S H 
 
 THE FISHERIES AND THE GUANO 
 INDUSTRY OF PERU ^ ^ ^ 
 
 From BULLETIN OP THH BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Volume XXVIII, 1908 
 
 Proceedings of the Fourth International Fishery Congress : : Washington, 1908 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE :::::: 1910 
 
THE FISHERIES AND THE GUANO 
 INDUSTRY OF PERU =^ -^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 From BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Volume XXVIII, 1908 
 Proceedings of the Fourlh Inlernational Fishery Congress : : lVashtitglo7i, ipoS 
 
 t^^*-'^ 
 
 WASHINGTON ::::;: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
 
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 ,^(1^ 
 
 BUREAU OF FISHERIES DOCUMENT NO. 663. 
 
 Issued February. 1910. 
 
 MAR 2 1910 
 

 THE FISHERIES AND THE GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU 
 
 By Robert E. Coker 
 
 Lately Fishery Expert to the Government of Peru. 
 
 J- 
 
 Paper presented before the Fourth International Fishery Congress 
 held at Washington, U. S. A., September 22 to 26, 1908 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 I. The fisheries 335 
 
 Conditions and resources 335 
 
 History and present state of the fisheries 341 
 
 Fishing craft 341 
 
 Methods of capture 345 
 
 Preservation of fishery products 347 
 
 Future of the fishery industry 354 
 
 II. The guano industry 356 
 
 The problem ■_ 357 
 
 The guano-producing birds 358 
 
 The cormorant __ 358 
 
 The pelican 360 
 
 Thegannet 361 
 
 The penguin and the petrel 361 
 
 Extraction of the guano and protection of the birds 362 
 
 Conclusion : 365 
 
 334 
 
THE FISHERIES AND THE GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 
 
 By ROBERT E. COKER, 
 Lately Fishery Expert to the Government oj Peru. 
 
 I. THE FISHERIES. 
 
 Doubtless the fishes and the fishery resources of no country represented at 
 this congress are less known to the world than are those of Peru. That the 
 resources are unstudied is not attributable to their inadequacy or to the failure of 
 the people of Peru properly to value them, for Peru possesses a wealth of certain 
 valuable forms, and no people could be more highly or more generally appre- 
 ciative of fish food ; nor is it because they have any recent origin that the indus- 
 tries are little known. In fact, there is reason to believe that centuries before 
 the Columbian period the occupation of fishing was pursued in Peru, not simply 
 as an unorganized food hunt, but as an important industry. Therefore neither 
 the natural conditions nor the nature of the people can account for the scant 
 knowledge of the fishery resources or the inadequate state of the industry. 
 The explanation is found rather in the unfortunate history which has burdened 
 the country since the overthrow of an earlier social and industrial life. It is 
 only recently that a stable government has been able to give serious and effect- 
 ive attention to the many phases of industrial life of the nation, and to include 
 in its many endeavors the effort to conserve and develop the valuable resources 
 of the sea. 
 
 CONDITIONS AND RESOURCES OF THE REGION." 
 
 The traveler from the north has his first glimpse of the coast of Peru as the 
 steamer, after passing down the Guaya River from the chief port of Ecuador, 
 enters the Gulf of Guayaquil. The steamer may, as sometimes happens, touch at 
 
 oFor the scientific names employed in this report I am indebted to those who have kindly identi- 
 fied the specimens collected in Peru: Dr. Barton W. Evermann and Mr. Lewis Radcliffe (fishes), Dr. 
 W. H. Dall (mollusks), Miss Mary J. Rathbun (crustaceans), and others. 
 
 A forthcoming series of systematic papers by various writers will give a comprehensive view of 
 the chief aquatic resources of Peru as far as known at present. For detailed information regarding 
 the methods of fishery, as well as the conditions and resources, reference is made to various reports by 
 the present writer in the "Boletin del Ministerio de Fomento," Lima, vol, v., no. 12, Dec. 1907; vol. vi. 
 no. 2, 3, 4, and 5, Feb. to May, 1908, and others in press. 
 
 335 
 
336 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 the port of Tumbcs, well known as the landing place of Pizarro. If so, the first 
 impression of Peru is that which may have been anticipated of a tropical lati- 
 tude — a region of thick vegetation, chiefly mangrove trees in swamps intersected 
 by narrow winding estuaries, and traversed by a permanent river of considerable 
 volume. The local conditions are similar to those that prevail in the neighbor- 
 ing territory of Ecuador. Naturally in such a region there is an abundance of 
 shellfish, including oysters and many species of clams and crabs. 
 
 Typical, however, as this Tumbes region may seem for the latitude (3^2° S.), 
 and fitting perfectly to the region lying northward, the locality is entirely unique 
 for the coast of Peru. About 20 miles beyond the territorial line the aspect of 
 the shore presents the sharpest change. As the southern limit of the delta of 
 the Guaya is passed, the green luxuriance disappears abruptly to give place to 
 shores of barren and desolate appearance, and this new aspect continues prac- 
 tically unchanged for the remaining 1,400 miles of the Peruvian coast, and 
 onward, in fact, into the domain of Chile. (Fig. i, pi. xii.) 
 
 The type of coast characteristic of the country is, then, the reverse of what 
 one might expect of a tropical region. With shores rainless and barren, a 
 most significant feature is the practical absence of large rivers emptying into 
 the sea or mingling with the ocean waters in coastal sounds or bays. The portion 
 of the country west of the lofty western cordillera, the watershed of the conti- 
 nent, is a steeply sloping desert interrupted by the narrow valleys of numerous 
 little rivers formed from the melting snows of the Andes. In the cooler season 
 (May to September) the scant waters of these precipitous streams are soon 
 exhausted by natural evaporation or seepage, or spent in the irrigation ditches 
 of the fertile valleys. On the other hand, although in the warm period of No- 
 vember to March the melting snows swell the rivers into torrents, the coast at 
 this time is enduring its driest season, and the soils and irrigated farms are mak- 
 ing their greatest demands upon the rivers' flow. Such portion, then, as may 
 eventually reach the coast in any season can form but a small lagoon, and this 
 may be quite separated from the ocean by a narrow levee of shingle, which the 
 surf builds up against the river. The mouth of the Rimac offers a good illus- 
 tration of this interesting type of river mouth, across which one may walk 
 dry-shod. (Fig. 2, pi. xii.) Beneath one's feet the lagoon empties gradually into 
 the ocean through the loose formation of water-worn stones. Only in times of 
 excessive flood is the levee actually broken through to form a visible mouth. 
 
 It is unnecessary to point out the significance to the fisheries, or to the 
 natural history of the coast, of this general absence of estuaries, sounds, or brack- 
 ish bays, such as would off'er a quiet breeding ground for some kinds of ocean 
 fishes, or afford a favorable environment for oysters, clams, and other valued 
 shellfish. 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 337 
 
 No fishes ascend the upper courses of the rivers and the very few species 
 found in the lower parts are very small and of negligible economic value. 
 These little rivers are of great importance to the fisheries, however, as the habitat 
 of the most important shellfish of the country, the excellent " cameron de rio." ° 
 This fresh- water shrimp is a most highly and deservedly prized product, the 
 equal in quality of any crustacean form. The rivers are also significant, since 
 in the time of flood the most important of the food fishes, the large " corbina, " 
 is found in greatest numbers in the neighborhood of the mouths, probably feeding 
 upon the small Crustacea which find their way out of the river. The season of 
 " agua nueva " (new water) is a propitious one for the fishermen. 
 
 Consequent upon the absence of large rivers and the steepness of the coast, 
 there are few good bays or harbors. Most of the ports are upon a more or less 
 exposed shore, where embarkation must be effected through the surf, unless a 
 long pier has been built out beyond the ordinary breakers. Even in compara- 
 tively calm weather, the great swells rolling into the open bays often assume 
 such proportions as to make landings impracticable even with the use of long 
 steel piers. Fortunately, the coast is entirely free from storms; but the fisheries 
 as well as commerce are seriously handicapped at such ports as Eten, Salaverry, 
 Cerro Azul, and MoUendo, where for days at a time communication between sea 
 and land is rendered impossible by the prevalence of "la mar brava" (the wild 
 sea). 
 
 Untropical as is the coast of Peru in its aspect as described above, it is 
 equally so as regards the temperature of the ocean water. There is no more 
 significant featiu-e of the coast than the Humboldt or Peruvian current which 
 flows northward and northwestward along the west coast of South America, 
 bringing the cold antarctic waters down to the equatorial region. To find 
 upon the coast of the United States a summer temperature of the ocean water 
 corresponding to that of Callao at 12° S. one would go to about the latitude 
 of New York on the Atlantic side (41° N.) or Monterey on the Pacific (36° N.). 
 The Peruvian current, in conjunction with other factors, particularly the 
 constancy of the winds on the coast, produces a relative uniformity of tempera- 
 ture conditions. There is little variation in the water temperature from hour 
 to hour during the day, little difference from month to month during the year, 
 and a relatively small change from latitude to latitude. It is probable that 
 such variations as are found are due more to very local conditions, or to the 
 swinging of the current, than to seasonal changes or differences of latitude. 
 At Callao (12° S.) the water in early summer was at 15-19° C. (59-66° F.) and 
 in early winter from 16.5 to 19° C. (61-66° F.); at Paita (5° S.), in April, 
 records from 15.5° to 20.5° C. were taken, with an average of 17.5° C. (63.5° F.) ; 
 
 <» Bithynis ccementarius gaudichaudi (Milne-Edwards). 
 
 B. B. F. 1908 — 2 2 
 
338 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OK FISHERIES. 
 
 while at Mollendo (17° S.), more than a thousand miles to the south — or as 
 far away from Paita as New York from Miami, Fla. — the midwinter temper- 
 ature was 16° C. (61° F.). This current leads the fishermen to go southward 
 from the port instead of northward, if a prompt return journey is desired, and 
 its supposed swinging movements are of further significance, as it causes certain 
 pelagic fishes to approach or recede from the coast. 
 
 With such low-water temperatures a tropical fauna is, of course, absent. 
 Corals are wanting, sponges nearly so, and the general character of the fauna 
 and flora of the region is such as would ordinarily be found in much higher 
 latitudes. 
 
 In contrast to the barrenness of the coast there is a peculiar wealth of 
 certain forms in the open ocean. The great red seas, formed sometimes, at 
 least, of myriads of microscopic dinoflagellates, are of common occurrence. 
 They are of uncertain value and sometimes seem to work much injury. Some- 
 times, too, great areas of the surface of the sea are reddened by the vast 
 numbers of small Crustacea (Munida), which then play a part of great importance 
 as food for the fishes and for the guano-producing birds. More striking still are 
 the immense schools of small fishes, the "anchobetas" {Engraulis ringens 
 Jenyns) , which are followed by numbers of bonitos and other fishes and by sea 
 lions, while at the same time they are preyed upon by the flocks of cormorants, 
 peHcans, gannets, and other abundant sea birds. It is these birds, however, that 
 ofifer the most impressive sight. The long files of pelicans, the low-moving black 
 clouds of cormorants, or the rainstorms of plunging gannets probably can not be 
 equaled in any other part of the world. These birds feed chiefly, almost exclu- 
 sively, upon the anchobetas. The anchobeta, then, is not only an article of diet 
 to a large number of Peruvians, and the food of the larger fishes, but, as the food 
 of the birds, it is the source from which is derived each year probably a score 
 of thousands of tons of high-grade bird guano. It is therefore to be regarded 
 as the most valuable resource of the waters of Peru. No more forcible 
 testimony to its abundance could be ofi'ered than the estimate, made roughly, 
 but with not wide inaccuracy, that a single flock of cormorants observed at the 
 Chincha Islands would consume each year a weight of these fish equal to one- 
 fourth of the entire catch of the fisheries of the United States. 
 
 The fisliing grounds and opportunities, especially with the methods of 
 fishery now in use, are restricted by the scarcity of good bays and by the 
 rapid deepening of the water off the shore. Yet there are compensatory 
 features. In proximity to almost every' port are groups of islands, often 
 with numerous coves and abundant outlying rocks, which offer a varied home 
 for many species of rock and shore fishes. Along the coast proper some of the 
 same species are found, with a good representation of the drums, the Hzas, the 
 flounders, and silversides. 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 339 
 
 To mention the most esteemed and important fishes:" The "peje-rey" or 
 silverside (an atherinid), the most deUcate of all fishes, is most easily taken in 
 early or mid winter when it is depositing its eggs upon the algae near the 
 shores; the "corbina" attains a size of 30 or 40 pounds, and from its abundance 
 and fine quality is the fish of first rank in importance; the "hza," or mullet, 
 and the "lenguados," or flounders, are also of the first class. Yet perhaps 
 none of these is superior to the congrio (representative of the Ophidiida;), 
 which is not commonly taken except in the southern part of Peru. Nearly a 
 hundred food species could be mentioned, but only two or three more of these 
 deserve mention for special reasons. 
 
 The bonito, though poor in quality, is, from its abundance and cheapness, 
 the fish most available to the poorer people. The anchobetas {Engraulis) 
 are favored by the indigenous Peruvians. Large quantities are preserved in the 
 crudest way by mixing with salt and spreading on the ground to dry in the sun. 
 They are then sacked to be sold at a small price ($1 the sack, more or less). 
 This little fish of manifold uses is all the more significant because of the rare oppor- 
 tunity it offers for the preparation of an excellent preserved product — an oppor- 
 tunity that is not now utilized. 
 
 The selachians (sharks, rays, guitar-fishes, and angel-fishes) are not in most 
 countries accounted important food fishes. But they occur in remarkable abund- 
 ance in the northern region of Peru, where they are freely used and esteemed 
 by the indigenous population. Just northward of the Peruvian waters our 
 steamer passed for hours through an enormous aggregation of various kinds of 
 selachians, the great giant rays, and sharks of all sizes, hammer-head and sharp- 
 nose. \X)n one occasion, in December, 1907, the beaches of the island of Lobos 
 de Tierra seemed literally fringed by the protruding fins of sharks basking in the 
 shallow waters. 
 
 The preparation of such fishes by drying them in the sun constitutes an 
 important industry for the fishermen who frequent the island of Lobos de Tierra 
 during the season when it is not closed for the protection of the guano birds. 
 This island, unlike the others of the coast, is surrounded by sand bottoms favor- 
 able for net fishing. It is only 10 miles from the coast, but about 70 miles from 
 the nearest fishing ports (Eten, vSechura). The fishermen form a camp here, 
 coming out with their families in balsas (Sechura) or balandras (Eten, Paita). 
 All kinds of fishing are pursued, but the most characteristic is the use of large- 
 meshed nets of strong material for the capture of selachians and large flounders. 
 The skillful manipulation of these fishes for preservation with or without the 
 use of salt merits special description in a later connection. 
 
 o Peje-rey, BasilielUhys jordani, etc.; corbina, Scttsna gilberii Abbott; liza, Mugil ccphalus; congrio, 
 Genypterus blacodes; bonito, Sarda chilensis. 
 
340 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 Naturally a coast like that of Peru does not offer a favorable environment 
 for many kinds of the better shellfishes. The scallop", "concha abanico," 
 "senorita" or "conchita," as it is variously called, is, however, very abundant 
 in many places and often attains a large size. It ranks next to the freshwater 
 shrimp, the "cameron de rio." Mussels, beach clams, the spiny lobster," and 
 various crabs are found in the market, but quite irregularly. The small region 
 about the port of Tumbes in the extreme north is as unique for the coast of Peru 
 in its fishery resources as in its physical features. From the mouth of the Tumbes 
 River to Capon, near the Ecuador line, there is a network of salt and brackish 
 estuaries in which thrive a variety of crabs, clams, and mussels. But the chief 
 resource of the region is the abundant oyster," which grows attached to the roots 
 and branches of the mangrove trees margining the salt creeks (fig. 3, pi. xiii). 
 The fishery for oysters is very restricted at present, but there is undoubtedly 
 a fair opportunity for its development. 
 
 An allusion should be made to the pearl fishery which, in 1900, was exploited 
 in the region from the Bay of Sechura to Paita. It appears that at the start 
 the fishery was a success, but after a very brief period ceased to yield, and subse- 
 quent efforts failed entirely to locate any banks of pearl oysters. It is possible 
 that the discovery of these beds awaits only the prosecution of a systematic 
 investigation with deep drags or by diving. The "pearl oyster", or "concha 
 perla " of the region is Pleria peruviana Reeve, the shells of which may not infre- 
 quently be found upon the beaches. 
 
 Perhaps in no other country is fish food more generally esteemed and used 
 when available. So we find that not only the usual edible fishes and larger Crus- 
 tacea and mollusks, such as have been mentioned, but a wide variety of smaller 
 and less generally esteemed forms are sought and prepared for the trade. In 
 some parts of Peru there is hardly an available shore form that is not taken to 
 be used as food. As articles of diet, we should include some species of sea 
 weeds, the Hippa, h&rrmt crabs and barnacles; the conchs, large and small; 
 the crepidulas, patellids, fissurellids and chitons; the excellent sea-urchin and 
 the sea-cucumber; the sea-anemone and ascidians — or almost everything of 
 suitable size except annelids and jellyfishcs. 
 
 Along the entire coast a considerable element of the population finds its 
 support in taking fish for personal use and for the trade. In the larger ports the 
 greater part of the product is eaten in fresh condition, but at other places where 
 the fish must be conveyed a greater distance to port, or distributed over a wider 
 territory on land, the fishermen salt or dry their catch by methods adapted to 
 their means and knowledge. 
 
 "Scallop, Pccten fmrpuratus Lamarck; spiny lobster, Puiiulirus ornatus (Fabricius); oyster, Ostrea 
 chilensis Philippi and O. columbiensis Hanley. 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. ' 341 
 
 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE OF THE FISHERIES. 
 
 Many of the present methods employed in the capture or preservation of 
 fishes probably date back to a very remote time; for it is interesting to note 
 that Peru not only claims an ancient fishery but offers some evidence to indi- 
 cate that centuries ago the fishery and related industries had a relatively high 
 degree of organization. The interesting story is often told of the system of 
 transportation of fresh fish from the coast to the royal home in Cuzco, a region 
 where fresh sea fish is never available now. 
 
 Through the earliest writers we know of the appreciation and use by the 
 earlier Peruvians of the guano deposits of the coast for their great agricultural 
 industries. The rigorous edicts for the protection of the guano-producing birds 
 were evidence of admirable foresight and antedated by centuries any further 
 effort to preserve the birds. Relics of pottery and gold are found buried in 
 the sand or in the guano, and it is an interesting fact that modern explorations 
 upon the coast and islands indicate that the villages necessarily supported by 
 the fishery or guano-working industries possessed a degree of wealth that could 
 have resulted only from an industry of relatively high development. 
 
 The great shell heaps and the islands and causeways of shells in the estuary 
 region of the Gulf of Guayaquil testify to an early fishery of oysters and clams 
 pursued in no rude or half-measure way. A thousand years of the present 
 oyster fishery would not leave a trace comparable to these. 
 
 In short, it is probable that the ancient Peruvians were as competent in 
 the fishery as in agricultural, textile, and other industries. Nevertheless, what- 
 ever may have been the condition in this earlier period, this industry, like all 
 others, certainly fell to a very low stage after the conquest. During the past 
 few years new fishermen have come in, new methods have been introduced, 
 and better facilities have appeared; and yet the industry is but poorly devel- 
 oped, and its condition is distinctly unsatisfactory. 
 
 In attempting to give a brief account of the fishing industry as it is now 
 carried on, it is not necessary that modernly introduced methods should receive 
 more than the mention. It may be of value, however, to speak more fully of 
 those forms of fisheries which may be presumed to have continued._in use since 
 the pre-Columbian period — those which are not borrowed but are actually and 
 historical^ "home industries." 
 
 FISHING CRAFT. 
 
 It would seem natural that a people who could construct magnificent 
 buildings and walls of stone that endure to our present admiration, would have 
 fashioned good wooden boats, if the forests of timber had been available; but 
 with the coast region desert and barren except for the scrubby growth of alga- 
 roba, with its dense and heavy wood, the ordinary materials of boat construction 
 
342 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 were absent. A resourceful people found a substitute for wood in the reeds 
 growing thickly near the rivers; bound together in sufficient numbers, these 
 were made into remarkably strong craft which continue even now to serve a 
 useful purpose. The "caballito" (fig. 5, pi. xiv) in its simplest form, as now 
 used at Pacasmayo, for example, is made of two long bundles of "totora." 
 The reeds are individually weak and flimsy, but the bundle, which is well 
 wrapped with twine, is strong and comparatively stiff. Each bundle is about 
 a foot in diameter at the aft end; forward it enlarges a little, and then tapers 
 to a point at the other end. The two bundles are securely bound with rope, 
 and the long tapering ends curve upward in graceful form. At a short distance 
 from the stern (about one-fifth of the entire length) the inner and upper reeds 
 of each bundle terminate squarely to form the forward end of a small pit, where 
 the fish may be kept. The pit, which is about a foot deep at its forward end, 
 rises gradually to the top of the caballito near the stern." The craft derives 
 its Spanish name of "caballito" (pony) from the method of its use. The fish- 
 erman sits astride, just forward of the pit, with his legs hanging in the water 
 or resting on the side of the boat. For a paddle he uses a plain split of bam- 
 boo cane, paddling with each end alternately. With its shapely taper and 
 upturned pointed end, the caballito, mounted by an Indian fishenuan, not only 
 presents a picturesque appearance, but is most serviceable for use in the short 
 swell near the beach where an ordinary boat would be unwieldy. \\'ith his 
 caballito anchored just beyond the surf, the fisherman sits just in front of the 
 pit and facing astern. Of the three lines in use, two are attached to his belt 
 while the third, which is stout and carries a large hook, is secured to the cabal- 
 lito. If both hands are busy with one line, the other is held with the toes. 
 The fish must be killed with a small stick before being thrown into the pit, 
 from which they might easily escape if alive. 
 
 The caballito is also used in net fishing. The net is in the form of a very 
 large small-meshed bag which when in the water is kept open by gourd buoys 
 attached to the top of the mouth on each side and by stone sinkers on each side 
 below. The mesh may be i >2 to 2 centimeter bar. Extending outward from 
 each side of the mouth is a"brazo" (arm) of some 8 fathoms length and of 
 very large mesh. To the ends of the arms are attached the hauling lines. The 
 fishermen astride of their caballitos haul this net through the water to take a 
 school of ' ' sardinas ' ' or other fishes , all the time making as much noise in the water 
 as they can with feet and paddles. The same type of net may be worked from 
 canoes or flat-bottomed boats. (Pacasmayo, Chimbote). 
 
 The totora reeds may be bound together to form a much heavier and larger 
 craft than the caballito. The "balsa" of Cerro Azul is made, like a raft, of 
 
 a Dimensions of a caballito: Length, 4.50 meters, width at stern, 0.56 meter, stern to forward 
 end of pit, 0.94 meter, depth of pit, forward, 0.30 meter. 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 343 
 
 three logs well lashed together, but each log is only a bundle of totora, which 
 tapers slightly toward the forward end, where it is gently curved upward. The 
 diameter at the stern is about 25 centimeters. The bundle consists of an inner 
 core or heart ("corazon") and a thin outer shell, so that as the exposed reeds 
 decay under the action of the water and the sun they may be removed and 
 replaced without disturbing the entire balsa. 
 
 The most elaborate boat of reeds" is the balsa used in Lake Titicaca, where 
 it is fashioned in a more boat-like fonn. (Fig. 6, pi. xiv.) The squarish sail is 
 woven of the same reeds and somewhat in the fashion of a Venetian blind. 
 These balsas are broad, and excavated so that they may accommodate an entire 
 family bringing their various products to market. Though we are not at this 
 point immediately concerned with the fisheries of the lake, an allusion should 
 be made to the use of these totora reeds in the construction of fishing weirs. 
 At the small end of the funnel-like weir there is set a net fixed on a conical 
 framework of poles which can be raised or lowered from the balsas. 
 
 These boats of reeds could not have sufficed for the longer fishing voyages 
 and the commerce from port to port, but this need was supplied by the intro- 
 duction of the balsa wood growing in Ecuador. This exceedingly light wood 
 possesses the merit of not absorbing water, so that it will float indefinitely. 
 From these logs, rafts or balsas are constructed in all sizes, from the small ones 
 of about 6 feet length to the large 30 or 40 foot balsas, which have an upper 
 deck and are fitted with a large squarish sail. On these the Indians with their 
 families will live for weeks. The fishermen of Paita and Sechura find their 
 most profitable fishing grounds about the islands of Lobos de Tierra or Lobos 
 de Afuera, at distances of 70 to 100 miles from port. Living on the commo- 
 dious balsas, the fishermen navigate along the coast, fishing where it is desirable, 
 or moving to their camps on the islands, to remain until a cargo is salted away.* 
 
 Some type of canoe is found at every port. Most of these are made from 
 wood brought from the region of Guayaquil. "Canoas" of the commoner 
 woods are said to last only a few years; "figaroa" is a much better wood; 
 "huachapeli," however, is most highly esteemed, and it is said that canoes of 
 this wood have a life of a hundred years or more. One of these canoes was 
 nearly 15 yards in length, but the ordinary length is from 6 to 9 meters. The 
 canoe is usually strengthened with timbers and given greater freeboard by the 
 addition of a pine plank on each side. They may be fitted with a large squarish 
 sail called a " vela cuadrada " or a " banda." 
 
 Boats of good modern types are to be found at almost every port. When 
 the first foreign fishermen (Italian and Spanish) came over, Mediterranean 
 
 "■Malacochcsle totora is used for boats, sails, pontoons, weirs, thatching, etc. 
 
 6 On the brief trip to Mollendo the writer did not have opportunity to examine a balsa made of 
 the hides of sea lions, the description of which must, therefore, be omitted. 
 
344 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 types of boats were introduced, and it is said that for some time the ready- 
 built boats were imported by ships coming around the Cape. However that 
 may have been, the boats are all built in Peru now and chiefly of American 
 white pine strengthened with oak. A variety of types are in use, of which 
 the neatest is the felucca ("faluca" or "falucho") as it is employed at Callao. 
 This has a round bottom and smooth sides, is pointed at both ends, and may be 
 entirely decked. There is a long, narrow hatch, the "escotilla," and in the 
 extreme aft end a small "escotilla de popa " opening into a compartment in 
 the stern dignified by the name of "salon " and used for the storage of nets or 
 fish. With the covers of the escotillas in place, the little boat is snugly decked 
 in. The space under the forward deck serves for bedding, clothing, and other 
 things, while under the side decks are spaces (" escafetas ") for the keeping of 
 cooking utensils, provisions, and miscellaneous equipment. Though the boats 
 are small, yet for the period of a fishing trip the fisherman regards his boat as 
 his home and equips it accordingly. A typical Callao felucca is 5^2 meters 
 in length, 2 meters in width, and 0.65 meter in depth. 
 
 As typical of the felucca, the mast stands about midway and supports a 
 triangular lateen sail; that is, a triangular sail which is attached by its fore 
 margin to a lateen yard or " entena." The entena hoists obliquejy to the mast. 
 For use in the scallop dredging, greater power and convenience are secured by 
 modifying the sailing rig. The mast is then placed well forward and a boom and 
 gaff sail (schooner-like) is used. 
 
 These closely decked feluccas are found only at Callao. In other ports the 
 boats are usually square of stern and uncovered. At all ports the boats seem 
 to have no other name than "bote de Pescadores" (fishermen's boat), the desig- 
 nation by which they are distinguished from the bote chalanos, canoas, balsas, 
 and caballitos. 
 
 One of the common inferior boats of the coast is the bote chalano, with 
 square stern, steep sides, and fiat bottom, or, as at Callao, with a wedged but 
 fore-and-aft planked bottom. At Callao it is used with a large square sail. 
 
 All of the boats are without centerboards and are comparatively poor 
 sailers into the wind. Therefore if a fishing trip is made to northward of the 
 port, the return journey against both wind and current is always tedious. The 
 use of the centerboard is unknown. 
 
 The best sailing craft are the " balandritas " or small sloops of Pacasmayo. 
 The balandras used there for trips to the Lobos Islands are 25 to 30 feet in 
 length, with a 7 to 10 foot beam and a depth of 3 >^ to 6 feet. Square of stern, 
 well decked in, and with a small cabin, they have fair seagoing qualities and 
 may carry from 10 to 14 tons. The balandritas are of the same form, but smaller. 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 345 
 
 They are good sailers and are well adapted for trolling in the bay for the 40- 
 pound robalos." 
 
 Reference to boats would not be complete without mention of the American 
 whaleboats which from time to time have been left by the whalers in the 
 region of Tumbes. They are used in the local whale fishery and for other 
 purposes. Valuing economy of nervQus energy more than saving of time, the 
 fishermen of Tumbes avoid any trouble from the centerboard, and cripple their 
 boats, by securely sealing the centerboard well from below. 
 
 METHODS OF FISHING. 
 
 Besides a few small and unimportant hand nets, such as the "chaya" and 
 the "bajia," there are only four or five types of nets in use. These are the 
 "ataraya," or casting net; the "red derecha," or gill net; the "chinchorro," or 
 beach hauling seine; the "anchobetera," and the "trasmalla." 
 
 The " trasmalla " (trammel-net) or " red de tres paiios " (net of three cloths) 
 is clearly an innovation, and is now found only where it has been directly intro- 
 duced by the European fishermen, as at Callao and Mollendo. The others are 
 doubtless indigenous to the country, although in some cases apparently modified 
 by modern influences. 
 
 Where there are good beaches the fishermen wade into the surf to throw the 
 ataraya, but, except when the valued lizas are abundant, the method is slow and 
 profitless. (Fig. 4, pi. xiii.) The gill net, "red," or "red derecha," is essen- 
 tially the same wherever found, though appearing under a variety of names, 
 according to the size of the mesh and the kind of fish for which it is intended. 
 Used at the surface or at the bottom, set straight or traplike, in the form of 
 the letter S or of a figure 6, employed in the far off shore fishery for bonitos or in 
 the treacherous surf on a steep shingle beach, it may have a mesh of any size 
 from lyi to 10 centimeters. Thus we find it as a "pejereyera" {1% to 2 cm., 
 bar measure) , " cabinsera " (3 cm.) , " lizera " (4 to 5 cm.) , " bonitera " (5 to 7 cm.) , 
 "corbinera" (6^ to 9 cm.), "robalera" or "cazonera" (9 to 10 cm.), according 
 as the net is designed for the capture of fishes of the sizes of peje-reys, 
 cabinsas, lizas, robalos, cazones (large sharks), etc. The measures are always 
 stated in "dedos" (fingers), one dedo being equivalent to about 2 centimeters, 
 diagonal measure, and therefore the measure in dedos corresponds approxi- 
 mately to the bar measure in centimeters. The greatest part of the catch 
 of the entire coast is taken by these nets. 
 
 The chinchorro is used where there are suitable beaches. It is a hauling 
 seine, with a bag or bolsa about 7 fathoms deep by 2>^ high. -In the back or 
 
 « Chalanos, feluccas, and balandritas may be valued, approximately, at 200 soles, 400 soles, and 
 600 soles, or at $100, $200, and $300, respectively. 
 
346 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 bottom portion for 2 fathoms it is of small mesh and strongly reenforced, while 
 the outer portion is of larger mesh (about 8 centimeters). The long "brazos" 
 (arms), or "bandas," extending out from each side of the mouth are 13 fathoms 
 in length and 50 meshes (10 cm. each) in height. In making a haul, two 
 canoas or balsas are used in- putting the net, while it is drawn onto the beach 
 by several men, often with two or three mules. 
 
 Perhaps the most characteristic net is the anchobetera, a modification of 
 the chinchorro, used in taking the little anchobetas, which occur in such vast 
 schools. The bolsa, or copa, is 4 or 5 meters in depth, and, when flattened, 9 or 
 10 meters wide (that is, 18 to 20 meters in circumference). The opening or 
 mouth of the bolsa is surrounded by a sort of funnel, of four portions; the upper 
 and lower " pechos " (breasts) with a mesh of 9-centinieter bar, and the right and 
 left "sobacos" (armpits) with a mesh of 20 -centimeter bar. From the sobacos 
 the brazos, or arms, lead out on each side with a length of 5 or 6 fathoms, and 
 a mesh of 40-centimeter bar (16 inches). In surrounding small schools of 
 anchobetas, the net is worked from canoas or balsas. A larger net of the same 
 type may be used for " sardinas," as referred to on page 342. It would be called 
 a "sardinera" or a "red clara."" 
 
 In the way of line fishing, we find the simple still-fishing line, or "cordel," 
 the trolling fine, or "cordel bonitero," and the trawl-line or bait-line — the 
 "espinel." 
 
 The espinel is of particular interest, as one of the most effective methods of 
 fishing and as being the only method by which one of the very best fishes of the 
 coast is taken in any abundance. As used at Callao, Chimbote, etc., the espinel 
 carries 50 to 100 hooks on short lines attached at intervals of i to 2 meters, and 
 it is worked in 20 to 30 fathoms of water. The espinel fishery, however, is best 
 seen at MoUendo. Fishing in 46 fathoms at a trial on the usual fishing grounds, 
 and using a line of i ,500 hooks, our fishermen took 256 congrios at one haul. As 
 the hooks were attached (by 30-centimeter side lines) at inter\'als of i meter, 
 the length of line fished was nearly i mile, but such a line is readily worked by 
 one man with an assistant to control the boat. The line was set after 7 o'clock 
 in the evening and taken up after midnight. The catch of about 400 pounds of 
 the best fish, made at one haul of the line, was considered good, but not unusual, 
 and the fishermen describe hauls of 700 pounds on i ,200 hooks kept in the water 
 for four or five hours. 
 
 "The name "clara," it may be remarked here, is at first confusing, being applied to nets of very 
 different types. The "clara" is theclear net — that is, the net which the smaller fish can pass through. 
 Therefore, fishermen who speak of the anchobetera as "la red" (the net) would call the same form of 
 net with larger mesh the "clara;" in another community, where the gill net for cabinsas was the net in 
 most common use, and therefore spoken of as "la red," the "clara" would be a net of somewhat larger 
 mesh, such as the "lizcra" or the "bonitero." Thus in one commimity the "red clara" is a gill net, 
 while in another community it is an entirely different type of net. 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 347 
 
 In this case only four fishes other than the congrios were taken (two sea 
 basses and two rays) , and it is significant that the congrio appears not to be taken 
 in any numbers except by the use of the espinel. The congrio, eaten fresh, is 
 considered an unsurpassed food fish, and, as will appear on a later page, it gives 
 the best salt product prepared in Peru. It seems surprising, therefore, that the 
 espinel is not more extensively used. The method is relatively laborious, but 
 the yield is in proportion to the labor. Undoubtedly, the reluctance of the fisher- 
 men to use it is due, not so much to the amount of work involved, as to its rela- 
 tive intricacy, the necessity of much preparatory work in the securing of bait, 
 the baiting of the many hooks, the arrangement of the lines in the tubs, and, 
 finally, the constant care required in the manipulation of the line in order to 
 avoid mischievous tangles. 
 
 At Callao the espinel is not often used, and then only in a small way, the 
 fishermen preferring those methods which, however much actual labor they may 
 involve, require the least forethought. The congrio is practically unknown to 
 the market there. Even at Mollendo, where the effectiveness of the method is 
 not infrequently demonstrated, it is not regularly used, the fishermen choosing 
 rather to throw a shot of dynamite near the rocks and scoop the fish from the 
 surface. Undoubtedly there are extensive fishing grounds which will become 
 available only with the extension of the espinel fishery or by the introduction of 
 the bottom trawl-net ("red barradera")- 
 
 Dynamite must be mentioned as one of the common methods of fishing. 
 This abuse is certainly working an incalculable damage, especially in certain 
 regions. It is prohibited by the government, but the efforts to prevent its use 
 have so far been ineffectual, and the practice is at present the most serious 
 defect of the fishery." 
 
 PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS. 
 
 Some of the methods of preservation employed are of especial interest, 
 but before particular mention is made of these, a word may be said as to the 
 significance of the fish-preservation industry to the country. 
 
 " A list of apparatus used for taking sea fish in Peru would be made nearly complete by adding the 
 following to those that have been mentioned above: The dredge, or "rastra," employed in the scallop 
 fishery, especially at Callao, and a rather better rastra formerly used in the abortive pearl fishery at 
 Sechura and Paita; the net for turtles, or "tortugera;" the gig, or "fisga," for taking the flounders at 
 Callao, a little oil being sometimes poured on the water to make the surface smooth; the "bolador," 
 made of wood in the form of the dasher of an old-fashioned churn, which is thrust sharply into the 
 water, making a loud sound to drive the fish into the gill net or the trammel net; the pole and hook 
 ("gancho"), for taking gobies and devilfishes from the rocks; the lance ("harp6n"), thrown at the larger 
 fish from the shore, from a pier, or from the boat; the harpoons, as rarely used in the fishery of sword- 
 fishes ("peje-espada") at Mollendo; and the ordinary harpoon and hand-lance outfit employed in the 
 shore fishery of whales at Tumbes. We are not here concerned with the various baskets and hand nets 
 with which the fresh-water shrimps are taken, or with the methods employed in the lake and river 
 fisheries of the interior. 
 
348 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 For want of convenient methods of transportation, it is only the people 
 of the ports who can have the luxury of fresh fish, and even these may know- 
 it only as an occasional delicacy if the fishermen are accustomed to work at a 
 considerable distance from the port. To the people of the interior only salt 
 fish is ever available, and they prize it highly. Even this is a rare luxury in 
 most parts of the countrv, however, on account of the rather unsatisfactory 
 preservation of fish and the entire want of system in the marketing and distri- 
 bution of the product. At some ports, in fact, neither fresh nor salt fish are 
 regularly obtainable. ' 
 
 At the island groups of Guanape, Lobos de Afuera, and Lobos de Tierra 
 practically all the fish taken are preserved by salting or drying for the supply 
 of the region of coast between Salaverry and Paita. Paita even boasts a small 
 exportation of salt fish, since two balandritas convey annually about 50,000 
 fish (" sierras," "bonitoes, " " caballas, " " pejc-blancos, " and " meros ") to Manta, 
 in Hcuador, and other ports of the north.'' 
 
 That preserv'ed fish is not more available to the people of Peru is rather 
 remarkable in view of the general occurrence of deposits of salt. In almost 
 every part of the coast are found salt beds of greater or less purity. In some 
 places, as near Pisco, cakes of almost pure salt can be picked up from the 
 ground. The extraction, refining, and sale of salt are restricted, however, to 
 the National Salt Company, and the common market price is exceedingly high. 
 So far as I am aware, only the fishermen of one village, San Andres,' near Pisco, 
 have the privilege, especially granted them, of taking for themselves the com- 
 paratively good salt from the hillsides near the shores of Paracas, where they 
 commonly fish for peje-reyes and other fishes. On the other hand, the Govern- 
 ment, realizing the absolute necessity of cheap salt to the fishermen, has made 
 special arrangements for their benefit. Each fisherman is entitled to receive 
 monthly from the salt company 2 quintals (200 pounds) of salt at a nominal 
 price, while for such further quantities as he may need the price is fixed very 
 much below the regular market price. These arrangements would seem to be 
 most satisfactory to the fishermen, at least; but the indigenous fisherman has 
 an almost unconquerable prejudice against the purchase of salt, and wiH rarely 
 go beyond the allowance, although often complaining of its inadequacy. In 
 times of especial abundance, quantities of fish are therefore sold at small prices 
 or allowed to spoil. 
 
 One of the expedients of the fishermen, resulting only in part from the 
 inadequacy of the salt supply, is the use of what they call "salitre. " The 
 
 " The importation of salt and canned fish in 1905 amounted to about £38,361 (Si 86,800), but the im- 
 ported product docs not reach a large proportion of the natives, who are without fish food of any kind. 
 
 I* Sierra, Scombcromorus sierra; bonito, Sarda chilcnsis; caballa {•mo.cViereX), Scomber japonicus; 
 \ic]e-h\a.nco, CaulolatUus sp.\ mero, not identified. 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 349 
 
 word means saltpeter, but it is applied by them to what is merely a natural 
 mixture of salt and sand and other impurities, which may be found near some 
 of the villages. It is claimed by many of the Indian fishermen that the fish 
 preserved with the so-called salitre will keep in better condition for eating than 
 those preserved with pure salt. 
 
 The Cfude native methods of drying anchobetas have already been noted. 
 Occasionally these little fishes are prepared in small quantities, by pickling, so 
 as to make a very palatable food. 
 
 Generally speaking, no choice is exercised in the selection of fish for pres- 
 ervation; any fish that comes to hand and is regarded as edible will be packed 
 away. There are certain forms of preservation, however, which seem to be 
 worthy of further description. 
 
 Preservation methods at Mollendo. — The fisheries of MoUendo, though not 
 extensive, would form a chapter in themselves. The markets of the port and 
 of Arequipa, the second city of the country, display a variety of fish products 
 not seen in the more northern markets. 
 
 On some accounts the most interesting fishery product of this region is the 
 peculiar dry and tangled egg-mass which is found on the local markets as 
 " cau-cau. ' ' This is the egg-mass of the " volador " or flying fish, which is collected 
 in season and dried that it may be kept on the markets throughout the year. 
 These eggs have an especial interest from the fact that, although flying-fish eggs 
 have been known to science for nearly fifty years, they were, until quite recently, 
 attributed erroneously to the little sargasso fish (Pterophryne) of supposed nest- 
 building habits. A few years ago, after the discovery of the true eggs of Ptero- 
 phryne, the identity of the eggs of the so-called " nests " with those of the flying 
 fishes was soon established. The cau-cau appears to have been a product long 
 familiar to the natives of this part of Peru, by whom the eggs have been attrib- 
 uted, and correctly as it seems, to the flying fishes. 
 
 Each egg is 2 millimeters in diameter, and its membrane is produced into a 
 number of filaments, which, though rather scattered over the surface of the egg, 
 have a tendency to a bipolar distribution. The filaments, though very fine, are 
 quite long and the fibers of diff'erent eggs are thoroughly intertangled, to unite 
 the many eggs into a closely woven mat. Sometimes the filaments are so twisted 
 together as to give the appearance of a well-defined thread. 
 
 The cau-cau of the market, then, is a large number of the shrunken berries, 
 entangled to form a shapeless mat. A mat may be a good double handful or 
 more, and the filaments are so completely interwoven as to make it difficult to 
 tear the mass into portions. When soaked in water the eggs will expand and 
 take an appearance as if freshly laid. They are found in early summer, begin- 
 ning with October, and are said often to be entangled with weed. My visit 
 was in July (midwinter) and the cau-cau then on the market was quite free from 
 
350 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 seaweed. Floating seaweed is, indeed, not common in the region, and the mat 
 form of the large and otherwise shapeless masses suggests that they were formed 
 while floating at the surface. 
 
 The most important presers'ed product of the region is the " charquecito, " 
 made from the congrio, a reference to the capture of which fish has already been 
 made. The preparation was not observed, but as it was described the congrios 
 arc opened, cleaned, washed in salt water, and hung up to dry. Six or eight 
 days later they are thrown into piles ready for the market. The drying and 
 subsequent preservation must be watched with care to prevent heating or 
 curling. The tail bends up in drying and must be pressed or bent out to preserve 
 the desired appearance. The charquecito is the most highly esteemed preserved 
 fish, but, like all fish products of the coast, it is rarely shipped to other ports. It 
 brings a good price, 5 or 6 reals per pound (25 to 30 cents American). 
 
 Besides the charquecito and the cau-cau, a number of minor products are 
 preserved. Dried seaweed is prepared by the simple process of putting the 
 fresh weed into molds and pressing it into flat plates, which, after being 
 dried in the sun, are folded and are then ready for sale. The seaweed used is 
 called "uyos" or "cocho-uyos," but the species so dried is not the ordinary 
 "cocho-uyos" that is eaten at other ports. 
 
 "Lapas" (fissurellids) and "barquillos" (chitons)," after being boiled and 
 stripped of the shell, are dried and strung, and a "sarta" of two dozen of these 
 "atados" (strings) is sold for the very small sum of 30 centavos, or about one- 
 third the price of the fresh shellfish. 
 
 The "pincho de mar," a holothurian, is skinned and dried to make a crude 
 trepang. "Ocoti," or "pota," is the sea anemone* stewed and stripped of the 
 skin. It is sometimes dried. It is a custom for the Serranos, or inhabitants 
 of the interior, coming down to the coast at Ilo, to take back with them the 
 trepang, ocoti, etc., along with the cau-cau and charquecito. 
 
 In this connection it may be mentioned that, besides the characteristic 
 methods of preservation practiced in this region, other fisheries are followed here 
 that are rarely found in other ports. The capture of the swordfish ("peje- 
 espada") is sometimes attempted, and at least one fisherman is well equipped 
 with the necessary harpoons. The swordfishes are said to weigh 200 to 400 
 pounds and to bring 26 to 50 soles each ($13 to $25). 
 
 The prized "erizos" (porcupines), or sea urchins, are more commonly taken 
 here than elsewhere. Ascidians, which bear the surprising name of "ciruelas" 
 (cherries), are stripped of the test, so that the inner portion is taken out "como 
 
 "Lapas, Fissurella cosiata Lesson, F. crassa Lamarck; barquillos, Chiton granosus Trembly; Enoplo- 
 chiton niger Barnes. 
 
 b Phymactcr clematis (Dana) Milne-Edwards, as identified for the U. S. National Museum by Prof. 
 J. Playfair McMurrich. 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 35 1 
 
 un huevo " (like an egg) and is eaten raw or in soups under the name of 
 "cochizo" or "piuri." 
 
 Finally an allusion should be made to the taking of the abundant bogas, 
 suchis, and peje-reyes (species of fresh- water fish) in Lake Titicaca. These 
 fishes are considered delicacies and are brought down to Arequipa, the chief 
 city of the region. Dried lake peje-reyes were observed on the market. 
 
 .4; Lobos de Tierra. — Reference has been made to the capture of selachians 
 and flounders in the region of Lobos de Tierra. Many of these are preserved 
 by sun drying and without the use of salt or other preservative. The process 
 is of some interest, as the fishermen are peculiarly expert in preparing the fish. 
 
 On the return from the fishing trip, after the fish are thrown into piles on 
 the beach, the first matter is the apportionment of the catch, since two or 
 more fishermen have worked together. The division accomplished, they set 
 to work individually to prepare the fishes for drying. Each man has beside 
 him, when at work on the beach, an oar or a board sprinkled with sand and 
 used for sharpening the knife. A short sharp sheath-knife is used and it is 
 whetted by a stroke or two on the oar after almost every cut that is made. 
 The "guitarra" (guitar-fish) is laid on the sand with the back up. Five cuts 
 practically prepare the fish. The first splits the right and left sides incom- 
 pletely apart, leaving the backbone in the left half; the second lays open the 
 right side of the head; the third lays open the right side of the body; the 
 fourth lays open the left side of the body ; the fifth lays open the left side of the 
 head. A few quick slashes to better expose the meat for salting, the removal 
 of the entrails, and the making of a slit in the tail by which to hang the fish 
 complete the process, and the fish is thrown aside for washing. 
 
 The " angelota" (angel-fish) must be cut a little differently, but the process 
 is accomplished with hardly less dispatch. The outer parts of the outer fins 
 are first removed. The first cut sphts the fish; the second lays open the right 
 side with the aid of a few additional slashes in the meat; the third and fourth 
 lay open the left side. The head, gills, and entrails are then cut entirely away 
 and the body of the fish is thrown aside to be washed. 
 
 The small boys assist by taking the opened fish, two at a time, into the 
 water and washing them free of the sand, blood, and other dirt. The fish are 
 then hung from poles by the slit in the tail. Two or three slender pieces of 
 cane put crosswise keep the skin stretched, and the fish are thus left to dry in 
 the sun. Four days is said to be sufficient for the curing if the weather is 
 bright. Hanging in this way, they look Uke merely a series of skins, but the 
 meat is all present as a thin layer on the skin. No salt or safitre whatever is 
 used on them. They are strictly sun cured, as flat thin sheets of skin and meat. 
 
 "ToUos" (small sharks) and "cazones" (large sharks) are prepared in 
 very much the same way as the angelotas. 
 
352 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 The "rayas" (rays) are handled in an interesting way. The fish is laid 
 on the back and two circular cuts are made. The first cuts away the lower 
 wall of the mouth and gill cavity, leaving this wall hanging as a flap on the 
 left side anteriorly; the second cuts away the lower wall of the abdominal 
 cavity, leaving this as a flap on the left side posteriorly; the entrails are then 
 removed; a vertical cut from above is made through the backbone from the 
 head to the base of the tail and one or two short cuts may be made on each 
 side of the thick base of the tail ; a series of cuts are then made across the disk 
 of the raya, which now looks Hke a circular gridiron. These crosscuts extend 
 to the skin below. 
 
 When all the rayas are prepared, sand is rubbed well into the cuts of each, 
 and the fish is laid in a hole in the ground. The hole is covered with boards 
 or mats or by filling with sand, and the fish are thus left in the sand on the 
 beach for a day to let the moist sand absorb the blood. They are then taken 
 out, washed and salted, after which they are laid across poles or logs to dry in 
 the sun. Three or four days are required for the drying. 
 
 With regard to the use of salt, the fishermen state that salt is never used 
 on guitarras, but is always used on rayas; angelotas and tollos are prepared 
 with or without the use of salt, according to preference or to the quantity of 
 salt available. Salitre is used to some extent, but salt is considered much 
 better. 
 
 The waste products in the preparation of the fishes are simply thrown on 
 the beach and the "gaviotas," or gulls, gather in great numbers to eat them. 
 The eggs of the guitarra are supposed to have a certain medicinal value, and 
 are sometimes saved for this purpose. 
 
 On the mainland the dried fish bring from lo to 60 centavos apiece, 
 according to the demand. Practically all of the ordinary fish taken here are 
 salted, but at the time of my visit few fish, other than the selachians mentioned 
 and flounders and mackerel, were being taken. 
 
 Oils. — In the illustration (fig. 7, pi. xv), there is seen, below the drying fish, a 
 turtle shell, into which has been thrown a quantity of turtle fat. Placed, as it 
 is, in the sun, the shell is tilted so that the oil flows out into a can placed below 
 the point of the shell, which serves as a spout. The oil is used medicinally, 
 especially for dressing wounds of man or domestic animals, and also to take 
 internally for troubles of the liver. Turtles were seen abundantly in this region. 
 On one occasion I saw 10 heads of turtles tlirust out of the water to breathe at 
 one moment and within the space of a few yards. They were feeding on the 
 abundant seaweed of these shores. In this part of Peru, however, the turtles 
 are rarely used, as the meat is not valued. The only place where a turtle fishery 
 was observed was in the south, at Pisco. The meat is there sold locally at 25 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 353 
 
 to 30 cents the quarter or less, but the real object of the fishery is the oil, which 
 is valued for miners' lamps. 
 
 A net for turtles, or "tortugera," at Pisco may be about 80 fathoms long 
 by 2 fathoms or a little more in depth. A net observed had a mesh of 30 centi- 
 meters (i foot) bar. In the use of this net the fishermen, working near the 
 shores, watch carefully, and when a turtle is seen, put the net out as quickly as 
 possible. One to 5 or 6 may be taken at a time, or, when they are especially 
 abundant, as many as 10 may be taken at one haul. Two fishermen, working 
 together, may take as many as 80 turtles per week. January, February, and 
 March are regarded as the best months in which to take them, because they are 
 fattest in those months." The fat is thrown into a big pot of 8 to 10 gallons 
 capacity and slowly cooked, while the shells are used for fuel. The fishermen 
 state that 80 or 90 turtles yield 16 to 20 tins of oil, selling at 3 soles (about $1 .50) . 
 Computing from these figures, the oil yielded by an individual turtle would be 
 worth from 27 to 38 cents, while the total catch of two fishermen in one week 
 might be worth $24 to $30 for oil, besides the value of the meat. 
 
 The fishery for whales off the coast of Peru has been pursued by foreign 
 vessels for more than a hundred years. After an English vessel, manned by 
 American whalemen, made a most successful voyage around Cape Horn in 
 1 788-1 790, the coasts of Chile and Peru soon became favored whaling grounds 
 for both English and American vessels. The agreeableness of the cUmate off 
 the coast of Peru, the freedom from dangerous storms, the convenience of certain 
 ports, the abundance of whales, all conspired to make it a favored cruising 
 ground, and Callao, Paita, and Tumbes became places of common resort for 
 refitting and provisioning. Peru derived a direct commercial benefit from this 
 fishery. Tumbes gained more than this; for sometimes the crews were recruited 
 with local sailors, and occasionally these native recruits, acquiring experience 
 and skill, rose to the rank of officials of the boat crews. In this way the "Tum.- 
 beseiios" learned the methods of the whale fishery, and the way was opened 
 for a national fishery. For at least twenty years persons or companies of 
 Tumbes have followed this fishery, employing the well-equipped whaleboats left 
 behind by the foreign whalers. It is, however, a small fishery, 10 to 14 whales 
 in a season being accounted a good catch. The season of 1907 was a very poor 
 one, only 4 whales being captured, with a yield of about 6,500 gallons of oil, 
 valued in Tumbes at about $1,300. 
 
 The coast has long been abandoned by all foreign whalers except a few 
 Chilean boats, which are supposed to take about 150,000 gallons of oil each year. 
 At the local valuation this would amount to approximately $30,000. The 
 
 " Turtles are not known to come on the beaches to lay in this region, nor so far as I know, south 
 of the region of Tumbes, where it is said that the nests are made about September. The only common 
 turtle of the coast is the Pacific green turtle. The tortoise-shell turtle is said to be found very rarely. 
 
 B. B. F. 1908 — 23 
 
354 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 Chilean boats, which are said to use the whaHng gun and explosive harpoon, 
 probably take chiefly the sperm whales; while the native whalers confine their 
 attention to the humpback whales found nearer the shore in the Gulf of Guaya- 
 quil, and employ only the harpoon and lance thrown by hand. The Gulf of 
 Guayaquil is reputed to be a favored breeding ground of the humpback whale, 
 and it is about at the bearing season (May, June, etc.) that the local fishery is 
 pursued. 
 
 Except the preparation of oil from turtles at Pisco and the capture of 
 whales at Tumbes, there is no fishery for oils in Peru. 
 
 For a time the sea lions (" lobos de mar ") were taken for the oil and hides, 
 but the government prohibited the continuance of the fishery, partly because 
 of the use of dynamite and partly that an inquiry might first be made as to 
 the relation of the sea lions to the guano-producing birds. It was a question 
 whether the lobos were injurious to the birds, in the competition for food, or 
 were of real assistance to them in so herding and demoralizing the surface 
 fishes as to make them more available to the birds. It is probable now that the 
 fishery will be resumed under proper regulations and restrictions. 
 
 The porpoises and dolphins seem never to have been sought; in fact, many 
 of the fishermen have a peculiarly friendly feeling for these animals, believing 
 that in some way they aid the Christians ("ayuda los Cristianos ") . 
 
 Fur seals, "lobos finos" or "lobos de dos pelos" (lobos of two coats), 
 while undoubtedly occurring on the coast as far north as Paracas, are not 
 abundant enough, nor perhaps of sufficient value, to support a fishery. The 
 "gato de mar" (sea-cat), a species of river otter (Lutra) that lives in the 
 sea, is not uncommon in some regions, but is never abundant. Its pelt when 
 taken is regarded as of some value." 
 
 FUTURE OF THE nSHERY INDUSTRY. 
 
 In spite of the antiquity of the fisheries of Peru, and notwithstanding 
 the introduction of European fishermen with their improved boats and nets, 
 the industry is now so inadequate and unsatisfactory that the larger part 
 of the people of Peru are not supplied with a class of food which they peculiarly 
 appreciate. 
 
 Some of the difficulties are inherent in the situation in a country whose 
 industrial life in all its phases is relatively undeveloped, and many of these 
 difficulties will disappear naturally as the country generally advances further 
 in the path of industrial progress which it has so propitiously entered. Rapid 
 and frequent transportation between ports is wanting, railroad rates are neces- 
 
 " We are not concerned with the preservation of the large fresh-water fishes by smoking and 
 other methods which are practiced on the headwaters of the Amazon. I have been informed that this 
 is such an extensive industry that smoked fish in that part of Peru is a more common food than beef. 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 355 
 
 sarily high, and ice is at present at almost prohibitive prices. The fishery 
 industry everywhere is without that organization and specialization which 
 marks the higher stage of development attained in many other countries. 
 Each fisherman makes his own nets, conveys his catch to port, sells the fish 
 fresh or preserves them by salting or drying for sale at a future time — every- 
 thing in an individual way. Experience in other countries shows that economy 
 is the result of systematization, and that the middleman, even if characterized 
 as the "necessary evil," may not only keep the market more regularly sup- 
 plied but also give the fisherman a better average profit and the consumer a 
 lower average price. So in Peru we find the fish when unusually abundant 
 thrown away or sold at a very low price, because the fisherman has not the 
 means or lacks the energy to preserve a large catch, while the public complain 
 of an irregular market and of an excessively high price in ordinary times. I 
 have referred to the unusual appreciation of fish-food by Peruvians. Rarely 
 is a meal served without fish where it is obtainable, yet to a large part of the 
 people beyond the ports this much-prized luxury is seldom to be had. 
 
 Modernizing the fishery is not sought for itself, for many of the original 
 Peruvian methods of capture are suited to the natural conditions and best 
 adapted to the social nature, the abilities, and the wants of the people. Except 
 in Callao and Mollendo, the fishermen are all native Peruvians but slightly 
 touched by the wave of modern progress. In attempting to introduce new and 
 larger methods, it would be unnecessary and unjust to hamper or antagonize 
 a kindly people, poor in wealth but rich in contentment, who are working out 
 a peaceful and honorable life after the bent of their nature. The caballito and 
 the balsa, the chinchorro and the anchobetera, the camerone traps and other 
 native nets may long continue to give satisfactory food to many Peruvians. 
 Yet if the native fishermen may be taught to capture their fish more abundantly, 
 and to salt and dry them more efficiently, their labors may be the more profit- 
 able and the more useful to them and to others. Furthermore, without preju- 
 dice to them, their fisheries may be supplemented by those who can pursue the 
 industry in a larger way and with better organization ; and this is clearly neces- 
 sary if the larger part of the population of Peru is to obtain fish and to have 
 it regularly and cheaply. 
 
 The abundant catches of the excellent congrios made with the espinel 
 (trawl line or bait line) in the region of Mollendo and the success of this method 
 when used in other parts show well that, although relatively laborious, it 
 could be more extensively employed to great advantage. The deep bottom 
 trawlnets, while not actually tested in Peruvian waters, would in strong proba- 
 bility prove successful, and it is much to be desired that experiments be made 
 with them. The use of power boats will be necessary, and the introduction 
 of these for quick conveyance of fish to market will enable the fishermen to 
 
356 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 Spend a greater proportion of their time upon the fishing places, increase the 
 territory convenient!)' accessible for the markets of Callao and Lima, and 
 open new fishing grounds. Finally, the opportunities are excellent for the 
 proper preservation of several kinds of fish by various methods. 
 
 II. THE GUANO INDUSTRY. 
 
 The guano problem, which is perhaps the most important economic ques- 
 tion confronting the nation of Peru to-day, has been included in the fishery 
 studies partly because it is impossible entirely to dissociate the guano industry 
 nd the fisheries in protective and regulative measures. Strictly, indeed, we 
 may consider guano a fishery product, for it is formed by the birds from the 
 small fishes, which swim in such enormous schools along this coast. Chiefly 
 for this reason, in fact, I have on a previous page referred to the anchobeta 
 as the most important resource of the waters of Peru. It is, however, an inade- 
 quate statement of the relation of the guano and fishery industries to say that 
 the existence of the guano-producing birds in Peru is dependent upon the presence 
 of large schools of fish. One of the most important products of the fishery 
 industry of the United States is the fish guano made by direct manufacture 
 from the menhaden. In Peru a nearly equal value of guano is produced annually 
 from the anchobetas through the agency of the birds. This guano is obtained 
 far more cheaply than if the process of manufacture were depended upon, 
 since it can be brought from the islands at little more than the cost of trans- 
 portation. (Fig. 8, pi. XV.) It is a very significant practical question to what 
 extent Peru should continue to depend upon the birds for the production of 
 nitrogenous guano, or whether the direct manufacture of fertilizer from the 
 fishes should be undertaken in order to supplement the present available sup- 
 ply. This question will not be specifically discussed at this time, but the matter 
 here presented has a very direct relation to its solution. 
 
 Peru owes the importance of its guano deposits, not only to the abundance 
 of the sea birds and the fishes upon which they feed, but in equal part to those 
 natural conditions which have permitted the conservation of the nitrogenous 
 parts of the guano. Had the coast been subject to rains, or were the climate 
 more moist, the nitrogenous portion of the guano would have been converted 
 into ammonia and lost by evaporation or drainage. There would have resulted 
 then, at the best, a pliosphatic guano of relatively low value. The guano 
 consists, as is well known, of the excrement of birds and sea lions, with the other 
 oflfal matter of the rookeries, consisting of- bodies of birds and sea lions, birds' 
 eggs, and fish. For our purposes the sea lions may be excluded from consider- 
 ation. Undoubtedly they have lent considerable bulk to certain deposits of 
 guano, but, from such information as can be gained, it seems practically sure 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 357 
 
 that apparent deposits of seal guano which have given a high analysis owe 
 their chemical value in large measure to bird guano which has been formed 
 with it. 
 
 THE PROBLEM. 
 
 It is difficult to overestimate the significance of the guano problem to 
 Peru. It is not merely that the country is threatened with the loss of an 
 exportation industry which has yielded important revenues ; the sugar and cotton 
 planters of the country have been coming more and more to recognize the value 
 of the fertilizer for the production of their crops. In fact, with the relatively 
 crude methods and the inefficient labor, combined with the necessary expense 
 of irrigation, the profit from these crops is, to a considerable extent, dependent 
 upon the availability of a cheap fertilizer. Even at this time the nation's 
 agriculturists are estimated to require 40,000 tons annually, while, under 
 existing conditions, they have been able to secure only about two-thirds of 
 this amount. The guano deposits have been so mortgaged for the payment of 
 the bonded debt that, under the present arrangements, the largest part of 
 the guano must be exported. Thus, in 1907, of approximately 124,000 tons 
 of guano extracted, only 26,000 tons were taken for the agriculture of Peru. 
 Under a continuance of the present conditions, it is certain that even this 
 proportion of the nation's requirement can not be obtained for more than a 
 few years longer. 
 
 The exhaustion of the old deposits will soon be realized. It is true that 
 there have been "false alarms" in the past in this regard. Islands which 
 have been proclaimed exhausted have been revisited and have afforded new 
 supplies of the fertilizer. This has been due only in a relatively small degree 
 to the continued deposition of the birds ; in part it is explained by the occasional 
 discovery of new deposits of buried guano; but that the same island has been 
 successively exhausted two or more times is chiefly accounted for by the fact 
 that the term "exhaustion" has been used in a relative sense. At one time 
 it was not profitable to extract guano lower than a certain grade, while at a 
 later time the market would be content with a fertilizer of much lower nitrogen 
 value. It would become profitable, then, to return to "exhausted" islands 
 where the lower grades had remained. 
 
 At present the old guano supplies are reduced to the very lowest grades 
 that it would be profitable to extract and transport to foreign markets, and 
 the approximate amount of such guano being known, it is estimated that at the 
 present rate of exportation all the available guano of old formation will be 
 removed within four or five years. It is not probable that new deposits will 
 be found of sufficient quantity to change the present outlook materially. 
 
358 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 It is clear, therefore, that within a few years the guano industry will be 
 dependent upon the yearly production of the birds. The amount of this new 
 production can not be stated accurately, but it is fairly estimated to be between 
 20,000 and 30,000 tons. This amount, if divided as now between the export 
 and the home trade, would be of comparatively little value to either. The 
 estimated annual production is, indeed, less in number of tons than is actually 
 required by Peru's agricultural industries alone; but since the new guano has a 
 much higher average nitrogen value than the guano that is now used, and on 
 which the estimated annual demand is based, it is probable that the yearly 
 formation would meet the present demands of home agriculture. Furthermore, 
 it is believed that with the adoption of the correct method of working the islands, 
 and with the most thorough protection of the birds, there would result a mate- 
 rial increase in the production of guano, sufficient to keep pace for a consider- 
 able time with the growing demand. It is even possible that there would be 
 a surplus for exportation. 
 
 THE GUANO-PRODUCING BIRDS. 
 
 At least twenty-four species of birds frequent the islands, not including 
 seven species observed at sea in proximity to the islands and coast. Twelve of 
 these were observed nesting on the islands. From the commercial standpoint 
 the chief birds are the cormorant, the pelican, and the gannet, the first and last 
 mentioned being the most abundant birds on the coast. 
 
 THE CORMORANT. 
 
 The white-breast cormorant {Phalacrocorax hougainvillei Lesson), the para- 
 mount guano-producing bird, occurs along practically the entire coast, nesting on 
 the level ground or the more gentle slopes, and always in closely crowded rookeries 
 (fig. 9 and 10, pi. xvi). This cormorant, the " guanay," occurs most abundantly 
 in the south, at the Ballestas and Chincha islands. The nests are closely crowded 
 over great areas, where it may readily be ascertained that they average about 
 three to the square meter. At the close of the season there may be allowed at 
 least four birds to a nest, counting the parents and one pair of young. The 
 population of a flock, after the young are raised, may therefore be estimated by 
 multiplving b\- twelve the number of square meters covered by the rookery. On 
 the Ballestas and Chincha islands in June, 1907, rookeries of 4,600, 10,000 to 
 12,000, and 60,000 square meters, respectively, were measured, and other smaller 
 rookeries were observed. These flocks, then, must have contained 55,000, 
 120,000, and 720,000 birds, respectively. At a later time the last-mentioned 
 flock, on the South Chincha Island, was so much increased, chiefly through 
 recruits from the other flocks, that a million birds could have been only an 
 underestimate of its population. The photograph (fig. 9, pi. xvi) shoAvs but a 
 very small portion of this immense aggregation of birds. 
 
FISHERIES AND GUAXO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 359 
 
 It mav be of interest here to consider for a moment the potential commercial 
 value of such flocks of birds. Let us assume that each of these birds leaves upon 
 the island dailv a single ounce of guano. This is actually an underestimate, as 
 such a rate of deposition would not account for the quantity of guano actually 
 extracted after a 5-ear's accumulation on a rookery; but on this assumption 
 of I ounce a day for each bird, the deposit would grow daily by i ,000,000 ounces, 
 62,500 pounds, or 28 long tons. A million birds would then produce over 
 10,000 long tons of guano per year. Such an amount is probably not actually 
 formed at this ground, for the reason that a million birds is a decided overestimate 
 of the average number of birds on the rookery throughout the year. However, on 
 the assumption of i ounce of guano per day per bird, it follows that 100 birds 
 would produce i long ton of guano per year. 
 
 We may come more nearly to the actual conditions. From the various 
 calculations I have made it appears that a rookery will yield about i long ton 
 of guano per year for 28 nests. This guano of the "guanayes" is very high in 
 nitrogen, giving an analysis of 12 to 14 per cent and higher, and we may value 
 it at $40 per ton." Twenty-eight nests, or 28 pairs of birds, have an annual 
 producing value of $40. We give a fair idea of the commercial significance of 
 these birds to Peru when we say that each brace of birds contributes annually 
 $1.43 worth of guano, besides leaving a pair of offspring to continue its service. 
 Is it not, then, of the greatest importance that the fullest protection should be 
 extended the birds, and every possible precaution taken to insure that there may 
 be the maximum number of birds at every rookery, and that these birds may 
 remain upon the rookery the maximum amount of time? 
 
 Previous to making the above computation, from observations at other 
 rookeries, I had estimated the number of nests on the south island of the Chin- 
 chas at 180,000, and, by an independent series of measurements of the deposits of 
 guano at various places in the rookery after two years of accumulation, had esti- 
 mated the amount of guano at between 12,000 and 15,000 tons. Making a new 
 calculation on the basis of the figures just worked out — that is, i ton to 28 nests — 
 the 180,000 nests would give 6,400 tons per year, which is in close agreement with 
 the original computation from measures and weights taken on the rookery. 
 
 " The cost of guano to a Peruvian farmer can not be taken as a basis of valuation, since the govern- 
 ment practically gives the guano to him, exacting a tax of only i sol (about 49 cents) the ton. The 
 expense to the farmer is merely the cost of extraction and transportation. The cost of a ton of 9 per 
 cent guano on the farm is, therefore, only $12 or $13 in American gold. This cost, however, does 
 not at all represent the value of the guano, if the cost were based on the ordinary laws of supply and 
 demand. The real value to the farmer "can not be computed. 
 
 The guano for export was consigned to the exporting company many years ago by a process of 
 adjustment, in return for the acceptance of certain obligations; so that it is not practicable, either, to 
 calculate the value of the export guano on the ground. 
 
 However, considering the high selling value of guano of such excellent quality in foreign markets, 
 and since the cost of extraction is less than $5, and the freight relatively low, it can not be considered 
 unreasonable to assume that guano of this high anaylsis has a value to the world of $40 per ton. 
 
360 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 THE PELICAN. 
 
 The second bird in importance is the "alcatraz," or pelican {Pelecanus 
 tliagus MoHna), although it has not now nearly the rank of the cormorant. 
 The pelican is not only far less abundant, but it appears that its guano is dis- 
 tinctly less in quantity and inferior in value to that of the cormorant. It can 
 not be said in what degree this is due to an inherent difference in the birds, or to 
 the fact that the cormorant breeds chiefly on the islands of the south, where the 
 conditions are better for the preservation of the guano, while the pelican now 
 breeds chiefly in the north where the atmosphere is more humid, and therefore 
 deleterious in its effects on the deposits of guano. 
 
 There is one thing of especial importance for consideration in regard to 
 this bird. The pelican, of all the useful birds, is the one which seems to be 
 most affected by the disturbances incident to the extraction of guano, and there- 
 fore, of the three chief commercial birds, it is the one which has been most reduced 
 in numbers. This may offer a reasonable basis of hope for the future. It does 
 not appear that the breeding territory of the pelican was always confined as now 
 to the northern regions. The islands of the south are smaller, so that the work- 
 ing of the islands is more directly disturbing to the birds. It is natural, there- 
 fore, that the rookeries of pelicans in this region should now be small and con- 
 fined to the outlying and less accessible rocks. In the north, on the other 
 hand, the islands of Lobos de Tierra and Lobos de Afuera are comparatively 
 large, giving more opportunity to the birds to separate themselves from the 
 guano workers. During recent years, too, the extraction in the north has usu- 
 ally been restricted to one group of islands, while the other was left to the undis- 
 turbed possession of the breeding birds. It is unfortunate that during the 
 past two years both islands have been worked, with results which can not but 
 be seriously injurious to the welfare of the pelicans. 
 
 In March, 1907, large pelican rookeries, with eggs and all stages of young, 
 were observed to the eastward of the LoIdos de Afuera islands and an islet just 
 off the north end of this island. During the following winter, about August 
 probably, the birds were entirely routed from these islands, and the rookeries 
 were swept clean of guano. A new home was established on the westward 
 island, where the photograph (fig. 11, pi. xvii) was taken in December, in the 
 early part of the laying season. Not a single bird remained to make its nest 
 on the islet, and only a few very small and scattered rookeries were found on the 
 entire eastward island. 
 
 In March, 1907, there were probably about 80,000 flying birds (mature ami 
 immature pelicans, not counting the nestlings of every stage) using the Lobos 
 de Afuera islands at night. In December, 1907, there were between 20,000 and 
 40,000 nesting birds on the same islands. The irregular nature of the rookerie^ 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 36 1 
 
 made it impossible to arrive at a more definite estimate. Probably by the fol- 
 lowing March, after the rearing of a brood of young, this number was nearly 
 doubled, but it can hardly be supposed there were so many as in the preceding 
 March. 
 
 It is believed that a proper consideration of the welfare of the pelican would 
 promise much benefit to the country. It may be expected that with the most 
 careful protection, the bird would increase materially in numbers in the north, 
 and even more so in the south, so that in time the pelican would have a much 
 higher value and would take a rank nearer to that of the cormorant. 
 
 THE GANNET. 
 
 The common " piquero, " a species of gannet {Sula variegata Tschudi) , which 
 von Tschudi considered the most important bird (and this view seems to have 
 been generally accepted), is still important, though of far less value than the 
 other two species mentioned. However, on account of its habit of nesting on 
 the cHffs and other comparatively inaccessible places, the great proportion of 
 the guano is now lost in the sea, and it is doubtful whether the bird has ever 
 had a commercial value comparable to the cormorant or the pelican. (Fig. 10, 
 pi. XVI.) With the better systematization of the guano industry in future years, 
 much of this guano now lost might be saved by the construction of shelves or 
 other collectors at the bases of the cliffs. 
 
 Von Tschudi found that a single piquero in captivity would produce 3><' 
 to 5 ounces of guano per day. If each bird leaves about its nest 2 ounces of 
 guano daily, 1,000,000 piqueros would leave 20,000 tons per year. The piquero 
 is so abundant and so generally distributed along the coast that i ,000,000 would 
 seem a low estimate of the number of birds on even a portion of the coast. 
 The piquero breeds throughout the year and the nests therefore are always in use. 
 
 THE PENGUIN AND THE PETREL. 
 
 Only two other species require particular mention. The penguin, or " pajaro- 
 nino" {Spheniscus humboldli Meyen), is now of almost negligible value, but was 
 formerly so abundant as to be highly ranked by Raimondi. The rookeries are 
 confined to the caverns, and the guano is considered very good, although there 
 is little of it. 
 
 The " potoyunco, " a species of petrel {Halodroma garnoti Lesson) of oceanic 
 habit except for its nesting in subterranean homes, is still significant, but in 
 relatively low degree. The nesting places are found on many islands, however, 
 especially on the lofty San Gallan. Great areas of the surface of the ground, 
 from the lower hillsides to the tops of the peaks that are usually capped with 
 clouds, are undermined by nesting chambers of these birds. They will burrow 
 indifferently through the hard crust of sand on the hillsides or beneath the 
 
362 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 cloud-fed vegetation of the hilltops. The guano produced here must be of sig- 
 nificant quantity, and it is reputed to be of high quality. It is remarkable to 
 note that this little bird was given first rank by Raimondi. 
 
 The penguin and the potoyunco from their habits are the most helpless 
 against ruthless destruction, and they seem undoubtedly to have been reduced 
 from a condition when they possessed a much greater economic value than 
 now. The exterminating process still continues, as both birds are frequently 
 killed by the fishermen and the guano laborers. The potoyuncos especially are 
 regularly sought by the fishermen. They can easily be captured at night in 
 their underground nests, and quantities of them are taken to be salted and 
 sold on the mainland. If adequate protection is extended to these two birds 
 it seems reasonable to hope that they would increase in numbers toward the 
 former condition of abundance and again take rank as important economic 
 assets. 
 
 It is not within our province at present to speak of the other cormorants, 
 another gannet, the gulls and terns, and the shore birds which are found on the 
 island and coast. None of these species, individually, has a commercial impor- 
 tance, yet it must be remarked that, collectively, they may add materially to 
 the total quantity of guano which may be swept from the ground. 
 
 EXTRACTION OF GUANO AND PROTECTION OF THE BIRDS. 
 
 Under the existing arrangement, all of the guano that is exported from 
 the country is taken by a single corporation, which has offices in Lima, as well 
 as in London, New York, and other cities. The corporation does not usually 
 work the islands, but has the guano* extracted by contract, paying to the con- 
 tractor so much per ton delivered to the vessel. Often these contracts, involv- 
 ing only a few thousand tons, are given to native contractors. A large part of 
 the export guano, however, is extracted by a single commercial company, which 
 works now upon the northern islands. From this guano the government 
 derives no present revenue, but the amount extracted is reported to the gov- 
 ernment and credited against the amount of guano which has been mortgaged 
 to the corporation for obligations of the government previously taken over by 
 the corporation. 
 
 The guano for the Peruvian agriculturists is extracted by a similar contract 
 system, with the following method of procedure: The farmer who desires guano 
 applies to one of the many individual contractors. A typical contract ma)^ be 
 instanced. The contractor agrees to sell and the farmer to buy 600 metric 
 tons of guano at 14 soles (about $7) the ton, the guano to give an analysis of 9 
 per cent of nitrogen. The contract further provides that if the average analysis 
 is higher or lower the farmer will pay an additional price of i sol per ton for 
 each unit of nitrogen above 9, while 2 soles the ton will be deducted from the 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 363 
 
 price for each unit below 9. Another type of contract might cover a larger 
 quantity of guano, say 5,000 tons, to be delivered during four years, certain 
 stated amounts to be made available each year. The contractor, having calcu- 
 lated the amount of guano necessar}^ to fulfill his contracts for a given year, 
 applies to the Ministerio de Hacienda (corresponding to our Department of the 
 Treasury) for a concession to take such and such amounts of guano from stated 
 islands, and, if the concession be awarded, the contractor pays to the govern- 
 ment I sol for each ton conceded. In case of failure to obtain the amount 
 asked for, and on which payment has been made, the government adjusts the 
 matter equitably by continuing the balance of the concession to the following 
 season or refunding the proportionate part of the payment. 
 
 This introduces one of the weakest points in the present method of extrac- 
 tion. It frequently happens that two or three or more concessionists are 
 authorized to take guano from the same island. Only one who has lived on 
 the islands while the working was in progress can appreciate the bitterness of 
 competition that ensues. The disputes, the threats, and the personal violence 
 which may arise are aside from the question. It is the effect upon the birds 
 that is of vital moment. 
 
 Since it is understood that a concessionist establishes finally his claim to 
 any deposit of guano by throwing this into piles, and since the best of the 
 guano is found at the rookeries, disaster to the birds is inevitable. The first 
 party to arrive, or the strongest, as the case may be, obtains possession of the 
 rookery, and within a few days the entire breeding ground is torn up and the 
 birds completely routed, without regard to the presence of immature birds or 
 unhatched eggs. Under a better system a responsible contractor would at 
 least allow the birds to use a portion of the ground, while, with as much consid- 
 eration of them as possible, the guano was being extracted from the remainder. 
 I should not omit to add that I have seen some concessionists working in this 
 intelligent way where there was due opportunity. (Fig. 8, pi. xv.) 
 
 The government has not failed to recognize the necessity for protection 
 of the birds. The destruction of birds or of eggs has been made a penal offense, 
 and it is now practically stopped. It is a difficult matter to keep a thorough 
 surveillance of a long coast, where the towns are widely removed, and of many 
 islands, some of which are miles from the mainland. Hence there is still some 
 violation of these laws, and the potoyunco, as has been mentioned, suffers 
 especially from such depredation. At times, too, the eggs of more important 
 birds may be taken, but the wholesale robbery of nests has been practically 
 eliminated. Formerly the eggs were valued for food and for use of the albumen 
 in clarifying wines, and it is said that enormous quantities were taken regularly. 
 
 That which most concerns the present government is how to regulate the 
 working of the islands so that the necessary amount of guano may be taken 
 
364 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 
 
 with as little detriment as possible to the birds. Two years ago a "closed." 
 season of five months was established, to include the months of November to 
 March, which constitute the height of the breeding season, and the writer was 
 instructed to make a study of the habits of the birds, with reference to deter- 
 mining whether such a period was proper or adequate, or whether other methods 
 of regulation were required. As a result of the studies made on various visits 
 to the chief rookeries, it became apparent that the closed season adopted was 
 inadequate, although it was a most significant step in the right direction and 
 has undoubtedly already yielded results of value. 
 
 The pelican rookeries on the ist of April were covered with eggs 
 containing live embryos, and with all stages of young birds, immature and 
 incompletely feathered. Young pelicans only partially feathered were to be 
 found as late as June. Cormorants were feeding their young from mouth to 
 mouth in June, while already the preliminary love plays and preparation of 
 nests for the following season were in progress. By the end of July a large 
 number of eggs were laid for the following season and a few even had hatched. 
 
 It follows, therefore, incontrovertibly, that there can be no season when 
 the islands may be worked without disturbance of the birds. I believe the 
 rookeries of pelicans and cormorants are never deserted voluntarily except for 
 so long a period in the day as may be necessary to secure food. The breeding 
 season of the gannet, as has been mentioned, is continuous throughout the year. 
 
 It becomes very clear, then, that only a very carefully and consistently 
 followed plan of rotation in the working of the islands would insure the birds 
 the best conditions for undisturbed breeding. For a period of at least five 
 years certain islands in each region might be left as the unmolested abode of 
 the birds, while the extraction of guano was being prosecuted on other islands. 
 At the expiration of that period, certain other islands would be closed while 
 the accumulations of guano on the previously closed islands would be avail- 
 Able for extraction. The system might be worked out in such a way that each 
 year certain islands would be opened, and a steady supply of guano be avail- 
 able each year." 
 
 In partial adoption of a plan of rotation, the government has kept the 
 south island of the Chinchas entireh' closed during the past two open seasons, 
 and it is estimated that by the expiration of the third year of closure there 
 will have accumulated on this one island about 20,000 tons of guano of the 
 highest grade. It is only fair to state that the government has enforced the 
 closed season and kept this island closed in the midst of very serious difficul- 
 
 " The plan which the writer drafted in igoy for the Chincha and Ballestas Islands and other points 
 of the region (Boletin del Ministerio de Fomento, Junio, 1907) may be cited as an illustration. After 
 further observation of the birds on the rookeries, I would modify this plan by using five-year instead of 
 three-year periods, as was then suggested. 
 
FISHERIES AND GUANO INDUSTRY OF PERU. 365 
 
 ties. We have seen that it has proved impossible to grant to the farmers of 
 the country the full amount of the guano which they desire. However warmly 
 and sincerely the principle of regulation may be indorsed, there must be faced 
 a strong and not unreasonable cry from the many farmers for more fertilizer. 
 Only by the opening of the middle, and later of the north, island of the Chin- 
 chas, which it had been intended to keep closed, and by the opening of the 
 Lobos de Afuera Island, was it possible to give to the farmers the two-thirds 
 portion of the guano which they required. 
 
 A large and important industry with exacting relations to creditors and 
 to national agriculture can not be thrown upon a new basis in a moment; but 
 the interests of all concerned are linked with the welfare of the industry, and 
 it is believed that those on all sides who have power or influence are giving 
 serious attention to the matter. It is probable that the proper solution of the 
 question will not long be delayed, and we may confidently anticipate a brighter 
 and far more satisfactory future for the guano industry, at least so far as the 
 people of Peru are concerned. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 As a concluding word, it may be stated that the investigation of the fishery 
 and guano industries was taken up a little less than two years ago. The first step 
 has been the collation of data regarding the industries, the methods in use, and 
 especially the conditions and the opportunities for development. The studies of 
 the present writer conclude at this point. It is intended by the government 
 to continue these studies and to adopt practical measures that will facilitate the 
 development of the industries. It is evident that important economic results 
 may be gained which will benefit both the fishing population and the country 
 at large. 
 
 It is hoped also that arrangements may be made to investigate the fresh 
 waters of the interior with reference to determining whether it is possible and 
 profitable to introduce new species of fish into some of the lakes and rivers. 
 
 It is to be added that the government appreciates the ultimate necessity 
 for an accurate knowledge of the marine fauna and flora, and desires to pro- 
 mote a knowledge of the natural historj^ of the country. With this in view, the 
 writer was instructed to collect the chief economic forms and others associated 
 with these. The collections thus made will probably not include many new 
 forms, except of the fishes, but it is intended that they shall serve as a basis for 
 systematic reports illustrating the economic forms and epitomizing the present 
 systematic information regarding the more important economic groups. To 
 this end the collections will be intrusted to specialists in the various groups. It 
 is believed that the reports will be of value to science and that they will be of 
 especial service to those who may in future have the opportuinty to enlarge our 
 knowledge of the natural history of a comparatively neglected region. 
 
Bit:.. U. S. P.. F.. 190S. 
 
 Plate XII. 
 
 1 II,. 1.— A characteristic scene on the coast desert, taken from the Southern Railroatl betv 
 .\requipa and Juliaca. 
 
 Fig ' —Month of the River Riniac near Callao. On the left the ocean, on the right the lagoon 
 formed bv the river. The water of the lagoon escapes into the ocean by seeping through 
 the natural dike of shingle 
 
Bui.. U. vS. B. F., 190S. 
 
 Pl.ATT.-, XIII. 
 
 Fig. 4.— Native fisherman in the surf, throwing the ataraya (cast 
 
Bri,. IT. vS. B. F., 190S. 
 
 Plate XIV 
 
 Fig. 6.— Balsa on I,ake Titicaca. Made i if rculs 
 
BuL. U. .S. R. F., 1908. 
 
 Platk XY 
 
 Fig, -.—Drying sharks, guitar-fishes, etc., without the u-e uf salt. I,ul"., .le 1 
 
 fe^#'^ 
 
 Fig. s.— Sacking guauu tu he shippeil by alula- rivel 1 automatic trolley 1. Ilallcstas Islands 
 
Bit.. V. S. 1!. I'., kjoS- 
 
 Plati. X\'I. 
 
 Fl.;. u.— A ven,- small portion of a flock of cormorants on the sonth island of the Chinchas 
 
 
 ^'^'^m 
 
 
 
 -A sin;tU flock of cormorants on the top of the south island of the Halle 
 are barely distinguishable on the ledges. 
 
BtTL. U. vS. ]5. F., 1 90S. 
 
 Plate XVII.