E \ \ \ \ \ \ / / / F ^ W — O = - IS £ -5 — V> — — -IT FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 33 Fig. 10. — Essex board measure. space on either side of the point A, as Aa and Ah; lay off in the same way the same space from the point B, as Bd, Be; also Of, Cg and Db, Dc. Then draw the lines db, cd, ef, and gh. Cut off the solid angle E, also F, G, and H; this will leave an octagon or " eight- square " stick. This is nearly exact. 1 1 . Essex Board Measure. — The fig- ure 12 in the graduation marks on the outer edge represents a one-inch board 12 inches wide and is the starting point for all calculations ; the smaller figures under the 12 represent the length. A board 12 inches wide and 8 feet long measures 8 square feet, and so on down the table. Therefore, to get the square feet of a board 8 feet long and 6 inches wide, find the figure 8 in the scale under the 12-inch graduation mark and pass the pencil along to the left on the same line to a point below the graduation mark 6 (representing the width of the board), and you stop on the scale at 4, which is 4 feet, the board measure required. If the board is the same length and 10 inches wide, look under the graduation mark 10 on a line with the figure 8 before men- ^— to wu-» -«-»-» IQ — 34 KDI'CATIONAL WOODWORKING tioned, and you find 63^ feet board measure. Tf IS inches wide, then to the right under the graduation mark 18, and L2 feet is found to be the board measure. If L3 feel long and 7 inches wide, find 13 in the scale under the L2-inch graduation, and on tin 4 same line under the 7-inch graduation will Ik 1 found 7/., feet board measure. If the board is half this length, take half of this result ; if double 4 this length, then double the result. For stuff 12 inches thick double the figures. In this way the scale covers all Lengths of boards, the most common, from 8 feet to b*> feet, being given. 12. History of the Framing Square. The square was used by the ancient Greeks and Romans. Pliny said that the square and level were invented by Theodo- rus, a Greek of Samos; but this cannot be true, for the ancient Egyptians must have 1 had and used these tools in the building of the Pyramids. Theodorus may have made improvements in the square and level, and probably discovered new problems in which they could be used. Prehistoric nations must have used them or similar tools also, for evidences of their use are found in the ruins of prehistoric races. A story of the history of tools is a story of the history and development of the race. Fin. 11. — Plumb and level. 13. Plumb and Level. — A plumb and level consists of two level glasses mounted as shown in Fig. 11. The FOR HOMK AND .SCHOOL 35 level glasses are mounted in cherry, mahogany, or rose- wood blocks, or in a built-up metallic frame. When only one level glass is used, as in Fig. 12, it is called a level, or a "spirit Fia 12 -- Le ™i. level." A plumb and level is used in testing horizontal and perpendicular surfaces. Fig. 13. — Level glass (showing setting) . Fig. 14. — Plumb glass (showing setting). 14. Marking Gauge. — The marking gauge (Fig. 15) is used in drawing a line parallel with a straight edge. The parts are called the bar, head, thumbscrew, and point. The bar has graduations in inches. The head and bar are made of ap- ple wood, ma- hogany, boxwood, or rosewood, while the point is made of steel. 15. Mortise Gauge. — The mortise gauge (Fig. 16) is used in drawing two parallel lines parallel with a straight Fig. 15. — Marking gauge, a, bar; &, head; c, thumbscrew ; d, point. 36 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fig. 10. — Mortise gauge, a, bar; b, head: c, thumbscrew ; Ul 42 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING different sizes and shapes and with either socket or tang handles. 25. Wood-turning Tools. — The cutting tools used in wood turning are the turning chisel, turning gouge, and parting tool. These are made in different sizes. 26. Wood-carving Tools. — There are many sizes and shapes of tools used in wood carving. For names, cuts, and the sweep of each tool see Figs. 30-35. Carv- ing sets may be obtained put up in neat boxes for home use. BUCK BROS. fjUC K Kr-as, ii!»iw,i . 1 1 1 1 ra i iiumiii.iiHiiiiuiiHimmimiumiumiiiimmiimiiWHii'iii^ BUCK Bftpgr BflHlimmiimfifiiEiiimiimiimuiiiiimiimiimtiiiiir.ii , in., ,'i,i . . 9 Fig. 30. — Back bent gouges, FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 43 Fig. 31. — Front bent gouges. 44 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fig. 32. — Straight gouges. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 45 Fig. 33. — Curved gouges- 46 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING buck mi ni . T^1jr.-M^»liaE*Jall.*llwimBuuMmWll | Front beut chisel. Right corner chisel. Left corner chisel. Carving chisel. Skew carving chisel. Fig, 34. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 47 \ Fig. 35. — Parting tools. 48 EDUCATIONAL W( )< ) I ) W < > I ! K I \ < ! 27. Planes. — One of the most important parts of a manual training equipment are the planes. Students as Fu;. 36. — Fore plane (showing corrugated bottom). a rule find difficulty in mastering the uses and the ad- justments of these tools, and too much emphasis eannot l>e put upon a propef study of them. They should be properly sharpened, carefully set, and used cor- rectly. Usually, in woodworking outfits, are found a jack plane for rough planing, a Fig. 37. —Smooth plane. fore plane for truing FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 49 long surfaces, and a smooth plane for planing broad surfaces and end wood; but in manual training work the fore plane, smooth plane, and block plane arc used. The planes shown in Figs. 36, 37, and 38 are iron planes, but some woodworkers pre- fer wood bottom planes, shown in Fig. 39. There are many kinds of planes in use for different purposes. Among these we note the following: smooth, jack, fore, jointer, block, circular, belt maker's, low angle block, rabbet, bull-nose rabbet, core-box, chamfer, scrub, dado, double-end match, beading, piano maker's, etc. Fig. 38. — Knuckle joint block plane, show- ing patent throat adjustment. Fig. :;!). — Wood bottom plane. 50 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Sectional elevation of Bailey iron plane. List of Parts of Bailey Planes. 1. Plane iron. 2. Plane iron cap. 3. Plane iron screw. 4. Cap. 5. Cap screw. 6. Frog. 7. "Y" adjustment. 8. Brass adjusting nut. 9. Lateral adjustment. 10. Frog screw. 11. Handle. 12. Knob. 13. Handle " bolt and nut." 14. Knob " bolt and nut." 15. Handle screw. 16. Bottom (iron plane). 35. Top casting (wood plane). 36. Bottom (wood plane). Sectional elevation of Bailey wood plane. Fig. 40. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 51 p. I — ' CD 52 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING A C B D Fig. 41. — Stanley patent universal plane. This plane com- prises a plow, dado, rabbet, beading, reeding, fluting, round, hollow, sash, match, tilletster, slitting, chamfer, and general mould- ing plane in one tool, is easily ad- justed, and can be used for a great va- riety of work. By means of the pat- ent adjustable bottom and the auxiliary center bottom it is possible to use a cutter of practically an\ Shape with this plane. The directions which ac- company each tool are readily understood. The plane is nickel-plated and has 52 cutters. As a mould- ing plane. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 53 L — y\^j Quarter Round*. Quarter Rounds with Bead. Reeding Tools, Match Tool Cash Tool. Grecian Ogee*. ^rwi|vyirv_y-|a/ Quarter Rounds with Bead. Reverse Ogees. ♦ 25 ♦ 26 27 28 ♦ 29 ♦ 2:2 222 Roman Ogees.. Quarter Hollow! ♦ 232 3d Beading Tools. Reeding Tools. Fluting Tool$ Ploy.- Oacto ft RaDbet Toolfi. filletsler. Sash Tool Match Toot Fig. 42. — Cutters for Stanley universal plaue. 54 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 28. Spokeshave. — This is a very useful tool in a bench equipment. It is used in making handles and in working on curved surfaces. Spokeshaves differing in Fig. 43. — Spokeshave. a, handle; b, blade: c, set screw: d, cap iron. shape (convex or concave) are made for convex and concave cutting. These shaves are especially useful to stair builders, pattern makers, and carriage makers. The spokeshave should never be used for doing work that can be done with a plane. 29. Metal Snips. — Metal snips are used in cutting sheet metals. They are indispensable in bent iron and Fig. 44. — Metal snips. sheet metal work. Snips are made in different sizes. There are many kinds of snips which are used for various purposes. for home and school 55 Tools with Teeth 30. Saws and their Construction. — Saws are clas- sified as reciprocating in action and continuous in action. A reciprocating saw has a straight cutting edge, or an 'edge that is slightly curved, while the continuous saws are the circular saws and the band saws. Saws are made from the best steel saw plates. In early times these plates were imported from England, but now most of the American saws are made from American saw plate. The processes involved in the making of the best saws are as follows : 1. Tempering, giving hardness and toughness to the blade. 2. Smithing or hammering, making the plate level and toughening the steel. 3. Grinding, giving a uniform thickness, or a tapering thickness. 4. Polishing, causing the saw to run easily. 5. Punch- ing of teeth, giving shape to the teeth. 6. Jointing, set- ting, and filing, giving a proper cutting edge. 7. Etch- ing, giving the maker's name, address, trade-mark, etc. 8. Handling, fitting well-shaped handles to give the saw the proper " hang." 9. Blocking, the final oper- ation to make the saw straight and level. Nearly every element that enters into the construc- tion of a saw tends to give efficiency to the tool, and that efficiency is measured by the amount of force required to do a given amount of work. The cut which a saw makes in wood is called the " kerf." A thick blade will make a wider kerf than a thin blade, and more force is required in using a thick blade. The bending of the saw teeth a little (one to the right, and the next to the left, etc.) by means of a saw set is what gives " set" to a saw. EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING D -TT ^s 03 H itf" :^>; i m SI \ £^ "e — — 00 -c ^ ts I FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 57 The amount of set also determines the width of the kerf. In sawing hard woods little set is required, while in sawing soft and spongy woods more set is re- quired. 31. Rip Saw. — A rip saw is a saw having teeth especially adapted for dividing wood in a direction parallel to its fibers. It is used for sawing with the grain of wood. The teeth are nothing less than a series of small chisels arranged so that each tooth does its own share of the cutting. It will be observed in Fig. 45 that the teeth of the rip saw slant forward. This shape is one of the chief characteristics of the rip saw, for it gives efficiency to the tool in splitting the fibers. The cuts in Fig. 46 are full size of the respective number of teeth and points per inch which they represent. A "3-point" saw is a saw having three points to the inch but not three teeth to the inch. A "3-point" saw has two teeth to the inch. It will be observed that in one inch of space there is always one tooth less than there are points. 32. How to sharpen a Rip Saw. — A rip saw does its cutting by means of the front part of the tooth. This part of the tooth wears down fastest and it needs most of the filing that is done on the tooth. The back of the tooth should be filed very little, just enough to give the required depth between the teeth. Rip saws are jointed and set the same as cross-cut saws, but the teeth are filed straight across so that they are perfectly square on the front side. In using a rip saw it should be held at an angle of 45 degrees with the wood that is being cut, as shown in Fig. 47. Fig. 4(5. — Teeth and points per inch of rip saws. 58 Fig. 47. — Position of rip saw when cutting. 59 u 60 QIROINmSl ilQlBQINffll Fig. 49. — Teeth and points per inch of cross-cut saws (full size). 61 62 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 33. Cross-cut Saw. — In a cross-cut saw the teeth are V-shaped and are sharpened in such a way that they cut the fibers in passing over them. The finer a saw is made to cut ; the greater the number of teeth to the inch. For the number of teeth and points per inch see Fig. 49. For ordinary cross-cutting a 10-point saw (10 points to the inch) should be used, while for ordinary ripping a 7-point rip saw should be used. 34. How to sharpen a Cross-cut Saw. — Place the saw in the saw vise. The first process in putting a saw in Fig. 50. — Hand-saw jointer. order is known as jointing. To joint a saw take a flat mill file and file the teeth down until they are all the same height. See Fig. 50. The second operation is the setting. This is done by means of a saw set (Fig. 51), which turns the points of the teeth uniformly. The teeth should be set alternately right and left. Great care should be exercised not to break the teeth, for in highly tempered saws the teeth are brittle. Very little set is required in saws for bench work — just enough to make them clear nicely. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 63 Fig. 51. — Monarch patent saw-set. A and C, set screws; B, gauge; D, plunger V >"^\ Fig. 52. — Saw-filing guide. (Especially designed to assist those not skilled in the art of saw-filing to file a saw cor- rectly.) 64 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING After the jointing and setting the saw is ready to be filed. Select good files of proper sizes. Six and seven point saws require a 7-inch slim taper file; eight and nine points, 6-inch slim taper file; and for ten, eleven, and twelve point saws a 5-inch slim taper file is required. Begin to file at the heel and progress towards the tip, Fig. 53. — Filing position. filing the teeth which are set away from you. When the teeth are filed on one side reverse the saw and repeat the process. The teeth are filed at an angle of 45 degrees, as shown in Fig. 53. Sometimes other angles are used, but for general use this is preferred. Fig. 55 shows a saw 7 that has been incorrectly filed. Avoid such errors. Fig. 53 also show r s the proper posi- tion of the file in filing. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 65 Fig. 5-4. — Correct filing. Fig. 55. — Incorrect filing. Looking down the edge of a saw after it has been filed, the groove should appear as in Fig. 56. If a tooth is out of place, it will be easily detected. A saw in good con- M Fig. 56. Fig. 57. Fig. 58. Fig. 59. clition should leave the bottom of the kerf flat, like Fig. 57, and not like Fig. 58. The cutting action of the teeth is shown in Fig. 59. In making a knife line the blade 66 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING will cut more smoothly if it is inclined forward a little instead of being held in a perpendicular position, so a cross-cut tooth should incline forward. The slant of the cutting edge of a tooth is called the pitch or rake of the Fig. 60. — Cutting action of saw teeth. C, cross-cut saw ; D, rip saw. tooth. Fig. 60 illustrates the principle on which saw teeth are constructed. 35. Back Saw. — The back saw is a cross-cut saw with very fine teeth. It is intended for fine and accurate sawing. The saw blade is very thin and this is reenforced FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 67 by an iron strip extending along the back of the saw. The blade is uniform in width and is from 8 to 14 inches in length. Fig. Gl. — Back saw. a, blade; b, handle; c, teeth; d, tip; e, heel; /, back. 36. Bracket Saw. — A bracket saw is a saw constructed in such a way that it can be used in sawing curves in thin woods. It is a very valuable tool in manual training Fig. 62. — Bracket saw. a, frame; b, blade; c, handle. work, for many of the projects are made up of curved designs. The blades are made in different lengths and sizes from 3 to 5 inches for different thicknesses of wood. 68 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 37. Hack Saw. — A hack saw is constructed very much like a bracket saw except that it is heavier. It is used in sawing metals. The blades have about fourteen Fig. 63. — Hack saw. a, frame; b, handle; c, adjustable back; d, blade. teeth to the inch and are from 6 to 12 inches in length. The one shown in Fig. 63 is adjustable, taking blades of different lengths. 38. Miter Box. — A miter box is a device for holding wood while it is being sawed at an angle. Such a device is very useful in the making of picture frame joints or miter joints. Fig. 65 shows an improved New Langdon miter box which can be used in cutting any angle from a Fig. 64. —Miter box. right angle to 45 degrees. This box has several adjust- ments which are valuable. Fig. 64 is a cut of a box that can be made in any shop. It should be made of some hard wood like beech or maple. A cross-cut or a FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 69 back saw can be used in sawing by letting the saw run in the cuts made in the box. A miter box should never Fig. 65. — Improved new Langdou miter box. be used in doing work that is intended to develop skill in sawing. Fig. 66 shows a miter planer which is used in planing end wood, or in planing at any angle. Fig. 66. — Rogers miter planer. 70 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 39. Files. — A file is an in- strument made of steel, hav- ing its surfaces covered with sharp-edged furrows or teeth. The furrows are made by straight parallel cuts in the steel . For names and illustra- tions of cuts see Plate A, Fig. 67. As to the coarse- Fig. (>7. — Files and rasps. a, hand smooth file; b, taper saw iile; c, half- round wood rasp. William T. Nicholson, founder of the Nicholson File Company. ness or fineness of files, they are classified as rough, middle cut, bastard, second cut, smooth, and superfine or dead- smooth. As to the kind and coarseness of cuts and the shapes and sizes of files, many combinations are made, giv- ing a great variety of files. The File Manufacturers' Asso- FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 71 ciation of the United States quote more than 3000 different files and wood rasps alone. The work to be done must determine the kind of file to use. A new mmmm Rasp, second cut. Rasp, smooth. Double cut bastard. H Dbl. cut second cut. Double cut smooth. Plate A, Fig. 67. Single cut coarse. Single cut bastard. Sins;, cut sec. cut. Single cut smooth. file should be used lightly at first, until the thin sharp edges are worn off, after which a heavier pressure may be applied. In filing high-tempered steel the finer grades 72 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING of files, called second cut, should be used. In using a file a steady stroke with strong pressure is most effective. 40. Wood Rasps. — A wood rasp is a kind of file used in cutting down rough edges of wood. It differs from a file in that the teeth of a rasp are coarse, single teeth, raised from the bar of steel by the pyramidal end of a triangular punch struck obliquely. The wood rasp is a tool whose use should not be encouraged very much in manual training work, and when it is used it should never take the place of an edged tool. Fig. G8. — File cleaner. 41. File Cleaner. — A file, like every other tool, should be kept clean. For this purpose a file cleaner (Fig. 68) is used. It is a wire brush made of the best grade of fine steel wire. Boring Tools 42. Auger. — An auger is a tool used in boring a hole in wood. Augers are made of the best grade of cast steel properly tempered. The blade is twisted in such a way that a perfect spiral groove is formed by means of which the chips are discharged. There should be at least one set of augers in the shop equipment, con- FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 73 sisting of one handle and one bit of each of the following sizes: J", f' ; |", f", 1", lJr", 1}" ; 1 J", If, and 2". For rapid boring a boring machine like the one shown in Fig. 70 is sometimes used. It is used more by the builder than by the bench worker. Fig. 70. — Snell boring machine. 43. Auger Bits. — Auger bits are used for lighter work than the auger. The cut- ting parts are constructed like the auger, in fact an auger bit is an auger having a tang that will fit a bit brace. One of the best makes of auger bits and perhaps the most extensively used is the Russell Jen- nings Auger Bit, which was patented by M > CD P a P CD P B era 74 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Russell Jennings in 1855. There are, however, many other excellent bits on the market. There are also very many cheap bits on the market at the present time. Fig. 71. — Auger bit. a, shank; 6, blade; c, tang; d, nib; e, lips; /, spur. 44. Short Auger or Dowel Bits. — These bits are used with great success in working with thin woods. As their name suggests, they were designed to be used in boring holes for dowel pins. For doweling a \" bit is used more than © z pq Fig. 72. — Short auger or dowel bit. any other size, for the standard size of dowel- ing is quarter-inch. Dowel bits are easily cen- tered and are not so liable to break or bend as a longer bit. They range in sixteenths in size from -y to 1". Fig. 73. — Brace dowel bit drill. 45. Wood Drills. — For small holes in hard woods the wood drills are very good. They are rapid cutting and when well made are very efficient. They are graded in thirty-seconds and range from ^" to 1" in size. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 75 46. Gimlet Bit. — The gimlet bit is used, like the wood drills, in boring very small holes. In using any small bit great care must be exercised not to break the bit. Fig. 75. — Auger bit gauge 47. Auger Bit Gauge. — The auger bit gauge is a device to be attached to an auger bit to regulate the depth of the hole. It can be used on any bit up to 1" in size. 48. Countersink. — After a hole has been bored for a screw the countersink is used to rim out the top of the hole to allow the screw head to fit down into the wood Fig. 76. — Countersinks, a, rose countersink; b, adjustable countersink. closely, thereby causing the screw to hold more tightly. Sinking the head of a screw even with the surface or below the surface of the wood is called countersinking. 76 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 49. Brace, or " Bit Brace." — The brace is a tool made to hold an auger bit or other boring tool and is used in driving those tools. It has a steel frame which is either polished or nickel-plated. The head (6) is usually ball- bearing that it may turn easily when pressure is brought against it. The wood part of the head and handle is made from some hard wood and is highly polished. The tang of the bit fits into the jaws of the chuck and by tightening the sleeve the bit is held firmly while being Fig. 77. — Brace, a, crank; &,head; c, handle; d, sleeve; e, jaws; d and e (together), chuck. driven. To insert a bit, grasp the sleeve firmly with the left hand, turn the handle backward until the jaws open enough to receive the tang of the bit, then turn the handle forward until the sleeve draws the jaws tightly together. There are three types of chucks used on braces. They are the " Spofford Style/' which has a split socket with a thumb set screw; the "Fray Style/' having two revolving sleeves; and the "Barber Style/' having two jaws regulated by a sleeve. The Barber brace (Fig. 77) is used more than any other style. The diam- FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 77 eter of a circle described by the handle (c) in making a complete turn is called the sweep of the brace. The sweep of braces varies from 4" to 14". The larger the sweep the easier the work can be done because of the greater leverage. For boring holes near walls or ob- structions where a complete sweep cannot be made, ratchet braces are used. A ratchet brace has a forward and a backward movement. The bit turns with the for- ward movement of the brace, but remains at rest while the brace is being turned backward. Fig. 78. — Screw-driver, a, blade; b, handle; c, ferrule. 50. Screw-driver. — A screw-driver is used in driving screws. The blade is usually made of round steel which is forged on the end to fit the head of a screw. The blade is driven firmly into the body of the handle so that it hangs true. The handle is made of hard wood and is usually fluted to enable one to get a good grip with the hand. Screw-drivers range in size, according to the length of the blade, from 2 J" to 18". Fig. 7i». — .Screw-driver bit. a, blade; b, tang. 51. Screw-driver Bit. — A screw-driver bit is a bit to be used in a brace in driving a screw. It is intended for driving large screws where great pressure and force 78 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORK INC are required. With this tool screws can be driven more rapidly and with greater case (han with an ordinary screw-driver. Screw-driver bits are made of cast steel and in assorted sizes for different sizes of screws. They are not intended to be used on very small screws. WUSUHODT cm. Fig. 80. — Screw and plug bit. a, shank; &,tang; c, drill; e, knife; /, set screw lor knives; < >l >W< >K K 1 \< I Fig. 10G. — Pocket stone. Weight. — Its specific gravity is 3.12. It is a little more than one and one fifth the weight of sand. One pound of carborundum is equal in volume to one and one quarter pounds of emery. Infusibility. — Infusible in the highest attainable heat. Decomposition oc- curs in the electric arc. Insolubility. — It is insoluble in any of the ordinary solvents. Water, oils, and acids have no effect upon it, not even hydrofluoric acid, which readily dissolves sand. Chemical Composition. — It is composed of carbon and silicon in atomic pro- portions, and by weight thirty parts carbon to seventy parts silicon. Its formula is SiC. Color. — Pure carbo- rundum is white. In its commercial manufacture the crystals are produced in many colors and shades, par- tially as the result of impurities, and partly owing to sur- face oxidation. The prevailing colors are green, black, and blue. The color has no effect upon its hardness. 72. How to sharpen Edge Tools. — In sharpening edge tools, such as chisels, plane bits, sloyd knife, etc., certain principles must be observed. The correct shape Fig. 107. — Slip stones. Fig. 108. — Carborundum stones. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 93 Fig. 109. — Showing position of chisel on grindstone. of the tool mast be preserved in the sharpening process,' and at the same time a keen cutting edge must be secured. The first process of sharpening is called grinding. This is done by means of a grindstone set in motion. If a chisel or a plane bit is to be ground, it should be held as shown in Fig. 109. The angle at which the tool is ground is deter- mined by the kind of ma- terial to be cut. If it is to be used on soft wood, the tool should be held at an angle of about 20 degrees with the stone, and for hard wood it should be held at about 30 degrees with the stone. The grind- stone should turn as shown by the arrow in the cut. Avoid round- ing the bevel in grinding. Keep the bevel straight. A sloyd knife and turn- ing chisels are ground as shown in Fig. 110, with a straight bevel on each side of the cutting edge. Ordinary chisels and plane bits have a bevel only on one side, as shown in Fig. 111. After the tool has been ground it should be sharpened on the oilstone, as shown in Fig. 112. The tool is shoved back and forth as indicated by the arrows until a delicate Fig. 110.— Blade of sloyd knife (showing correct grinding) . N Fig. 111. — Chisel (show- ing correct grinding.) 94 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING wire edge is turned up on the straight edge. The straight edge is then held flat on the stone and shoved back and forth a few strokes. These two processes are repeated until the wire edge disappears and a keen cutting edge is produced. A few strokes made across the palm of the hand will also help to remove the wire edge. Fig. 112. — Showing position of chisel on oilstone. 'Tpof fLp put- ting edge to see if it is sharp by drawing the thumb very lightly across the cutting edge. Gouges and other edged tools are sharpened in a similar way. Extra Tools 73. Cabinet Scraper. — The cabinet scraper is an oblong piece of polished saw steel and is used in scraping hard woods. Cabinet scrapers are made in assorted sizes. The 3" times 5" size is a good size for bench work. They are sharpened with a file in such a way that a fine wire edge is turned, and it is this wire edge that really does the cutting or scraping. As soon as this is worn off the scraper should be filed again. With the improved block planes which we now have there is little use for cabinet scrapers. Fig. 113. — Cabinet scraper. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 95 74. Oiler. — The oiler is used about the bench to hold oil that is used frequently on the oilstone and for other purposes. A copperized can like the one shown in Fig. 114 is a good can for use about a bench. Oilers are made in assorted sizes and in different shapes and styles. 75. Bench Brush. — This is a brush used in dusting the tools and bench. It should be used very carefully at the close of each exercise. Remember that the bench and tools are to be left clean when you finish your work each day. Fig. 114. -Oiler. Fig. 115. — Bench brush. 76. Handles. — Frequently handles are broken and should be replaced by new ones. An assorted stock of Fig. 116. — Socket chisel handle. these handles should be kept on hand, or where practi- cable they should be made by the students. 96 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fig. 117. — Turning handle. Fig. 118. — Carving tool handle. Fig. 119. — Tanged chisel handle. Fig. 120. — File handle. Fig. 121. — Adz-eye hammer handle. 77. Steel Letters and Figures. — These are used in lettering and numbering finished work, or they may be used for other purposes. Eaeh letter is held in position and then struck with a hammer, making an indentation in the wood. A more perfect letter can be made on end wood than on parallel fibers. They are made in assorted sizes from ^ of an inch to h" . FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 97 78. Trimmer. — A trimmer is a tool used in trimming end wood either squarely across the fibers, or at an angle. They are made so the cut can be adjusted at any angle from 30 to 150 degrees. There are many styles and makes of trimmers on the market at the present time. Fig. 122 a. — Wood trimmer. One of the best made is the Fox, shown in Fig. 122 a. It is built upon the mechanical principle of a shearing cut, the knife shearing against the point of a gauge which is made to swing about a pivot in the arc of a circle. The gauge and knife are the most vital parts of the trimmer and should be kept in perfect order. Make thin cuts and keep the knife sharp. 11 Fig. 122 b. — Wood trimmers. 98 PART II Woodworking Machines 79. Work. — The overcoming of resistance of any kind through space is called work. It implies a change of position. The fundamental formula for work, there- fore, is IF (Work) = F(Force) x s(Space). 80. Energy. — The capacity of a body for doing work is called energy. It is measured by the amount of work that can be done by that body. The unit of work is also the unit of energy. Energy is manifested in many forms, but in our work on machines we refer to mechan- ical energy. 81. Power. —The rate at which any agent, such as steam, electricity, animal force, etc., does or has the capacity to do work is called power, and is measured by the amount of work that it does or has the capacity to do in a given unit of time. The formula by which power is determined is represented thus : — P(Power) = ^ Work ). *(Time) The unit in which power is estimated is called horse power. A horse power (H.P.) is the power to do 33,000 foot pounds of work per minute, or 550 foot pounds per second of time, — i.e. the power equivalent to raising 33,000 pounds 1 foot in 1 minute against the force of LOft. " 100 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING gravity. It was established by James Watt, the in- ventor of the steam engine, who considered that a horse could do this amount of work per minute and introduced this term as the unit of measure. It is probable, how- ever, that the average horse has not that amount of power. In manual training work steam, gas, or electric power is used to run the woodworking machines. Electricity is preferred on account of its quiet, ease of manipulation, economy of space, and cleanliness. Gas is used exten- sively, but is not as desirable as electric power. Many manual training plants are also furnished with steam power. A manual training shop should be equipped with the following power machines: 1 band saw (2 to 3 H.P.) 1 scroll saw (2 H.P.), 1 swing saw (1 to 2 H.P.), 1 com- bination saw bench (2 to 4 H.P.), 1 single surfacer (4 H.P.), 1 jointer (2 H.P.), 1 grindstone (J H.P.), 20 10" swing wood turning lathes, and 1 pattern makers' lathe (2 H.P.). For running this amount of machinery the writer would recommend two lines of shafting, one for the lathes and one for the other machines. Let the lathe shaft be driven by a 16 H.P. electric motor and the shaft which runs the other machines by an 18 H.P. motor. Many schools are now equipped with an electric light and power plant. A combined engine and dynamo, like Fig. 123, is desirable for this work. To furnish power sufficient to run 1000 16-candle-power lights, 2 arc lights for the stereopticon lanterns, 1 16-H.P. motor for the lathes, and 1 18-H.P. motor for the other machines, FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 101 Fig. 123. — Engine and dynamo. Fig.592 A. Fig. 124. — Electric motor. 102 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING would require a 200-H.P. engine and a 125-kilowatt generator. This estimate* is based upon the assump- tion that the generating set should be large enough to furnish all of the power at one time, but it would seldom be necessary to use all of the power at one time, so that possibly a 100 kilowatts generator would develop suffi- cient power. To furnish sufficient power to operate the light and power plant indicated above, The Ridgway Dynamo and Engine Company, Ridgway, Pa., recom- mend a McEwen simple direct connected engine and a Thompson-Ryan direct connected generator with the following specifications: — Specification for Engine The engine to be capable of developing 200 indicated horse power when cutting off at ] stroke, with an initial steam pressure of 90 pounds in the steam chest. Diameter of cylinder . . 17 inches. Stroke 16 inches. Speed 250 revolutions per min. Diameter of governor wheel . 66 inches. Face of governor wheel . 14 J inches. Diameter of steam pipe . 6 inches. Diameter of exhaust pipe . 7 inches. Length of engine over all . 12 feet. Width of engine over all, in- cluding generator and out- board bearing . . .10 feet. Shipping weight of engine complete, including sub- base, outboard bearing, and extended shaft, 21,200 pounds. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 103 Specification for Generator The generator to have a rated capacity of 125 kilo- watts when running at its normal speed. 250 volts. 250 volts. 500 amperes. 250 revolutions per min. 30 inches. 35 inches. 5 feet. 10. Voltage at no load Voltage at full load Current at full load Speed . Diameter of armature Length of armature Width of generator Number of poles . Number of carbon brushes . 30. Shipping weight of generator 9200 pounds. Current density in armature 900 cir. mils per ampere. Current density in field coil 1200 cir. mils per ampere. Current density in brushes . 3 amperes per sq. in. The generator will run at the above rated capacity for 24 hours, with a rise in temperature not exceeding 75° F. above the surrounding atmosphere. The commercial efficiency (the ratio of the energy delivered by the generator to that applied to it), under the conditions of speed and load given below, should not be less than the following : — Speed 250 revolutions per minute. Load 62i k. W. Efficiency, 90.3 % . Load 93| K. W. Efficiency, 91 .5 % . Load 125 K.W. Efficiency, 92%. The generator is able to deliver 25% more than its full rated load for two hours, and 75 % more than its full rated load momentarily, without injuriously heating or 104 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING sparking and without requiring a change in the position of the brushes. Other large manufacturers make similar recommenda- tions. If it is not advisable to put in a power plant, power can be secured from the local plant to operate motors in the manual training shop. 82. Band Saw. — A band saw is a power saw that can be used for a wide range of sawing. It cuts rapidly and accurately, and is simple in construction. Band saws are made in the following sizes: 30" (diameter of wheels over which the band saw travels), 34", 36", 38", 40", and 42". A band saw, like every other tool or machine, needs to be prop- erly adjusted to do a given piece of work, and it should receive proper care and atten- tion at all times to be the most efficient. There is con- siderable stretch, which is called surplus elasticity, to a new band saw and on this ac- count the saw should receive very careful use at first. The speed for the tight and loose pulleys should not be more than 400 revolutions per minute. The tension of the saw must be perfect and uniform, and the saw should run without vibrating. 83. Scroll Saw. — This saw is intended for sawing both inside and outside curves. It should have a Fig . 1 25 . — Ba 1 id saw . FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 105 tilting table so that curves can be sawed at an angle if it is desired. This saw, like the band saw, must have the proper tension. The driving pulley (8J" x 3") should make about 800 revolutions per minute to give the proper speed. The saw blades are made in different sizes. A \" ', 16" long, is a good size for ordinary work. 84. Swing Saw. — This saw is used in cross cutting lumber. It is especially adapted for use in getting stock ready for class use, or where lum- ber is to be cut into equal lengths. Swing saws are usually hung to the ceiling, although they may be made to swing from the wall or from under the table. The con- struction of the swing saw is shown in Fig. 127. They are made Fig. 126. — Scroll saw. Fig. 127. — Swing saw and table. 106 KIHM ATlONAL WOODWORKING in different lengths, but the regular length is 7 feet 2 inches from the base of the hangers to the centre of the arbor. They arc made to swing cither right or left handed. The 4 regular size of the saw used is 14" in diameter. The speed of the tight and loose pulleys (10" by 5") should be 400 revolutions per minute. 85. Combination Saw Bench. - - The combination saw bench is a practical, all-round machine, and to be most efficient should embody all the convenienc es and attachments required for gen- eral work to ac- curate lines. It can be used for ripping, cross- cut ting;, and Fig. 128. — Saw bench. grooving or da- doing. The best saw tables arc provided with three gauges, — one slitting gauge, arranged to tilt to 45 degrees or less for bevel sawing, one adjustable, and one stationary cut-off gauge. The countershaft is placed on the floor about five feet from the centre of the arbor, thus leaving the to]) of the table free from belting. The speed of the tight and loose pulley (12" x 6 J") on the countershaft should make 600 revolutions per minute. Patent groovers or dado heads as shown in Fig. L29 are used when grooving is to be done. These groovers will cut a perfect groove with or across the grain, if they are in perfect condition. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 107 Outside cutter. Inside cutter. Outsile cutter. Sample of work made with groover head. Fig. 129. — Patent groover or dado heads. They are dangerous to use and one must handle them with great care. 86. Saw Guard. - - There is danger in operating a rip saw, or in using any power saw for that matter, and one cannot be too careful in using every precaution against accidents. The saw guard may help to prevent acci- pieces of wood from flying sawdust from flying into the abling him to see his work. This guard should be used by all means in a manual training shop, where unskilled people use the saw. 87. Circular Saws. — A circular rip saw and a circular cross- Fig. 130. — Saw guard. shown in Fig. 130 dents. It prevents back and keeps operator's face, en- 108 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING cut saw work on the same principle as ordinary rip and cross-cut saws work, and they are sharpened practically the same. The mandrel (sometimes called arbor) of a circular saw is the spindle to which the saw is fastened, and is run by means of a pulley which is connected with the driving pulley. The mandrel should be kept level and should be kept well oiled. Do not screw the saw too tightly on the mandrel, for it may heat and cause the saw to bind, or buckle. The saw should fit the mandrel perfectly true, when in place, so that every tooth will cut. If the saw heats too much at the center, it needs more set. If it heats at the rim, the backs of the teeth may be too high, or the saw may not run true. As a rule thick saws are more successful than thin saws, for it requires more than ordinary skill to successfully operate a thin saw. The greater the speed, the thicker the saw should be. The following table may be helpful in selecting circular saws: — Diameter English Gauge Size of Hole 3" 21 . J" 4" 19 3ff 4 5" 19 3// 4 6" 18 3ff 4 7" 18 3// 4 8" 18 7 " 8 9" 17 7 ft 8 10" 16 1" 11" 16 1" 12" 15 1 Iff 1 "8" 14" 15 U" A 8 16" 14 11" 2 8 18" 13 11" 1 4 FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 109 A saw is right-handed when it turns towards you as you stand in front of it, the gauge being on the left-hand side of the saw. If the gauge is on the right hand of the saw, it is a left-handed saw. The most efficient saw is one that cuts the fastest and smoothest with the least expenditure of power. 88. The Speed of Circular Saws. — As a rule the rim of a circular saw should travel about 9000 feet (nearly two miles) per minute. Saws differ in diameter, and in order to get the correct speed different revolutions must be made, a small saw making a greater number of revo- lutions per minute than a larger saw. A saw 12" in diameter is about 3 feet in circumference and must make 3000 revolutions per minute in order to have the correct speed. If the speed of a saw is too high, the saw will not cut well, for it will heat and buckle and will not run true. It is also very dangerous. On the other hand, saws run at too low a speed will not work well. The following table gives the speed at which circular saws should be run : — Table of Speed of Circular Saws Size or Diameter of Saw Rev. per Min. Size or Diameter of Saw Rev. per Min. Size or Diameter of Saw Rev. per Min. Size or Diameter of Saw Inches Speed Inches Speed Inches Speed Inches 8 4,500 26 1 .384 42 870 58 10 3,600 28 1,285 44 840 60 12 3,000 30 1,200 46 800 62 14 2,585 32 1,120 48 750 64 16 2,222 34 1,050 50 725 66 18 2.000 36 1,000 52 700 68 20 1,800 38 950 54 675 70 22 1 ,036 40 900 56 650 72 24 1,500 Rev. per Min. Speed 625 600 575 550 545 529 514 500 110 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 89. Rules for Calculating the Speed of Saws, Pulleys, and Drums. — Problem 1. The diameter of the driven being given, to find its number of revolutions. Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions, and divide the product by the diameter of the driven; the quotient will be the number of revolutions of the driven. Problem 2. The diameter and revolutions of the driver being given, to find the diameter of the driven, that shall make any given number of revolutions in the same time. Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions, and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven; the quotient will be its diameter. Problem 3. To ascertain the size of the driver. Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions you wish it to make and divide the product by the revolutions of the driver; the quotient will be the size of the driver. 90. Single Sur- facer. — This ma- chine is not abso- lutely necessary in a manual training shop, yet it is very useful. It is built Fig. 131.— Single surfacer. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 111 with special reference to doing smooth work on wood, from T y to 6" in thickness. Surfacers are made in 16", 20", and 24" widths. The tight and loose pulleys (10" by b\") on the countershaft should make 800 revolutions per minute. A machine like this should never take the place of work that should be done by hand, yet very often it is most practicable to have the benefits of such a machine. With it old stock can be worked up and used, thus saving much in the expense account. 91. Jointer. — The jointer is a machine used, as its name implies, in squaring, smoothing, and taking the wind out of timber, glue- jointing, bevel- ing, chamfering, rab- beting, molding, tonguing and groov- ing, beading, corner- ing, cross graining, tenoning, etc. It has- attachments and adjustments for all of these kinds of work, thus making it a very valuable machine in a manual training equipment. Jointers are made in different sizes. A 12" cut is about the right size for this work. The speed of the tight and loose pulleys should be 900 revolutions per minute. The jointer is a dangerous machine to use, and one cannot be too careful in oper- ating it. 92. Wood-turning Lathe. — There are many different makes of wood-turning lathes on the market at the pres- ent time. One of the most popular makes for manual Fig. 132. — Jointer. 112 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING training work is the Reed 10" swing lathe, shown in Fig. 133. A sectional view of the headstoek is shown in Fig. 134. These lathes are supplied with countershaft, large and small wood-turning face plates, pair of wood- turning centers, tee rest holder, three tee rests of different lengths, and blue print holder. At the close of each exercise in turning the student should dust off all parts of the lathe very carefully so that it is left in perfect order. In wood turning the speed of the lathe should be ad- justed to the size of the block that is to be turned. A small block should revolve faster than a large one. The following is a table of speed used in wood turning: — Diameter of Work Revolutions per Minute Surface pe Speed in Feet M inute 1 inch (About) 3000 (About) 785 2 inches 2500 1308 3 1 500 1178 5 1000 1259 8 600 1257 12 000 1880 18 300 1414 24 2:>0 1571 93. Belts. — A belt should be of a uniform quality and the laps in the leather should be near together. If the laps are far apart, it indicates that the leather was cut in long strips, which cannot give a good quality of belting, for in so cutting an inferior part of the hide must be used. " Short lap" belts are considered the best. Belts should be run with the grain or hair side next to the pulley, because 4 the hair side is the weaker side of the belting. By running a belt in this way the stronger side of the belt comes on the outside, where there is the greatest strain. They should be run hori- FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 113 Fig. 133.— Wood-turning lathe. irpi> Fig. 134. — Sectional view of headstock. 114 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING zontally or at an angle, and with the drawing side under- neath in order to get the best contact with the pulleys. Care should be exercised in getting belts wide enough to do a given amount of work without slipping. A belt should not be overloaded and should not be run too tight. The surfaces of belts should be kept in a pliable condition by using a good quality of belt dressing. The strength of good leather belting is estimated at from 4000 to 4500 pounds per square inch of section. A well-laced joint is about one third as strong. The amount of space covered on a pulley is called the "arc of contact." When the pulleys are of equal sizes, the arc of contact is 180 degrees. If the pulleys are un- equal in size, the arcs of contact are unequal, the larger pulley having the greater arc of contact. The best speed for belts is about 4000 feet per minute. Large pulleys are more desirable than small ones if the belt speed is not too high. 94. Formulae used in selecting Belts. — To determine the horse power of belts: — tt p _ Working Tension x Width x Speed 33000 To determine the working tension : — AX7 t . rp • Horse Power x 33000 Working lension = 6 Width x Speed To determine the width required to transmit given horse power: — w .,,. Horse Power x 33000 Width = Speed x Working Tension To determine speed : — Horse Power x 33000 Speed = Width x Working Tension FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 115 95. Belt Lacings. — Belt lacings are strong leather strings usually made from Calcutta cowhide, which is very tough, or from the best native cowhides, and are used in fastening the ends of a belt together. They should not be too large. A small lacing properly used is more effective than a large one improperly used. Figs. 135, 136, 137, and 138 show different methods of lacing belts. Side next to pulley. Reverse side. 1 r" ^ 1 * i> 1 €Z ^ ^ 1 «£_ l> 1 -■ €Z ., ^ 1 * i> 1 cz ^ 1 *^esa c ^ 1 €Z Z£ ( 1 I li i» ) 1 r CZ ^ (^ i J 1 G 3 C35«5 Fig. 135. — Old style lace. 96. Old Style Lace. 1 — Punch the holes as shown in Fig. 135, the first hole about one half an inch from edge and about seven eighths of an inch apart, the first row about five eighths of an inch from end of belt and the second row about three quarters of an inch back of the first row. Commence in the center and lace both ways 1 The writer has permission from Bickford & Francis Belting Company, Buffalo, N.Y., to use the cuts showing different styles of belt lace; also much of the information on belts came from them. 116 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING to the edge of the belt with a single lace and then back to the center, having the lace straight on the pulley side of the belt and the cross on the reverse side of the belt. Use a small belt punch and small lacing. 97. New Style Lace. — This style of lace is recom- mended as being one of the strongest and most serviceable Side next to pulley. Reverse side. Fig. 136. — New style lace. for general use. A much smaller hole and lace can be used and still give greater strength, and, according to the arrangement of the holes, the belt is weakened less than with almost any other method of lacing. For this method of lacing use i or T 5 g inch lace for single belts and f inch lace for double belts, except on extra large driving belts. Punch the first hole at least one half of an inch from the edge of the belt and about five eighths of an inch from the end. The centers of the FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 117 holes should be from three quarters to one inch apart, depending upon the width of the belt. The second row should be directly back of the first row and about three quarters of an inch distant. Commence at the center and lace both ways to the edge, using only the first row of holes. In working back to the center the second row of holes is used, giving a single strand of lace between the Fig. 137. — Single hinge lace. Fig. 138. — Double hinge lace. first and second rows and a double strand between the two rows nearest the end of the belt. The straight lace should always be on the side next the pulley and the cross lace on the reverse side. 98. Single Hinge Lace. — In this style of lace a small hole and a small lace should be used. The holes should be about one half of an inch from the end and edge of the belt and the same distance apart. The corners should be taken off both sides of the ends of the belt to prevent 118 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING cutting the lace. Begin at the center and lace towards the edge, as shown in Fig. 137. Where belts run over small pulleys, this method is very effective, as the joint is very pliable. 99. Double Hinge Lace. — The same size punch and lace should be used as in the single hinge joint. The first row of holes should be about one half of an inch from the edge and end of the belt and three quarters to one inch apart. The second row should be about three quarters of an inch back of the first row and arranged as shown Fig. 139. -Belt hook. in F j g _ ^ page 117 100. Belt Hooks. — Belt hooks are metallic hooks used in fastening the ends of a belt together. They are es- pecially desirable on short belts because they will not stretch. Fig. 140. — A simple method for lining up quarter twist belts. A, driving pulley; B, driven pulley; C, driv- ing side of belt; 1>, driven side of belt; E, driving side driven pulley; F, Driven side driving pulley. M- - N PART III Wood 1 (Outline Study) I. Classification of trees as to kinds of leaves and structure of wood. A. Coniferous trees (needle-leaved, naked-seeded, such as pines, cedars, etc.), soft woods. 1. Bark — outside or protecting tissue, thick- est and roughest near the base, forms about 10 per cent of the entire trunk in space. 2. Pith or medulla — thickness varying from I of an inch in Norway pine to ^V of an inch in cypress. 3. Sap wood — the living portion of the tree — composed of many-sided, thin- walled cells — the zone next to the bark containing about 50 annual rings — wood light in color — cells very active and very numerous — assist in the life processes of the tree. In old trees about 40 per cent sapwood, in young trees nearly all of the trunk sapwood. 4. Heart wood — the inner zone — fibrous bundles — the darker part of the log — cells lifeless — gives strength to the tree. 5. Annual rings — concentric rings one of which is added yearly — seen on the 1 For " Key to the More Important Woods of North America, " see Appendix A, page 233. 119 120 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING cross section of a log. By counting these rings the approximate age of a tree may be determined. 6. Spring and summer wood — the inner, softer, lighter-colored part of the annual ring caused by rapid growth called spring wood — the outer, or peripheral, firmer and darker-colored portion of the annual ring, caused by slower growth, called summer wood. 7. Anatomical structure — very porous — little tubes arranged in straight radial rows, resin ducts found in summer wood — cells long with pointed ends — dark lines, called medullary rays, run radially from the center toward the bark — ■ structure simple and regular — growth stops during the winter. B. The dicotyledonous, or deciduous trees (with two seed leaves, broad-leaved trees, such as oak, maple, beech, etc.). 1. Bark, pith, sapwood and heartwood ar- ranged the same as in coniferous trees, having the same function. 2. Color — varies in different trees. 3. Wood — translucent — exposure to air and sunlight changes color — kinds of wood sometimes distinguished by odor, such as cedar, pine, oak, etc. C. The monocotyledonous trees (with one seed leaf, such as palms, yuccas, etc.). 1. Structure — bundles of tissue arise, placed irregularly in the soft tissue or pith, extend from the apex of the leaf to the small ends of the roots — each new leaf has its own bundles of tissue in the stem. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 121 II. Composition of wood. A. Cells of sapwood — composed of cellulose, albuminoids, starchy matter, oils and water holding in solution sugars, gums, and acids. B. Cells of heartwood — walls thick and contain a dense substance called lignin which gives elasticity and hardness to wood. C. Elements found in wood — carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, potassium, iron, phosphorus, calcium, sodium, silicon, and sometimes traces of other elements. III. Decay of trees. A. How detected — top branches refuse to send forth leaves — dead and broken branches — decay of bark. B. Causes — diseases of tree, parasitic insects, fungi, injury, etc. IV. Lumbering. A. Season for cutting trees — late fall and winter, because the growing and conducting cells are less active. B. How cut — with axes and saws — limbs trimmed — trunk of tree cut to desired lengths for logs — logs transported to saw mills and sawed into lumber — lumber piled up to season — lumber transported to dealers or to manufacturers. V. Properties of wood. A. Weight — wood substance about 1.6 times as heavy as water — depends upon the amount of moisture in the wood sub- stance — sapwood heavier than heartwood — the wood of saplings heavier than the wood of old trees — woods vary in weight from 30 to 40 pounds per cubic foot. 122 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING The following table gives the weight of kiln-dried wood of different species: — Weight of Kiln-dried Wood of Different Species Approximate (Water 62 pounds to cu. ft.) Specific Weight Weight of — 1 cubic foot 1000 feet of lumber (a) Very heavy woods : Hickory, oak, persimmon, osage orange, black locust, hackberry, blue beech, best of elm, and ash 0.70-0.80 Pounds 42-48 36-42 30-36 24-30 18-24 Pounds 3,700 (6) Heavy woods : Ash, elm, cherry, birch, maple, beech, walnut, sour gum, coffee tree, honey locust, best of Southern pine, and tamarack .60- .70 3,200 (c) Woods of medium weight : Southern pine, pitch pine, tamarack, Douglas spruce, Western hemlock, sweet gum, soft maple, sycamore, sassafras, mulberry, light grades of birch and cherry .50- .60 2,700 (d) Light woods: Norway and bull pine, red cedar, cy- press, hemlock, the heavier spruce and fir, redwood, basswood, chestnut, butternut, tulip, catalpa, buckeye, heavier grades of poplar .40- .50 2,200 (c) Very light woods: White pine, spruce, fir, white cedar, poplar .30- .40 1,800 B. Seasoning — giving up the moisture that is in the wood. The following table gives the number of pounds of water lost in drying 100 pounds of green wood in the kiln: — ■ FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 123 Pounds of Water lost in Drying 100 Pounds of Green Wood in the Kiln Sapwood or Heartwood outer part or interior (1) Pines, cedars, spruces, and firs . 45-65 16-25 (2) Cypress, extremely variable . . . 50-65 18-60 (3) Poplar, cottonwood, basswood . 60-65 40-60 (4) Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory, chestnut, walnut, and syca- more 40-50 30-40 The lighter kinds have the most water in the sapwood, thus sycamore has more than hickory. C. Shrinkage — the change in size and shape of wood when moisture is given up, causing warping and checking — shrinkage greater in sapwood than in heartwood. The following table gives the approxi- mate shrinkage of a board, or set of boards, 100" wide, drying in the open air: — Approximate Shrinkage of a Board, or Set of Boards, 100" wide, Drying in the Open Air (1) All light conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress) (2) Heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew), honey locust, box elder, wood of old oaks (3) Ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, sycamore, cherry, black locust (4) Basswood, birch, chestnut, horse chestnut, blue beech, young locust (5) Hickory, young oak, especially red oak Shrinkage Inches 3 4 5 6 Up to 10 D. Stiffness or elasticity — the rigidity of a stick of timber which causes it to be bent with difficulty. L24 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING LAWS 1. Deflection varies directly as the cube of the length. '2. Doubling the width doubles the stiffness. :\. Doubling fche thickness increases the stiffness about eightfold. 4. Stiffness varies with (he weight (heavier wood being stiffer than light wood). The modulus (measure) of stiffness or elasticity is determined by the formula — Wl s E (Modulus of elasticity) = __ • 4 I)bv 2 inches .Mid 10 feet tony (1) Live oak, good tamarack, longlcaf , Cuban, and short - leaf* pine, good Douglas spruce, western hemlock, yellow and cherry birch, hard maple, beech, locust , and the best of oak and hickory Pounda 1,680,000 1,100.000 1,100,000 1,100,000 rounds 3,900 3,200 2,500 1 2,500 Pounds 62 (2) Birch, common oak, hick- ory, white and black spruce, loblolly and red pine, cypress, best of ash, elm, and poplar and black walnut (3) Maples, cherry, ash, elm, sycamore, sweetgum, but- ternut, poplar, basswood, white, sugar and bull pine, cedars, scrub pine, hem- lock, and fir (4) Box elder, horse chestnut, a number of western soft pines, inferior grades of hard woods 51 40 40 E. Cross-breaking or bending strength. — LAWS 1. The strength of a timber varies ap- proximately with the squares of the thick- 1 Lroof glue. II' hih \ fish glue, or diamond cement, as it is sometimes called, is made of isinglass dissolved in alcohol. Isin- glass glue is made by soaking isinglass in cold waterj when the isinglass is swelled enough, it is put into spirits of wine and heated in a hot He plunged in .•> bath, with powdered chalk added. Waterproof glue is made by boiling two ounces of isinglass to ••> |>in! of skim milk until the requisite consistency is obtained. Marine glue is made of shellac and caoutchouc, equal parts, dissolved in separate portions of naphtha, and i lien mixed. Marine glue is insoluble in water and is therefore y\^'i\ Largely in shipbuilding. There is also an albumen glue which is made of pari ially decomposed gluten obtained I'roin wheat Hour in (lie manufad ure of starch. Caseine glue is manufactured from curds of milk. It is an excellent glue for manual training work. There is another article of a similar nature on the markel called dextrine glue,' i his is manufactured from potatoes and corn. The uses to which glue is pni are many. Anion*;' some of the more important might be mentioned, in addition to joinery and cabinetmaking, paper making, match making, bookbinding, in making sizing for paper hang- ing, etc. In the manufacture of hats and bonnets it is H)U. iiomi; AND SCHOOL used for stiffening straw, col, ton, etc. 1 1 is I he glue in I he straw that makes one's hat have a sticky feel when wet. (Hue conies fco us in flakes to be prepared lor use, or in liquid form ready lor use. For woodwork it is better to buy the ordinary flakes and prepare them as the glue is needed. There are different grades of glue, but it is well to buy ilic best grade, which costs about twenty cents per pound. A poor quality ol glue is worse than no glue at all. 1 1 is worl hless. ( rluc is prepared in ;i glue heater. Glue Heaters. A glue heater is noil i in^; more than a double boiler consisting of an outer boiler, called a jackei , in which water is boiled, or Ihroii'di which steam passes, and an inner boiler in which ihe glue is prepared. Fig. L45 pio. 140, Glue showsagluepotand jacket which is used , '" 1 : "" 1 j:irl " over a gas burner. En using this one must be very carei ul not to let 1 he water in the outer holler hoi! completely away and cause the glue to be burned. Add water when it is. needed, lor it boils away rapidly! When the glue reaches the right stage to be used, turn the gas under it very low, and, if the jacl e1 i nearly full of water, ii should last nearly all day wii hout I"' ing replenished. Where prac i'i'. in., steam glue beater. ticable a steam glue heater, /*^» ,. ' •— ; ;.-i-~-. 144 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fig. 147. — Contact glue heater. Fig. 146, or a contact glue heater, where the jacket comes in contact with a steam heater ring, Fig. 147, should be used for the sake of con- venience and economy. The steam can be taken from the heating plant, which would be a saving of gas. With steam there is no danger of burning i^ the glue. For our use a gluepot should have capacity for about two quarts of glue. If a steam heater is used, it should have . two half gal- lon pots so that one pot can be kept hot while the other one is in use. Often this is a saving of much time to be able to exchange a cold pot of glue for hot glue. In preparing glue the flakes are put in the gluepot and covered over with cold water and allowed to stand several hours so it will absorb a quantity of water, thus rendering it like jelly. Then it is heated until it becomes hot and thin enough to drip from the brush in a thread or stream. Care must be taken that it is not too thick nor too thin, and it must be applied hot. The gluepot must be kept clean. Care must be taken not to let the glue burn, for it burns easily if water is not kept in the outer vessel. Burning glue is very offensive and it can- not be used after it has been scorched, as its virtue is destroyed. It is not well to heat glue over and over again. After it has been heated two or three times it is well to clean the pot and make a fresh quantity, for repeated heatings tend to destroy the holding properties of the glue. FOR HOME ANL SCHOOL 145 Parallel layers of wood may be glued together, but glue will not hold end woods. The surfaces which are to be fastened together must be planed true so that they fit perfectly. Glue is applied hot and quickly to each sur- face with a brush and then tht surfaces are clamped securely together. After about twenty-four hours the clamps may be taken off. The glue being hot and thin enters the pores of the wood, getting a foothold, and when it hardens forms a joint that is stronger than the wood itself. When the gluing is well done, the wood will break in other places before it will break at the glue joint. It is well to warm the wood before the glue is applied so that the glue is not chilled before the clamps are set. This, however, is not necessary if one works fast enough and in a warm room. Of course the sur- faces which are fastened together must be clean, i.e. free from dust, varnish, or anything that will not allow the glue to enter the pores of the wood. It is a good plan to clamp the pieces together to see that they fit and that the clamps work properly before the glue is applied. See that everything is ready, then apply the glue quickly and clamp before it "sets" on you. The clamps which are used for ordinary gluing are the bar clamps, hand screws, and the iron clamps. The price of these clamps depends upon the size and kind. When two edges are to be glued together, the faces should be planed after the gluing rather than before, for then the glue which is squeezed out by the pressure of the clamps can be removed and a perfect surface obtained. Care must be taken, however, that the grain of the wood in each piece runs in the same direction. 146 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING There are many gluing exercises which can be intro- duced in woodwork, all of which tend to give a broader experience. Among some of these we might mention the bread board (used in cutting bread), which is made by gluing three (§" x 1.J" X 12") cherry strips with two (f" x 1J" x 12") pine strips so that the strips are arranged alternately. After gluing, the board is dressed and then cut out in the form of an ellipse. There is something very fascinating about uniting woods of different color into one piece so that the glue which holds the wood cannot be seen. Boys are delighted when they can do this work. Another piece of work in gluing which is important is the chessboard. This is important because it teaches certain principles about building up a series of glue joints, how to prevent warping, and how to make a glue joint hold when it is necessary to glue end wood together. All of these are valuable problems to be worked out in wood construction. Wood Fastenings (dowels, pins, cleats, keys, and ivedges) Dowels are important fastening devices. They are turned wooden pins varying in diameter from y 3 g" to 1". They are made from different wood, white birch being the kind of wood that is used most. In cabinetwork the Y dowel pin is used most. They can be bought in bundles (500 in a bundle) and in 36" lengths. Dowel pins may be made by driving a small piece of wood through a hole in a "dowel plate." A dowel plate may be made by drilling holes, say J", f ", and J" in FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 147 11.H»lf Blind or Common Mortiw aniT«non « u Blind orCloiedflortise^Tenon (*, Tenon) 15. Blind Housed S.KeyedTeno -|"y n -*=^ J "■■ ... -tf I icfr * I ^.Groove and Tongue 1 1 1 1 I 1*1 r i i i i 3. Cleat* A Plain Dovetail 6. Half. Blind Dovetail 9YYedged TQnon 1 ° : J— u JWedqe Q ^!' copper, cobalt green, green lake, etc. j the bvowns are umber, hole, sepia, otc , the blacks are lampblack, bone black, graphite, etc. The charactor of the paint is determined by the vehicle used. II oil is used as a vehicle, the paints are oil paints, M water is used , I hoy are called wa1 er colors. When the colors are soluble, the preparation is more properly a stain, or dyo. Paints ave insoluble in the vehicle and ate opague, Stains and
  • i 1 1' up in tin cans or other vessels for commercial purposes. The painter mixes these for use with either raw or boiled linseed oil. To these a thinner, such as turpentine, is used to give the required consistency. Sometimes driers are added to cause the paint to harden more rapidly. Mixing paints is an arl which should not be attempted in elementary manual training work. To meet this difficulty in elementary work prepared paints should be used. But the methods employed in mixing stains are not so difficult and should be taught in elementary work. HOW to pre pare Klaius 1 Mhown Burnt umber, 2 turpentine. Red Burnt Sienna, 8 I urpenl ine. Green Sylvan green, turpentine. Black Drop black, turpentine. Varnishes. Varnishes are made from some hard gum, such as copal, rosin, etc., cut with turpentine, 1 The colors used in preparing thei e tains can be boughl ground in oil and put up in pound cans. Use enough color to give the d< ired i hade By combining colors different colors and shades may be obtained. 2 Uniber is ;i mineral pigmenl formerly obtained from CJmbria in Italy, from which its name is derived. The commercial supply now comes largely from the island of Cyprus. Small quantities are also found in Pennsylvania. When raw umber is highly heated, it gives ;i richer and deeper brown known ai burnl umb< i :i Sienna is :ui ocherous earth which comes from the province of Sienna in ftaly, from which its name is derived. In its natural state it, is known as raw Sienna. When highly heated a richer red is obtained, known as Inirnt Sienna 154 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING alcohol, or other suitable solvent. Varnishes are pre- pared for commercial purposes and are put up in con- venient forms ranging all the way from one dollar to ten dollars per gallon. Shellacs. — Shellac is used extensively in manual training work. It is made from lac, or gum-lac, a resinous substance which comes from the branches of several trees, the most common of which are the Ficus religiosa (the religious tree of the Hindus), the Rhamnus jujuba, and the Croton lacciferum (behar-tree) . These trees grow in Siam, Assam, Pegu, Bengal, and Malabar. An insect (the female insect of Coccus lacca) punctures the bark of these trees for the purpose of depositing her eggs; the resinous substance oozes from the tree and hardens on the twigs. These twigs are broken off by the natives and dried in the sun. The dried twigs are called stick-lac. After the twigs have become thoroughly dry they are pounded to break the resinous substance from the twigs. The resinous substance after the twigs are removed is known as seed-lac. When seed-lac is melted, collected, and cooled, it is called lump-lac. Seed-lac is put into bags made of cotton and hung over a slow fire. When the resinous substance melts, the bag is twisted and the clean substance is allowed to flow over planks made of fig wood which are hard and smooth. The resinous substance cools on these planks, forming thin layers or scales known as shell-lac, or shellac. By passing chlorine, one of the most powerful of bleaching agents, through shellac the coloring matter is taken out, giving a substance known as bleached shellac, or white shellac. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 155 How to Prepare Shellacs Orange shellac . . . orange shellac, alcohol (wood or grain). Black shellac . . . orange shellac, lampblack, alcohol. White shellac . . . bleached shellac, alcohol. Bleached shellac should be put in alcohol as soon as possible after it is prepared. When exposed to air for a few days, it oxidizes and becomes insoluble. Fillers. — Many woods which have an open grain, such as oak, ash, etc., require a filler. A filler, as its name suggests, is a substance which is used in filling the pores of wood. They are made from such material as whiting, plaster of Paris, starch, etc., which are mixed with oil or turpentine. The filler is applied to the wood and when dry is rubbed down with fine sandpaper. This gives a smooth surface for the paints and varnishes. Specifications for Finishes Soft woods (pine, basswood, etc.) in natural color: — 1. Wood perfectly clean and smooth. 2. Apply with a soft brush one coat of hard oil, varnish, or shellac, and put aside to dry. 3. Sand very lightly with No. 00 sandpaper. 4. Apply another coat of hard oil, varnish, or shellac, and put aside to dry. If necessary, apply a third coat. Soft woods in color: — 1. Wood perfectly clean and smooth. 2. Apply one coat of stain (burnt umber, burnt 156 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Sienna, drop black, etc.) with a brush and put aside to dry for about twenty minutes. One coat of stain should be sufficient. 3. With cotton waste or a soft cloth rub the stained surface until an even shade is produced, also see that the rubbing brings out the grain of the wood sufficiently. 4. Apply a coat of hard oil, varnish, or shellac, and put aside to dry. When this is dry, apply a second and a third coat if necessary. Weathered oak : — 1. The wood should be perfectly clean and smooth. Some stains will raise the grain of oak. This difficulty can be overcome by moistening the surface of the wood with a damp cloth. This will raise a fine thread-like grain which can be removed by sanding lightly with No. 00 sandpaper. 2. Apply one coat of some good prepared weathered oak stain of suitable shade. There are any number of good prepared stains on the market at the present time. These prepared stains contain a filler which settles to the bottom of the can. The stain should be stirred before using until the filler dissolves. After applying the stain let it stand until dry. Some of these stains will dry in fifteen minutes, others should stand overnight to dry, or even longer. 3. When dry, rub with waste or a soft cloth until the desired shade is produced. See that the grain is brought out properly. 4. Using a soft cloth, rub with Johnson's prepared wax, or some good wax, until the desired finish is produced. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 157 Light oak : (a) Dull Finish : — 1. See that the wood is perfectly clean and smooth. 2. Apply one coat of light oak stain. When dry, sand lightly with No. 00 sandpaper. If necessary, apply another thin coat of stain. 3. Apply a thin coat of shellac, either orange or white, and when dry, sand lightly with No. 00 sandpaper. 4. Apply a coat of prepared filler colored to match the stain. Let dry and apply a coat of shellac. 5. When dry sand again and apply another coat of thin shellac. If necessary, sand again and apply another coat of shellac, or some good hard oil or varnish. 6. Rub the last coat with pulverized pumice stone mixed with raw linseed oil to a thin paste. In rubbing use hair cloth, or a soft cotton cloth. (b) Polished Finish : — 1. Repeat 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 2. Apply another coat of shellac, hard oil, or varnish, and when dry rub with pulverized rotten stone and water. 3. Use a shellac pad. A shellac pad is made by wrapping a soft cloth around a small wad of waste. Pour a little shellac on the waste before drawing the cloth around it. In the process of rubbing the shellac should ooze through the cloth slowly. Sprinkle a little pulverized pumice stone over the surface to be rubbed. Dip the pad occasionally in boiled linseed oil. Care should be exercised not to use too much shellac. After a few trials excellent results will be obtained, giving a highly polished surface. Practically the same process is followed in finishing other hard woods. 158 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Polishing in the lathe : — 1. See that the wood is perfectly clean and smooth. 2. Apply boiled linseed oil with a soft cloth. Wood in motion. 3. Use the shellac pad as described above until the desired polish is secured. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 159 Fig. 148 a. — Wood-turning exercises. Fig. 148 b. — Knife work and joinery. 160 M Fig. 148 c. —Joinery. 161 Fig. 148 d. — Wood-turning exercises. Fig. 148 e. — Cabinet-making exercises. 162 PART VI Exercises A. Knife Work for Schools without Shops Tools. — Considerable work can be done in elementary woodwork in the regular schoolroom by using a whittling tray and the tools which accompany it, as shown in Fig. 149. The tray is designed for use on the desk top Fig. 149. — Whittling tray and tools. and is so constructed that it will not slip or mar the desk when in use. The tools which accompany the tray are the No. 7 sloycl knife, compasses, 2 triangles, rule, T-square, and try-square. A few small hammers should be in the equipment. Measuring and Lining (Optional) Stock: 1 ( T y r x 2" x 6") bass wood. The stock, or material, needed by each pupil is ex- 163 164 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING pressed as above, -f/ is the thickness and should be stated first, 2" is the width, and 6" is the length. The figure 1 at the beginning indicates the number of blocks needed for each pupil. Basswood is the kind of wood to be used for this exercise. 1 Top View 1 i — '-r A — > 1 " ■1 < — (Si _ ±- Bottom View /A u ^^ Fig. 150. — Measuring and lining. Place the tray on the desk, as shown in Fig. 149, and put the tools in the trough of the tray to make room on the working bed. Work the exercise as follows: — 1. Place the T 3 g" x 2" x 6" block on the working bed 1 If thin wood cannot be obtained from local dealers, it can be obtained in the form of "basswood tablets" from Milton Bradley- Company, Springfield, Mass., A. H. Pomeroy, Hartford, Conn., and others. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 165 of the tray with the long way parallel to the long way of the tray. 2. With the rule and pencil lay off points 1" apart, beginning at one end of the block. Now go back and divide each inch into halves, then divide each half into quarters. (How many quarters in V ? In 6" ? etc., etc.) 3. With try-square and pencil draw lines through these points across the face of the block. Get good lines, lines that are clean-cut and accurate. 4. Repeat 2 and 3, drawing the lines the long way of the block. The face of the block is divided into \ ff - squares. 5. In a similar way draw horizontal and vertical lines on the other side of the block. Draw the lines J" apart, forming \" squares. 6. Draw the diagonals of all of the squares on this side of the block. The value of the above exercise is in learning to measure accurately and to draw lines that shall have definite meaning. Learn to use the tools correctly and with ease and rapidity. In everything that you do strive to master the best technique. Keep the block that you have used in this exercise for future use. Match Strike (Fig. 151) Stock: 1 ( T V'x5f x6") basswood. Supplies : No. 1 sandpaper, stain, glue. In the making of the match strike proceed as follows : 1. Draw center line on the block of wood parallel with the length. 166 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fig. 151. — Match strike. 2. Measure from the center line to get the width (2 J" each side of the center line) and draw lines parallel to the center line, as CH and AF. 3. From points B and C as centers, with a 2 \" radius, FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 167 draw arcs which intersect above at D. From, point D as a center draw the arc CB. In a similar way draw arc AB. 4. From point Fas a center with a radius of 5" draw arc HG. From point H as a center, and with the same radius, draw arc FG. From the same centers, with a radius of 4f ", draw arcs JK and IK which mark the curved boundaries of the sandpaper. Draw a straight line from / to J. You are now ready to do the cutting. 5. Cutting ^ (first method). The cut- ting is done with a sloyd knife as shown in Fig. 152. Cut in the direction of 1, Fig. 152, then in the direction of 2, finishing the cuts towards 12. Cut in the direction of 6, 5, 4, and 3. Be very careful not to split the block of wood. Get good square edges, edges that are clean-cut. 6. Cutting (second method). Follow the outline of the match strike very carefully with the point of the knife blade, making a perpendicular cut in the wood (7, Fig. 152). Repeat the cut, cutting deeper into the wood. Then make a diagonal cut, 8, and lift out the Fig. 152. — Cutting with knife. 58 1 101 'CATION A I, WOODWORKING shavings. Now make another perpendicular cut, 9, and then a diagonal cut, 10, lifting out t lu v shavings. Make anol her perpendicular cut, 1 1 , separating the waste lumber from the finished work. 7. After all the cutting is done sand the edges and sur- faces a little, if it is necessary, with No. 00 sandpaper. Divide a sheet of sandpaper into lour equal parts. Fold one of these pieces around a block, known as a sand block, so thai the rough surface of the sandpaper is without. The sand block should be about ;" x ,r x 1". Sand back and forth parallel with the grain of (he wood. Be very careful not to round the corners and edges. Sand- paper should never be used in doing work that can be done with a cutting tool. 8. Stain the block with burnt umber stain, covering all except the part which is to be covered with sand- paper. Apply the stain evenly with a brush. Let stand for fifteen minutes to dry. Hub with waste or a. soil cloth. This will bring out the grain of the wood and will help to give a smooth surface. Apply a thin coal of hard oil evenly with a brush. Let stand over night to dry, then apply a second coat if necessary to give a good finish. 0. Bore hole used in hanging the match strike to the wall. In doing this be very careful not to split the block. 10. Cut out a piece of No. 1 sandpaper to the desired shape, apply a thin coat of glue to the back o\' the sand- paper, and glue in place, (lamp between blocks over- night until glue hardens. Remove the clamps, ami the match st tike is completed. KOIt HOME AND SCHOOL 109 Fig. L53. Maicb strike. Another design for a match strike is shown in Fig. L53. This is made similar to the one shown above. The teacher and pupils together may work out differerrl designs. Wherever possible, it is advisable to encour- age work in original designing. 170 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Match Box (Fij;. 154) Slock : sec Fig, IT) I. Supplies: No. I sandpaper, burnt umber stain, hard oil, glue, Y 20 steel wire brads (J* length, 20 size of wire). In making the match box proceed as follows: — I hreet ions for Hack : — 1. Draw center line parallel with the long way oi' the block. 2. From (lie center line lay o\\ points on either side near (he lop and bottom. Draw Straight linos through the two points on either side oi the center line, forming the side lines o( (he hack. 3. With compasses sel al \" radius draw around the right and left corners o( the top. 1. Willi sloyd knife cut to linos, as shown in Fig. L52, ami sand. Bore a \" hole which is used in hanging the match box to the wall. Bore through the wood until (In 1 point o\ the hit pricks through the wood, then ( urn Ihe block and bore through to meet (la 1 cut already made. Ge1 a dean-cut hole without tearing the wood. Directions for Sides: — 5, bay oil the lines for the sides as shown in Fig, L54, 6, Cut to these linos and sand. Directions for Fronl and Bottom o{ Box:- 7, bay off lines which will give the correct measure- ments for the front and bottom, as shown in Fig. lob S. (\it to these lines and sand. KOlt IIOMK AND SCHOOL 171 Match Box •A i*,4 .J. CI 3. ±i ISandp^per oo Kio. 154. — Match box. Directions for putting Paris together: — 9. The back is nailed to the sides and bottom, the ends to the bottom, and the front to the ends and top. Use \" 20 steel wire brads. Willi compasses set at j" 172 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING step off points along the edges where the brads are to be driven. Do not drive the brads too near the corners, for the wood will split. Nail the parts together. In doing this do not mar the wood with the hammer. Drive the heads of the brads flush with the surface of the wood, then, with a fine nail set, set the heads of the brads just a little below the surface of the wood. Directions for Finishing: — 10. Stain with burnt umber stain, use hard oil, and glue sandpaper in place. Whisk Broom Holder (Fig. 155) Stock: See Fig. 155. Supplies: J" 20 steel wire brads, No. 00 sandpaper, burnt Sienna stain, hard oil, varnish, or shellac. In the construction of the whisk broom holder proceed as follows : — Directions for Back : — 1. Lay off center line parallel with the length of the back. From center line lay off the other necessary con- struction lines as shown in the drawing. 2. With sloyd knife cut to these lines. Directions for Front and Sides : — 3. In a similar way lay off and cut out the front. 4. Cut the sides to the desired length and angle, as shown in the drawing. Directions for putting Parts together : — 5. The back and front are nailed to the sides with ¥ 20 steel wire brads. The brads are to be driven three FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 173 quarters of an inch apart and the heads are to be set a little below the surface of the wood. \-o -0 1 - - Fig. 155. — Whisk broom holder. Finishing : — 6. After sanding the whisk broom holder it is to be stained with burnt Sienna stain, and then given one or two coats of hard oil as required. Give much attention to good finishing. A model that has been well made may often be spoiled by poor finishing. 17 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING />'. Bench Work The foregoing exeroises may l>< v taken up In schools with shops ii* they have not been made by pupils. There is .M certain value in I hem whioh should not be overlooked. They require little material and are therefore economical, Shelf (Fig, 156) stock: 2 (|*x y«- ■ 24"), 2 (J* x 6*x6"), basswood, Supplies: No. I sandpaper, 1" L6 steel wire brads, r/r x^ * tar I 24 \ 1 - ■■ ' i i .• t>. u V* V/ CO I LTV-1 j * 6d M Fig 106, Shelf, lu the construction of the shelf proceed as follows: — 1 . With plane reduce the stock to the desired measure- ments, as shown iii Fig, L56. 2, Lay oil lines for curves as shown in drawing, ,">. With bracket saw or scroll saw, saw to these lines. ll'OH IK 'Ml. \NI> HCUOOli 17/5 I if ourvos arc ragged, use wood rasp, then sand I > ; 1 1 > « - 1 Keep llic odgOS . < 1 1 1 : 1 1 < * . I >o QOt roilinl llir corners in sanding. 5 Willi compasses sot al two Inches stop off points whore the nails are <<> l><' driven Sec that the nails not come too noar the ends <»i ( 1 1< * wood, causing it i<» splh c» N.-iil iIk' parts together*, The back is ini nailed to the brackets, Nun Uk> i<>|> i,, m.-m l«-< I i<> 1 1 ■<■ back and Ih aokots, 7. s<-t Hie heads <>i Mm- nails little bolow \\\<- surface <>l I lie wooi I s. Stain and use hard 1 »il , as In the previous oxorcisosi Conl IIjmijm'i ( l'ij». 1 ;,7) Stock : 1 ( I" :;" id") bassw I or pine. Su|>| ilies 1 .ini Ipapei , screw hi >i >'■• (hh fi If * r t •'<'■ CO i I - 1 - W * $i A :t i-Q .1, l'"i<; |fl1 I Mil I1.11. ■•< 1 170 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING In making the coat hanger proceed as follows: — 1. Lay off the work according to the drawing. 2. With bracket saw or spokeshave cut to these lines. 3. With spokeshave round the top corners. 4. Clean with sandpaper. 5. Apply one or two coats of hard oil, varnish, or shellac. Kront Side Elevation V Plated tin braces Fig. ins.- Combination coat ;iud trousers hanger. Combination Coat and Trousers Hanger (Fig. 158) Stock: 1 (£" x 4i" x 17£") maple, 2 (J" x 4|" x 15") maple. Supplies: sandpaper, No. 12 plated wire, tin for braces, brass nails to fasten braces, screw hook. In making the combination coat and pants hanger^ proceed as in last exercise, with the addition of the wire FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 177 and tin work. One of the flaps is movable upon a wire hinge (see back elevation) and the other is stationary, being held in place by wire braces (see front elevation). The ends of the flaps are beveled so that when the pants are placed between them the braces (see front and bottom elevations) slide over the ends and press them closely together. Bread-cutting Board (Fig. 159) Stock: 3 (J" x iy x 14") cherry, 2 (J" x \\" x 14") bass wood. Supplies: sandpaper, glue. Fig. 159. —Bread-cutting board (cherry and basswood). In making the bread-cutting board, proceed as follows: 1. Use three cherry strips and two basswood strips, as indicated in the drawing. 2. Plane the edges of each strip a very little and fit together for gluing. 178 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 3. Determine the direction of the grain of each piece on the face and make arrow indicating the direction of the grain. 4. Arrange the pieces as they are to be glued together, so that the grain of the pieces runs in the same direction, and number these pieces 1, 2, etc. 5. Glue pieces together. Scrape off surplus glue before it hardens. 6. Allow pieces to remain in the clamps overnight while the glue hardens. 7. Remove the clamps and dress the top and bottom surfaces to the desired thickness. 8. Lay off ellipse by the trammel method as shown on page 290. 9. Tilt the scroll saw table to the desired angle and saw out the ellipse form. 10. Smooth the edges with wood rasp and sandpaper. 11. Bore the nail hole near the top so that the bread- cutting board can be hung up, when not in use. 12. Use no finish of any kind on this project. Why? Toothbrush Holder and Shelf (Fig. 160) Stock : 1 (f x 7J" x 14"), 1 (f x 3f x 14"), 2 (f" X 2!" x 7"), 1 (f" x If" x 9f"), basswood. Supplies : sandpaper, 1" 16 steel wire brads. In making the toothbrush holder and shelf, proceed as follows : — 1. Dress the stock to the desired measurements. 2. Lay off the different parts according to the drawing. 3. Cut curves with bracket saw or scroll saw. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 179 4. In cutting the pockets for the brushes (see Section AB) bore a \" hole at the back to form the semicircle, then cut to the sides of this hole with back saw. Fig. 160. — Tooth- brush rack and shelf. -C £* -21- t4 &\ ^_i____VU 5. In fastening parts together, nail the brackets to the toothbrush holder. Nail the back to the brackets and to the holder. Nail the top to the brackets and to the back. 6. Set the heads of the nails a little below the surface of the wood, using a nail set. 7. Clean with sandpaper and finish as desired (see page 155). Towel Rollers (Figs. 161 and 162) Directions Stock : 2 (J" x 1}", x 26"), long pieces for back; 1 (f" x 3f" x 12"), cross pieces for back; 1 (J" x 2f" x 12"), Brackets; 1 (J" x If" x 19"), Roller. White Pine. 180 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fig. 161. — Towel roller. 1. Get out the stock with cross-cut and rip saw. 2. Plane the face and edge of each of the long pieces (a) square with each other, and reduce to dimensions, using the jack plane. 3. Reduce cross pieces (b) and brackets (c) to dimen- sions in the same way. 4. Square up the ends of cross pieces (b) to dimension, using back saw. 5. Smooth the ends with the block plane. 6. Lay out the ends of the long pieces (a) with the dividers. 7. Lay out the joints on the long pieces (a) and cross pieces (6) with try-square, knife, and gauge; and remove the stock with back saw and chisel. 8. Saw off the ends of long pieces (a) with back saw and form same with chisel and file. 9. Smooth plane the front and back sides, and screw together. 10. Lay out the position of the grooves and brackets and carve the grooves with the gouge. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 181 11. Lay out the brackets with try-square and divid- ers and get same out on scroll saw, smooth with chisel and form with knife. 12. Bore holes with auger bit and make groove for roller with back saw and chisel. 13. Screw brackets in place. 14. Reduce roller (d) to 1|" square as in (2). I [ CO 18| -25P #■ /*\ o yJ "> IK 4- Q _ CO I L _) Fig. 162. — Towel roller. 15. Square up the ends of roller to dimension, using back saw. 16. Draw the diagonals on each end and from the centers thus obtained describe with the dividers 1J" circles within the squares. 17. Plane off the corners with the hack plane, making the piece octagonal. Plane off the corners again, making it sixteen-sided. 18. Finish to a cylinder with the smoothing plane. 19. Smooth with file and sand paper. 20. Bore holes with auger bit and glue in dowels. 21. Fix in screw eyes- 182 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Exercises Cross-cut and rip sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, sawing with back saw, planing with block plane, perpendicular chiseling, oblique chiseling, filing, smooth planing, perpendicular gouging, oblique gouging, scroll sawing, modeling with knife, boring with brace and auger bit, chamfer planing, modeling with smoothing plane, gluing, putting in screws, using gimlet bit and countersink, putting in screw eyes. Fig. 163. — Book rack. Book Rack (Figs. 163 and 164) Directions Stock: f" oak. 1. Get out the several parts with cross-cut and rip saw, the two ends in one piece. 2. Reduce each piece to dimensions, using the jaqk plane. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 183 3. Measure the length of the end pieces and square up to dimensions, using the back saw. 4. Smooth the ends with the block plane. 5. Lay out the position of the grooves with rule, try- square, knife, bevel, and gauge. 6. Cut out the grooves with back saw and chisel. Fig. 164. — Book rack. (Pupils are to make original designs for back and sides.) 7. Square up the ends of the shelf to dimensions with back saw and block plane. 8. Fit the shelf into the grooves with back saw and chisel. 9. Make the grooving for the back with the plow or rabbet plane. 10. Square up the back to dimensions and fit in posi- tion with block plane. 11. Design the ends and back and shape with scroll saw, spokeshave, knife, and file. 184 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 12. Smooth all pieces with sandpaper and glue to- gether. 13. Make miter joints on the top corners with miter box and tack in position. Exercises Cross-cut and rip sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, back sawing, block planing, perpen- dicular chiseling, rabbet planing, scroll sawing, smoothing with spokeshave, concave filing, smoothing with sand- paper, gluing, and sawing in miter-box. J 8 2 | rat ^<_L i L -4. Fig. 165. — Whisk broom holder. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 185 Fig. 166. —Blotter pad. 180 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING " - " ■ ■ i ■ ■' ' 1 ^o^ Fig. 167. — Decorations for top of blotter. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 187 Fig. 168. — Key rack. (Use six %" screw hooks on which to hang keys.) INS EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 1 \ - m 3 1 — 4 " t 3 *i_,„ t J. 1 ' p- 2* 1 6J4 ' J i 1 • I » -i ^2 10 i 64 i • i / IV i ■ j *C5K» c o ->k. .7" Fig. 109. — Picture frame. Fig. 170.— Counting board. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 189 f**T" ?Z m \ ugpsir^^P^m ^U-^U ' -^ ,>*U , -*-ji L =j Fig. 171. — Book rack. ^=-=^~-^ 14- *-=-— ^ Tin WW 1 1_ Si*- i Fig. 172. — Dovetail box. / — \ my '°>K S3 i—i \& ^j $& m EgZ E2 Ee EE= COCO' E^ ~^Tf XS " no- i >+£ 8 I 190 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING ft: •dt=m iE MH •41? 4 TMF l > v — w*— * in*~7 — t — i p — ? s-^7 MS » : l rTir 7 -i-.-r J i-«n i ■ : fc— H-« bg! ; -ii'-i. — L «_,_, -_;iu.J Fig. 173. — Tabourets. Fig. 174. — Camp stool. (The seat is to be made of leather, carpet, or canvas.) FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 191 Fig. 175. —Towel rack. (Pupils should design outlines of back and brackets.) I Vlfik T 1 V 8. ft£ Fig. 176. — Inkstand. 192 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fig. 177. — Tabouret. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 193 ►f+— If— #i Fig. 178. — Plant marker and bed marker. Fig. 179. — Sleeve board. 194 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 20' Fig. 180. — Towel roller. Fig. 181. — Corner shelf. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 195 Fig. 182. — Knife box. H i. — &t- CO / r* W7 f CO J- /:fi. jl < »l)\\ < >kkin<; f « ■ ii CO ,1 1 CO 1 3 CO ■] I II II 4 * 40 CD CM Pio, ist'-. i>iiicii plate caok, i it: :\ CD I ( J - CD R i ' ^V to Pia 187. Mantelshelf. FOK IIOMK AND SUlOOl, L99 »\* ^ 18 H 12 t ——12" -i Fia. ihk. Footstool Km;. I.H'.i. I'\il.lin- HcrnoriH. A*' o CD 200 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 11*11 'V CM 131 Fig. 190. — Chessboard. n ill iii II 111 mi... i ?44J6. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 201 202 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 42" *pr "irilN /WiYWYSYV 13 36 Fig. 192. — Bookcase. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 203 M o •- M o o pq 2 204 KIH CATIONAL WOODWORKING FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 205 x 1 X'. 1 ! o 73 1— t ^ a o 8 pq •„9 $* 206 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fig. 196. — Jardiniere stand. 1*— lf^-H| Fig. 197. —Floor broom holder. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 207 Fig. 198. — Picture frames. 208 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING l*-4"-J Fig. 199. — Plate rack. K-3*-*- 16" 22' ■*-3M "I r 4- ■ST 1 ' 1 1 .1 1 <* o. 1 •J • T Vn|m Fig. 207. — Through mortise-and-tenon joint. PART VII Wood Turning The process of shaping wood by means of a machine called a lathe, Fig. 208, is called wood turning. The f Ceiling Line Fig. 208. — Wood-turning lathe (giving the name of each part). block of wood to be shaped by the process of wood turn- ing is put between two centers, called the spur or live center and the cup or dead center. The spur is set in motion and this in turn gives the block of wood a motion of revolution on the dead center. A turning tool resting 215 21() EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING on the tee rest and hold by the workman cuts away the waste wood, giving the required shape to the block of wood. Wood to be turned may also be fastened in the lathe by the screw face plate, the dog face plate, and the bell chuck, depending of course upon the kind of work to be done. In turning a small rosette or other similar work the screw face plate is used, while the dog face plate is used for the same kind of work only when larger blocks are to be used. The grain of the wood when a face 4 plate is used is at right angles to the line of center. In turn- ing an overhanging piece of wood which is parallel with the line of center, such as in turning a napl\in ring, the bell chuck is used. The lathe is an ancient machine, being invented, it is claimed, by Diodorus Siculus, the grandson of Daxlalus. Pliny, however, ascribes it to Theodor of Samos (740 b.c). Phidias and Pericles were experienced in its use. The lathe is also mentioned in the Bible as being used by the ancient Hebrews. The lathe has been adapted to many forms of work, and has passed through many stages in order to reach its present efficiency. Fig. 208 is a drawing of a wood-turning lathe, showing the countershaft attached to the ceiling. The drawing also gives the name of each part. The student during his course should learn the names of all of the parts and should be able to apply these names intelligently. Directions to Students for Lathe Work 1. Learn all of the adjustments of your lathe and the use of each tool as soon as possible. Learn the name of FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 217 each tool and the name of each part of the lathe as soon as possible, and learn to use those names intelligently. 2. There is danger in operating running machinery. Be careful. Be thoughtful. Keep your sleeves away from the live center. In using sandpaper, put the right hand over the block. This will bring the left hand away from the live center. 3. Keep your tools sharp. Learn from your instructor how to grind your tools on the grindstone and how to whet them on the oilstone and slip. In sharpening a tool always preserve the correct shape of the tool. 4. Keep your lathe oiled. Do not use too much oil. Just a few drops on the bearings before beginning each exercise is quite enough. 5. At the close of each exercise take your work out of the lathe, even though it is unfinished, dust off your tools and put them away in their proper places, then dust off your lathe very carefully. Exercise No. 1 Stock : 1 (2" x 2" x 9") whitewood or pine. Directions : — 1. Lay out your tools. 2. Oil your lathe. 3. Center the block of wood to be turned. If the block is approximately true, draw the diagonals on the square ends. This will locate the center on each end. 4. Adjust the tail stock to accommodate the length of the wood and clamp it in place. Drive one end of the block into the spurs of the live center, using a mallet. 218 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fit the other end to the cup center and tighten, then loosen until the block turns easily in the lathe. ,£N Fig. 209. — Turning exercises. — No. 1 and No. 2. 5. Adjust the tee rest. This should be as close as possible to the work, and for nearly all of the exercises the top should be nearly on a level with the centers. As a rule the tee rest should be a little higher when using the skew chisel than when using a gouge or parting tool. 6. Start the lathe by means of the shifting lever and rough down the block. This is done by means of the gouge, as shown in Fig. 210 (the cutting point being at A, when the gouge is moving in the direction of the arrow). Cut the block down to nearly If", getting a uniform diameter. 7. The finishing cuts are made with the skew chisel Fig. 210. — Showing the position of gouge in roughing down the work. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 219 held as shown in Fig. 211. Cut the block down until a perfectly cylindrical block If" in diameter is produced. Measure with calipers. 8. With rule and pencil lay off 7", leav- ing about 1" waste at each end of the block. 9. With parting tool cut to these lines so that when you get through the block is exactly 7" long. Cut nearly to the center of the block. 10. Stop the lathe, remove the block, and with back saw saw off waste ends. Fig. 211. — Showing the position of chisel in making a finishing cut. , —if—* 00! « — 1 r — > e— 2- r * 1 1 .< 1 1 1 1" 1 1 J »"■'""■""" ( 1 1 7 1 1 *-!- s / . : & t 7" 5 8 ' *i* I l-l, 1 r * H y X Fig. 212. — Turning exercises. — No. 3 and No. 4. Exercise No. 2 Stock : 1 (2" x 2" x 9") white wood or pine. Directions : — Proceed as in Exercise No. 1 until the block is roughed 220 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING down to the approximate size, then finish with the skew chisel. Cut the ends down first, moving back towards the middle of the block at each stroke. Finish by cut- ting from the middle towards the ends. Learn to work rapidly at the lathe, yet work very carefully and accu- rately. Become efficient as soon as possible. Exercise No. 8 Stock : 1 (2" x 2" x 9") whitewood or pine. Directions : — Proceed as in Exercise No. 1 until the block is reduced to If" in diameter. Beginning near the middle of the Fig. 213. — Showing position of chisel in finishing a shoulder, also cuts made with parting tool. block, lay off the 2" length. With parting tool cut down to the required depth on the outside edge of these lines, so that exactly 2" remains between these cuts. With gouge and then with skew chisel remove the waste wood out to the ends to If" diameter. In a similar way cut down the 1J" lengths at the ends to \" in diameter. Use no sandpaper in these practice exercises. The end wood of the shoulders is finished with the skew chisel held as shown in Fig. 213. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 221 Exercise No. 4 Stock : 1 (2" x 2" x 9") white wood or pine. Work this exercise according to your experiences already gained. Exercise No. 5 Stock : 1 (2" x 2" x 9") whitewood or pine. In working this exercise, turn the block down to the required diameter. With dividers set accu- rately, lay off the required lines. In cutting the con- cave curves, hold the gouge as shown in Fig. 214. In making the straight cuts at an angle of 45 degrees, hold the skew chisel as shown in Fig. 215. Fig. 214. — Showing the position of gouges in cutting concave curves. Fig. 215. — Showing the position of chisel in cutting at an angle. 222 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING IVt N_lAi IA1 VI ^m^ \.v, L'lj l'I'j . a_j l a • u_ a".' ihfJ ^> r-N 1 Fig. 210. — Turning exercises. — No. 5 and No. 0. 10S; o /^ r^ o o /^ /^ ^_> M M k> ^ w W ■9F- V_/ /TS /""N ^ (IT \y\ Fig. 217. — Turning exercises. — No. 7 and No. 8. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 223 Fig. 218. — Turning exercises. — No. 9, No. 10, and No. 11. 224 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fig. 219. — Turning exercises. — No. 12 and No. 13. "HF*f*— zf^±f$^+-i+P H^ Fig. 220. —Turning exercises. —No. 14 and No. 15. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 225 irrrrTT r moi Hn J«j5i rt^ fJS{^ H- — ^ 2" < * ?i ' Fig. 227. — Turning exercise. — No. 23. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 229 1 ft r s ( ) ^ \ . .IS -I r — I(M _| —IN He?' Jt- - Lt. Fig. 228. —Turning exercises. — No. 24, No. 25, and No. 26. 230 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Fig. 229. — Turning exercise. — No. 27. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 231 o 0> M bn H I 55 6 M Fig. 231. — Turning exer- cise. — No. 29. 232 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING >2~ * "« ~ '22 Fig. 232. — Turning exercises. — No. 30 and No. 31. i« .' £*£*-$" — >• 3. v «aV ^'r->i3 '*iW»l< il"' >3"i',3 ri ;» *i".iV3'Ji -II" I?3£_ Fig. 233. — Turning exercises. — No. 32, No. 33, and No. 34. APPENDIX A Key to the More Important Woods of North America x [The numbers preceding names refer to the List of Woods follow- ing the Key.] Directions for Using Key It is rather difficult at first to use a key of any kind. One must have some practice before accuracy is acquired in the collection of data used in the key. In the use of the following key one should work at first with a few samples of wood accurately named and large enough to show pith and bark and wide enough to show cross section. Do not use polished woods, but clean fresh specimens. After working with a few woods that are known so that the use of the key is understood, take several specimens of wood that are unknown and deter- mine the kind of wood. For a close study of a speci- men it is well to moisten the wood and cut off a thin, small section with a sharp knife, and put the bit of wood between two pieces of thin glass for study under the microscope or by holding to the light. After a few trials the value of the key will be understood and it will create much interest in woods. 1 The following key is taken from "Timber," Bulletin No. 10, U.S. Dept. of Agric., Division of Forestry. 233 234 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING I. Non-porous Woods. — Pores not visible or con- spicuous on cross section, even with magnifier. Annual rings distinct by denser (dark colored) bands of summer wood (Fig. 234). A-----* B r C- — H O.G. ar-i . • .sp.w.-" >p.w ■i?-i 3. 234. — " Non-porous " woods. A, fir; 5, "hard " pine; C, soft ar, annual ring; o.e., outer edge of ring; i.e., inner edge of s.w., summer wood ; sp.w., spring wood ; rd, resin ducts. ods. A, fir; B, "hard " pine; C, soft pine; er edge of ring ; i.e., inner edge of ring ; spring wood ; rd, resin ducts. II. Ring-porous Woods. — Pores numerous, usually visible on cross section without magnifier. Annual Fig. 235. — "Ring-porous" woods. White oak and hickory, a. r., annual ring; sum., summer wood; sp.w., spring wood; v, vessels or pores: c.L, concentric lines; rt, darker tracts of hard fibers forming the firm part of oak wood ; pr, pith rays. rings distinct by a zone of large pores collected in the spring wood, alternating with the denser summer wood (Fig. 235). FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 235 III. Diffuse-porous Woods. — Pores numerous, usually not plainly visible on cross section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a fine line of denser summer- wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores scattered through annual ring, no zone of collected pores in spring wood (Fig. 236). Beech } .Sycamore ! Birch ! Fig. 236. — " Diffuse-porous " woods, ar, annual ring ; pr, pith rays which are " broad " at a, " fine " at b, " indistinct " at d. Note. — The above described three groups are exog- enous, i.e. they grow by adding annually wood on their circumference. A fourth group is formed by the endog- enous woods, like yuccas and palms, which do not grow by such additions. 236 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING I. — Non-Porous Woods [Includes all coniferous woods.] A. Resin ducts wanting. 1 1. No distinct heartwood. a. Color effect yellowish white; summer wood darker yellowish (under microscope pith ray without tracheids) (Nos. 9-13) Fir. 6. Color effect reddish (roseate) (under micro- scope pith ray with tracheids) (Nos. 14 and 15) Hemlock. 2. Heartwood present, color decidedly different in kind from sap wood. a. Heartwood light orange red; sapwood, pale lemon; wood, heavy and hard (No. 38) Yew. b. Heartwood purplish to brownish red; sap- wood yellowish white; wood soft to me- dium hard light, usually with aromatic odor (No. 6) Red Cedar. c. Heartwood maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red ; sapwood light orange to dark umber, very soft and light, no odor; pith rays very distinct, specially pronounced on radial section (No. 7) Redwood. 1 To discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface is necessary, since resin ducts are frequently seen only with difficulty, appear- ing on the cross section as fine whiter or darker spots normally scattered singly, rarely in groups, usually in the summer wood of the annual ring. They are often much more easily seen on radial, and still more so on tangential sections, appearing there as fine lines or dots of open structure of different color or as indentations or pin scratches in a longitudinal direction. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 237 3. Heart wood present , color only different in shade from sapwood, dingy yellowish brown. a. Odorless and tasteless (No. 8) Bald Cypress. b. Wood with mild resinous odor, but tasteless (Nos. 1-4) White Cedar. c. Wood with strong resinous odor and peppery taste when freshly cut (No. 5) Incense Cedar. B. Resin ducts present. 1. No distinct heartwood; color white, resin ducts very small, not numerous (Nos. 33-36) Spruce. 2. Distinct heartwood present. a. Resin ducts numerous, evenly scattered through the ring. a'. Transition from spring wood to summer wood gradual ; annual ring distinguished by a fine line of dense summer-wood cells ; color white to yellowish red ; wood soft and light (Nos. 18-21) Soft Pines. 1 &'. Transition from spring wood to summer wood more or less abrupt; broad bands of dark-colored summer wood; color from light to deep orange; wood me- dium hard and heavy (Nos. 22-32) Hard Pines. 1 b. Resin ducts not numerous nor evenly dis- tributed. 1 Soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions and the two not distinguishable at the limit. 238 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING a' . Color of heartwood orange-reddish, sap- wood yellowish (same as hard pine); resin ducts frequently combined in groups of 8 to 30, forming lines on the cross section (tracheids with spirals) (No. 37) Douglas Spruce. b f . Color of heartwood light russet brown; of sap wood yellowish brown; resin ducts very few, irregularly scattered (tracheids without spirals) (Nos. 16 and 17) Tamarack. Additional Notes for Distinctions in the Group Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by the existence of the resin ducts, and microscopically by the presence of tracheids in the medullary rays. Spruce may also be confounded with soft pine, except for the heartwood color of the latter and the larger, more fre- quent, and more readily visible resin ducts. In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the silvery character of its surface. Western hemlocks partake of this last character to a less degree. Microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually only one large pit, while spruce shows three to five very small pits in the parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the tracheid. The distinction of the pines is possible only by micro- scopic examination. The following distinctive features may assist in recognizing, when in the log or lumber pile, those usually found in the market : — FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 239 The light, straw color, combined with great lightness and softness, distinguishes the white pines (white pine and sugar pine) from the hard pines (all others in the market), which may also be recognized by the gradual change of spring wood into summer wood. This change in hard pines is abrupt, making the summer wood appear as a sharply defined and more or less broad band. The Norway pine, which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine, can be distinguished by being much lighter and softer. It may also, but more rarely, be confounded with heavier white pine, but for the sharper definition of the annual ring, weight, and hardness. The longleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resin- ous, and usually very regular and narrow ringed, showing little sapwood, and differing in this respect from the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which usually have wider rings and more sapwood, the latter excelling in that respect. The following convenient and useful classification of pines into four groups, proposed by Dr. H. Mayr, is based on the appearance of the pith ray as seen in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring : — Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections. a. One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of the cells of the pith ray. — Group 1. Represented in this country only by P. resinosa. b. Three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on walls of the cells of the pith ray. — Group 2. 240 KDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING P. taeda, palustris, etc., including most of our " hard" and "yellow" pines. Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, with- out dentate projections. a. One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray. — Group 3. P. strdbus, lambertiana, and other true white pines. b. Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray. — Group 4. P. parry ana, and other nut pines, including also P. bal- fouriana. II. — - Ring-porous Woods [Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.] A. Pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in short broken lines, the course of which is never radial. 1. Pith rays minute, scarcely distinct. a. Wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters. a' . Color of radial section not yellow (Nos. 39-44) Ash. ?/. Color of radial section light yellow; by which, together with its hardness and weight, this species is easily recognized (No. 103) Osage Orange. b. Wood light and soft ; pores in the summer wood in clusters of 10 to 30 (No. 56) Catalpa. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 241 2. Pith rays very fine, yet distinct; pores in sum- mer wood usually single or in short lines; color of heartwood reddish brown ; of sap- wood yellowish white; peculiar odor on fresh section (No. Ill) Sassafras. 3. Pith rays fine, but distinct. a. Very heavy and hard; heartwood yellowish brown (No. 77) Black Locust. b. Heavy; medium hard to hard. a' '. Pores in summer wood very minute, usu- ally in small clusters of 3 to 8; heart- wood light orange brown (No. 83) Red Mulberry. b f . Pores in summer wood small to minute, usually isolated ; heartwood cherry red (No. 61) Coffee Tree. 4. Pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier. Color of heartwood red; of sap- wood pale lemon (No. 78) Honey Locust. B. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and sometimes branching lines, appearing as finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section. 1. Pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish white. Heartwood absent or imperfectly de- veloped (No. 70) Hackberry. 2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heartwood reddish brown; sap wood grayish to reddish white (Nos. 62-66) Elms. C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very crowded radial arrangement some- what obscured). 242 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 1. Pith rays very minute, hardly visible (Nos. 58-60) Chestnut. 2. Pith rays very broad and conspicuous (Nos. 84-102) Oak. D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods. The pores of the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone. (Some diffuse-porous woods of groups A and B may seem to belong here.) 1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so, as the very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of red; heartwood light reddish brown (Nos. 71-75) Hickory. 2. Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays; no reddish tinge in summer wood; sap- wood white; heartwood blackish (No. 105) Persimmon. Additional Notes for Distinctions in the Group Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial section of mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously. Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in appearance. The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the pith rays, especially on radial sections, on account of their height, while the black locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight and hardness, together with its darker brown color. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 243 Fig. 237. — Wood of coffee tree. The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation, appear to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of porous spring wood. The sharply defined large; pith rays of the oak exclude these at once; the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood, appearing as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section, distinguish the elms; while the ashes differ from the hickory by the very conspicuously defined zone of spring-wood pores, which in hickory appear more or less interrupted. The reddish hue of the hickory and the more or less brown hue of the ash may also aid in ready recognition. The smooth, radial surface of split hickory will readily separate it from the rest. The different species of ash may be identified as follows : — 1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines. a. The lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit of the ring (No. 39) White Ash. 244 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING b. The lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the summer wood (No. 43) Green Ash. 2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so. a. Heartwood reddish brown and very firm (No. 40) Red Ash. b. Heartwood grayish brown, and much more porous (No. 41) Black Ash. Fig. 238.-^4, black ash ; B, white ash ; C, green ash. In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. In the white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in the outer part of the FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 245 Fig. 239. — Wood of red oak. o9,?.EQ.oo.Oo 0°oOq o°0o o,..%°p,, 9,0.0 v %% % 90. P( Fig. 240. — Wood of chestnut. 246 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the pores are larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live Fig. 241.— Wood of hickory. oaks, as far as structure is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but arc Hindi less porous, and arc exceeding heavy and hard. III. Diffuse-porous Woods | A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar elm may semi to belong here.] A. Pores varying in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood, thereby giving sometimes the ap- pearance of a ring-porous arrangement. 1. Heavy and hard; color of heart wood (especially on longitudinal section) chocolate brown (No. I L6) Black Walnut. 2. Light and soft ; color of heart wood light reddish brown, (No. 55) Butternut. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 247 B. Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood, giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on longitudinal section), thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous; wood hard, heartwood vinous reddish; pith rays very fine, but very distinct. (See also the sometimes indis- tinct ring-porous cedar elm, and occasionally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer wood) (No. 57) Cherry. C. Pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more numerous in the spring wood and evenly distributed. 1. Broad pith rays present. a. All or most pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded, especially on tangential sections, medium heavy and hard, difficult to split (Nos. 112 and 113) Sycamore. b. Only part of the pith rays broad. a' '. Broad pith rays well defined, quite nu- merous; wood reddish white to red- dish (No. 47) Beech. b' '. Broad pith rays not sharply defined, made up of many small rays, not numerous. Stem furrowed, and there- fore the periphery of section, and with it the annual rings sinuous, bending in and out, and the large pith rays gen- erally limited to the furrows or concave portions. Wood white, not reddish (No. 52) Blue Beech. 248 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 2. No broad pith rays present, (i. Pith rays small i<> very small, but quite distinct. n' . Wood hard. a". Color reddish while, with dark red- dish tinge in outer summer wood (Nos. 79 82) Maple. />". Color white, without reddish binge (No. 76) Holly. //. Wood soft bo very soft. a". Pores crowded, occupying nearly all I he space between pith rays. . Pith rays scarcely distinct, ye1 if viewed with ordinary magnifier, plainly visible. a'. Pores indistinct lo bhe naked eye. e". Color uniform paleyellow; pithrays uoi conspicuous even on i he radial seel ion (Nos. 53 and 54) Buckeye. KOI I MOM I, AND SCHOOL 249 //'. Sapwood yellowish gray/ heart wood grayish brown; pith rays con- spicuous on the radial section (Nos. 07 68) Sour Gum. I/. Pores scarcely distinct, but mostly visible as grayish specks on the cross sec lion; sapwood whitish, heartwood red dish (Nos. 48 . r >i; Birch. I). Pith raye not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed wiili magnifier. I. Wood Very Soft, while, or in : Ii.-imV:: of hrown, usually wit li a silky luster (Nos. L05 I LO) Cottonwood (Poplar); an ar ; jk : :fj /"■ l Beech \ Sycamore ' - Birch J'"- 'i ' Wood of beech, •ycatnore, and birch. ( i '.i i ■. planatlon of lotto) ■ • i Ig ! 10 , Additional Notes J<>r Distinction* in if"- Group Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the cherry on radial sections readily dis- tinguishes if; distind pores on birch and spring-wood zone in cherry as well as the darker vinou brown color of the In! ter will prove helpful. 250 I'lDlM'ATloNAL \\\\<>KklN<; 'Two groups <>f birches can be readily distinguished, though specific distinction is not always possible. 1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few .Mini not more abundant in the spring wood; wood heavy, usually darker (No. 48) Cherry Birch ;ind (No. 49) Yellow Birch. 2. Pith rays barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly forming a more porous spring- wood zone) wood of medium weight (No. M) Canoe or Paper Birch. Fig, 243. Wood «>r maple. The species of maple may be distinguished as follows: 1. Most of the pith rays broader than the pores and very conspicuous (No. 7\)) Sugar Maple. 2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the port's, line hul conspicuous. a. Wood heavy and hard, usually o( darker reddish color and commonly spotted on cross section (No. 80) Red Maple. FOR IIOMK AM) SCHOOL 21 b. Wood of medium weight and hardness, usu- ally light colore. I (No. 82) Silver Maple. Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple In box elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple. n 1: f i I I I n m 1 su.w. \ sp.w. Fig. 245. — Walnut, p.r., pith rays; c.l., concentric lines; v, vessels or pores; su.w., summer wood ; sp.io., spring wood. b'. Lines of pores broad, commonly as wide as the intermediate spaces (No. 66) Winged Elm. c. Pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a ring-porous wood (No. 65) Cedar Elm. Fig. 246. — Wood of cherry. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 253 List of the More Important Woods of the United States [Arranged alphabetically.] A. — Coniferous Woods Woods of simple and uniform structure, generally light, soft but stiff; abundant in suitable dimensions and forming by far the greatest part of all the lumber used. CEDAR. — Light, soft, stiff, not strong, of fine texture; sap and heartwood distinct, the former lighter, the latter a dull, grayish brown, or red. The wood sea- sons rapidly, shrinks and checks but little, and is very durable. Used like soft pine, but owing to its great durability preferred for shingles, etc. Small sizes Used for posts, ties, etc. 1 Cedars usually occur scattered, but they form, in certain localities, forests of considerable extent. a. White Cedars. — Heartwood a light grayish brown. 1 . White Cedar ( Thuya occidentalis) (arbor vitae) : Scattered along streams and lakes, frequently covering extensive swamps; rarely large enough for lumber, but commonly used for posts, ties, etc. Maine to Minnesota and northward. 2. Canoe Cedar (Thuya gigantea) (red cedar of the 1 Since almost all kinds of woods are used for fuel and charcoal, and in the construction of fences, sheds, barns, etc., the enumera- tion of these uses has been omitted in this list. 254 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING West) : In Oregon and Washington a veiy large tree, covering extensive swamps; in the mountains much smaller, skirting the water courses; an im- portant lumber tree. Washington to northern Cali- fornia and eastward to Montana. 3. White Cedar (Chamcecyparis thyoides): Medium- sized tree, wood very light and soft. Along the coast from Maine 4 to Mississippi. 4. White Cedar (Chamcecyparis lawsoniana) (Port Orford cedar, Oregon cedar, Lawson's cypress, ginger pine) : A very large tree, extensively cut for lumber; heavier and stronger than the preceding. Along the coast line of Oregon. 5. White Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) (incense cedar) : A large tree, abundantly scattered among pine and fir; wood fine 4 grained. Cascades and Sierra Nevada of Oregon and California. I). Red Cedars. — Heartwood red. (). Red Cedar (Juniperus wirginiana) (Savin juniper) : Similar to white cedar, but of somewhat finer tex- ture. Vc; lower basin of the Ohio River, Locally common. Extensively planted, and therefore promising to become of some importance. CHERRY. 57. Cherry ( /'runux wrolina) : Wood heavy, hard, Strong, of fine texture; SapWOOd yellowish white, heartwood reddish to brown. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, works and stands well, takes a good polish, and is much esteemed for its beauty. Cherry is chiefly used as a decorative finish- ing Lumber for buildings, cars, and boats, also for furniture and in turnery. It is becoming too cosily 268 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING for many purposes for which it is naturally well suited. The lumber-furnishing cherry of this coun- try, the wild black cherry (Prunus serotina), is a small to medium sized tree, scattered through many of the broad-leaved woods of the western slope of the Alleghanies, but found from Michigan to Florida and west to Texas. Other species of this genus as well as the hawthorns (Crataegus) and wild apple (Pyrus) are not commonly offered in the market. Their wood is of the same character as cherry, often even finer, but in small dimensions. CHESTNUT. 58. Chestnut (Castanea vulgaris var. americana) : Wood light, moderately soft, stiff, not strong, of coarse texture; the sapwood light, the heart wood darker brown. It shrinks and checks considerably in drying, works easily, stands well, and is very durable. Used in cabinetwork, cooperage, for rail- way ties, telegraph poles, and locally in heavy construction. Medium-sized tree, very common in the Alleghanies, occurs from Maine to Michigan and southward to Alabama. 59. Chinquapin (Castanea pumila) : A small-sized tree, with wood slightly heavier but otherwise similar to the preceding; most common in Arkansas, but with nearly the same range as the chestnut. 60. Chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla) : A medium- sized tree of the western ranges of California and Oregon. COFFEE TREE. 61. Coffee Tree (Gymnocladus canadensis) (coffee nut): FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 269 Wood heavy, hard, strong, very stiff, of coarse texture, durable; the sapwood yellow, the heart- wood reddish brown; shrinks and checks consider- ably in drying; works and stands well and takes a good polish. It is used to a limited extent in cab- inetwork. A medium to large sized tree; not com- mon. Pennsylvania to Minnesota and Arkansas. COTTONWOOD. (See Poplar.) CUCUMBER TREE. (See Tulip.) ELM. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, very tough; moder- ately durable in contact with the soil; commonly crossgrained, difficult to split and shape, warps, and checks considerably in drying, but stands well if prop- erly handled. The broad sapwood whitish, heart, brown, both with shades of gray and red; on split surface rough ; texture coarse to fine ; capable of high polish. Elm is used in the construction of cars, wagons, etc., in boat and ship building, for agricultural implements and machinery; in rough cooperage, saddlery and harness work, but particularly in the manufacture of all kinds of furniture, where the beautiful figures, especially those of the tangential or bastard section, are just beginning to be duly ap- preciated. The elms are medium to large sized trees, of fairly rapid growth, with stout trunk, form no for- ests of pure growth, but are found scattered in all the broad-leaved woods of our country, sometimes forming a considerable portion of the arborescent growth. 62. White Elm ( Ulmus americana) (American elm, water elm) : Medium to large sized tree, common. Maine to Minnesota, southward to Florida and Texas. 270 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 63. Rock Elm ( Ulmus racemosa) (cork elm, hickory elm, white elm, cliff elm): Medium to large sized tree. Michigan, Ohio, from Vermont to Iowa, southward to Kentucky. 64. Red Elm ( Ulmus fulva) (slippery elm, moose elm): Small-sized tree, found chiefly along water courses. New York to Minnesota, and southward to Florida and Texas. 65. Cedar Elm ( Ulmus crassifolia) : Small-sized tree, quite common. Arkansas and Texas. 66. Winged Elm (Ulmus alata) (wahoo) : Small-sized tree, locally quite common. Arkansas, Missouri, and eastern Virginia. GUM. — This general term refers to two kinds of wood usually distinguished as sweet or red gum, and sour, black, or tupelo gum, the former being a relative of the witch-hazel, the latter belonging to the dogwood family. 67. Tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) (sour gum, black gum): Maine to Michigan, and southward to Florida and Texas. Wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, of fine texture frequently crossgrained, of yellowish or grayish white color, hard to split and work, trouble- some in seasoning, warps and checks considerably, and is not durable if exposed; used for wagon hubs, wooden ware, handles, wooden shoes, etc. Medium to large sized trees, with straight, clear trunks; locally quite abundant, but never forming forests of pure growth. 68. Tupelo Gum (Nyssa uniflora) (cotton gum): Lower Mississippi basin, northward to Illinois and FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 271 eastward to Virginia, otherwise like preceding species. 69. Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) (red gum, liquidambar, bilsted) : Wood rather heavy, rather soft, quite stiff and strong, tough, commonly cross- grained, of fine texture; the broad sapwood whitish, the heartwood reddish brown; the wood shrinks and warps considerably, but does not check badly, stands well when fully seasoned, and takes good polish. Sweet gum is used in carpentry, in the manufacture of furniture, for cut veneer, for wooden plates, plaques, baskets, etc., also for wagon hubs, hat blocks, etc. A large-sized tree, very abundant, often the principal tree in the swampy parts of the bottoms of the lower Mississippi Valley; occurs from New York to Texas and from Indiana to Florida. HACKBERRY. 70. Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) (sugarberry) : The handsome wood heavy, hard, strong, quite tough, of moderately fine texture, and greenish or yellow- ish white color; shrinks moderately, works well, and takes a good polish. So far but little used in the manufacture of furniture. Medium to large sized tree, locally quite common, largest in the lower Mississippi Valley; occurs in nearly all parts of the eastern United States. HICKORY. — Wood very heavy, hard, and strong, proverbially tough, of rather coarse texture, smooth and of straight grain. The broad sapwood white, the heart reddish nut-brown. It dries slowly, shrinks 272 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING and checks considerably; is not durable in the ground, or if exposed, and, especially the sapwood, is always subject to the inroads of boring insects. Hickory excels as carriage and wagon stock, but is also exten- sively used in the manufacture of implements and machinery, for tool handles, timber pins, for harness work, and cooperage. The hickories are tall trees with slender stems, never form forests, occasionally small groves, but usually occur scattered among other broad-leaved trees in suitable localities. The follow- ing species all contribute more or less to the hickory of the markets : — 71. Shagbark Hickory (Hicoria ovata) (shellbark hick- ory) : A medium to large sized tree, quite com- mon ; the favorite arqpng hickories ; best developed in the Ohio and Mississippi basins; from Lake Ontario to Texas, Minnesota to Florida. 72. Mocker Nut Hickory (Hicoria alba) (black hickory, bull and black nut, big bud, and white-heart hickory): A medium to large sized tree, with the same range as the foregoing; common, especially in the South. 73. Pignut Hickory (Hicoria glabra) (brown hickory, black hickory, switch-bud hickory): Medium to large sized tree, abundant; all eastern United States. 74. Bitternut Hickory (Hicoria minima) (swamp hick- ory) : A medium-sized tree, favoring wet localities, with the same range as the preceding. 75. Pecan ( Hicoria pecan) (Illinois nut) : A large tree, very common in the fertile bottoms of the FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 273 Western streams. Indiana to Nebraska and south- ward to Louisiana and Texas. HOLLY. 76. Holly {Ilex opaca) : Wood of medium weight, hard, strong, tough, of fine texture and white color; works and stands well, used for cabinetwork and turnery. A small tree, most abundant in the lower Mississippi Valley and Gulf States, but occur- ring eastward to Massachusetts and north to Indiana. HORSE-CHESTNUT. (See Buckeye.) IRONWOOD. (See Blue Beech.) LOCUST. — This name applies to both of the following: 77. Black Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) (black locust, yellow locust) : Wood very heavy, hard, strong, and tough, of coarse texture, very durable in contact with the soil, shrinks considerably and suffers in seasoning; the very narrow sap wood yellowish, the heart wood brown, with shades of red and green. Used for wagon hubs, treenails or pins, but especially for ties, posts, etc. Abroad it is much used for furniture and farm implements and also in turnery. Small to medium sized tree, at home in the Allegha- nies, extensively planted, especially in the West. 78. Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) (black lo- cust, sweet locust, three-thorned acacia) : Wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, of coarse texture, susceptible of a good polish, the narrow sapwood yellow, the heart wood brownish red. So far but little appreciated except for fencing and fuel; used to some extent for wagon hubs and in rough construction. A medium-sized tree, found from 274 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Pennsylvania to Nebraska and southward to Florida and Texas; locally quite abundant. MAGNOLIA. (See Tulip Wood.) MAPLE. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and tough, fine texture, frequently wavy-grained, this giving rise to "curly" and "blister" figures; not durable in the ground or otherwise exposed. Maple is creamy white, with shades of light brown in the heart; shrinks moderately, seasons, works, and stands well, wears smoothly, and takes a line polish." The wood is used lor ceiling, flooring, paneling, stairway, and other finishing lumber in house, ship, and ear construction ; it is used for the keels of boats and ships, in I he manu- facture of implements and machinery, but especially for furniture, where entire chamber sets of maple rival (hose of oak. Maple is also used for shoe lasts and other form blocks, for shoe pegs, for piano actions, for school apparatus, for wood type in show-bill print- ing, fool handles, in wood carving, turnery, and scroll work. The maples are medium-sized trees, of fairly rapid growth; sometimes form forests and frequently const it ul e a, large proportion of the arborescent growth. 79. Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum) (hard maple, rock maple): Medium to large Sized tree, very common, forms considerable forests. Maine to Minnesota, abundant, with birch, in parts of the pineries; southward to northern Florida; most abundant in the region of the Great Lakes, SO. Red Maple (Acer rubrum) (swam]) or water maple): Medium-sized tree. Like the preceding, but scat- tered along watercourses and other moist localities. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 275 81. Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) (soft maple, sil- ver maple;: Medium sized, common; wood lighter, softer, inferior to hard maple, and usually offered in small quantities and held separate in the market. Valley of the Ohio, but occurs from Maine to Dakota and southward to Florida. 82. Broad-leafed Maple (Acer macrophyllum) : Medium- sized tree, forms considerable forests, and like the preceding has a lighter, softer, and less valuable wood. Pacific Coast. MULBERRY. 83. Red Mulberry (Morus rubra) : Wood moderately heavy, hard, strong, rather tough, of coarse texture, durable; sapwood whitish, heart yellow to orange brown; shrinks and checks considerably in drying; works and stands well. Used in cooperage and locally in shipbuilding and in the manufacture of farm implements. A small-sized tree, common in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, but widely dis- tributed in the eastern United States. OAK. — Wood very variable, usually very heavy and hard, very strong and tough, porous, and of coarse texture; the sapwood whitish, the heart "oak" brown to reddish brown. It shrinks and checks badly, giv- ing trouble in seasoning, but stands well, is durable, and little subject to attacks of insects. Oak is used for many purposes: in shipbuilding, for heavy con- struction, in common carpentry, in furniture, car, and wagon work, cooperage, turnery, and even in wood carving; also in the manufacture of all kinds of farm implements, wooden mill machinery, for piles 276 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING and wharves, railway ties, etc. The oaks are medium to large sized trees, forming the predominant part of a large portion of our broad-leaved forests, so that these are generally "oak forests" though they always contain a considerable proportion of other kinds of trees. Three well-marked kinds, white, red, and live oak, are distinguished and kept separate in the market. Of the two principal kinds white oak is the stronger, tougher, less porous, and more durable. Red oak is usually of coarser texture, more porous, often brit- tle, less durable, and even more troublesome in sea- soning than white oak. In carpentry and furniture work red oak brings about the same price at present as white oak. The red oaks everywhere accom- pany the white oaks, and, like the latter, are usually represented by several species in any given locality. Live oak, once largely employed in shipbuilding, possesses all the good qualities (except that of size) of white oak, even to a greater degree. It is one of the heaviest, hardest, and most durable building timbers of this country; in structure it resembles the red oaks, but is much less porous. 84. White Oak ( Quercus alba) : Medium to large sized tree, common in the Eastern States, Ohio and Mis- sissippi valleys; occurs throughout eastern United States. 85. Bur Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) (mossy-cup oak, over-cup oak) : Large-sized tree, locally abundant, common. Bottoms w T est of Mississippi; range far- ther west than preceding. 86. Swamp White Oak ( Quercus bicolor) : Large-sized FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 277 tree, common. Most abundant in the Lake States, but with range as in white oak. 87. Yellow Oak (Quercus prinoides (chestnut oak, chinquapin oak) : Medium-sized tree. Southern Alleghanies, eastward to Massachusetts. 88. Basket Oak ( Quercus michauxii) (cow oak) : Large- sized tree, locally abundant; lower Mississippi and eastward to Delaware. 89. Over-cup Oak {Quercus lyrata) (swamp white oak, swamp post oak) : Medium to large sized tree, rather restricted; ranges as in the preceding. 90. Post Oak {Quercus obtusiloba) (iron oak): Medium to large sized tree. Arkansas to Texas, eastward to New England and northward to Michigan. 91. White Oak {Quercus durandii): Medium to small sized tree. Texas, eastward to Alabama. 92. White Oak ( Quercus garryana) : Medium to large sized tree. Washington to California. 93. White Oak ( Quercus lobata) : Medium to large sized tree; largest oak on the Pacific Coast; California. 94. Red Oak ( Quercus rubra) (black oak) : Medium to large sized tree; common in all parts of its range. Maine to Minnesota, and southward to the Gulf. 95. Black Oak ( Quercus tinctoria) (yellow oak) : Me- dium to large sized tree; very common in the Southern States, but occurring north as far as Minnesota, and eastward to Maine. 96. Spanish Oak {Quercus falcata) (red oak): Medium- sized tree, common in the South Atlantic and Gulf region, but found from Texas to New York, and north to Missouri and Kentucky. 278 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 97. Scarlet Oak ( Quercus coccinea) : Medium to large sized tree; best developed in the lower basin of the Ohio, but found from Maine to Missouri, and from Minnesota to Florida. 98. Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) (swamp Spanish oak, water oak) : Medium to large sized tree, common along borders of streams and swamps. Arkansas to Wisconsin, and eastward to the Alleghanies. 99. Willow Oak (Quercus phellos) (peach oak): Small to medium sized tree. New York to Texas, and northward to Kentucky. 100. Water Oak (Quercus aquatica) (duck oak, pos- sum oak, punk oak) : Medium to large sized tree, of extremely rapid growth. Eastern Gulf States, eastward to Delaware, and northward to Missouri and Kentucky. 101. Live Oak (Quercus vir ens): Small-sized tree, scat- tered along the coast from Virginia to Texas. 102. Live Oak (Quercus chrysolepis) (maul oak, Valparaiso oak): Medium-sized tree; California. OSAGE ORANGE. 103. Osage Orange (Madura aurantiaca) (Bois d'Arc) : Wood very heavy, exceedingly hard, strong, not tough, of moderately coarse texture, and very dura- ble; sapwood yellow, heart brown on the end, yellow on longitudinal faces, soon turning grayish brown if exposed; it shrinks considerably in drying, but once dry it stands unusually well. Formerly much used for wheel stock in the dry regions of Texas; otherwise employed for posts, railway ties, etc. Seems too little appreciated; it is well suited for FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 279 turned ware and especially for wood carving. A small-sized tree, of fairly rapid growth, scattered through the rich bottoms of Arkansas and Texas. PERSIMMON. 104. Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) : Wood very heavy and hard, strong and tough; resembles hick- ory, but is of finer texture; the broad sapwood cream color, the heart black; used in turnery for shuttles, plane stocks, shoe lasts, etc. Small to medium sized tree, common and best developed in the lower Ohio Valley, but occurs from New York to Texas and Missouri. POPLAR and COTTONWOOD (see also Tulip Wood).— Wood light, very soft, not strong, of fine texture, and whitish, grayish, to yellowish color, usually with a satiny luster. The wood shrinks moderately (some crossgrained forms warp excessively) but checks little; is easily worked but is not durable. Used as building and furniture lumber, in cooperage for sugar and flour barrels, for crates and boxes (especially cracker boxes), for wooden ware and paper pulp. 105. Cottonwood (Populus monilijera) : Large-sized tree; forms considerable forests along many of the West- ern streams, and furnishes most of the cottonwood of the market. Mississippi Valley and west; New England to the Rocky Mountains. 106. Balsam (Populus balsamifera) (balm of Gilead) : Medium to large sized tree; common all along the northern boundary of the United States. 107. Black Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) : The largest deciduous tree of Washington; very com- 280 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 11 ion. Northern Rocky Mountains and Pacific region. 108. Cottonwood ( Populus fremontii var. wislizeni) : Medium to large sized tree, common. Texas to California. 109. Poplar (Populus grandidentata) : Medium-sized tree, chiefly used for pulp. Maine to Minnesota and southward along the Alleghanies. 110. Aspen (Populus tremuloides) : Small to medium sized tree, often forming extensive forests and covering burned areas. Maine to Washington and northward, south in the Western mountains to California and New Mexico. RED GUM. (See Gum.) SASSAFRAS. 111. Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras): Wood light, soft, not strong, brittle, of coarse texture, durable; sap- wood yellow, heart orange brown. Used in coop- erage, for skiffs, fencing, etc. Medium-sized tree, largest in the lower Mississippi Valley, from New England to Texas and from Michigan to Florida. SOUR GUM. (See Gum.) SWEET GUM. (See Gum.) SYCAMORE. 112. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) (button wood, buttonball tree, water beech) : Wood moderately heavy, quite hard, stiff, strong, tough, usually cross- grained, of coarse texture, and white to light brown color; the wood is hard to split and work, shrinks moderately, warps and checks considerably, but stands well. It is used extensively for drawers, FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 281 backs, bottoms, etc., in cabinetwork, for tobacco boxes, in cooperage, and also for finishing lumber, where it has too long been underrated. A large tree, of rapid growth, common and largest in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, at home in nearly all parts of the eastern United States. The California species — 113. Platanus racemosa resembles in its wood the Eastern form. TULIP WOOD. 114. Tulip Tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) (yellow pop- lar, white wood) : Wood quite variable in weight, usually light, soft, stiff but not strong, of fine texture, and yellowish color; the wood shrinks considerably, but seasons without much injury; works and stands remarkably well. Used for siding, for paneling and finishing lumber in house, car, and ship building, for sideboards, and panels of wagons and carriages ; also in the manufacture of furniture, implements and machinery, for pump logs, and almost every kind of common wooden ware, boxes, shelving, drawers, etc. An ideal wood for the carver and toy man. A large tree, does not form forests, but is quite common, especially in the Ohio Basin; occurs from New England to Missouri and southward to Florida. 115. Cucumber Tree (Magnolia acuminata): A me- dium-sized tree, most common in the southern Alleghanies, but distributed from New York to Arkansas, southward to Alabama and northward to Illinois. Resembling, and probably confounded with, tulip wood in the markets. 282 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING TUPELO. (See Gum.) WALNUT. 116. Black Walnut (Juglans nigra): Wood heavy, hard, strong, of coarse texture ; the narrow sap wood whit- ish, the heartwood chocolate brown. The wood shrinks moderately in drying, works and stands well, takes a good polish, is quite handsome, and has been for a long time the favorite cabinet wood in this country. Walnut, formerly used even for fencing, has become too costly for ordinary uses, and is to- day employed largely as a veneer, for inside finish and cabinetwork; also in turnery, for gunstocks, etc. Black walnut is a large tree, with stout trunk, of rapid growth, and was formerly quite abundant throughout the Alleghany region, occurring from New England to Texas, and from Michigan to Florida. WHITE WALNUT. (See Butternut.) WHITE WOOD. (See Tulip, and also Basswood.) YELLOW POPLAR. (See Tulip.) APPENDIX B Problems in Construction and Geometric Helps The order of the letters and figures in the following indicates the order of construction and of reasoning in discussing the figures. 283 284 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Horizontal (Level) •A Vertical (Upright) Perpendicular (At ncjht anqlts) F/ Oblique (Slanting) Parallel ime direct Equidistant. /Same direction.) V Equidistant. / Intersecting (Cutting through. Meeting) Convergent ( Orawinq together) ^Divergent (Spreading apart) Fig. 247. — Direction of lines. * — f \ tDraw a line parallel to another line. / i \ \ \ 3. Bisect aline. ( Divide into two equal part a) >3 \ First \ method' \ A \ Second \\ method d. Construct a right angle at end of a line. ( Also see'Draw a line perpendicular") ^..Trisect a riqht angle. (Three equal parts) 4.Construct angles cf fcO! 30' and 90 c Fig. 250. — Divisions and constructions of angles. 286 EDUCATIONAL AVOODWORKING 1. Riqht (One right angle) Acute Obtuse 3. Isosceles (equal legs) JV \c ¥/ « Vo gy 3 VS Vv' «5y N// < V Base (side) \ 2. Equi dteral (Equal sides) Acute Obtuse 4. Scalene (Unequal legs and angles) Fig. 251. — Triangles. o r; *a 3 -« ^ ** -s ♦ ... ,„„i,> 3. The squares on the sides of a riqht Z Flrld area Of a tnanole. triangle equal the square on its hypotenuse. Fig. 252. — Construction and area of triangles. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 287 Side.(Upper base.Top.) D 1. Parallelogram c (Opposite sides equal. Opposite angles equal.) ^.Square (Four equal sides. Four riqht anq)es) a.Rectangle 4.Trapezium \0pp sides equal. Riqktanqles) (No two sides parallel ) , 5. Trapezoid (Only two sides parallel) Fig. 253. — Quadrilaterals. 1. Construct a parallelogram. Length of sides and an angle given. E Z. Construct a square. Length of side given. T C F D 3. Tind area of a parallelogram. Fig. 254. — Construction and area of quadrilaterals. 288 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING xf^ erQ ^s Seqment^^^ Quadrant\ 1 Diameter \ fsector^^ 1 1 Centre \ Radiusv / \ Semicircle / \ Chord V Dimensions Tangent (Touching) Parts Anqle-85° Fig. 255. — Circles. Concentric (One centre) \]/ -m4 Bisect an arc and its chord. 1. Draw a circle tanqent to a z. Draw an arc or a circle 3. Inscribed circle, given line at a qiven point. tanqent to a right angle. Circumscribed square 1 e 1 ^ A. Inscribe a square; an equilateral triangle. «5. Inscribe a circle in a trianqle. Circumscribe a circle. Fig. 256. — Construction of circles. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 289 1. Inscribe a hexagon i Inscribe a pentagon A y '\/\ \ \ / \ / A A \ / 3. Construct a pentaqon when one side is given. ^..Inscribe a dodecagon 5. Inscribe a fiqure of any number of sides. Divide AB into as many equal parts as there are to be sides. Use point 2.. Fig. 257. — Regular polygons. c Practical 3. Circumscribed. Diameter between sides qiven. 4 Inscribed . Diameter between angles qiven Fig. 258. — The octagon. 290 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Cyma recta 1 & f Cyma re versa (Ogee) Involute on a line . Involute on a square. Constant (equable) spiral. (Spiral of Archimedes) AB AB'etc=« radius vector. Variable (ge'ometric) spiral . i. Circle in centre is the eye') Pitch- V- Fig. 259. — Curves and spirals. 'Pt j 1,2,3,4 are B ^certres for Compasses. LWith compasses- Approx. Z. With string. -Exact. 3. with trammel Three methods of drawing the ellipse.(Example,4ix6") \cf6=3 T=thumb tach.S-ctrinq Pt*T*T'. are the foci (focusei). H D re*t» "on diam.d on "blAM.C give* ore 1, WidthTqiven H / Example, zn oval i\i*i. ai-Di = 2 £ x 2 M, the length if it were to be an ellipse as shown by broken outline. Proceed as in ellipse No.1. Z. Length and width given To draw an oval with compasses. Fig. 260. — Ellipse and oval. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 291 Oblique prism Frustum of pyramid eurf3ce cf cone Fig. 261. — Solids. A five inch cube (s\s\s'). Twenty-five cubic inches (5x5x1"). Fig. 262. — The cube. 292 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING Thickness Scale,- &"-1* 1. i£ -a** A board-foot-144 souare inches of board surface for less thick. Example: A piece of board 12 xU'nl.or Uxiz'x <>j, etc = a boar 8 -etc. z"x6*xiz' I / 2x4 k 18* ^ j'x AJ«' Each of these represents a board foot. Fig. 263. — Board measure. APPENDIX C Useful Tables U. S. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES LONG MEASURE (Measures of Length) Ins. Feet Yards Fath. Rods Furl. M 12 = 1 36 = 3 = 1 72 = 6 = 2=1 198 = 16* - 5* = 2f = 1 7920 = 660 = 220 = 110 = 40 = 1 3360 = 5280 = 1760 = 880 = 320 = 8 - 1 6080.26 Feet = 1.15 Statute Miles = 1 Nautical Mile or Knot. SQUARE MEASURE (Measures of Surface) Sq. Iris. Sq. Feet Sq. Yards Sq. Rods Roods Acre 144 = 1 1296 = 9=1 39204 = 272i = 30^ = 1 1568160 = 10890 = 1210 = 40 = 1 6272640 = 43560 = 4840 = 160 = 4 = 1 640 Acres = 1 Square Mile. An Acre = a square whose side is 69.57 Yards or 208.71 Feet. CUBIC MEASURE (Measures of Volume) Cu. Ins. Cu. Feet Cu. Yard 1728 = 1 46656 = 27 = 1 A Cord of Wood = 128 Cubic Feet, being 4 feet x 4 feet x 8 feet. 42 Cubic Feet = a Ton of Shipping. 1 Perch of Masonry = 24 f Cubic Feet, being 16* feet x 1* feet x 1 foot. 293 294 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING LIQUID OR WINE MEASURE The U. S. Standard Gallon measures 231 Cubic Inches, or 8.33888 Pounds Avoirdupois of pure water, at about 39.85 degrees Fahr., the Barometer at 30 Inches. Gills Pints Quarts Gallons Tierces Hogsheads Puncheons Cubic Pipes Tun Inches 4 = 1 = 28.375 8 = 2 = 1 = 57.75 32 = 8 = 4 = 1 = 231. 1344 = 336 = 168 = 42 = 1 2016 = 504 = 252 = 63 = n = 1 2488 = 672 = 336 = 84 = 2 = 1* = 1 4032 = 1008 = 504 = 126 = 3 = 2 = 1} = 1 8064 = 2016 = 1008 = 252 = 6 = 4 = 3 = 2 = 1 A Cubic Foot contains 7\ Gallons. The British Imperial Gallon contains 277.27 Cubic Inches and = 1.2 U. S. Gallons. DRY MEASURE The Standard Bushel contains 2150.42 Cubic Inches, or 77.627013 Pounds Avoirdupois of pure water at maximum density. Its legal dimensions are 18£ Inches diameter inside, 19£ Inches outside, and 8 Inches deep ; and when heaped the cone must be 6 Inches high, making a heaped Bushel equal to \\ struck ones. Ints Quarts Gallons Pecks Bushel Cubic Inches 2 = 1 = 67.2 8 = 4 = 1 = 268.8 16 = 8 = 2 = 1 = 537.6 64 — 32 = 8 = 4 = 1 = = 2150.42 The British Imperial Bushel contains 2218.2 Cubic Inches and = 1.03 U. S. Bushels. AVOIRDUPOIS OR COMMERCIAL WEIGHT The Grain is the same in Troy, Apothecaries, and Avoirdupois Weights. The Standard Avoirdupois Pound is the weight of 27.7015 Cubic Inches of distilled water weighed in the air at 35.85 degrees Fahr., Barometer at 30 Inches. 27.343 Grains = 1 Drachm. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 295 Drachms Ozs. Lbs. L iong Qr 8. L ong Cwt. 16 = 1 256 = 16 = 1 7168 = 448 = 28 = 1 28672 = 1792 = 112 = 4 = 1 573440 = 35840 = 2240 = 80 — 20 = 1 The above Table gives what is known as the Long Ton. The Short Ton weighs 2000 Pounds. TROY WEIGHT tor Gold, Silver, ; md Precious Metals, Grains Dwts. Ozs. Lb. 24 : 1 480 -- 20 1 5760 = = 240 = 12 : = 1 175 Pounds Troy = 144 Avoirdupois. Pounds Avoirdupois -=- .82286 = Pounds Troy. Pounds Troy x 1.2153 = Pounds Avoirdupois. The Jewelers' Carat is equal, in the United States, to 3.2 Grains; in London, to 3.17 Grains; in Paris, to 3.18 Grains. APOTHECARIES WEIGHT United States and British. In Troy and Apothecaries Weights, the Grain, Ounce, and Pound are the same. Grams Scruples Drachms Ozs. Lb. 20 = 1 60 = 3=1 480 = 24 = 8 = 1 5760 = 288 = 96 = 12 = 1 296 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING THE METRIC SYSTEM Metric Denominations and Values. Names No. Grams. Millier or tonneau = 1,000,000 Quintal = 100,000 Myriagram = 10,000 Kilogram or kilo = 1,000 Hectogram = 100 I )ekagram = 10 Gram = 1 Decigram = . 1 Centigram = .01 Milligram = .001 WEIGHTS Equivalents in Denominations in use. Weight of what quantity of Avoirdupois water at maximum density. Weight. = 1 cubic meter = 2204.6 pounds 1 hectoliter = = 10 liters = = 1 liter = = 1 deciliter = = 10 c. centimeters = = lc. centimeter = = .1 c. centimeter = = 10 c. millimeters = = 1 c. millimeter = 220.46 pounds 22.046 pounds 2.2046 pounds 3.5274 ounces 0.8527 ounce 15.432 grains 1.5432 grains 0.1543 grain 0.0154 grain MEASURES OF LENGTH Metric Denominations and Values. Myriameter = 10,000 meters Equivalents in Denominations in use. = 6.2137 miles Kilometer 1,000 meters = 0.02137 mile, or 3,280 feet 10 in. Hectometer = 100 meters = 328 feet and 1 inch Dekameter = 10 meters = 393.7 inches Meter = 1 meter = 39.37 inches Decimeter = .1 of a meter = 3.937 inches Centimeter = .01 of a meter = 0.3937 inch Millimeter = .001 of a meter = 0.0394 inch MEASURES OF SURFACE Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations in use. Hectare = 10,000 square meters = 2.471 acres Are = 100 square meters = 119.6 square yards Centare = 1 square meter = 1.550 square inches MEASURES OF CAPACITY Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations in use. Names N 0. Liters Cubic Measure Dry Measure Wine Measure Kiloliter = 1,000 = 1 cubic meter = 1.308 cubic yards = 264.17 gallons Hectoliter = inn = .1 cubic meter = 2 bush. 3.35 pecks = 26.417 gallons Decaliter = 10 = 10 c. decimeters = 9.08 quarts = 2.6417 gallons Liter = 1 = 1 c. decimeter = 0.908 quart = 1.0567 quarts Deciliter = .1 = .1 c. decimeter = 6.1022 cubic inches = 0.845 gill Centiliter = .01 = 10 c. centimeters = 0.6102 cubic inch = 0.338 fluid oz, Milliliter = .001 = 1 c. centimeter = 0.061 cubic inch = 0.27 fluid dr, FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 297 "UNITED STATES" AND "METRIC" CONSTANTS Millimeters Millimeters Centimeters Centimeters Meters Meters Meters Kilometers Kilometers Kilometers LONG MEASURE .03037 = inches 25.4 = inches .3037 = inches 2.54 = inches 30.37 = inches (Act of Congress) 3.281 = feet 1.004 = yards .621 = miles 3280.7 = feet 1.6003 = miles Square millimeters x Square millimeters -=- Square centimeters x Square centimeters -f- Square meters x Square kilometers x Hectares x SQUARE .0155 = 645.1 1.55 = 6.451 = 10.764 = 247.1 2.471 = MEASURE : square inches : square inches : square inches : square inches square feet : acres : acres Cubic centimeters -f- Cubic centimeters -4- Cubic centimeters -f- Cubic meters x CUBIC MEASURE 16.383 = cubic inches 3.60 = fluid drachms (U. S. P.) 20.57 = fluid ounces (U. S. P.) 35.315 = cubic feet Cubic meters X 1 .308 = cubic yards Cubic meters x 264.2 = gallons (231 cubic inches LIQUID MEASURE Liters X 61.022 = cubic inches (Act of Congress) Liters X 33.84 = fluid ounces (U. S. Phar.) Liters X .2642 = gallons (231 cubic inches) Liters H- 3.78 = gallons (231 cubic inches) Liters X 28.316 = cubic feet Hectoliters X 3.531 = cubic feet Hectoliters X 2.84 = bushels (2150.42 cubic inches) Hectoliters X .131 = cubic yards Hectoliters -T- 26.42 = gallons (231 cubic inches) 298 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING WEIGHTS Grammes x 15.432 = grains (Act of Congress) Grammes x 981 =: dynes Grammes (water) -=- 29.57 = fluid ounces Grammes -f- 28.35 = ounces avoirdupois Grammes per cubic centimeter -f- 27.7 = pounds per cubic inch Joule x .7373 = foot pounds Kilograms x 2.2046 = pounds Kilograms x 35.3 = ounces avoirdupois Kilograms -h 1102.3 = tons (2,000 pounds) Kilograms x per square centimeter 14.223 = pounds per square inch CONTENTS (BOARD MEASURE) OF ONE LINEAL FOOT OF TIMBER — X _ K Thickness ij r Inches 2 3 4 6. 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 18 13 14 18 Q 4.5 7.5 9 10.5 12 13.5 15 16.5 19.5 21 17 2.83 4.25 5.66 7.08 8.5 9.92 11.33 12.75 14.17 15.58 17 18.42 19.83 1(3 2.67 4 5.33 6.67 8 9.33 10.67 12 13.33 14.67 L6 17.33 18.66 15 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10 11.25 12.5 13.75 If, 16.25 17.5 14 2.33 3.5 4.67 5.83 7 8.17 9.33 10.5 11.67 12.83 14 15.17 16.33 13 2.17 3.25 4.33 5.42 6.5 7.58 8.67 9.75 10.83 11.92 13 14.08 12 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 1.83 2.75 3.67 4.58 5.5 6.42 7.33 8.25 9.17 10.08 10 1.67 2.5 3.33 4.17 5 5.83 6.67 7.5 8.33 9 1.6 2.25 3 3.75 4.5 5.25 6 6.75 8 1.33 2 2.67 3.33 4 4.67 5.33 7 1.17 1.75 2.33 2.92 3.5 4.08 G 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 5 .83 1.25 1.67 2.08 4 .67 1 1.33 3 .5 .75 2 .33 To ascertain the contents of a piece of timber, find in the table the contents of one foot and multiply by the length, in feet, of the piece. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 299 Example : What is the Contents (Board Measure) of a piece of timber 10 in. x 7 in., 20 ft. long ? Answer : 5.83 x 20 = 116.6 feet Board Measure. PROPERTIES OF TIMBER Description Weight per Cubic Foot in Lbs. Tensile Strength per Sq. In. in Lbs. Crushing Strength per Sq. In. in Lbs. Relative Strength for Cross Breaking. White Pine Equal 100 Shearing Strength with the Grain. Lbs. per Sq. In. Ash .... 43 to 55.8 11,000 to 17,207 4,400 to 9,363 130 to 180 458 to 700 Beech . . . 43 to 53.4 11,500 to 18,000 5,800 to 9,363 100 to 144 — Cedar. . . 50 to 56.8 10,300 to 11,400 5,600 to 6,000 55 to 63 — Cherry . . — — — 130 — Chestnut . 33 10,500 5,350 to 5,600 96 to 133 — Elm . . . 34 to 36.7 15,400 to 13,489 6,831 to 10,331 96 — Hemlock . — 8,700 5,700 88 to 95 — Hickory . — 12,800 to 18,000 8,925 150 to 210 — Locust . . 44 20,500 to 24,800 9,113 to 11,700 132 to 227 — Maple . . 49 10,500 to 10,584 8,150 122 to 220 367 to 647 Oak, white 45 to 54.5 10,253 to 19,500 4,684 to 9,509 130 to 177 752 to 966 Oak, live . 70 — 6,850 155 to 189 — Pine, white 30 10,000 to 12,000 5,000 to 6,650 100 225 to 423 Pine, yellow . 28.8 to 33 12,600 to 19,200 5,400 to 9,500 98 to 170 286 to 415 Spruce . . — 10,000 to 19,500 5,050 to 7.850 86 to 110 253 to 374 Walnut, black. . 42 9,286 to 16,000 7,500 — The above table should be taken with caution, as there is often very wide variations in any species. CUT NAILS AND TACKS THE TERM "PENNY" AS APPLIED TO NAILS The origin of the terms " six-penny," " ten-penny," etc., as applied to nails, though not commonly known, is involved in no mystery whatever. Nails have been made a certain number of pounds to the 300 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING thousand for many years, and are still reckoned in that way in England, a ten-penny being a thousand nails to ten pounds, a six- penny a thousand nails to six pounds, a twenty-penny weighing twenty pounds to the thousand ; and, in ordering, buyers call for the three-pound, six-pound, or ten-pound variety, etc., until, by the Englishman's abbreviation of "pun" for "pound," the abbreviation has been made to stand for penny, instead of pound, as originally intended. LENGTH AND NUMBER OF CUT NAILS TO THE POUND Size H CS V, o o V. V, ■f. < r. Q < o p 00 W H 6 3 4 * * fin. — — — — — 800 — 7 8 * * i 8 — — — — — 500 — 2d . 1 800 — — 1100 1100 376 — — 3d . H 480 — — 720 760 224 — — 4d . H 288 — — 523 368 180 398 — 5d . if 200 — — 410 — — — 130 6d . 2 168 96 84 268 — — 224 126 96 7d . H 124 74 64 188 — — — 98 82 8d . n 88 62 48 146 — — 128 75 68 9d . n 70 53 36 130 — — 110 65 — lOd . 3 58 46 30 102 — 91 55 — 28 12d . °4 44 42 24 76 — — 71 40 — — 16d . 3| 34 38 20 62 — — 54 27 — 22 20d . 4 23 33 16 54 — — 40 — — 14^ 30d . 41 ^2 18 20 — — — — 33 — — 124 40d . 5 14 — — — — — 27 — — 9 1 50d . H 10 8 60d . 6 H 7 8 6 41 ^2 — 8 - 91 Z 2 FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 301 TABLE FOR ESTIMATING QUANTITY OF NAILS 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 Material shingles laths sq. ft. beveled siding . . . sq. ft. sheathing .... sq. ft. sheathing .... sq. ft. flooring sq. ft. flooring sq. ft. studding sq. ft. studding sq. ft. furring 1 x 2 in. . . sq. ft. finished flooring, | in. sq. ft. finished flooring, 11 in. Size of Nail Lbs. Required 4d 5 3d 7 6d 18 8d 20 lOd 25 8d 30 lOd 40 lOd 15 20d 5 lOd 10 8d to lOd fin. 20 lOd fin. 30 TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF SCREW GAUGE FOR MACHINE AND WOOD SCREWS The difference between consecutive sizes is .01316". No. of Size of No. of Size of No. of Size of Screw Number in Screw Number in Screw Number in Gauge Decimals Gauge Decimals Gauge Decimals 000 .03152 16 .26840 34 .50528 00 .04486 17 .28156 35 .51844 .05784 18 .29472 36 .53160 1 .07100 19 .30788 37 .54476 2 .08416 20 .32104 38 .55792 3 .09732 21 .33420 39 .57108 4 .11048 22 .34736 40 .58424 5 .12364 23 .36052 41 .59740 6 .13680 24 .37368 42 .61056 7 .14996 25 .38864 43 .62372 8 .16312 26 .40000 44 .63688 9 .17628 27 .41316 45 .65004 10 .18944 28 .42632 46 .66320 11 .20260 29 .43948 47 .67636 12 .21576 30 .45264 48 .68952 13 .22892 31 .46580 49 .70268 14 .24208 32 .47896 50 .71584 15 .25524 33 .49212 302 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING DIFFERENT STANDARDS FOR WIRE GAUGE IN USE IN THE UNITED STATES DIMENSIONS OF SIZES IN DECIMAL PARTS OF AN INCH - 0) ?4 American or Brown & Sbarpe Birmingham, or Stubs' Wire Washburn & Moen Mfg. Co's Worcester, Ms. u CO