Class ZJ ' x/ Bonk / 5 xu ^. Cop}iightiN». COFi'RIGHT DEPOSIT. IProgressive Map, ISTo. !• Manual OF General History.- Being an Outline History of the "Would FROM the Creation to the Present Time. FtTLLY ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS. FOR THE USE OF COLLEGES, HIGH-SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, ETC. JOHN J. ANDERSOJSr, A.M., Author of a "" Grammar Sclwol History of the United States," a '"TictoHal Scf tool History of the United States,'' a '•'HisUyry of England," '■'■The Historical Reader" '■^The United States Reader," etc., etc. NEW YORK: CLARK & MAYNARD, PUBLISHERS, 5 Barclay Street, 1874. Anderson's Historical Series. A Junior Class History of the United States. Ulustrated with hundreds of portraits, views, maps, etc. Price, ^1.00. A Grammar School History of the United States. Annotated; and illustrated with numerous portraits and views, and with more than forty maps, many of which are colored. 300 pp. IGmo. Price, ^1.20. A Pictorial School History of the United States. Fully illustrated with maps, portraits, vignettes, &c. 401 pp. 12mo. Price, ^1.65. A Manual of General History, illustrated with beautifully colored maps showing the changes in the political divisions of the world, and giving the location of important places. 419 pp. 12mo. • Price, ^2.00. A School History of England. illustrated with colored maps showing the geographical changes in the country at diCereiit periods. 800 jjp. 12mo. Price, $1.60. Anderson's Bloss's Ancient History, illustrated with colored maps and a chart. 445 pp. 12mo. Price, $2.00. The Historical Reader, embracing selections in prose and verse, from standard writers of Ancient and Modern History ; with a Vocabulary of Difhcult Words, and Biographical and Geographical Indexes. 12mo. 544 pp. Price, $1.80. The United States Reader, embracing selections from eminent American historians, orators, statesmen and poets, with explanatory observations, notes, etc. The whole arranged so as to form a complete class-manual of United States History, to which are added a Vocabulary of Difficult Words and a Biographicui Index of Authors. 12mo. 414 pp. Price, $1.50. A School History of Rome. in preparation. A School History of Greece, in preparation. A School History of France, in preparation. An Introductory School History of the United States. From 1492 to 1875. A class-boo^, t^r advanced grades on the catechetical plan. Illustrated with maps. 195 pp.*«J8mo. Price, 60 cents. A Common School History of the United States, On the catechetical plan. Illustrated with maps. 350 pp. 16mo. Price, $1.00. Entered according to Act of Coiigross, in the year 1874 1 y JOHN J. ANDERSON, in the oflce of the Libruriau of Congress, at Washington, D. C. v ^\ Q^ TO TEAOHEES. This work is designed to supply what the author be- lieves to be a great want among school text-books at the present time — namol j, a convenient manual of gen- eral history, with the necessary geographical and chro- nological accompaniments. The plan pursued corres- ponds with that of the author's popular school his- tories of the United States, the situation of the differ- ent places mentioned in the text being shown on maps, specially prepared for this work. These maps, as far as it was found possible in so elementary a work, also present the progressive changes in the various jDolit- ical divisions of which the history successively treats. In connection with them is given a system of map- questions, by which the pupil's attention is called to the exact location of places just previous to their oc- currence in the History. The value of this plan has never been disputed by any teacher or student by wh©m it has been employed, experience clearly showing, that by associating events with places, both are more permanently impressed on the mind. The questions at the bottom of the pages are chiefly designed to draw attention to single facts, or to very brief statements; those at the end of the sections, called jRevlew Questions, associate facts belongin^g to the same individual, place, or train of events, and are thus of a topical character. This system of exercises TO TEACHERS. affords all that is needed to give tlie pupil that power and readiness of grouping, describing, and relating, in which the chief value of historical study consists. The arrangement of matter followed is that by countries, rather than by loeviods, the author being of opinion, that the latter tends to confuse very much the mind of a student who has not already acquired a pretty good outline of the history of each country de- scribed. By dividing the whole subject into the periods of Ancient, diedlcevcdj and Modern history, the awkward and unsatisfactory method has been avoided of keeping the pupil's attention, while he is studying the history of one country, entirely away from the con- temporaneous history of other nations. This is still further obviated by the several tables of contemjjorane- ous events interspersed through the work. Events that are connected with the history of several countries are referred to briefly in each, so that they may be im- pressed upon the mind more clearly, by being viewed from each as a stand-point. The indicated pronunciation of proper names, which in the study of general history (particularly of ancient history) are so apt to be mispronounced, will be found a source of great convenience to both teacher and pupil, to whom it is n5t always possible to consult such vocabularies as contain these words, and who, therefore, generally acquire, by habit, incorrect methods of pronunciation, very difficult afterward to be aban- doned. The authorities employed are Wel)sters and Worcester s Dictionaries, and LiiJj^incotfs Pronouncing Gazetteer. Being convinced of the great importance of chro- nology, the author has inserted dcdes very freely, but generally so as to form no essential part of the narra- TO TEACHERS. tive, — in order that, while the pupil need not be ex- pected to make these dates a matter of special study, he may obtain, by keeping them in view, a definite idea of the events in their order of occurrence, and of the intervals of time by which they are separated. — Teachers need not be admonished against the folly of requiring dates to be memorized apart from the nar- rative to which they relate. The maps should be used freely, being consulted constantly, and occasionally drawn on the blackboard, either by the teacher, or one of the pupils. No recita- tion should be permitted without a reference to them. In this way, the conceptions of the pupils will be made clear and accurate, the eyes as well as the ears being called into requisition. Trusting that this work v/ill receive the generous .patronage and consideration awarded to his other historical publications, the author, with these few remarks and suggestions, commits it to the impartial examination of his colaborers in the cause of educa- tion. The new edition of this work brings the narrative down to the present time (1874), Copious notes have also been inserted at the end of the Sections, with the view to ex- plain and illustrate the text; and as these consist of extracts from the works of eminent historians, the titles of which are given, they will prove, it is thought, useful in calling attention to, and awakening an interest in, these standard publications. MAPS. TAGE 1. 'J'be Persian Empire under Darius (Progressive Map, No. 1), Frontispiece. 3. Ancient Monarchies 12 ' 3. Ancient Greece (Progressive Map, No. 2) facing 33 4. Asia Minor 41 5. The Retreat of the Ten Thousand 47 6. The Marches of Alexander the Great 52 7. Ancient Italy (Progressive Map, No. 3) facing 67 8. Vicinity of Rome G8 9. The Roman Empire under Augustus (Progressive Map, No. 4) facing 104 • 10. The Barbaric Monarchies at the commencement of the reign of Justinian (Progressive Map, No. 5) facing 131 11. The Empire of Charlemagne and the Contemporary Mon- archies (Progressive Map, No. 6) facing 142 13. Great Britain and Ireland 158 13. France, and the neighboring Countries 188 14. Spain and Portugal 226 15. The Places referred to in the Modern History of Europe (Progressive Map, No. 7) facing 232 16. Discoveries and Explorations in North America 358 17. South America (Progressive Map, No. 8) facing 366 f 18. Part of New Jersey and Pennsylvania 372 19. The United States at the close of the Revolution (Progressive Map, No. 0) facing 374 ^ 20. The Niagara Frontier 377 21. Taylor's Campaign. . 380 22. Scott's Campaign - 381 23. Part of Maryland and Viigiiiia 38-i OOE"TE]SrTS. INTRODUCTION 9 PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY. SECTION I.— The JMost Ancient Nations 11 Babylonia or Chaldea (12) ; Assyiia(14); Media (16); Lydia (17) ; Ancient Egypt (19) ; Ethiopia (24) ; Syria and Pales- tine (25) ; Chronological Recapitulation (28). SECTION 11. — Persia, Greece, and Macedonia 81 Persia (31) ; Greece (33) ; Macedonian Empire (49) ; Chrono- logical Recapitulation (64). SECTION III.— Rome 67 - Samnite War (75) ; Punic Wars (77) ; Pergamus (84) ; Tlie Gracchi (86) ; War against Jugurtha (88) ; Social War (89) ; Mithridatic War (89) ; Civil War of Marius and Sylla (90) ; Servile War (91) ; Jewish history (92) ; Conspiracy of Cati- line (93) ; First Triumvirate (93) ; Second Civil War (95) ; Second Triumvirate (99) ; Chronological Recapitulation (100) ; Table of Contemporaneous Events (102). SECTION IV.— TuE Roman Empire 04 Augustus (104); Tiberius (105); Caligula (106); Claudius (106); Nero (107); Galba (108) ; Otho (108); Vitellius (108); Vespasian (109); Titus (109); Domitian (110); The Five Good Emperors (111); Commodus (113); Pertinax (114); Septimius Severus (114); Caracalla (115); Macrinus (115); Heliogabalus (116) ; Alexander Severus (116) ; Maximin (116); Gordian (117); Decius (117); Valerian (117); Gallie- nus (118); Claudius (119); Aurelian (119); Tacitus (120); Diocletian (120) ; Constantine (121) ; Julian the Apostate (122) ; Jovian (123) ; Theodosius the Great (123) ; Honorius (124) ; Valentinian III. (125) ; Maximus (125) ; Romulus Au- gustulus (127) ; Chronological Recapitulation (127). CONTENTS. PART II. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. SECTION I.— The Eastern Empike 131 SECTION II.— The Dark Ages 142 The Franks (142) ; The Normans (146) ; The Saxons in Brit- ain (147) ; The Saracens (149) ; The Feudal System (153) ; Chronological Recapitulation (154). SECTION III.— England in the Middle Ages 157 Norman Kings (160) ; The Plantagenets (163) ; Chronologi- cal Recapitulation (184). SECTION IV.— France during the Middle Ages 187 Branch of Valois (196) ; Chronological Recapitulation (202). SECTION v.— The Crusades .205 First Crusade (206); Second Crusade (207); Third Crusade (208) ; Fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh Crusades (209) ; Influence of the Crusades (210) ; Chronological Recapitulation (211). SECTION VI. — Central and Southern Europe during the Middle Ages 213 Germany (213); The Hanseatic League (216); Switzerland (219) ; Italy (220) ; Spain (225) ; Portugal (227) ; Chronologi- cal Recapitulation (228) ; Table of Contemporaneous Events (230). PART III. MODERN HISTORY. SECTION I.— England 232 The Tudors (232) ; The Stuart Family (245) ; The Common- wealth (254) ; House of Brunswick (267) ; Chronological Re- capitulation (281). SECTION II.— France 285 House of Bourbon (295) ; Chronological Recapitulation (329). SECTION III.— European States 325 Gennany (325); Austria (330) ; Prussia (331) ; Poland (333); Holland and Belgium (335); Sweden, Norway, and Den- mark (337); Russia (340); Switzerland (343); Italy (344); Spain (346); Portugal (348); Turkey (349); Greece (352); Chronological Recapitulation (353); Table of Contempo- raneous Events (357). SECTION IV.— American History 359 Discoveries and Settlements (359); United States (369); Mexico (391); Central America (392); West Indies (393); Chronological Recapitulation (396). INTEODUOTIOISr. HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY — THEIR DIVISIONS, SOURCES, ETC. 1. History is a narration of the events which have hap- pened among mankind, including an account of the rise and fall of nations, as well as of other great changes which have affected the political and social condition of the human race. 2. Chronology is a department of history which treats of the exact time, or date, of each event, with reference to some fixed time, called an era or e^joch. The epoch usually employed in our times among Christian nations for reck- oning dates, is the birth of Christ, called the Chridian Era.^ All dates preceding this are marked b. c, that is. Before Christ; and all subsequent to it are marked A. d., tha-t is, An7io Domini^ which means In the year of our Lord; that is. After the hirth of Christ. 3. Previous to the fifth century b. c, there are but few dates that can be fixed with tolerable certainty; that is to say, no uninterrupted scries of dates can be accurately and positively assigned to events which are known to have occurred. In the earliest ages all dates are uncertain, authorities differing very much Avith regard to them, from • This era is, however, commonly placed four years after the time at which the birth of Christ M supposed to have taken place. Introduction.— 1, What is history? 2. Wliat is chronolojxy? What is an era or epocli ? What epoch is upually om ployed? What does B. C. mean ? A. D. ? 3. When do datea become reliable? 1* 10 IN^TRODUCTIOIT. tlie absence of reliable information respecting these very remote periods. 4. History is best divided into Ancient, MedicBval, and Modern. Anciejit kistory is considered to end 476 A. d., the date of the destruction of tlio western division of the Roman Empire. Mediaeval history, or the history of the Middle Ages, extends from 476 a. d. to about the time of the fall of the eastern division of the Roman Empire, in 1453. All subsequent history belongs to the third division. This mode of dividing the subject is, however, entirely arbitrary. 5. The most important facts to be learned in history are those that refer to the progress of mankind in civilization, — in the arts, sciences, literature, political freedom, social culture, and religious truth. Whatever events have no immedi-ate bearing upon these, though often affording mat- ter for curious reflection and interesting research, are of secondary importance. 6. The chief sources of ancient histoi^y are the Sacred Scriptures of the Old and New Testament, which are the compositions of inspired writers, the works of ancient writers not divinely inspired, and ancient monuments, medals, coins, inscriptions, etc.* * " The liatious of antiquity made use to a very large extent of tliis mode of commemuratiug events. lu Egypt, iu Assyria, iu Babylcmia, iu Armenia, iu Per- sia, in Plioeuieia, iu Lycia, iu (ireece, iu Italy, historical eveuts of importauce ■were from time to time recorded iu this wj,y — sometimes ou the natural rock, which was commouly smoothed for the purpose ; sometimes ou oiielisks or pil- lars ; frequeutly upon the walls of temples, palaces, and tombs ; occasioually upon metal plates, or upon tablets and cylinders of tine clay— hard aud durable mate- rials, all of them capable of lastiuf^ hundreds or even thousands of years, aud in many cases continuing to the present day. * * "^ * The histories of Egypt and Assyria have been iu a great measure reconstructed from the iuscriptious of the two countries. The great inscription of Behistun has thrown much light upon the early history of Persia. That on the Uelphic tripod has illustrated the most glorious period of Greece. It is now generally felt that iuscriptious are among the most important of ancient records, and that their intrinsic value makes up to a great extent for their comparative scantiness." — Rawlinson. 4. Hqw is history divided? At what date does ancient history en.l? Mediae- val history ? What other division is there ? 5. What are the most important facts of history ? 0, What are the chief sources of aucient history? PAET I. ANCIENT HISTORY. section i. The most Anciekt Nations. Extending from the Earliest Ages to the Foundation of the Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great. 1. The exact 4ate of the Creation and Fall of Man can- not be fixed with any degree of certainty, neither can the interval of time between the Creation and the Deluge be ascertained. The estimates of different chronologists as to these facts vary so widely that they seem worthy of no credence whatever. The difficulty of assigning the exact time of those events does not, hoAvever, at all diminish the evidence of their actual occurrence. 2. After the dispersion of mankind at Bfi'bel, it is sup- posed that the descendants of Shem, the eldest of Noah's sons, went to the east and populated Asia ; those of Ham, with few exceptions, passed into Africa; and those of Jfi'phet journeyed to the west and occupied different parts of Europe.'*' The oldest monarchies, of which history gives us any account, are those of Babylo'xia and Assy'ria in Asia, and those of Egypt and Ethio'pia in Africa. * See Notes 1 and 2, at the end of the Section. Map Questions.— (See Map, pape 12.) What rivers unite and flow into the Persian Gulf? AV'hat re, end of the Section^] 4. Nimrod is described in the Scriptures as a " mighty hunter," and is supposed to be the same as the Bc'lus of whom the historians speak in connection with the early history of this country, or the Bel, afterward worshipped as a god by the people. The constellation Ori'on is thought to represent this celebrated hero. 3. By whom wa? Babylon founded ? Ho\y situated ? Of what was it the capital 5 4. Who w'as Nimrod ? B. C. 747.] THE MOST A]S"CIENT NATIONS. 13 5. Babylon is supposed to have been built about twenty- two centuries B. c. It was in its early history a city of minor importance, Ur and others being capital cities while it remained a mere village. The Chaldees (kal-deez') seem to liave occupied at first the shores of the Persian Gulf, and to have afterward spread nortliward, until about 1700 B. c, when the seat of government was fixed at Babylon.* 6. The minute history of this monarchy during about a thousand years from this date cannot be given ; neither can its relations to the neighboring kingdoms of Assy'ria and E'lam, during this period, be positively defined. The explorations made in recent years among the ruins found in this whole region (called Mesopotamia) have thrown much light upon many questioiis pertaining to its history ; but an exact statement of the particular results reached would be out of place in this elementary work. 7. The line of Babylonian kings becomes exactly knoAvn to us from the year 747 b. c. The " Canon of Ptolemy," an astronomical work of the great geographer, gives us from this date the succession of monarchs to 330 B. c, when Babylon became a part of the dominions of Alexander the Great. The inscriptions discovered among the ruins con- firm the truth of this work. 8. The date of the commencement of the reign of Nabo- nas'sar is precisely fixed by the record of certain astronom- ical phenomena, made by Ptolemy. This date, called the Era of Xabo?iassar, is very famous in history. It is the year 747 b. c. (more particularly, Wednesday, February 2Gtli of that year). 9. About G80 B. c. Babylon became subject to Assyria, but subsequently regained its independence; and under * See Note 4, end of the Section. 5. When was Babylon built ? What is said of the Chaldees ? 6. To what extent is the early history of Babylonia known ? ^Vliat region was ciilled Mesopotamia ? Recent discoveries therein ? 7. When does the exact history of the Babylonian kings begin ? What does the " Canon of Ptolemy" make known to us ? How confirmed ? 8. A\Tiat is the Era of Nabonassar ? How is it tixed ? 9. When was Babylon subject to Assyria? Give the history of Nebuchad- nezzar ? i4 THE MOST AJ^CIE:N^T KATIOi^^S. [B. C. 588. the celebrated monarch Nehuchadnez'zar, acquired very great i^ower. This king defeated the king of Egypt, sub- dued Jehoi'alcim, king of Judah, and in consequence of repeated revolts, destroyed Jerusalem, and put an end to the kingdom of Judah under Zedchi'ah, carrying its in- habitants captives to Babylon (588 13. c.) He afterward turned his attention to the embellishment of his capital, and erected in Babylon many edifices of wonderful extent and magnificence. 10. After his death the Babylonian empire declined; and In 538 B. c, during the reign of Belsliaz'zar* as recorded in the Scriptures, the city was taken by Cyrus, king of the Persians ; and Babylonia thus became a Persian province. Assyria. 11. Of the three countries that occupied the plain of Mesopotamia, Assyria was the most modern. It was a very fertile and populous region, and at the height of its pros- perity was a powerful empire. That it liad advanced greatly in civilization and the arts, is proved by the vast ruins which remain, and which in recent years have been dili- gently explored. 12. The inscriptions discovered among these ruins have shown that very much of the history, previously received upon the credit of the Greek historians, is quite erroneous. The statements, however, of the Babylonian writer Bero'- S2is, who lived about 2G8 b. c, and whose account coincides very nearly Avith the Scriptures, are proved to be correct.f 13. Nineveh, the capital city of Assyria, built on the Tigris River, and once among the most splendid cities of the world, was, according to the Scriptures, built by Ash'- * More probably Nabona uius una his sou Belshnz'zar. t See Note 5, end of Section. 10. What folfcwed the death of Nebuchadnezzar? When and by whom was Babylt.n taken ? 11. What was the situation of Assyria? How is it described? Evideucci^ of Its civilization ? 1 2. What have the inscription;* shoAvn ? What is said of Berosus ? 13. Nineveh— its situation and origin •; When did it rise to greatncos ? B. C. Tai.] THE MOST ANCIEKT NATIONS. 15 ur, after the foundation of Babylon {Genesis, x. 11). That it rose to greatness after Babylon is stated by Berosus and proYed by the inscriptions. 14. Little is known of Assyria previous to 770 b. c, when Pul invaded Palestine, but was bought off by Men' ahem, king of Israel (2 Kings, xv. 19, 20). In 738 B. c, Tig'latli Pile'ser, another king of Assyria, conquered Spia, and in- vading Palestine, carried away captive many of the Jews. 15. His successor Slial-man-e ser also invaded Palestine, and laid siege to Sama'ria, the capital of the kingdom of Israel, which after a time surrendered (721 B. c), but prob- ably to Sar'gon, the successor of Shalmaneser ; since such seems to be the testimony of the monuments (2 Kings, xviii. 9, 10). 16. Sen-nach'e-ril), tlie son and successor of Sargon, ob- tained possession of Babylon, and made two expeditions against Judea, in the first of which he carried away 200,000 of the Jews captive ; but in the second he failed entirely, his army having been destroyed by a pestilence, miraculously sent by God to preserve the Jews. This was during the reign of the Jewish king Hez-e-hi' ah, Sen- nacherib was a short time afterward slain by his sons. 17. The last great king of Assyria was E' sar-liad' don, son of Sennacherib, who reigned also over Babylon, at which he sometimes held his court; bricks bearing his name having been recently found among the ruins of that city. His conquests extended over a large part of Western Asia, and he claimed authority over Egypt and Ethiopia. Manas' sell, king of Judah, was brought as a prisoner be fore him at Babylon ; but after a few years' detention was restored to his throne, by the clemency of the Assyrian monarch. The Babylonian reign of Esar-haddon lasted 1 4 Firgt well-established date in Assyrian history ? Date of Tiglath Rleser^a invasion of Palestine ? Wliat conquests did he make ? 15. Give an account of Shalmaneser's invasion? ^ ., ^ ^^ . ,^ , 1 6 What expeditions were undertaken by Sennacherib ? Their results ? _ 1 7 Who was the last great kin? of Assyria ? His conquests ? What Jewisl' king was riade prisoner by him ? Duration of his reign ? 16 THE MOST AXCIEI^T KATION^S. [B. C. 606. thirteen years (from G80 b. c. to 667 b. c), but how long he reigned subsequently at Nineveh cannot be positively ascertained. 18. After this splendid reign Assyria rapidly declined, and was frequently attacked by the Medes, then rising into poAver. In 606 b. c. (or 625 b. c), Nin'eveh was taken and destroyed by these people, under their king Cy-ax'a-res. The last king, Sar'acuSy called Sar-da7i-a-pd'- lus by the Greeks, finding that he could make no success- ful resistance, set fire to his palace, and perished, with all belonging to him, in the conflagration. Assyria then be- came a Median province, and afterward, with Babylonia, formed one of the divisions of the Persian empire. 19. Nineveh, in the time of Herod'otus, had ceased to exist ; and when Xen'ophon passed it (401 b. c), during the expedition of which he gives an account, the very name had been forgotten, though he testifies to the extent of the deserted city, stating that the height of the ruined walls Avas 150 feet. [See Note 6, end of tSect'io)i.'\ Media. 20. The fall of Nin'eveh produced a great change in the condition of Western Asia. Babylon became independeut under a line of natiA^e kings, who in a short time raised their country to a very high degree of poAver and pros- perity. The Medes, then just risen into poAver, rapidly overran and subdued the whole region from the Caspian Sea to the Hci'lys River, and made Avar upon Lyd'ia, a country lying farther AA^est. 21. These people, resembling the Persians in origin and language, coming from the east, had settled in the region lying immediately south of the Caspian Sea, and Avere at 18. AVhat was the subsequent history of Assyria ? When and by whom was Nineveh taken ? What was done by Saracus, or Sardanapahis ? AATiat became of Assyria ? 19. A^Hiat is said of the subsequent histoiy of NineveJi ? 20. What was the effect of the fall of Nineveh-? AA^hat was accomplished b^ the Medes ? 21. AVho were the Medes ? How did their power commence r K. C. 708.] THE MOST AKCIENT K'ATIOKS. 1 H first subject to the Assyrians; but about 708 b. c, the various tribes united and tlirew olf the Assyrian yoke, choosing a king named Defo-ces, and making Echat'ana their capital. 22. Ilis son Phraor'tes subdued the Persians, and at his death was succeeded by Cyaxares, who spread his con- quests so widely, as to be considered the founder of the Great Median" Em pike. He was succeeded by Astyages (as-ti'ah-jez), whose daughter married a Persian prince, and gave birth to Cyrus, afterward called The Great. Cyrus, being bold and aspiring, put himself at the head of the Persian tribes, and marching with a large army into Media, deposed Astyages, and uniting the Median and Persian dominions under himself as monarch, thus founded the Gkeat Persian Empire. Lydia. • 23. Lyd'ia was situated in the western part of Asia Minor, and was especially noted for its fruitful soil and great mineral wealth, its chief river, the Pacto'lus, abound- ing in gold, which was also found in the neighboring mines. Hence the Lydians soon became corrupted by luxury and vicious indulgences. They are supposed to have settled in Asia Minor about 720 b. c. The early history of this people is fabulous and unreliable. 24. During about tAVO centuries the Lydian monarchy occupied a prominent position in the history of Western Asia ; and Avhen Cyaxares the Mede overran this part of the country, he was completely checked in his career of conquest by the Lydians under their king, Alyattes {ci-le- at'tez) ; and after a war of six years, in Avhich he had been often defeated by the Lydians, Cyaxares retired beyond the 22. Conquests of Phraortes and Cyaxares ? By Avhom was the Median Empire founded ? By whom and in what manner was the Persian Empire founded ? Ori- gin of Cyrns the Great ? 23. Where was Lydia situated? For what noted? Sources of its wealth V Wbeu did tlie Lvdiaus settle in Asia Minor ? Their early history ? 24. Duration of the Lydian power ? What war during the reign of Alyattes ? 18 THE MOST AKCIEKT NATIONS. [B.C. 610. Ha'lys, the boundary of the Lydian kingdom at that time. 25. This war between the Lydians and Medes is said to haye been terminated in a singular way. Their two great armies had come to an engagement (610 B. c.*), when, in the midst of the battle a total eclipse of the sun occurred, which so alarmed the soldiers that they imme- diately retired from the conflict. The two monarchs there- upon concluded not only a peace, but a firm treaty of alliance with each other ; and peace continued to subsist between these two powers until the time of Cyrus, about half a century afterward. [See Note 7, end of Section.} 26. Alyattes is said to have re'gned about forty years after the close of this war, and to have constructed a vast monument, inferior only to the great pyramids of Egyi:)t. Its base was formed of immense blocks of stone, the struc- ture ^bove being a great mound of earth. This mound has been explored in modern times, and a chamber found within, formed of solid blocks of marble, which gave evi- dence of having been rifled of its contents long before. It was without doubt the tomb of Alyattes. 27. This king was succeeded (about 568 b. c.) by his son Croesus {Jcre'sus), noted for his immense wealth, being by far the richest monarch of his time. He is also dis- tinguished as tlie last monjirch of Lydia ; for, having made war upon Cyrus the king of Persia, he was entirely de- feated ; and his capital Sardis being taken by the enemy, he was made a prisoner, and condemned by Cyrus to be burnt alive upon a funeral pyre, but was afterward released. "Thus, within a very fcAV weeks, from being a powerful and prosperous monarch, ruler over thirteen nations, he • This is Crete's estimate. According to Pliny, 584 B. C. 25. In what remarkable way was this war tenninated? Date of the battle > How long did peace subsist ? 26. How loug did Alyattes reign ? What singtilar structure did he erect ? 27. By whom was he succeeded ? For what is Croesus noted ? His fate ? WTiat became of Lydia ? B.C. 2700.] THE MOST AI^CIENT NATIONS. 19 was reduced to the condition of a captive and a beggar, dependent upon the will of a despot whose anger he liad provoked." Ljdia consequently became a province of the Persian Empire. Ancient Egypt. 28. Egypt is one of the most interesting countries de- scribed in history, being greatly celebrated for its antiquity, its remarkable civilization, singular institutions, and great power and influence in the ancient world. Its early history is involved in fable ; but it seems to be settled that the first king was called Me'nes, and that he founded the famous city of Mem'phis, although the time at which he lived is variously estimated by chronologists. (Probably about 2700 B. c.) [See Note 8, end of Sedion^^ 29. In the third century B. c, Ma-ne'tlio, an Egyptian priest, compiled a history of his country, in which he di- vided the period from Menes to the final loss of independ- ence (about the middle of the fourth century) into 30 dynasties. Although this work itself has perished, chrono- logical abstracts from it are preserved in other ancient writings ; and these, together with the allusions found in the Bible, and the accounts given by Ilerodotus and other ancient writers, with what has been gleaned, in modern times, from the hierogl}T^)hic inscriptions on the monu- ments, constitute all the sources of ancient Eg}qotian his- tory. 30. The history of the first seventeen dynasties, occu- pying a period of about tw^elve centuries, is very much involved in obscurity, the monuments only affording a few scattered facts cind dates. The most famous of the pyra- mids are supposed to have been erected during the fourth 28. now 13 Egji^t distingnished ? Its early history ? The first kin^ ? 29. What are the sources of Egj'ptian histoiy ? How many dyuasties are enu- merated by Mauetho ? 30. Dufiugjvhat period is the history nnlaio-\ATi or uncertain? Date of thfl Pyramids ? What is said of Memphis ? The Ilyksos ? 20 THE MOST AKCIENT NATIOKS. [B.C. 971 dynasty; in which period the city of Memphis attained a very high degree of splendor, and the state of civilization of the people was quite advanced. The most noted event was the invasion and conquest of the country by a foreign people from the East, who ruled probably from the fifteenth to the eighteenth dynasty, under the name of the Hyh'sos, or " Shepherd Kings." 31. These kings ruled in Lower Egypt as military despots, and very much oppressed the native people. It was during the reign of one of these, as it is now believed, that Joseph was made the chief minister, and that Jacob and his family were allowed to settle in the land of Goshen. It is supposed that they remained in Eg}qot a little more than two centuries, and that the exodus took place about 1652 B. c, during the rule of the 17th dynasty, which ap- pears to have been of Assyrian origin. 32. During the next three dynasties, the Egyptians en- joyed an independence from foreign rule, the first monarch of the eighteenth dynasty having expelled the Sliepherd Kings and reinstated the native sovereigns. Some of the greatest of the Egy]itian monarchs belong to this period. The most noted were Thot'mes III., who subdued Syria, and reduced Nineveh and perhaps Babylon to his sway (1444 B. c.) ; Thotmes IV., who caused the Great Sphinx to be constructed ; and Ra-me'ses I. and //., the latter of whom, called Sesos'tris by the Greeks, was a very great conqueror, and adorned both Egjqit and Nubia Avith many splendid temples and other edifices. The exploits of these monarchs are recorded in pictures and hieroglyphs on the monuments. 33. SUe'shonh, called Shi' shah in the Bible (1 Kings, xiv. 25), attacked Judah and took Jerusalem, despoiling it of all its treasures (971 B. c.) This event is depicted on 3 1 . "Uliere and how long did the Hyksos rule ? At what period are the I^raelitea supposed to have settled in Egypt ? When did they leave it ? 32. Wheu did Egypt become independent? What is said of Thotmes IIL- Thotmes IV., and Kamesee I. and II. ? How are their exploits recorded ? B. €. 605.] THE MOST AN'CIENT NATIONS. 21 monuments found in the great temple at Karnak. Tirlici' kali, of the 25th dynasty, came to the assistance of the Jewish king Ilezekiah against Seimacherib, the dreadful destruction of whose army has been already mentioned. This dynasty was of Ethiopian origin ; and hence Tirhakah is called in the Bible the King of Ethiopia. 34. The 2Gth dynasty was commenced by Psammet'ichus [., -vvho by means of Greek mercenaries acquired an abso- lute power over the whole country. His successor, Neka'o, or Ne'clios II., attempted the construction of a canal across the isthmus of Su'ez, but desisted after 120,000 men had perished in the undertaking.* After defeating Josiah, king of Judah, he was himself defeated by Nebuchadnezzar, (605 B. C.) A-mft'sis, virtually the last of this dynasty, had a long and prosperous reign ; but having incurred the dis- pleasure of Camby'ses, king of Persia, his son and suc- cessor, Psammen'itus, after a brief reign of six months, encountered the Persian host, and was defeated at Pelu'- slum, 525 B. c. Thus Egyi:>t came under the powder of Oambyses, who treated the people with very great cruelty. 35. During the remaining dynasties, from the battle of Pelusium to 350 B. c, Egypt was engaged in a constant struggle with the Persians for its independence, which it often regained, but as often lost. In these efforts it was greatly assisted by the Greeks. Its final conquest by the Persians took place at the date above mentioned ; since which time the prophecy of Eze'kiel, that " there shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt," has been literally fulfilled, for not one native ruler has ever occupied the throne for a period of more than 2000 years. The subse- quent history of Egypt will be related in connection with that of the nations to whom it has successively belonged. * See Note 9, end of the SeHion. 33. Invasion ol" Jndah by bhcshonk? What is said of Tirhakah ? Why called in the Bible •'Kin;^ of Etijiopia ?" Where is Kaniak? An^. At Thebes. 34. Give an account of Psanimetichus I. ^S'hat grrat work was attempted by Nechos II. ? What led to the Persian invasion ? Its result ? 35. In what contest was Ej,'ypt engaged during the remaining dynasties? By whom was it aided ? Its final conquest, and the julfilmeut of Ezekiers prophecy * THE MOST AN^CIENT :N"ATI02^S. 36. Civilization of the Egyptians. The early population and civilization of Egypt were due to its ex- traordinary fertility, caused by the annual inundations of tlie Nile. In fact, this region may be geographically described as the valley of that river, extending about 500 miles from north to south, and bounded on the western side by a rocky ridge sloping into the Great Desert, and on the east by low ranges descending to the Red Sea. It was anciently divided into Up2)cr, Middle, and Loioer Egypt. 37. Upper Egy])t, or the Theh'-a-is, as it was often called, included the- narrow valley in the extreme southern part. Its capital was the great city Thebes, which, in the time of its splendor, is said to have extended over twenty- three miles, and to have had one hundred gates. The ruins of splendid temples, colossal statues, obelisks, and sphinxes still bear witness to its wonderful size and grandeur. 38. Middle Eg3rpt, or Hejjtan'omis, as it was called on account of its seven districts, embraced the wider portion of the Nile basin below the Thebais. Its capital was MemjjJds, the City of the Pharaohs who received and pro- tected the Israelites. This district contains the finest of the pyramids, which are situated on the west side of the Nile, and extend for a distance of about seventy miles. 39. Lower Egj^t consists of the Delta of the Nile, an extremely fertile region, and anciently very populous. The entire population of Egjrpt must have been large at the earliest periods. It has been estimated at seven millions, under the Pharaohs. The construction of the Great Pyramid, it is said, required the constant employment of 100,000 men for more than twenty years. [See Note 10.] 40. The Egyptians Avere a brown race, and were divided into seven distinct castes, or ranks, — of which the priests 36. Cause of the civilization of Esiypt? Of its extraordinary fertility y Hom Is its situation described ? How was it divided ? 37. Describe Upper Egypt. What is said of its capital, Thebes ? 38. How is Middle E.iryi)t descril>cd ? 39. Lower Egypt ? What estimate is given of the population of Egypt i 40 The Egyptians— their color, castes, and religiou ? THE MOST AlfClEJ^T NATION-S. 2J aud warriors were the most honored; next, the agricul- turists, merchants, mariners, aud artisans; while shep- herds,^ the lowest caste, were held in great abomination. The Egyptian religion was a gross superstition, the lower orders of the people worshipping the most degraded ani- mals, idols, &c. Astrology formed a prominent part of the national belief; hence their close observation of the heavenly bodies. 41. Their progress in the mechanical arts was consider- able, as is seen in the inscriptions on the monuments. The weaving of cotton and linen cloth, working in copper and brass, and pottery, were among the most prominent branches of manufacture. Agriculture was pursued with great skill and industry. A considerable traffic was car- ried on with other countries, gold, ivory, ebony, skins, and slaves being brought from Ethiopia ; incense from Arabia ; and spices from India; and for these articles were ex- ported principally grain and cloths. This commerce was chiefly carried on by Greek and Pha?nician merchants, since the Egyptians had not attained any skill in ship- building. 42. Much advancement was made also in the fine arts, painting, sculpture, and music. The skill in architecture which they had acquired is shown by the magnificent edifices, the ruins of which still exist;" such as the tem- ples, pyramids, obelisks, &c. These exhibit a peculiar style, but are very remarkable for their massive grandeur and regularity. The great pyramids were, in ancient times, counted among the wonders of tlie world. 43. The government was an absolute monarchy, but the priestly caste had very great influence, since there was a close union between the government and religion of the riwI^onT^^^'"''*^^'''''^''^'''^'"^^''''^''^*^^ Agriculture? Commerce? How car- ar?hi{eSur^e*'^'"°°'"^^^ ^^^ ^^^ Egyptians made in painting, sculpture, &c. ? Theii 24: THE MOST AXCIEN^T KATIO^S. [B. C. 750. country. There were religious ceremonies prescribed for every important action, and tliese even the kings were obliged to observe. The general belief that the soul would, after a certain long period, return to the body from which, at death, it had departed, caused great care to be taken to preserve the body from decay. Hence the custom of em- balming, and hence also the pyramids, which seem to have been only tombs, constructed by the kings, to preserve their mortal remains from decay. [See Note 11.] Ethiopia. 44. Directly south of Egyjit lay the country of the Bthiopians, a nation the origin of which is lost in anti- quity. Its capital, Mer'o-e, from its situation on the upper Nile, became the emporium of Arabia, Egypt, and other great nations in its vicinity ; and Ethiopia grew to be one of the most powerful states of the ancient world (about 1000 B. c.) For a time it was tributary to Egypt ; but (about 750 B. c.) it acquired its independence, under Sab'aciis, and in its turn subdued Eg}^3t, which it kept under its sway about sixty years. 45. During the reign of Psammetichus, 2-10,000 Egyp- tians emigrated to Ethiopia, and settling there added greatly to the prosperity of the State. After subduing Egyi^fc, Cambyses invaded Ethiopia ; but his soldiers suf- fered incredible hardships from famine in the deserts, and having reached Meroe, which he captured, he was obliged to relinquish his design and return to Egypt. About live centuries later, Ethiopia was conquered by the Romans. Phcenicia. 46. This region, bordering on the eastern shore of the 44. Situation of Ethiopia? Its capital? To what country waa it tributary? Under what kins: did it achieve its independence ? 45. What emio;ration took place from Egypt to Ethiopia? What monarch at- tempted its conqucHt ? The result ? When conquered by the Romans ? 46. What was the situation of Phoenicia ? For what noted ? What is said of Ty;-e and Sidon ? Which were the most ancient colonies of the Phceniciani* J Wiiich was the greatest of their colonies ? B.O. 878.] THE MOST AJfCIE:NT KATIONS. J35 Mediterranean Sea, is noted as having contained Si' don and Tyre, the most ancient commercial cities mentioned in history. These two cities were independent, each being under a government of its own. They Avere not only cele- brated for their commerce, bnt became the great colonizing powers of the ancient world. Their most ancient colonies w^ere Ga'des (now Cadiz), in Spain, and U'tica, in Africa. Some of the earliest settlements in Greece are said to have been made by Phcenicians. The greatest of their colonies was Cartilage, on the northern coast of Africa, founded by DUdo, a Tyrian princess, 878 b. c. 47. Their manufactures of glass and linen, perfumes and purple dye, were sources of unbounded wealth ; and they were universally considered the most skilful workmen in gold, silver, ivory, bronze, &c. Their ships visited the most remote parts of the Mediterranean Sea, and even passed the Straits into the Atlantic, reaching Britain and the Ca7ia'ries. They also carried on an active slave-trade. 48. Sidon (or Zidon) Avas under the dominion of Tyre in the eighth century, when the country Avas invaded by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria. It then submitted to the invader, and Tyre, after a long siege, Avas also subdued. The latter Avas besieged and taken by Nebuchadnez'zar (587 B. c.) ; and both cities were afterward reduced by Cyrus (538 b. c.) Having revolted against the Persians, in 351 B. c, Sidon Avas fired by its OAvn inhabitants and entirely destroyed. It Avas, hoAvever, afterward rebuilt; and both cities, in 332 b. c, Avere compelled to submit to Alexander the Great, Tyre yielding to the conqueror after a determined resistance of seven months. Syria Ais"D Palestine. 49. Syria is the name given to a region of indefinite 47 Sources of their -wealth ? To what countries did their ships penetrate ? 48. AA'hat is said of Sidou ? By whom were Tyre aud Sidon conquered in the eii^hth century ? Give their subsequent history. 49. AVhat was the situation of Syria ? AVhat is said of Damascus ? AVho were itb most noted kinjrs ? •^56 THE MOST AKCIEKT I^ATIOisrS. [B. C. 10»5. extent situated to the east of the Mediterranean Sea. It was called by the Hebrews A' ram. Damascus was the old- est and most important city, and seems to have been an important place even in the times of Abraham, while in the subsequent history of the Jews it became quite promi- nent. King David gained a great victory over the Syrians of Damascus, and reduced their city. It afterward, how- ever, regained its independence, and under the three noted kings named Ben-ha'-dad contended repeatedly with Israel. Haz'-a-el gained important victories over the Israelites, rav- aged their territory, and plundered Jerusalem. Damascus was afterward successively subdued by the Assyrians, Per- sians, Macedonians, and Romans. 50. Palestine was situated between the Mediterranean and the valley of the Jordan, extending about 145 miles from north to south, with an average breadth of less than tifty miles. Yet within this small area were enacted the most momentous events in the world's history. Pal'es- tine is but another name for PMlis'tia, or the country of the PMlis' tines, those fierce idolaters, with whom so many and so long w\ars were waged by the Israelites. Their chief cities were Ash'dod or A-zo-tas^ As'ke-lon^ GatJi^ Ga'za^ and Ek'-ron^ all noted in sacred history. 51. Of the twelve tribes of Israel, nine and a half were located to \\\(i west and two and a half to the east of the Jordan. Into this region they had been led by Joshua, Moses being only permitted to catch a distant glimpse of the promised land. After the death of Joshua, followed the period of the Judges, which lasted about five centuries. The last of the Judges was Samuel, who, when the people demanded a king, anointed Saul (1095 B. c). 52. Saul was succeeded by David, during whose reign 50. Wliat was the extent of Palestine ? What is said of the Philistines ? Give the names of their chief cities ? 51. What was the location of the twelve tril)es of Israel ? Give an account of their early history there. Who was their iirst king 'i 52. HoAv loiig did Da\'id reign ? What wfis the extent of the kingdom durini> his rtign ? What was the character of David's reign ? IB. €.975.] THE MOST AKCIENT NATIONS. 2? ^^from 1055 to 1015 B. c), the kingdom of Israel stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Euphrates River, and from Syi'ia to the Red Sea ; and probably contained a pop- ulation of at least five millions. He encouraged navigation and trade, particularly with Tyre, and sought to instruct his people in the arts. The events of his splendid but troubled reign, with a minute account of his character and conduct, are recorded in the Bible (2 Sam. and 1 Cliron^. 53. The reign of Solomon (1015-975 b. c.) was the most splendid period of the Jewish history. Eor him was re- served the honor of building the great temple of Jehovah. He formed alliances with the surrounding nations, opened an active trade with Egypt, and, to facilitate his commer- cial objects, erected Tacl'mor in the desert, which after- ward became so renowned as Palmy'ra. He also built a superb navy, at a port {E'zi-on-ge'her) which he established at the northern part of the Red Sea. The history of his wisdom, his prosperity and wealth, and his fall into idol- atry and sin, is greatly interesting and instructive. (1 Kings, ii.-xi.) 54. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom was di- vided, in consequence of the tyranny and insolence of his son Re-lio-lo' am, against whom ten tribes revolted and fol- lowed Jer-o-lo' am, who established himself at She'chem., as king of Israel. To Rehoboam were thus left only two tribes, forming the kingdom oti Jtidali. A desultory Avar was maintained between the two divisions during most of the reign of Jeroboam, which lasted twenty-two years. (1 Kings, xii.) 55. Israel. — The history of the successive kings of Israel is a sad record of war and sin. These kings were noted only for their wickedness and idolatry, and brought upon the people, in consequence, the severe punishments of God. 53. Describe the reign of Solomon. 54. Wtiat caused the division of the kingdom ? What kingdoms were formed ? What if said of the reign of Jeroboam ? 55. What is said of the kings of Israel ? How did this kingdom end ? 28 THE MOST A2q:CIEKT XATIOKS. L«. €. 536, It was terminated by the invasion of the Assyrians, to whom the last king, Ho-slie'a, was compelled to surrender Sama'ria, and the ten tribes were carried into captivity (721 B.C.). {^ Kings, xvii. 6.) Their place was supplied by Babylonian settlers, from Avhom, with a small part of the Jewish population, was derived the Samaritan race. 56. Judah. — This kingdom lasted 135 years longer. Most of its kings were wicked and idolatrous; but three reigns were marked by virtue and piety. During the reign of Je-hosh'a-2)Mt the kingdom was in a more prosperous condition than it had been since the days of Solomon. Hezekiali's reign is remarkable for the invasion of Sen- nacherib, and the miraculous destruction of his army. It was on this occasion that the sliadow on tlie sun-dial was made to move back to confirm the wavering faith of Ileze- kiah. (2 Kings, xx. 9.) 57. The last king was Zed-e-hi' ah, during whose reign Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, took Jerusalem, and destroyed it, sending the unfortunate monarch in chains to Babylon, whitlier were also transported the miserable inhabitants (586 B. c). The temple was razed to the ground (2 Kings, xxxv.) ;* and for more than fifty years the holy city perished, except in the memory of the heart-broken exiles. The restoration of the Jews took place in 536 b. c, in pursuance of an edict of Cyrus, the great Persian monarch. (2 Gliron. xxxv. 22, and Ezra, i.) CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. IJ. c. 2700. Meues, king of Egypt. 2000. Invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. 1867. Settlement of the Israelites in Egypt. 1733. Birth of Moses. * See also 2 Chronicles, xxxvi. 11-21, and Jeremiah, xxxix. 56. How much longer did Jndah last? What is said of the reign of Jehosha- phat ? What noted events of Hczekiah's reign are mentioned ? 57. Who was the last king? What was his late? By whom was Jerusalem destroyed ? How and when were the Jews rcb^ored ? THE MOST AN^CIENT KATIOiq-S. 29 1700. Babylon, the capital of the Clialdees. 1G53. Exodus of the Israelites from Ei^ypt. 1612. Death of Moses. 1444. Syria subdued by the Egyptians, under Thotmes II. 1320. Rameses the Great, king of Egypt. 1095. Saul, the first king of Israel. lOoo. David begins to reign over Israel. 1015. Accession of Solomon. 975. Secession of the Ten Tribes,, and the division of the kingdom. 971. Jerusalem taken by Shishak, king of Egypt. 878. Carthage founded by the Tyrians. 750. Sabacus restores the independence of Ethiopia. 747. Era of Nabonassar. 721. Samaria taken — and end of the Kingdom of Israel. 720. The Lydians settle in Asia Minor. 625. Taking of Nineveh by the Medes. 610. Famous battle between the armies of Alyattes and Cyaxares. 586. Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and the captivity of the Jews. 587. Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 568. Commencement of the reign of Croesus. 546. Croesus taken prisoner by Cyrus. 538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. 536. Restoration of the Jews by an edict of Cyms. 525. Pelusium taken, and Egypt subdued by Cambyses. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. What events immediately followed the Del a<^e ? 11 2. Name the most ancient monaicliies 11 3. Give an account of the establishment of the Babylonian monarchy 12 4. Who were the Chaldees ? 13 5. What is meant by the Era of Nabonassar ? 13 6. What were the principal events of Nebuchadnezzar's reign ? 14 7. Relate the subsequent history of Babylon 14 8. Give an account of the foundation of the Assyrian Empire 14 9. Mention the most noted of its monarchs 15-16 10. What were the principal events of their reigns ? 15-16 11. How did the Empire terminate ? Its last king ? 16 12. Give an account of the rise of the Median Empire 16 13. W]ia.t led to the foundation of the Persian Empire ? 17 14. Wlio were the Lydians, and where did they settle ? 17 15. Name their most noted kings 17-18 16. Relate the principal events of their reigns 17-18 30 THE MOST AKCIEI^T KATIOXS. 17. By whom was the Lydian monarchy overturned ? 18 18. For what was Croesus noted ? 18 19. State the sources of Egyptian history 19 20. What portion of it is involved in obscurity ? 19 21. Who were the most noted kings of Egypt ? 20-21 22. What were the most important events of their reigns ? 20-21 2.3. What great work was undertaken by Nekao ? — 21 24. Who was the last of the 26th Dynasty ? 21 25. By whom was Egypt subdued in 525 b. c. ? 21 26. Give a sketch of its history for the next two centuries 21 27. What prophecy has been fullilled in its history ? 21 28. Give a sketch of the geography of Egypt 22 29. Describe the civilization, government, &c., of the Egyptians 22-2:3 30. What powerful state south of Egypt ? Its capital ? 24 31. Give a sketch of its history 24 32. Which were the most noted commercial cities of antiquity ? 25 33. Mention their most important colony 25 34. What were the sources of their wealth ? 25 35. Give a sketch of their history 25 36. Give a brief account of Syria and Damascus 26 37. Where did the Philistines dwell ? Their chief cities ? 26 38. Mention the most noted events in the history of Palestine 20-27 39. What was the extent of the Jewish kingdom during the reign of David ? 27 40. What were the chief events of Solomon's reign ? 27 41. Into what separate kingdoms was Israel afterward divided ? 27 42. Give a sketch of the history ol the kingdom of Israel 27-28 43. How did it end?.... 28 44. Give an outline of the history of Judah 28 45. During whose reign was the miracle of the sun-dial ? 28 46. What terminated the kingdom of Judah ? 28 47. How and when were the Jews restored to their own country ? 28 48. What is the oldest date referred to in ancient history ? 28 49. Is it reli-able ? 19 50. What were the principal events between 2000 b, c. and 1500 b. c. ? 28-29 51. What were the chief events between 1500 b. c. and 1000 b. c. ? 29 52. What, between 1000 b. c. and 500 b. c. ? 29 53. Name the diffei-cnt kingdoms treated of in this section in the order of their foundation 12-28 54. State the geographical situation of each. (See Map, p. 12.) 12 55. What was the capital of each ? (See Map, p. 12.) 12 N" O T E S. 1. The Dispersion (p. 11, "ir 2).— The place where the Bible narrative states that the ark rested alter the deluge, the starting-poiut for the sous of Noah, is Mount Ararat. After the most careful investigatious, the mountain mass of Lit- tle Bokhara, and Western Thibet, is agreed upon as the place whence the human race issued. Here the largest rivers of Asia— the Indus, the Oxus, and the Jax- artes— take their rise. From this as a center, the families of Shera, Ham, and Japhet were dispersed. The family of Ham, from whom the people of Phoenicia, of Egypt, and Ethiopia were descended, was the first to leave the common cen- ter. Of the four sons of Ham, the race of Cush has been identified with the Ethiopians, the Egyptians with Misraim, the Libyans with Phut, and Canaan with the Phoenicians, together with all the' tribes lying between the Mediterranean and the Dead Seas before the settlement of the Hebrews. The race of Shem was the next to leave the country in which the descendants of Noah dwelt after the flood. They occupied the countries extending from Mesopotamia to the southern part of Arabia, and from the Mediterranean Sea to the country beyond the Tigris. In many places, as the country bordered by the Oxus, the banks of the Tigris, and a part of India, the Cushite race was probably expelled first by the descendants of Shem, and by the Aryans, the sons of Japhet. Of the descendants of Ham, Eber was the progenitor of the Hebrews, Joktan of the Arabs, Lud of the people of Lydia. The race of Japhtt was the last to leave their home. They migrated to the south, crossed the Hindoo Koosh, and entered India, subjugating the earlier Hamitic tribes, and to the west, over the most of Europe, and became the progenitors of the Sanskrits, Greeks, Romans, Persians, and the Teutonic tribes. 2. Comparative Pliilology (p. 11, H 2).— The descendants of the sons of Noah included only the white race, who, speaking the same language in the land of Shinar, were dispersed in consequenes of the confusion of tongues at the build- ing of the Tower of Babel. The negroes in the days of the Pharaohs, and the yellow and red races, have no mention in the sacred narrative. The results of com- parative philology teach that in every language there are three distinct epochs: the mnnosyUaMc, the agglutinative^ and the inflected. The monoisyliabic languages consist only of simple words expressing the idea, or notion. Independent of their relations to other words, as the ancient Chinese. The agglutinated languages, in which two roots are joined together to form words, one of them losing its indepen- dent meaning and becoming subsidiary to the other, have received the name of Turanian, which comprise all the languages spoken in Europe and Asia not includ- ed under the Aryan or Semitic families. The inflected languages, in which the roots coalesce, so that neither the one nor the other retains its substantive inde- pendence, have been divided into two great families, the Semitic and the InT. >- European, Aryan, or Japhetic. The Semitic lang\iages embrace the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, Syria and Arabia. It should not be inferred from this that the name Semitic was restricted to those countries peopled by the race of Shem, for a large part of the Hamitic nations spoke the Semitic languages. Tiie Indo- European embraced the countries extending from the plains of India, across the plateau of Iran, and the highlands of Armenia, into Europe, of which it covers nearly the whole surface. Thus it will be seen from this brief survey that the results of comparative philology are in substantial accord with the narrative of the Bible; that the races were originally one; that they emigrated from a region of Central Asia, at the east of the Caspian and northwest of India; that they were originally a pastoral people, gradually changing their habits as they descended into the plains isOTES. of the Indus and the Euphrates. The method of investigation, as applied to the Aryan, is as follows: It is found that the names of many common objects arc the same in all the families of the languages of this stock, and it would be unreason- able to suppose that two nations widely sepai'ated would have independently selected the same name for the feame object. Thus the word for house in Greek is 6o>o?, in Latin domus, in Sanskrit dama, in Zend dejnana^ from which root comes our word domestic. From the fact that the same word was used by all these different nations to designate the same object, it is pretty certain that the ancient Aryans lived in houses. In this way the early history of a people extending far beyond any authentic records possessed by man, has been partially restored. For a further investigation of this subject, the pupil is referred io Max MiiUey''s Science of Lan- guage. 3. Clialdea (p. 12,11 3).— "The Chaldean monarchy had from the first an a)-c.'(i- tectural character. Babjion, Erech, or OrchoS, Accad, and Calneh, were founded by Nimrod. Ur was from an eai-ly date a city of importance. The attempt to build a tower 'which should reach to heaven,' made here (Gen. xi. 4.), was in accordance with the general spirit of the Chaldean people. Out of such simple and rude ma- terials as brick and bitumen, vast edifices were constructed, pyramidical in de- sign, but built in steps or stages of considerable altitude. Other arts also flour- ished. Letters were in use ; and the baked bricks employed by the royal build- ers, had commonly a legend in their center. Gems were cut, polished, and en- graved with representations of human forms, portrayed with spirit. Metals of many kinds were worked, and fashioned into arms, ornaments, and implements. Textile fabrics of a delicate tissue were manufactured. Commerce wa.s carried on with the neighboring nations both by laud and sea : the ' ships of Ur,' visiting the shores of the Persian Gulf, and perhaps those of the ocean beyond it. The study of astronomy commenced, and observations of the heavenly bodies were made and carefully recorded." — Raivlinson' s Ancient History. 4. Babylon (p. 13, IT 5). — ''The descriptions of Babylon which have come down to us in classical writers, are derived chiefly from two sources, the works of Herodotus and of Ctesias. These authors were, both of them, eye-witnesses of the glories of Babylon— not, indeed, at their highest point, but before they had greatly declined— and left" accounts of the city and its chief buildings, which the historians and geographers of later times were, for the most part, content to copy. According to Herodotus, the city, which was built on both sides of the Euphrates, formed a vast square, enclosed within a double line of high walls, the extent of the outer circuit being about fifty-six miles. The entire area included would thus have been about two hundred square miles. Herodotus appears to imply that this whole space was covered Avith houses, which, he observes, were frequently three or four- stories high. They were laid out in straight streets crossing each other at right angles, the cross streets leading to the Euphrates, being closed at the river end with brazen gates, which allowed or prevented access to the quays wherewith the banks of the Euphrates were lined along its whole course through the city. In each division of the town, Herodotus says, there was a fortress or stronghold, con- sisting in the one case of the royal palace, in the other of the great temple of Belus. * * * The two portions of the city were united by a bridge, composed of a series of stone piers with movable platforms of wood stretching from one pier to another." — Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. 5. Berosus (p. 14, 11 12).— "Even among his contemporaries, Berosus en- joyed the reputation of great wisdom ; nay, what is more strange still, a statue Avas erected to him even at Athens. He was a Chaldean, and no doubt, an astrono- NOTES. mer or astrologer. We see from his fragments that he was a very truthful mau." — Niebuhr. 6. Nineveh (p. 16, IT 19).— "Traditions of the unrivaled size and magnificence of Nineveh were equally familiar with the Greek and Roman writers, and to the Arab geographers. But the city had fallen so completely into decay before the period of authentic history, that no description of it, or even of any of its monu- ments, is to be found in any ancient author of trust. Diodorus Siculus asserts that the city formed a quadrangle of no less than sixty miles in circuit, and was surrounded by walls one hundred feet high, broad enough tor three chariots to drive abreast upon them, and defended by fifteen hundred towers, each two hun- dred feet in height. ****** Herodotus speaks of the Tigris, as ' the river upon which the town of Nineveh formerly stood.' He must have passed, in his journey to Babylon, very near the site of the city— perhaps actually over it. So accurate a recorder of what he saw would scarcely have omitted to mention, if not to describe, any ruins of importance that might have existed there. Not two centuries* had then elapsed since the fall of the city. Equally conclusive proof of its condition is afforded by Xenophon, who, with the ten thousand Greeks, encamped during his retreat, ou or very near its site (b. c. 401). The very name had then been forgotten, or, at least, he does not appear to have been acquainted with it." — Smith's Dictionarij of the Bible. 7. Eelip*je ofTliaies(p. 18, IF 25).— " On the refusal of Alyattes to give up his suppUants when Cyaxares sent to demand them of him, war broke out be- tween the Lydians and the Medes, and continued for five years, with various suc- cess. In the course of it, the Medes gained many victories over the Lydians, and the Lydians also gained many victories over the Medes. iBeside their other bat- tles there was one night engagement. As, however, the balance had not inclined in favor of either nation, another combat took place in the sixth year, in the course of which, just as the battle was growing warm, day was on a sudden changed into night. This event had been foretold by Thaies, the Milesian, who forewarned the lonians of it, fixing for it the very year in which it actually took place. The Medes and Lydians, when they observed the change, ceased fighting, and were alike anxious to have terms of peace agreed on."~Rawlinson's Herodotus. 8. Antiquity of Egypt (p. 19, IT 23).— "If Egypt is not the oldest civil- ized nation of antiquity, it may vie with aay other known in history; and the records of its civilization, left by the monuments, unquestionably date far before tTiose of any other country. But the inhabitants of the valley of the Nile were not the most ancient of mankind, they evidently derived their origin from Asia; and the parent stock, from which they were a very early offset, claim a higher antiquity in the history of the human race. Their skull shows them to have been of the Cau- casian stock, and distinct from the African tribes westward of the Nile; and they are t'idently related to the oldest races of Central Asia."—Rawlinson. 9. Circumnavigation of Africa (p. 21, H 34).— "Neco next fitted out some ships, in order to discover if Africa was circumnavigable; for which purpose he engaged the services of certain Phcsnician mariners; and he has the honor of having been the first to ascertain the peninsular form of that continent, about twenty-one centuries before Bartolomeo Diaz and Vasco de Gama.." —RawUnson. 10. Ancient Egypt (p. 22, H 39).— "Thousands of years have passed since the foundation of the first Egyptian dynasty. The pyramids have seen the Old Empire, the Hyksos monarchs. the New Empire, the Persian, the 'Macedoaian, the Eonian, the Mohammedan. They have stood while the heavens themselves have changed. They were already ' five hundred years old when the Southern Cross dis- KOTES. appeared from the horizon of the couutries of the Baltic' The pole-star, itself, is a new comer to them. Well may Humboldt, referring to these incidents, remark that ' the past seems to be visibly nearer to us when we thus connect its measure- ment with great and memorable events.' No country has had such a varied his- tory as this birth-place of European civilization. Through the darkness of fifty centuries, we may not be able to discern the motives of men, but through periods very much longer, Ave can demonstrate the conditions of nature. If nations, iu one sense, depend on the former, iu a higher sense they depend on the latter. It was not without reason that the Egj'ptians took the lead in Mediterranean civiliza- tion. The geographical structure of their country surpasses even its hoary monu- ments in teaching us the conditions under which that people were placed. Na- ture is a surer guide than the traces of man, whose works are necessarily transi- tory. The aspect of Egypt has changed again and again ; its structure, since man has inhabited it, never. The fields have disappeared, but the land re- mains." — Draper. — History of the InteUectiml Development of Eurnpe. 11. Egyptian Custona of Eieibalming the Dead (p. 24, IT 43).— ''According to the Egyptian doctrine of transmigration, the soul of man was des- tined to pass through the bodies of different animals, and at the end of three thousand years, to return and inhabit a hujnan form ; but the cycle could not commence till the body began to perish ; hence, say many historians, arose the practice of embalming the dead. The greatest attention was bestowed upon this work, which was enforced by severe and sacred laws. Many hands were employed in the ceremony ; some drew the brain through the nostrils ; others opened the side and took out all the softer i^arts of the body ; others then filled the cavities ■with spices and drugs. After a certain time, the body was wrapped in fine linen, dipped in gum, and impregnated with perfumes. Finally, it was delivered to the relatives, who put it in an open chest, and placed it upright against the wall of a sepulcher." — Bloss's Ancient History. 12. Plioeiiieiau Coinsnerce, etc. (p. 25, Tf 47).— "The Phoenician com- merce was chiefly a carrying trade ; but there were also a few productions of their own iu which their traffic was considerable. The most famous of these was the purple dye, which they obtained from two shell-fish, the buccinum. and the murex, and by the use of which they gave a high value to their textile fabrics. Another was glass, whereof they claimed the discovery, and Avhich they manufactured into various articles of use and ornament. They were also skillful in metallurgj^; and their bronzes, their gold and silver vessels, and other works in metal, had a high repute. Altogether, they have a claim to be considered one of the most in- genious of the nations of antiquity, though we must not ascribe to them the in- vention of letters, or the iDOssession of any remarkable artistic talent." — Eawlin- son's Ancient History. 13. Jewisli Chronology (p. 29). — There has been considerable discussion in regard to the important epochs in the sacred history of the Jews. The chronology of Usher cannot, in face of the results of modern research and discovery, be ac- cepted as indisputably correct. Dr. Smith remarks [Dictionary of the Bible, Art. Chronology], "We, therefore, take b. c. 1652, as the most satisfactory date of the Exodus." The four hundred and thirty yeais of sojourn, he thinks, commenced when Abraham entered Palestine, and hence the latter event occurred b. c. 2082. Also, " the temple of Solomon was destroyed on the nineteenth year of Nebuchad- nezzar, in the fifth month of the Jewsh ye.ir. In Ptolemy's Canon, this year is current in the proleptic Julian year, b. c. 58G, and the fifth month may be con- sidered as about equal to August of that year." These points being fixed, the re- maining chronology may readily be established. C. 525.] PERSIA, GREECE, AKD MACEDONIA. 3i section ii. Persia, Greece, ai^d Macedoi^ia. Frmn t/ie Foundation of the, Permin Eminre to the G(mquest of Greece by tlie Romans. I. Persia, at first of small extent, under Cyrus became a vast empire extending from the ^gean {e-ge'an) Sea be- yond the Euphra'tes; and included, besides the original territory. Media, Assyria, Babylonia, Asia Minor, and Syria. All these countries were subdued by Cyrus in the short space of twenty-nine years (558-529 B. c.) ; so great were the activity, enterprise, and address of that extraordinary man. His death took place during an expedition agahist the Mas-sacfe-tce, {g like _/,) a barbarous tribe living east of the Caspian ; and he was succeeded by his son Cam-by' ses, 2. The reign of Cambyses lasted nine years, its chief event being the invasion and conquest of Egypt (525 b. c), in which country he played the part of a ruthless tyrant. A large army which he despatched against the temple of Amnion in an oasis of the Desert {Si-2vah') perished in a simoom. He cruelly murdered his brother Smer'dis ; but an impostor, under the name of Smerdis, usurped the throne of Persia, during his absence in Egypt; and a short time after this the death of Cambyses took place in consequence of a wound which he received from his own sword while A ¥^P .Questions.— (See Progressive Map No. 1.) Name the principal divisions ol Asux Minor. What region southeast of the Euxine Sea ? What mountains bet ween the Euxine and Caspian Seas ? What country south of the Caspian ? What people tarther east ? What rivers tributary to the Sea of Aral ? What country between ? \\ hat river bounded the Persian Empire on the east ? Its chief tributaries '^ To what water was the Indus tributary? \Miat desert region north of the Erythr:can bea? VV here was Persepolis y What country northwest of the Euxine Sea ? Wliat country south of the Danube River ? ^ W^at^vae the extent of Persia under Cyrus? What countries did it com- prise ? When and how did the death of Cyrus occur ? 2. WTiat was the length of Cambyses' reign ? What were its chief events? Wliat were the circumstances of his death ? 32 PERSIA, GREECE, AN'D MACEDONTA. [B. C. 449. mounting his horse. — This king appeiirs to have been the A-has-ii-e rus spoken of in Ezra. 8. Smerdis, the impostor, on the discovery of tlie fraud, was quickly deposed by the Persian nobles, who elected Da- 7i,us /., called Hys-tas'pes, as king. This monarch was active and successful. During the thirty-six years of his reign (521-485 B. c.) he perfected the organization of the empire, dividing it into twenty provinces, over which he placed governors called by the Persians satrcq)s, and select- ed as his capital Susa in the spring ; Ecbat'ana in sum- mer; and Babylon in the. winter. The most important wars which he waged were those against the Scythians and the Greeks. 4. With an immense army he crossed the Bos porus by means of a bridge of boats, and advanced against the Scythians, a barbarous race dwelling on the other side of the Danube, in what is now European Turkey. The expe- dition Avas unsuccessful ; and leaving a force to conquer Thrace, he returned to Persia, and marched his army to the East, extending his authority as far as the Indus. The lo'nians, a G-recian colony dwelling on the western coast of Asia Minor, having revolted, and having been assisted by some of the Greeks, who took Sardis and burnt it, he de- termined to bring the whole of Greece under his authority. In two expeditions, however, he was entirely defeated, and while preparing for a third died, 485 b. c. 5. Xerxes I. (zei^x'ez), the son and successor of Darius, renewed the attempt to subdue the Grecian States, col- lecting a vast army and fleet for the purpose; but he also was defeated, and after a reign of tAventy years, trans- mitted the enterprise to his son Ar-tax-erx'es I., Avho Avas comi>elled finally to make peace Avith the Greeks, after the Avar had continued about fifty years (449 B. c). The sub- 3. AVho succeeded Smerdis the impostor? AVhat is said of Darins I. ? 4. IIow did liis war acfainst the Scythians result ? Tliat against the Greeks ? 5. AVho renewed the attempt ? Under ndiose reign did the war end ? Who was tbo last king of Persia? By whom was he subdued? How long had the Persian Kmi)ire lasted? Progressive Map, No. 2» B. C. 329.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 33 sequent history of Persia is of no importance except as it ia connected with that of the Greeks. The last king was Darius III., called Cod-o-man'nus, who was subdued by Alexander the Great, and Persia became a part of the Macedonian Emjjire, having lasted a little over two centuries. (329 B. c.) 6. The Persians, at first, and until after the reign of Cyrus, were a hardy race, of simple manners, and great courage in war; but subsequently they became, like the Modes, soft and effeminate, losing their bold hardihood, and becoming entirely corrupted by luxury and vicious indulgence. Their religion was, before the conquest of the Medes, a simple worship of the Spirit of Good ( O-ro-mas'des)^ and a belief in an Evil Spirit {Ah'ri-man) to be hated and shunned. They afterward became converts to the religion of Zo-ro-as'ter, and worshipped the element of fire, under priests called Ma-gi. The impostor Smerdis belonged to the Magian priesthood. Greece. 7. The country known in history as Greece anciently consisted of three quite distinct parts : the first in the north', composed of Tlies'sa-ly and E-iftrus ; the second, in the middle, called Hel'las, w^hich was the most important part ; and the third, the peninsula forming the southern portion of the country, called Pel-o-pon-nesus (now called Mo-re' a). To these was afterward added Mace- do'nia, wiiich was situated to the north of Thessaly and Map Ouestions. (See Progressive Map, No. 2).— What was the situation of Hel- las? Peloponnesus? Epirue? Thessaly? Macedonia? What were the divisions of Hellas? Of Peloponnesus ? What was the capital of Laconia? Messenia? Elis ? Argolis ? Attica ? Name the principal towns of Bojotia. What towTi in Achaia ? Phocis ? Euhoea ? Epirus ? What town near the east coast of Attica ? W^hat to\vns in Thessalv? Macedonia? Wliat gulfs south of Macedonia? East of Peloponnesus? South of it? What island in the Saron'ic Gulf? What island near the f-oast of Messenia ? What river in Laconia ? In Acarnania ? Wliat moun- tains easi of Epirus ? South of Thessaly ? W^hat pass leading from Thessalj into Greece ? 6. Describe the Persians. WTiat was their religion ? WTio were the Magi ? 7. Of what parts did Ancient Greece consist ? Name the most important states of each, and point them out on the map. 34 PERSIA, GREECE, AISTD MACEDON^IA. [B. C. 776. Epirus. Central Greece and Peloponnesus were divided into several small states, of which the most important were the following: — Hellas. — At'tica, Bmo'tia, Fho'cis, East and }Vesi Lo'cris, Do'ris, j^-to'lia, and Ac-ar-na! ni-a. To the east was the large island of Eulcea {u-le'ah). Pelopokkesus. — Laco'niay Ar'go-lis, Achaia {a'lca'yah)^ Ar-ca'dia, F'Us, and Mes-se'nia. (See Map of Greece.) 8. The primitive inhabitants of Greece are supposed to have been the descendants of Ja'van, the son of Ja'phet ; and hence it was called by the Hebrews Javan. A Celtic race from the East, called the Pe-las'gi, settled in Thrace in very ancient times; and these with other kindred races passed into Greece, and are known in the fabulous history of the period as Hel-Wnes, Lel'e-ges, &c. The Hellenes appear to have been the most energetic, since the rest of the Pelasgians disappeared before them. They also gave to the country its name, Hellas, by which, exclusively, it was known in ancient times. 9. The history of this country may be divided into two portions; the legendary or traditional history, and the authentic history. The first commences at the earliest periods and extends to the first Olympiad (776 B. c). The second extends to the conquest of Greece by the Eomans (146 B. c). The most ancient traditions represent the country as divided int© a large number of small states, each under its own chief or petty king, and engaged in war and piracy. This period of the history is often called the Heroic Age, since it abounds in fabulous stories of men of superhuman strength and valor, such as Her'cules, The- seus {fhe'-suse), Achilles (a-Jcil'lez), &c. 10. The most important events of the Heroic Age were 8. Who were the successive inhabitants of Greece? Who were the Pelasgil Wliat is said of the Hellenes ? 9. How niaj"^ the history of Greece he divided ? When does each division com- mence ? What is meant by the Heroic A.^e ? 10. What was the Argoiiantic Expedition ? What ia said of the Trojan War ? B. C. 776.] PEKSIA, GREECE, AND MACED0:S"1A. oO the Argonaut ic Expedition and ttie Trojan War. The lirst, supposed to have occurred about 1225 b. c, was an enter- prise the object of which, according to tlic tradition, was to bring from Colchis {kol'kis) a golden fleece. The heroes who engaged in it, sailing in a vessel called Argo, were called the Argo^iauts. Whether it was actually a \ oyage of discovery or commerce, or a mere piratical expe- dition, cannot be ascertained. The only account of the Trojan War is contained in the poems of Homer. Troy was besieged ten years by the Greeks, and was finally taken by stratagem (1184 B. c). 11. This period appears to have been followed by one of great revolutions and migrations of the Hellenic races. The Mo'lians were driven from their home in Thessaly, and proceeded southward, expelling in their turn the ancient inhabitants of the lands which they settled (1124 B. c). Another race from Thessaly, called the Do'rians, invaded the Peloponnesus, and made an entire conquest of it (1104 B. c). This movement, being conducted by the descendants of Her'cules, who had been banished more than a century previously, is called in history the Return of the IleracleidcB^ {her -a-cU'de). Other migra- tions led to the iEo'lian, Dor'ic, and lon'ic colonizations of Asia Minor. The dates of these events are not entirely reliable. 12. The authentic history of Greece may be properly considered as commencing 770 b. c. ; that is, at the first recorded Olympiad, a period of four years, which elapsed be- tween two celebrations of the Olympic games. These games were celebrated in honor of Jupiter, at Olym'pia, in Elis, and constituted the most splendid national festival of the Greeks. Their origin is lost in the darkness of antiquity. * Heiadeidce is a Greek word which means descendants of Hercules. 11. What mio^rations followed the Trojan War ? What is rneant by the Return of the Heracleidae ? What colonies were ebtahlished in Asia Jlinor ? 12. WTiat was an Olympiad ? WhaX were the Oljanpic games ? Who was Ly- curgua ? His as'e ? 30 PEKSIA, GREECE, AKD MACEDONIA. [B.C. 547. It was, as is sujiposed, about this time (776 B. c.) that Lycur'- gns reformed the government and laws of Sparta, and gave to it the constitution by which it afterward acquired the supremacy in Grecian affairs. 13. Sparta, the capital of Laconia, sometimes called Lacedisnion {las-e-de'mon), was originally Pelasgian, hut was conquered l)y the Dorians when they invaded the Pelopon- nesus, and soon became the chief of the Dorian states. Lycurgus by his laws designed to perpetuate the primitive simplicity and hardihood of the people, by preventing the spread of luxury, and by educating the youth so as to make them brave and patriotic soldiers. The effect was soon brought to a test in the wars with the Messenians, the first of which lasted twenty years (743-723 b. c.) ; tlie second, seventeen (685-668 b. c), and resulted in the entire defeat of the Messenians, and their dispersion into various parts. For the next three centuries Messenia formed a part of Laconia. II. Wars were also waged by Sparta with the other states of the Peloponnesus, and resulted in extending her authority over the whole peninsula. The Arcadians had become her subject allies (560 b. c.) ; Ar'gos* was too much weakened by defeat to make any resistance (547 B. c.) ; and no northern state at this period could com- pete with her in military power. The government of Laconia was vested in two hereditary kings, a Senate elected by the nobles, and five magistrates called the Eplh'o-7~i.\ The kings were of limited power; they pre- sided in the Senate, and led the armies. The Ephori were annually elected, and were clothed with very great author- ity. They could restrain the kings, control the public * In Grecian liistory the xtntes are often called by the names of their capital citlen. Tims, I^it- conia is goaeraliy known as Sparta ; Argolis, as Arr/os, &c. + Ephori, plural ot ejihonix, which means an overseer or inspector. 13. What is said of Sparta? What Avas the design of the laws of I.ycurgusl What wars were wa^ed with the Messenians ? 14. Wliat conquests were made by the Spartans ? Describe the Spartan govern ment. Who were the Ephori ? What were their powers ? B. C. 560.] PERSIA, GREECE, AI^D MACEDONIA. 3? tT^ssemblies, and tliey were the arbiters of peace and war. 15. The most important state of Central Greece, and afterward the great rival of Sparta, was Attica, the capi- tal of which was Ath'ens, in some respects the most renowned city in the world. It was the seat of learning and the arts, and may justly be considered the mother of modern civilization. Its population was of Ionian origin, although in the mythic history of Athens it is said to have been first settled by a colony from Egypt, under Ce' crops. Its government was until the eleventh century monarchi- cal ; but after the return of the Her'aclei'dae, it was vested in elective magistrates, called ArcJions {ar'hoiis). The last king of Athens, Co'drus, in a war with the Dorians, .sacrificed his life to save the city from capture. 16. Athens suffered for centuries from anarchy and mis- rule ; but in the seventh century (624 B. c.) it adopted the laws proposed by Dra'co, which were so severe that they were said to have been written in blood. They gave place (594 b. c.) to the constitution and laws devised by So'lon. According to these, the government was vested in a Senate or Council, an assembly of the people, and a chief magistrate called ArcJion,* with eight inferior execu- tive officers, also called by the general name of arcJi07is. The most venerable court of justice was the A-re-Oj/a- gus,\ the members of Avhich were inspectors of education and morals, as well as administrators of the laws. 17. The legislation of Solon laid the fou-ndation of Athenian greatness, and though sometimes disturbed by usurpation, remained in force for more than four centuries. In 560 B. C, the government Avas seized by Pl-sis'-tra-tus, * Archon means in Greek a ruler. + Areopagus, Mars'' Il-iU, the Court being so called from its situation on a small eminence at . Athens named the " Hill of Mars. " 1 5. What is said of Athens ? Her population and government ? Her last king ? 16. What is said of Draco? Of Solon and his liiws ? 1 7. Who was Pisistratus ? What was the character of his government ? Who were his successors ? How long did they reign ? 38 PEKSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 510. who exercised a despotic sway for thirty-three years, and transmitted his authority to his two sons, Hip'pias and Hippar'chus, called the P'tsistrat'idw.^ He ruled with moderation, patronized literature and the arts, opened a public library, and collected, it is said, the poems of Homer. Hip'pias and Hippar'chus also governed for some years with mildness and justice; but in 514 B. c, an act of tyranny committed by Hippias caused a conspiracy to be raised against them, and Hipparchus was slain. Hip- pias ruled with great severity for four years longer, and then was expelled (510 b. c.) with the aid of the Spartans. ICe took refuge at the court of Darius, king of Persia. 18. Age of Despots. It was not in Athens alone that despotic power overturned the popular government. Erom 650 to 500 B. c, there were few of the Grecian cities that escaped this calamity. Hence this period has been called the Age of Despots. In the city of Sicyon {sisli'e-on) a despotic dynasty lasted for more than a hundred years; and another in Cor'inth, seventy-four years. The most noted of the latter was Per-i-an'der, whose sway (from 625 to 585 B. c), though oppressive and cruel, made Corinth the wealthiest and most powerful of all the commercial cities of Greece at that time. Like Pisistratus, he was a patron of literature and the arts, and was enumerated among the seven wise men of Greece. 19. After the expulsion of the tyi'ant Hippias from Athens, the government underwent some modifications, and a very remarkable institution was devised to prevent for the future any powerful and ambitious citizen from making himself despot. This was the famous Ostracism, by which any citizen could be banished for ten years, with- out trial or even any formal accusation ; but simply by a • Pisistratidce is the plural of Pisistratides, which meaus son of Pisi.^tnitu.s. 1 8. What was the " Age of Despots ?" Who was Periander ? 1 9. What was the Ostracism ? Its desigu and eftect ? B. C. 490.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 39 vote of the people, each citizen writing the name of the person whom he wished to banish on a shell,* and six thousand votes being required against the person to deter- mine his condemnation. No attempt at usurpation fol- lowed the establishment of this law. 20. The Persian War. The Greek colonies in Asia Minor had been subject to Crce'sus, but when the Lydian monarchy was overturned by Cyrus, they fell under the Persian yoke, and thus continued until 500 b. c, when an insurrection against Darius broke out at Mi-le'tus, and spread through all the Greek cities in Asia. In this revolt assistance was rendered by the Athenians, who crossed to Asia Minor and burnt Sar'dis ; but the Ionian fleet having been defeated, and the city of Miletus captured by the forces of Darius, the revolt was speedily subdued, and the Greek colonies were completely subjugated, and treated with great severity,— all the inhabitants of Miletus being either put to death or sent into captivity. 21. The aid given by Athens to the lonians drew down the Avrath of Darius upon all Greece, which he determined to subdue, being still further instigated to this by the tyrant Hippias, then a resident at his court. In pursu- ance of this design, he despatched an expedition under Mar-do' ni-us, which proved an entire failure, the fleet being wrecked off Mount Ath'os, and a large part of the army drowned. The forces were still further weakened in a night attack made by the Thracians, and Mardonius was compelled to return (492 B. c). 22. A second expedition, under Da'tis and Ar-ta-^Jher'nes, sailed across the ^ge'an Sea, and after reducing several isl- ands, landed at Mar'a-thon, twenty-two miles from Athens * Called Ostracon — whence the name Ostracism, 20. What was the cause of the Persian War ? Give an account of the revolt of the lonians. How did it result ? 21 . What expedition against Greece in 492 b. c. ? Where is Mt. Athos ? (Map No. 2.) 22. Give an account of the second expedition. What is said of the battle of Marathon ? Its date V 4:0 PERSIA, GREECE, A^B MACEDONIA. [B. C. 480. Here they were met by a small army of Athenians, under Mil-tia-des, and completely routed (490 B. c). This con- flict is reckoned among the world's great battles ; for had the Persians succeeded, the character of European civiliza- tion would have been entirely changed, becoming Asiatic ; and besides, the extraordinary disparity of the forces (the Persians being about ten times as numerous as the Greeks), makes it a very remarkable engagement, — especially as, up to that time, the Persian conquests had scarcely known a check. The credit of this great victory belongs to the Athenians, since they had only the aid of a small band of Platffians (2)la-te'ans). 23. Ten years afterward, the attempt was renewed by Xerxes, who collected one of the largest armies the world has ever known, besides an immense fleet, and crossing the Hellespont by means of two bridges which he caused to be coiistructed, marched to the Pass of Titer -mojfy -Ice j^' where he was opposed by a small army under Le-on'i-das, a Spartan jreneraL The defence was successful until a traitor dis- cs covered to the Persians a path across the mountains, when, seeing no hope of victory, but being forbidden by the laws of Sparta to flee from the enemy, Leonidas dismissed tlie forces of the allies, and fell upon the Persians with his little band of 300. After making vast slaughter, they all perished (480 B. c). 24. The great Persian fleet came to action with the much smaller one of the Greeks in the narrow strait oi SaT a-mis,\ and was defeated with immense loss ; so much so that Xerxes, who had witnessed the fight, fled in dismay to Persia, and left the conquest of Greece to his general Mardonius (480 b. c). The chief command of the allied fleet had been assigned to Eu-ry-l)ia-des^ the Spartan ; but the credit of the victory * Tliermopiihi'—Ilot Gdtex, so called from the hot springs there. This pass led from Thessaly iiil^) Phocis.— (See Projiiessive Map, No. 2.) + Between the Island of Salaniis, in the Saronic Gulf, and the mainland.— (See Map of Greece.; 23. What attempt was made by Xerxes ? Describe the battle of Thermopyls& 24. What great naval battle was Ibught ? With what result ? B. C. 479.] PERSIA, GREECE, AKD MACEDOi^^IA. 41 wjxs given to The-mis'to-cles, the Athenian, through whose influence and sagacity the action was brought on. 30 jEast from Xoudon 25. In the meanwhile the land forces of the Persians had invaded Attica, and taken and destroyed Athens, the inhab- itants unfit for war having fled to the neighboring islands for protection ; but the army of Mardonius, 300,000 strong and assisted by Grecian auxiliaries, did not come to any decisive action till the next year (479 b. c), when it was de- feated and almost utterly destroyed at Fla-toia^ by the allied army of the Greeks, consisting of 110,000 men, under Fau- sa'-ni-as, a Spartan general, assisted by the Athenian Ar-is-W des. On the same day the Athenians gained a * A town in the southeastern part of Bceotia.— (Map No. 2.) Map Questions. — In what part of Asia Minor was Asia ? Galatia ? Cappa- docia ? Pontus ? Bithyuia ? Pamphylla ? Cilicia ? Where was Mysia ? Caria ? Phrj^gia? Lydia? Paphlagonia y What town was in the western part ol Lyclia ? What to-svn was in "the southern part of Cilicia ? In the eastern part ? What town was in the southern part of Caria ? In Ionia ? In Plirygia ? What river in Pamphylia ? What promontory west of Caria ? What island -west of Mysia ? 25. What happened to Athens? When and by whom was the Peisian array defeated ? Give an account of the battle of Mycale. 42 PERSIA, GREECE, Aiq"D MACEDONIA. [B. €. 471, great victory over the combined land and Laval forces of the Persians, at Myc'ale, in Asia Minor. 26. Having driven the Persians from their country, the Greeks sent a fleet under Pausanias to invade the Persian dominions. This expedition was entirely successful; the Greek cities of Cyi^rus were set free, and Byzantiugi {he- zan'slie-um),* after a long siege, surrendered. At this point, tlie Spartans, who had been the leaders in the war, lost their ascendency by the treason of Pausanias. Intoxicated by the fame and wealth which he had acquired at Plata^a and by his subsequent success, and ambitious of more splendor and influence than he thought the little state of Sparta could confer upon him, he sent a letter to Xerxes, offering to deliver Greece into his power if he would give him his daughter in marriage, thus connecting him with the royal family of Persia. 27. This plot was, however, discovered before its consum- mation. Pausanias was recalled and put to death by order of the Ephori (471 B. c), and the command of the allied forces was transferred to Aristides. A league Avas also formed among tlie lonians and some of the Greek islands, under the leadership of Athens, which was called the " Confederacy of De'los,"t since the deputies met at that island. This great maritime alliance contributed very much to the subsequent influence of Athens. It lasted about 70 years. The well-established character of Aristides for in- tegrity and prudence, contributed no little to this imj^or- tant measure. Indeed, the justice of this distinguished man had passed into a proverb. He and Themistocles, during the interval between the victory at Marathon and the invasion by Xerxes, had contended for political su- premacy in the public assemblies at Athens ; but Aristides * Byzantium was on the Bosporus ; it was afterward called Constantinople. + Principal island of the Cyclades, a group iu the ^geaii Sea. 26. What act of treason did Pansanias commit ? 27- What was his ftite ? What league was Ibrmed ? What is said of Aristides 1 Who was his rival ; B. C. 449.] PERSIA, GREECE, A:N^D MACEDOi^IA. 43 failing, had been banished by the Ostracism (483 b. c). He returned, however, just in time to aid his country at the battle of Sahimis. 28. The glory gained by Themistocles at Salamis, to- gether with his great ability and prudence, gave to him at Athens unlimited influence. He caused the city to be rebuilt and strongly fortified, notwithstanding the opposi- tion prompted by the mean jealousy of the Spartans. Being, however, accused of participating in the treason of Pausanias, he was banished by the Ostracism (471 b. c), and took refuge in the dominions of the Persian monarch Artaxerxes, where he lived in great splendor and dignity till his death (440 b. c). Aristides survived the banish- ment of his great rival only four years. He died honored by his countrymen, and with a reputation for virtue and patriotism which no one could impeach. 29. Ci'mon, son of Miltiades, succeeded Aristides in the leadership at Athens. He gained a splendid victory over the Persians at the Eu-rym'e-don River,* but afterward gave offence to the Athenians by favoring the Spartans, and was banished (461 b. c), through the contrivance of his rival Per'i-cles, who by this means obtained the leadership at Athens, which he retained until his death, more than thirty years afterward. Pericles possessed extraordinary talents as an orator and statesman, and his administration was the most splendid the Athenians ever had. Art and literature flourished, and the city was embellished with the most magnificent edifices. 30. Cimon was, after a few years, recalled from exile, and prosecuted the war against the Persians ; but died during the siege of Citium (sish'e-um), in Cyprus. The Athenians, * In Pamphylia, southern part of Asia Minor.— (See Map, p. 41.) 28. What was the character of Themistocles ? What caused his banisnment ? When did the death of Aristides occur? 29. What victory was gained by Cimon ? How and when did the administra- tion of Pericles commence ? What was its character ? 30. How did Ciraon's death occur? When did the Persian war end? What war and truce with the Spartans ? 44 PERSIA, GREECE, AKD MACEDOITIA. [B. C. 422. however, gained another decisive victory over the Persians, v/hich ended this long Avar (449 B. c). In the meanwhile war had been carried on with the Spartans, with whom a truce was conchided at first for five, and afterward for thirty years. The latter truce was broken by a great conflict between Athens and Sparta, each assisted by its allied states. This was the famous " Peloponnesian War." 31. The immediate cause of the war was a difficulty be- tween Cor'intli and Cor-cy'ra,* one of her colonies ; and as Athens took sides with the latter, the Dorian Confederacy accused her of violating the terms of the thirty years' truce, and a Spartan army invaded Attica (431 b. c). Unable, with his few allies, to contend against the superior military power of the Spartans, Pericles pursued the policy of keep- ing within the city, and sending his numerous fleet to ravage the enemies' coasts. A violent plague, however, broke out in Athens, and Pericles fell a victim to it, in 429 b. c. 32. The most noted events of the early part of the Avar were the revolt of Les''bos\ from Athens, and the brave de- fence of Plat^ea against the Spartans. The floAver of the Spartan army having been blockaded by the Athenian fleet at Sjjhac-te'7'i-a, the Spartans applied to the Athenians for peace, Avhich, through the influence of Ole'on, a low and noisy demagogue, Avho had succeeded Pericles in the leadership of the popular assemblies, was refused. Sphac- teria was afterward attacked, and the Spartans compelled to surrender. The Athenians Avere severely defeated by the Boeotians at De'li-um, and a short time afterAvard lost their empire in Thrace by the battle of A^n-^jMp'o-Us, in Avhich Bras'i-das, a distinguished Spartan leader, defeated Cleon, the Athenian, both generals being slain (422 b. c). * A large island ofifthe western shore of Epirus : now Corfu. + A Inrge and noted island off the western coast of Mysia, in Asia Minor. Capital, Jlifi/le'iie. (See Map, p. 41.) 31 . What was the cause of the Peloponnesian war? How and when did it com- mence ? Policy pursued by Pericles ? Cause and time of his death ? 32. AVliat were the principal events of the early part of the war? Why did the Spartans sue for peace ? AVho was Cleon ? In what battle Avere the Athenians defeated ? Who fell at Amphipolis ? AVherc was Aniphipolis ? (See Map of Greece.) B. C. 405.] PERSIA, GREECE, AKD MACEDOI^IA. 45 33. The next year, through the influence of Nicias {nish'- e-as), who succeeded Cleon at Athens, peace was made with Sparta. Though designed to be a fifty years' truce, it lasted only a few months. Al-ci-li'a-des, a handsome and talented, but dissolute pupil of the great philosopher Soc'ra-tes, per- suaded Argos to renew the war. He then induced the Athe- nians to send an expedition against S3rracuse, to the com- mand of which himself and Nicias were assigned. Alcibiadea was, however, recalled ; and being accused of committing an act of great outrage and impiety, and condemned to death, fled to Sparta. Nicias sufl'ered a most disastrous defeat; and as the armament had been one of the finest ever sent out by the Athenians, they were greatly weakened by this event (413 b. c). 34. Alcibiad^s passed from Sparta to Sardis, taking refuge with the Persian satrap, Tis-sa-pher'nes. He, how- ever, succeeded in gaining some brilliant naval victories for the Athenians, and was recalled by them with great enthusiasm and joy, but only again to be driven into exile (407 B. c). Athens unjustly caused six of her generals to be put to death, for alleged neglect of duty, after which the chief command was conferred upon Co'non. Though an able officer, he allowed himself to be surprised by the Spartan general Ly-san'der at ^'gos-pot'a-mos, on the Hel- lespont, and nearly all the fleet was destroyed (405 b. c). Lysander the next year proceeded to Athens, captured the city, and thus ended this long war. For a minute account of these events we are indebted to the historians Tliu-cyd'- i-des and Xen' o-2)lion. 35. Athens was thus driven to the most humiliating sub- mission. She was compelled to destroy her port, agree to undertake no military enterprise except under the com- 33. What was the "Peace of Nicias?" How was the war renewed ? Give an account of the expedition against Syracuse. Where is Syracuse 'i (See Map, No. 3.) 34. What is related further of Alcibiades ? What ended the war ? Uistorians of the Avar ? 35. Results of the defeat of Athens ? WTio restored the popular government ? 4G PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDOJiTIA. [B. C, 399. mand of Sparta, and also to consent to the abolition of her popular government, and to accept in its stead that of thirty magistrates, styled afterward, from their cruel and oppressive measures, the Thirty Tyrants. The demo- cratical government was, however, soon restored through the patriotism and gallantry of Thras-y-hu'lus, by whom and his associates the tyrants were expelled (403 B. c). 36. A few years after this, perished, by an unjust sen- tence of the Athenian judges, at the age of 70 years, Socrates, the most virtuous and illustrious of all the an- cient philosophers, whose uninspired teachings make the nearest approach to the morality of the Gospel. Accused of irreligion and of corrupting the youth by false doctrine, he defended himself with great boldness, but displeased the judges by not supplicating their mercy. He spent the in- terval of thirty days between his condemnation and death in tranquil discourse with his disciples, and having drank the cup of hemlock with a firm and cheerful countenance, amid his weeping friends, died with perfect composure, ex- pressing to the last his belief in an immortality beyond the grave (399 b. c). His most eminent disciples were Pla'to and Xenojylion, from wiiom we derive our knowledge of his doctrines, since he himself committed nothing to writing. 37. Retreat of the Ten Thousand. A short time after the close of the Peloponnesian War, the Greek soldiers being unemployed, a large number (about 14,000), under a Spartan leader, named Cle-ar' chits ^ entered into the service of Cyrus, surnamed the Younger, a Persian prince, and the brother of the reigning king, Artaxerxes II. His object was believed by them to be an attack upon the Pisidians, but the design really was to deprive his brother of the throne of Persia. They marched to Cu-nax'a, near Babylon, 36. Give an account of the condemnation and death of Socrates. Who were his most eminent pupils ? 37. Into whose service did some of the Greek soldiers enter? For what ob- ject ? What battle was fought ? With what result ? (Where was Cunaxa ? See Map, p. 47.) B.C. 401.] PERSIA, GREECE, AKD MACEDONIA. 47 where an immense army of 900,000 Persians engaged the forces of Cyrus, consisting of 300,000 together with the Greek mercenaries. The latter gained an entire victoiy; but Cyrus, in a rash attempt to slay his brother, was killed, and the expedition was abandoned (401 B. c). 50 IIETI1E.1T I 'OF THE,--^::::^:;;^ I TEN THO^USAND i c..-^^. IVIEDIA 38. On their retreat, the Greek generals were drawn into a conference with the Persians, and treacherously put to death. Xenophon, who had been a yolunteer in the expe- dition, was immediately chosen commander ; and the retreat was continued by the Greeks for a distance of more thaif 1500 miles, amid incredible hardships from cold, hunger, and the assaults of their enemies, until they at last reached the Euxine, when they found their numbers reduced to about 10,000. This celebrated expedition, as well as the retreat which closed it, forms the subject of perhaps the most interesting work of Xenophon. He afterward with the same forces entered into the service of a Thracian king, and subsequently assisted the Spartans in Asia Minor against the Persians. 38. Give an account of the retreat. What led to the election of Xenophon} At what place were the generals killed ? (see Map, p. 47'.) 48 PERSIA, GREECE, AISD MACEDONIA. [B. C. 371. 39. In this war with the Persians, A-ges-i-la'ns, the Spartan king, gained some important yictorics, bnt Avas suddenly recalled to defend his country against a powerful league, consisting of Argos, Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, formed to attack her. The confederate army was, how- ever, defeated by Agesilaus in the battle of Cor-o-ne'a; but about the same time the Spartan fleet was almost entirely destroyed at Cnidus (ni'dus) by Co'non, the Athenian (394 B. c). The Athenians by this victory regained the naval supremacy which they had lost at ^gospotamos. 40. Peace of Antalcidas. The Grecian states being thus at war with each other, each party contended for the alliance and aid of the Persians. Conon, who by means of Persian gold had been enabled to equip his fleet, and to rebuild the walls of Athens, was, through the machinations of Sparta, brought into suspicion with the Persian monarch and thrown into prison. The Spartans thus obtained the alliance of the Per&ians, and through their emissary, An- tal'ci-das, negotiated a peace by which the Greek cities of Asia were given up to Persian rule. This disgraceful treaty was ratified by the other states (387 b. c). 41. Theban War. The Spartans, having unjustly seized the citadel of Thebes, Avere expelled through the influ- ence of Pe-lop'i-das and E-pam-i-non' das, two distinguished Theban patriots. This brought on a war between Thebes and Sparta, in which the former state gained great glory. In the noted battle of Leuc'tra (371 B. c.) the Spartan army was defeated by forces much inferior in number, com- manded by Epaminondas and Pelopidas, and the Pelopon- nesus was thus throAvn open to invasion. Agesilaus, however, by his vigorous measures saved Sparta from capture ; and Epaminondas, after laying waste the territory of Laconia 39. What victories were gained by Agesilaus ? What one by Conon? What VFas its effect? 40. Uow was peace made with the Persians ? 41. What catiscd a war between Thebes and Sparta? What battles wcrr fought ? (Where were Leuctra and Mantinca ? See Map of Greece.) B. C. 359.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 49 with fire and sword, retired from the peninsula. Other invasions of the Peloponnesus were afterward made by the Thebans; and in the last of these, the famous battle of Man-ti-ne' a was fought (362 b. c), in which the Spartans, under Agesilaus, were again defeated by Epaminondas, bnt the latter was mortally wounded. \_See Note 11^ end of Sec.^ 42. Epaminondas is justly regarded as one of the greatest heroes and patriots Greece ever produced. Wise in council, and brave and skilful in battle ; an apcomplished statesman and orator; and, what is still more, a man of unswerving truth and honesty, he was, during all the subsequent history of Greece, universally considered the best model for imi- tation. With him the influence of Thebes began and ended. His last advice was followed by his mourning countrymen, and peace was concluded before they departed from the Peloponnesus. Agesilaus died the next year, in an expe- dition in which he had engaged, though 80 years of age, to assist Egypt against the Persians. The subsequent history of Greece is closely connected with that of Macedonia. Macedoniais^ Empire. 43. Previous to the time of PliUiji, Macedo'nia occupied only an obscure position among the nations of the world, though it had existed a^ a kingdom for about four centu- ries. Being detained as a hostage at Thebes, Philip had enjoyed the benefit of a thorough education under Epami- nondas ; and when, at the age of 24, he ascended the throne (359 B. c), he possessed all the accomplishments of a skil- ful soldier and statesman ; while his great talent for arti- fice made him especially suited for the part of a wily politician. 44. Greece, at that time, presented an excellent field for these peculiar talents. Torn to pieces by internal dissen- 42. What wa3 the character of Epaminondas ? When did the death ofAgesi- hvus occur ? 43. What is said of the early liistory of Macedonia ? Of tlie character and edu- cation of Phili])? 44. What was the state of Greece at that time? 50 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 357. sions, possessing no national union, the states were con- stantly forming temporary leagues against each other, and preparing themselves for the attack of some crafty and powerful invader. Athens, distinguished for her progress in literature and art, was very much weakened by luxury; Sparta had become corrupted and enervated by the gold gained in her conquests, and though still warlike, was actuated only by the meanest sentiments of jealousy and revenge toward her sister states. The other states were only influential in promoting, by petty disputes, the general anarchy. 45. Having organized a powerful and well-trained army, Philip began his schemes by seizing Awph/ipolis and estab- lishing a military station at Flii-lii)' in. Meanwhile a war broke out between Athens and. her maritime allies, called the Social War, which having lasted about three years, ended in the defeat of Athens and secured the indepen- dence of the more important allies (355 b. c). In the meantime another war had broken out in Greece, called the Sacred War (357 b. c), caused by the Pho'cians, who instead of paying a fine imposed by the Am-ijliic-ty-on'ic Council, for having occupied and cultivated a tract of land devoted to the Delphian Apol'lo, invaded the sacred terri- tory, and surprised and took Del'})lii'^ itself. 46. This brought on a general war, most of the states taking up arms against the Phocians, who, however, suc- ceeded in forming an alliance with Athens and Sparta. After the respective parties had been Aveakened by several battles, Philip interfered. Having totally defeated tho army of the Phocians in Thessaly, he took and destroyed 0-lyn'tlius ;f and then marched into Greece, and after tak- ing possession of Phocis, occupied Delphi. He then as- • A town in Phocis, noted for its celebrated tem]ile and oracle of the god Apollo. t A celebrated city on the southern coast of Macedonia. (Map of Greece.) 45. How did Philip begin hi? schemes of conquest ? Wiiat was the social war '> Its result? What was the t^acred war? 46. What part did Philip take iu this war ? Its result 1 B. O. 336.] PEKSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 5] sembled tlie Amphic'tyons, and procured a decree that tlie towns of the Phocians should be destroyed, and tliat their two Yotes in the council, of which they were deprived, should be transferred to Macedonia. This ended the Sacred War (346 B. c), the effect of which was to make Mactdon the leading state in Greece. 47. Meanwhile the great Athenian orator, De-mos'tlie-nes, had endeavored, by his splendid eloquence, to arouse hia countrymen against the crafty designs of Philip; but al- though the latter persisted in his schemes of conquest, it was not until 338 B. c. that any effort was made to o])pose his progress. In that year a battle was fought at Cnce-ro-ne'a, in which Philip disastrously defeated the combined forces of Athens aud Thebes, and thus completed the subjugation of all Greece. He, however, left to the states a nominal independence in their local affairs, he himself controlling all public measures. 48. Philip next convened a congress of the Grecian states at Corinth, obtained from them a formal declaration of war against Persia, and returned home to prepare an expedition for the conquest of that country, which he had for some time meditated. Before, however, these prepara- tions were completed, he was assassinated by Pausanias, a young Macedonian noble (336 b. c.) ; and Alexander, afterward called the Great, ascended the throne, being tiien only twenty years of age, but thoroughly educated^ partly under the celebrated philosopher Ar'is-to-tle.'^ 49. The Thebans having revolted, Alexander immediately marched against them, and taking their city, razed it to the ground, and sold its inhabitants, to the number of 30,000, in to slavery. After this te rrible example, leaving An-tip'a-ter * See JS'ote 12, end of the Section. ' ditl^'^Sy'^vTorXa^ hTS.ct"eS?'^ ''^"'^ '-'''''' '''''''' ^^^* <=^"-^^ '- 1 t? How did AJexander suppress the revolt of Thebes ? Where was his first battle with the Persians foa-ht? What was its result? Des-ribe the battle of Is SU8. What was its result? (Where was Issus? See Map p 52) B. C. 332.] TERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEJOKIA. 53 as regent in Macedonia, he proceeded on the expedition planned by his fatlier (334 b. c). Having crossed the Hellespont with an army of 35,000 men,* he advanced to the Gra-nl'cus river, and defeated the Persian army, 120,000 strong, assembled on its banks. He then passed throngh Asia Minor, all of the cities of which snrrendered to him; and the next year defeated a vast army, under Darius, the Persian monarch, at Ts's2cs. So complete was the rout, that Darius fled in dismay, leaving his mother and wife to the mercy of the victor. These Alexander ordered to be treated with the greatest respect and attention. 50. He then advanced toward the south, and all the cities of Phoenicia surrendered to him, except Tyre, the siege of which delayed him seven months. He built a pier across the strait, half a mile wide, which separated the city from the main land, and thus having gained access to the walls, he battered them to pieces and took the city by storm (332 B. c). No mercy was shown to the wretched inhabit- ants, eight thousand of whom are said to have been mas- sacred, and the remainder sold into slavery. 51. In the mean while Darius solicited peace, offering to cede to Alexander the western half of the empire, and to give him his daughter in marriage. This, however, Alex- ander promptly refused, and continued his march toward Egypt, capturing Gd'za on the way. Passing through Egy^Dt, he penetrated the Lib'yan desert, and paid a visit to the temple of Jupiter Am'rnon. He also founded in Egy^it the city of Alexa7idria,\ which for many centuries after- * Sae Note 18, end of the Section. t This was the first city founded by Alexander and named after hira. He snbsequently founded no less than sfventeen cities, in different parts of Asia, to each of which he gave the niuxi& (^i Alexandria. (See Map, p. 52.) Map Questions. (See Map, page 52.) Name the places on Alexander's march from the Granicus to I?8ns. \\ hat places did he pass from Issus to Alexandria ? On his return from Alexandria to Arbela? From Arbela to Ecbatana ? From Echatana to Maracanda ? What was the most northern point reached ? The most eastern ? What places did he pass on going fi-om Alexandria the Farthest to the point of return on the Hyphasis ? At what points did great battles occur? De- Bcribe his return route. Which way did the fleet proceed under Nearchus ? 50. How was Tyre taken ? How were the inhabitants treated ? 51. What offer was made by Darius? What country did Alexander next in- rade ? What city did he found ? What did Alexandria become ? 54 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 328. ward was the first commercial city in the world, being tlie grand emporium of Europe, Africa, and India. 52. Turning again to the east, he crossed the Euphrates, and prepared for the battle which was to decide the fate of Persia. On the plain of Gau-ga-me'la, a few miles from A r- held, Darius drew up his immense army, consisting of over a million Persians, which, with 40,000 foot and 7000 horse, Alexander, after a brief engagement, entirely defeated and put to flight (331 B. c). Proceeding to Babylon, he en- tered that city in triumph, having made himself, at the age of twenty-five, the master of all Western Asia, together with Egypt. 53. He next advanced to Su'sa, a treasure-city of the Persians, which surrendered without resistance. Here were obtained gold and silver to the amount of 50,000 talents, and what was still more interesting to the Greeks, the spoils which Xerxes had carried off from Greece. Per-sej)'- o-Us, the real capital of the Persian kings, was the next city occupied by the invader ; and here, it is said, the treasure captured amounted to 120,000 talents. Darius had in the mean while fled to Ecbatana, and thither Alexander went in pursuit, which he continued with great rapidity, until he reached Bactria, where the Persian monarch had been seized and put to death by the satrap of that province. 54. Alexander, still pursuing his career of conquest, de- feated the Scythians on the banks of the I-ax'a7'-tes, and took possession of Mar-a-can'da (now Samarcand), the capital of Sog-di-a'na, where he married a Bactrian prin- cess, named Rox-d'na (328 b. c). Here too it was that, at a banquet, in a fit of anger, he murdered his friend Cly'tiis, who had saved his life at the battle of the Granicus. He next invaded India, defeated Fo'rus, the king of that coun- 52. \Miat was the final enijagement with Darius ? Its result? 53. What other cities and couutriea were subdued? What was the fate of Darius ? 54. ^^^^at further conquests Avere made by Alexander? Whom did he marry J Whom did he elay iu anger ? Why did he at last retreat ? B. C. 323.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 55 try, on the banks of the Hy-das'pes, and after a brief rest, puslied on to the Hjiplt'a-sis, wlien the soldiers, worn ont with their toils, positively refused to proceed any farther. He then gave orders to return. 55. Uaving built a fleet, he sailed down the Indus to its mouth ; and then, leaving Ne-ar'chus to pursue the voyage of exploration, he marched through the burning desert to Persepolis, and thence by way of Susa and Ecbatana to Babylon, where he indulged in various schemes of further conquest. But, as he was about to set out on a campaign in Arabia, he was seized with a fever, said to have been oc- casioned by intemperance ; and after eleven days' illness, he expired (323 b. c). On his death-bed, being asked by one of his generals, to whom he desired to leave his throne, he answered: "To the worthiest among you; but I am afraid my obsequies will be celebrated with bloody hands." lie, however, gave his ring to Per-cUo'cas. 56. Of all the conquerors of antiquity Alexander was, without doubt, the most enterprising and renowned. The splendor of his military achievements should not, however, •blind us to the moral depravity which could sacrifice, with- out a single pang of remorse, so many thousands of his fellow-creatures, merely to gratify a thirst for vain-glory. This insatiable desire seems to have been unmixed with any wish to benefit his subjects or mankind, although he founded cities which promised to be useful to him in car- rying out his ambitious views, and in perpetuating his memory. In the hands of Providence, however, he was undoubtedly an instrument of good ; since, by his con- quests, the two continents were brought into closer com- munication with each other, and the language, literature, and arts of Greece were carried into the East. 55. In what way did he return? (Trace his route both in advance and on liis return, from Map, p. 52.) What other conquests were meditated by him? When and how did his death take place ? Did he leave a successor? 56. What was the character of Alexander? What was the result of his con- quests ? (Point oat on the Map the towns founded by him, and named Alexandria.) 56 PERSIA, GREECE, AN"D MACEDO:S"IA. [B. C. 322. 57. In the mean while, the Spartans, under their king A'gis, had made a vigorous effort, in union with most of the other states of Peloponnesus (331 J3. c), to throw off the yoke of Macedon ; hut they Avere defeated with great slaughter by Aiitipater, Agis being slain in the battle. Athens had taken no part in tliis struggle ; but under the influence of Plio'cion, illustrious for the wisdom and moderation of his counsels and liis stern republican sim- plicity and honesty, prosecuted the orators who had been active against the Macedonians, and, under a charge of bribery, drove them into exile. Among these was Demos- thenes. When, however, news arrived of the death of Alexander, the city gave way to the most excessive de- monstrations of joy, and Phocion's party lost all their influence. 58. The Lamian War. In an expedition under Le-os'- tlie-nes, the Athenians and their allies gained some impor- tant victories over Antipater near La'mi-a j* but Antipater being joined by Crat'e-rus, with a considerable force from Asia, entirely defeated them in Thessaly, and the war was at an end (322 b. c). Athens was compelled to give up- her orators, including Demosthenes, who had been recalled from exile during the war : the latter, however, escaping, was finally compelled to take poison in order to escape from his pursuers ; while the others were cruelly put to death. 59. Alexander's Successors. After Alexandei-'s death, his half-brother Philip, and his infant son by Eoxa- iia, were declared partners of the throne, while the empire itself was parcelled out among the generals who were to rule as satraps, but Perdiccas was to act as regent. Being * A fortified town near the southeastern border of Thessaly. (See Map of Greece.) 57. What effort did the Spartans make to regain their freedom ? What conr«e did Athens pursue ? Why ? Who were banished ? Effect of Alexander's death 58. The Lamian war and its result ? (Where was Lamia ? See Map, No. 3.) 59. How were the dominions of Alexander disposed of? What league was formed against Perdiccas ? Who succeeded him aa regent '? B.C. 301.] PERSIA, GREECE, AHfD MACED0:N-IA. 57 suspected of a design to place himself upon the throne, a league was formed against Perdiccas by An-tig' o-nus, PtoV- e-my, A7i-tip'a-ter, and Crai'e-rus; and, in a war against them, he was assassinated (321 b. c). Antipater was then made regent, and the empire was again divided. 60. ■ Antipater died three years afterward, at the age of eighty, and left the regency to Pol-y-sper'clwny a veteran general of Alexander. This displeased Cas-san'der, Antip- ater's son, who had expected to succeed his father, and kindled a war of several years between the two generals. During this war Cassander placed the administration at Athens under De-me'tri-us Pha-le're-us, a distinguished Athenian orator, statesman, and writer, who ruled the city for ten years with so much popularity that the Athe- nians raised 360 brazen statues to his honor. War having arisen between Antigonus and the other generals, Athens surrendered to Deme'trius Po-U-or-ce'tes,* the son of Antigo- nus ; and Phalereus, who, by his dissipated habits, had lost his popularity, was compelled to flee, all his statues being thrown down except one. 61. After several years more of war, a decisive battle was fought near Ip'sus, in which Antigonus was slain and his army entirely defeated (301 b. c). This led to a more permanent division of the empire, and nearly closed this long series of wars, which so fully demonstrated the pro- phetic sagacity of Alexander, when he said his obsequies would be bloody. It also, perhaps, still further proved the wickedness and wanton cruelty of his nature, since he took no means to prevent so dreadful a result by definitely appointing a successor. During these wars the whole of Alexander's relations, including his mother, 0-lym'pi-as, and his wife and son, were successively put to death. * Poliorcetes means, in Greek, the " Besieger of Cities." 60. Who was the euccessor of Antipater ? What war ensued ? What is said of Demetrius Phalereus ? Demetrius Poliorcetes ? Gl. Where was Antigonus defeated? (Where was Ipsus ? See Map, p. 41.) What was the result ? What became of Alexander's relations ? 58 TERSIA, GREECE, AIS^D MACEDOIS^IA. [B.C. 283. 62. In the partition of the empire which took place after the battle of Ipsus, Cassander obtained Greece and Macedonia ; Ptolemy was confirmed in the possession of Egypt ; Ly-sim'a-clms had the greatest part of Asia Minor ; and Se-leto'cus, the whole country from the coast of Syria to the Euphrates. The latter founded on the river 0-ron'- tes a new capital of his empire, which he named A^i'tiocli^ after his father, An-ti'o-chus. 63. Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, was not subdued. He retreated from Ipsus, and proceeded to Greece ; but the Athenians refused to receive him. After forming an alliance wdth Seleucus, he again appeared before Athens, which, after a long siege, he captured, expelling the tyrannical governor whom Cassander had appointed (295 b. c). The Atheni- ans were greatly moved by his noble forgiveness and lenity ; for instead of the dreadful punishment wdiich they had expected, he sup'plied their wants, and did his best to lelieve the miseries occasioned by the long siege which they had suffered. [See Note 14, end of the Section.'] 64. After the death of Cassander, Demetrius possessed himself of the throne of Macedon (294 B. c), which he occupied for seven years, when it was seized by Pyr'rlius, king of Epirus, and in a few months afterward by Lysim- achus (287 b. c). Thus the whole Macedonian Empire, excepting Eg}7)t, under Ptolemy, was di^dded between Lysimachus and Seleucus. Demetrius died a captive at the court of the latter, 283 B. c. The throne of Macedon was filled by Lysimachus only six years, Avhen, hostilities having arisen between him and Seleucus, he was defeated by the latter in a battle near Sardis, and slain. This gave nearly the whole empire to Seleucus, wdio, however, sur- vived the conquest only one year, being treacherously 62. What partition of the empire was made ? (Where was Antioch ? See Pro- gressive Map, No. 4.) By whom was it founded V G3. What was done by Demetrins ? What was his conduct toward Athens ? 64. By what kiuM Avas the throne of Macedon buccessively tilled ? Into whose power did nearly all the Macedonian Empire fall ? In what way ? What became of Demetrius ? Of Seleucua ? B.C. 243. PERSIA, GEEECE, AI^D MACEDONIA. 59 assassinated in Thrace (280 B. c), by Ptohmy Cc-raidnus, son of Ptolemy, king of Egypt. 65. Macedonia and Thrace were the same year invaded by an immense host of Gauls, under a leader named Bren- nus, and Ptolemy fell in a battle which he fought to repel them. The Gauls then passed into Greece, and reached ])eli")hi, where they were repulsed with great loss. Some of them afterward settled on the Danube ; others, in Thrace ; while a third part passed into Asia, and settled in the country called after them, Ga-la'tia . 60. After the death of Ptolemy, the throne of Macedon was occupied by Antigonus Go-na'tas,* son of Demetrius, who reigned till 243 B. c, exercising a severe rule over the Greeks, whose cities he governed by means of petty tyrants appointed by himself. This tjTanny led to a noted con- federacy, styled in history the "Ach^eait League," it being in fact the revival of an ancient league which had existed among the twelve chief cities of Achaia. It was soon joined by most of the important states of Greece, in- cluding Athens ; and, under its wise and patriotic leader, A-ra'tus of Sicyon (sish'e-on), acquired very great influence (243 B. c.j. 67. At this period three powers contended for mastery in Greece : the A-clice'cin League, the ^-to'li-an League, and the Spartans. The ^tolian league was a confederation of tribes, which had gradually made themselves masters of Locris, Phocis, Bceotia, and some other states. The Spar- tans, under their celebrated kings A'gis and Cle-om'e-nes, had attempted to regain their ancient simplicity of man- ners and military hardihood. * So called from Gonni, a town in Thessaly, where he was born. 65. Give an acconnt of the invasion by the Gauls. Where did they settle? OVhat was the situation of Galatia ? See Map, p. 41.) 66. What noted league was formed among the Greek states ? What led to it? Who was at its head ? (^^^lere was Sicyon ? See Map of Greece.) 67. What three powers were there in Greece at this time ? What was the -^to liau league ? What did Agis and Cleomeues attempt ? GO PERSIA, GREECE, AKD MACEDOI^IA. [B.C. 183. 68. Aratiis, in a war with the Spartans, was obliged to call in the assistance oi Antigonus Do' son* king of Mace- don, who defeated Cleomenes and captured Sparta, which hitherto had remained unconqnered (221 B. c). Aratus afterward entered into an alliance with Philip, king of Macedon, in a war against the ^tolians, which lasted till 217 B. c. ; but having displeased Philip, he was by the orders of the latter poisoned (213 b. c). 69. Phil-o-pce'men, styled " the last of the Greeks," suc- ceeded Aratus in administering the affairs of the Achseau league. He was a man of great talents and virtue. In 207 B. c, he gained a great victory over the Spartans, not- withstanding they were assisted by the Eomans ; and, in the general assembly of the Greeks, was hailed as the liber- ator of their country. The Eomans a few years after this made war upon Philip, king of Macedon, and defeated him in the famous battle of Cy7i-os-ceph'a-l(B,\ in Thessaly (197 B. c). Philip was then compelled to withdraw his garri- sons from the Grecian towns, and the independence of Greece was solemnly proclaimed by the Eomans. 70. The ^tolians having made war upon the Eomans, were completely subdued (139 b. c). Meanwhile Sparta joined the Achaean league ; but the Messenians having re- volted against it, Philopoemen, in an attempt to reduce them, was taken prisoner and barbarously put to death, at the age of seventy (183 b. c). Mes-se'ne was, however, captured by the Achaeans the next year, and the murderers of Philopoemen punished. 71. The Eomans, again invading Macedonia, defeated * Bonon means about to give, and was applied to this king on account of his habit of promising but not performing. t Ci/nnxceplMla means dogs' hemh, and was given to a range of elevated rocks in Thesealy resembling in appearance the heads of dogs. It is sometimes written Ci/nocephale. 68. What befell Sparta ? WTiat caused the death of Aratus ? 69. Wlio was Philopcemeu? How did he become distinguished? Describe the battle of Cynoscephal* and its result. OVhere was Cynoscephalae ? See Map of Greece.) 70. What ended the ^tolian league ? What caused the death of Philopoemen ? 71. When was the battle of Pydna fought? Its consequences? Where was Pydua ?— (See Map of Greece J When and by whom was Greece finally subdued ? B. C. 146.] PERSIA, GEEECE, AN'D MACEDON-IA. 61 its last king, Per' sens, in the battle of Fyd'na (1G8 B. c.j, and reduced it to a province. The Roman general, entering Greece, surrendered many of its cities to the pillage of the soldiers ; and no fewer than 150,000 of the inhabitants were captured and sold as slaves. A few years later, the Romans inder Mitni'mi-iis again invaded Greece, being invited by the Spartans, who had quarrelled with the Achnsans. The last army of the latter surrendered at Corinth (146 B. c), and Greece became a Roman province, under the name of ACHAIA. 72. Grecian Colonies. — These were very numerous and widespread. The southern part of Italy was called Mag'na GrcBcia, from the large number of Greek cities which it contained. One of the earliest was Gu'mcB, an iEolic colony, on the Bay of Naples ; but the most promi- nent were Syh'a-ris,^ noted for its effeminacy and debauchery, and Cro'ton, distinguished for its athletes and physicians. After the destruction of Sybaris by its rival Croton, Taren'- tuni took the lead among the cities of Magna Graecia. Sicily also contained a large number of Greek cities, of which the most noted were Mes-sd'na, Syr'a-cuse, and Ag-ri- geu'tum. Syracuse was a Corinthian colony, founded 734 B. c. Its history will be given in connection with that of Rome. 73. There was also a cluster of colonies at the western part of the Mediterranean, of which Mas-sd'li-a (now Mar- seilles), founded 600 b. c, was the chief. On the African coast, Cy-re'ne was established by the Spartans (630 B. c). It afterward became the capital of Cyrenaica {si-re-na'e- kah). The Ionic cities of Asia Minor were especially noted for their enterprise ; and, during the eighth and seventh centuries, Miletus was the first commercial city of Hellas ; but Eph'e-sus afterward rivalled it in size and importance. * .S>e Note\5, end of Section. 72. What were the principal Greek colonies in Italy ? In Sicily ? Point theni out on the Map. (See I*rogressive Map, No. 3.) T3. What other colonies were there? What is said of Miletus ? EphesusJ Point them out. (See Map, p. 41.) 62 PERSIA, GREECE, AiN^D MACED0:N"IA. On tlie Propontis and the Euxinc tliere were also numerous colonies, of which Cyz'i-cus and Sin'o-2)e were the most cele- brated. [See Xofe 16, end of Section. 1 74. The Greeks were remarkable not only for keenness of intellect and delicacy of taste, but for the skill and tact with which they employed these faculties, both in the useful and in the fine arts. Architecture, painting, and sculpture were carried by them to a degree of perfection Avhich has never been surpassed. The works of their poets and orators still remain unequalled by those of any subsequent age or country ; wdiile their various systems of pliilosophy show a genius for deep speculation and subtle distinction, mingled with a refinement of sentiment, to be found in those of no other people. Had their virtue and patriotism been equal to their intellectual grandeur, Greece could never have been subdued. 75. Being destitute of any political union, the 'Hellenic States destroyed each other by their mutual dissensions and wars. This was partly due to the traditional animosities and jealousies of the different races, and partly to the geograph- ical character of Greece itself, which, crossed in every direc- tion by mountain chains or divided by deep gulfs, provided those natural barriers which encourage local pride and hos- tility. There were, however, three institutions that gave them a certain degree of national unity : — the Amijliidyooiic Council, the Orcbdes, and the Fublic Games and other re- ligious festivals. 76. The Amphiciyonic Council was of very ancient or- igin. It consisted of deputies from the different states, and met usually twice a year, — at Delphi in the spring, and at Thermojyylm in the autumn. Its express objects were to prevent acts of aggression against its members, and to pro- '3'4. For what were the Greeks remarkable ? 7 5 . What caused the political diauniou of the Grecian states ? What gave them a cnrtain degree of unity ? 7G. Describe the Amphictyonic Council. Wliat were the Oracles ? Which was the principal one ? How generally was it consulted ? PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 63 tect the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The Oracles wert) certain sacred spots where it Avas thought the will of the gods might be ascertained through the inspired answers of the priestesses. There were several, the most noted of which was that of Apollo at Delphi. Thither messengers came from all parts of Greece, and even from foreign coun- tries, to consult the Oracle. 77. There were four great festi^'als at which the public games were celebrated, called the OlyDqnc, PyWian, Ne-me'- an, and Isth'mian games. The Olympic games were cele- brated at Olympia, in Elis, every fifth year, in honor of Jupiter, and drew together an immense assemblage from all parts of Greece, as well as from foreign countries. The exercises consisted of running, wrestling, boxing, chariot- racing, etc. ; and to be proclaimed a victor in these games was considered the highest honor a Grecian could attain. None could contend in them but those of the Hellenic race, and all who entered into these contests were obliged to take an oath that they would use no unfair means to obtain the victor}^ The only prize bestowed on the victor was a sim- ple garland of wild olive. 78. The Pythian games were celebrated in honor of Apollo, every fifth year, near Deliilii ; the Nemean and Isthmian games, once in two years : the first, at Ne-me'a, in honor of Jupiter ; and the second, by the Corinthians on their isthmus, in honor of Neptune, the god supposed to preside over the sea. In these three festivals there w^ere contests in poetry and music, as well as trials of strength and skill. The Olympic games were the most ancient. They were revived, it is said, by Lycurgus in 776 b. c. ; and hence this date, called the First Olympiad, was afterward employed by the Greeks as their principal chronological era.* * See Note 17, end of Section. 77. How many aud what public games ? Describe the Olj-mpic j^ames. 78. Describe the Pythiau, Nemean, and lelhaiian games. What was the ork-iq of the Olympiad s ? G4 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. B. C. ri325. 1184. Argonautic Expedition. Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks, -^olic migration from Tliessaly. Return of tlie Heracleida}. Commencement of the Olympiads. 1124. 1 1104. r 776. \ gus. L 743-23. First Messenian War. ) 685-68. Second Messenian War. I 624. Draco gives laws to Athens. Age of Lycur- 594 560-27. 514 510. 501. 495. 492. 490. 485. 483. 481. 480. 479. 478. 471. 461. 449. 431. 429. 415. 405. 403. 401. 399. 394. 387. Legislation of Solon. Usurpation of Pisistratus. Insurrection at Athens. — Death of Hipparchus. Hippias expelled from Athens. Ionian revolt in Asia JVIinor. Miletus taken and the Ionian revolt subdued. Invasion of Europe by Mardonius. Battle of Marathon. — Persians defeated. Accession of Xerxes to the throne of Persia. Aristides banished from Athens by the ostracism. Themistocles the leading man at Athens. Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. — Battle of Salamis. Battle of Plataea. Leadership transferred from Pausanias to Aristides.— Commencement of Athenian supremacy. Themistocles banished by the ostracism. — Death of Pausanias. Pericles at the head of public affairs at Athens. Death of Cimon. — End of the Persian War. Commencement of the Peloponnesian War. Death of Pericles. — Plague at Athens. Expedition against Sicily, under Alcibiades and Nicias. Battle of .ffigospotamos. The Thirty Tyrants expelled by Thrasybulus. Battle of Cunaxa, and Retreat of the " Ten Thousand." Death of Socrates, at the age of 70. Battle of Coronea, and Victory of Agesilaus. — The Spartan fleet defeated by Conon. Peace of Antalcidas. il PERSIA, GBEECE, A:N"D MACEDONIA. 65 f 371. Battle of Leuctra. — The Spai'tans defeated by Epani- inondas. 362, Batlle of Mantinea.— Death of Epaminondas. 359. Accession of Phihp to the throne of Macedon. 352. First Philippic of Demostlienes. 346. Pliilip oveninis Phocis, and ends the Sacred War. 338. Battle of Chaeronea. — The Athenians and Thebana defeated by Phihp. 336. Accession of Alexander the Great 334. Batlle of the Granicus lliver. 333. Battle of Issns. 331. Battle of Arbela. 323. Death of Alexander at Bal)ylon. — The Lamian War. 317-307. Demetrius Phalereus at Athens. 301. Battle of Ipsus. 281. Lysimachus defeated and slain by Sclencus. 280. Seleucus assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus. — Invasion of Greece by the Gauls. 279. The Gauls defeated at Delphi. 243. Aratus general of the Achaean league. 241. Agis (IV.), king of Sparta, put to death for attempting to reform the government. 236. Cleomenes (III.) becomes king of Sparta. 221. Sparta captured by Antigonus Doson. 213. Aratus poisoned by Philip, king of Macedon. 208. Philopoemen general of the Achaean league. 197. Battle of Cynoscephalae. — Philip, king of Macedon, de- feated. 183. Philopoemen put to death by the revolted Messenians. 168. Battle of Pydna. — End of the Macedonian monarchy. 146. Destruction of Corinth byMummius. — Greece made a Roman province under the name of Achaia. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE. 1. What conquests were made by Cyras the Great? 31 2. What were the principal events of the reign of Cambyses ? 31 3. What important expeditions were undertaken by Darius Ilystaspes ? 32 4. What led to the invasion of Greece ? 32 5. What Persian monarch invaded Greece, and with what result ? 32 6. When and in what way did the Persian Empire end ? 33 7. What was the character of the Persians ? Their religion ? SS 8. Give a brief sketch of the geography of Greece 33-34 9. Who were the primitive inhabitants of Greece ? 34 C6 PERSIA, GREECE, A'ND MACED0:N"IA. 10. What were the principal events of the legendary history ? ;34-85 11. What revolutions occurred in the twelfth ccntuiy '? 35 12. Give an account of Lycurgus 35-3ti 13. Describe the Messeniau Wars, and their consequences 36 14. Describe the government of Sparta 36 15. Give an account of the origin of Athens, and its early history 37 16. Who were Draco and Solon ? 37 17 Give an account of Pisistratus and his sons 37 38 18 What is meajit in Grecian history by the "Age of Despots ?" 38 19. \\Tiat was the ostracism, and wiiy was it established ? 38 39 20. Mention some of the distinguished men who were banished by it 42-48 21. What led to the battle of Marathon? Its consequences? 39 22. Give an account of the invasion of Greece by Xerxea 40 23. Give a sketch of the career of Aristides 41^13 24. Also of Themistocles 41-43 25. Of Pausanias 41-42 2(). Of Cimon 43 27. Give a full account of the Persian War 39-44 28. Give a full account of the Peloponnesian War 44-45 29. Give a sketch of the life and character of Socrates 46-47 30. What led to the battle of Cunaxa ? 47 31. Give an account of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand 47 32. Describe the character of Agesilaus, and state the chief events of his life.. 48-49 33. What rendered Epaminondas illustrious ? 48-49 34. Describe the character of Philip of Macedon, and state- the principal events of his reign 49-51 85. What was the Sacred War ? 50-51 36. What victory gave Philip control of Greece ? 51 37. Give a sketch of the career of Alexander the Great 51-56 88. What victory gave him the Persian empire ? 54 39. After his death, what noted generals contended for the mastery ? 56-57 40. What led to the battle of Ipsus ? Its consequences ? 57 41. Who were Demetrius Phalereus and Demetrius Poliorcetes ? 57 42. How was the Macedonian Empire divided after the battle of Ipsus ? 58 43. Give a sketch of the career of Demetrius Poliorcetes 58 44. Mention some of the successors of Ptolemy Ceraunus on the throne of Macedon 59 45. Give an account of the formation of the ^tolian league 59 40. Give a sketch of the history of the Achaean league 59 47. Who was Philopoemen ? What was he styled ? (iO 48. How did the Macedonian monarchy end ? (il 49. When and by whom wa* Greece subdued ? 61 50. Give a sketch of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, Italy, Africa, &c 61 f)l. What was the character of the Greeks ? 62 52. What was the Amphictyouic Council ? 62 53. Describe the public games 63 54. In whose honor were they hold ? What was their effect ? 63 55. Mention the chief events of the fabulous age, with their dates 64 56. Mention the chief events in the history of Greece, with their dates, during eacli succeeding century 64-65 NOTES. 1. History of Cyrus (p. 31, IT 1).—" It is well known that the history of Cyrus {his name signifies ' the sun,' Koresh, Churshid) has come down to us in two very different versions, that of Herodotus and that of Xenophon. No rational man in our days can look upon Xeuophou's history of Cyrus in any other light than that of a romance. It was not Xenophon's intention to deceive; he did not at all intend to write a history, or to give it out as a history ; but it is as clear as day- light, that his object was to write a political novel iu the form of the history of a king. The account in Herodotus is very different ; but were we to conclude that, whereas Xenophon's narrative is a fiction, that of Herodotus is altogether and strictly historical, the conclusion would be extremely unfortunate. The historical portion iu the tradition about Cyrus, in my opinion, is, that he roused the Persians to an insurrection against the ruUug Medes ; and that probably not only the in- habitants of Farsistan, but more or less, all the Persian tribes, supported the in- surrection, The Medes, under Astyages, were defeated iu the open field; Astyages became the prisoner of his grandson, and all Media fell into the hands of Cyrus. The supreme power was thus transferred to the Persians." — Niebuhr.— Lectures on Ancient History. 2. Tlie liast Battle of Cyrus (p. 31, IT 1).— " Tomyris, queen of the Massagetaj, when she found that Cyrus paid no heed to her advice, collected all the forces of her kingdom, and gave him battle. Of all the combats in which tlie bar- barians have engaged among themselves, I reckon this to have been the fiercest. The following, as I understand, Avas the manner of it :— First, the two armies stood apart and shot their arrows at each other ; then, when their quivers were empty, they closed and fought hand to hand with lances and daggers ; and thus they continued fighting for a length of time, neither choosing to give ground. At length the Massagetre prevailed. The greater part of the army of the Persians was destroyed, and Cyrus himself fell, after reigning nine and twenty years. Search was made among the slain, by order of the qiieen, for the body of Cyrus ; and when it was found, she took a skin, and, filling it with human blood, she dipped the head of Cyrus iu the gore, saying, as she thus insulted the corse, " I live and have conquered thee iu fight, and yet by thee am I ruined, for thou tookest my son with guile ; but thus I make good my threat, and give thee thy fill of blood." — Rawlinson's Herodotus. The accounts given of Cyrus's death by other writei's diffor from this. According to Xenophon, he died peacefully iu his bed. Ctesias says, he was mortally wounded in a battle with Derbices, and died iu his camp, a short time alterward. There seems to be little reason to doubt that he died iu a violent manner, but it is uncer- tain what enemy he was contending against at the time. 3. Zoroaster (p. 33, "ff 6).— Zoroaster is generally believed to have been the founder of the sect called Magi ; but at what time he lived is not certainly known. Some suppose him to have been contemporary with Cyrus the Great : others place him as far back as the time of Abraham. He improved iipon the doctrines ol the Magian tribe by bringing their religious tenets into a more consistent form. He erected a temple where he kept a fire, which he said came directly from heaven. This was distributed through the kingdom, and maintained by the priests with the greatest care. They watched it day and night, fed it with wood stripped of the bark, and never blowed it with their breath lest it might be polluted. Zoroaster taught that there are two grand principles : the one, the cause of all good ; the other, the causa of all evil ; the former represented by light ; the latter by darkness. KOTES. The book which contains his religious tenets is called Zentl-avesta, the word avesta meaning text or scripture, and ze.ml, a translation or commentary. This is the book that contains the sacred writings oi" the Parsees, that is, the people of Pars, or ancient Persia. Zoroaster, among the Persians and Parsees, is called Zerdusht. The original meaning of the word is uncertain ; most probably it indicates the notion of high-priest or spiritual guide. 4. Solon and liis Ijaws (p. 37, "tT 1G).— Solon iu his youth was a poet. He was descended from Codrus ; and though a native of Salamis, had resided for some time at Athens, when owing to the many unsuccessful attempts that had been made to compel Salamis to return to its allegiance, the people decreed capital punishment to any citizen or magistrate who should propose any other expedition to reduce it. Feigning insanity, he shut himself up in his house, and composed a poem upon the loss of the " lovely island; " and, one day, during an assembly of the people, he ran into the market-place like one frantic, mounted the herald's stone, and recited the poem to the crowd. Some of his friends stood ready to raise a shout of applause, and the people catching the frenzy, repealed the law by acclamation. A new expedition was accordingly decreed, and the command of it Avas given to Solon. Under his guidance, the attempt was successful, and Salamis again acknowledged the authority of Athens. It was the object of Solon's laws to equalize as much as possible the privileges and authority of the citizens. He repealed aU the laws of Draco, except those against murder. The distinguishing feature, however, of the new constitution was the substitution of property for hirth, as a title to the honors and offices of the state. He ordered that all those who took no part in public affairs should be pun- ished; for, he said; "That is (in my opinion) the most perfect government where an injury to any one is the concern of all." These laws were inscribed upon blocks of wood made to turn on an axis. They -were kept at first in the Acropolis, but afterward in the Prytaneum, or place of the General Assembly. A factious opposition to his laws having arisen, Solon finally assembled the peo- pie, and, after acknowledging that he was not perfectly satisfied as to the excel- lence of all his measures, he obtained from them a pledge that they would obey his laws for ten years, while he visited those countries most distinguished for tho efficiency of their government, in order that he might revise the constitution which he had framed for Athens. He then sailed for Egypt, where he abode somo time. Thence he went to Cyprus, and from that island passed, by request of Croesus, king of Lydia, to Sardis. Ou his return, he found that faction had been actively laboring to undo his work, and he was compelled to witness the partial overthrow of his system by the usurpation of Pisistratus. It is said that his death occurred the year after that event (b. c. 550). 5. Iilxpeditiou of Xerxes (p. 40, ^ 23).—" On this transit from Asia into Europe, Herodotus dwells with peculiar emphasis, — and well he might do so, since, when we consider the bridges, the invading number, the unmeasured hopes suc- ceeded by no less unmeasured calamity, — it will appear not only to have been the most imposing event of his century, but to rank among the most imposing events of all history. He surrounds it with much dramatic circumstance, not only men- tioning the marble throne erected for Xerxes on a hill near Abydos, from whence he surveyed both his masses of land-forces covering the shore, and his ships sail- ing and racing iu the strait (a race in which tho Phoenicians of Sidon surpassed the Greeks and all the other contingents), but also superadding to this real fact a dialogue with Artabanus, intended to set forth the internal mind of Xerxes. He further quotes certain supposed exclamations of tho Abydenes [people of Abydos], KOTES. at the sight of his superhuman power, • Why,' said one of these terror-stricken spectators, ' why dost thou, O Zeus [Jupiter], under the shape of a Persian man, and the name of Xerxes, thus bring together the whole human race for the ruin of Greece? It would have been easy for thee to accomplish that without so much ado.' * * 'The passage was ordered to begin at sunrise, the bridge being per- fumed with frankincense and strewed with myrtle boughs, while Xerxes himself made libations into the sea with a golden censer, and offered up prayers to Helios [the sun], that he might effect without hindrance his design of conquering Europe even to its farthest extremity. Along with his libations, he cast into the Helles- pont the censer itself, with a golden bowl and a Persian cimeter.' 'I do not ex- actlj^ know,' adds the historian, ' whether he threw them in as a gift to Helios, or as a mark of repentance and atonement to the Hellespont for the stripes which ha had inflicted upon it.' Of the two bridges, that nearest to the Euxine was devoted to the military force, — the other to the attendants, the baggage, and the beasts of burden. The ten thousand Persians, called Immortals, all wearing garlands on their h6ads, were the first to pass over, and Xerxes himself, with the remaining army, followed next though in an order somewhat different from that which had been observed in quitting Sardis ; the monarch having reached the European shore, saw the troops crossing the bridge after him 'under the lash.' But in spite of the use of this sharp stimulus to accelerate progress, so vast were the numbers of the host, that they occupied no less than seven days and seven nights, Avithout a moment of intermission, in the business of crossing over." — GroWs History of Greece. 6, Aristides tlie Just (p. 41, H 25).— The Athenians had a peculiar way of humbling those who seemed to be too ambitious, or to possess too much power. This \vas called the ostracism — a useful institution, in some respects, but often em- ployed to gratify envy or ill-will. At an appointed time, every citizen took a shell, and writing upon it the name of the person he considered the most obnoxious, threw it into a place inclosed for the purpose with wooden rails. The magistrates then counted the shells, and, if they amounted to six thousand, the ostracism was declared complete, and the individual whoso name was found upon the greatest number of shells was banished ten years. Aristides had been commissioned to take charge of the spoils after the battle of Marathon. He discharged his trust with the most perfect fidelity. He was also distinguished for his inflexible justice in every transaction. Themistocles, envying the love and respect with which ho was treated, insinuated that he was insensibly gaining the sovereign power, though without the ensigns of it. By this means the people were induced to ban- ish the most virtuous man in the state. While the shells were being inscribed at the assembly, a peasant appeared and requested him to write the name of Aristi- des upon the shell. The good man, surprised at the incident, asked him, " whether Aristides had ever injured him ? " " No," said he, " nor do I even know him, but it vexes me to hear him everywhere called the just." Aristides made no reply, but wrote his name vipon the shell, and returned it to his envious country- man. 7, Ostracism (p. 43, ^ 28).— "There existed at Athens the same law which, in tiie Middle Ages, and especially in Italy, gave the people the right to banish in- fluential persons who had raised themselves above their fellow citizens, althovigh not guilty of any particular crime. It cannot be denied that it was a harsh law ; but in small republics, where it was so easy to create a revolution, it was cer- tainly a beneficial regulation. By this law Aristides Avas exiled for a period of ten years, because the people distrusted him, — because he was personally so eminent that he was deemed to be dangerous." — Niebuhr's Ancient History. NOTES. 8. Plague at AtSicns (p. 41, H 31). — " A dreadful plague, -which, com menclug iu Ethioi^ia, had passed through Libya and crossed the Mediterranean, burst at once upon Athens, persons apparently iu perfect health were seized with extreme heat iu the head and redness of the eyes. The tongue and throat then assumed a bloody appearance, a violent cough came on, with hiccoughs and spasms ; inflammation ensued, aud- the body was rapidly covered with loathsome ulcers. As it began in the head, it proceeded through all parts of the body, aud finally fixed itself iu the pxtremities; so that those who survived lost their hands, or feet, or eyes. The patients were afflicted with intolerable thirst; many dragged themselves to the fountains and there fell down dead, with none to bury them It was ]nid-summer, and not only every house was fully occupied, but many fami- lies were crowded together iu stifling huts, where they died iu heaps. The very temples were filled with dead bodies, and every part of the city exhibited a dread- ful scene of mortality and mourning. Beasts of prey, though perishing with himger, refused to touch the carcasses of those who died of it; and birds of ill- omen flew about, and by their dismal croakiugs excited fearful forebodings. The Peloponnesian army had wasted the vale of Attica, and were rapidly proceeding toward the sea-coast, when, becoming alarmed by acccmuts of the plague, they hastened homeward, after occupying the country forty days." — Bloss's Ancient HiS' lory. 9. Dentil of Socrates (p. 46, H 36). — "It was usual at Athens for exe- cution very soon to follow condemnation— commonly on the morrow; but it hap- pened that the condemnation of Socrates took place on the eve of the day ap- pointed for the saci-ed ceremony of crowning the galley which carried the an- nual offerings to the gods worshiped atDelos; and immemorial ti'adition torbade all executions till -the sacred vessel's return. Thus, the death of Socrates was res- pited thirty days, while his friends had free access to him in the prison. Means were concerted for his escape; the jailer was bribed, a vessel prepared, aud a se- cure retreat in Thcssaly provided. No arguments, no prayers, could persuade him to use the opp(U'tuuitj\ He had always taught the duty of obedience to the laws, and he would not furnish an example of the breach of it. To no purpose was it urged that he had been lanjhstly condemned— he had always held that wrong did not justify wrong. He waited with perfect composure the return of the sacred vessel, reasoned on the immortality of the soul, the advantage of virtue, the happiness derived from having made it through life his pursuit, and, with his friends about him, he took the fatal cup and Cim(\.."~M it ford's History of Greece. 10. Xenopliou (p. 47, H 38).— It is impossible not to feel a peculiar in- terest in the life aud character of that distinguished man, Avho as soldier, philoso- pher, and author stands so conspicuous in the annals of Greece. His father was an Athenian of rank aud affluence. In his early life, he was the pupil and friend of Socrates. At the solicitation of Proxenus, and by the advice of the oracle, he en- listed iu the army of Cyrus, the younger. He was present at the battle of Cunaxa, and was the chief instrument in effecting the retreat of the Greeks, after that dis- astrous engagement. During his absence, Socrates was executed ; and upon his return, he found that the same party had procured a decree of banishment against himself. Thus prevented from visiting his native city, he joined the army of Agesilaus in Asia Minor, and acquired considerable wealth in those campaigns. He returned with this king to Laeedajmon, and exchanged his military life lor more peaceful occupations. The Lacedaimonians gave him the little town of Scillus, on the borders of Elis, to hold under their supervision as a lordship; and there he settled with his family, consisting of a wile and two sons. With the NOTES. money be had saved, he purchased an exteusive tract of land, upon wbich he erected a temple to Diana. This place, about twenty-five miles from Olympia, where every four years he might see such friends as he chose, formed an appro- priate residence for the illustrious Athenian refugee. Here he wrote the life of Cyrus, the Memorabilia of Soci-ates and a continuation of Thucydides' great his- tory. When the Arcadians made sacred Olympia the seat of war, finding his res- idence at Scillus unsafe, he removed to Corinth. Though a decree had been passed inviting his return to Athens, yet an absence of thirty years had so weakened his attachment to his native country, that he chose to remain upon the isthmus, where he passed, iu dignified case, the remainder of a life protracted beyond his ninetieth year. 11. :Bpaniinondas (p. 49, TF 41).— " Scarcely any character in Grecian history has been judged with so much unanimity as Epaminondas. He has ob- tained a meed of admiration— from all, sincere and hearty— from some, enthusi- astic. Cicero pronounces him to be the first man of Greece. His period of active political life comprehends sixteen years, from the resurrection of Thebes into a free community by the expulsion of the Lacedaemonian garrison and the sub- version of the ruling oligarchy, to the fatal day of Mautiriea. His prominent and unparalleled ascendency belongs to the last eight years, from the victory of 'Lenctva."—Grote's History of Greece. 12. Aristotle (p. 51, '^ 48).- Aristotle was born at Stagira, an island nea.i the Macedonian coast, b. c. 3S4. At the age of seventeen, he went to Athens, and devoted himself to philosophy in the school of Plato. His uncommon acuteness and indefatigable industry gained for him so high a rank, that Plato used to call him the "Mind of the School," and to say, when he was absent, "Intellect is not here." He lived in Athens twenty years, during which he wrote many works; thence he passed to Macedonia, where he remained in quality of tutor to Alex- ander eight years, and then returned to Athens. He kept up, however, a correspond once with the young king, and i^ersuaded him to use his power and wealth in the service of philosophy. Alexander employed several thousand persons in different parts of Europe and Asia to collect animals of various kinds, to send to Aristotle, who, from the information thus aff'orded, wrote fifty volumes on the history of ani- mated nature. He diftered with Piato in philosophy, and established a school at Athens, in the grove called Lyceum. He delivered his lecti;res Avhile walking about, and hence his followers were called Peripatetics. He continued his labors there fifteen years, and then retired to Chalcis, in Euboja, to escape a fate similar to that of Socrates. There ho died at th'! age of sixty-three. 13. Alexander tlje Great and Diog-cne.s (p. 53, H 49).— " A gen- eral assembly of the Greeks being held at the I.sthmus of Corinth, they came to a resolution to send their quotas with Alexander against the Persians, and he was unanimously elected captain-general. Many statesmen and philosophers came to congratulate him on the occasion ; and he hoped that Diogenes of Sinope, who then lived at Corinth, would be of the number. Finding, however, that he made but little account of Alexander, and that he preferred the enjoyment of his leisure in a part of the suburbs, called Cranium, the king went to see him. Diogenes happened to be lying in fhe sun; and at the approach of so many people, he raised himself up a little, and fixed his eyes upon Alexander. The king addressed him in an obliging manner, and asked him, 'If there was anything he could serve him in?' 'Only stand a little out of my sunshine,' said Diogenes. Alex- ander, we are told, was struck with such surprise at finding himself so little re- garded, aud saw somethir.g so great iu that carelessness, that, while his courtiers IS'OTES. •were ridiculing the iihilosoplier as a moaster, lis said, ' If I Avere not Alexander I should wish to be Diogenes.' "—Plutarch. 14. Demetrius and tlie Atlicgiiatis (p. 58, ^C3).~" In such a miser- able condition was the city when Demetrius entered it. He ordered all the Athe- nians to assemble in the theater, which he surrounded with his troops; and having planted his guards on each side of the stage, he came down through the passage by which the tragedians enter. The fears of the people, on his appearance, in- creased, but they were entirely dissipated when he began to speali ; for neither the accent of his voice was loud, nor his expression severe. He complained of them in soft and easy terms, and taking them again into favor, made them a present of a hundred thousand measures of wheat, and re-established such an administration as was most agreeable to them." — Plutarch. 15. Sybaris (p. 61, 1172). — " Placed between two rivers, the Crathis and the Sybaris— possessing extraordinary advantages of site and climate, this celebrated colony rose with unparalleled rapidity to eminence in war and luxury in peace. So great was its population and resources, that it is said by Diodorus to have brought at one time three hundred thousand men into the field— an army which doubled that which all Greece could assemble at Plataea. The exaggeration is evi- dent ; but it still attests the belief of a populousness and power which must have rested upon no fabulous foundation. Thronged by mercantile adventurers, its trade, like that of Agrigentum, doubtless derived its sources from the oil and wine which it poured into the harbors of Africa and Gaul. As with individuals so with states, wealth easily obtained is prodigally spent, and the effeminate and volup- tuous ostentation of Sybaris passed into a proverb."— Sw'iwer's Athens. 16. Greek: Colonization (p. G2, H 73).— "The main causes of the spread of the Greeks from their proper home in the Hellenic peninsula, over so many and such distant regions, were two in number. The race was prolific, and often found itself cramped for room, either from the mere natural increase of population, or from the pressure upon it of larger and more powerful nations. Hence arose movements which were, properly speaking, migrations, though the term 'coloni- zation ' has been improperly applied to them. To this class belong the Jiolian, Ionian, and Dorian settlements in Asia, and the Achaean in Italy. But the more usual cause of movement was commercial or political enterprise, the state which founded a settlement being desirous of extending its influence or its trade into a new region. Such settlements were colonies proper ; and between these and the mother country there was always, at any rate at first, a certain connection, which was absent in the case of settlements arising out of migrations. Occasionally in- dividual caprice or political disturbance led to the foundation of a new city ; but such cases were comparatively rare." — Rawlinson's Ancient History. 17. Olympic Games (p. G3, IT 78).— "The most ancient as well as the most famous of the Greek festivals Avas that celebrated at Olympia, on the banks of the Alpheus, in the territory of Elis, and near an ancient temple of the Olym- pian Jove. The origin of this festival is lost in the mythical ages. It is said to have been revived by Iphitus, king of Elis. and Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator, in the year 776 b. c. ; and, accordingly, when the Greeks, at a later time, began to use the Olympic contest as a chronological era, this year was regarded as the first Olympiad. It continued to maintain its celebrity for many centuries after the extinction of Greek freedom; and it was not till a. d. 394 that it was finally aboHshed by the Emperor Theodosius. It was celebrated at the end of four years, and the interval which elapsed between each celebration was called an Olympiad. The festival was called by the Greeks a Pentaeleris, because it was celebrated every fifth year, according to the ancient mode of reckoning."— ,S'iyn'^'i's History of Greece. Progressive IVIap, No. 3 B. C. 753.] ROME. 6? section iii. Rome, Pt'oni its Foundation to the Establishment of the Empire. 1. Rome is said to have been founded in 753 B. c, but its early history for at least three and a half centuries is only a series of traditional narratives of the details of which there is no authentic evidence. According to these, its founders were two brothers named Rom'u-lus and R^mus, of the Latin race, a people that had long inhabited that part of Italy, occupying a district called La'ti-um. Romulus be- came the first king, and was succeeded by six others, the united reigns of the whole comprising a period of about two centuries and a half. [See Xote 1, end of the Section.'] 2. Besides the Latins and the Greek colonies,* Italy, at the time of the foundation of Rome, was occupied by several other races, of whom the E-tru'ri-ans, living in what is now called Tuscany, were the most important and the most ad- vanced in civilization. Romulus, it is said, arranged a plan of government for the new city, dividing the people into tribes, establishing a senate, and recognizing the two classes of Patricians, or nobles, and Plebeians, or common people. 3. Nu'ma Fom-jjil'ius, the second king, was, according to the traditions, the founder of the religious institutions of the Romans. Tul'his Hos-til'i-us, the third king, was * Sfe IV')ti;2, end of the Section. Map Questions.— (See Projjresgive Map, No. 3.)— Name the divisions of Italy. What was the situation of tatium ? Etruria ? Umbria ? Samnium ? Apulia ? Cala1)ria? Brutium ? Campania? Territory of the Sabines ? Cisalpine Ganl ? Where was Rhe'tia '? Uly'ricum ? Helvetia ? What river tributary to the Adriatic Sea ? What branches of it are laid down ? On what river was Rome ? What port at its mouth ? Where was the Rubicon River ? The Metaurus River ? Lake Trasi- me'nus ? Where was Veii ? Tarquinii ? Tusculum ? Clusium ? Capua ? Cannae ? Brundusium ? What towns in Sicily ? In Africa ? 1 . When and by whom was Rome founded ? Give the early history of Rome. 2. By whom was Italy occupied at that time ? What were the acts of Romulus ? 3. Name the other kiogs of Rome. What is said of each? What ended the monarchy ? 68 ROME. [B. C. 509. noted for tlie wai's waged by him against the neighboring cities. An'ciis 3'iar'tius, the fourth king, gained victories over the Latins and some of the other races. Tar'quin tlie Elder, tlie fifth king, was noted for tlie public buildings and other works which he caused to be constructed; among these were the Great Circus and the Great Sewer. Ser'vi-us Tul'- li-us, the sixth king, established the census, which was taken every five years. Tar'quin tlie Proud, the seventh and last king, was by an insurrection of the people driven from the throne and city in consequence of an infamous crime com- mitted by his son. This ended the monarchy (509 b. c). 4. Instead of kings, two yearly magistrates, called Coji- suls, were then elected; and Junius Brutus* and Col-la-ti'- vrxsiNTr VlCENITT OF EOME, nus, through whose means the Tarquins had been expelled, were appointed to this office. The duties and powers of the consuls were similar to those of the kings, and for nearly 150 years they were chosen exclusively from the pa- tricians. As civil officers their power was nearly absolute, each ruling by turns ; and they were the legally appointed generals of the army in time of war. 5. For more than twelve years after the abolition of the monarchy, the Romans were engaged in war with the ad- herents and friends of the Tarquins. Several of the neigh- boring cities raised armies to compel the Eomans to rein- state their king, but they were all finally defeated, although at times they seemed to be on the point of achieving their object. The famous battle of Re-gil'lus, in Tus'cu-lum, ter- * Sfie Note 3, end of the Section. 4. What officers took the place of the kings ? What were their powers and duties ? Who were the first consuls ? 5. What wars followed the abolition of the monarchy ? Give some account of them. What is said of the battle of Lake Regillus ?• What was the cousequeuce ? \\ hat is said of the appointment of dictator ? (See also the note.) B.C. 494.] ROME. G9 minated the struggle, and the Tarquins finally gave up all hope of restoration. To this period belong some of the most interesting stories of the legendary history.* It was during this period also that the first dictator^ was appointed. 6. Although the monarchy was abolished, Kome was by no means under a free government. All political power was in the hands of the patricians, and the plebeians were kept in a condition of great social degradation. Obliged to borrow money of their rich neighbors, they were charged enormous rates of interest, and, when unable to pay, were delivered by the cruel laws to the mercy of their creditors, who entirely deprived them of their lands, and reduced them to the, condition of serfs or slaves. Besides, they were compelled to perform military duty whenever called upon by the government. [See JVote 4, end of Section.] 7. At length their condition became so wretched that they refused to take the field against the public enemy ; but, leaving the city to the patricians, departed in a body to the Sacred Mount, about three miles distant. This compelled the nobles to make some concessions. They released the debtors from their obligations, setting free all who had been made slaves, and assented to the appoint- ment of two magistrates, called Trib'zmes, who were to be chosen from the ranks of the Plebeians, to hold ofl&ce one year, and to have the power of annulling any law of the Senate by pronouncing the word Veto, which means, I for- bid it. The people then returned to the city (49-4 b. c). 8. This concession on the part of the nobles was not so great as it appears, since the Tribunes were elected by those assemblies (called the Comitia of the Centuries) in * Such as the legend of Horatius, who kept the hridge against the whole Etrnrian army; of Mucins Scsevola, and of Castor and Pollux at Lake Regillus. (See Liddell's BUtory of Rome, and Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome.) + A dictator was an officer vested for a limited time with an absolute and irresponsible authority. He was only appointed in times of great public peril. 6. What was the state of Rome at this time ? What was the condition of the Plebeians ? 7. What measure was taken by the Plebeians ? Give the iwsult. 8 . How were the Tribunes elected ? What were their powers ? 70 ROME. [B. C. 471. which, according to the constitution of Servius Tullius, the Patricians could always, by means of their wealth, com- mand a majority of votes. The Tribunes were not invested with any of the ordinary duties of magistrates, their office being simply to protect the rights of the Plebeians by their check upon the legislation of the Senate, which body was purely an aristocratic assemblage. The Tribunes were af- terward increased to five, and finally, in later times, to ten. 9. Another source of difficulty was the injustice of the nobles in seizing upon the public or conquered lands, and keeping them for their exclusive use ; whereas, by the con- stitution of Servius Tullius, they were to be divided partly among the poorer people. This kind of aggression con- tinued to exist for centuries, and gave rise to the proposal of many exciting measures, called "Agrarian laws," the object of which was to enforce a proper division of these public lands. This was the more necessary ; since, when held in large quantities by the wealthy, they were culti- vated by slaves, and the small farmers and freemen were deprived of the means of existence. 10. A few years after the creation of the Tribunate (486 E. c), Spu'ri-us Cas'si-2is, one of the consuls, proposed the first agrarian law ; but he fell a victim to the machinations of the nobles, and, on a false accusation, was put to death. The law, although passed, was not put in execution, and the contest continued until the Plebeians gained a great triumph in the passage of the " Law of Vol'e-ro," according to which the Tribunes were elected by the Plebeians them- selves at the Assembly of the Tribes, not at the Assembly of the Centuries (471 b. c). This law destroyed the power of the nobles, and made Rome a democratic state. 11. While these struggles had been going on in the city ]>etween the two Orders, there were almost constant wars 9. "VN'Tiat were the Agrarian laws ? What was their origin ? Their object? 1 0. Who proposed the first Agrarian law ? What was his fate ? What was the " Law of Volero ?" What was its eflect ? 11. Relate the legend about Coriolanua. B.C. 451.] ROME. 71 with tlie neighboring people, among whom the ^'qui-ans and Volscians (called in Latin Volsci) were the most trouble- some. To this period belongs the story of Co-ri-o-la'nns, a patrician general, who acquired this name by the capture of Co-n'o-li, an important city of the Volscians. Having great influence at Eome in consequence of the victories which he had gained, he insisted, during a time of famine, that no corn should be given to the people unless they would relin- quish their privileges. But the tribunes procured his banish- ment ; and going over to the Volscians, he marched with an army against Rome and threatened its capture. The Senate made several attempts to dissuade him from his revengeful purpose, but in vain. At last, when his mother, wife, and children were sent to his camp to intercede for the city, he relented, and retired with his army. Shortly afterward he was put to death by the Volscians (488 b. c). 12. To a somewhat later period belongs the interesting legend of Cin-cin-na'ttis, who, although a patrician, lived on a small farm which he cultivated with his own hands. Twice was he called from the plough to serve his country, once as Consul and again as Dictator; and while holding the latter office, he gained a gi'eat victory over the ^qui- ans ; and then, having freed Rome from danger, immediate- ly resigned his great office, and returned to his humble agricultural labors, followed by the applause and blessings of all his countrymen (458 b. c). Nearly thirty years afterward, when at the age of 80, he was again called from his retirement to take the office of dictator. 13. The Romans having no written laws, ten commis- sioners were appointed, called De-cem'-virs, to arrange a code. (451 B. c.) They were invested with a very large authority, superseding the other magistrates, and ruling by turns, each for one day. The celebrated code of the Twelve 12. Eelate the legend about Cincinnatus. 1 3. Who were the Decemvirs ? What authority did they have ? What caused the abolition of the Decemvirate ? ROME. [B. C. 391. Tables was the result of tlieir labors ; but a flagrant abuse of power on the part of Appi-us Clau'di-us, one of their number, caused the abolition of the Decern virate in the third year of its existence. 14. The right of intermarriage between the patricians and plebeians being forbidden, a law was introduced by one of the tribunes (445 b. c.) making such marriages legal. This, after violent opposition, was passed, and was imme- diately followed by a proposal to open the consulship to the plebeians. To put an end to the strife and excitement which this produced, the duties of consuls were intrusted to officers called military tribunes, to be elected by the Assembly of the Centuries, both patricians and plebeians being eligible to the office. The Senate, however, could order the election of consuls, instead of the Tribunes, for any year. These officers continued to be elected with various intermissions until 367 B. c, when, by the Li-cin'- ian Laiu, plebeians were admitted to the consulship. 15. The Romans having besieged Veil {ve'yi), a powerful city of E-tru'ri-a, for several years, were on the point of ' suffering a disastrous defeat, when Fu'ri-us Cd-mil'lus, being appointed Dictator, caused a mine to be dug by means of which the soldiers Avere admitted into the citadel, and the city was taken and destroyed (39G b. c). Veil was a larger and more magnificent city than Rome itself, and so favorably situated that very many of the Romans were inclined to abandon their own city and migrate thither. From this, however, they were finally dissuaded by the patricians. Camillus being accused of appropriating the spoils of the conquered city to his own use, was driven into exile (391 b. c). 16. At this period, the Gauls, a barbarous but very bold 14. What privilege did the plebeians acquire? What were the military tri- bunet> ? What privileges did the Licinian law ix\\e to the plebeians ? 1 5 . What was accomplii?hed by Camillas ? How did Veii compare with Rome 5 V.'hat damrer threatened Rome ? Why was Camillus banished ? 1 6. What city was attacked by the Gauls ? Uow did the Romans become in- volved ? B. C. 390.] ROME. 73 and warlike people, had possessed tliemselves of nearly all Western Europe, and occupied also the north of Italy. Proceeding farther south, they (391 b. c.) attacked Clu'-si- um, an important city of Etruria, the inhabitants of which sent to Kome for assistance. Embassadors were according- ly sent to Clusium to demand of the Gauls the reason of their hostile invasion, and bid them quit a territory to which they had no claim. Broi'nus, their leader, answered that the " title of brave men was their swords ;" whereupon a battle ensued, in which the Roman deputies, unmindful of their neutral character, took part against the Gauls. 17. The course taken by the deputies so enraged Brennus that he immediately left Clusium, and with an army of nearly 75,000 men marched toward Rome. On the banks of the ATli-a, a few miles fi'om the city, he met and de- feated the Roman army ; and then marching to the city itself, entered it without opposition, the inhabitants having all fled, except 80 aged senators, who aw^aited the enemy in the Forum, in their robes of state and seated in their ivory chairs. These venerable men were quickly massacred, and the city pillaged and burnt (390 b. c). {^See Note 5.] 18. The citadel, however, being built on a steep and lofty cliff, held out for seven months ; and the Gauls besieging it were reduced in numbers by a pestilence which broke out among them. It is said that at one time they were on the point of taking the citadel ; for having discovered a narrow path up the cliff, they had nearly reached the summit dur- ing the darkness of night, all the guards being asleep; but at that instant the sacred geese kept in the temple of Juno commenced a loud cackling, which awoke the garrison : and the Roman commander, Marcus Man'li-us, springing up, rushed to tlie edge of the rock and hurled the Gauls headlong down. 17. What defeat was snstaiuecl by the Romans? Wliat followed the batUe of Allia ■? 1 8. How AvaP the citadel defended ? Relate what is said to have occurred dur- xixg the defence. 4 74 ROME. FB. C. 383. 19. In the mean while, Camilhis had been called from banishment and made dictator. He arrived, as the story goes, with an army just as the Eomans were about to deliver to the Gauls 1000 pounds of gold which they had agreed to pay as a ransom. Exclaiming that " Rome should be ransomed only with steel," he ordered the gold to be carried away, and immediately attacking the Gauls, de- feated them with great slaughter. Other, and probably more truthful, accounts state that the gold was paid, and that the Gauls peaceably retired ; and it is even said that, more than four centuries afterward, some of this very gold was recovered from the Gauls of that later period. It is, however, certain that the city was left in ruins; and the public records having been destroyed, no materials for an authentic history of the events preceding this period could afterward be obtained. 20. After the departure of the invaders, the city was in a sad condition, and the people were almost in despair. They had lost their houses, their cattle, and their crops, and yet were obliged to pay taxes in order to repair the city walls and to carry on the wars which the neighboring states waged against them. They were also very much oppressed by the merciless laws against debtors. In this crisis, Marcus Manlius, the brave defender of the citadel, distinguished himself by his efforts and sacrifices to relieve the people's wants. Having by this means acquired very great popularity, he excited the suspicions of the patricians, and was accused of attempting to make himself king ; of which offence being unjustly pronounced guilty, he waa thrown down the very rock* from which he had repelled his country's enemies (383 B. c). 21. During the next twenty years, frequent wars were * Called the Tarpeian Rock. 19. Wlio defeated the Gauls? What is said of the ransom? How far is the account certain as regards the city and public records ? 20. What was the^fate of Manlius ? Kelate the events that led to his death. 21. What wars were waged during the next twenty years? What is stated of Bubsequent wars ? Of the alliance between Rome and the Latin cities ? B. C. 295.] ROME. 75 waged witli the Volscians, ^quians, and Etrurians, in which Caminus gained great distinction, and was fiye times made dictator and hailed repeatedly as the Savior of Eome. In 3G1 B. c, the Gauls made another invasion, and ten years afterward a third, hut each time were repulsed. A war of several years was also waged with the powerful Etrurian city Tar-quin'i-i, hut it was finally brought to a successful issue, a peace of forty years being concluded. The Romans at this time had also formed an alliance with most of the Latin cities, which added greatly to their strength and safety. '• 22. Samnite War. — The Sam'nites, a warlike people inhabiting central Italy, having made war upon the Cam- pa'nians, the latter called in the aid of the Romans (343 b. c), who entering Campania defeated the Samnites with im- mense slaughter, and compelled them to make peace, after the war had lasted about two years. A war with the Latin cities followed, in which the Romans were also victorious, and Latium was annexed to the Roman territory (339 B. c). 23. In a second war with the Samnites, the Romans sus- tained a terrible defeat in a narrow valley called the Caii- dlne Forks, and were compelled by the Samnite general to pass under the yoke* in acknowledgment of their subjuga- tion (321 B. c). The war Av^as, however, continued until 305 B. c, when the Samnites, having been repeatedly de- feated, were compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. Seven years afterward they renewed the war, being aided by the Umbrians, Etruscans, and Gauls; but the allied army suffered a great defeat near Sen-ti'num, a town in Um'bria (295 b. c). This famous victory gave the Romans the dominion of nearly all Italy. Close upon this event, followed a war with the Etrurians and Gauls, * The yoke was made by setting two spears upright, and placing another across the top of them 22. What ca.nsed the Samnite war? What conntry was annexed in 340 b. c. ? 23. What caused the second Samnite war ? Where were the " Caudine Forks ?" Ans. In Samnium. When were the Romans defeated ? How did the war end ; Describe the third Samnite war. What was the cliect of the battle of Seutiuum i What other war followed ? 76 ROME. [B. C. 274. whose combined forces were also yanquislied with great slaughter. 24. The inhabitants of the Greek colony Ta-ren'-tnm haying given offence to the Komans, the latter declared war npon tliem, upon which the Tarentines solicited the aid ol Fyr'rhus, King of Epi'ras, the greatest general of his age. Complying Avith this request, he landed in Italy and gained a great victory over the Romans, commanded by the Con- sul LcB-vi'nns (280 B. c). But it was a dear-bought triumph, for he lost many of his best troops and some of his ablest officers, and was probably indebted for it more to the confusion occasioned by the elephants which his army contained, and to which the Eomans were not accustomed, than to the superior valor or skill of his soldiers. When, on visiting the battle-field the next day, he gazed on the Roman dead, all of whom appeared to have fallen in their ranks, and with their faces turned toward the enemy, he exclaimed : " If I had such soldiers as these, how easily could I conquer the world V 25. Many of the Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and he advanced within eighteen miles from Rome, to which he sent an emissary, offering peace ; but this the Roman senate refused until he should withdraw his forces from Italy. Another battle was fought the next year, in which the Ro- mans were again defeated, but with great loss to Pyrrhus. Leaving Italy, he then proceeded to Sicily with the design of expelling the Carthaginians from that island, but in this he was not successful ; and after an absence of two years he returned to Ta-ren'tum. At Ben-e-ven'tum* he was met by the Romans under the Consul Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus, and suffered a most disastrous defeat (275 b. c), after which he retired forever from Italy. Returning to Greece, he was * A town of Samnium, about 28 miles from Capua. (See Progressive Map, No. 3.) 24. What led to the invasion by Pyrrhus? What success did he meet with? What did he say of the Roman soldiers ? 25. What were the further proceedings of Pyrrhus ? Where was he defeated ? Where was he killed ? B. C. 266.] ROME. proclaimed King- of Macedonia, and making war upon the Spartans, he nearly took their city ; but in an attack upon Argos, he was killed by a tile throAvn by a woman from the roof of a house (272 b. c). 26. After the departure of Pyrrhus, the Tarentines ap- plied for aid to the Carthaginians, who sent a fleet for their relief; but the Komans obtained possession of Ta- rentum. The Samnites, Luca'nians, and other tribes soon afterward submitted, thus leaving Rome 7)iistress of all Italy (266 B. c). Over this extensive domain she organized a most effective government. Some portions, which were called Prcefechires, that is, districts governed by Pra^fects, she ruled by means of magistrates sent from herself. From others, the Municipal Towns, she only exacted military service, leaving to them the control of their own local af- fairs; while in very many she planted colonies of Roman citizens, whom she supplied with lands from the conquered territory, and placed over the subjugated inhabitants. Iler rule was, however, mild and generally just, and was but little disturbed by commotion or revolt. 27. The Punic Wars. — Across the Mediterranean, on the African shore, was the great rival republic, CartlicKje ; and with her the Romans were now to measure their strength.* This city, settled, as it has been stated, by the Tyrians, had been in existence about six centuries, and had grown, by means of her commerce, to be one of the wealth- iest cities in the world. Her ships covered the Mediterra- nean, and her fleets were unequalled for numbers and efficiency. Three liundred cities in Africa paid her tribute, she had made conquests in Spain, and nearly all Sicily had submitted to her swav. * The wars waged with Cartlia.ire were called Pitnir Wurx, Punic being a corruption of Phvenix, meauing Phceniciaii, since Carthage was of Phujnician origin. 26. "^^lien and how did Rome become mistress of Italy? What is said of the eovernmeiit which fhe established? What were the prjefectures ? MuuicipaJ towiib ? Colonies ? 27. What was the conaition of Carthage at the commencement of the Punic wars I ROME. [B. C. 264 28. Syracuse, however, still retained its independence, after repeated wars with the Cartliaginians. This city was a colony of tlie Corinthians, established in the eighth cen- tnry B. c. ; and, in the fifth century, became the most populous and powerful state in the island, under a virtuous and patriotic sovereign, named Ge'lon. During its struggle with Athens, in which Nicias was so disastrously defeated, it was under a free government, but subsequently lost its liberties (405 b. c), being ruled for 38 years by the famous Di-o-nys'-i-us, who carried on a successful war with the Carthaginians. Ti-mo'le-on, a Corinthian of great virtue and talents, restored it to freedom (344 b. c.) ; but under A-gctth'o-cUsy the despotism was again established (317 B. c). At the time to which we have arrived, it was under the rule of a monarch named lli'e-ro, during whose reign flourished the famous mathematician Archimedes {ar-ke-medecz). 29. First Punic War. — This war commenced in 264 B". c. and lasted 23 years. It was brought on in the following manner. Agathocles, who waged long wars with Carthage, had hired a body of troops from Cam-pa'ni-a ; and these, after the death of that despot, seized Messana and slaugh- tered the inhabitants, after which they assumed the name of Mam er-tines, which means warlike men. These Hiero, king of Syracuse, marched against and defeated; where- upon they divided, and while a portion of them invoked the aid of the Eomans, the others applied to the Carthagin- ians. Thus, by a set of mercenary murderers and robbers, were these two great republics plunged into a series of wars which lasted more tlian a hundred years. The real cause of the war Avas, hoAvever, the rivalship of these states. 30. The Romans having gained some important victo- ries, AA^ere soon joined by many of the states of Sicily, 28. Give a sketch of the history of Syracuse. 29. What led to the first Punic war ? AA^hat was the real cause of the war ? 30. What victories did the Romans gain? AA^hat general was defeated, and how? B.C. 218.] ROME. 79 including Syracuse. They then took Ag-ri-gen'tum, de- feating an immense army which the Carthaginians had sent to its assistance (262 b. c). Seeing then the necessity of coping with their enemy on the sea, they built a fleet, and under the Consul Du-iXU-iis, gained two great naval victories. Thus encouraged, they sent an armament under Reg'u-lus to attack Carthage itself; but this expedition, although at first successful, was defeated with great loss through the assistance of Xan-thip'pus, a Spartan general, who had recently entered the service of Carthage. The greater part of the Romans were slain or made prisoners, Regulus himself being among the latter (255 B. c). 31. But subsequent misfortunes discouraged the Cartha- ginians ; and they took Regulus from prison, and sent him to Rome, with the understanding that he should obtain favorable terms of peace, or return to Carthage (250 b. c). He listened to' the dictates of patriotism instead of con- sulting his own personal safety, and advised his country- men to continue the war, assuring them that Carthage was nearly exhausted. Having, in accordance with the pledge which he had given, returned to Carthage, he was, it is said, put to death v/ith the most dreadful tortures. The war having continued some years longer, the Car- thaginians sued for peace, which was granted on condition that they should evacuate the island of Sicily, restore the Roman prisoners, and pay all the expenses of the war (241 B. c). Sicily, with the exception of Syracuse, then became a Roman province. 32. Second Punic War. — This war commenced in 218 B. c, and lasted seventeen years. Han'ni-hal, the son of Ha-mil'car, a noted general in the first Punic war, had when a youth been made by his father to swear upon the altar eternal enniitv to the Romans ; and the Carthagin- 31. What is further said of Regulas ? How did the war end? What became of Sicily? 32. How and when did the second Rinic war befjin ? 80 ROME. [B. C. 215> ians having made considerable conquests in Spain, Han- nibal laid siege to Sa-gun'tum, a Greek colony near the eastern coast then in alliance with Rome. The expostula- tions of the last-named power being treated with contempt by Hannibal, and his conduct having been approved by Car- thage, preparations for war were immediately commenced. 33. Hannibal, having completed the conquest of Spain, crossed the Pyrenees and Alps, and at the river Ti-ci'nus met and defeated the Romans under their consul Scip'i-o (218 B. c). A few days afterward, he inflicted a severe defeat upon the other consul, Sem-pro'ni-us, near the river Tre'bi-a, a short distance from the scene of the first conflict. Another great battle was fought the next year, near the lake Tras-i-me'nus ; when the Romans were again defeated, their army being almost destroyed (217 B. c). So alarmed did the Romans become, in consequence, that they immediately appointed a dictator, Fa'hi-us Max'i-mns being selected for the office. 34. This general adopted the tactics of harassing the invaders as much as possible, but avoiding a direct engage- ment, thus wearing out their resources by dela}^ The Romans were thus enabled to recover somewhat from their disasters ; but the next year (216 B. c), Hannibal liaving advanced into Southern Italy, was opposed by a large army under the consuls u^-mil'i-tis and Varro ; and at Can'nce a terrific battle took place, which for the fourth time re- sulted in a complete victory for the Carthaginians (216 B. c). It is said that more than 50,000 Romans fell on the field, and that Hannibal sent to Carthage three bushels of gold rings, taken from the fingers of senators and knights who were found among the slain. Almost all the nations in the south of Italy at once revolted from the 33 What course did Ilannibal take ? What victories did he gain ? To what position was Fabins Maximus elected? 34. What was the policy of Fablus ? Describe the battle of Cann?e. OVhere was Caniiic '? See Map, No. 3.) What revolt ensued ? Where did Hannibal pass the winter ? B. C. 212.] ROME. 81 Romans ; but Htinnibal, instead of marching on the city, which it is thought he might have captured, went into Avin- ter-quarters at Cap'u-a, and waited for re-enforcements. So. In the meanwhile, the Romans had sent the two Scipios into Spain, who, after having gained great advan- tages over the Carthaginians, were defeated in battle and slain. They were succeeded by Fuh'Uus Corne'Uus Sciino, son of one of the former commanders, who, having defeated the Carthaginians in several important battles, completed the conquest of Spain (205 B. c). Hannibal gained no im- portant victory after that at Cannae. His army, reduced in numbers, and impaired in strength and discipline by the pleasures and vices of Capua, was scarcely adequate to protect his Italian allies against the Romans, now under the command of Fa'hius and Mar-cel'lus, the former of whom, from his cautious policy, was called the Shield, and the latter, on account of his vigor and address, the Sivord of Rome. Marcellus did important service in Sicily. 36. Hiero, king of Syracuse, having died, the Syracusans established a popular government, and declared against Rome. Marcellus therefore proceeded against the city, which he took after a siege of two years (212 b. c). This siege is memorable for the part taken in the defence of the city by Archimedes, who exhausted his science and skill in the invention of machines to assail the besiegers. In tlie general massacre that followed the entrance of the Romans, the aged philosopher was slain;* the city was pillaged, and many of its magnificent works of art were carried to Rome. 37. Hannibal, despairing of succor from Carthage, at length summoned his brother As'dru-bal from Spain, who 5oon passed into Italy, but was intercepted by a Roman * See Note 6, end of the Section. S5. What had the Romans clone in the mean while ? Who completed the con- quest of Spain ? What was the condition of Hannibars army ? What <,^cuerald were called the Shield and Sword of Rome ? Why ? 36. What service did Marcellus perform in Sicily? What is said of Ar- chil redes ? 37. What measure did Hannibal adopt to obtain aid ? Why did he not get tLe aid ? Whither did the liomauo now direct the war t 82 ROME. [B. C. 202. army, at the Me-tau'rus River, in Umbria ; and, in tlie bat- tle that ensued, he was defeated and shiin (207 B. c). Han- nibal received notice of this disaster by the sight of his brother's gory head, which the consuls caused to be thrown into his camp. The Romans, under the influence of Scipio, the conqueror of Spain, resolved now to " carry the war into Africa," and Scipio was appointed to the command. 38. Having defeated the Numid'ians in a great battle, and vanquished the Carthaginians with immense slaugh- ter, at U'ti-ca, Scipio marched almost to the gates of their city; when the Carthaginian senate, driven to despair, recalled Hannibal to the defence of liis own coun- try. The call was at once obeyed, and landing in Africa, Hannibal drew up his forces on the plain of Za'ma, a town in Numidia. Seeing that his army was far inferior to that of the Romans, he obtained an interview with Scipio, and proposed a treaty of peace ; but Scipio, true to Roman policy, declined the proposal. The battle therefore took place, and Hannibal was defeated with great loss (202 b. c). 39. The battle of Zama ended the second Punic war ; for although the Carthaginians were not utterly exhausted, yet, by the prudent counsel of Hanftibal, who saw that it would be useless to protract the struggle, they consented to accept the terms of peace dictated by Scipio, and approved by the Roman Senate. These were very severe : Carthage was to evacuate Spain, to give up all her prisoners, surren- der lier fleets, pay 10,000 talents to defray the expenses of the war, and agree to undertake no future war without the consent of Rome. The treaty having been concluded, Scipio returned home, and was honored with a more splen- did triumph than any Roman general had previously re- ceived. He was called thereafter Scipio Af-ri-ca'j^us. 40. Hannibal was for a time treated Avith great respect 38. What did Scipio accomplish ? Where did he defeat Hannibal? What was the result f 39. On what terms was peace made ? How was Scipio rewarded ? 40. Relate the subsequent histoi-v of Hannibal. B. C. 189.] ROilE. 83 by the Carthaginians, and, being placed at the head of the ofovernment, endeavored to restore the nation to its former prosperity and splendor. But the intrigues of the ancient nobiHty prevailed against him, and he was compelled to flee in order to save his life (19G b. c). Taking refuge in Syria, at the court o^ An-ti'o-clius the Great, he assisted that monarch in a war against the Romans ; but the latter prevailing, demanded that he should be given up to them, whereupon ne fled to Bi-tiiyri-i-a, and there, being still pur- sued by the Roman emissaries, he was at last compelled to put an end to his life to avoid falling into their handa (183 B. c). ISee JSfote 7, end of the Section^ 41. In the same year died his great rival, Scipio Afri- canus, an exile too from his native country. For, having served with his brother Lucius Scipio in the war against Antiochus, and defeated that monarch at the battle of Mag-ne'sia, he and his brother were accused of embezzling some of the captured treasures. To this base and ungrate- ful accusation he disdained to plead ; but, quitting Rome in disgust, took up his abode in Campania, where he died. Lucius Scipio, refusing to pay the fine imposed upon him, had all his property confiscated. This general, after the victory at Magnesia, was called Scijyio Asiaticus, 42. The second Punic war was followed by a war against Philip, king of Macedonia, wlio was defeated in the battle of Cyn-o-ce2)h'a-le. The Jj]tolians having invited Antiochus into Greece, that monarch crossed over and took Euboea. This was considered an act of interference by the Romans, and war was declared against Syria, which was ended by the battle of Magnesia, in Lydia (190 b. c), after which Anti- ochus was obhged to surrender nearly the whole of Asia Minor to At'ta-lus, king of Per'ga-mus, who had been in alliance with the Romans during the war. Antiochus was 41 Relate the subsequent hiptory of Scipio Africanus. Who was called Scijno Asiaticmf "Why? Where was Magnesia ? (See Map, page 41.) „ xrr^ . 42. What battle terminated the war against Philip ? Against Antiochus ? What was Antiochus compelled to do ? Who was Antiochus ? 84 ROME. [B.C. 146. the most powerful and enterprising- of the successors of Seleucus, called the Se-leu' ci-dm ; and previous to this de- feat had waged successful war against the Parthians, Bac- trians, and other nations in the East. 43. The monarchy of Syria at this time extended as far east as the Euphrates, and was bounded on the north by the Taurus Mountains, and on the south by Arabia. Asia Minor, iiow severed entirely from the dominions of Anti- ochus, contained, besides the kingdom of Pergamus, the independent monarchies of Bitliyu'ia, Cap-jm-do' cia, and Pon'tus, besides Ga-la'tia, the country occupied by the Gauls. These states, fragments of the Macedonian Empire, will be referred to in the course of the following history. 44. Pergamus was founded by a lieutenant of Lysim- achus (283 b. c), but did not acquire any prominence until the reign of A f talus, wlio distinguished himself by his alliance with the Eomans in the war against Antiochus. This kingdom lasted 150 years, at the end of which its last king, A f talus III., left it, with all its treasures, to the Romans (133 b. c). The kings of Pergamus were noted for their attention to literature; and they collected an immense library, which was afterward carried to Alex- andria. 45. After the death of Philip, king of Macedonia, Per- seus, his successor, made an effort to free Greece and Mace- don from tlie Eoman yoke, but, after a war of three years, was utterly subdued at the battle of Pyd'na (1G8 b. c). lie was carried captive to Rome, wliere he and liis wife and children graced the triumph of yE-miXi-us Pau'lus, his conqueror. Tiius was Macedonia added to the Roman dominions, which a few years afterward were still furtlier augmented by the conquest of Greece (1-16 b. c). 43. What constituted Syria at this time? What clicT A*ia Minor contain ? 44. Sketch the history of Pergamus. For what were its kings noted ? WTiero was Pergamus.— .4n-5. Iii Mysia, Asia Minor. (See Map, page 41.) 45. What led to the war with Perseus? Where was he defeated? What was the result ? What other conquest was made in 14(i b. c. ? B. C. 146.] ROME. 85 46. Third Punic War.— In the mean time the third Funic war broke out, caused by the inveterate hatred of the Komans toward the Carthaginians. A pretext for the war Avas found in the efforts made by Carthage to repel the aggressions of Mas-i-nis'sa, king of Nu-mid'i-a,* whom the Romans acknowledged as their ally. Every effort was made by the Carthaginians to appease the hostility of their ene- mies. They complied with every demand ; banishing all who had given offence to the Romans, and even surrendering their arms and military stores. But when finally told that they must leave Carthage, and permit it to be destroyed, they took courage from despair, shut the gates of the city, and put to death every Roman within its walls. 47. The most vigorous exertions were then made to supply the place of the weapons which the treachery of Rome had wrested from them. Men of every rank toiled day and night in the forges, and the women cut off their hair to furnish bow-strings for the archers. For three years did they, un- der their general As'dru-bal, keep the Romans at bay ; but at length were obliged to yield to the skill and perseverance of Scipio Africanus the Younger, under whom the Romans scaled the walls of the city, and cut their way to the cita- del. After six days of continuous slaughter, the miserable inhabitants w^ere subdued ; and the city having been set on fire, very many perished in the flames. By a subsequent order of the Roman Senate, every house that was left standing was thrown down, and the city completely de- stroyed (146 B. c). 48. Thus perished this magnificent city, after it had ex- isted seven centuries. Utica, which had submitted to the Romans, was rewarded with a portion of the Carthaginian * A country on the northern coast of Africa, to the west of Carthage. 46. What caused the third Punic war? What course was pursued by the Car- tha^iuians ? 47. Give an account of the siege and capture of Carthage. Wliat was the fate cf Hie city? -iS. What is said of its territory and subsequent history t 86 ROME. [B.C. 133. territory ; but the principal part was formed into a province under the name of Lih'ya. Under the Emperor Augustus Carthage was rebuilt, and became, in the second century of the Christian era, one of the finest cities of the Komau empire. It was again destroyed by the Arabs in the seven tli century (698 a. d.), and now only a few ruins remain to mark its site. 49. Spanish War. — x\lthough the Carthaginians had been expelled from Spain, the inhabitants were not sub- dued; and they valiantly defended their liberties for a long series of years against the Romans. Among the most cou- rageous and warlike tribes were the Cel-ti-he'ri-ans and Lu- si-ta'ni-ans* The latter found, in their noble and patriotic chief Vir-i-a'tics, a leader worthy of their bravery, and able to cope with the best generals of Rome. For six years he defied every effort for his defeat and capture; and the Lusitanians were only subdued when the Romans by treach- ery procured his assassination (140 b. c). The taking of Nu-ma7i!tia\ by Scipio completed the subjugation of Spain (133 B. c). 50. The Gracchi. — The great conquests made by the Romans had served rather to enrich the nobles than to ben- efit the middle or poorer classes of the citizens; and had corrupted the government by giving undue power to the Senate. The agrarian laws, which in earlier times had been passed to protect the people against the greed of the aristocracy, were generally unobserved ; and the city, as well as all Italy, was swarming with slaves, who left no occupation to the citizens except that of war. At this time a champion of the people arose, in the person of a young noble, named Ti-le'ri-us Grac'clms, who, being elected * Lusitania corresponded very nearly with modern Portugal ; Celtiberia, with Aragon, in the northeastern part of Spain, t JVuinaiitia was in the northern part of Spain. 49. What war was waged in Spain ? Wlio was Viriatus ? What ended the Spanish war ? 50. How was Rome affected by her conquests ? Who was Tiberius Gracchus ? B.C. 121.] ROME. 8? tribune, and noticing with grief and indignation tlie op- pressions of the rich and the sufferings of the poor, deter- mined to remove them, by reviving the Licin'ian law, which held fallen into neglect. [See Note 8, end of Section.'] 51. This law provided that the public lands should be for the benefit of all classes, and that no one should occupy more than 330 acres ; but the nobles had seized them, and converted them to their own use. These lands Gracchus proposed to divide according to law, but to pay the owners for the buildings which they had erected upon them. He also proposed that the treasures left to Rome by Attains, king of Pergamus, should be laid out in implements and cattle for the poor occupants of these lands. 52. These propositions raised a great storm of indigna- tion among the senators and other members of the aristoc- racy; and while an election for tribunes was going on, they rushed into the assembly to prevent the re-election of Gracchus ; and in the tumult he, with 300 others, was slain (133 B. c). Ten years afterward, his brother, Ca'i-us Grac'- chus, distinguished for his oratory, made another attempt to vindicate the rights of the people, and check the en- croachments of the Senate. But he, too, fell a victim to their violence ; being slain, with 3000 of his followers, by the orders of the consul, whom the Senate had invested with the authority of a dictator (121 b. c). 53. The Gracchi* have been unjustly represented as seditious demagogues. They were, on the contrary, vir- tuous and patriotic reformers ; and,had the measures which they proposed been adopted, the subsequent history of Rome would have been very different. Henceforth we see the supreme power in the hands of a corrupt and insolent aristocracy, and the state a constant prey to civil dissen- ♦ Gracchi is the Latin plural of Gracchus, and means the two persons of that name. 5 1 . How did he propose to rectify abuses ? What was the Licinian law ? 52. What course did the nobies take? What became of Tiberius Gracchus? Who succeeded him in the enterprise ? What was the result ? 53. What is said of the Gracchi and their measures ? ROME. [B. C. 106. sion and war; while the people are merely the instruments, wielded by one or the other military chieftain, to satisfy his ambitious designs. Conscription and massacre, as either party prevails, thin the ranks of the proud nobles, and thus avenge the wrongs, while they vindicate the wisdom and patriotism, of the two Gracchi. 54. War against Jugurtha. — The disgraceful corrup- tion of the Senate was shown in the war against Ju-gur'- tha, who, having murdered his two cousins, sons of Mi-cip'sa, a faithful ally of Rome, usui'ped the throne of Numidia. These iniquities he was enabled to perpetrate, in spite of repeated complaints made to the Roman senate, by bribing its members; and he openly boasted of the power of his gold. At last, when the people would endure the outrage no longer, Avar was declared against the wicked usurper (111 B. c.) ; but Jugurtha bribed the generals, and thus prevented its success. 55. This being discovered and punished, the conduct of the war was committed to Me-fel'hts, who had almost com- pleted the subjugation of Numidia, when he was super- seded in the command by his lieutenant. Cams Mar'i-us, This man, afterward so famous in the history of Rome, had just risen to notice at the age of 50, having been long kept in obscurity by his poverty and mean birth. He soon brought the war to a conclusion, and sent Jugurtha a captive to Rome, where he was starved to death in a dungeon (106 B. c). \_See Note 9, cud of Section.'] 56. Invasion of the Cimbrians and Teutons. — In the mean time, hordes of barbarians, called the Cim'bri-ans and Teit'tons, invaded Gaul, and threatened Italy. After four Roman armies had been successively defeated by them, the command Avas given to Marius, who attacked the Teu- 54. Who was Jnsmrtha, and what led to a war with him? To whom was its management committed ? With what result ? 55. What was done by Merelhis and Marius ? AVhat is said of the latter ? 56. What invasion of Italy took place? By whom were tbe barbarians do feated ? What was Marius called ? B. C. 63.] ROME. 89 tons near the Rhone River, and gained so decided a victory over them, that they were almost annihilated (102 b. c). The next year, having been appointed consul for the fiftli time, he marched against the Cimbrians, whom he also defeated with immense slaughter, in Cis-al'pine Ganl.* By these two great victories, the tide of barbarian inundation was turned back for centuries, and Marius was deservedly hailed as the Savior of Ms Country. 57. Social War. — A dreadful war broke out soon after- ward (90 B. c.) between Rome and the Italian states, called the Social War. This was caused. by the demand of the states for the rights of citizenship, which the Senate re- fused. After nearly two years of war, and the destruc- tion of about 300,000 Italians, the franchise was granted to all such as laid down their arms ; and tranquillity Avas restored. 58. Mithridatic War.— Mith-ri-da'tes, king of Pon- tus, having made extensive conquests in Asia Minor, formed the design of entirely expelling the Romans from that country ; and by his orders 80,000 Italians, in the different cities, were massacred in one night (88 B. c). Syl'la, a distinguished Roman general, being sent against him, defeated him in several battles, and compelled him to sue for peace (84 b. c). 59. The war was afterward renewed (74 B. c), but was brought to a successful conclusion by Pompey the Great ; and Mithridates, in despair, put an end to his life (G3 B. c). This monarch was noted for his talents and accomplish- ments, being, it is said, able to converse in all the different languages of his extensive dominions. f He was considered the most powerful opponent Rome had ever known, having, during his long reign of fifty-seven years, been engaged nearly twenty-five of them in war with that republic. * Cisalpine means on this side of the Alps ; that is, on the side towards Rome, t See Note 10, end of the Sertion. o7. What is meant by the Social War ? What was its cause ? How did it end' 58. What caused the Mithridatic War ? Who defeated Mithridates ? 69. Who again defeated him ? What is said of Mithridatea ? 00 ROME. [B. C. 83. 60. Civil War of Marius and Sylla. — Marius, and Sylla, his lieutenant in the war with Jugurtha, eagerly contended for the chief command in the Mithridat'ic War ; but Sylla prevailed, and compelled his rival to flee from Rome in order to save his life. After the departure of Sylla to his command, the consul Cin'7ia recalled the aged Marius, who, returning to Italy, defeated the partisans of his rival, and entering Rome in triumph, caused those who had opposed his cause to be put to death (87 b. c). He then declared himself consul, but a short time afterward died, at the age of 71. \8ee Note 11, end of Section.'] 61. Marius was one of the most remarkable characters to be found in history. By his great abilities he rescued his country from a danger that threatened its destruction ; but his insatiable desire for power and distinction plunged it into the miseries of a civil war. Though six times made consul, and crowned with every honor his countrymen could confer, yet, at the advanced age of 70, in order to acquire office he ceased to be a patriot, and became a partisan ; and when triumphant, glutted his rage against such of his fellow-citizens as had opposed him, with the most remorse- less cruelty. At length, exhausted by intemperance and debauchery, he sank into the grave, " hated by his enemies, feared even by his friends." 62. Sylla, returning from Asia, entered Italy with a large army (83 B. c.) ; but the leaders of the Marian party had made great preparations to oppose him. A dreadful war of two years ensued, during which the Samnites took up arms against Sylla. He was, however, triumphant over all his enemies, and after gaining several great victories, entered Rome its undisputed master. His first act was to massacre 6,000 Samnite prisoners ; and then commenced a 60. What caused a civil war at this time? Give an account of it. What be- came of Marius ? 6 1 . Wliat is said of his character ? 62. What took place on Sylla" s return to Italy ? On his entrance into Rome ? What became of Sylla ? C. 71.] ROME. 91 fearful slaughter of all whom he deemed his enemies^ Every day he issued a new list of those who were to be put to death ; and after this dreadful proscription, in whicli it is said 8,000 citizens perished, he declared him- self Perpetual Dictator. Having effected some reforms in tJie government, he resigned, to the surprise of all, the office of dictator, wliich he had filled about two years, and retired to private life (79 b. c). A short time after- ward, he died of a loathsome disease, occasioned by intem- perance and debaucliery. 63. In this w^ar, Marius had been ojiposed by the patri- cians ; w^hile the Senate and its partisans had been on the side of Sylla. The party of Marius was tlius sustained by the people, but that of Sylla by the aristocracy. The death of these two great chiefs did not end the strife. Ser-to'ri-us, one of the most distinguished of the Marian leaders, had taken refuge in Spain, and there established a power which for more than ten years defied all tlie efforts of the Senate. Pompey was sent against him ; but it was only after the assassination of Sertorius that the insur- gents could be subdued (72 B. c). 61. Servile War. — In tlie mean time, Rome was con- fronted with a terrific danger. This was a slave insurrection. Spar'ta-ciis, aThracian, made captive in war, and afterward kept in a training-school for Gladiators, at Capua, broke loose from his place of bondage witli a number of his fellow- prisoners, and fleeing to Mount Vesuvius, was joined by a vast number of slaves and outlaws of CA^ry description. Having collected a force of over 100,000 men, he moved northward, defeated the regular army in several engage- ments, and threatened Rome itself. At last he was met by a large force under Oras'siix, and his army cut to pieces, he himself being among the slain (71 b. c). This was the 63. Which was the popular party? The aristocratic party? Who was Serto- rius ? How and when was he subdued ? 6-4. Who was Spartacus ? By whom was the revolt of the slaves subdued T WUat other revolt is spoken of? What led to these revolts ? 'J'^ ROME. [B.C. 61. second great slave revolt, one having, abont GO years before, broken ont in Sicily, and been reduced only after frightful massacres and ravages. These insurrections were the natural result of the dreadful slave-system pursued in the lioman conquests. 65. At this time, Pompey and Crassus were the two lead- ing men at Rome. The former, by his conduct during the civil war, his good fortune in Spain, and the timely assist- ance he had rendered against Spartacus, had contrived to acquire very great popularity. Sylla had given to him, when yet a young man, the title of Magnus — the Great. Crassus exerted a powerful influence by means of his im- mense wealth, which he had craftily acquired by buying up the estates of the proscribed during the dictatorship of Sylla. Pompey being sent against the pirates of the Medi- terranean, acted with so much energy and address, that in three months he entirely cleared the seas of those robbers (66 B. c). 66. In the mean time, Lu-cul'lus had been winning vic- tories over Mithridates and his son-in-hiw Ti-gra'7ies, king of Armenia, but was stopped in his career of success by a mutiny of his troops. Pompey was, therefore, sent into Asia, with the powers of a despot, to bring the war to a close. This he accomplished in less than three years, sub- duing both the revolted kings, and reducing Pontus to a Eoman province (63 b. c). He also reduced Syria, and took Jerusalem, dethroning the reigning king of Judea, and making the kingdom tributary to Eome. Having regulated all the provinces of the east, with the authority of an absolute potentate, he returned triumphantly to Italy (61 B. c). 67. Je"wish History. — After the edict of Cyrus, the 65. What influence did Pompey and Crap?ns exert at this time? How had Crassus become wealthy V What was accomplished by Pompey in 66 b. c. ? 66. What victories had LucuUuh gained ? ' By whom was he superseded ? What did Pompey accomplish ? 67. Give a brief sketch of Jewish history down to this time. B. C. 62.] ROME. 93 Jews remained under the dominion of Persia, till the time of Alexander ; and after his death, their country became subject to Ptolemy. Subsequently, the kings of Eg}^ot and Syria contended for it, until, in l'J8 b. c, Antiochus the Great defeated the Egyptians, and thus became its ruler. In consequence of the oppression of one of his successors, tlie Jews revolted, under tlie renowned Judas Mac-ca-he'us, who, in a succession of victories, routed the Syrian armies aud entered Jerusalem in triumph. After his death (161 B. c), his brothers completed the work of national deliver- ance, and they and their successors ruled as high-priests until (in 100 B. c.) Ar-is-to-bu'lus assumed the crown. When Pompey invaded Asia, Aristobulus IT. was on the throne ; but liis right was disputed by his brother, Jolm Hyr-ca'mts, whom Pompey, after besieging Jerusalem three months, and taking the city, placed over the kingdom (03 B. c). The successors of Judas Maccabeus are called the Maccabees, or the As-mo-ncB'an Dynasty. 08. Conspiracy of Catiline. — AVhile Pompey was in Asia, Cat'i-Une, a profligate and needy patrician, formed a conspiracy to murder the consul, and then plunder and burn the city (03 b. c). The plot was, however, discovered in time by Cic'e-ro, the great orator, who denounced Cati- line, and compelled him to flee from Rome. His confed- erates, who had been left in the city to consummate the wicked scheme, were betrayed by some Gauls whom they endeavored to gain over to their service, and being imme- diately apprehended were put to death, through the cour- age and promptitude of the consul Cicero. Catiline, at the head of a numerous force which he had succeeded in col- lecting, was defeated and slain (62 b. c). 61). First Triumvirate. — In the mean time, Ju'lius Cce'sar had won considerable distinction by his courage and address as a politician, and his skill as a military (; 8 . What conspiracy was discovered at Rome ? How was it suppressed ? t9. How was the first triumvirate formed ? What did Caesar gain by it ? 94 ROME. [B. €. 50 commander. Finding Pompey and Crassus hostile to each other, he succeeded in reconciling them, and in establish- ing an alliance by which the three were to support each other's plans and interests (GO B. c). This secret cabal has been called the First Tri-um'vir-afe.* By the support of his two powerful confederates, 0?esar obtained the consul- ship; and at its close, the Senate passed a decree by which he was assigned, as proconsul, to the government of Gaul, with the command of an army to subdue the barbarians, who had commenced hostile movements. 70. Caesar's campaigns in Gaul lasted about eight years; and, in that period, he not only succeeded in subjugating all the warlike races of that country, but, crossing the Rhine, gained great victories over the bold and hardy Ger- mans. He also passed into Britain, and defeated the fierce and warlike inhabitants, who strove with the greatest in- trepidity to repel the invaders from their island (55 b. c). By 50 B. c, his province was completely subdued ; and it is computed that in these eight years of war, nearly a mil- lion of Gauls and Germans were sacrificed, Csesar never showing the least mercy to the barbarians, while, toward his fellow-citizens, he was remarkable for mildness and humanity. 71. In the mean time, Crassus had obtained the pro- consular government of Syria, and had undertaken an ex- pedition against the Par'tldans, an eastern race who, first appearing near the Caspian Sea, had at this time conquered the vast region extending from the Euphrates to the Indus. In this expedition Crassus was defeated and slain (53 B. c). His lieutenant, Cassius (kash'e-us), however, prosecuted the war two years longer, and gaining a decided victory over the Parthians, checked their further advance westward. * Tiiianvirafe means an association consisting of three men. 70. What is said of C?e?ar's campaigns in Gaul ? 7 1 . What became of Crassus ? Who defeated the Parthians ? B. C. 48.] HOME. 95 Pompey, although made proconsul of Spain, remained in Home, governing his province by means of lieutenants. 72. Second Civil War. — One of the members of the triumvirate having been removed by death, and Pompey liaving become intensely jealous of Caesar, the coalition was practically dissolved. Pompey, determining to supplant Ca3sar and obtain the dictatorship, went over to the party of the Senate which he had hitherto opposed, and obtained in succession two decrees : first, that Ctesar should forth- with disband his army ; and second, that, as he had not obeyed, he should be proclaimed an outlaw, Pompey him- self all the while retaining his army in Spain, as well as other forces in Italy, in order to enforce his ambitious designs. Caesar, seeing that he could only opi)ose violence by violence, at once broke up his camp, and crossing the river Ru'hi-con, the boundary of his province, entered Italy, witli a small army, afterward re-enforced by detachments from Gaul. Thus Avas commenced the Second Civil War. 73. Pompey, with what forces he had, and accompanied by many of the senators aaid others, fled to Brundu'sium, from which port, liaving collected a large fleet, he sailed to E})irus. Ca3sar soon overran Italy; and then })roceeded to Si)ain, where, with consummate address, he speedily won over Pompey's generals, and annexed their forces to his own. Returning, he then crossed to Epirus to give battle to Pom- pey. No general engagement, however, took place till the next year; when, on the plains of Fhar-sa'li-a, the battle was joined, and Caesar, although with forces far inferior in number, gained a decisive victory (48 B. c). Pompe} took refuge in Egsqit, but was treacherously assassinated as he was about to step ashore. [See Note 12, end of Secfioti.] 74. Caesar, Avith his characteristic promptitude, pursued 72. What caused the dissolution of the Triumvirate? What caused Csesar's in\nsion of Italy ? 73. What course did Pompey take ? Caesar ? What battle decided the contest « What became of Pompey ? 74. What took place on Ciesar's reaching Egypt ? 96 ROME. [B. C. 48. Pompey to Egypt, and on arriving there was presented witli the head and ring of his great rival. He turned aside with tears from tlie mournful and ghastly spectacle, and ordered Pompey's remains to be burnt with due honor. He caused also a monument to be erected, to commemorate the splendid fortune, as well as the sad reverse, of his former fj'iend and associate. Having none of the ferocious and bloodthirsty malignity of Marius and Sylla, he freely par- doned all who had opposed him; and, consequently, the greater number of Pompey's partisans were soon won over to his standard. 75. The succe&sion to the throne of Egypt was, at that time, in dispute between the young King Ptolemy and his sistei-, the celebrated Cle-o-pa'tra. Ci^sar, influenced by the fascinations of the latter, decided in her favor, and thus incurred the hostility of Ptolemy's adlierents, who raised a fearful insurrection against him. This, liowever, in a few months he reduced, and confirmed Cleopatra on the throne. During this w^ar at Alexandria, Caesar set fire to the Egyp- tian fleet, and the flames having extended to the public library, that immense collection of more than 100,000 vol- umes, containing all the most valuable works of ancient times, was destroyed (48 r». c). 76. From Egypt Cj^sar proceeded against Piiar-na'ceSy son of the great Mithridates, who had risen in rebel- lion arid seized upon Armenia and Colchis. Him Ccesar speedily defeated at Ze'la, in Pontus, and announced his victory to' the Roman Senate in three words — Veni^ vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). In two months all Asia was restored to tranquillity, and Ctesar then returned to Eome, to assume the oflftce of dictator. Proceeding next to Africa, he gained a great victory at Thap'aus over the forces of Scipio, who, assisted by Juha, king of Maurita'nia, still 7.5. What caused an ineurrection at Alexandria ? What was the effect of it ? 76. What other important victories were gained by Ciesar ? Whore was Thap- 8US 'i—Ans. In the northern part of Africa. What became of Cato ? B. C. 44.] ROME. 97 adhered to the senatorial party. Ca'to, called the Stoic,* on account of his stern virtue, seeing that all was lost, and that the Eoman republic was now at an end, committed suicide at U'ti-ca (46 B. c). 77. Having formed Numidia into a Roman province, Caesar returned to Rome, where he celebrated with extraor- dinary magnificence four triumphs — over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Numidia. A general amnesty was then de- clared, and the soldiers were rewarded with liberal dona- tions. But before he could settle affairs at Rome, he was called to Spain, where the two sons of Pompey had raised an army against him. These he defeated in the severe bat- tle of Mun'da, which closed the war. Having thus become master of Rome, he determined to lay aside the sword and cultivate the arts of peace. He instituted many important reforms in the laws and government, rectified the calendar, and formed plans for many other great and uset\il works. 78. But while meditating these, a stop was suddenly put •to his magnificent career. A conspiracy having been formed against him by a large body of nobles, prominent among whom were Bruhis and Cassius, the former his most inti- mate friend, he was attacked in the Senate house, and fell pierced Avitli twenty-three wounds (March, 44 b. c.).t The reason alleged for liis assassination was that he meditated making himself king; and Brutus, a nephew of Cato, was probably sincere in this belief; but the others seem to have been actuated by feelings rather of envy than of patriotism. Besides, the leading conspirators were gnilty of base ingrati- tude; for they had been freely pardoned their former oppo- sition to Caesar's party, and placed in offices of power and * The .^/'i('-.« were a sect of Grecian philosophers who inoilcated the doctrine that fortitude tne chiei virtue, and prided themselves upon their enthirance of pain, and insensibility tn mi fortune. + See Note 13, end of Section. 77. What trinniphs did Cie?ar celebrate? What is said of the batUe of Mnnda? Where wa? Muuda? Ans. In the eouth of Spain. What did Ctesar accomplipb as dictator? 78. Uow was his career closed ? What was the cause of his assassination ? 98 ROME. [B. C. 44. emolument. Cassius indeed Inid been one of the most active of Pompey's adlierents. 79. Caesar was probably the greatest man that Eome ever produced. lie was not only an able general and a consum- mate statesman ainl politician, but a splendid orator, a liiie scholar, and an elegant writer. His history of the Gallic campaigns, styled the " Commentaries," is a complete model for this kind of composition. His knowledge of human nature seems to have been almost perfect, for he swayed the minds of all who came within his influence, to an extent rarely equalled and never surpassed. His great crime was, that having acquired power he knew not how to lay it down, preferring to retain it, although in so doing he de- stroyed forever the liberties of his country ; for the battles of Pharsalia, Thapsus, and Munda established the Eoman em])ire, and Julius Caesar virtually became its Jird e7npenrr. 80. After the murder of Caesar, the conspirators fled to the capitol, Avhere they remained until they entered into an agreement with Mark An' tony, the consul, and a particulan friend of Csesar, that all his laws should remain in force, that his wall should be carried into effect, and that his body should be honored with a public funeral. Accordingly it was carried into the forum ; and Mark Antony pronounced over it a funeral oration, in the course of which he exposed the bleeding wounds to the people, and so worked upon their sympathies, that they arose against the conspirators and compelled them to flee from the city. 81. Antony having thus became master of Rome, pro- duced Caesar's will, and other papers which he represented as containing his acts and wishes. These he strenuously enforced, until he excited the opposition of the senatorial party, led by Cicero, who pronounced against Antony those severe but magnificent orations, styled, in imitation of De- 79. What was his character? 80. What events followed the murder of Caesar ? What was done by MirK An- tony ? What was the effect of his oration ? 8 1 . What were the Philippics ? Why were they spoken ? Who was Octaviiie i B. C. 42.] EOME. 99 mostlienes, the Fhilijjjn'cs. In the mean while Oc-ta'vi-uSi a young man, the nephew and adopted son of Caesar, arrived in Rome, and immediately demanded the property left him by his adopted father. 82. Second Triumvirate. — Being sustained by the Senate, Octavius declared against Antony, who, defeated by the consuls in battle, fled into Gaul, and there formed a union with Lep'i-dus, the general who had command of that province. The two then marched to oppose Octavius, but finally entered into a negotiation with him; and the three then agreed to form a second triumvirate and, after punishing the murderers of C^sar, to divide the empire among themselves (43 b. c). A dreadful proscription and massacre followed the formation of this league, each of the triumvirs inserting in the list all whom he deemed hostile and wished to be put to death. Not fewer than three hundred Senators and two thousand knights were among the proscribed ; and among the victims sacrificed to the hatred of Antony, was Cicero. 83. Having taken vengeance upon their enemies in Italy, the triumvirs turned their attention to Brutus and Cassius, who, with the design of restoring the liberties of their coun- try, had succeeded in making themselves masters of all the eastern part of the empire. Antony and Octavius crossed to Macedonia, and engaged the republican forces at Phi- lip'in, where Cassius and Brutus were successively defeated, each slaying himself at the close of the battle (42 b. c). These victories left to the Triumvirate absolute control of the empire. 84. Antony being visited by Cleopatra in Asia, returned with her to Eg}^)t, and surrendered himself to the wiles of that artful beauty.* At last, after neglecting his duty for * See Note U, end or Serf Ion. 82. What led to the second triumvirate ? What proscriptious followed? What illustrioujj man was put to death? 83. Wliere were Brutu? and Cassius defeated? What was the result of these battles ? Where was Philippi ? (See Map of Greece.) 84. What led to the battle of Actium? What was its result? Where was Actium ? Aim. Ou the western shore of Greece. 1^0 ROME. [B.C. 31, years, he gave great offence to Octaviiis by divorcing liis sister Octavia, in order to marry the Egyptian queen. This brouglit on a war between the tAvo triumvirs, which was ended by the battle of Actium {ak'she-nm), Antony and Cleopatra being totally defeated (31 b. c.).* Fleeing to Egypt, Antony stabbed himself, and Cleopatra put an end to her life (it is said by means of a venomous asp) in order to prevent being compelled to grace the triumph of Octavi- us. Her death terminated the sovereignty of the Ptolemies, which had existed about three centuries (323-31 b. c). 85. Egypt having been made a Koman province, and ])lundered of its immense treasures in order to supply Oc- tavius Avith funds to reward his soldiers, he returned to Ivome, where he Avas formally invested Avith absolute authority by the Senate, who saluted him by tlie title of Angustus. The date of the battle of Actium is generally chosen as the era of the commencement of the Koman em- pire. Subseepiently, the government was in fact a military despotism, under which the Eomans Avere so hopeless of relief that they made no effort to restore their republican constitution. \^SeG Note 16, end of Section.'] CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITL^LATION. B. C. 753. Foundation of Rome. 509. Expulsion of the Tarquius — Era of the Republic. f 494. Creation of the Tribunes. _^ I 486. Pirst Agrarian law proposed by Cassius. s'j 485. Coriolanus banished. Rome sa\'ed by female intercession, I ' 471. Law of Volcro. Rome a Democracy. 451. Appointment of DeceniA'irs. 445. IntermaiTiage of patricians and plebeians pennitted. o91. Invasion of Italy by the Gauls. 390. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls. 343. Commencement of the war with the Samnites. 321. Defeat of the Romans by the Samnites. 305. The Samnites subdued. ^ee Note 15, end of tii-vti 85. What was done by Octaviiis? What title did he assume? What was tht character ol" the goverumeut of Rome under him ? ROME. 101 295. The Samnites, UDibrians, &c., defeated at Sentinum. Rome Mistress of Italy. 280. The Romans defeated by Pyrvhiis. 275. Pyrrhus defeated by the Romans mider Curius Dcntatus. 2G4. Commencement of the First Punic War. 255. Re^ulus taken prisoner by tlie Carthaginians. 241 End of the Fii-st Punic War. 218. Commencement of the Second Punic War. The Romam defeated by Hannibal at the Ticinus. 217. Battle of Trasimenus. Tiie Rcmians defeated. 216. Battle of Cannae. 212. Taking of Syracuse by the Romans. Death of Archimedes. 205. Conquest of Spain by Scipio. 202. Battle of Zama. Hannibal defeated by Scipio. 190. Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Magnesia. 146. Carthage taken and destroyed. Corinth taken. 140. Viriatus assassinated. 133. Spain completely subjugated. 132 Death of Tiberius Gracchus. 121. Cains Graccluis put to death. 106. Jugurtha taken prisoner by Marius and Sylla. 102. The Teutons defeated by Marius. 101. The Cimbriaiis defeated by Marius. 90. The Social War. 88. Commencement of the INIithridalic War. First Civil War. 87. Marius's proscription. 82. Sylla's proscription. 72. Assassination of Sertorius in Spain. 71. Spartacns defeated and slain. 66. Pompey clears the Mediterranean of pirates. 66. Mitliridates subdued. Pontus a Roman province. 63. Conspiracy of Catiline. 60. First Triumvirate. 55. Invasion of Britain by Cffisar. 53. Crassus defeated and slain by the Parthians. 48. Battle of Pharsalia. Pompey defeated. 46. Battle of Thapsus. Death of Cato. 44. Assassination of Caesar. 43. Second Triumvirate. 42. Battles of Pliilippi. Death of Brutus and Cassius. 81. Battle of Actium. 30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra. 29. Octavius emperor under the title of Augustus. 102 TABLE OF CON^TEMPORAI^EOUS EVENTS. CeiH. B. C KOME. GitEECE. 1 Other Nations. 776 First Olympiad. 753 Foundation of Piome. 747 Era of Nabonassar. 8th. 743 734 721 720 First Messenian War. Syracuse founded. Samaria taken. Lydians in Asia Minor. 715 Numa Pompilius. 685 Second Messenian War. 672 Tnllus Hostilius. 640 Ancus Martins. 7th. 625 621 616 610 Tarquin the Elder. Draco at Athens. The Medes takcNineveh Battle between the Lyd- ians and Medes. bM Solon at Athens. 588 Jerusalem taken by Neb- uchadnezzar. 578 Servius TuUius. 560 Pisistratus at Athens. 546 Cyrns subdues Crossus. 6th. .538 5;i4 525 510 Tarquin the Proud. Hippius expelled from Athens. Babylon taken by Cyrus. Pelnsium taken by Cam- byses. 509 Tarquins expelled. 495 Miletus taken by Darius. 494 Creation of Tribunes. 6th. 485 Corioliinus. Accession of Xerxes. 471 jLaw of Volero. Themistocles banished. 464 i Death of Xerxes. 449 Decemvirate abolished. Death of Cimon. 394 Romans take Veil. Battle of Coronea. 359 Accession of Philip of Macedon. 346 343 Saranite War bcjjins. Sacred War ends. 4th. 323 321 307 Battle of Caudine Forks Lamian War. Demetrius Phalereus L'.\pelled from Athens. Death of Alexander the Great. 305 Samuites subdued. | 301 280 Battle of Tpsus. Pyrrhus invades Italy. Gauls invade Greece. jSelcucus assassinated. 241 End of 1st Punic War. Aniin^ A.ri« |Sicily made a Koman Aiaius.— A-is. 1 province. Sparta taken by Antigo- Kins^doms of Parthia & 221 3d. nus. Bactria founded. 218 2d Punic War beirina. 213 1 Aratus poisoned. 212 iSyracni^e taken. 205 Scipio in Spain. Philopoemen. 184 Death of Scipio Africa- nus. 2(1. 183 161 Death of Philopoemen. Death of Hannibal. Death of Judas Macca bene. 146 Carthage taken by the Covipth taken by the Itouiuns. liouians. ROME. 103 REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGK 1. Give an accuunt of the foundation of Rome 67 2. How long did the monarchy last ? GT-t)8 3. What is the character of this part of the history ? Why ? fiT 4. What officers afterward performed the duties of the kind's ? 68 5. Give an account of the wars with the Tarquins 68 6. What led to the creation of Tribunes ? 69 7. When and how did the people acquire a control of the government ? 70 8. \Miat disposition was made of the compiered lands by the Romans ? 70 9. Wliat were the Twelve Tables f By whom framed ? 71 10. What was the office of dictator ? Name the first prominent dictator 69-71 11. Give an account of Camillas 72 12. Mention the events connected wi4,h the invasion of Italy by the Gauls... 72-74 13. Give the history of Marcus Maulius 73-74 14. What wars were waged with the Samnites ? Their result? 75-76 15. Give an account of the invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus 76 16. What rendered Rome mistress of all Italy ? 77 17. How was it governed ? 77 18. What led to the Punic wars ? 77-78 19. Give a sketch of the previous history of Carthage. Of Syracuse 77 20. What were the principal events of the first Punic war ? 78-79 21. Give a sketch of the career of Hannibal 79-8!3 22. When and how did Sicily become a Roman province ? 79 2;3. \V"hen and how was Syracuse finally subdued ? 81 24. What led to the battle of Magnesia ? Its consequences ? 8:^ 25. How did Pergamus become a Roman province ? 84 26. When and how were Macedonia and Greece subdued ? 84 27. Give an account of the third Punic war 85 28. When and how were the Celtiberians and Lusitanians subdued ? 86 29. Who were the Gracchi, and what measures did they propose ? 86-87 30. Give an account of the war against Jugui'tha 88 31. What invasion by the Cimbrians and Teutons ? By whom were they repelled? 88-89 32. Give an account of the Social War 89 38. What war3 were waged against Mithridates ? Principal events of them?.. 89 34. What led to the first civil war ? Its chief events ? (<0 35. State the principal events in the life of Sylla 90-91 36. What servile wars broke out ? The principal events ? 91 37. What successes raised Pompey to distincticm ? 92 38. Give an account of Catiline and his conspiracy ■ 93 39. What led to the first triumvirate ? 93 40. What conquests did C:esar make while proconsul ? 94 41. What caused dissensions between him and Pompey ? 95 42. What civil war followed ? Its principal events ? 95-96 43. What great victories did Ctesar gain ? 96-97 44. What office did he assume ? What were his princii)al measures ? 97 45. How was his career terminated ? 97 46. What civil war followed ? Its chief events ? 98-99 47. Who formed the second triumvirate ? 99 48. How did Octavius acquire the supreme power ? 99 49. What did Rome then become ? 100 S'OTES 1. Early Roman History (p. G7, "H 1).— "The early history of Rome is indeed I'ar more poetical than anytuing elsj in Latin literature. The loves of the Vestal and the God of "War, the cradle laid among the reeds of Tiber, the iig-tree, the she-wolf, the shepherd's cabin, the recognition, the fratricide, the rape of the Sabines, the death of Tarpeia, the fall of Hostius Hostilius, the struggle of Metius Cartius through the marsh, the women rushing with torn raiment and disheveled hair between their fathers and their husbands, the nightly meetings of Nunia and the Nymph by the well in the sacred grove, the tight of the three liomans and the three Albans, the purchase of the Sibylline books, the crime of Tullia, the simulated madness of Brutus, the ambiguous reply of the Delphian oracle to the Tarquins, the wrongs of Lucretia, the heroic actions of Horatius Codes, of Scaevola, and of ClcElia, the battle of Eegillus won by the aid of Castor and Pollux, the fall of Cremera, the touching story of Coriolanus, the still more touching story of Virginia, the wild legend about the draining of the Alban lake, the combat between Valerius Corvus and the gigantic Gaul, are among the many instances which will at once suggest themselves to every readev. "—Macaulatj. 2. Greeks ii» Ilaly (p. G7, °f. 2).— '-To all appearance the Hellenic mariners ■were the lirst among the inhabitants of the Eastern basin of the Mediterranean to navigate the coasts of Italy. Of the important questions, however, as to the re- gion from which, and as to the period at which, the Greek seafarers came thither, only the former admits of being answered with soma degree of precision and full- ness. The ^olian and Ionian coast of Asia Minor was the region where Heilenio maritime traffic first became developed on a large scale, and whence issued the Greeks who explored the interior of the Black S^a on the one hand and the coastis of Italy on the other. The name of the Ionian Sea, which was retained by the ■waters intervening between Epirus and Sicily, and that of the Ionian Gulf, the term by which the Greeks in earlier times designated the Adriatic Sea, are memorials of the fact that the southern and eastern coasts of Italy were once dis- covered by seafarers from Ionia. The oldest Greek settlement in Italy, Cuma, was, as its name and legend tell, f )unded by the town of the same name on the Anato- lian coast. According to trustworthy Hellenic tradition, the Phocoeans of Asia Minor were the first of the Hellenes to traverse the more remote western sea. Other Greeks soon followed in the paths which those of Asia Minor had opened up; lonians from Naxos and from Chalcis in Eubcea, Achueans, Locrians. Rhodians, Corinthians, Megarians, Messenians, Spartans. After the discovery of America, the civilized nations of Europe vied with one another in sending out expeditions and forming settlements there; and the new settlers when located amidst barbari- ans recognized their common character and common interests as civilized Euro- pean, more strongly than they had done in their former home. So it was with the new discovery of the Greeks."— .>/om))i?';?i's History of Rome. 3. Lucius Junius Brutus (p. 68,11 4).— This is one of the most illustrious names in Roman history. Lucius Junius was the son of Tarquinia, the second daughter of Tarquin the king. He had seen his father and brother slain by the order of the jealous tyrant, and fearing the same fate for himself, feigned idiocy, so that he might appear of no cousoqueuce — an object of pity rather than alarm to the cruel monarch. After the wicked deed of S'^xtus. the son of Tarquin. he threw oft" the mask, and incited the people by his burning words to expel the tyrant. The following legend illustrates the stern virtue of the man:—'- Then king Tarquinius sent to Rome, to ask for all the goods that had belonged to him; and the Senate, KOTES. after a while, decreed that the goods should be given back. But those Avhom he had sent to Rome to ask for his goods, had meetiugs with luany young men of noble birth, and a plot was laid to bring back king Tarquinius. So the young men wrote letters to Tarquinius, pledging to him their faith, and among them were Titus antl Tiberius, the sons of Brutus. But a slave happened to overhear them talking together, and when he knew that the letters were to be given to the messengers of Tarquinius, he went and told all that he had heard to Brutus and to Publius Vale- rius. Then they came and seized the young men and their letters, and so the plot was broken up. After this there was a strange and piteous sight to behold. Bru- tus and Publius sat on their judgment-seats in the Forum, and the young men were brought before tiiem. Then Brutus bade the lictors to bind his own two sons, Titus and Tiberius, together with the others, and to scourge them with rods according to the law. And after they had been scourged, the lictors struck off their heads with their axes, before the eyes of their father; and Brutus neither stirred from his seat, nor turned away his eyes from the sight; yet men saw, as they looked on him, that his heart was grieving inwardly over his children. Then they marveled at him, because he had loved justice more than his own blood, and had not spared his own children, when they Lad been false to their country and had offended against the law." — Arnold's History of Rome. 4, Fate of a Homan iJcbtor (p. 69, 'il G).— "When a Roman plebeian found himself involved in a debt which he could not pay, his best resource was to sell himseh' to his creditor, on the condition that unless the debt were previously discharged, the creditor, at the expiration of a stated term, should enter into pos- session of his ijurchase. This was called, in the language of the Roman law, the entering into a nexum, and the person who had thus conditionally sold himself, was said to be '"nexus," that is, hound. When the day cams, the creditor claimed possession, and the magistrates awarded it; and the debtor, thus given over to his purchaser, imssed, with all that belonged to him, into his power; and as the sons were considered their father's property, they also, unless previously emancipated, were included in the sale, and went into slavery together with their father. Or it a man, resolved not by his own act to sacrifice his own and his children's libertj', refused thus to sell himself, and determined to abide in his own person the conse- quences of his debt, then he risl:ed a fate still more fearful. If, within thirty days after the justice of the claim had been allowed, he was unable to discharge it, his creditor might arrest him, and bring him before the court; and if no one then offered to be his security, he was given over to his creditor, and kept by him in private custody, bound with a chain of fifteen pounds weight, and fed Avith a pound of corn daily. If he still could not, or would not, come to any terms with his creditor, he was thus confined during sixty days, and during this period was brought before the court in the comitium [public assembly], on three successive market-days, and the amoimt of his debt declared, in order to see whether any one would yet come forwsard in his behalf. On the third market-day, if no friend appeared, he was either to be put to death, or sold as a slave into a foreign land beyond the Tiber; that is, into Etraria, where there was yet no interchange of franchise with Rome, amidst a people of a different language. Or if there were several creditors, they might actually hew his body in pieces; and whether a credi- tor cut off a greater or smaller piece than in proportion to his debt, he incurred no penalty." — Arnold's History of Home. 5. Massacre of tlie Koiaiaii Senators by the Gaiils (p. 73, U 17). — "Then, as men devoted to death, they arrayed themselves in their most solemn dress ; thev who had held curule offices, in their robes of white with the broad NOTES. scarlet border; they who had won triumphs, in their robes of triumph, overlaid wth embroidery of many colors and with palm branches of gold, and took their seats, each on his ivory chair of magistracy, in the gateway of his house. When the Gauls saw these aged men in this array of majesty, sitting motionless amidst the confusion of the sack of the city, they at first looked upon them as more than human, and one of the soldiers drew near to M. Papirius, and began to stroke reverently his ivory-white bsard. Papirius, who was a minister of the gods, could not endure the touch of profane barbarian hands, and struck the Gaul over the head with his ivory scepter. Instantly the spell of reverence was broken, and rage and the thirst of blood succeeded to it. The Gaul cut down the old Papirius Avith his sword; his comrades were kindled at the sight, and all the old men, ac- cording to their vow, were offered up as victims to the powers of death." — Arnold's History of Rome. 6. DeatU of Arcliimedes (p. 81, U 36).— Archimedes was in his study, ab- sorbed in his scientific researches, when the Romans entered; nor did he perceive that the city was taken till a soldier entered his room, and commanded him to fol- low him into the presence of Marcelius. Archimedes requested him to wait till he had finished his problem, upon which the soldier drew his sword and killed him. Marcelius, much grieved, ordered his body to be honorably buried, and a tomb erected to his memory. His genius for mathematics and his devotion to his favor- ite study were very remarkable. He was often so engaged in this study, thai he neglected his meat and drink. The incident of the crown is very interesting. It seems that a jeweler had made a crown for Hiero; but the king, suspecting that it had been fraudulently alloyed with silver, set Archimedes to examine into the affair. Archimedes thought upon the subject a long time in vain. But one day in the bath perceiving that his body displaced a certain quantity of water, it occurred to him that there was a definite relation between the quantity of water displaced, and the weight of the body, and thus the principle of sx^ecific gravity flashed across his mind. Th(; problem was solved; and, transported with joy, he ran out into the street, crying out Eureka ! Eureka ! "I have found it ! I have found it ! " 7. DeatU of Hannibal (p. 83,11 40).— '' After the loss of his last hope by the destruction of the Syriaix host at Magnesia, he wandered from land to land till he found a resting-place at the court of Prusias of Bithynia. The Senate could not breathe while their great enemy lived; and Fiamiuius was sent to de- mand from Prusias the person of his illustrious guest. The king dared not say nay, and gave Hannibal to imderstand that he must be surrendered to Flaminius; but the great Carthaginian, to avoid falling into the hands of his implacable foes, swallowed a dose of poison, which, according to the common story, he car- ried with him constantly, in the hollow of a ring. He was sixtj'-three years of age. Life had long ceased to be valuable to him. because opposition to Eome had become hopeless. He died, as he lived, faithful to the service of that aveugiug deity to whom he had been bound in boyhood by his father, Hamilcar."— ZitWe/Z's History of Rome. 8. Tiberius Craeclins (p. 87. IF 50).— " The elder Gracchus, Avhen his mind began to brood over the disasters that were fast gathering in heavy clouds round his country, was in the bloom of manhood. Sprung from an honorable family, independent, though not of the most opulent, connected with the families of the most haughty patricians by the intermarriages of his nearest kinsmen, the son of a hero who had been censor, had twice been consul, and had twice gained the honors of a triumph, —grandson of the elder Scipio, the victor of NOTES. Hannibal, — brother-in-law of the younger Scipio, the destroyer of Carthage, — he might have entered the career of ambition with every assurance of success. En- dowed by the kindness of Heaven with admirable genius, he had also enjoyed an education superior to that of any of his contemporaries. His excellent mother (Cornelia), whom the unanimous testimony of antiquity declares to have been the first womau of her tiiues, had assembled round his youth the best instructors in the arts and in letters ; and what was then a rare thing in Rome, he had learned to rest his head on the bosom of the Grecian Muse. Nor were the qualities of his heart inferior to his talents and his nurture. His earliest appearance in the Roman army was in the final war against Carthage, under the command of his brother-in-law; and when Carthage was taken by storm, he, the impetuous soldier of eighteen, led the onset, and was the first to ascend the walls of the burning citj'. Yet he was gentle in all his dispositions; a maidenly modesty and a peace- ful composure distinguished his character; his purity obtained for him in youth the unusual distinction of a seat among the augurs. His truth and his modera- tion were also widely celebrated." — Bancroft. 9. Fate of Jiii^urtlia (p. 88, IT 55).— " Marius set out for Italy, and, with his legions and their captives, entered Rome in triumph,— a spectacle of which Jugurtha, in chains, and his unfortunate children, were the principal figures. When the procession was over, the captive king was led to a dungeon, under orders for his immediate execution. As he was about to be stripped of his ornaments and robes, the executioner, in haste to pluck the pendants from his ears, tore away the flesh, and thrust him naked into a dungeon below ground. He descended into this place with a smile, saying, ' What a cold bath is here ! * He pined about six days, and expired." — Ferguson's Roman Republic. 10. Mithridates of'Poittus (p. 89, IT 59).— " Mithridates was one of the greatest princes of antiquity. One of the Roman historians says of him, ' He was a man neither to be mentioned nor passed over without caution; most valiant in war, of surprising bravery, distinguished at one time by success, at all times by greatness of mind ; a consummate general, an invincible soldier, and to the end persevering and consistent in his opposition to Rome.' The early life of Mithri- dates was spent in the assiduous cultivation of those talents and habits which ren- dered him, in the words of Pliny, the greatest prince of his time, or, in the stronger words of Cicero, the greatest monarch that ever reigned. He accustomed him- self at all seasons to lie in the open air, and to depend upon his success in the chase for a precarious meal. He exposed himself to dangerous conflicts with the larger and fiercer wild animals, and exercised his speed and dexterity in pursuit of the smaller. He studied profoundly the physics and philosophy of the age, and made himself master of all the languages, or more properly perhaps of the dialects, spoken by the nations with whom he was likely to have any intercourse in peace or war, so that he could receive ambassadors and issue dispatches with- out the intervention of an interpreter. The language of Pontus, in his time, had become a corrupt mixture of Greek and Getic, and it is probable that difl'erent modi- fications of the same jargon, formed the same dialects of most of the neighboring states ; but though the vernacular tongue was thus barbarous, a purer Greek appears to have been the language of the court; for the coins of Mithridates bear Greek inscriptions, and his 'Treatise on Botany' was composed in Gveek."~E)icyclopa:dia Metropolitana. 11. Fliglit and Imprisouineiit of marius (p. 90, IT 60).— Obliged to avoid, by flight, the revenge of his cruel adversary, Marius hid himself in the marshes of MinturuiE, but being discovered, he was dragged to that town, and KOTES. thei'e shut up. A Cimbric soldier undertook to kill him, to get the promised re- ward for his head. Plutarch relates that he entered the i^rison of Marius with a drawn sword, and it being dark, he saw the eyes of the captive warrior gleaming at him with intense brilliani-.y, and he heard from that dismal place a voice, which said to him, "Now, man ! darest thou kill Caius Marius ? " The barbarian, terror- stricken at the name, threw down his sword, and rushed from the place, exclaim- ing, " I dare not kill Marius." 12. Poiiipey's Camp at PJisirsalia (p. 95, 1[ 73).— "On entering Pom- pey's camp, we found tables ready covered, side-boards loaded with plate, and tents adorned with bi-anches of myrtle; that of L. Leutulus, with some others, was shaded with ivy. Everything gave proofs of the highest luxurj-, and an assured ex- pectation of victory ; whence it was easy to see that they little dreamed of the issue of that day, since, intent only on voluptuous refinements, they pretended, with trooiDs immersed in luxury, to oppose Caesar's army, accustomed to fatigue, and inured to the want of necessaries. * * * * This battle cost Ciesar no more than two hundred soldiers; but he lost thirty centurions, men of singular courage. On Pompey's side there fell about fifteen thousand, and upward of tweutj'-five thousand were taken prisoners." — Ccvsar's Commentaries. 13. Assassination of Caesar (p. 97, IT 78).— " CiBsar entered the Senate- house; his enemies closed in a dense mass around him, and while they led him to his chair kept off all intruders. Trebonius was especially charged to detain An- tony in conversation at the door. Scarcely was the victim seated when Tellius Cimber approached with a petition for his brother's pardon. The others, as was concerted, joined in the supplication, grasping his hands and embraciug his neck. Caesar at first put them gently aside, biit, as they became more importunate, re- pelled them with main force. Tellius seized his toga with both hands, and pulled it violently over his arms. Then Casca, who was behind, drew a weapon and gi-azed his shoulder with an ill-directed stroke. Caesar disengaged one hand and, snatched at the hilt, shouting, ' Cursed Casca, what means this ? ' ' Help ! ' cried Casca, to his brother Lucius, and at the same moment the others aimed each his dagger at the devoted object. Ciesar for an instant defended himself, and even wounded one of the assailants with his stylus; but when he distinguished Bi'utus in the press, and saw the steel flashing in his hand also, ' What ! thou too, Brutus ! ' he exclaimed, let go his hold of Casca, and drawing his robe over his face, made no further resistance. The assassins stabbed him through and through, for they had pledged themselves, one and all, to bathe their daggers in his blood. Brutus hini- celf received a wound in their eagerness and trepidation. The victim reeled a few paces, propped by the blows he received on every side, till he fell dead at the foot of Pompey's statue." — Merivaie's History of the Romans. 14. Haw Cleopatra visited Antony (p. 99, IT 84).— "When Antony first set out on his expedition against the Parthians, he sent orders to Cleopatra to meet him in Cilicia, that she might answer some accusations which had been laid against her of assisting Cassius in the war. Though she had received many pressing letters of invitation from Antony and his friends, she held him in such contempt that she by no means took the most expeditious method of traveling. She sailed along the river Cydnus in a most magnificent galley. The stern was covered with gold, the sails Avere of purple, and the oars were silver. These, in their motion, kept time to the music of flutes, and pipes, and harps. The queen, in the dress and character of Venus, lay under a canopy embroidered with gold, of the most exquisite workmanship, while boys, like painted cupids, stood fanning her on each side of the sofa. Her maids Avere of the most distinguished beauty. NOTES. and, habited like the Nereids and the Graces, assisted in the steerage and conduct of the vessel. The fragrance of burning incense was diffused along the shores, which were covered with multitudes of people. Some followed the procession; and such numbers went down from the city to see it, that Antony was at last left alone on the tribunal. A rumor was soon spread that Venus was come to feast with Bacchus, for the benefit of Asia. Antony sent to invite her to supper; but she thought it his duty to wait upon her, and to show his politeness on her arrival, he complied. He was astonished at the magnificence of the preparations ; but particularly at that multitude of lights, which were raised or let down to- gether, and disposed in such a variety of square and circular figures, that they afforded one of the most pleasing spectacles ever recorded in history."— P/wtorf/i. —Life of Antony. 15. Battle of Actlum (p. 100, H 84).— This engagement was fought in the bay of Actium. The prows of the vessels were armed with brazen points, which it was the object of the sailors to drive against the sides of the enemy's galleys; but as Antony's ships were very large, he could not turn them readily, and one was often surrounded by two or three of Cissar's, the men of which threw fire- brands, pikes, and javelins at the crew, as though they were storming a town While the fight was going on, Cleopatra's sixty galleys hoisted their sails, ana took to flight through the midst of the combatants. No sooner did Antony see her vessel under weigh, than, forgetting the brave men who were shedding their blood in his cause, he took a couple of friends with him, and rowed after her with all his might. Haviag overtaken her, he went on board her galley, bat for three days, either through shame or resentment, did not speak to her. At last the at- tendants effected a reconciliation, and they proceeded together to Lydia, after Antony had stopped long enough in Greece to recommend his followers to be reconciled to Csesar. Having sent Cleopatra for\va^•d to Alexandria, he shut him- self up on a desert island and affected to act the part of Timon, the man-hater; but the strong attraction of the Egyptian siren drew him from his retreat, and, once again embarked upon the sea of dissipation, his guilty love knew neither pause nor stop till it'reached its proper end- destruction. 16. Ai-tlul Policy of Oetavius (p. 100, H 85).— " Octavius, in a little time, when he had allured to his interest the soldiery by a prolusion of largesses, the people by distributions of corn, and the minds of men in general, by the sweets of peace, showed more aspiring views. By degrees, and almost impercepti- bly, he drew into his own hands the authority of the Senate, the functions of the magistrates, and the administration of the laws. To these encroachments no op- position was made. The true republicans had perished, either in the field of bat- tle, or by the rigor of proscriptions; of the remaining nobility, the leading men were raised to wealth and honors, in proportion to the alacrity with which they courted the yoke; and all who in the distraction of the times had risen to afiiu- ence, preferred immediate ease and safety to the danger of contending for ancient freedom. The provinces acquiesced under the new establishment, weary of the mixed authority of the Senate and people,— a mode of government long distracted by contentions among the great, and in the end rendered intolerable by the avarice, of pubUc magistrates; while the laws afforded a feeble remedy, disturbed by violence, defeated by intrigue, and undermined by bribery and corruption." —Tacitus. 104 THE ROMAX EMPIRE. [A. D. 10. SECTION IV. The PtOMAJS" Empire, Froin its establishment under Augustus to the Fall of the Western Empire, 470 a. d. 1. Augustus. — AltlioHgh Augustus ruled with absolute power, he retained the forms of the republican govern- ment, but caused all the important offices to be conferred upon himself. The Senate still held its sessions, but its deliberations and decrees had no real weight or efficacy. The long civil wars had made the Komans greatly desire tranquillity; and as Augustus ruled with equity and moderation, avoiding every appearance of royalty, all yielded cheerfully to his authority. He kept large armies and fleets stationed at various parts of the empire, to re- press all opposition, and compel obedience to his com- mands and exactions ; and instituted the Frcetorian Guards'^ to protect his person. The revenues of the empii'e probably amounted at this time to upwards of ^200,000,000. 2. Augustus made some conquests in Spain ; and his stepsons Ti-he'ri-us and Dru'siis succeeded in conquering Vin-de-li ei-a and Kor'i-cuin, but their efforts to subdue * So called from Prn^orinm^ the name given to the tent of the general in every Roman camp. These praetorian guards afterward became the chief instruments of usurpation and tyranny. Map QtTESTioNS. (See Proirressive Map, No. 4.)— Name the divisions of the Ro- man Empire in the northern part of Africa. What divisions in Europe bordered on the Mediterranean ? What divisions in Asia on the ISfediterranean and J^-jfeau Seas? On the Euxine Sea ? What north of Italy and nivr'icum ? What south of the Danube ? North of it? What east of Gallia orGatil'? North? What towns in Spain? What body of water was called Pa'his MeO'tis? What towns on the Euphrates and Tigris rivers? What towns in Syria? What towns in Thrace ? In Dahnatia ? In Northern Italy ? 1. llow did Augustus rule? How was the empire protected? What were ita revenues ? 2. What conquests were made? By whom was Varus defeated? Wlien did Augustus die ? By whom was ht succeeded ? ^Progressive IVIap, ISTo. 4 A.D. 14.] THE KOMAX EMPIRE. 105 Germany were thwarted by the difficulties of the country and the valor of the native population. Led by the brave and patriotic Ar-min'i-iis, or Hermann, some of the tribes tliat had submitted to the Eomans revolted, and the pro- consul Varus was surprised, and his army cut to pieces (a. d. 10). This disaster so preyed upon the emperor's mind that he died a short time after (a. d. 14), in the 7Gth year of his age, leaving the government to his stepson Tiberius. [See Note 1, end of the Section.'] 3. Augustus and his friend and minister Mec^enas {me- se'nas) were both liberal patrons of learning and the arts ; ?.nd the literature of this period is greatly distinguished for genius and refinement. The celebrated poets Vir'gil, Hor'ace, and Ov'id, and the historian Liv'y, flourished during this reign. The most interesting event of this period was the Birtli of our Saviour, which is supposed to have taken place 4 b. c. ; that is, four years previous to the date commonly assigned for the Christian era. It occurred during the reign of Iler'od the Great, king of Judea, who had been placed upon the throne by the favor of Mark Antony. 4. Tiberius. — In the first part of his reign, Tiberius assumed an appearance of great moderation and clemency, taking the sovereign power only after the urgent requests of the Senate, and binding himself to conform to the regu- lations of his predecessor. He soon, however, displayed the wickedness and cruelty of his disposition, and many of the most eminent nobles were put to death on a charge of treason. The brilliant career of his nephew and adopted son, Ger-man'i-cus, excited his jealousy ; and recalling him from Germany, where he had gained important victo- ries over the heroic Hermann, he sent him to the East, and there caused him to be poisoned. 3. By whom was literature encouraged ? What writers flourished ? When did the birth of Christ occur ? 4. What was the character of Tiberius and his government? What ie related of Germanicus ? lOG THE ROMAN^ EMPIRE. [A. ». 41. 5. Yielding to the persuasions of his wicked and rapa- cious minister, Se-Ja'nns, he secluded himself in the island of Ca pre-i«, where he abandoned himself to every species of licentiousness and vice ; while this minister perpetrated the most enormous acts of injustice and tyranny.' The latter, having been discovered at last in a plot to place himself on the throne, was executed by the order of Tiberius, who, after the death of his favorite, became still more cruel and bloodthirsty, putting to death without mercy all against whom his spies and informers excited his gloomy jealousy. At last, worn out with his vicious excesses, and feeling that his end was near, he bequeathed the empire to Caius Ca- lif/v-Ia, son of Germanicus, and soon after died (a. d. 37). The crucifixion of our Saviour took place in Judea, in the eighteenth year of this reign (a. d. 33). 6. Caligula. — Caius, surnamed Caligula, fnmi the sol- diers' boots {cal'l-gm) which he wore when in the camp in Germany, commenced his reign well ; but after he had worn the purple* eight months, displayed so wanton and ferocious a disposition, that his acts seem like the wild freaks of a madman. He wasted the treasures of the state in the most foolish and expensive works. His favorite horse was kept in a stable constructed, of marble, and offered golden oats in an ivory manger. Massacre seemed to be his delight, and he feasted his eyes in beholding the dying agonies of his victims. A conspiracy, led by the captain of the Pra3torian Guards, at last relieved the em- pire from the tyranny of this monster (a. d. 41). f 7. Claudius. — On the death of Caligula, the Praetorian Guards chose Clau'di-us, his uncle, to succeed him. This » This was the peculiar color of the emperor's robe; and, hence, to "assume the purple f.'gritied the same as to ascend the throne. fSee Note 2, end of Se tion. 5. Who was the minii?ter of Tiberius ? His character and fate? Who succeeded Tiberius ? What interestins^ event occurred in his reign ? 6. What was the character of Caligula ? What acts of folly and cruelty did he commit ? What was his end ? 7. Who succeeded Caligula ? What were the principal events of the reign of Claudius ? What is said of Messaliua and Agrippina i A. ». 54.] THE ROMAN" EMPIRE. 10? emperor was fifty years old when he commenced to reign, and was remarkable for the imbecility of his character, being entirely ruled by his wives and favorites. He, how- ever, embellished Rome with many splendid edifices, and went in person on a campaign in Britain, where his armies gained important victories, subduing all t]ic3 south- ern part of the island, and sending tlie celebrated chief Ca-rac'ta-cus a captive to Rome. Influenced by his Avicked and profligate wives Mes-m-lt na and Jg-rip-pi'na, Clau- dius caused many innocent persons to be put to death, but was at last poisoned at the instigation of Agrippina, in order that her son Nero might assume the purple (a. d. 54), 8. Nero. — This emperor was only seventeen years old when he commenced to reign ; and as he had received an excellent education under the instruction of the philoso- pher Sen'e-ca, his acts were for a few years just and virtu- ous. At length he betrayed the wickedness of his charac- ter, and abandoned himself to every species of vice and cruelty. Dreading the influence of his mother, he ordered her to be murdered. He also brutally caused the death of his wife. He is said to have ordered the city of Rome to be set on fire, so that he might behold a great conflagration ; but he afterward rebuilt it and erected for himself a palace of vast extent and splendor. To escape the indignation of the people, he charged the crime of firing the city upon the Christians, and caused multitudes of them to be put to death by the most dreadful tortures. During this persecu- tion, the Apostle Paul was beheaded. 9. A conspiracy against the emperor having been dis- covered, many innocent persons were put to death, among them Seneca, and the poet Lu'can. The detestable reign of Nero was brought to a close by a movement of the army in Spain, who, disgusted with his wickedness and 8. How did Nero commence his reign ? What cruel act? did he commit ? 9. Why were Seneca and Lucan executed ? What terminated thereigu of Nero 5 What were the feelings of the common people toward him 't What revolt occurred during Nero's reign ? 108 THE ROMAN EMPIRK. [A. D. 69.] folly, proclaimed their pr^tor Gal'ba emperor, who imme- diately commenced his march to Rome. Deserted by his guards, Nero was comi)elled to flee, and finally committed suicide to avoid being publicly executed (a. d. 68). The common people, to wiiom he had been profuse in his boun- ties, lamented his death, and decorated his tomb with flowers. He was the last of the family of the Caisars, and probably the vilest monarch that ever lived.* In this reign (a. d. 66) a revolt of the Jews took place, and lasted through several of the succeeding reigns. 10. Galba was over 70 years of age when he com- menced to reign, having served as proconsul in various parts of the empire during the four preceding reigns, and obtained a high i-eputation for bi'avery, as well as for tlie rigid justice of his administration. He soon, however, became unpopuUir, from his severity ; and the soldiers, being refused their usual donative, revolted. O'tho, taking advantage of their discontent, induced the praetorian guards to prochiim him emperor ; and Galba, attempting to quell the sedition, w\as slain in the streets by one of the veterans, after a brief reign of seven months. 11. Otho was no sooner in possession of the govern- ment than he gave himself up to unbridled license and debauchery ; but he soon found a rival in Vi-teVli-iis, the commander of the army in Lower Germany, who, revolting from the authority of the new emperor, marched with his forces into Italy, where he Avas met, on the banks of the Po, by Otho, but gained a decided victory over him, and was at once acknowledged emperor. Otho committed suicide at the close of the battle, after a reign of only three months (a. d. 69). 12. Vitellius had been a companion of Tiberius at Capre^e, and a ftivorite with his infamous successors, Calig- See Note 3, eivJ of the Sertion. 1 0. What, was the character of Galba ? What led to his death ? 11. What was the conduct of Otho? How did his reign end ? 12. Describe the character and conduct of Vitellius. By whom was he de- feated ? A. JO. 70.] TJIE IIOMAK EMI'IIIE. 100 iiUi, Claudius, and Nero. He Avas greatly addicted to gluttony and debauchery ; and on his accession left the governmfjit to his favorites, while he devoted himself entirely to feasting aud drunkenness, squandering in these indulgences nearly fifty millions of dollars in about four inontJis. At length, the army, disgusted with these ex- cesses of the emperor, revolted from him in favor of Ves- pa'sicm, their general, who had acquired distinction in the war against the Jews. The forces of Vitellius being defeated at Cre-mo'na, he was compelled to abdicate, but the populace di-agged him from the i)alace to the place of common execution, and put him to death with di-eadful cruelty and ignominy (a. J3. GO), llis reign lasted about eight months. 13. Vespasian presented a striking contrast, both in talent and virtue, to those Avhoni he succeeded, lie re- stored the discipline of the army, revived the authority of the Senate, filling its Avasted ranks Avith eminent and virtuous men, and in other respects reformed tJie poli- tical and social condition of the city and emjure. He commenced the famous Col-os-se'um or Amphitlieatre, the ruins of A\diich still exist to shoAv its ancient nuignifi- cence ; and he also patronized learning and the arts. Quin- lil'i-an, the cele))rated rhetorician, Jo-sej^lius. the JeAvish historian, and Pliny, a noted writer and naturalist, flour- ished during this reign, Avliich lasted about ten years (until A. D. 70). Its most noted event Avas the taking and destruc- tion of Jerusalem by Tl'Uis, tiie son of A^espasian. This Avas accomplished after a terrible siege of six months, during AAdiich, according to Jose2")hus, more than a million of persons perished. The city Avas razed to the ground, and the inhahitants sold, or driven into banishment (a. d. 70). 14. Titus. — This emperor ruled Avith so mucli justice 1 3. What was the character of A"es])a?ian ? AVho Hourishetl dining his reigii \ What noted event occulted ? 14. AA'^liat was the character ot'Titns ? "VvTiat interesting events occnrred during his reign t By whom was he succeeded ? 110 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. [A. D. 84. and beneficence that he is styled by Tacitus (tas'e-hts), tlie historian, the " Delight of Mankind." His reign was marked by many disastrous events. In the first year occurred the dreadful eruption of Vesuvius, during which the cities of Pompeii {po7n-2)e'yi) and Her-cu-la'ne-um were overwhelmed by a dense shower of black ashes, tluit fell burying many of the inhabitants in their dwellings. Fugitives from Campania flocked into Rome, and a ter- rible pestilence ensued, in which 10,000 persons died daily. This was succeeded by a great conflagration that raged for several days, and destroyed a considerable portion of the city. Titus gave liberally to relieve the suflerers, and caused the edifices which had been consumed to be rebuilt. He also completed the Colosseum, commenced by Vespa- sian. His death occurred soon after, in the third year of his reign (a. d. 81), and he was succeeded by his brother, Domitian {do-mi sh'e-an). \_Scg Note 4, end of Section.] 15. Domitian was as remarkable for tyranny and cru- elty as his brother had been distinguished for justice and humanity. He united the gloomy dissimulation of Tiberius with the wanton wickedness of Caligula and Nero. The armies under his leadership were defeated by the Dacians and other barbarous nations, with whom he made disgrace- ful treaties, while he demanded the triumphs usually de- creed to the most splendid victories. He was very fond of solitude, amusiug himself principally by catching flies and transfixing them with a bodkin. After a shameful reign of fifteen years, he was assassinated (a. d. 96). The con- quest of Britain, excepting the northern part, was com- pleted during this period (a. d. 84), by A-gric'o-la, who, in this and the two preceding reigns, had defeated the inhabitants in several great battles. There also occurred during this reign a second general persecution of the Christians. Domitian was the last of the emperors called 15. What was the character of Domitian? What were the events of his reign ? What line of emperors ends with him ? A.D. 117.] THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Ill tlie ttuelve Ccssars^ (Julius Cc^sar being considered the. first). 16. The five good Emperors. — Nerva. After the death of Domitian, the Senate decreed that his statues should be demolished and his name erased from the annals. They then unanimously elected as his successor Ker'va, who had been twice consul, and was then in his seventieth year. lie displayed great wisdom and moderation, dimin- ished the taxes, and introduced other reforms. A revolt of the pra3torian guards caused him to adopt as his succesr sor the virtuous Tra'jaii, a short time after which he died, having reigned only sixteen months (a. d. 98). 17. Trajan was born in Spain, but is said to have been educated partly in the school o^ Plu'tarcU,* whom he highly honored during the whole of his reign. He was equally great as a monarch and a general, while his many virtues entitle him to a place among the best of men. He re- formed the government, and bound himself by a solemn oath to observe the laws. He conquered the Daciaus, penetrating their country by means of a stupendous bridge which he caused to be built across the Danube. He also gained several victories in Armenia, IVEesopotamia, and Parthia, the cities of Se-leu'cia and Ctes'i-j^lion] surrender- ing to his arms. The lofty and splendid pillar which he erected to commemorate these conquests still remains. His death took place in Cilicia (a. d. 117), after he had reigned about twenty years. 18. Adrian, a relative of Trajan, and the companion * Phttarrh was a native of Bcpotia, in Greece ; but he had removed to Rome and opened a school there. His biography of illustrious men is one of the most interesting works of ancient literature. t Seleiicia was founded by Seleucus, and became one of the most magnificent cities In the world. It was situated on the west bank of the Tigris, about forty miles from Babylon, which was partly despoiled and depopulated to enrich it. Ctc^iphun wiis built by the Parthians on the east bank of the Tigris, nearly opposite Seleucia, and became the capital of the Parthian monarchy. 1 6. WTio was the first of the " five ^ood emperors" ? What is said of Nerva ? 1 7. What was the character of Trajan ? What conquests did he make ? How Ions did lie reigii ? 18. Who succeeded Trajan? W^hat is related of his character? Wl)at were the chief events of his reign ? Who was his successor ? 112 THE ROMAN" EMPIRE. [A. D. 161. of his e\'i)cditioiis, was declared emperor by the army and Senate, and was distinguished for his talents and ac-coni- plishments, being not only a successful general but a mathematician and artist. He spent thirteen years in visiting the different parts of the empire, to inspect the administration of the government. Having passed through Dacia, Germany, and Gaul, he sailed to Britain ; and while there, caused a wall to be constructed across the northern part of the island to prevent the inroads of the Scots.* He afterward visited the various provinces in Asia and Africa. An insurrection having broken out among the Jews, he reduced them to submission, and ordered that a Itoman colony should be established at Jerusalem, chang- ing its name to JE'li-a Cap-i-to-li'na. He died in tlie twenty-second year of his reign (a. d. 138). The virtues of A'dri-an were not unalloyed ; he severely persecuted the Jews and Christians ; and in the latter part of his reign, greatly provoked public indignation by his cruel- ties. He adopted as his successor An-to-ni'nus, surnamed the Pious. 19. Antoninus Pius. — The reign of this emperor was one of almost uninterrupted peace, but was still more dis- tinguished for the virtue, wisdom, and efficiency with which he administered the government. Such was his reputation for these qualities, that princes beyond the bounds of the empire made him the arbiter of their diifer- ences. He extended his dominions in Britain, and caused a wall to be built to the north of that constructed by Adri- an.f He died in his 75tli year, after a reign of twenty- two years (a. d. 161), and was succeeded by his adopted son, Mar'ciis Au-re'U-us Antoninus. 20. Marcus Aurelius. — This emperor was also dis- * This was an earthen rampart constructed between the River Tyne and the Sol way Frith, and was called the /'tV't<.' W(dl. Considerable remains of it still exist. + Constructed between the friths of Forth and Clyde, and called afterward Grahaiae's Dike. 19. What was the character of AutoniuuB ? What was done in Britain t A.D. 180.] THE ROMAN EMPIRE. IIH tinguished for his virtues as a monarch and a statesman, and added to tliem tlie merits of a philosopher. He took Lu'clus Ve'rus for his colleague in the goyernment, as- sign ing to him the eastern part of the empire, in which a A\'ar liad broken out with the Parthians. This the lieutenants of Verus brought to a successful conclusion. War was also waged by both emperors against the Germans ; and after the death of Verus, Marcus himself carried on war, during live years, against the barbarians in Pan-no'ni-a. In this latter war the Roman army was saved by a remarkable thunderstorm, which was imputed by some to the earnest supplications of a division of the army composed of Chris- tians, hence called the " Thunderinof Leo-ion." 21. A dreadful persecution of the Christians occurred during this reign ; and Jus' tin Mar'tyr and Pol'y-car}), the venerable bishop of Smyrna, fell victims to the superstitious fury of the pagans. The Germans, pressed by vast hordes of barbarians in their rear, were compelled to invade the territories of the empire, and Aurelius marched against them. After gaining several victories, he was seized with the plague at Vin-do-lo'na (noAV Vienna), and died in a few days (a. d. 180). With him perished the glory of the empire, for few of his successors merit the praise of either virtue or ability ; while the inroads of the barbarous nations who migrated from the wilds of the east and north, could only have been repelled by the most vigorous and best di- rected efforts. The death of Aurelius therefore marks the commencement of the "Decline of the Koman Empire." 22. Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, succeeded ; but he possessed none of the virtues of his Mher, having been spoiled in his youth by the vicious precepts and example of his abandoned mother Fau-sti'n-a. His debaucheries, 20. What was the character of Marcui? Aurelius ? What were the chief events of his reigu ? What was the " Thundering Legion ?" 21. What persecution occurred? What peojjle invaded the empire ? When and how did the death of Aurelius occur? What is said of this event? 22. What was the character of Commodus ? How long did he reign ? 114 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. [A. D. 193. wickedness, and cruelty were scarcely eqnalled by those of Nero and Caligula. Bloodthirsty, even in his sports, he roamed through the streets, wounding and slaying the un- suspecting passengers ; and his chief delight was to contend as a gladiator in the public arena. After several unsuc- cessful conspiracies had been formed against him, Com'mo- dus was at length strangled in his bed, in the 12th year of his detestable reign (a. d. 192). [See Note 5, end of Section.'] 23. Pertinax (per'ti-nax), selected by the conspirators to succeed Commodus, had risen through almost every grade of society to the position of praefect of the city; but it was with reluctance that he consented to assume the purple. The praetorian guards, however, urged it, and the SeTiate gave their sanction ; but his severity of discipline soon displeased those who had caused his elevation, and marching into the palace, they cut off his head, and carried it into the camp, after he had reigned scarcely three months. 24. The pra3torians then offered the throne to the highest bidder ; and DicUus JiiMmvus, a wealthy senator, having made the richest offer to the soldiers, was declared emperor, the Senate being compelled to ratify the election. The legions of Syria, Illyria, and Britain, however, refused to confirm it, each army choosing its own monarch. Se-ve'rus^ who commjinded in Pannonia, marclied directly to Rome; and the praetorians having deserted Didius, the Senate de- creed that he should be deposed and put to death ; where- upon he was beheaded like a common criminal, after an uneasy reign of two months (a. d. 193). Severus was then declared emperor. 25. Septimius Severus. — The first task performed l)y Severus was the conquest of his rivals; and this he accom- plished in about three years, one being defeated at Issus, 23. Who succeeded Commodus ? What is related of him? What terminated his reifrn ? 24/What disgraceful act was committed by the praetorians? What led to the election of Severus ? 25. What were the principal acts of this emperor? Where did he die? Bj whom was he succeeded ? A.D. 218.] THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 115 wliere Alexander had contended for empire with Darius, and the other, in a great battle near Lyons. His authority being thus established, he ruled with great severity, over- turning even the forms of the republic, which had up to this time survived to remind the Romans of their ancient liberty. He defeated the Parthians, and took Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Babylon ; and, a war having broken out in Britain, he proceeded against the Caledonians, or Scots, drove them back into their fastnesses, and rebuilt and strengthened the wall between the Clyde and Forth rivers. A short time afterward he died at York, in the 18th year of a very successful reign (a. d. 211), leaving the throne to his two sons Car-a-cal'la and Ge'ta. 26. Caracalla. — The first act of Caracalla was to cause his virtuous brother Geta to be assassinated, even after he had taken refuge in the arms of his mother; and 20,000 persons whom he accused of being friends of Geta, shared his hapless fate. The principal part of his reign Caracalla spent in the provinces, and each one in turn was the scene of his rapine and cruelty. He ordered a general massacre of the citizens of Alexandria, on account of a lampoon which some one had published against him there. He was at length assassinated by Ma-cri'mis, the praetorian pre- fect* (a. d. 217). During this reign, all the free inhabit- ants of the empire were declared Roman citizens. 27. Macrinus, the murderer of Caracalla, was pro- claimed emperor by the troops, but retained the dignity only about a year, being defeated and slain near Antioch in an effort to reduce the rebellious armies of Syria, who had declared for He-li-o-gah'a-lus, supposed to be the sou of Caracalla. This battle gave the throne to the latter, who had been born at Em'e-sa, in Syria, and was then only 15 years of age (a. d. 218). * This office hnd become, under Severus, the principal one in the empire, being next to thatol the enipentr liimbelf. 26. What wicked acts did Caracalla commit? What ended his reign? 27. What it> said ol" Macrinus ? By whom was he succeeded ? IIG THE ROMAN" EMPIRE. [A. D. 235. 28. Heliogabalus. — This emperor deriA'ed his name {Heliogalxdiis or FA-a-fjaVa-his) from his office as high- priest of llie sun (called lle-li-o-ga'hal in Syria) ; and he attempted to introduce into Rome tlie effeminate manners and superstitious idolatry of the East. He huilt a temple to the Sun on the Palatine Hill, and jelehrated the sacri- fices of the god with the utmost expense and solemnity. After three years spent in the most shocking vices, amcng which gluttony was tlie most conspicuous, he was massa- cred hy the Praetorians, and thrown into the Tiber (a. d. 222). [See Note 6, end of Section.'] 29. Alexander Severus, cousin of the preceding em- peror, succeeded him. He was a virtuous young man, of a mild and benevolent disposition, and very fond of learning ; and his government was all that could have been expected from so excellent a prince.* In the fourth year of his reign, the Parthian empire was overturned by a revolt of the Per- sians under Ard-e-sJiir' , the founder of the famous dynasty of the Sas-san'i-des, who governed Persia for more than four centuries. Ardeshir attempted to extend his dominion to the Mediterranean, but Avas defeated by Alexander Seve- rus in several obstinate engagements. The emperor, a short time afterward, marched against the Germans ; but Avas as- sassinated (a. d. 235) by some of his troops, who declared in favor of their general, Max'i-min, a soldier of fortune, of gigantic stature and enormous strength, who had risen from the condition of a Thracian peasant to the chief com- mand of the army. 30. Maximin, though an able gejieral, showed in his government the ferocity of a brutal savage, putting to death witli the most horrid cruelty all whom he suspected of the least disaffection. After a reign of three years, ^ See Note!, end of Sertion. 28. What 18 rc-laied of ilelioirabalns ? Why was he i?o called ? 29. Wliat \vas the chanicter of Alexander Severus ? What revolution occurred in the East ? How did this reign end ? Who succeeded Alexander ? 30. What was the character'of Maximin? How and when did his reitjn end^ By whom was he succeeded ? A. O. 251.] THE ROMAN EMPIEE. 11? during wliicli he gained several victories over the barba- rians, an insurrection breaking out in Italy, he marched from his camp on the Danube to suppress it ; but was slain in his tent by the Praetorian guards (a. d. 238). He was succeeded by two distinguished senators {Max'i-mus and Bal-bl'nus), whom the senate had chosen as emperors. These were soon afterward put to death in a mutiny of the Prsetoriaus ; and the purple was assumed by Gor'di-cm, a youth whom the army had compelled the senate to associ- ate as colleague with their own chosen emperors. 31. Gordian reigned with distinction and prosperity. He gained great victories over the Persians, under their king Sa'por, driving them out of Syria, and compelling them to abandon Mesopotamia ; but he was soon afterward assassinated in a mutiny of the army, fomented by PMlip, an officer of the guards, who thus became his successor (a. d. 244). Philip reigned about five years, at the end of which he was defeated and slain in an insurrection of the Pannonian army under De'cius (a. d. 249). 32. Decius. — The reign of this emperor is remarkable for the dreadful persecution which he instituted against the Chiistians, who, throughout the empire, were dragged to execution, and subjected to the most horrid cruelties. There was also a great invasion of the Goths, a barbarous people from Scandinavia, who, having crossed the Danube, passed into Ma3sia and Thrace. Phil-ijj-jwjyo-Us was taken by storm, and 100,000 persons are said to have been massa- cred. They also, a short time afterward, defeated the Ro- man army under Decius, in a terrific conflict in which the emperor himseK perished (a. d. 251). Decius exhibited the character of a brave and active general and an accomplished monarch. 33. Valerian. — The two immediate successors of Decius 31. What were the chief events of Gordian's reign? By whom waa he suc- ceeded? Who was the successoi of Philip ? _ . , 32. For what is the reis?n of Decius remarkable? What invasion occurred r How and when did the death of Decius occur? 118 THE ROMAK EMPIJIE. [A. D. 260. held the throne only about two years, when Va-le'ri-cm, who commanded the armies of Gaul and Germany, assumed the purple. He was about sixty years of age, of noble birth, unblemished integrity, great talents, and in every respect worthy of reigning. In an expedition against the Persians he was defeated and taken prisoner (a. d. 260) ; and Sapor, the Persian monarch, took advantage of this victory to overrun Syria, Cilicia, and Cappadocia. The city of An- tioch was surprised and pillaged, and its inhabitants put to the sword, or carried away into captivity. Valerian, it is said, was treated with great indignity and cruelty by the Persian monarch. He was compelled for seven years to bow himself down so as to serve as a stepping-stone to Sa- por when he mounted his horse; and, on his death, his skin stuffed in the form of a human figure, and dyed with scarlet, was preserved in the temple of Persia. 34. Gallienus, the son of Valerian, had been associated in the government with his father; and after his defeat, continued to reign, making no effort to cause his father's release, but rather seeming \.o rejoice in the disaster which freed him from the authority of so strict a censor: At the time of his accession, the barbarians, encouraged by the captivity of Valerian, invaded the empire on all sides. The Germans invaded Italy, but were repulsed by the emperor, who then gave himself up to indolent amusements. This inactivity caused a number of usurpers to start up in various parts of the empire and claim the throne. 35. These usurpers have been called the Tliirty Tyrants, but their real number was nineteen. Many of them had been the lieutenants of Valerian, and were disgusted with the imbecility of his son, especially at a time qf so mucli 33. Who were the successors of Decius ? What is said of Valerian ? By whom was he defeated ? How was he treated by Sapor? What countries were overrun by the Persians ? What city was talien ? 34r. What is related of Gallienus ? What invas'ons occurred? Si*. W^ho were called the " Thirty Tyrants ?" What is said of Odenatus and Palmyra ? Of Zenobia ? What became of the other pretenders ? WTien and hoM did the reign of Gallienus end ? A.D. 270.] THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 119 public peril and disaster. Among them was 0-den-a'Uis, a prince of Palmyra,* which had become an independent city, a short time after the death of the emperor Gordian, having revolted from the Romans on account of the exac- tions of the proconsul. After the defeat of Valerian Odenatus marched against the Persians ; and, having de- feated them with great loss, recovered Mesopotamia. For these services Gal-li~e'mis and the senate conferred on him and his famous queen, Ze-no'li-a, the government of the East; thus converting a rival into a friend and partner. This great man was soon after murdered by some of his own family, and Zenobia succeeded him in the government. The other pretenders to the purple also died a violent death, perishing either in battle or by assassination. Gal- lienus was himself murdered while besieging one of his rivals in Milan (a. d. 2G8). 30. Claudius, a great general, and a virtuous and pa- triotic monarch, succeeded him. He gained a signal vic- tory over the Goths in Moesia, destroying one of the mightiest armaments that ever invaded the empire; but he was prematurely arrested in his career of glory by a dis- ease which he caught in Pannonia (a. d. 270). He named An-re'U-an, one of his generals, as his successor. 37. Aurelian. — This emperor's short reign was filled with the most momentous events. The Goths and the Van' dais (also a Gothic tribe) renewed their invasions, and were encountered with indecisive results by Aurelian, who finally made a peace with them, relinquishing to them the great province of Dacia, most of the inhabitants of which removed to the south side of the Danube (a. d. 270). He • Palmyra^ or Tadmor, was founded by Solomon in an oasis in the Syrian desert, about 140 miles east of Damascus ; and being on the great route to Persia and India, it became the rest- ing-place of the caravans, and was soon greatly enlarged, and enriched with all the treasures of the East. 36. What was the character of Claudius? What victory did he gain? Who succeeded him ? 37. What terms did Aurelian make with the Goths and Vandals ? What barba rous tribe did he defeat ? 120 THE ROMAN" EMPIRE. [A. JD. 284. next defeated the Al-le-vian'i, a German tribe, wlio had in- vaded Italy and were threatening Rome itself, whicli Aure- lian caused to ])e protected by new fortifications. Various parts of the empire were still held hj usurpers, some of them women, among whom was Zenobia, queen of Palmyra aud several provinces of the East. 38. This queen was esteemed the most lovely and accom- plished of her sex, having been instructed by the celebrated scholar and critic, Lon-yi'mis. After the death of Odena- tus, she filled the throne of Palmyra for five years ; but claiming an independent sovereignty, she gave offence to Aurelian, who, having defeated her forces in two great battles, besieged and took her capital, Palmyra. Zenobia was made a captive to grace the triumph of her conqueror, and her favorite minister Longinus w^as executed (a. d. 273). In an expedition against the Persians, Aurelian was assassinated by one of his generals (a. d. 275). 39. Tacitus, an aged senator, succeeded, and during a brief reign of six months, repelled an attempted invasion by tlie Scythians. Civil war followed between the generals who were competitors for the throne, and it lasted until A. D. 285, when Dl-o-de'tian, vanquishing his rival Ca-ri'- nns, in Mcesia, obtained full possession of the empire. 40. Diocletian was a native of Dalmatia, and his parents were slaves ; but he had been promoted succes- sively to the offices of provincial governor, consul, and praetorian prefect. He was proclaimed emperor by the army in A. D. 284 ; and the year after, feeling that the extent of thQ empire, and the troubles in which it was in- volved, w^ere too vast for any single mind, he made Max- im' i-an, a brave but unlettered soldier, his colleague. After a few years, each emperor also took an associate, or Ccesar, 38. WHiat is paid of Zenobia ? What war did Aurelian wage against her ? With vviiat ret^ult ? When and how did this reiffn end ? 39. What i8 said of his successor ? What followed ? 40. What was the previous history of Diocletian? What colleagues were taken ? A. D. 323.] THE ROMAX EMl'IKK. 121 and tliL' empire wdi divided among- tlie torn* rnlers. In tliia way the barbarians were kept in cheek, and general tran- quillity was preserved. 41. During this i-eign the Persians were defeated by Ga-Ie'ri-us, one of the Caesars ; and Mesopotamia, together with several districts beyond the Tigris, was subdued. There also occurred the last great persecution of the Chris- tians, from which fact the era of the commencement of Diocletian's reign (a. d. 284) is called, in the history of the Church, the " Era of Martyrs." In oOo A. i). Diocletian took the extraordinary resolution to resign the empire, and obliged Maximian to do the same. The Caesars, Galcrius and Con-dan' tins, then became emperors, choosing in their turn Ciesars to succeed them. Diocletian retired to Sa-lo'- na, in Dalmatia, and spent the remainder of his life in the quiet pursuits of agriculture ; and so well satisfied was he with the change, that when Maximian afterward urged him to resume the imperial dignity, he replied, " I wish you would come to Salona and see the cabbages I have planted ; for having once visited my garden, you would never again mention to me the name of empire."* 42. Constantine. — Constantius having died ab York, in Britain, his son C 0)1! dan-tine was saluted emperor by the army ; but Galerius and the two Ctesars refused to ratify the election, and civil war ensued, in which there were no less than six competitors for the throne, among them the former emperor, Maximian, and his son Max-en - tius. Constantine, after eighteen years of war, finally prevailed over all his rivals, and became sole monarch of the empire (a. d. 323). During this confiict, while march- ing against Maxentius, he saw, it is said, in the heavens a himinous cross, bearing the inscription, in Greek, " Con- (juer by this;" and under the standard of the cross, * >'cf Note 8, end of Section. 41 Whom did Galurius defeat? What is meant by the "era of martyrs" ? WTiat extraordiuarjM-esolutiou did Diocletian adopt? Was he satisfied with the ^ 42' How did Constantine acquire the empire ? What led to his conversion ? 122 THE ROMAJs" EMPIRE. LA. 1>. 361. having dbfeatcd Maxentius, he became a convert to Chris- lianity. 43. Ill order that his residence might be nearer the cen- tre of his dominions, lie removed the capital from Kome to Byzantium, Avhich he embellished with magnificent churches, palaces, and other edifices ; while gardens, parks, and private walks exhibited all the refinements of eastern luxury. The city from him received the name of Constan- finople. During this reign (a. d. 325), the celebrated council of JVice (in Bithynia) was held, in which the doc- trines of the Ohui'ch were more clearly defined. Constan- tine repulsecL the Goths and Sarmatians, who invaded Thrace (a. d. 332). His d'^atli occurred five years later, in the sixty-fifth year of his age (a. d. 337). 41. The three sons of Constantine succeeded him, but quarrelled among themselves, and a terrible civil war en- sued. This lasted until 3-"^'^; when Co)istantius, after gaining several great victories over his rival Mag -nen' tins, his brothers having been previously slain, became sole and undisputed master of the throne. His cousin, Ju'li-an, was taken as hiii colleague ; but afterward, by his victories over the GermaiiiJ and other barbarous nations, he excited the jealousy of the emperor, who, to destroy the influence of the Caesar, recalled his best legions ; but they refused to obey, and saluted Julian as emperor. Preparations for civil war immediately commenced; but the death of Con- stantius terminated the strife (a. d. 361), and raised Julian to the throne. 45. Julian the Apostate. — This emperor had been educated in Athens, and had imbibed a great fondness for the pagan philosophy and religion. On his accession, therefore, he determined to overthroAV Christianity, and 43. W'hat city did he make his capital ? W^hat councH was held? W^ho were roi)ul:fcd ? Whe'n did his rei^i eud ? 44. What events followed the death of Constantine ? How did Julian become emperor* 45. Why was Julian ptyled "the Apostate" ? What did he attempt ? How waf ft defeated ? Where was he killed ? A.D. 388.] THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 123 restore the ancient faith and worship ; and hence he has been called " the Apostate." To disprove tlie prophecy of Christ, he attempted to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem ; but the design, it is said, was frustrated by miracle, fire-balls breaking out from the foundation and driving the work- men away, so that they were obliged to abandon the attempt. Julian was afterward killed in a disastrous ex- pedition against the Persians, after a reign of sixteen months (a. d. 363). {See Note 9, end of Section.-] 46. Jovian, his successor, restored Christianity, but died after a reign of seven months. Valentinian, com- mander of the guards, succeeded, and divided the empire, giving to his brother Valens the government of the east, while he retained that of the west, making Mil'an his capital. The barbarous nations of the north still con- tinued their incursions. The Goths, pressed in their rear by the more savage Huns,'' entreated and obtained permis- sion to settle on the south bank of the Danube, but were afterward driven into revolt by the treachery of a Roman governor. Valens attempting to subdue them, was de- feated and slain in a great battle, near Adrianople; Gra- tian, who had succeeded Valentinian, arriving too late to prevent the disaster (a. d. 378). The empire of the east was then given to Theodosius (a. d. 379),who subdued the Goths, and received great numbers of them into the Roman armies. 47. Theodosius the Great. After the death of his associates Gratian and Valentinian XL, and the defeat of the different rivals who attempted to obtain the throne, Theodosius became sole monarch (a. d. 388). lie ruled with so much wisdom and ability that he has been called * The Huns were a warlike tribe, ..f the MonKoliKn race, of uncouth and hideous aspect aud dreadful ferocity. They emigrated from C entral Asia. ±a What is said of Jovian ? How was the empire divided l)y Valentinian ? wf.?ro'^t^\he GoJhfpennitted to settle | WhyJ What was the consequence . ^r,^".S^.^;!1irSodo ufVe?.^^^^^^^^^^ called... GreaU wfxJt WC.X ic plomfnenteven?s of his reign V How did he divide the empire ? 124 THE ROMAN" EMPIRE. [A. D. 403. the Great The complete overtlirow of Paganism and the establishinent of Christianity in the Roman dominions, as well as the repnlse of the barbarians from every part of the frontier, were striking events of this reign, — the last that reflected any credit upon the Roman name. Theodosins at his death divided the empire between his two sons, Ho-no'- ri-us being placed on the throne of the West, and Ar-ca'di-us on that of the East (a. d. 395). 48. Honorius. — This reign had scarcely commenced, when the Goths, indignant that their snbsidy had not been paid, invaded Greece nnder the renowned leader Al'a-ric, and devastated the whole country from Thermopylae to Sparta. Stil'i-cJio, the brave and talented minister of Ho- norius, by a series of masterly movements, drove out the barbarians ; but the pusillanimous Arcadius made a dis- graceful treaty with Alaric, which put an end to the cam- paign. Alaric soon after invaded Italy, and made a rapid march for Rome ; but he was overtaken near Ve-ro'na and entirely defeated by Stilicho (a. d. 403). His departure from Italy was, however, purchased by the weak and timid Honorius by the payment of a large pension. 49. During the next five years, Stilicho gained several important victories over the barbarians ; but the unworthy emperor, tired of his influence and jealous of his great fame, treacherously caused him to be put to death, appoint- ing in his stead a minister of neither capacity nor worth. The latter having caused a massacre of the families of the barbarians throughout Italy, the Gothic soldiers in the Roman army revolted and joined the standard of Alaric, who immediately invaded Italy and marched to Rome. The city was soon compelled by famine to surrender, and Ho- norius, Avho held hi^ court at Ravenna, refusing to treat for 48. What invasion took place during the reign of Honorius ? What was done by Stilicho? How was Alaric induced to leave Italy? 49. What other victories Avere ,<,^ained by Stilicho ? What were the circum- Ptances of his death? What caused another invasion by Alaric? What is said of the pillage of Rome ? Of the death of Alaric ? A.D. 450.] THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 125 peace, the ancient capital was given np to pillage (a. d. 41U). Tlie devastation and massacre were iriglitl'nl ; bnt Alaric, professing Christianity, spared the chnrches ; and, nnwilling utterly to destroy the city wliich had been the world's mistress, the sixth day after its capture he Avithdrew his forces. He tlien prei)ared to invade Sicily, Init was seized with a mortal disease ; and his remains were bnried beneath the bed of a small stream, in the southern part of Italy. 50. A-dol'pIius, the brother-in-huvof Alaric, succeeded to the sovereignty of the Goths; and having married I'la- cid'i-a, the sister of Uonorius, he made peace with the ]{o- mans. He then retired into Spain, and founded in that coxmiYj i\\Q Kingdom of theVis'i-gotlis.* About the same time the Vandals settled in the central and southern parts of Spain ; and the Sue'vi and other German tribes, in the northwestern part. Under the successors of Adolphus, the Vandals were expelled (a. d. 427), the other nations sub- dued, and the Gothic monarchy extended over a large ])art of Gaul as well as Spain. The Vandals, crossing into Africa, made themselves masters of the northern part of that country. About this time also the Franks, Burfjundiaits, and other barbarous tribes invaded Gaul. 51. Valentinian III. — xVfter a disgraceful reign of twenty-eight years Honorius died (a. d. 423), and was suc- ceeded by Valentinian III., a weak prince, umler the guardianship of his mother Placidia, who ruled in his name for twenty- tive years. During this period the Huns, under their terrible leader At'ti-Ia, having defeated several Roman armies, ravaged the Eastern Empire from the Euxine to the Adriatic (a. d. 441-450). After extoi-ting immense treasures from the Emperor of the East, as the * The (j(itl)s were dividiHl into two portions, those ol the east beiii>; culled the Oslio-(/othti, and those of the west the Visif/oum. 50. Who succeedecl Alaric? Why did he make i)eace with the Roman?? Wbitlier did he retire? What kiii;). Otho (VII). Reign of three months. 09. Vitellius (VIII). Reign of eight months. [tilian. Pliny. 09. Vespasian (IX). Colosseum commenced. Josephus. Quin- 70. Destruction of Jerusalem. 79. Titus (X). Destruction of Pompeii and Ilerculaneum. Cole^ seum finished. * Aiigutitiilu.1 means, in Latin, the Little AuguMus. a^. W^hat lod to the death of Oreetes? How aud when did the Western Em pire end ? 128 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 81. DoMiTiAN (XI). Wars with the Dacians. Conquest of Britain hy Ai^i'lcola. i)Ci. Neuva (XII). Reign of sixteen nioutlis. 98. Tra.tan (XIII). Conquest of the Dacians. Victories in the East. 117. Adkian (XIV). General survey of the Empire, Wall built iu Britain. Jews revolt and are subdued. l:J8. Antoninus Pius (XV). 161. ]\L\KCUS AuRELTUS Antoninus (XVI). War with the Parthi- ans and Germans. Persecution of the Christians. 180. CoMMODUs (XVII). Dreadful cruelties perpetrated. 193. Pertinax (XVIII). Reign of about three months. Empire sold by auction. 193. DiDius JuLU\NUS (XIX). Reign of two months. 19:3. Septimius Severus (XX). Abolishes the forms of the republic. Defeat of the Parthians. 211. Caracalla (XXI). Murders his brother Geta. Dreadful mas- sacre at Alexandria. *417. Macrinus (XXII). Defeated and slain near Antioch. 218. Heliogabalus (XXIII). "Priest of the Sun." Temple to tlie Sun built in Rome. 232. Alexander Severus (XXIV). Foundation of the Second Per- sian Empire. 235. Maximin (XXV). Dreadful cruelties perpetrated. Victories over the barbarians. 238. Gordian, the Third (XXIX). Succeeds the two Gordians (XXVI and XXVII) who had been declared emperors by the army, and Maximus and Balbinus (XXVIl(f elected by the Senate to rule jointly. 244. Philip (XXX). Insurrection of the army under Decius. 249, Decius (XXXI), Dreadful persecution (seveutli) of the Chris- tians, Gothic invasion. 251. Death of Decius. Brief reigns of Gallus and .^Emilianus, 254, Valerian (XXXIV). Defeated and taken prisoner by the Per- sians, 2G0. Gallienus (XXXV). The empire invaded on all sides by the barbarians. The " Thirty Tyrants." Odenatus and Ze- nobia. 2(18, Claudius (XXXIV). Defeats the Goths in Moesia, 270. AuRELiAN (XXXVII). Dacia given up to the Goths. Zenobia defeated and taken prisoner. 275. Tacitus (XXXVIII). Civil war ; ended by Diocletian. THE ROMAN EMriKE. 129 284. Diocletian (XLIII). Subdues his four rivals, each of whom had beeu dechired emperor, and lakes Maximiau as his col- league. Empire divided among tlie two emperors and the two Cgesars. Last persecution (tcntli) of the Christians. 305 Diocletian and Maximian resign the empire to the Caesars, Gale- rius and Constantius. 306. CoNSTANTmE (XLV). Six competitors for the throne. Max- entius defeated. 323. Constantine sole and undisputed emperor. Christianity estab- lished. Capital removed to Byzantium. 325. Council of Nice. 337. CoNST-\NTiNE II., CoNSTANTius, and Const ANS (XL VI), tliree emperors. Civil war. 353. Constantius sole emperor. Victories over the Germans by Julian. 301. Jui-iAN the ArosTATE (XL VII). Re-establishes Paganism. Defeated and slain by the Persians. 363. Jovian (XL VIII). Christianity restored. Reign of seven months. 364. Valentinian I. (XLIX). Empire divided ; Valens emperor of the East. 375. GiiATiAN (L). Battle of Adrianople; Valens defeated and shiin by the Goths. Theodo«ius emperor of the East. 383. Valentinian II. (LI). Defeat of the Goths by Tlieodosius. 388. TiLEODOSius THE Gbeat (LII). Defeats his rivals, IMaximus and Eugenius. Complete establishment of Christianity. Fhial division of the Empire. 395. HoNORius (LIII). Invasion of Greece and Italy by Alaric Stilicho. 410. Rome pillaged by the Goths under Alaric. 412. Kingdom of the Vandals founded in Spain. 415. Kingdom of the Visigoths founded in Spain and Gaul. 420. The Franks, Burgundians, &c., invade Gaul. 423. Valentinian III. (LIV). The Huns under Attila invade the Empire. 451. Defeat of Attila in Gaul by Aetius. 452. Ravage of Italy by Attila. Venice founded. 454. Death of Aetius, the " Last of the Romans." 455. Maximus (LV). Sack of Rome by the Vandals. 475, Romulus Augustulus (LXIII). Last emperor of the West 470. Odoacor founds the Kuujdom of Italy. 130 THE ROMAK EMPIRE. rem:ew questions. PAGE 1. "^Tiat were the most important events of the reign of Augnstns ? lOi-105 2. Describe the Angustan age of Roman literature 105 3. Give an account of Tiberias and the principal events of his reign 105-lOG 4. Describe the character of Caligula 106 5 What were the principal events of the reign of Claudius ? 106-107 6. Describe the character of Nero, and his reign 107-108 7. Give a sketch of the character of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius 108-109 8. What events occurred daring the reigns of Vespasian and Titus ? 109-110 9. Describe the character of Domitian Ill 10. Name tlie " five good Emperors," and state the important events of their reigns 111-113 11. Describe the character and conduct of Commodus 113-114 12. What events led to the accession of Septimius Severus ? 114 13. What were the most important events of his reign? 114-115 14. Give an account of the reign of Caracalla 115 15. In what way did Macrinus acquire the throne ? 115 16. Give an account of Heliogabahis and his reign 116 17. What important events occurred during the reign of Alexander Severus ? 116 18. Name the four immediate successors of Severus,and describe their reigns 116-117 19. Describe the character and reign of Decius 117 20. How did Valerian acquire the throne, and how did he lose it ? 118 21. Give an account of Gallienus and the " Thirty Tyrants" 118-11'.' 22. Give an account of Zenobia 120 2S. How did Diocletian acquire the throne ? 120 24. What were the most interesting events of his reign ? 120-121 25. In what way did Constaiitine obtain the throne ? 121 26. Give an account of the reign of Constautine 122 27. Describe the character and reign of Julian the Apostate 122-123 28. What led to the accession of Theodosius the Great ? 12;:j 29. What were the chief events of his reign ? 124 30. What important events occurred during the reign of Honorius ? 124-125 31. What were the chief events of the reign of Valentinian III. ? 12.5-126 32. What emperors occupied the throne after this reign ? 126-127 33. In what reigns were there persecutions of the Christians ? 107-110-112-113-117-121 34. During whose reign was Jerusalem taken ? 109 35. During whose reigns were the Britons defeated and subdued ? 107-110 36. When and how were Herculaueum and Pompeii destroyed ? 110 37. Give an account of Plutarch, the historian Ill 38. By what emperors were the Parthians defeated, and how was their empire destroyed ? 111-115-116 39 Who were the Sassanides, and how long did they reign ? 116 40. Give an account of the Goths and their invasions 119-122-123-124-125 41. Give an account of the invasions of the Vandals 119-125-126 42. Give an account of the invasions of the Huns 12.3-125-126 43. Who was Stilicho, and what victories did he gain ? 124 44. Who was Aetius, and what victory did he gain ? 126 45. Give a brief account of Alaric, Attila, and Genscric 124-125-126 46. What were the chief events of the first century A. D. ? 127-128 47. Relate the principal events of the second century 12S 4S. Also of the third, fourth, and fifth centuries 128-129 ]sr O T E s . 1. Character of Arminius, or Hermann (p. 105, t 2).— " Arminius fought with alternate vicissitudes of fortune, and fell at last by the treachery of his own relations; a man of warlike genius, and, beyond all question, the deliverer of Germany. He had not, like the kings and generals of a former day, the infancy of Rome to cope with; he had to struggle with a great and flourishing empire; he attacked the Romans in the meridian of their glory. He stood at bay for a num- ber of years with equivocal success, sometimes victorious, often defeated, but in the issue of the war still unconquered. He died at the age of thirty-seven, after twelve years of fame and power. In the rude poetry of the Barbarians, his name is celebrated to this hour." — Tacitus. 2. Anecdotes of Caligula (p. 106, IT 6).—" The citizens refused to obey in the theater his signal to applaud or to condemn; they beheld with indifference the feats of the imperial athlete himself ; the shows and games which they had regarded almost as their daily food, ceased at last to attract them; and it was probably in vexation at this sullen yet passive disobedience, which baffled both his menaces and caresses, that he uttered his well-known exclamation, accompanied no doubt with the significant gesture by which he intimated his cruel will to his heads- man, "Would that the people of Rome had but one neck! " * * * * One day, at a public banquet, when the consuls were reclining by his side, he burst suddenly into a fit of laughter; and when they courteously inquired the cause ol his mirth, astounded them by coolly replying that he was thinking how by one word he could cause both their heads to roll on the floor. He amused himself with similar banter even with his wife C;esonia, for whom he seems to have had a stronger feel- ing than any of his former consorts. While fondling her neck he is reported to have said, "Fair as it is, how easily T could sever it! " — Merivale.— History of the Romans. 3. Character of Nero (p. 108, H 9).— Nero was the incarnation of deprav- ity, — the very name by which men are accustomed to express the fury of un- restrained malignity. Bad as he was, Nero was not worse than Rome. She had but her due. Nay, when he died, the rabble of the slaves crowned his statues with garlands, and scattered flowers over his grave. And why not ? Nero never injured the rabble, never oppressed the slave. He murdered his mother, his brother, his wife, and was the tyrant of the wealthy, the terror of the successful. He rendered poverty sweet, for poverty alone Avas secure; he rendered slavery tolerable, for slaves alone, or slavish men, were promoted to power. The reign of Nero was the golden reign of the populace, and the holiday of the hondixaAn."— Bancroft. 4. Character of Titus (p. 110, H 14.)— "Titus took from no man, he gave to all profusely, he made a point ol never sending a suitor away unsatisfied. ' No man,' he said, in answer to a prudential remonstrance, ' ought to leave the prince's presence disappointed.' Remembering one evening at supper, that he had made no present to any one since the morning, ' My friends,' he exclaimed, ' I have lost this day.' When certain nobles were detected conspiring against him, he not only pardoned, but treated them with peculiar kindness; and when they attended him in the amphitheater, gave them the swords of the gladiators to feel their edges, thus putting his life unreservedly in their power. Towards his people his de- meanor was bland and afi'able. Caligula and Nero had abandoned themselves to the people, and forfeited the regard of the nobles; the attempts of Vespasian to concili- NOTES. ate both had been but imperfectly successful. Titus was the first who seems to have gained equal credit ou either side; and we may thus account for the pre-emi- nent favor he enjoyed with his countrymen, which was declared by the title, ex- travagant as it may seem, of ' Delight of the human race.' ''—Merivale —History of the Romans. 5. Coinmodiis in tlie Ani|)]iit1ieater (p. lU, H 22).—" Then were be- held, and familiarized to the eyes of the Roman mob animals as yet known to us, says Herodian, only in pictures. Whatever strange or rare animal could be drawn from the depths of India, from Siam and Peg-u, or from the unvisited nooks of Ethiopia, were now brought together as subjects for the archery of the viniversal lord. Invitations had been scattered on this occasion profusely ; not, as hereto- fore, to individuals or to families, but, as was in proportion to the occasion where an emperor was the chief performer, to nations. Peoples were svimmoned by circles of longitude and latitude to come and see the specious miracles of nature brought together from arctic and from tropic deserts, putting forth their strength, their speed, or their beauty, and glorifying by their deaths the matchless hand of the Roman king. There was beheld the lion from northern Africa, and the leopard from Hindoostan, the reindeer from Polar latitudes, the antelope from the Zaara, and the leigh, or gigantic stag, from Britain. Thither came the buffalo and the bison, the white bull of Northumberland and Galloway, the unicorn from the regions of Nepaul or Thibet, the rhinoceros and tho river-horse from Senegal, Avith the elephant of Ceylon or Siam. The ostrich and the camelopard, the wild ass ^nd the zebra, the chamois and the ibex of Angora,— all brought their tributes of beauty or deformity to these vast aceldamas of Rome. Their savage voices ascended in tumultuous uproar to the chambers of the capitol, a million of specta- tors sat around them. Standing in the center was a single statuesque figure— the imperial sagittary, beautiful as an Antinous, and majestic as a Jupiter, whose hand was so steadyaud whose eye so true, that he was never known to miss, and who, in this accomplishment at least, was so absolute in his excellence, that, as we are assured by a writer not disposed to flatter him, the very foremost of the Parthian archers and of the Mauritanian lancers were not able to contend with him." — De Quuicei/. — 7'/ie Ccesars. a, ©epravity of Hfeliogabalus (p. 116, H 28).— " The young emperor, corrupted by his youth, his country, and his fortune, abandoned himsell to the grossest pleasures with ungoverued fury, and soon found disgust and satiety in the midst of his enjoyments. To confound the order of seasons and climates, to sport witli the passions and prejudices of his subjects, and to subvert every law of nature and deceucj-, were in the number of his most delicious amusements. Even the licentious soldiers, who had raised him to the throne, blushed at their igno- minious choice, and turned with disgust from him as from a monster." — Gibbon. 7. Virtues of Alexander Severus (p. 116, II 29).— "Alexander was dis- tinguished by his love of learning, by his virtues, and by his laborious attention to the duties of his high oflQce. The simple journal of his ordinary occupations exhibits a pleasing picture of an accomplished emperor. Alexander rose early ; the first moments of the day were consecrated to private devotion, and his domestic chapel was filled with the images of those heroes who, by improving or reforming human life, had'deserved the grateful remembrance of posterity. The greatest part of his morning hours was employed in his council, where he discussed public affairs, and determined private causes, with a patience and discretion above his years. The dryness of business was relieved by the charms of literature, and a portion of his time was alwaj^s set apart for his favorite studies, poetry, history, and philosophy. NOTES. The exercises of the boSy succeeded to those of the mind ; and Alexander, who was tall, active, and robust, surpassed most of his equals in the gymnastic arts. Refreshed by the use of the bath and a slight dinner, he resumed, with new vigor the business of the day ; and, till the hour of supper, the principal meal of the Romans, he was attended by his secretaries, with whom he read and answered the multitude of letters, memorials, and petitions, that must have been addressed to the master of the greatest part of the world. His table was served with the most frugal simplicity ; and whenever he was at liberty to consult his own inclination, the companj' consisted of a few select friends, men of learning and virtue, amongst whom Ulpiau was constantly invited. Their conversation was familiar and instructive ; and the pauses were occasionally enlivened by the recital of some pleasing composition, which supplied the place of the dancers, comedians, and even gladiators, so frequently summoned to the tables of the rich and luxurious Romans." — Gibbons. 8. Retirement of Diocletian (p. 121, ^ 41).— "Diocletian, who, from a servile origin, had raised him.self to the throne, passed the nine last years of his- life in a private condition. Reason had dictated, and content seems to have accom- panied his retreat, in which he enjoyed for a long time the respect of those princes to whom he had resigned the possession of the world. Diocletian had preserved, or at least he soon recovered, a taste for the most innocent as well as natural pleas ures, and his leisure hours were sufficiently employed in building, planting, and gardening. His answer to Maximiau is deservedly celebrated. He was solicited by that restless old man to reassume the reins of government and the imperial purple. He rejected the temptation with a smile of pit}', calmly observing that, if he could show Maximian the cabbages which he had planted with his own hands at Salona, he should no longer be urged to relinquish the enjoyment of happiness for the pursuit of power. He resided in a magnificent palace, which he had erected about six miles from Salona; and we may infer, from the greatness of the work, how long he had meditated his design of abdicafing the empire. It covered an extent of ground consisting of between nine and ten English acres. The form was quadrangular, flanked with sixteen towers. Two of the sides were near six hundred, and the other two near seven hundred feet in length. The whole was constructed of a beautiful freestone extracted from the neighboring quarries, and very little inferior to marble itself."— Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 9, Attempt to rebuild tlic Temple of Jerufiialem (p. 123, 1145).— "The desire of rebuilding the temple has in every age been the ruling passion of the children of Israel. In this propitious moment, the men forgot their avar- ice, and the women their delicacy; spades and pickaxes of silver were provided by the vanity of the rich, and the rubbish was transported in mantles of silk and purple. Every purse was opened in hberal contributions, every hand claimed a share in the pious labor; and the commands of a great monarch were executed by the enthusi- asm of a whole people. Yet, on this occasion, the joint efforts of power and enthu- siasm were unsuccess%l ; and the ground of the Jewish temple, which is now covered by a Mahometan mosque, still continued to exhibit the same edifying spectacle of ruin and desolation. An earthquake, a whirlwind, and a fiery erup- tion, which overturned and scattered the new foundations of the temple, are attested, with some variations, by contemporary and respectable evidence. Even Ammianus Marcellinus, a contemporary and a pagan, relates that ' whilst Alypius, assisted by the governor of the pri)vince, urged with vigor and diligence the execution of the work, horrible balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, with frequent and reiterated attacks, rendered the place, from time to time. NOTES. inac-cessible to the scorched and blasted workmen ; and, the victorious element continuing in this manner obstinately and resolutely bent, as it were, to drive tlicm to a distance, the undertaking was abandoned.' ^^ —Gibbon. 10. Defeat of Attila (p. 126, ^ 51).— "When the morning broke and re- vealed the extent of the carnage with which the plains were heaped tor miles, the sxiccesslul allies saw also, and respected the resolute attitude of their antagonist. Neither were any measures taken to blockade him in his camp, and so to extort by famine that submission which it was too plainly perilous to enforce with the sword. Attila was allowed to march back the remnants of his army without molestation, and even with the semblance of success. It is probable that the crafty Attius was unwilling to be too victcrious. He dreaded the glory which his allies, the Visigoths, had acquired, and feared that Rome might find a second Alaric in Prince Thorismund, who had signalized himself in the battle, and had been chosen on the field to succeed his father Theodoric. He persuaded the young king to return at once to his capital, and thus relieved himself, at the same time, of the presence of a dangerous friend, as well as of a formidable though beaten foe. Attila's attacks on the western empire were soon renewed, but never with such peril to the civilized world as had menaced it before his defeat at Chalons ; and on his death, two j-ears after that battle, the vast empire which his genius had founded was soon dissevered by the successful revolts ol the subject nations. The name of the Huns ceased for some centuries to inspire terror in Western Europe, and their ascendency passed away with the life of the great king by whom it had been so fearluUy a^ngmsuted."— Creasy. — Fifteen Decisive JSatUes of the World. 11. BrruptioMS Of tlie Barbarians (p. 127, ^ 54).— '< Barbarians are strangers to the refinements of civilization. They rush into war with impetuosity, and prosecute it with violence. Their sole object is to make their .enemies feel the weight of tlieir vengeance ; nor does their rage subside until it be satiated with inflicting on them every possible calamitj'. It was with this spirit that the fierce barbarians in the north of Europe and of Asia, fell upon the Roman empire. Wherever they marched, their route was marked with blood. They ravaged or destroyed all around them. They made no distinction between what was sacred and what was profane. They respected no age, or sex, or rank. What escaped the fury of the first inundation, perished in those which followed it. The most fertile and populous provinces were converted into deserts, in which were scat- tered the ruins of villages and cities, that afforded shelter to a few miserable inhabitants whom chance had preserved, or the sword of the enemy, wearied with destroying, hid spared. The conquerors who first settled in the coimtries which they had wasted, were expelled or exterminated by new invaders, who, coming from regions farther removed from the civilized parts of the world, were still more fierce and rapacious. This brought fresh calamities upon mankind, which did not cease until the north, by pouring forth successive swarms, was drained of people, and could no longer furnish instruments of destruction. Famine and pestilence, which always march in the train of war when it ravages with such incousidei-ate cruelty, raged in every part of Europe, and completed its sufferings. If a man were called to fix upon the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most calamitous and afflicted, he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of Theodosius the Great, to the estabhshment of the Lombards in Italy (a.d. 335-571). The contemporary writers who beheld that scene of desolation, labor and are at a loss for expressions to describe the horrors of it." — Robertson. IProgressive Map, ISTo. 5 'i, §^ 4 ^\ — 1 «\ ^ '-W^r^-^ f \ -^ A^ 'V ^"^ ' ""^ j ^^yj^--'^^'\^ ^ ^'^^'^ \ ~^~:/>Vv^ rt 1 \ iP^ .--- \i)^\\ ^1 ^ fc ^A^ Vv^ V ^^ / \ ^l5^ • \ - ^.^-^•"'^T'^^^^ 7^ ^^^^^-''^^^-^V^i \ -^ ^ \ \^^ I \\S / \ QiJ^ir-r'fi/p^ ^ \ ^ ( Y L,->vT-^-^ -^ -^ -^ \q/ >| C 1 -^ \ Vi \ < ^^/^ vJ^ S;^ \ '*^ \\^^\—-^ W- ) 1 3. ^Jt^il^ _s '^ ■* ( ■:^ '^r 1 ^.r i*\ ^^^ ^>.\1 _S^"'^^' o y, } y^ tf» ^j <^ ; S < ^ITSK^^ r4 ^j: 3 i^ -^ ly \ \A 1 _^ -_^4V — y — — CM tr / J -^ -— — ^ """7 > S.) "/k 2J r-^ydi. o ^ ^ r 1 i;;^- — -^^ ^'S^ &;' V e 1 1 1 1 ■■5 §■■ -^ 0) o r > 1^ s ' h ) ^ a: ~^ tr «y -5- . -f /a ^^ . wi y- -^ i m 'v V^>^ "— t ^f ^^ > 1 « V5 ^ -^ "^ ~^~~~~-4-~L4S^^ ^^^.^.^^\ / «^ (^ 1 */ *, ° • 1 ~3^ wfy£f^f^\^ yiij- ~^ "' y 7 ^>^^^K. ffy'^-^^ 1 TS- )7^-yyliJ^^ Y ^ ^ ifl ^-Sj l-r^~ ■^ ^ "^*-/^ (-^°/^^h: /'^^^^^^--^^^^^ / v^^ ^ -\ / "^'^^^KjT J- "^ \ / ^ -^ ~^/ ■ -y V -5/ 4. 1). 408.] THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 131 PAET II. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. section i. The Easter:^^ Empire. Extending from the Accession of Arcaclius (395 a. d.), to the taking of Constantinople hy the Turks in 1453. 1. The Eastern or Byz'an-tine Empire, or, as it is some- times called, the Greek Empire, was founded in 395 A. c, wlien Tlieodosius, at his death, divided tlie Koman Empire Ijetween his two sons, Honorius and Arcadius, assigning to the latter all the portion lying between the Adriatic Sea and the Tigris Eiver. Arcadius was a weak monarch, who left the administration of the government to ambitious and corrupt ministers, Avhile he lived in oriental luxury, indifferent to his duties and careless of the condition of his subjects. During his reign flourished the virtuous and eloquent Clirys'os-tom,^ archbishop of Constantinople, who was persecuted by the empress Eu-dox'i-a, on account of his firm adherence to the orthodox Christian faith. Arca- dius died in -iOS. "^ 2. The successor of Arcadius was Tlieodosius 11., during * Chti/soslDin is a Greek word which tue'Aus ffohhn-inouth. Map Questions. — (See Progressive Map, No. 5.) How far did the kingdom of the Ostrogoths extend toward the north? Whnt people occupied Italy at the commencement of Justinian's reign ? What people east of the Rhone ? What kingdom comprehended France and a part of Germany ? What people farther east, at the sources of the Danube '? What races had "^scttled on the Danube ? What others farther to the north ? What kingdom occupied Spain ? What king- dom in the north of Africa ? What was the extent of the Eastern Empire at that period ? What empire bordered it on the east ? 1. \\Tien and how was the Eastern Empire foun^lcd ? What was its extent? What is said of Arcadius ? Who flourished during his reign ? 2. Who succeeded Arcadius ? What is said of tlic Huns ? Of Pulcheria ? 132 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. %. D. 534 whose reign the Huns nnaer Attila invaded the empire ; and, having in three battles vanquished the armies sent to oppose them, committed the most dreadful and widespread ravages. They dictated terms of peace in the suburbs of Constantinople, exacting the enormous annual tribute of 2,100 pounds of gold, and the immediate payment of 6,000 pounds. Theodosius was only the nominal sovereign, the government being really administered by his sister Ful- che'ri-a, who, after his death, in 450, was proclaimed em- press, and reigned about three years. 3. During the reign of Ze'^io (the third from Pulcheria), Od-o-a'cer having made himself master of Italy, and de- posed the last emperor, August ulus, ruled the country for 14 years, under the title of King of Italy. His reign was terminated by an invasion of the Ostrogoths under TIlg- cd'o-ric (a. d. 493), who reigned over Italy 33 years, with all the wisdom and moderation of a virtuous and enlight- ened prince. - A large part of the Gothic nation had been transported into Italy, and after its conquest, one-third of all the lands were divided among the followers of Theodo- ric; aud yet, such was the efliciency of his government, that peace and prosperity were everywhere prevalent, and it was a common saying, " that a purse of gold might be safely left in the fields." 4. The famous reign of Jus-tin' i-an over the empire of the East, commenced in 527 a. d., and lasted 38 years. It is remarkable for the code of laws which the emperor caused to be framed, and for the victories of Bel-i-sa'ri-us and Nar'ses, the two greatest generals of the age. The former defeated the Vandals, in Africa, in two great bat- tles, and recovered the provinces which they had subdued (a. d. 534). He next reduced Sicily, and, crossing into 3. During whose reiini flid Odoacer conquer Italy? How and when was Odoa- cer's r(_i<,Mi termiuated? What was the length of Theodoric's reign? What waa it3 character? 4. When did the emperor&ustinian''s reign begin? What was its length ? For what was it remarkable ? W^hat conquests were made by Beliaarius ? A.D. 5G5.] THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 133 Italy, defeated the Goths and captured their capital, Ra- veii'na (539 A. p.). In 544 A. d., the barbarians having, under their king Tot'i-la, again invaded and reconquered Italy, Belisarius waged war against them for five years, but with very inadequate forces, and through the jealousy and unjust suspicions of Justinian, was finally recalled. 5. After several years of retirement, Belisarius, in his old age, was called upon to defend Constantinople ".gainst the Bul-ga'ri-ans and Sla-vo'ni-ans,^ who, after committing frightful ravages in various parts of the empire, threatened Constantinople. The aged hero, by his skill and valor, entirely defeated these fierce barbarians ; but four years afterward, notwithstanding his great services, he was un- justly imprisoned by the emperor on a charge of treason. He was subsequently acquitted, and died in 565. • 6. Meanwhile, the war had been continued against the Goths in Italy. Rome, which had been taken by Totila, and its entire destruction threatened, was recaptured by Narses, and the Goths defeated with great slaughter, their king, Totila, being slain (a. d. 552). After he had gained another great victory over the Goths the next year, and defeated the Franks and other German tribes who had ravaged the peninsula from the Alps to Otranto, Xarses entered Rome as a conqueror, and was afterward appointed by Justinian Exarch of Italy. He fixed his court at Ra- venna, and continued to govern the country till the death of Justinian, in 565, by whose successor he was recalled. He died in Rome a short time afterward, at the age, it is said, of 95. 7. During the reign of Justinian, the ^4 -?Y^?v^',f a race sim- * The Bulrjarinns were the remains of the Huns who, after the death of Attila, retreated to the Euxine and the lake Mieotis,. The Slmonian-'^ were a barbarous race from the plainsof Rus kia, who afterward settled in the viciu'.ty of the Baltic Sea. t iiee Note 1, end of the Section. 5. Who were the Bulgarians and Slavonians ? (See note.) By whom were they defeated ? What further is said of Belisarius ? 6. What victories were gained by Narses ? To what office was he appointed 5 How long did he rule Italy? What was his capital 9. When did his death occur } 1. What is eaid of the Avars ? The Lombards ? TThe Gepidse ? i;U THE EASTERN" EMPIRE. [A. O. 622. ihir ill origin to tlie Huns, fleeing from the Turks, who lived at tluit time near tlie Altai Mountains, crossed the Tcuia-is and Bo-rys'the-nes (Don and Dnieper rivers), and advanced into Poland and Germany. They then passed to the Danube, and, subduing the Bulgarians, took possession of the country which the latter had occupied (Dacia). This period is also noted for the passage to tlie south of the Lombards,'^ who had been invited by the emperor to enter Noricum and Pannonia, in order to check the advance of another barbarous race called the Gep'i-dcB. These, after a thirty years' war, were almost entirely exterminated by the Lombards, under Al'bo-in, assisted by the Avars, the latter of whom continued to occupy Dacia, and some of the adja- cent countries, for more than two centuries. 8. In the reign of Justin II., the successor of Justinian, the Lombards, under Alboin, entered Italy (a. d. 5G8), being invited, as it is said, by Narses, in revenge for the affront of his recall. In a short time they conquered the whole country, except a small portion which continued, under the name of the Exarchate of Ravenna, in possession of the Eastern Empire. The kingdom of the Lombards in Italy lasted more than two centuries, their seat of govern- ment being Pa via. The famous iron crown of the Lom- bards is said to have been presented to one of their queens by the celebrated Koman pontiff, Gregorij tlie Great, as a reward for converting the king to the Catholic faith (about GOO A. D.). 9. The reigns of Justinian and several of his successors were mucli disturbed by the encroachments of Persia, then (he most extensive and powerful monarchy of the East: ijut the emperor He-rac'li-us, in the beginning of the seventh century (622-628), in three remarkable expedi- * Or Loiujohardf, meaning men with lonj; beards. 8. Wheii did the Lomhards invade Italy ? Why ? What part of it did they con- quer '? How Ions; did their kingdom laaiiia*cus (p. 135, ^ 10).— "This renowned and beautiful city, one of the largest and most magnificent of the East, and reputed to be the oldest in the world, stood in a plain of wonderlul richness and fertility, covered with groves and gardens, and bounded by an amphitheater of hills, the skirts of Mount Lebanon. A river, called by the ancients Chrysorrhea, or the stream of gold, flows through this plain, feeding the canals and water-courses of its gardens, and the fountains of the city. The commerce of the place bespoke the luxuriance of the soil; dealing in wines, silks, wool, prunes, raisins, figs of unrivaled flavor, sweet-scented waters and perfumes. The fields were covered with odoriferous flowers, and the rose of Damascus has become famous throughout the world. This is one of the few, the very few, cities famous in ancient times, which still I'etaiu a trace of ancient de- lights. 'The citron,' says a recent traveler, 'perfumes the air for many miles round the city; and the fig-trees are of vast size. The pomegranate and orange grow in thickets. There is the trickling of water on every hand. Wherever you go there is a trolling brook, or a full and silent stream beside the track; and you have frequently to cross from one vivid green mea low to another by fording, or by little bridges. These streams are all from the river beloved by Naaman of old. He might well ask whether the Jordan was better than Pharpar and Abana, the rivers of Damascvis.' In this city, too, were invented those silken stuff's called damask from the place of their origin, and those swords and scimetars proverbial for their matchless temper." — Irving. — Mahomet and Ids Successors. 3. Destruction of I lie Alexandrian Library (p. 135, ^ 10).— "In an evil hour, John the Grammarian, being encouraged by the favor shown him by the Arab general, revealed to him a treasure hitherto unnoticed, or rather unval- ued by the Moslem conquerors. This was a vast collection of books or manu- scripts, since renowned in history as the Alexandrian Library. Perceiving that in taking account of everything valuable in the city, and sealing up all its treasures, Amru had taken no notice of the books, John solicited that they might be given to him. Unfortunately, the learned zeal of the grammarian gave a consequence to the books in the eyes of Amru, and made him scrupulous of giving them away without permission of the Caliph. He forthwith wrote to Omar, stating the merits of John, and requesting to know whether the books might be given to him. The reply of Omar was laconic, but fatal: ' The contents of those books,' said he, KOTES. ' are in conformity with the Koran, or they are imt. If they are, the Koran ia sufficient without them ; if they are not, they are pernicious. Let, them, there- lore, be destroj-ed.' Amru, it is said, obeyed the order puuctually. The books aud mamiscripts were distributed as fuel among the tive thousand baths of the city ; but so numerous were they tLat it took six mouths to consume them." — I'ving. — Mahomet and his Successors. 4. Early History ol" tlie Rui^siaii!ii (p. 136, U 13).— " It is impossible for the historian to derive the Russians from any race of the continent of Asia. Whatever may have taken place in the period to which their annals do not ascend, aud respecting which no clear allusions are to be found in foreign historians, to us they appear in the light of aboriginal inhabitants of the provinces which now con- stitute the center of the empire. From the first they present themselves with a language and character of their own; they have no community with the Tartars, or with the Goths ; they were distinct from the Huns, though they may have served under the banners of Attila, in the time of his glory, aud may afterwards have received among themselves the fragments of a nation whose season of power had been so short and yet so destructive. * * * rpi^g llussian, there- fore, is, of all the present European peoples, the one which may lay the best grounded claims to antiquity of i-esidence in its present abodes. In the darkness of ancient centuries, extended over vast plains, into which the genius of Greece and the arms of Rome never penetrated, this people were slowly ripening to na- tionality dtiring the ages of classic splendor, when Solon gave laws to the Atheni- ans, and Rome strove alter principles of public justice and liberty."— ^ancro/l 5. The Scljuks (p. 137, IT 14).— "The Seljuks were a tribe of Turcomans, followers and subjects of their great chief Seljuk, who first became distinguished in history by the conquests of tlie Sultan Mahmoud, who was succeeded by Alp Arslan (Tlie Lion), under whom the Emperor Romanus was defeated and taken prisoner. During the negotiations for his release, Alp Arslan asked him what treatment he expected to receive, and the calm indifference of the emperor disphiys the freedom of his mind. ' If you are cruel,' said he, ' you will take my Ufe; if you listen to pride, you will drag me at your chariot- wheels ; if you consult your interest, you will accept a ransom, and restore me to my country.' * And what,' continued the Sultan, ' would have been your behavior, had fortune smiled on your arms ? ' The reply of the Greek betrays a sentiment which prudence, and even gratitude, should have taught him to suppress. 'Had I vanquished,' he fiercely said, 'I would have inflicted on thy body many a stripe.' Tlie Turkish conqueror smiled at the insolence of his captive; observed that the Christian law inculcated forgive- ness of injuries; and nobly declared that he would not imitate an example which he coudemned. After mature deliberation. Alp Arslan dictated the terms of liberty and peace. — a ransom of a million, an annual tribiite of three hundred and sixty thousand pieces of gold, the marriage of the royal children, and the deliv- erance of all the Moslems who were in the power of the Greeks." — Gibbon. 6. Taking: of Jerusaleiu by tiie Crus.iders (p. 137, If 15)— "Daily, for eight days, and barefooted, the crusaders had walked in procession round Jerusa- lem; which done, a general assault was made by the whole arm}', Godfrey's tower rolled to the walls, and on Friday, the 15th of July, 1099, at three o'clock, on the. very day, and the very hour of the Passion, Godfrey of Bouillon descended from his tower on the walls of Jerusalem. The city was taken, aud a fearlul massacre followed; for the crusaders, in their blind fury, not taking into account the dis- tance of time, beMeved that in each infidel they slew in Jerusalem, they put to death one of the executioners of Jesus Christ."— J/ tc/te^ei. — History of France,. 142 THE DARK AGES. section ii. The Dark Ages, Extending fiom the Invasion of Gaul by the Pranks to the End of (hi Saracen Empire (a. d. 1258). 1. The history of the Darh Ages, so called from the universal ignorance and superstition that prevailed during that period, is the history of the various warlike and bar- barous nations that, migrating from the north and east, overwhelmed the Roman Empire, and, occupying the dif- ferent districts of Europe, laid the foundation of the present nations found in those countries. Most of these barbarous tribes have already been referred to and briefly described ia connection with the history of the two divisions of the Roman Empire; but in this section there is presented a more specific account of those whose influence was espe- cially powerful and wide-spread, and whose more durable institutions have affected the character and condition of the modern world. These are, the Franks, the SaxonSy the Saracens, and the Xormans. The Franks. 2. The Franfcs^oY Freemen, were a confederation of German tribes living in the country near the lower part * Sve Nutti 1, end o/ the Section. Map Qitestions.— (See Progressive Map. No. 6.) How far did the empire of Charlemagne extend from east to west ? What river was its eastern boundary ? How far did it extend toward the south?— ^re."?. To Gaeta, in Italy. How far did it extend toward the i^ovXh 'i— Arts. To the Baltic Sea. What state occupied the southeastern part of France ? The southwestern part ? What monarchy occupied both sides of the Lower Danube ? What people dwelt in the districts of the Upper Danube ? What people occirpied both banks of the Oder ? What race lived in the regions near the Elbe and Rhine ? What monarchy occupied nearly »11 Spain ? To what part of Spain had the Visigorhs retired ? What kingdom existed in the north- ern part of Africa ? What wasits capital ? Where waslhe Caliphate of Bagdad ? 1. What is said of the history of the Dark Ages? Why are they so called? Which were the most important of the barbaric nations ? 2. Who were the Franks ? When did Clovis invade Gaul ? Who was he ? Wlial were his other chief conquests and victories ? Whore was Burgundy ? Progressive Map, DSTo, 6 -^ — /^ \ /^ f^ 1 "^ 9 ^ 'i: ^V § rt p^\ i -! \H cr ^ .V.^ -Xv 4.1>. oil.] TIEE DARK AGES. 143 of the Rhine, who in the third centnry successfully opposed the Eomans, committing great devastations throughout Gaul and Spain. In the fifth century (a. d. 486), Clo'vis, chief of a tribe known as the Sa'lian Franks, invaded Gaul, and having victoriously overrun the greater part of it, founded therein a new monarchy, the capital of which he fixed at Lu-te'tia, or Paris.* He chose for his queen Clo-til'da, a Christian princess, and niece of the king of Burgundy, a country situated east of the Rhone ; and through her in- fluence he embraced Cliristianity. He gained several great victories over the Al-le-man'ni — a powerful confederation of German tribes — and defeated the Burgundians and tlie Visigoths, the latter of whom were deprived of nearly all their possessions in Gaul. \_See Xote 2, end of Section.^ 3. After the death of Clovis (511), his extensive domin- ions Avere divided among his sons, and thus Avere formed three kingdoms : 1. ^?^5-^?-a'.^?"r^, east of the Rhine ; 2. JVeiis'- tria, north of the Loire; and 3. Aqiiitaine {ah'we-tain), between the Loire (Iwar) and the Pyrenees. These Avere afterward united under a single monarch, and increased by the annexation of Burgundy, A\diich Avas obtained by con- quest. Thus the monarchy of the Franks became more powerful and extensive than any other formed by the Bar- barians, and was the only one that Avas durable. In the liis- tory of France, Clovis and his descendants are called the Mer-o-vin'gi-ans, from Mer-o-vce'ns, one of their ancestors. This dynasty lasted a little more than 250 years (486-752). 4. The immediate successors of Clovis Avere noted for their constant dissensions, their vices, and the dreadful crimes which they perpetrated to obtain possession of each other's dominions. Some were great Avarriors, like CIoahs * LuMi'i was the name griven by the Romans to the collection of huts built of mud (htiinn\ and inhabited bv a (iallic tribe called the Pariaii, from whom it was afterward called Paris. 3. How were the dominions of Clovi;? divided at his death ' What is said of the monarchy of the Franks ? AA'ho were the Merovingians ? How long did the dy- nasty last ? 4. What is said of the successors of Clovis? Who were the "Mayors of the Palace V When did Pepin d'Heristal rule ? 144 THE DARK AGES. [A. D. 774. himself; but for more tluui a century previous to" thetermi- inition of the dynasty, they were but nominally kings [called Faineants {fa-na-ong) — Do-uof kings], all the royal power being exercised by the great ministers, styled Mayors of the Palace. This high oftice was made hereditary by Pep' in iVIIer-is-tai:, who held it from G87 to 714. 5. He was succeeded by the famous Charles Mar-tel' (the llaiiiiner), who, when the Saracens, after completing the conquest of Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, threatening not only the subjugation of France but of all Europe, met them near Tours (toor), and inflicted upon them so severe a defeat, that they were completely checked in their long tide of conquests (732). 6. Pepin the Short,* the successor of Charles Martel, having rendered important aid in repelling the Lombards from Rome, was, by the authority of Pope Zach'arg, placed ui)on the throne of the Franks, and the weak Chil'de-ric, the last of the Merovingians, was formally deposed (752). 'I'hus commenced the Carlovingian dynasty. This period is also noted for the termination of the rule of the Eastern emperors in Italy, and the commencement of the temporal dominion of the Roman Pontiff, Avhose government of the territories previously included within the Exarchate of Ra- venna, w^as acknowledged and sustained by Pepin. 7. At the death of Pepin (708), his tw^o sons Car'lo-man and Charles succeeded, but the former dying, Charles [afterward known as Charlemagne {shar'le-malioi) — Charles the Great] became the sole monarch of the Franks, and the ruler over not only France, but a large part of Ger- many, lie made war upon the Lombards in Italy, and having taken Pavia, their capital (774), put an end to this * So called from his vc'o- low stature, heing it is said only four and a half feet hijih; while his I'Ui Dharieniagne was seven feet in he:.u,ht. 5 . By whom was he pucceeded ? What great victoiy did Charles Martol - s. 1 S. "^Tio were the Saracens ? 19. Who v.-as Mahomet, and what were the first elTects of his preaching? Wh<'n did the Hegira occur? 20. When did his doctrine gain credence, and what was the result ? 150 THE DARK AGES. [A. D. 655. 21. The impostor had not only conquered Arabia, but had commenced the conquest of Syria, when death stopped him in his successful career, at the age of 63 (a.d. 632). lie was succeeded by A-bu'he-ker, styled the First Calijjh (i. e. vicar), who collected the fragmentary writings of Mohammed, and formed from them the sacred book called by his followers the Ko'ran. He also prosecuted the con- quest of Syria, defeated, by means of his general, Ca!hd (called the "Sword of God"), Heraclius, the Greek em- peror, and took Damascus. Under his successor, O'mar, Jerusalem was taken (a. d. 637), and all Syria subdued; Egypt was conquered, and the Persians defeated in a great battle, at Ca-de'sia, on the Tigris Eiver. 22. This caliph, it is said, during a reign of ten years, reduced 36,000 cities and villages, demolished 4,000 Chris- tian churches, and erected 1500 Mohammedan temples, called mosques. He was succeeded by Otliman, who com- pleted the conquest of Persia and other eastern countries, extended his dominion in Africa, and published a new edi- tion of the Koran. C3rprus and Khodes were also taken, the Saracens at the latter place destroying the famous brazen Co-los'sus,* or statue of Phoe'bus, the god of the sun. The murder of Othman made Ali (ah'le) caliph, considered the bravest and most virtuous of the successors of Mohammed (a. d. 655). 23. The reign of Ali is noted for the schism which occurred among these fierce zealots, by which the whole Mohammedan world became divided into two parties, called the Sun'nttes and the SJd'Ues, the former acknowledging * This celebrated stRtue was erected 300 b. c. It was formed of metal, cast in separate pieces, Wrts about 100 feet high, and took twelvej'ears to complete it. It was thrown down by an eMrtiiqitake. about sixty years after its erSltion, and remained in ruins nearly nine centuries. The Saracens caused it to be broken up and sold. 2 1 . When did Mohair med's death occur, and by whom was he succeeded ? What was done by Abu-i:)ekir? What conquests were made by Caled? What was achieved under Omar? 22. How many cities, etc., were taken under Omar ? By whom was he succeeded? What were the chief events of Othman's reign ? W^ho was his successor * 23. What schism occurred while Ali was caliph ? What usurpation took place, and what dynasty was founded ? A. ». 711.1 THE DARK AGES. 151 the authority of all the caliphs, while the latter reject all l)nt Ali, whom they regard as the equal of Mohammed. The Shiites also reject the Sun'nali, a book of traditions concerning the prophet, which the Sunnites, or orthodox Mohammedans, receive as sacred. During the reign of Ali, Mo-a-wi'yah usurped the government of Syria, and by the murder of Ali, became caliph, lie was the first of the d3^nasty called the Om-mi-ya'dcs, which lasted till 752. 24. MoaAviyah fixed his capital at Damascus, and, by his A-'}nir-al-ma (captain at sea; hence our word admiral) and his lieutenant Ak'hali, continued the conquest of northern Africa, founding south of Tunis the famous city of Kairwan {hire-walin ). It was the army of this caliph that besieged Constantinople, and was repulsed by means of the Greek fire, so efficiently employed by its defenders (668- 675). About forty years afterward (717) Constantinople was again attacked by an army of Saracens, said to num- ber 120,000 men ; but, after a siege of thirteen months, was relieved by the Bulgarians, wdio fell upon the Sai-acens, and defeated them with immense slaughter. 25. Carthage was taken by the Saracens in 608, and utterly destroyed, after which they encountered no opposi- tion in Africa except from the native Berber tribes, whom they finally subdued (709) and converted. From the union of the Arabic and Berber races sprung the Moors, so noted in Saracenic history. The conquest of Africa was immediately followed by that of Spain ; for Mu'sa, the Saracen general, dispatched his lieutenant Ta'rih across the strait of Gib- raltar (Gih-cl-Tarih — mountain of Tarik) with an army, which defeated Roderick, the last of the Visigothic kings, and thus destro3^ed their monarchy in Spain, after an ex- istence of more than two centuries (711).* A remnant of "* It is said that the Saracens were invited into Spain by Count Jiih'nn. a Gothic noble, in re- Tenge for an injury inflicted upon him by King Roderick, [See N'te 9.] 24. What was the capital micler Moawiyah ? What were the chief eveats of his reign ? When was Constantinople attacked, and how was it saved ? 25. What account is given of the conquest of Africa? Of Spain? What !)©• came of the Coths ? 152 THE DARK AGES. [A. I>. 808. the Gotliic nation, however, escaped to the highlands among the Astnrian monntains, where they snccceded in maintaining their independence for many centuries. 26. Crossing the Pyrenees, the yictorions Saracens were still pressing on in their career of conquest when they were defeated, in a battle that lasted seven days, by the renowned Charles Martel, who by his valor and skill probably rescued Europe from the Mohammedan yoke (732). His grandson Charlemagne more than fifty years afterward drove them beyond the Ebro, and thus confined them to their do- minions in Spain. The Ommiade dynasty of caliphs was, in the middle of the eighth century (752), succeeded by theAd- bas'i-des, descendants of Ab'bas, the uncle of Mohammed; but one of the Ommiyades, escaping to Spain, founded an independent caliphate at Cor'do-va, which lasted 250 years, and was one of the largest and most splendid centres of commerce, literature, and the arts in the world. 27. Al Mansur {rnau-soor'), the second of the Abbasides, removed the capital to the Tigris, fouuding there the city of Bagdad, which was built out of the ruins of Seleucia and Ctesiphon (762). The most celebrated of the caliphs of Bagdad was Ha'roun-al-Rasch'icl (Aaron the Just), made familiar both to young and old by the tales of the " Arabian Nights." During this reign (786-808), and several succeed- ing reigns, literature and science, particularly astronomy, were carried to a very high degree of perfection both at Cordova and Bagdad, while nearly all Europe was slum- bering in the intellectual night of the dark ages. 28. After the reign of Haroun al Kaschid, the Saracen empire became divided by the rebellion and usurpation of the provincial governors, so that, in the beginning of the 26. What stopped the Saracens in their career of conquest? When did the Ommiade dynasty cease, and by whom was it succeeded ? What was established at Cordova ? 27. Who founded Ba<;dad ? What is said of Haroun al Raschid? What pro- gress was made in literature and science by the Saracens ? 28. How was the empire afterward divided ? How many caliphates were there in the tenth century ? Which was the most distinguished ? How long did the Fatimites continue iu power ? By whom were they "succeeded at Cairo f A. D. 1258.] THE DARK AGES. 153 10th century, tliere were no less than seven caliphates, all of wliom acknowledg-ed the caliph of Bagdad only as the successor of Moliammed, denying to him any temporal authority over their respective dominions. Of these inde- pendent kingdoms the most distinguished was that of the Fat'i-m'ites^ in Africa, Avhose capital was Cairo (ki'ro), and who continued in power till 1171, when the last of the dynasty was succeeded by the fiimoiis SaXa-din. 29. In the eleventh century (1055), Bagdad Avas taken by the Seljuks ; but these fierce barbarians, being believers in Mohammed, acknowledged the caliphs of Bagdad as their superiors. The power, hoAvever, of the latter had been greatly diminished ; and their dominions scarcely extended beyond the Avails of the city. At length, in 1258, during the reign of the grandson of Jenghis Khan, Bagdad was taken and sacked by the Mongols ; and the caliphate ex- tinguished, after it had existed nearly 500 years. This is generally regarded as the termination of the Saracen em- pire, although, centuries before, its various parts had been but nominally connected. The Feudal System. 30. The prevailing system by which, during the period from the 9th to the 13th century, social and political rela- tions, including particularly the rights of property, were regulated in nearly all the countries of Europe, Avas called the Feudal System, a feudal proprietor being a person Avho held his lands from another, on condition of certain ser- vices Avhich he, as a vassal, was bound to perform for the other, as a suzerain or superior. * So called because they were believed to be the descendants of Fatinia, the daughter of Mo- haiuQied. 29. By whom was Bagdad taken in the eleventh century ? When and iu wha^ way did the Saracen empire terminate ? 30. What was the feudal system ? AVhat was meant by a feudal proprietor? lo-i THE DARK AGES. 31. With the exception of the duty of military service to their superiors, the vassals of a king practically were invested with sovereign power within their own dominions, having vassals in various degrees beneath them ; and living in their fortified castles, often by means of pillage, while the peasantry were bound as serfs, or slaves, to the soil. 32. The feudal nobles and gentlemen fought on horse- back, and were protected by a close-fitting armor of steel, often ornamented with gold and silver. Their principal weapons of offence were long lances, Avith which they rode fiercely against each other ; and clubs, maces, or swords for hand-to-hand conflicts when their lances were broken, or when the combatants became unhorsed. The common soldiers fought on foot, were unprovided with protective armor, and used bows and arrows, — either long-bows or cross-bows. The Normans were skilled in the use of every species of arms, but particularly in the cross-bow; and, after the Norman invasion, the English became the most skilful archers in the world. Cannon c;ne (p. 145, T8).— "A strong sympathy for intellectual excellence was the leading characteristic of Charlemagne, and this undoubtedly biased him in the chief political error of his conduct, that of encour- aging the power and pretensions of the hierarchy. But perhaps his greatest eulogy is written in the disgrace of succeeding times, and the miseries of Europe. He stands alone like a beacon upon a waste or a rock in the broad oceau. His scepter was as the bow of Ulysses, which could not be drawn by any weaker hand. In the dark ages of European history, the reign of Charlemagne affords a solitary resting- place between two long periods of turbulence and ignominy, deriving the advanta- ges of contrast both from that of the preceding dynasty, and of a posterity for whom he had formed an empire which they were unworthy and unequal to main- tain." — Hallam.— Europe during the Middle Ages. 4. Hollo, Duke of Norniandj (p. 146, H 11).— " When the new duke was to receive investiture of Normaudy from Charles, his pride was startled at the form which required him, in acknowledgment of the favor bestowed on him, to kueel to his liege lord, and kiss his foot. ' My knee shall never bend to mortal,' said the haughty Normau; 'and I will be, on no account, persuaded to kiss the foot of any one whatever,' The French couuselors present suggested that this dilfi- culty might be surmounted by RoUo, or Robert, appointing a deputy to kiss, in his name, the foot of Charles. Accordingly, the duke commanded a common soldier to perform the ceremony in his stead. The man showed the small value he attached NOTES. to the ceremony, by the careless aud disrespectful manner in which he performed it. Instead of kneeling to sahite the royal foot, he caught it up and performed the ceremony by lifting it to his mouth. In this awkward operation, the rude Norman well-uigh overturned the simple king, throne and all, and exposed him to the laughter of all around." — Scott. 5. Saxon Coiiquei<>t of Britain (p. 148, U 15).— " Thus was established, after a violent contest of near a hundred and fifty years, the Heptarchy, or seven Saxon kingdoms in Britain; and the whole southern part of the island, except Wales and Cornwall, had totally changed its inhabitants, language, customs, aud political institutions. The Britons, under the Roman dominion, had made such advances towards art-s and civil manners, that they had built twenty-eight consid- erable cities within their province, besides a great number ot villages and country- seats; but the fierce conquerors by whom they were now subdued, threw every- thing back into ancient barbarity; and those few natives who were not either mas- sacred or expelled their habitations, were reduced to the most ahject slavery." — Hume.— History of England. 6. Tl>e Nortliiiieii, or i>aiies (p. 148, If 17).— ''The northern part of Europe, peopled by a race closely akin to the Low-Dutch, and speaking another dialect of the common Teutonic speech, now began to send forth swarms of pirates over all the seas of Europe, who from pirates often grew into conquerors. They were still heathens; and their incursions, both in Britain and on the Continent, must have been a scourge almost as frightful as the settlement of the English had been to the original Bvitona."— Freeman. — History of the Norman Conquest. 7. lYIalioitftet, Of ITlolAainmed (p. 149, If 19).—" Mahomet, or more properly Mohammed, was born at Mecca, four years after the death of Justinian, and two mouths after the defeat of the Abyssinians. whose victory would have in- troduced into the Caaba the religion of the Christians. In his early infancy, he Avas deprived of his father, his mother, and his grandfather; his uncles were strong and numerous; and, in the division of the inheritance, the orphan's share was reduced to five camels and an Ethiopian man-servant. At home and abroad, in peace aud war, Abu Taleb, the most respectable of his uncles, was the guide aud guardian of his youth. In his twenty-fifth year, he entered into the service of Cadijah, a rich and noble widow of Mecca, who soon rewarded his fidelity with the gift of her hand and fortune. By this alliance, the son of Abdallah was restored to the station of his ancestors; and the judicious matron was content with bis domes- tic virtues, till, in the fortieth year of his age. he assumed the title of a pi-ophet, and proclaimed the religion of the Koran." — Gibbon. 8. Doctrine of ITloltaEUined (p. 149, H 20).— ''Mohammed inculcated the belief that there is, was, aud ever will be, one only God, the creator of all things ; who is single, immutable, omniscient, omnipotent, all merciful, and eternal. The imity of God was specifically and- strongly urged, in contradistinction to the Trinity of the Christians. It was designated, in the profession of faith, by raising one finger, and exclaiming, 'There is no God but God,'— to which is added, ' Mo- hammed is the prophet of God.' "—Irving.—Mahomet and his Successors. 9. Roderick, the Last of tlie Ootlis (p. 151, «lf 25). -"Amidst the general disorder, Eoderick started from his car, and mounted Orelia, the fleetest of his steeds; but he escaped from a soldier's death to perish more ignobly in the waters of the Guadalquivir. His diadem, his robes, and his courser, were found on the bank; but as the body of the Gothic prince was lost in the waves, the pride and ignorance of the Caliph must have been gratified with some meaner head, which was exposed in triumph before the palace of Damascus."— Gibbon. A.D. 827.] ENGLAND IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 157 SECTION III. EXGLAKD IN THE MiDDLE AgES, Extending from the Foundation of the Anglo-Saxon Monarchy under Egbert (837) to tlw Accession of Henry VII. (1485). 1. Egbert and his successors, the Saxon kings of Eng- land, held the throne a little over two centuries (827-1060) The most eminent among the latter was Alfred the Great, who was the most illustrious monarch of his age (871-901), and one of the wisest and most virtuous kings that ever reigned. Though at one time entirely overwhelmed by the Danes, who had long disturbed the kingdom by their irrup- tions, and though reduced to such an extremity that he was obliged to seek safety in an obscure part of the country, in the disguise of a peasant, he at last by his fortitude and address Avas enabled to defeat his enemies, and to regain his throne. The Danes being expelled, he restored tranquillity to the country, and endeavored, by judicious measures, to l)romote the prosperity and civilization of the people. He founded the University of Oxford, improved the laws of the kingdom, and established schools for the education of the people. [See Note 1, end of the Section.'] 2. The continued struggle with the Danes forms the most prominent feature of the Saxon iiistory of England. Ediuard, surnamed 'the Elder, the son and successor of Alfred, and Edward's successor, Ath'el-stan, were distin- Map Questions —(Map, page 158.) What cities and to\^Tis near the southeri. coast of England ? What cities and towns near the boundary of Wales ? In the northern part of England ? In the eastern part ? Where is Bosworth ? Edge UiU ? Northampton ? What cities and towns in the southeni part of Scotland ? In the northern part ? In what part of Ireland is Dublin ? Drogheda ? Londonderry ? Gal way ' Cork ? In what part of Wales is Milford Haven ? Caernarvon ? 1 How long did E^-bert and his successors hold the English throne '? Who was the most eminent of the Saxon kings ? What was his character ? The chiel events ° a^N^'hat constitutes the chief feature of the Saxon history ? A\Tiat kings de feaiedthe Danes? What massacre was committed? The consequence of itl How did Canute become king? 158 EXGLA^'-D IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.B.I 01 3. guislied for the victories Avhicli they gained over these fierce and persevering invaders. During the reign of Etli! el-red, surnamed the Unreadij, a l^arbarous massacre, ordered by orhnes J^lathda lO Xong. 8 'West G ironL ^ XoadoiL 2 the king, of all the Danes who had settled in any part of the country, so incensed Siveyn (swane), king of Denmark, that he raised an immense army, with which he invaded the kingdom, and having compelled Ethelred to flee, caused A. D. 1017.] E:N'GLAND liN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 159 himself to be proclaimed king of England (1013). On his deatli, Ethelred Avas restored to the throne ; but his suc- cessor, Edmund Ironside, Avas defeated by an army of Danes under Can'icte\t\\Q successor of SA\'e3'n, and com- pelled to surrender one-half of his dominions to the yictor, who, a short time afterAvard, by the death of Edmund, be- came sole monarch of England (1017). 3. Canute, surnamed the Great, Avas an able and politic monarch, Avhose rule, although at first se\^ere and cruel, became afterAvard so popular from its efficiency and mod- eration, that the Anglo-Saxon people forgot that they had been subjugated; and after his death (1035) Canute Avas as much lamented as Alfred or Athelstan. He was succeeded by his son, Harold Harefoot, so called from his fondness for the chase and his SAviftness in running. At his death, his brother Hardicanute obtained the throne, after Avhom tlie English succeeded in throAving off the Danish yoke, and the Saxon line Avas restored in the person of Edivard, sur- named the Con'fessor, on account of his fondness for learn- ing, his studions habits, and his distaste for actiA'e pursuits. He \^as canonized by the Pope, and \^ery much re\'ered by his people, Avho imputed to him the power of curing the scrofula by the touch of his hand. Hence, this disease AA'as called the " king's evil ;" and for seven centuries those afflicted Avitli it Avere, at times, presented to the king to be cured in this Avay. I. EdAvard dying without heirs, the croAvn was conferred by the clergy and nobles upon Harold, son of Earl GodAvin, the most powerful nobleman of the time, whose daughter EdAvard had married. Harold was also, through his grandmother, a descendant of SAveyn, the Danish king. His right to the throne was, hoAveA^r, disputed by his brother Tos'tig, Avho, Avith the aid of the kings of Scotland and Korway, Avas enabled to raise a large army, Avhich was ,S. AVhat was the character of Canute? What other Danish kings reiffncdi AVhat is said of Edward the Confessor ? 4 Who succeeded him ? AVhat victory did Harold gain ? IGO ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.». 1068. defeated by the English forces under Harold, after a severe battle fought near the Der'tvent River, in the northern part of England (Sept. To, 1066). 5. Three days after this battle, a more powerful com- petitor for the throne landed on the southeastern sliore of England, with a large and finely ec]uii)ped army. This was William, Duke of Normandy, to whom Edward had bequeathed the throne, and whose claim was sanctioned by the Pope; while Harold, who, it was said, had sacredly promised not to dispute William's claim, was viewed by many as guilty of usurpation and perjury. Harold, not- withstanding his recent conflict with the Norwegians, marched with all the forces he could collect to oppose the Normans. The battle, which was long and bloody, Avas fought near Hastings,^ and resulted in the entire defeat of the Saxons, Harold himself being slain (Oct. 14, 1066). This ended the Saxon dynasty, and gave the control of the kingdom to AVilliam, who, two months afterward, was for- mally crowned king of England in AVestminster Abbey (Dec. 25, 1066). [See Note 2, end of Section.! NoEMAN Kings. 6. William I., surnamed the Conqueror, was a descend- ant of the famous duke Eollo, to whom Charles the Simple had ceded Normandy about 150-^ars previously. He was not only a brave and skilful general, but an able statesman ; and, after subduing all the Anglo-Saxon leaders who op- posed his rule, he, by severe but judicious regulations, firmly established the government, and effectually protected the country from foreign invasions. The Saxon population was, however, reduced to a condition of abject bondage to the great Norman barons, among whom most of the lands * Ou the site of the town now called Battle, in the southeastern part of England. (See Map.) 5. Who invaded England ? On what did William base his claim to the throne ? Where was Harold defeated? What followed the battle of Hastings ? 6. Who Avas William the Conqueror? What was his character? By what measures did he complete the conquest ? "What was the condition of the Saxons i A.I>. 1087.J ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 101 were divided as a reward for their services, according to the usages of the feudal system. Tlie laMS of Edward the Confessor Avere not, however, aholished ; and some of the Saxon nobles sat in council with the Norman counts. 7. AYilliam instituted the custom of ringing the curfew- hell in tlie evening, as a signal that the people should ex- tinguish their lamps and tires, either to prevent conflagra- tions, or secret assemblies of those who were hostile to his government. One of his most useful acts was to cause the compilation of the Domesday Booh, which Avas a register of all the estates in the kingdom. Hunting was his favor- ite amusement; and in order to make a new forest near his residence, he laid waste a tract of country extending thirty miles, driving out the inhabitants, demolishing houses and even churches, but making no compensation for the injury. To kill game in any of the forests was made a crime of greater enormity than murder. He died during an invasion of France in the twenty-third year of his reign (1087). [See Note ^, end of the Section:] 8. Wiliiam II., surnamed Ruftis, the Red, from the color of his hair, succeeded to the throne of England, by the will of his father, while his elder brother Eobert as- sumed the government of Normandy. William inherited the courage and much of the ability of his father, but was more cruel and unprincipled. His reign was much dis- turbed by quarrels with his brothers Robert and Henry, which caused him to invade Normandy. He also waged war with Malcolm, king of Scotland. During this period i\\Q first crusade occurred; and Eobert, wishing to join it, sold to William his duchy of Normandy (1095), the lattei raising the money to pay for it by forced levies upon his subjects, even compelling the convents to melt their plate in order to furnish their quota. After a reign of 13 years, 7. What was the curfea' f The Domesday Book ? The New Forest ? 8. What was the character of William II. ? What were the chief events of his reign ? How was his death caused ? Why was it considered a just retribution ? 162 ENGLAIS^D IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1135. he was accidentally shot while hviiiting in the New Forest (1100). The people viewed this as a just retribution; for where the Conqueror had destroyed the homes of the Saxons, his son prematurely and miserably perished.* 9. Henry I. (surnamed Beauderk, the Scholar), the younger brother of William II., succeeded him ; Eobert, the elder brother, being absent in the Holy Land. The latter, on his return, again received Normandy; but some- time afterward, war arising between the brotliers, Robert was made ])risoner, sent to England, and confined in a castle in Wales till his death. The government of Henry was characterized by severity ; and so strict and impartial was he in administering the laws, that he was styled the " Lion of Justice." His private life was, however, very im- moral; and he w^as so deceitful and treacherous that even his greatest favorites distrusted him. The latter part of his life was saddened by the loss of his only son, who was droAvned on his passage from Normandy; after which event, it is said, Henry was never seen to smile. His death occurred in 1135. 10. Stephen, a nephew of Henry, succeeded him, al- though it had been his cherished wish that his daughter Matilda should have the throne. This princess, whose first husband was the emperor of Germany, and who afterward married Geoffrey Plan-tag' e-net, Earl of Anjou, raised an army, and having defeated Stephen and made him a pris- oner, was declared queen of England (1141). She, how- ever, soon disgusted all her English friends and supporters by her despotic and arrogant behavior ; and Stephen was enabled to regain the throne, Matilda being compelled to llee. 11. Some years after this, Henry Plantagenet, her son, made another effort to dethrone Stephen, but was finally * See Note 4, end of the Section. 9. Who succeeded William IT. ? What is said of Robert ? Describe the govern- ment of Henry I. What was hit* character ? Effect of the loss of Prince Henry ? 1 0. Who succeeded Henry I. ? What was done by Matilda ? 1 1 . What was done by Henry Plantagenet ? From what did the country suffer? A.U.I 154.] Eiq^GLAl^D IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 163 reconciled to tlie king, being adopted by him as his son and successor ; soon after which, on the death of Stephen, he became king (1154). During the reign of Stephen, on account of the weakness of the government, the country suffered greatly from the violence and rapacity of the feudal barons, each of Avhom occupied a fortified castle, from which, at the head of his band of mercenary ruffians, he sallied forth day and night to plunder and oppress the in- habitants. Stephen was the last of the direct Norman line. The Plantagexets. 12. Henry II., the first of the Plantagenets,* had mar- ried Eleanor, duchess of Guienne {glie-en'), the divorced queen of Louis VIL, king of France ; and thus, at his ac- cession, he became the ruler not only of England l)ut of the greater part of France. His first acts were to reduce the refractory nobles to o1)edience ; and, dispossessing them of their strongholds, to compel them to discontinue their law- less violence and pillage. His next object was to reform the abuses and correct the vices of the clergy, Avho, being by the institutions of William the Conqueror, amenable only to ecclesiastical authority, set the common laws of the realm at defiance. 13. In this undertaking, he met with determined opposi- tion from Thomas d Bcckef, a man of great talent and fear- less courage, who, holding the highest office in the Church (that of Archbishop of Can'ter-hu-ry), considered it his duty to defend the authority and privileges of his order, not- withstanding he had been elevated to this great dignity by the friendship and partiality of Henry II. At a grand council held at Clarendon (1164), the king presented six- ♦ rinntnqenH me:ins, in French, hroom-plant ; and was ^i^en to this family, it is said, because one of tlieir ancestors had done penance by scourging himself with twigs of that phint. 12. How did Henry enlarj,'e his domiuious? What did he attempt to accom- 13. Who opposed him? W^hat was the character of Becket? W^hat were the •' Coustitutioub of Clareiidou V What was the conduct of Becket ? 164 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D.117U. teen propositions, called the " Constitutions of Clarendon," one of which was that clergymen accused of any crime should be tried by the civil courts ; while the others were designed to define and regulate the ecclesiastical authority, and make it subservient to the civil power. To these prop- ositions Becket, after great resistance, reluctantly gave his assent; ])ut, afterward attempting to evade them, he was condemned by a council especially called by the king to consider his offence. 14. He then secretly departed from England, and took refuge with the king of France, by whom, as well as by the Pope, he was encouraged and sustained. Henry at last becoming reconciled to him, he returned to England and resumed his high office ; but he again opposed the royal au- thority ; and the king was at last provoked into exclaiming, '' Is there no one of my subjects who will rid me of this in- solent priest?" Four knights, construing this as a com- mand, immediately proceeded to the residence of the prel- ate, and, pursuing him into the cathedral, barbarously slew him before the altar (1170). 15. Henry was thrown into the greatest consternation on hearing of this event. He expressed the deepest sorrow for the words he had hastily uttered, and evinced the sincerity of his repentance by acts of the severest penance, consent- ing to go as a pilgrim to the tomb of the murdered prelate, now canonized as a saint and martyr, and for miles of the way walked barefoot over the flinty road, marking his steps with blood. Independently of its atrocity, nothing could have been more disastrous to the king's ^ cause than the murder of Becket ; for the Church party gained more by the death of their champion than all his best efforts could have Avon for them if he had lived, talented and determined aa he was ; and Henry only obtained pardon from the Roman 1 4. By whom was Becket supported ? What led to his assassination f 15. What was its effect on Henry ? On the cause of the Church ? .*.!>. 1172.] ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 1G5 pontiff on condition that he would submit entirely to the wishes iind injunctions of the holy See. 16. Conquest of Ireland. — One of the most important events of this reign was the conquest of Ireland, whicii 'Henry completed in 1172. Ireland, anciently called Hi- bernia, was peopled by a race similar to the Britons, but little is known of them before the fourth century. Each province hiul its separate king, but was dependent upon the monarch who held his court at Tara* In the lifth century the people were converted to Christianity, chiefly through the efforts of the renowned St. Patrick. From the sixth to the twelfth century, Ireland became famous for its progress in literature and art, and sent forth many learned men and missionaries from the monasteries which had been established. For three centuries it was much harassed by the Northmen or Danes; but in 1014, the latter were ut- terly defeated in a great battle fought at Clon'tarf, near Dublin. 17. Some years before the death of Becket, Henry ob- tained permission of the Pope to subdue the island ; but it was not until 1172 that he accomplished this object. One of the five subordinate kings having been expelled from his province, and having taken refuge in England, succeeded in enlisting a force from the Anglo-Norman nobles and adventurers, with which he regained his king- dom. The English then so rapidly prosecuted the con- quest of the (Country, that the next year Henry Avent there, and, having received the submission of most of the native chiefs, committed the government of the island to a viceroy whom he appointed. 18. The last sixteen years of Henry's life were embittered l)y fiimily dissensions, his three oldest sons combining with Louis, king of France, to deprive him of his throne. At * Hee Notes 5 and 6, end of the Section. 1 6. AATien was Iieland conquered ? Give a sketch of its early history. 1 7. How was the conquest effected ? 1 8. "\^^t embittered the close of Henry's life ? Give an account of this. 1G6 EI^GLAN"D IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. D. 1189. the same time his French dominions were threatened by a revolt, and the northern part of England was invaded by the king of Scotland. Henry, however, trinmphed over all his enemies. Bnt these tronbles were no sooner pacified than similar family discords broke out, his sons beins: encourafjed in their disobedience and nnnatural hostility by Queen Eleanor, their mother, who had become enraged against the king for his licentiousness, and piir- ticularly on account of his attachment to Rosamond Clif- ford, styled in the ballads of the time the " Fair Eosa- mond." 19. Eleanor, attempting to flee the kingdom, was ar- rested and kept in close confinement. The king's eldest son, Henry, died of a fever, his second son Geoffrey {jef're) was killed in a tournament in France, and Richard, the third son, joined the king of France in a w^ar against his father, so that Henry w\as compelled to submit to a very humiliating treaty of peace. His death occurred a short time afterward (1189).* He was, undoubtedly, a very able monarch, and did much to establish the royal authority in opposition to the violence of the feudal barons, and to the exorbitant claims and pretensions of the clergy. He was a patron of learning and art, and many Gothic edifices of great splendor were erected during his reign. The simple arts of civilized life also made considerable progress during the same period. Henry was succeeded by Ricliard, afterward styled, on account of his martial courage, Cmur de Lion — the Lion-hearted. 20. Richard I., Coeur de Lion (kynr duh le-ong). — Tiiis monarch, being ambitious of military glor}^, embarked in the third crusade, and gained several important vic- tories in the Holy Land over the renowned Saladin. On his return, he was arrested in Germany ; and, by the order * Sec Note 7, end of the Section. 1 9. What were the last events of Henry's reign ? Date of his death ? His charac- ter? His successor? 20. In what enterprise did Richard I. engage ? What delayed his return ? Who plotted against him ? A.I>. 1199.] EKGLAN"D IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 10? of Henry VI., emj^eror of Germany, whom he had offended in Palestine, Avas confined in a dnngeon, nntil his subjects paid a hirge sum of money for his deliverance (1194). During his absence, Philip, king of France, had seduced John, Eicbard's brother, from his allegiance ; and both had plotted for the destruction of Eichard, with the design of obtaining possession of his dominions. 21. The rest of Eicbard's reign was occupied in conten- tion with Philip; and after much petty and IndecisiA^e war, he was mortally Avounded in an attack upon a castle in France, held by a rebellious vassal (1199). The character of this monarch is one of the most romantic to be found in history, and displays a love of adventure, a military daring, and a strength and skill in feats of arms, unsurpassed in ancient or modern times. His peojole, oppressed by the taxes which were ruthlessly levied to carry out his useless projects, were yet proud of his fame, though he accom- plished nothing for their benefit, nor advanced in any respect the prosperity of the country. He, indeed, spent but fourteen months in his kingdom during the ten years of his reign. 22. John, the brother of Eichard, succeeded him, with the consent of the peoj^tle, although Artlmr, Geoffrey's son, was the rightful heir. This young prince, having fallen into the power of his uncle, was imprisoned, and, it is said, cruelly murdered by him. Philip, king of France, sum- moned John, as Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine [cik-we- taiu'), to answer for this offence before a court of peers ; but he refused to obey the summons, and was accordingly branded as a murderer, and adjudged to lose all his French territories, which in a few years Philip succeeded in con- quering, and annexed them to his own dominions. Hence, John received the surname of Lachlanil. 21. When and how did his death occur? Describe his character. 22. Who succeeded Richard I. ? Wliat was the fate of Prince Arthur? What caused John to lose his French territories ? 108 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D. 1215, 23. The Pope (Innocent III.) having caused Stejjlien Langlon, a man of great talent and unblemished character, to be elected Archbishop of Canterbury, John refused to give his consent; whereupon Innocent placed the kingdom under an interdict, in consequence of which the churches were closed, the dead were refused Christian burial, and all other religious offices ceased. The king, still resisting, was formally excommunicated by Innocent, his people were ab- solved from their allegiance to him, and a solemn injunction was placed upon Philip of France to take possession of the kingdom. John at last submitted, and solemnly surren- dered his dominions to the Pope, promising to hold them as his obedient vassal, and pay to him an annual tribute (1213). Philip, attempting to carry out his design of con- quering England, sustained a great disaster in the loss of his fleet, which was attacked by the English and destroyed. This was the first naval action of importance between the English and French. 24. John's next contest was with the barons, who, under the leadership of Langton, determined to compel his assent to a series of propositions designed to diminish the royal prerogatives and secure the liberties of the subjects by established principles. This, John steadily refused, until a large army had been raised by the barons, and the city of London taken ; when he finally submitted, and signed the famous Magna Charta (the Great Charter) at Kun-ny- mede' (June 15, 1215).* One of the most important articles of this instrument was, that "no delay should take place in doing justice to every one; and no freeman should be taken or imprisoned, dispossessed of his free tenement, outltiwed, or banished, unless lij the legal jiulgrnent of Ms ■peersr This famous charter, although granted to the * Sec Note 8, end of the Section. 23. How was John compelled to submit to the Pope ? What uaval action witu the French occurred ? 24. What caused a contest with the barons ? How was he compelled to sign Magna Charta / What important article was contained in it ? How is this instra ment regarded ■' ► A. D. 1264.] EIs"GLAKD IX THE MIDDLE AGES. 169 nobles only, protected the rights of all, and is jnstlj re- garded as the palladium of English liberty.* 25. John attempted afterward to resist the execution of this instrument, and levied an army of foreign mercena- ries, by means of which he perpetrated the most atrocious cruelties, and compelled the authors and supporters of Magna Charta to flee the country. In the midst of the troubles which this excited, his death fortunately occurred, and thus saved the people from the misery and disaster of a prolonged civil war (1216). The character of John was despicable; cruelty, treachery, and cowardice being its prominent traits, unrelieved by a single redeeming virtue. He was succeeded by his son Henry, then in his tenth year. 26. Henry III. — During the first part of this reign, the country w^as governed by the guardians of the young king, and was much disturbed by wars with France. After attaining the age of majority, Henry had frequent disputes with the barons, who compelled him to confirm the Great Charter in the most solemn manner. They nevertheless continued to oppose the royal authority, in consequence of the unwise exactions of Henry, and his submission to the influence of foreigners, by whom the offices both of church and state were filled. 27. Through the efforts of Simon cle Mont' fort, Earl of Leicester (les'ter), twenty-four barons were appointed by the great council to regulate the kingdom ; and to this arrange- ment the king gave his assent (1258). A quarrel afterAvard arising between the nobles and the royalists, civil w^ar ensued; and the king's forces were defeated at Lew'es, and he and his son, Prince Edward, were taken prisoners (1264). This placed the government mainly under the control of * See Notes 9 and 10, end of the Section. 25. Whatwas John's subsequent conduct? When did he die? What is said of his character ? Who was his successor ? 26. How was the government at first conducted under Henry ? What led to dispute with the barons ? .J^\ }X^^^^,^^^ ^^o"^ ^hrough the influence of Simon de Montfort ? What led to the battle of Lewes ? What was its result ? W^hat did Leicester do to strengthen his influence ? How is this considered ? 170 ENGLAND IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D. 1272. Leicester, who, in order to streiigtlien his influence, sum- moned 11 council (now styled a parliavienf), and gave seats in it not only to the barons and knights, but to the rejjresentatives of tlie horougUs, or towns (l^Go). This is considered the first institution of the House of Commons — a branch of the English legislature, which, representing the Avill of the great body of thepeoi:)le, has ever proved the chief bulwark of the political and civil liberty of the country. 28. Prince Edward, having escaped from the confinement in which he had been kept by Leicester, raised an army ; and, in the battle of JEves'ham, entirely defeated the forces of Leicester, who, with his eldest son, w^as among the slain (1265).* This placed Henry again on the throne; and Prince Edward having by prudent measures restored gen- eral trancpaillity, by infusing a wiser and more popular spirit in the government, went on a crusade to the Holy Land. Before his return, his father died (1272), after the exceedingly long reign of fifty-six years. Henry was mild and pacific in his disposition, but possessed neither thp talents nor force of character required to cope successfully w^ith the difficulties of so disturbed a period. England, however, increased in wealth and influence during this reign, and widely extended her commercial relations Avith other countries. 29. Edward I. — The first important event of this reign was the conquest of AVales, which Edward undertook because Le2V-el'ly7i,ipvmce of that country, refused to do him the homage which he owed as a vassal. The conquest was completed in 1283; Llewellyn being defeated and slain, and the government of Wales conferred upon the king's eldest son, called the " Prince of Wales " — a title ever afterward borne by the eldest son of the English sovereign. This even t * See Note 11, end of the Section. 28. How did Henry regain his throne? When did he die? What was his character ? What progrefss was made during his reign ? 2J). What was the first important event ol the reign of Edward I. ? W^hy was Wales attacked ? What Avas the result ? A.D. 1298.] EKGLAKD IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 171 was followed by a cruel persecution of the Jews, who were at last, to the number of 1G,000, banished from the country. 30. The wars with Scotland occupy nearly all the rest of . this reign. A lexander III., king of that country, h aving died without heirs, numerous competitors arose for the throne, the most noted of whom were John Ba'li-ol and Robert Bruce, the former being the grandson of a second daughter, and the latter a son of a third daughter, of David, the brother of a previous king. A furious dispute having arisen in the Scotch parliament, as to the succession, the matter was referred to the arbitration of Edward, who, in accordance with the unanimous opinion of all the great laAvyers of Europe, decided in favor of Baliol, as being the most direct descendant, and he was accordingly placed upon the throne. 31. Edward, however, had meanly taken advantage of the circumstances to compel Baliol to take an oath of fealty to him, and thus to acknowledge himself a vassal to the English king; and he subsequently so harassed him by frequent and degrading commands, that Baliol was finally provoked into a refusal to comply, determining to make a stand for his own and his people's liberty. He was, how- ever, unsuccessful; for Edward, invading Scotland with a large army, defeated Baliol in the battle of Diuibar (1296), took him prisoner, and carried him captive to England. He was afterward released, and died in obscurity, in Erance. 32. Scotland, although subdued for a time, soon found a noble champion in the renowned William Wallace, who de- feated an English army of 40,000 men, near Stirling, and committed great ravages in the north of England (1297). The next year, however, Edward defeated Wallace, in the battle of Fal'hirh, and again established his government in Scotland. Wallace was never afterward able to gain a 30. What dispute led to the intervention of Edward I. in the affairs of Scot- land ? How was it settled ? 31. What dishonorable course did Edward pursue? W^hat led to war ? Wlia( victory did the English gain ? What became of Baliol ? 32. What victory did Wallace gain ? Where was he defeated ? His fate ? 172 EN'GLAlNrD IK- THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ©. 1307. decisive victory over his country's enemies; although he fought bravely for several years, until, having been betrayed by one of his own countrymen into the poAver of Edward, tliat remorseless king sent him to London ; and, in order to intimidate the Scottish leaders, caused him to be executed (1305). 33. Tlie 2:>eople of Scotland, however, made another effort to regain their liberties under Rohert Bruce, son ot the competitor of Baliol, and now acknowledged the right- ful heir to the throne ; and the English were once more expelled from the country. But Bruce Avas defeated by one of EdAvard's generals ; and the king himself marched to com- plete the conquest, but Avas suddenly taken ill, and died, at Carlisle (1307), enjoining Avith his last breath his son and successor, Edward, to prosecute the enterprise, until the Scots should be entirely subdued. 34. EdAvard I. had also carried on Avar with Philip IV. of France, Avho had formed an alliance Avith the Scottish king, Baliol. He confirmed, but Avith great reluctance, the Great Charter; and (in 1295) caused the deputies from the bor- oughs to meet the other representatives in Parliament, stating that "what concerns all should be approved by all," — a principle that lies at the foundation of all civil and political freedom. EdAvard Avas one of the ablest and most successful monarchs that ever reigned. He was pol- itic and Avarlike, pojDular on account of his majestic per- sonal appearance, his military success, and his Avise meas- ures. His efforts to reform and establish the laAA s gained for him the apj^ellation of the English Jiistlnian. 35. Edward II., unmindful of his father's dying in- junction, Avdthdrew his forces from Scotland, and the people of that country gradually recovered their freedom. Hav- 33. AVhat other attempt was made by the Scots to regain their freedom ? How did Edward's reigii end '? Si. AA'hat were the other events of Edward's reign ? His character? 35. AA'har account is jjiven of the battle of Bannockburn ? What was the char- acter of Edward II. ? How and wlieu did his reign end ? A.I>. 1333.] ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 173 ing, at last, in the seventh year of his reign, invaded the country, he was disastrously defeated by Kobert Bruce, in tlie famous battle of Baiinockburn (1314). Of a character the very reverse of his father, Edward soon lost the respect of his people, and gave great oifence to the nobles by sur- rendering himself to the influence of foreign favorites. Civil war finally broke out, in which Isabella, Edward's queen, took part against him ; and being deserted by his subjects, he fell into the hands of his enemies, who kept him for some time in prison, but at last caused him to be put to death in the most shocking manner (1327). His son Edward had previously been declared king. 36. Edward III.— In consequence of the youth of the king, a council of regency was appointed to administer the government; but the real power was possessed by Isabella and her paramour (the infamous Mor'ti-mer, a prominent baron), both of whom had been accessory to the murder of the late king. This occasioned universal disgust and ab- horrence; and the young king soon (1330) found means to punish the murderers of his father, Mortimer being seized and executed as a common criminal, and Isabella placed in confinement, where she was kept until her death. 37. Ilobert Bruce, who had fully achieved the independ- ence of Scotland, left the throne to his son David, who at the time of his father's death was only five years old. Ed- ward, taking advantage of this circumstance, endeavored to depose the young king, so as to i^ace Edward Baliol, son of the former king, on the throne, he having sworn fealty to the English monarch. This the Scots resisted, but were severely defeated by Edward in the great battle of Halidcnvii Hill (1333), and were again brouglit into sub- jection to the English crown, David fleeing his country, and taking refuge in France. 36. Mention the first events of the nest reifm. What was done with Moi timer 37. How was Scotland again subdued by the English ? J 74 ENTtLAND IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1346. 38. Edward's next object of ambition was to acquire possession of the throne of France, circumstances seeming to favor that project; for Charles IV., the king of that country, having died without heirs, the nation had placed his cousin PMlij) VI. on the throne. But Edward, through his mother Isabella, was a more direct descendant; and on this ground, notwithstanding that the ancient laws of France {the Salic law — i. e., law of the Salian Franks) ex- cluded females from the throne, he claimed his right to the succession, and proceeded to vindicate it by force of arms. Having destroyed the French fleet in a great naval battle (1340), he invaded France, and with forces far infe- rior to those of Philip, defeated him in the memorable battle of Crecy {krcs'e). This battle is made particularly interesting, not only by the greatness of the victory, but by the fact, that in it cannon were for the first time employed by the English,* and also as the occasion on wiiich the king's son Edward, afterward styled the Black Prince (from the color of his armor), commenced liis brilliant military career (1346). [_See Note 12, end of Section.] 39. Edward next took Calais (kal'is), after a long siege; and expelling all the inhabitants, peopled it anew with English. This city, regarded as the key of France, the English retained for nearly two centuries. While Edward was thus engaged, the Scottish people had again placed David Bruce upon the throiie, who, invading England, was defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Neville^ s Cross, near Durliam (1346). This victory was due to the activity and heroism of Phi-lip'j^a, Edward's queen, who, previous to the action, rode through the ranks of the army, exhort- * Firearms appear to have been used by the Chinese in 618 b. c, nearly two thousand years bf fore the battle of Crecy. Thej' were also used in different forms in India; and, as early as the eijrhth century, by the Saracens. The invention of gunpowder is generally attributed to Friar Bacou who in 12T0 announced its composition; but it was not till 1320 that the proper mode ot making it was understood. King Edward's cannon were only of the size of duck-guns. 38. Why did Edward III. claim the French throne? What battles were fought I What gives particular interest to the battle of Crecy ? 39 What other events occurred in France and England about the same time? A. D. 1364.] EN^GLAI^D IJ^ THE MIDDLE AGES. 175 ing every man to do his duty, and repel the invaders of their country. Having caused David to be lodged in the Tower, she joined her husband at Calais. 40. A truce was concluded, a sliort time afterward, be- tween the French and English monarchs, which w^as pro- tracted by a dreadful plague that swept away many thou- sands of the people, not only in England, bnt in most of the other conntries of Europe. Philip, king of France, hav- ing been succeeded by John (1350), and the country being distracted by factious dissensions, Edward resolved again to attack it; and for this purpose dispatched the Black Prince, with an army, to Guienne, while he himself was to make an incursion by way of Calais. The former pene- trated into the heart of France with an army of 12,000 men ; but at Poitiers (2)oi-te7'z') found himself confronted by a splendidly equipped force of G0,000 men, commanded by John in person. Desirous to retreat, the Prince offered to restore all his conquests and give up the war ; but John declining any terms but unconditional surrender, a battle ensued, which, owing to the skill and valor of the Black Prince, resulted in the entire overthrow of the French, John himself being made a prisoner (1356). 41. John, in accordance with the manners of the times, was treated by his conqueror with the most chivalric cour- tesy and respect ; but w^as kept in captivity at London till ransomed by his subjects (1360), when he resumed the throne ; but, not being able to fulfil the terms of his release, he returned to London, where he died the next year (1364). Under his successor, war was renewed between the two countries; but Edward gained no permanent advantage, although the Black Prince manifested all the qualities of Q,n able and enterprising general. The latter, however, sul- lied his fair fame by causing an inhuman butchery of all 40. What protracted the truce ? Give an account of the battle of Poitiers. 4 1 . What further account is given of King John ? What was done by the Black Prince ? When did his death occur ? His character ? Who succeeded Edward III. ? 176 ENGLAN^D Ijq- THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D.I 377, the inhabitants of one of the French towns after it had sur- rendered to his arms. Worn out by incessant toil and ex- posure, he died (1376), universally esteemed, not only for his heroism and skill as a military commander, but for the generosity, moderation, and amiability which shed still greater lustre on his character. The king survived him only a year; and was succeeded (1377) by Richard, the son of the Black Prince, then only 11 years of age. 42. Edward III. was a wise and powerful monarch, pop- ular not only for his military saccess and prudent admin- istration, but for his many personal accomplishments. He took no important steps without consulting his parlia- ment, refused to pay tribute to the Pope as a temporal prince, to which John had meanly consented; and so greatly encouraged trade, that he has been called the "Father of English commerce." AYool was the chief arti- cle of export, and an extensive trade was carried on with the ports of the Baltic. During this reign, also, com- menced the FIRST ERA OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, the earliest known work in prose, the Travels of Sir John Mandeuille, being published about 1360. The famous John Wickliffc, and the poets Chaucer {clum'ser) and Gower, also flourished during a part of this reign. 43. Richard II. — The first part of this reign is noted for an insurrection of the lower orders of the people, occa- sioned by the condition of serfdom in whicli they were kept, and the miseries to which they were subjected by the unjust laws of the period, and by the oppressions of the wealthier classes. The immediate occasion of the outbreak was the imposition of a tax on every person above fifteen years of age, and the indignity with which a young maiden, the daughter of one Wat Tyler (or Wat, the tiler), was treated by the brutal tax-gatherers. This so incensed her father that lie struck the officer dead with his hammer ; 42. What was the character of Edward m. ? What is said of his administ'^tion f Of commerce ? Of literature ? 43 What caused the insurrection of Wat Tyler? A. D. 1381] ENGLAI^D Iiq- THE MIDDLE AGES. 17? and, being joined by his friends and neighbors, raised a revolt, and placed himself at the head of the insurgents. 44. The populace to the number of 100,000 men as- sembled at Blackheath, near London, broke into the city, burned the palaces and mansions of the nobles, plundered the warehouses, and murdered the archbishop and many other persons of distinction. The king having entered upon a conference with Wat Tyler, the latter, it is said, acted with go much insolence that WaV worth, the Mayor of London, struck him with his sword; whereupon Tyler was immediately dispatched by others of the king's retinue, liichard, to quell the mutiny, acceded to the demands of the insurgents, and the latter dispersed ; but the nobility having raised a large army, the ringleaders were appre- hended and executed, and the concessions of the king were annulled (1381). This made Eichard very unpopular with the common people, for their demands had been reasonable and just ; the most important being that villenage or slavery should be abolished, the people paying a fixed rent for their lands, instead of being bound to do such services as their feudal lords might require. Serfdom, however, did not entirely cease in England until more than four centuries after the date of these events. 45. Richard, although displaying much spirit and cour- age in these times of disturbance, was afterward charac- terized by indolence and want of capacity. He quarrelled with the great officers and distinguished nobles of his court, and gave his entire confidence to unworthy favorites. He iiad banished his cousin Henry, son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, for being concerned in a duel; and, on the death of the duke, proceeded to dispossess Henry of Jiis estates and annex them to those of the crown. Henry, 44 What were the chief incidents of this rebellion? How was it subdned? V\hat made Richard unpopular with the lower orders? What were their de- mands / How lon^ did serfdom continue? 45. What was the character of Richard ' What led to his deposition ? What «listiu<,'uished reformer and poet nourished during this reif^-n ? 178 El^GLAN^D IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. B. 1403. however, taking advantage of Eichard's absence in Ireland, landed with a small force in England ; and so unpopular was the king, that the invader was soon joined by a force of 60,000 men. Richard was accordingly deposed (1399), and, it is said, was soon afterward murdered. During this reign Wickliffe, called by some the " morning star of the Reforma- tion," translated the Bible. He and his doctrines were much favored by John of Gaunt.* Chaucer, styled the " Father of English poetry," also wrote his celebrated poem, " The Canterbury Tales." 46. Henry IV., the first of the house of Lancaster, had no legal right to the throne, being a descendant of the foiivtli son of Edward III., while Edmund Mortimer was living, who was descended from the tliird son of the same monarch ; hence this reign was little else than a series of insurrections. The most formidable was that excited by the Earl of Northumberland and his son, Harry Percy., surnamed Hotsjmr, on account of his fiery temper. This young nobleman was distinguished for the battle which, in the previous reign, he had fought with the Scots at Otter- burn (1388), and on which was founded the famous bal- lad of " Cltevy Chase J' He had also greatly aided Henry in his efforts to obtain possession of the kingdom; but, afterward quarrelling with him, joined his forces to those of the Scots under Douglas and the Welsh under Owen Glen'doiver, with the object of placing Mortimer on the throne. 47. A terrific battle was fought near Shrewsbury (1403) ; but the rebels were defeated, and their brave leader, Percy, was slain. The king and his son took part in the battle, and signalized themselves by their feats of strength and * Wickliffe advocated many of the reforms and doctrines afterward preached by Luther and Lis followers, in the 16th century. The followers of Wicklitfe were called Lolluids. 46. Why had Henry IV. no legal right to the throne ? What formidable insnr- rcction broke out? What was Percy called? For what was he distinguished? What gives interest to the battle of Otterburn ? 47. Describe the battle of Shrewsbury. How did religious persecution com- mence ? By whom was Henry IV. succeeded ? A. ». 1420.] ENGLAl^-D 11^ THE MIDDLE AGES. 179 daring. Henry, in order to gain tlie favor of the Church, caused severe laws to be passed against the Lollards, and one of them was condemned and burnt at the stake (1401). This was the first English subject that was put to death on account of his religious opinions. Henry IV. died in 1413, and was succeeded by his son, Henry V. 48. Henry V., during his father's life, had been distin- guished for his riotous and disorderly conduct ; and had, on one occasion, been committed to prison by the chief-justice, whom he had insulted for indicting one of his dissolute com- panions. On his accession, however, he dismissed his profligate associates and thoroughly reformed his life, retain- ing in office the wise ministers of his father, including the chief-justice by whom he had been so fearlessly punished. Among his first acts was the persecution of the Lollards, now a numerous party; and their leader. Lord Colliam, with many others, was condemned and executed. 49. Henry next made an attack upon France, which he hoped to subdue ; because, during the lunacy of its king, Charles VI., it was distracted by disputes as to who should have the regency. Having taken Har'fleur, after a long siege, he marched against the French army, four times as numerous as his own, and totally routed it in the memor- able battle oi Ag'in-court (1415), 10,000 of the French be- ing slain and 14,000 taken prisoners ; while, it is said, the English lost only 40. After some other successes, a treaty was concluded (1420) at Troyes (trwah), by wliicli Henry was to marry the king's daughter Catharine, and to succeed to the French throne on the death of Charles, and the two kingdoms were to be united. Two years afterward, he and his queen entered Paris with all the pageantry of a roya] progress, dazzling the iuhabitants with the w^ealth and mag- nificence of their future sovereigns; but in a few months 48. What was the character of Henry V. ? How did he cominence his reign ? 49. Why did he invade France ? What victory did he gain ? What treaty was made ? When did his death occur ? "Who was his t^ucceijsor f 180 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1437. death stopped short the triumphant career of Henry, and put an end to all his schemes of vainglory and ambition (1422). He left one son, Henry, less than a year old. 50. Henry VI., at his accession, Avas proclaimed, by the Parliament, King of France as well as of England ; and his uncle, the Duke of Bedford, the most accomplished prince of his age, was appointed Protector of the kingdom, and guardian of the infant king. The French king, Charles VL, having expired a few months after the .death of Henry V., his son Charles VII., an energetic prince, asserted his claim to the throne in opposition to that of the English king ; and a war of several years ensued, in which the French, chiefly by the heroism of the wonderful Joan of Arc, were enabled to recover their country from the possession of the English, and place their own king, Charles VII., on the throne (1437). 51. Henry, on arriving at the age of majority, showed neither the capacity nor the disposition to take control of the government. He married Margaret of Anjou, a prin- cess whose accomplishments and masculine energy of char- acter were well suited to supply the defects and weaknesses of her husband.* But the incapacity of the king encouraged the rival house of York to lay claim to the throne, in be- half of Ricliard, Duke of York, the descendant of Edward's third son, who was a man of ability and valor, as- .well as immense wealth. In this pretension Richard Avas upheld by the greatest nobleman of the kingdom, the renowned Earl of Wariuick [war'rick), afterward called the King-maker, Avhose means and possessions Avere so extensive that 30,000 retainers Avere constantly supported by him in his various castles and manors.f An insurrection of the lower orders, * See Note 13, end of the Section. t See Note 14. 50. What led to a war with France during the regency of Bedford? Uow did the French regain their possessions ? 51. What was Henry's character ? AA'hom did he marry ? Her character ? AVhal led to the claim of Richard, duke of York ? By whom was he supported ? What is said of Warwick ? Give an account of Jack Cade's rebellion. A. D. 1461.] ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 181 under a leader named Jack Cade, broke out about tliis time, but was soon put down, Cade being slain (1450). 52. The king's governnii^it being very unpopular, Ridi- ard raised an army, ostensibly for the redress of grievances ; and in the battle of St. Allans (awl' bans) defeated the royalists (1455), and took the king prisoner. This Avas the first battle in that great civil war styled the " War of the Eoses" (from the badges of the parties, the Lancastrians wearing a red rose and the Yorkists a wliite rose). This war lasted thirty years, was signalized by tAvelve pitched battles, and almost annihilated the ancient nobility of Eng- land. The next year after the battle of St. Albans, the king was restored to his authority ; but the contest soon broke out Avith increased fury, and in the battle of JVortJuwi^jton the king was defeated and taken prisoner by the Earl of Warwick (14G0), after which the Duke of York was pro- claimed the lawful successor of Henry, and Ediuard, the son of Henry and Margaret, was excluded from the throne. 53. The queen, however, fled to Scotland, and with the aid of the northern barons raised a large army, with Avliich, in the battle of Wakefield, she defeated the Duke of York, who was taken prisoner and put to death (1460). A few weeks after this, Margaret defeated the Earl of Warwick and regained possession of the king ; but Edward, son of the late' Duke of York, joining his forces with those of Warwick, compelled her to retreat, and, triumphantly enter- ing London, was proclaimed king, under the title of Edimrd IV. (1461). 54. Edward IV. — Queen Margaret, however, was not subdued. She succeeded in collecting an army of 60,000 men in the northern counties, with which she encountered the forces of Edward and Warwick, in the terrific battle of 52. What led to the battle or St. Albans? Its result? What civil war was commenced by it ? Wliat is said of this war ? What led to tlie battle of Northamp- ton ? What were its consequences ? „ j., 53. What led to the battle of Wakefield? What was its result? How did Edward IV. obtain the throne ? 54. What other efforts were made by Margaret ? With what results ? 182 E:N^GLAKD IK the middle ages. [A.D. 1482. Toiu'ton; but was totally defeated (1461), and compelled, with her husband, to take refuge in Scotland. During the next three years, Margaret ma(ie but one effort to recoyer the lost kingdom, but was defeated and compelled to flee to France ; a short time after which, Henry fell into the posses- sion of the king, and was confined in the Tower at London. 5^. Edward's vices, however, and his marriage with Eliz- abeth Gray, a Lancastrian knight's widow, upon whose relatives the infatuated monarch showered all his favors, so disgusted the brave and high-spirited Warwick that he deserted the cause of Edward, and formed an alliance with Margaret. So popular was this nobleman, that in a few days he raised an army of 60,000 men, compelled Edward to flee, and placed Henry again on the throne (1471). Dis- aster soon followed this great victory; for Edward landing in England with a small force, was soon joined by an im- mense army, and regaining possession of London, once more made prisoner the hapless Henry, and marched against Warwick, who had taken a position at Bar net, near London. 56. The king-maker, deserted by his son-in-law, the Duke of Clarence, brother to Edward, who with a large force went over to the Yorkists, was defeated in the battle of Barnet, and slain (1471) ; and, a fortnight afterward, Ed- ward gained a decisive victory over the forces of Margaret at Tewhs'hury, the latter, with her son Edward, being among the prisoners. The young prince was cruelly put to death by the Dukes of Clarence and Gloster, brothers of Edward IV., and Margaret was imprisoned in the Towner. A few days after this battle, Henry expired in the Tower, ac- cording to general belief, by the murderous hand of the cru(d and wicked Duke of Gloster. Queen Margaret after- ward found a refuge in France, Avhere she died (1482). 55. How did Edward IV. disgust the Earl of Warwicli ? How did Henry regain the throne ? How did he again lose it ? 56. Where was Warwick defeated and slain? Where was Margaret defeated f What loUowed the battle of Tewksbnry ? A. D.1483.] ENGLAN"D IIT THE MIDDLE AGES. 183 57. Edward, being now secure on the throne, gave him- self up to every species of vice and debauchery. He caused his brother, Duke of CLarence, to be put to death on a charge of treason, being jirobably instigated to this crime by his younger brother, Richard, Duke of Gloster, who ^w^as noted for his designing character and unrelenting ambition Edward was about to engage in a war with France, when he was seized with a distemper, of which he expired (1483). During this reign, William Caxton introduced into Eng- hmd the art of printing, the first printed book being " lite Game and Playe of Chesse'' (1474). 58. Edward V., the eldest son of Edward IV., a youth of twelve years, was proclaimed king ; and his uncle, the Duke of Gloster, was appointed Protector. This artful and wicked prince, obtaining possession of the young king and his brother Richard, placed them in the Tower ; and caused Lord Rivers, their maternal uncle, and Lord Hastings, ^\\ih several other distinguished persons, to be executed on a charge of treason. He then gave out that the young princes were illegitimate; and contrived that some of his friends should solicit him to take the crown, which, with pretended reluctance, he accepted, and held under the title of Richard III. (1483). 59. Richard III. — The first act of this wicked usurper was to destroy the two young princes, who are supposed to have been smothered in their . beds, in the Tower, by his orders. But he was not permitted quietly to enjoy the fruits of his crimes. A conspiracy was formed against him by liis former friend, the Duke of Buckingham; but it failed, and Buckingham was seized and executed. The nation, however, soon found a deliverer in Henry Tudor, Earl of Riclimond, the last heir of the house of Lancaster, 5 7. State the other events of Edward's reiirn. When did hi? death occur ? ^Tio intro(hiced the art ol'printini,^ V What was the first book printed in England ? 5 8. Who was the immediate successor of Edward IV.? How did Richard, Duke of Gloster. obtain the throne ? 59. W hat was the fate of the two young princes ? Of the Duke of Buckingham 1 How was this reign terminated ? Who was proclaimed king at Bosworth ? 184 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. D. 1485. who, landing at Mil' ford Haven, in Wales, was soon joined by sufficient forces to cope with those of the usurper. An engagement took place at Bosiuorth Field, in which the forces of Eichard were defeated, and he himself, fighting desperately in the conflict, was slain. Eichmond was pro- claimed king on the battle-field, by the title of Henrij VIL (1485). [^See Note 15, end of Section.'] CHEONOLOGICAL KECAPITULATION. A. D. g» / 827. Egbert unites the Saxon kingdoms. Commencement of I ■} the English monarchy. 5 ( 871. Accession of Alfred the Great. Reigned 30 years. 1013. Sweyn, the first Danish king. Reigned about 6 months. 1017. Canute the Great, sole monarch of England. Reigned 19 years. 1012. Edward the Confessor. Saxon line restored. Reigned 24 years. 1066. Harold declared king. Reigned about one year. 1006. Battle of Hastings. Harold defeated by William (I.) of Normandy. 1087. William II. (Rufus). Reigned 13 years. 1100. Henry I. (Beauclerk). Reigned 35 years. 1135. Stephen (of Blois). Defeated by Matilda (1139). 1154. Henry II. (Plantagenet). Reigned 35 years. 1170. Death of Thomas a Becket. 1172. Conquest of Ireland. 1189. Richard I. (Coeur de Lion.) Ransomed by his subjects (1194). Reigned 10 years. 1199. John (Lackland). Reigned 17 years. ' 1215. Magna CJiarta signed. 1216. Henry III. Reigned 56 years. 1264. Battle of Lewes. Henry and Prince Edward made prisoners. 1265. House of Commons instituted by Leicester. " Battle of Evesham. 1272. Edward I. Reigned 35 years. 1283. Conquest of Wales. Prince Lewellyn executed. 1296. Battle of Dunbar ; the Scots defeated. 1298. Battle of Falkirk; Wallace defeatea. EIS'GLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 185 1305. Wallace taken prisoner and executed. 1307. Edward II. Reigned 20 years. 1314. Battle of Bannockburn. Edward defeated by Robert Bruce 1327. Edward III. Reigned 50 years. 1333. Battle of Halidown Hill ; the Scots defeated. 1346. Battle of Crecy; the French defeated by Edward III. " Battle of Neville's Cross ; Scots defeated. 1356. Battle of Poitiers ; French defeated by the Black Prince. 1376. Death of the Black Prince. 1377. Richard II. Reigned 12 years. 1381. Insurrection of Wat Tyler. 1388. Battle of Otterburn, between Percy (Hotspur) and Douglas. .1399. Henry IV. Reigned 14 years. 1401. A Lollard clergyman burnt at the stake. 1403. Battle of Shrewsbury. Percy defeated and slain. 1413. Henry V. Reigned 9 years. 1415. Battle of Agincourt. 1420. Treaty of Troyes. 1422. Henry VI. Reigned 39 years. 1450. Jack Cade's rebellion. 1455. Battle of St. Albans ; the royalists defeated. 1460. Battle of Northampton. King Henry taken prisoner. 1461. Battle of Wakefield. Duke of York captured and slain. I i 1461. Edward IV. proclaimed king. Reigned 22 years. § " Battle of Tow ton. Queen Margaret defeated by Edward and Warwick. 1471. Battle of Barnet. Warwick slain. King Henry assassinated. '* Battle of Tewksbury. Queen Margaret defeated, and Prince Edward assassinated, 1474. Art of Printing introduced into England. 1482. Death of Queen INIargaret, in France. 1483. Edward V. Reigned 74 days. 1483. Richard III. Reigned 2 years. ^ 1485. Battle of Bosworth. Henry VII. proclaimed king 18G ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAOB 1. State all you can of Alfred the Great and his raccesses 157-159 2. Of Edward the Elder, Athelstan, and Ethelred 157-158-159 3. Of Swcyn, Edmund Ironside, and Canute 158-15t 4. Of Harold Harefoot, Ilardicanute, and Edward the Confessor 150 5. Give a history of the Danish invasions of England 147-148-157 6. State what you can of Harold and his career 159-1(J0 7. Name, in chronological order, the most important events from the ac- cession of Egbert to the battle of Hastings — 18-1 8. Give an account of William I. and the events in his reign 160-161-189 9. Of William U. and the events in his reign 161-162-189 10. Of Henry I., surnamed Beauclerk, and the events in his reign 162 11. Of the contest between Stephen and Matilda 162 12. How did Henry Plantaganet get to be king of England ? 102-163 1.3. Name the principal events in the reign of Henry 11 163-164-lfi5-166 11. Give the narrative in relation to Thomas a Becket 163-164 15. Give the early history of Ireland 165 16. What account can you give of Queen Eleanor 166 17. Sketch the character and career of Richard Coeur de Lion 166-167 IS. Of King John (Lacldand) and the events in his reign 167-168-169 19. Give the history and character of Magna Charta 168-169-172 20. Sketch the character and reign of Henry III 169-170 21. Name the principal events in the reign of Edward 1 170-171-172 22. Give an account of Robert Bruce, his successes and-misfortunes 172-173 2:3. Of Edward II. and his reign 172-173 24. Name the principal evente in the reign of Edward HI 173-174-175-176 25. Name, in chronological order, the principal events from the battle of Hastings to the battle of Poitiers 184-185 26. Give an account of the Wat Tyler insurrection 176-177 27. W hat were the other events in the reign of Richard II. ? 177-178 28. Give an account of the contest between Henry IV. and Mortimer 178-179 2i). Sketch the character and reign of Henry V 179-180 30. What contest for territory took place during the nest reign ? 180 31. Give an account of the contest 180 32. State what you can of Queen Margaret 180-181-182 33. Relate the fects in the career of the Earl of Warwick 180-181-182 34. Name, in chronological order, the principal events from the battle of Poitiers to the battle of Barnet 185 35. What battles were fought during the reign of Henry VI. ? 181 36. What was the result in each of the three battles ? 181 37. Give a sketch of the character of Edward IV 182-183 38. Give an account of the career of the Duke of Gloster (Richard HI.). . . 183-184 39. Name, in chronological order, the principal events from the battle of Barnet to the battle of Bosworth 185 40. What account can you give of Jack Cade's rebellion ? 180-181 .41. Of the Black Prince and his career ? 174-175-176 42. Of William Wallace, his success and defeat ? 171 43. Of Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury ? 16S 44. Of the battle of Hastings, its causes and consequences ? 160 45. Name, in chronological order, the important events in the history of Eng'and daring the Midaie Ages 184-185 E'OTES. 1 . Alfred tlie Great (p. 15T, ^ 1).—" Alfred is the most perfect character in hi^tory. He is a sin^iiiar instance of a prince who has become a hero of romance, who, as such, has had countless imaginary exploits attributed to him, but to whose character romance lias done no more than justice, and who appeal's in exactly the same light in history and in fable. No other man on record has ever so thoroughly united all the virtues both of the ruler and of the private man. In no other man on record were so many virtues disfii^ured by so little alloy. A saint without superstition, a scholar wiiliout ostentation, a warrior all whose wars were fought in the defense of his country, a conqueror whose laurels were never stained by cruelty, a prince never cast down by adversity, never lifted up to insolence in the day of triumph, there is no other name in history to compare with his." — Freeman.— The Norman Conquest. 2. Battle orHastiiigs (p. 160, t 5).—" Perceiving that open attacks were of uo avail, the Duke, alter having restored order, had recourse to one of hi:; favorite stratagems. He ordered a general attack on the posiiions of the English, by his whole line, but added secret instructions that, in tli^e heat of the melee, his soldiers should again retreat ; and on this last occasion Harold could no longer restrain the impetuosity of his troops. Of a frank and noble spirit, their ardent hope of vic- tory carried them away. They fell into the snare. The Normans, in compact order, turned upon their pursuers, who had broken rank, and seizing the advan- tage, pierced their squares on all sides, and made a cruel butchery. Yet, in spite of fortune and of death, the English fled not, but thro-ving themselves into small squares, sustained the fierce shocks of the enemy. Other disasters, however were at hand. The Duke, in giving the signal to wheel ^id attack, ordered out his heavy horse and his reserve, and it was in vain that the English still fought like men who beheld the victory unjustly snatched out of their hands. Thrice with his cavalry he charged the English wings, while clouds of arrows darkened all tlie plain. From that moment the l^attle was decided, for Harold had already fallen. Towards the evening, while still unwearied by sustaining his army with his voice and hand, he was struck witii an arrow through the left eye into the brain, and fell dead upon the field. His two brothers, Gurth and Lenfwin, were also slain, with nearly all the nobles and knights in the battle. The old Anglo-Saxon heroism, worthy of a better fate, set in that dark eclipse; the battle- ax no longer availed against the Norman spear. Certain it is, however, that there was neither rout nor flight, so great was the despairing energy with which the English f.ught. King Harold's army was exterminated but not vanquished, and England lay paralyzed at the feet of the couquei-oi:"—Eoscoe. —Lives of the Kings of England. 3. Burial ol William tlie Conqueror (p. 161, H 7) —" They brought the body to St. Stephen's Monastery, and took orders for the royal sepulture. The grave was dug deep in the presbytery, between the altar and choir. All the bishops and abbots of jSTormandy assembled. After mass had been sung, Gilbert, bishop of Evreux, addressed the people ; and when he had magnified the fame of the departed, he asked them all to join in prayer for the sinful soul, and that each would pardon any injury he might have received from the monarch. A loud voice was now heard from the crowd. A poor man stood up before the bier— Asceline, the son of Arthur— who forbade that William's corpse should be received into the ground he had usurped by reckless violence. The bishop forthwith instituted an inquiry into the charge. They called up witnesses, and the fact having been ascer- NOTES. taiued, they treated with Asceliue and paid the debt, the price of that uarrow lit- tle plot of earth, the last bed of the Conqueror. Asceline withdrew his ban; but as the swollen corpse sank into the grave, it burst, filling the sacred edifice with corruption. The obsequies were hurried through, and thus was William the Conquerer gathered to his lathers, with loathing, disgust, and horror." — Palgrave. — Ilistonj of yormandy. 4. The Death of William RiiTiis (p. 162, 1 8).— "It was almost night, when a poor charcoal burner, passing through tiie New Forest Avith his cart, came iipou the solitarj' body of a dead man, shot with an arrow in the breast, and still bleeding. He got it into his cart. It was the body of the king. Shaken and tumbled, with its I'ed beard all whitened with lime and clotted with blood, it was driven in the cart by the charcoal burner next day to Winchester Cathedral, where it was received and buried. ***** jjy whose hand the Red King really fell, and whether that hand dispatched the arrow to his breast by acci- dent or design, is known only to God. Some think his brother may have caused him to be killed ; but the Red King had made so many enemies, both among priests ftud people, that suspicion may reasonably rest upon a less unnatural murderer. Men knew no more than that he was found dead in the New Forest, Avhich the suf- fering people had regarded as a doomed ground for his race." — Dickens. 5. Fsill of Tarsi (p. 1()5, H K?).— '' lu the reign of this monarch, the an- cient Hall or Court of Tara, in which, for so many centuries, the Triennial Coun- cils of the nation had been held, saw for the last time (a. d. 554), her kings and nobles assembled within its precincts; and the cause of the desertion of this long-honored seat of legislation shows to what an enormous height the power of the ecclesiastical order had then risen. Some fugitive criminal, who had fled for sanctuary to the monastery of S*;. Ruan, having been di'agged forcibly from thence to Tara, and there put to deatti, the holy abbot and his monks cried aloud against the sacrilegious violation; and proceeding in solemn procession to the palace, pro« uouuced a curse upon its walls. 'From that daj',' says the annalist, 'no king ever sat again at Tara ; ' and a poet who wrote about that period, while mourning evidently over the fall of this seat of grandeur, ventures but to say, ' It is not with my will Teamor is deserted.' A striking memorial of the church's tri- umph on the occasion, was preserved in the name of distinction given to the monastery, which was ever after, in memory of this malediction, called ' The Monastery of the Curses of Ireland.' "—Moore's History of Ireland. 6. Itcaraiiiff in Ireland (p. 165, ^ 16).— " In order to convey to the reader any adequate notion of the apostolical labors of that crowd of learned mis- B^on.aries whom Ireland sent forth, in the course of this [the sixth] century, to all parts of Europe, it would be necessary to transport him to the scenes of their respec- tive missions; to point out the difficulties they had to encounter, and the admirable patience and courage with which they surmounted them; to show how inestimable was the service they rendered, during that dark period, by keeping the dying embers of learning awake, and how gratefully their names are enshrined in the records of foreign lauds, though but faintly, if at all, remembered in their own. It was, indeed, then, as it has been ever since, the peculiar fate of Ireland, that both in talent, and the fame that honorably rewards it, her sons prospered far more triumphantly abroad than at home; for while, of the many who confined their labors to their native land, but few have left those remembrances behind which constitute fatne, those who carried the light of their talent and zeal to other lands, not only founded a lasting name for themselves, but made their country also a partaker of their renown, winning for her that noble title of the KOTES. Island of the Holy -nd the Learued, which throughout the night that overhung lall the rest of Europe, she so long and proudly wore."— Moore's History of Ireland. 7. DeatU of Henry II. (p. 166, IT 19).— "When the French ambassadors •^vere ushered into hi< presence, sick and bed-ridden as he was, and he inquired the name of Richard's supporters (amnesty for whom was a condition of the treaty), the first name on the list was that of his beloved John, On hearing his name, he was seized with a sort of convulsive movement; he sat up in bed, and gazing around with searching and haggard look, he exclaimed, 'Can it be true that John, my heart, the son of my choice, he whom I have doted on more than all the rest, and my love for whom has brought on me all my woes, has fallen away from me ? ' They replied that it was even so; that nothing could be more true. ' Well, then,' he said, failing back on his bed, aud turning his face to the wall, ' henceforward let all go on as it may; I no longer care for myself or for the world.' "—Michelet. 8. Runiiymede (p. 168, H 24).— "This Holy Land of English liberty is about half way from Odiham to London, and it is a grass/ plain, of about one hundred and sixty acres, on the south bank of the Thames, between Staines and Windsor. Various derivations are given for the name; that of the antiquary Le- laud affirms it to have been so called from the Saxon word Rime, or council, and to mean the Council Mi;adow, having been used in the old Saxon times as a place of assembly. No column or memorial marks the spot where the primary triumph of the English constitution was achieved."— Creasy,— ijise and Progress of the Eng- lish Constitution. 9. Serfdoin in Eiii^laud (p. 169, U 24).— " Of the two millions of human beings who inhabited England in the reign of John, a very large number, probably nearly half, were in a state of slavery. Those who are disposed to listen to tales about ' Merrie England ' and ' the good old times ' shoald remember this fact. At the commencement of true English history, we start with the laborers in abject wretchedness. The narrative of the changes in their social and political positions thenceforward to modern times is certainly a history of progressive amelioration, though lamentably slow and imperfect."— Creasy. 10. Magna Cliarta (p. 169, IT 24).—" How is it possible that at least a third of the provisions of the Charter should have related to promises and guaranties made in behalf of the people, if the aristocracy had only aimed at obtaining that which would benefit themselves ? We have only to read the Great Charter in order to be convinced that the right of all three orders of the nation (clergy, nobles, and common people), are equally respected and promoted."— (?Mizo<. 11. Defeat and Death of L.eice*ter (p. 170, H 28).- ''The Earl moved to a place on the Avon, called Evesham, and with great gladness saw his own banners coming over the hills from Kenilworth. These, however, turned out to be the captured standards of his son; and when he looked to other points of the compass, he saw glittering files of spears advancing in converging lines toward the position he held. Bitterly, as he saw this sight, did he" cry, 'It was I who taught them the art of war.' But bitter words were of little use at such a crisis. Having put his men in array of battle, he knelt down to say a short prayer, and then took the sacrament, as pious knights always did before going to battle. The fortunes of the day went against him from the first, but he resolved to sell hia life dearly. His last stand was made on the top of a hill, where he gathered round him in a solid circle some of his bravest men. When his horse was killed, he fought on foot ; but the circle at length yielded to the pressure of charges from every side, and brave old Leicester, a benefactor of the English Is^OTES. people second to none, fell on his last field. His head and limbs were brutally chopped off, and the horrible fragments were sent as a present to the wife of his greatest foe." — Collier. — Pictures of English History. 12. The Black Prince at Crecy (p. 174, H 38).— " The young Prince of Wales had been knighted only a mouth before; and Edward, who was watching the battle from a wind-mill, resolved to leave to his son the glory of victory. Although the prince was then hard pressed by the French, the king refused to send succor to his as.-sistance, saying, ' Let the child win his spurs, and let the day be his.' * * * The whole French array took to flight, and was followed and put to the sword, without mercy, till the darkness of the night put au end to the pursuit. The king, on his return to the camp, flew into the arms of the Prince of Wales, and exclaimed, ' My brave son ! persevere in your honorable course; you are my son, for valiantly have you acquitted yourself to-day, and worthy are you of a crown.' From this time the young prince became the terror of the French, by whom he was called the Black Prince, from the color of the armor which he wore on tliat day." — [lane's History of England. 13. Margaret of Anjou (p. 180, U 51).— " When Henry was twenty-three years old, his council suggested that it was time he should marry; and every one foresaw that the queen, whoever she might be, would possess the control over the weak mind of her husband. The choice of Henry was directed toward Margaret the daughter of Rene, King of Sicily and Duke of Anjou. In personal beauty she ■was thought superior to most women, in mental capacity equal to most men of the age. The marriage was agreed on. Margaret landed at Portchester, was married to Henry at Tichfleld, and crowned May 30, l-tii." — Lingard. 14. Tlie King-ITIaker (p. 180, H 51).—" During the whole extent of Eng- land's history, under the Saxon, Dane, or Norman, the mightiest of her barons was the king- maker, Warwick. It was his power that made Edward king, and his that unmade him. It was his power that dethroned King Henry, and it was his that restored him. Each monarch in turn became the captive and prisoner of this great earl. With princely revenues and estates, Warwick's vassals were an army; and some notion may be formed of the force he could, at will, bring armed into the field, from the fact that he is said to have daily feasted, at his numerous manors and castles, upward of thirty thousand persons. The other nobles possessed, in their degree, the power of an armed feudal retinue, ready to follow their lord to battle in any cause of his choosing; and thus there was a baronial power of which modern England shows only the shadow. As the traveler now beholds the stately walls of Warwick Castle, he can scarce, with all the impulse given to his imagina- tion, call up the vision of the armed hosts which, some three hundred years ago, could, at a moment's summons, be gathered there in battle array." — Reed.— Lectures on English History. 15. Battle of Bos worth (p. 184, II 59).— "The battle which brought to a close the famous War of the Roses, was fought on Redmore Plain, about a mile to the south of Market-Bosworth in Leicestershire. From this to\v'u it received the name by which it is most generally called— the battle of Bosworth. The leaders of the war were Richard Plantagenet, a little sharp-faced man, with one shoulder somewhat higher than the other, from which slight deformity he was branded by his enemies with the name of Hunchback; and Henry Tudor, or Tydder, a gray- eyed cautious man, with long yellow hair. The former represented the House of York; the latter, the House of Lancaster."— CoZZier. A. D.98T.] FRANCE IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 18? section iv. France during the Middle Ages. Extending from the Founding of the Capetian Dynasty (987) to ilie End of tlie Reign of Louis XL (1483). 1. Hugh Capet. — From the accession of Hugli Cap'et (or Jca'j^et), for about two centuries, the dominions of the French kings had but little extent, having been usurped, during the previous weak reigns, by the ambitious and tur- bulent nobles. The most important of these minor govern- ments were Brit'tany, in the northwest; Normandy, in the north; Aqiiifaine, or Guienne {glie-en'), and Anjou {ahn'joo), in the west; Gas' cony and Na-varre', in the southwest; Provence (2^ro-vahns'), in the southeast; and Bur'gundy, Cliamimgne {sham-pan' y a), and Flan'ders, in the east and northeast. So that, in fjxct, only a small part of what is now called France, at the period of these early Capetian {kali-p^ slie-cui) monarchs, was under their sway; and the history of the period mainly consists of an account of the wars resulting from this divided stnte of the country, and of the gradual consolidation of the whole into one kingdom. Hugh Capet was an active and prudent monarch; and, during his reign of nearly ten years, he succeeded in overcoming all opposition to his authority, and in enlarging his dominions. At his death (99G), he left the throne to his son Llohert. 2. Robert succeeded in annexing Burgundy to his do- Map Questions. — Olap, pacje 18S.) What coniitries ea!«t and northeast of France ? What provinces in the northern part? In the eastern part? Southern part? Western part ? Central part ? Where is Paris ? C-.leans ? Brest ? Rochelle ? Bordeaux? Aviijnon ? Troyes ? Poitiers? Tours? Rheims ? Nancy? 1. What is said of the extent of France? Name the principal minor govern- ments, with their situation. Of what does the history of France at this period consist ? What is said of Hugh Capet and his reign ? 2. What were the chief events in the reign of Robert ? What caused a destruc- tive pestilence ? What is said of this period ? By whom was Robert succeeded ? 188 FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. D. 1000. minions, but refused the kingdom of Italy and the empire of Germany, which he was invited to accept. The papal authority was exercised at this time so severely, that Kob- ert was compelled, by excommunication, to divorce his be- loved wife Bertha, because she was his fourth cousin. During this reign the year 1000 arrived, which had been almost universally predicted as the millenniimi — the end of the world. This belief occasioned general neglect and idleness ; and a dreadful famine and pestilence was the re- sult, which swept away vast multitudes of people, and caused the most frightful miseries and crimes. The super- stition and ignorance of the people, and the oppression and vices of the nobles, made this one of the darkest periods in A. ». 1108.] FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 189 human history. Eobert died in 1031, and left the throne to his son Henry. {See Note 1, end of the Section.'] 3. Henry I. — This reign is noted for the repeated wars which Henry waged with the Duke of Normandy— William, afterward the Conqueror of England, who successfully de- fended his dominions against the attacks of the French king. This was the cause of that aversion between the English and French monarchs that occasioned so many wars during the following reigns. The power of the Church was exercised during this reign to put a check to the unceasing warfare of the nobles, and to procure some respite for the unfortunate peasantry, so that they might cultiyate the lands, and thus prevent famine and pestilence. This was effected by establishing what was called the Truce of Qod—a religious injunction against all military opera- tions, duelling, and other acts of violence, from Wednes- day, at sunset, till sunrise on Monday, and on all feast and holy days. This regulation did much, eventually, to soften the ferocity of these terrible times. Henry I. was succeeded by his son Philip (1060). 4. Philip I. was a haughty and unprincipled monarch. He engaged in a w&r with William of Normandy, after the conquest of England by the latter, and endeavored to sow dissensions between him and his son Robert- After the death of William, he assisted Robert against William Ru- fus, compelling the latter to surrender Normandy to his brother. He was excommunicated by the Pope four times, for seizing by violence, and illegally marrying, the Countess of Anjou, whom he refused to deliver up to her lawful hus- band. During this reign Peter the Hermit preached the First Crusade (1095). Philip was succeeded by his son Louis (1108). [See Note 2, end of the Section.] 5. Louis VI., surnamed the Fat, was an energetic and 3 For what is the reign of Heniy I. noted ? What was the " Trace of God ?" What led to its institution ? What was the effect of it ? Who succeeded Henry 1.? 4. What is said of Philip I. ? What were the chief events of his reign .' W ho was his successor? 190 FRANCE IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D.I 180. r prudent king. He did important service to France by keeping the great vassals of the crown under control, and gave to the towns their first charters, thus relieving large numbers of the lower orders from the wretched condition of serfdom, in which they had been kept by the iron hand of the aristocracy. These early municipalities were called Communes f or commons (afterward the third estate), and consisted of citizens leagued together for mutual interest and defence. Henry I., of England, having regained Nor- mandy, Louis attempted to dispossess him ; but, although he raised a large army, the great barons refused to assist him, believing that the balance of power Avould be destroy- ed if Normandy were annexed to the French king's domin- ions. He was succeeded by his son Louis (1137). 6. Louis VII., by marrying Eleanor, became possessed of Guienne and Foitou (j^wah-too') ; but, during the expe- dition which he undertook to the Holy Land, and in which he was accompanied by his queen, he was so provoked by the freedom and levity of her conduct that he divorced her, and thus lost her great possessions. These he had the mortification of seeing annexed to the dominions of Henry, Duke of Norman d}^, Count of Anjou and Maine, and after- ward king of England (Henry IL), whom Eleanor had mar- ried after her divorce from the French king. In this way Henry II. came into possession of more extensive territories in France than those of the French king himself. Louis was succeeded by his son Philip (1180). 7. Philip II. (Augustus). — During this reign, the au- thority of the monarch was more generally acknowledged than it had been since the accession of Hugh Capet, and the country became more united and powerful. This was 5. What was the character of Louis VI. ? How did he benefit France ? What were the " Communes ?" What caused a war between him aiid Henry I, of Eng- land ? Who succeeded him ? 6. How did Louis VII. extend his dominions ? How were they afterward dimin- ished ? Who was his successor ? 7. Wliat is said of the reign of Philip II.? State the principal events of it. How did Philip extend his dominions ? What other measures did he accomplish? Who succeeded him ? A. B. 1217.] FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 191 partly due to the great ability and prudence of Philip, Avho kiieAv how to make himself respected and feared, lie en- gaged in the third Crusade vf\i\\ Kichard I., of England; but, becoming jealous of the English monarch's fame, he deserted him; and, returning home, basely plotted with Richard's brother John to seize his dominions. Failing in this, he afterAvard obtained the English proAdnces in France by means of the wickedness and coAvardice of John. He thus added to his dominions, Kormandy, Maine, Anjou, Poitou, and Louvaine ; and afterAvard extended his SAvay to the Pyrenees. He greatly improA^ed the discipline of the army, encouraged learning, and AA'alled and paved Paris and several other toAvns. After a reign of 43 years, he left his kingdom in a state of tranquillity to his son Louis (1223).* 8. The Albigenses. — The reign of Philip II. is also noted for the persecution of the Al'bi-gen-ses, — a numerous sect of dissenters from the Church of Rome, who arose in the commencement of the 13th century, in Languedoc {lan'glie-doc), and Avere supported by Raymond VI., Count of that province. They received their name from Albigeois {aVhe-zUwali), the district in which they first appeared. During the reign of Philip Augustus (1209), Pope Innocent III. caused a crusade to be preached against them, excom- municating both them and Count Raymond ; and, in the war which ensued, many of their toAvns Avere taken, and the most dreadful massacres perpetrated. Raymond Avas, at last, obliged to submit to the authority of the Pope.f Dur- ing the war, Simon de Montfort, the elder,;[ took an active part against the Albigenses, and Avas conspicuous for his cruelty and perfidy. He Avas killed at the siege of Toulouse (1218). 9. Louis VIII. was a feeble monarch ; but the Avise * See Note 3. end of the Section. t See Note 4. t Father of the famous Earl of Leicester, who founded the Enj;lish House of Commons. 8. Who were the Albigenses ? VA^hy were they so called ? Give an account of the trusade against them. AVhat is said of Simon de Montiort ? 9. What was the character of Louis VIII. ? AVhat was the state of France dur lug his reign ? Describe the crusade against the Albigenses. 192 FRAN^CE I:N' the middle ages. [A.D. 1249. policy of Philip Augustus had given such an impulse to affairs, that France continued to be triumphant over the English, who, during the reign of Henry III., made repeated attacks upon the French territories. Another crusade was undertaken against the Albigenses by Louis VIII., under the authority of the Pope. With a large army, he laid siege to Avignon {ah-ven'yong), but was kept so long under its walls that 20,000 men perished by dis- ease and famine ; and Louis himself died a short time after he received the submission of the conquered in- habitants (1226). 10. Louis IX. (/SW/Ji^fZo?^^^), son and successor of Louis VIII., was but a youth at the time of his accession ; and the government was administered by his mother, Blanclie of Castile (kas-teel'), during Avhose regency the war against the Albigenses was closed by the complete submission of Count Kaymond, and the cession, by formal treaty, of Languedoc to the crown of France (1229). The Liquisi- tion was established at Toulouse {foo-Ioos'), and all who re- fused to conform to the tenets of the Church of Rome were mercilessly punished. The remnant of the Albigenses emigrated to the east, and are lost sight of in history a short time after these events. 11. Louis, although uninstructed in letters, imbibed the most excellent princij)les of conduct from his mother, and strictly observed them after he attained the age of majority. He engaged in a crusade (1249) against the Sultan of Egypt, but was taken prisoner, and ransomed by his sub- jects for an immense sum ($1,500,000). Returning after an absence of five years, he ruled with so much candor and moderation, and with such a conscientious regard for jus- tice and rectitude, that he was universally esteemed, and 10. Who succeeded Louis VIIT. ? Who at flr*>t administered the government V How was the war atrainst the Albigenses closd ? What followed the treaty? 1 1. What was the character of Louis IX. and of his government ? What cru- eades did he undertake ? When and how did as death occur ? By whom was he canonized ? Why ? A. ». 1285.] FEA:NrCE IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 193 was enabled to promote the true progress and happiness of his people. In another crusade, undertaken to check the Mo- hammedans in Syria, he crossed to Africa, and died of the plague near Tunis (1270). Louis, some years after his deatli, was formally canonized by the Pope (Boniface VIII.) for his many virtues and his efforts and sacrifices for the cause of Christianity (1297). During the troubles between Henry II [. of England and his barons, Louis was chosen umpire by both parties, but his decision was disregarded. [See iV^. 5.] 12. Philip III., called the Hardij (because his constitu- tion had proved strong enough to resist the pestilence that carried off his father), continued the war against the Moors ; and, with the aid of his uncle, Charles of A?ijo2i, king of Sicily, reduced the king of Tunis to submission. Charles, who had but recently acquired possession of Sicily, became very odious to the people by his arbitrary government and the excesses of his followers ; and this discontent was en- couraged by Peter, king of Aragon,* who claimed the island. The result was, that, on Easter day (1282), when the church-bell sounded for vespers, the Sicilians rushed on all the French they could meet with, and massacred them without mercy. About 8,000 persons perished by this dreadful event, which is known in history as the Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. Peter of Aragon, by this means, succeeded in expelling Charles of Anjou from Sicily ; and Philip HI., taking up the cause of his uncle, made an un- successful invasion of Aragon, and died a short time after- ward of a fever, resulting from disappointment and fatigue (1285). 13. Philip IT. (le Bel — the Fair) succeeded at the age • Aragon was at this time an important kingdom in the northeastern part of Spain ; and Peter reste. 1422.] FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 199 cessors ; and at Paris an insurrection occurred, wliicli was with much difficulty subdued. An expedition was under- taken to reduce the Flemings, who had revolted against their ruler, Count Louis of Flanders ; and the terrible bat- tle of Rosehecrpie {rose'bek) was fought, in which the cele- brated Flemish leader FMUj:) Van Artevelde (ar'te-veld) was defeated and slain, and no less than 25,000 of the brave Flemings perished (1382). The French king him- self was present in this battle, but his army was com- manded by Oliver Clisson {klees'song), Constable of France, a man of great talents and distinction. 25. This great victory strengthened the power of the king ; and the French towns, which had made resistance to the royal exactions, being obliged to submit, all their citi- zens who had been prominent in the popular movement were put to death without mercy. In Paris alone, 300 were led to the scaffold, martyrs to the cause of popular freedom (1382). Some years after this, Chu 'les VI. be- came afflicted with insanity, from which he never entirely recovered ; and while France, in consequence of this ca- lamity, was a prey to every species of disorder, Henry V. invaded it, took Ear'fleiir, and penetrated into the country. On his retreat, he was surprised at Agincourt ; but, though obliged to give battle at great disadvantage, he gained a tlecided victory (1115). This was followed by the taking of Rouen and the conquest of ]S'ormandy ; when, finally, the treaty of Troyes was made, according to which Henry married Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and was, on the death of the latter, to become king of France. This shameful treaty was ratified by the States-General, but was never carried into effect, for Henry died some months be- fore the death of Charles VI. (1422). 26. Charles VII., tlie Victorious, was crowned at Poi- S-'J. What was the effect of this victory? How was the king afflicted? Wliat invasion took i)lace ? With what resuU. ? What followed the battle of Agincourt » What is said of the treaty of Troyes ? Why was it not carried into effect ? 200 FliAXCE IX THE MIDDLE AGES. I A. ». 1429. tiers; but Henry VI. of Engljind had already been pro- claimed king of France, in accordance with the treaty of Troyes. The Duke of Bedford, the English regent, gained a great victory over the army of Charles, consisting partly of Scotch and other auxiliaries (1424). This dreadful dis- aster to Charles was followed (1428) by the siege of Or'lerms, the last stronghold of his party, while no hope Avas entertained by the French of being able to repel its assailants. The deliverance of Charles was, however, ef- fected by one of the most extraordinary occurrences re- corded in history. 27. Joan of Arc, a simple peasant girl, had been told of a prophecy, to the effect that France could only be de- livered from its enemies by a virgin ; and the idea became impressed upon her mind, that to herself had been divinely committed tlie task of effecting this great object. She soon induced others to believe in the truth of her mission, among them the king himself and his chief officers, and was admitted into Orleans, arrayed in armor, and provided with a train of attendants (1429). Under her leadership, the French seemed to be inspired with almost superhuman courage, and soon compelled the English to raise the siege. 28. She next urged the King to march to Eheims (recniz), in order to assume the crown of his ancestors ac- cording to tlie accustomed rites ; and, partly under her leadership, the French, after several victorious battles, reached the city, which the English were compelled to sur- render; and tlie King was crowned in the great cathedral (1420). Joan then declared her mission ended, and Avished to be dismissed ; but her services being still demanded, she remained in the army; and a short time afterward fell into 26. What caused a war on the accession of Charles VII. ? What disastere oc curred ? How was Charles delivered from his difficult situation ? 27. Who wa? Joan of Arc ? What was accomplished by her ? 28. Narrate the subsequent events in the career of Joan of Arc. A. D. 1465.] FRANCE IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 201 the power of the English, by whom she was burnt to death at Rouen, on a charge of sorcery (1431). 29. Nothing was gained by the cruel execution of the "Maid of Orleans;" for the English continued to suffer defeat till they finally lost all their French possessions ex- cept Calais ; and the Duke of Burgundy, who had previously supported them, became reconciled to Charles VII. Charles thus rightly received the surname of " Victorious ; " for he had become one of the most powerful sovereigns of Europe. The last years of his life were embittered by the wicked and un dutiful conduct of Louis, his eldest son, Avho re- peatedly plotted against him. With such terror was he in- spired from the wicked intrigues of the prince, that he was afraid to take food lest he might be poisoned; and died, it is said, from want of sustenance (1461). 30. Louis XI. The character of this king presents a strange and odious combination of dissimulation, cruelty, and superstition, and on this account he has been styled the Tiberius of France. Determined to enlarge the royal authority by weakening the great feudal vassals, he soon excited their opposition ; and a coalition was formed against him, called the League of the Public Good (14G5), the ruling spirit of which was Charles the Bold, afterAvard Duke of Burgundy. A war ensued, in which Louis was defeated, and compelled to grant all the concessions demanded ; but these he afterward revoked, and, one by one, reduced the rebellious vassals to submission. 31. The greater part of the reign of Louis XI. is occu- pied with dark intrigues against his enemies, particularly against Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The latter was afterward defeated, in two great battles, by the Swiss, whose country he had invaded ; and the next year he suffered 29. What ip farther related of the rei<,'a of Charles VII. ? What embittered his last years ? What caused his death ? 30. What is said of the character of Lonis XI. ? What caused the League of thp. Public G(X}d ? What was the result of the war ? 3 1 . What occupied most of this rei^'u ? What ie said of Charles of Burguudy i 9* 202 FRANCE IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. B. 1483. another defeat from the Duke of Lor-raiiie', at Nan'cy, where he was slain (1477). Louis, taking advantage of these cir- cumstances, was enabled to re-annex Burgundy to the French dominions. The death of Charles the Bold ended the long resistance of the great French vassals to the cen- tral power of the monarchy. 32. Mary of Burgundy, the daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, was thus deprived of the Duchy ; but she still remained mistress of Flanders, and Louis desired to marry her to the Dauphin (the eldest son of the king). Dis- gusted with his treachery, she refused her consent, and accepted the hand of MaximiXian, son of the Emperor of Germany, and Archduke of Austria (1477). This marriage laid the foundation of the greatness of the house of Aus- tria, and led to a rivalry between France and the Empire which lasted nearly two centuries. As Louis grew old, he became very superstitious and cruel ; and, at last, conscious of being universally abhorred, he shut himself up in a castle which he kept constantly defended by armed troops. His death, which occurred in 1483, is a turning point in French history, and marks the close of the Middle Ages,"^ CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 987. Hugh Capet, first of the Capetian dynasty. Reigned 9 yeai"s. 990. Robert. Reigned 35 years. 1000. Year of tlie predicted millennium. 1001. Henry I. Reigned 29 years. 1060. Philip I. Reigned 48 years. 1095. First Crusade preached. 1108. Louis VI., the Fat. Reigned 29 years. " Enfranchisement of the Communes. 1137. Louis VII., //ig Young. Reigned 43 years. Second Crusade. 1180. Philip II., Augustus. Reigned 43 years. Third Crusade. * Sec Note 8, end of the Section. 32. Wliat is said of Mary of Biircruncly? What vas the eftect of her marriage with Maximilian ? What is said of the close of the r ;igii of Louis XI. ? When did his death occur ? Why is this an important date * FRANCE I:N^ the MIDDLE AGES. 203 1200. Crusade against the Albigenses. 1218. Death of Simon de Montfort. 1223. liouis VIII. Reigned 3 years. Continued persecution of the Albigenses. 1228. Louis IX. {St. Louis). Reigned 44 years. Two Crusades un- dertaken. 1229. The x\lbigenses subdued. ■*270. Philip III., (lie Hardy. Reigned 15 years. 1282. The Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. 1285. Philip IV., the Fair. Reigned 29 years. Contest with Pope Boniface. 1314. Louis X., Hutiii. Reigned 2 years. 1317. Philip v., the Tall. Regent 7 months; reigned 5 years. Salic law confirmed. 1322. Charles IV. Reigned 6 years. 1328. Philip VI., of Valois. Reigned 22 years. 1346. Battle of Crecy. 1350. John, the Good. Reigned 14 years. V^m. Battle of Poitiers. 13G4. Charles V., the Wise. Reigned 16 years. Constable du Guesdin, 1380. Charles VI., tJie Well-beloved. Reigned 42 years. 1415. Battle of Agincourt. 1422. Charles VII., tlie Victorious. Reigned 39 years. 1431. Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen. 1401. Louis XI. Reigned 22 years. Called by some the Tibenus of France. 1477. Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, killed at Nancy. The duchy seized by Louis XI. 1483. Death of Louis XL REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. State all you can of Hugh Capet and his reign 147-187 2. Over what territoiy did Capet have dominion ? 187 3. By whom was he succeeded on the throne ? 187 4. State the important events of King Robert's reign . 187-188 5. What is said in relation to the predicted millennium ?. 18S-189 6. By whom was King Robert succeeded on the throne ? 189 7. Name the important events of the reign of Henry 1 189 8. How was the power of the Church exercised during his reign ? 189 9. By whom was Henry I. succeeded on the throne ? 189 to. What were the character and acts of King Philip I. ? 161-189 11 . How many kings of the Capetian race were there ? 187—193, 195- 196 204 FRANCE IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 12. Name them in the order of their succession 187-188-189-190-191-102-1<)3-195-196 13. Wliat was the cliaractcr of Louis Yl., and what were his important acts ? 189-190 14. How did Louis VII. gain and h)se vast territory in France ? 19C 15. State the important events in the life of Queen Eleanor? 190-]f)3-l(;6 Hi. What was the cliaracter of Philip Augustus ? 190-191 17. Give an account of the important events of his reign 190-1 91-1 OT-1 68 18. Give the history of the Albigenses 191-192-207 li). State what you can of Simon de Montfort 109-191 20. State what you can of Count Raymond 191-192 21. Give an account of the reign of Louis IX., or St. Louis 192-193 22. AVhat did Philip the Hardy accomplish in Africa and Aragon ? 193 23. Give the facts in relation to the Massacre of the Sicilian Ve'spers 193 24. Name the principal events of the reign of Philip the Fair 193-194 25. What can you state of Flancters and the Flemings ? 187-194-199 26. Of Louis X., the son and successor of Philip the Fair ? 195 27. Who was Philip the Long, and by what right did he become king ? 195 28. Who was Charles IV., and how did he succeed to the throne ? 195-196 29. Who was Philip of Valois, and what were the events of his reign ? . . . 196 30. Give the particulars of the contest between him and Edward III... 174-175-196 31. What account can you give of the Black Plague of 1348-9 ? 175-196 32. Beginning with the first, name six kings of the House of Valois 196—201 33. Who was John the Good ? Name the events of his reign 196-197-198 34. Give an account of the contest between him and Edward III 175-197-198 35. What was the character, and what the acts of Charles the Wise ? 198 36. Give an account of the expedition against the Flemings 199 37. State what the consequences were of Clisson's victory 199 38. What efibrts did Henry V. make to subdue France ? , 179-199 39. With what success were his efforts attended ? 179-180-199 40. What were the early events in the reign of Charles the Victorious ? 199-20C 41. Give the facts in the career of Joan of Arc 180-200-201 42. Give the closing events in the life of King Charles 201 43. VVho was Louis XL, and what was his character ? 201 44. Give an account of the events in his reign 201-202 45. Give the history of Mary of Burgundy 202 46. W^hat is said of the closing years of Louis XL ? 202 47. In what year did his death occur ? 202 48. Name, in chronological order, the important events from the accession of Hugh Capet to the Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers 203-203 49. Name, in chronological order, the important events from the Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers to the death of Louis XI 203 50. Name the early kings of France, with their surnames 202-203 51. Name them with the length of their reigns 202-203 52. Name each with the most important act of his reign 187—202 53. Which of them had the longest reign ? 202-203 54. Which of them engaged in the Crusades ? 202-203 55. During whose reign was the battle of Crecy fought ? 203 56. During whose reign was the battle of Poitiers fough t ? 203 57. During whose reign was the battle of Agincourt fought ? 203 58. Who was Maximilian ? 202 :notes, 1. Tlie Year 1,000 (p. 189, t 2).—" The fearful hope of the anival of the jiiclgmciit-day grew with the cahunities that ushered in the year 1,000. A dreadful ])e!siilence made Aquitaine a de.^^ert. The flesh of those who were seized by it was as if struck by fire, for it fell rotting from their bones. The high roads to the place^ of i)ilgrimage were througed with these wretched beings. They besieged th churches, particularly that of St. Martin's at Limoges, and crowded its portals to suffocation, undeterred by the stench around it. A few years after it was still worse. From the East to Greece, Italy, France, and England, famine prevailed. The rich lost color and fl'esh. Tiie poor dug up and ate the roots in the woods. Many hor- rible to relate, were driven by hunger to feed on their fellow creatures.'''— Michelei. 2. Peter the Hermit (p. 189, t 4).—" The Hei-mit traversed Italy, crossed the Alps, with indelatigable restlessness went from province to province, from city to city. His appearance commanded attention, his austerity respect, his languaize instantaneous and vehement sympathy. He rode on a mule, with a crucifix in his hand, his head and feet bare. His dress was a long robe, girt with a cord, and a hermifs cloak of the coarsest stuft'. He preached in the pulpits, in the roads, in the market-places. His eloquence was that wliich stirs the hearts of the people, for it came from his own— brief, figurative, full of bold apostrophes ; it was mingled with his own tears, with his own groans. He beat his breast; the contagion spread throughout his audience. His preaching appealed to every passion ; to valor and shame, to indignation and pity, to the pride of the warrior, the compassion of the man, the religion of the Christian, to the love of the Brethren, to tlie hatred of the unbeliever, aggravated by his insnlting tyranny, to reverence for tiie Redeemer and the Saints, to the desire of expiating sin, to the hope of eternal life. His influence was extraordinary, even beyond the immediate object of his mission. Old enemies came to be reconciled; the worldliest to for- swear the world ; prelates to entreat the Hermit's intercession. Gifts were showered upon him ; lie gave them all to the poor, or as dowries for loose women, whom he provided with husbands. His wonders were repeated from mouth to mouth ; all ages, both sexes, crowded to touch his garment-^ ; the very hairs wliich dropped from his mule were caught and treasured as relics."— J/i^man.— History of Latin C/iristianitij. 3. Fliiiip Aii<>'ustus (p. 191, 1 7).—" Philip Augustus was the first sover- eign of what may be called the national monarchy of France, who acquired a popular, brilliant, and lasting reputation. In general political ability— in the qualities of sagacity, prudence, energy, and perseverance — he was infinitely superior to his predecessors since the time of Charlemagne ; and it may be ques- tioned whether, in these essential qualifications of a ruler, he has been surpassed by any of his successors in the line of the Qn^etxAn^."''— Student's France. 4. Submission of Count Raymond (p. 191, f 8).— "Raymond of Toulouse submitted at once in the amplest manner to tiie demands of his in- exorable enemie*, to the personal abasement inflicted by the Church. At a coun- cil at jSlonteliniart he was cited to appear before the leL^ates at Valence. Here he first surrendered, as security for his absolute submission, seven of his strong castles. He was then led, naked to the girdle, to the porch of tlie Abbey churcli, and in the presence of the legates, and not less than twenty bishops, before the holy Eucharist, before certain reliques, and the wood of tiie true Cross, with his hand upon the holy gospels, he acknowledged the justice of his excommunication, and swore fu.l allegiance to the Pope and to his legate. These ceremonies ended. NOTES. the Count with a rope round his neclc, and scourged, as he went, on his naked shoulders, was led up to the high a'tar; then, after a solemn recapitulation of the Pope's commands before it, and a reiteration of the same commands after it, he received the absolution.'" — Mil/nan. 5. Saint Liouis (p. 193, 1 11).— " The character of St. Louis is one of the noblest that occurs in modern histor}'. He possessed all the virtues of his age, untarnished by its vices : he was brave without cruelty or violence, pious without bigotry or weakness. Although more the hero of tlie legend than of romance, he commands our admiration by his rare disinterestedness, his bold attempt to rule his actions as a monarch by the rigid maxims of private honor, and by the great, good sense that tempered his devotion, and that never allowed liim to sacrifice humanity or justice to the interests even of that Church which he revered."— Crowe.— History of France. 6. Tlie Black P]ai>;ue (p. 196, 1 19).— "Many died in the streets ; others left alone in their houses— but the I'act of their death was known by the smell. Often, husband and wife, son and father, were laid on the same bier. Large ditches had been dug, in which the corpses were heaped by hundreds, like bales in a ship's hold. Every one carried in his hand stroug-smelling herbs. The air stank with the dead and dying, or with infectious drugs. Alas I how many fine houses remained empty ! How many fortunes without heirs ! How many lovely ladies, how many amiable young oersons dined in the morning with their friends, who, when evening came, supped with their ancestors ! "—Boccaccio. 7. The Jacquerie (p. 197, 1 21).- " Jacques Bonhomme will pay off his lord centimes of arrears. His vengeance was that of the despairing,— of the damned. God seemed to have sickened him of this world. Not only did the peasants butcher their lords, but they tried to exterminate the families of their lords, mur- dering their heirs. And then would thdse savages tuck out themselves and their wives in rich habiliments, and bedeck then^selves wit'i glittering, but bloody spoils. Yet were they not so savage as not to march with a kind of order, under ban- ners, and led by a captain chosen from among themselves, a crafty peasant, called Guillaume Callet. These bands consisted mostly of the meaner sort, with & few rich burgesses and others. ' When they were asked,' says Froissart, ' for what reason they acted so wickedly, they replied, they knew not, but they did so because they saw others do it; and they thought by this means they should destroy all the nobles and gentlemen in the world.' "—WicheUt. 8. Liast Days of Louis XI. (p. 202, t 3-2).-" As he felt his disorder in- creasing, he shut himself up in a palace near Tours, to hide from the world the knowledge of his decline. His solitude was like that of Tiberius at Capreie, fnll of terror and suspicion, and deep consciousness of universal hatred. All ranks, he well knew, had their several injuries to remember : the clergy, whose liberties he had sacrificed to the See of Rome ; the princes, whose blood he had poured upon the scaffold ; thg parliament, whose cour.se of justice he had turned aside ; the commons, who groaned under his extortions, and were plundered by his soldiery. The palace, fenced with portcullises and spikes of iron, was guarded by archers and crossbow-men, who shot at any that approached by night. Few entered his den; but to them he showed himself in magnificent apparel, contrary to his former custom, hoping thus to disguise the change of his meager body. He dis- trusted his friends and kindred, his daughter and his son, the last of whom he had not suffered even to read or write, lest he should too soon become his rival. No man ever so much feared death, to avert which he stooped to every meanness, and sought every remedy.'"— Hallam.— Europe during the Middle Ages. A.D. 10T6.] THE CRUSADES. 205 section v. The Crusades. From tJie Council of Clermont (1095) to tlve Capture of Acre by the Mohammedans (1291). 1. The Crusades were religious wars carried on during the Middle Ages between the Christian nations of the AVest and the Mohammedans of the East. From an early- period, it had been deemed by the Church an act of piety to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, to visit the various places which the Saviour had hallowed by his presence, and to pay devotion to the sepulchre in wliich he had been entombed. The Saracens, v/ho conquered Palestine in the 7th century, had respected these Christian pilgrimages, and rather assisted than opposed those who made them, allowing them to build a church and a hospital at Jerusa- lem. The Fatimite sultans of Eg}7)t, on their conquest of Syria, in the 10th century, had been less generous ; and Christendom, at that time, became somewhat alarmed and excited. 2. But when the Seljuk Turks took possession of Syria and captured Jerusalem (107G), the pilgrims were treated with the most shocking cruelty and insult ; and the news of these atrocities excited the deepest indignation through- out Christendom. The Byzantine emperors first taking alarm, appealed to the Christian monarch s of the West ; and Pope Gregory VII. had entertained the idea of sending aid to the Emperor Manuel, in accordance with his earnest supplication, as early as 1073. It was not, however, until 1 . What were the cnisadcs ? What i? said of the Christian pilgrimaires ? How were the Christian pilgrims treated by the Saracens ? What alarmed Christendom in the tenth century 'i 2. How did the Seljuk Turks treat the Christians ? What was the consequence f When were effectual measures for relief taken ? 206 THE CJiUSAUES. [A.D.I 096. Peter the Hermit, returning from the Holy Land, depicted the dreadful sufferings of the Christians of Palestine, that any effectual measures for relief Avere taken. 3. This religious enthusiast was a native of Am'i-ens, in France, and animated all Avho listened to his preaching with the same burning zeal against the infidels as had filled his own soul on witnessing their atrocities. Pope Urban II. soon took up the cause ; and tAVO councils were held, at the second of Avhich, at Cler-mont', in France (1095), the Pope himself delivered an impassioned address to a vast multitude of both clergy and laymen. His ex- hortation Avas greeted with the cry of " God Avills it !" Avhich burst simultaneously from every one present. The Avar was, accordingly, agreed upon ; and all Avho entered into it Avere directed to Avear, as a badge, a cross of red stuff at- tached to the shoulder. Hence these Avars Avero called Crusades. 4. First Crusade. — From all parts of Europe thou- sands hurried, at the summons of the Pope, to take part in the holy Avar; and, in the spring of 109G, no less than 275,000 men, in large part the dregs of the population, Avere on their Avay to Palestine. Peter himself commanded a great multitude ; but the first detachment, under Walter the Penniless, Avas cut to pieces by the Bulgarians, only a small band reaching Constantinople, where it Avas joined by the forces of Peter. This undisciplined multitude en- gaged the army of the Turkish Sultan on the plains of Nice, but Avere defeated Avith great slaughter. A third and fourth expedition of the same kind shared a similar fate. 5. But the real crusaders soon arrived at Constantino- ple. These consisted of six armies of veteran soldiers, com- manded by tlie most skilful and experienced generals of 3. Who was Peter the Hennit ? AVhat was done bv Pope Urban 11. ? AATiat took place at the Council oJ' Clermont? Why were thepe wars called Crusades'^ 4. In what way was the first crusade coramonced ? 5. Who were the real Crusaders ? What force had they ? A. D. 1099.1 THE CRUSADES. 30? the age : Godfrey of Bouillon {hoo-eeUjong'), Duke of Lor- niiiie ; Hugh the Great, brother of Philip I., king of France ; Roljert, son of William the Conqueror of Eng- land; Co^int Robert, of Flanders; Bolie-raond, Count of Tarentum, with his cousin, the noble and illustrious Tancred; and Count Raymond, of Toulouse. The whole force amounted to about 600,000 men. 6. Having defeated Sultan Sol'i-man, and captured Nice, liis capital (1097), they proceeded to Syria, and took Antioch (1098), after a siege of seven months. Durhig this siege, Peter the Hermit, and multitudes of others, de- serted the ranks of the crusaders. After routing an im- mense army of Mohammedans, sent by the Persian sultan, the crusaders marched to Jerusalem, where they found their army reduced to 40,000 men. After a short siege, this city surrendered (1099), and Godfrey of Bouillon was unani- mously elected king. A short time after this, he defeated the Sultan of Egypt, with an immense army, at Ascalon. 7. The Kingdom of Jerusalem, thus founded, was gradu- ally extended till it embraced the Avhole of Palestine ; the best part of Asia Minor w^as restored to the Eastern Em- pire, and Bohemond was made Prince of Antioch. At .Jerusalem were founded the two famous orders of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John and the luiights Templars. For nearly fifty years the three Latin principalities or kingdoms of the ^2i^i—Edessa, Antioch, and Jerusalem— maintained themselves against the Mohammedans, and in- creased in power and Avealth. 8. Second Crusade.— This was excited by the dangers to which the Christians of Syria were exposed from the conquering arms of a Turkish Emir, who, having been ap- pointed governor of Aleppo , had defeated the Franks at 6. W^hatwas accomplished by the crusaders? W^ho was made King of Jeru- '''7."\low was the Icingdom of Jerusalem extended? What ff^^^^^.^^'f^ ^^^^< orders were founded ? "What is said of Edessa, Antioch -y^^d Je.iu-a em 8. What excited the second crusade ? By whom was it preached ? Who loot Dart in it ? What caused its faihire ? 208 THE CRUSADES. [A.D.I 192. Antioch, had taken Edessa, aud threatened the destruction of all the Christian kingdoms in Syria. It was preached by the celebrated St. Ber'nard, Abbot of Clairvaux (dare-vo'}, in Champagne, who was distinguished for his learning and devotion. Two immense armies, under Loicis VII., king of France, and Conrad III, emperor of Germany, marched for the Holy Land (1147). But, owing to the base treach- ery of Manuel Com-ne'nus, the Greek emperor, the armies met with a long series of disasters ; and after a fruitless at- tempt to take Damascus, the expedition was abandoned, only a small remnant of the numerous host returning to Europe. 9. Third Crusade. — The taking of Jerusalem by Sal'a- din, sultan of Egypt (1187), led to a third crusade, the chiefs of which were Frederick Bar-la-ros'sa, emperor of Germany; Philip Augustus, king of France; and Richard I, of England. The emperor set out first (1189), but died of a fever brought on by imprudently bathing in the 0-ron'tes River. His army joined the forces of the other two monarchs at Ao^e; which city, after a long siege of nearly two years, was compelled to surrender, notAvith standing every effort made by Saladin to relieve the defenders. No less than nine battles were fought, and more than 100,000 Christians perished, in battle or by disease, during the progress of this siege. 10. Richard and Philip having quarrelled, the latter re- turned to Europe; but the former led his forces to Asca- lon, and defeated Saladin, but was compelled to retire from Jerusalem. After accomplishing prodigies of valor, which excited the admiration of the Saracens, he made a treaty with Saladin, to p4'otect the pilgrims from injury and op- pression, and set out for Europe (1192). Saladin dying the next year, the unity of his empire was destroyed. Tlie 9. What led to the third crnsade ? Who were its chiefs ? What befell the Em- peror Frederick ? What city was taken ? What losses did the Christians sustain ? 10. Why did Philip return home? What did Richard achieve? What ended the third crusade? A. D. 1269.] THE CRUSADES. 209 sultans of Egypt, Aleppo, and Damascus became hostile to each other ; and the Franks, or Christians of Syria, were left secure in their possessions. 11. The Fourth Crusade was enjoined by Pope Inno- cent III. (1203). A vast armament was fitted out at Venice; but the expedition was diverted from its proper mission against the Mohammedans, and, under Baldwin, Count of Flanders, proceeded against Constantinople. This city the crusaders took (1204), and founded there the Latin dynasty of emperors, who occupied the throne for fifty-six years. 12. The Fifth Crusade was led by Frederick IL, em- peror of Germany. It began in 1228, and was terminated by a treaty which the emperor made with the sultan of Egypt. In accordance with this treaty, Palestine was ceded to Frederick, and free toleration granted of both the Christian and Mohammedan faiths. Under this arrange- ment, the Christians lived in Jerusalem in peace and pros- perity, undisturbed until the irruption of the Mongols, in the middle of the thirteenth century. 13. The Sixth Crusade was undertaken by Louis IX. (St. Louis), of France (1249), in consequence of the cap- ture and pillage of Jerusalem by the barbarous Mongols. The French monarch, after having taken Damietta, was utterly defeated by the Sultan of Egypt, and taken prisoner. He was afterward ransomed by his subjects (1250). 14. The Seventh Crusade was undertaken by St. Louis in alliance with Prince Edward (afterward Edward I.) of England (1269), in consequence of the taking of Antioch by the Mam'e-luke* Sultan of Eg3q3t. Louis * The Mnmehil;es (a word meaning in Arabic, sJavf.t) were of Turkish orij?in, and were bought by the Sultan of Egypt and pl.vced in the army. In 1251, they had advanced to such a degree of power, that they made one of their number Sultan, and founded a dynasty which occupied the throne of Egypt for centuries. 1 1 . Who enjoined the foni-th crusade ? What did it accomplish ? 1 2. Who was at the head of the fifth crusade ? What was eftected by it ? 1 3. By whom was the sixth crusade undertaken ? Why ? What was the result ? 14. By whom was the seventh crusade undertaken ? Why ? What caused the death of St. Louis ? What followed ? What was done by Edward 't 210 THE CRTISADES. [A. ». 1291. crossed to Africa, expecting to receive the King of Tunis aa a convert to Christianity ; but, instead of a convert, he found a determined enemy ; and a pestilence having broken out, tlie French perished by thousands on the ])urning sands. St. Louis died in his tent; and his son Philip, after making a treaty with the king of Tunis, returned to France (1270). Prince Edward, however, proceeded to the Holy Land, and gained some advantages by his skill and valor; but after making a ten years' truce, he returned home to ascend the English throne. 15. This was the last of the crusades. Antioch had been taken by the sultan of Egypt, and all its inhabitants slaughtered or made slaves in 1268 ; the other towns of Syria, soon after fell successively into the hands of the Mo- hammedans, excepting Acre, which for a time was the me- tropolis of the Christians. This also Avas captured by the sultan in 1291, and its inhabitants, to the number of 60,000, put to death or sent into bondage. Soon afterward all the churches and fortifications of the Latin Christians throughout Syria were demolished. 16. Influence of the Crusades. These enterprises indirectly contributed very greatly to the political and social improvement of the nations of Europe during the Middle Ages. They terided to break iip the feudal system^ by compelling the great barons to sell their lands, in order to raise the money necessary to equip their troops and transport them to distant countries. They also aided pop- ular freedom, by inducing kings to grant to the towns po- litical privileges, in return for contributions of money for the same purpose. 17. TJiey encouraged commerce, by employing so many sliips and such vast supplies as were required to transport and sustain the vast armies which were raised and sent out 1 5. What events destroyed the power of the Latin Christians in Syria ? 1 6. What was the iuliuence of the crusades on the Feudal System ? On poptlm freedom ? 17. On commerce and navigation ? What cities rose to eminence ? THE CRUSADES. 211 to SO great a distance. Foreign countries were brought into communication with each other, and the advantage of a mutual exchange of products soon became apparent. Thus the arts of navigation and ship-building rapidly ad- vanced ; and many cities situated in the route of these ex- peditions soon acquired extraordinary influence and wealth. Of these Gen'oa and Venice are examples. 18. TJiey ])romoted the diffusmi'of knowledge, and the progress of science a7id literature. Those who engaged in them were at first grossly ignorant and illiterate; but coming in contact with the Greek and Saracenic civiliza- tion, they soon imbibed a taste for the science and litera- ture which constituted one of its most prominent features, and, on returning home, communicated the same spirit to their fellow countrymen. 19, They were e?itejyrises imdertahen for a nolle and ■anselfish imrpose ; and, although blended with it, was the desire of military distinction and renown, this was to be gratified by great self-sacrifice, and personal devotion to a cause which conscience and religion approved. Hence were necessarily infused that heroic and disinterested spirit, that eagerness to succor the weak and distressed, that love of romantic adventure, and those elevated sentiments of honor, all of which went to form that remarkable feature of the manners of the Middle Ages, known as chivalry. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 1076. Jerusalem taken by the Seljuk Turks. 1095. Council of Clermont. " First crusade advocated by Pope Urban 11. 10^7. Soliman defeated and Nice taken by the Crusaders. 1098. Antioch taken by the Crusaders. 1099. Jerusalem taken, and Godfrey of Bouillon elected king. 18. How did they promote the diffusion of knowledj?e, and the progress of ^^'l 9? Vhat is forthor laid of their influence ? How did they give rise to chivalry t 212 THE CRUSADES. 1147. Second crusade undertaken by Louis VII. and the Emperoi Conrad. 1187. Jerusalem taken by Saladin. 1189. Third crusade under Philip II., Ricliard I., and Frederick Bar- barossa. 1203. Fourth crusade, under Baldwin, count of Flanders. 1201. Constantinople taken by the Crusaders. , 1228. Fifth crusade, under Frederick II., emperor of Germany. 1249. Sixth crusade, under St. Louis. 1269. Seventh crusade, under St. Louis and Prince Edward. 1270. Death of St. Louis near Tunis. 1291. Capture of Acre by the Mohammedans. Total conquest of Syria and subjugation of the Latin Christians EEVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGB 1. What was the early custom in reference to making pilgrimages to the Holy Land? 205 2. What events afterward occurred to interfere with the custom ? 205 3. Who was Peter the Hermit, and what did he do ? 189-206-207 4. What preparations were made for the first crusade ? 206 5. Give the full account of the first crusade 206-161-207 6. State why the second crusade was undertaken 207-208 7. Give the full account of the second crusade 207-208-190 8. What was the immediate cause of the third cnisade ? 208 9. Give the full account of the third crusade 208-209-166-191 10. Why, and with what result, was the fourth crusade made ? 209 11. Give an account of the fifth crusade 209 12. When and hy whom was the sixth crusade undertaken ? 209 13. Give the facts in the career of Saint Louis 192-193-209-210 14. Give the full account of the seventh crusade 209-210 15. Give the history of Antioch 58-115-118-137-207-210 16. What were the four important influences of the cnisades 210-211 17. In what way did they tend to destroy the feudal system 210 18. Explain how they encouraged commerce 210-21 1 19. In what way did they promote the diffusion of knowledge ? 211 20. How did they promote the spirit of hei-oism and disinterestedness?. . 211 21. Name the most prominent persons in each of the seven crusades 206—210 22. Name those who were most successful 20(5—210 23. Name, in chronological order, important events of the 11th century. 184-202-211 24. Name those of the 12th century 184-202-212 25. Name those of the 13th century 184-203-212 26. Name those of the 14th century 185-203 27. Name those of the 15th century 185-203 936.] CEXTRAL AND SOUTHERI?- EUROPE. 213 section vi. Central and Southern Europe during the Middle Ages. Germany— {From 843 to 1493). 1. After the battle of Fontenaille, in which the degen- erate grandsons of Charlemagne fought with each other over the territories subdued by his wisdom and valor, the em- pire Avas divided into three portions, — France, Germany, and Italy; and the second of these divisions was assigned to Louis (843). The Carlovingian race became extinct in 911 ; and thereafter the Di'et, or Great Council consisting of the provincial rulers and the chief dignitaries of the Church, assumed the right of electing the emperor, subject to confirmation by the Pope, by whom alone he could be crowned. 2. Several races at this time occupied Germany, the chief of which were the Franks, Saxons, Ba-va'ri-ans, and Sua'- M-ans J and the first choice of the Diet was Conrad of Franconia. He was succeeded (919) by five Saxon emper- ors, the first of whom was Henry I. {the Fowler), who brave- ly and successfully withstood an irruption of the Magyars {mod'yars), or Hungarians, whom he defeated in a great battle (934), and thus saved his country from being overrun by those barbarous hordes.* Before his death (936) he was regarded as the greatest monarch in Europe. 3. He was succeeded by his son Otho I. (the Great), who again saved Germany by defeating the Hungarians * See :Note 1, < vd cj the t'atiov. 1. When and how was the empire of Charlemagne divided? To whom Avaa Germany assigned ? When did the Carlovingian race become extinct ? What fol- lowed ? 2. What races occupied Germany? Who was the first choice of the electors i By whom was he succeeded ? What is said of Henry the Fowler? 3. Who succeeded Henrj' I. ? What was accomplished by Otho the Great ? 214 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1056. (955), in a battle near Augshurg (pugs'l)Oorg),^\-\(\. extended tlie limits of the Empire on every side. At the head of a victorious army he passed the Alps, subdued Italy, and after receiving at Mil'an the iron crown of the Lombaixls,* was crowned by the Pope Emperor of the West (962). 4. This great monarch died in 973, and was succeeded by his son Otho II., whose reign was a constant series of wars. He defeated the Saracens in Lower Italy, and made himself master of Naples and Tarentum; but the Greek emperor having invited the Saracens again into Italy, Otho was entirely overwhelmed by them, and narrowly escaped with life. At a diet held in Ve-ro'na, he formally confirmed the privileges of the RejmUic of Venice ; and was preparing a great expedition against the Greeks and Sara- cens, when he died at Rome (983). 5. Otho III. was also a great monarch. He defeated the Slaves,f or Slavonians, who had long carried on war against the Empire, and compelled their chief, Mi-cis'las, Duke of Poland, to do him homage. Afterward, by formally ac- knowledging the successor of the duke a king, he raised the Polish territories to the rank of a kingdom (995). He died at Eavenna (1002), and was succeeded by Henry II. who was the last of the Saxon emperors (1024). 6. Four Franconian Emijerors followed. The first was CJonrad II., who annexed the kingdom of Burgundy to ihe Empire. Henry III., his son, promulgated the Tricce of God, extended his sway over Hungary, and repressed the insolence of the spiritual and temporal princes of Germany. He was succeeded by Henry IV. (1050), who had a severe contest with the famous Pope Gregory VII. (Hil'de-brand). * See Note 2, end o/' Serf iou. f The Slaves, or ^fSltivnntuns, anciently called Sarmatians and S5cythian8, ori^naUy inhabited the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and previous to the seventh, century had spread them- selves over a large district m Central Europe, bordering on the Baltic Sea. 4. State the principal events in the rei»n of Otho IT. When dlrl his death occur? 5. What was accomplished by Otho III. ? How did Poland become a kingdom? Wlio was the last of the Saxon emperors ? 6. What emperors followed ? What was done by Conrad IT. ? By Henry IH. { Who succeeded him? What caused the contest between Henry IV. and Gregory VII. ? How was Henry IV. liumiliated? 1152.] CENTRAL AITD SOUTHERN" EUROPE. 215 This talented and energetic pontiff aimed to free the Church from its abuses and make it supreme over the civil power, and therefore determined to put a stop to the corrupt sale of ecclesiastical offices by the emperor. Henry, resisting this, was excommunicated ; and, in 1077, the greatest tem- poral monarch in the world was forced to stand barefoot on the frosty earth at Canossa (a town in Italy) for three days, waiting for admission to Gregory, to whom he finally made the most abject submission. [See Note 3, end of Seel 7. But he failed to keep his promises, and raised a large army, with which he defeated Rudolf of Suabia, whom the Pope had caused to be elected in his stead. Then passing into Italy, he took Rome (1084), and ordered the election of a pope in place of Gregory, whom he ueposed and drove into exile at Salerno.* Here, this zealous and able pontiff died (1085); but, notwithstanding his misfortunes, he left the papal power greatly strengthened and improved by his efforts.f Henry IV. was succeeded by Henry V. (1106), who was tlie last of the Franconian emperors ; and after the crowu had been worn by Lothaire of Saxony (1125-1137), it passed into the possession of Conrad of SuaUa (Conrad III.). 8. Conrad III., the first of the Suabian Emperors, took part in the second Crusade. His reign is noted for the commencement of the civil wars between the papal and imperial parties, called, respectively, the Gueljjhs and GliiV- cUines, the contests between whom continued to harass Germany and Italy for nearly three centuries. Frederick I. (Bar-ha-7'os' sa — Red-Beard), the nephew of Conrad, suc- ceeded him (1152) ; and displayed, during a long reign, the character of an active and talented monarch. He engaged in a contest with the Lombard cities of Northern Italy, * A town in Southern Italy, about thirty miles southeast of Naples, on a gulf of the same name. It is very f^tmous iu history. + See Note 4, end of Section. 7. What did he afterward do ? Where did Gregory die ? What was the effect of his eflbrts ? Who succeeded Uenry IV. 'i Wheii did Conrad of Suabia assume t iie crown ? 8. What is said of the reign of Conrad in. ? Of Frederick Barbarossa ? How did the Lombaid cities acquire their independence ? 216 CENTRAL AN^D SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1250. which at this time emerging into power, ckimed the riglits of republics. Although at first defeated, they subsequently triumphed (1176) in the battle of Legnano (len-yah'no) ;* and, by the peace of Constance,\ acquired their independ- ence (1183). Frederick perished in the third Crusade (1190). [See Note 5, ejicl of Section.'] 9. The interval between the death of Frederick Barlja- rossa and the accession of the Haj^sburg line (1190-1273), was a period of constant internal commotion and foreign war. The most eminent of the emperors of this period was Frederick II., grandson of Barl^arossa, and one of the ablest and most accomplished sovereigns of the Middle Ages. He was compelled, by his obligations to the pope, to undertake two expeditions to the Holy Land, in the second of which he was successful. Contests with the Italian cities and with the papacy occupied the remainder of his reign. He died in 1250. 10. The Hanseatic League. — During the reign of Frederick II., Ilamhurgh and Lvhec formed a union, to protect their shipping against pirates, and extend their commerce. This confederacy was soon joined by Brem'en, Cologne, Dant'zic, and many other towns, and became very influential and celebrated, under the title of the Ha^isa, or Ilan-se-at'ic League. Its principal foreign depots were London, Brzc'ges^l Novgorod,% and Ber'gen.\ Its deputies met every three years at Lubec. This league attained its nighest prosperity and importance in the 14th century. Its last general assembly met in 1630. * A town of Northern Italy, sixteen miles N. W. of Milan. t A town in the southern part of Germany, on the northwestern shore of Lake Constance. :j: In the Middle Ages the great emporium of Central Europe, distinguished not only for its extensive commerce, but its manufacture of cloths and tapestries. § A great emporium of Western Russia during the 12th. 13th, and 14th centuries; having at one time, it is said, a population of 400,000. {See Notes 6 and 7, end oj the Section.] I A commercial town in the western part of Norway. 9. What is said of the period following!: the rei- tians, Dynavhiam. 28. Who invaded Southern Italy in the ninth century? By whom was it de- fended ? What was done by Otho II. ? What led to the battle of Crotona ? How lonif did the Saracens continue in Southern Italy ? By whom were they expelled ? 29. Who were tjie Normans ? How did they obtain a lodgment in Southem Italy ? What is said of Robert Guiscard ? J25J4 CENTRAL ANB SOUTHERN EUROPE. [143 5. siege of seven montlis, before his invincible skill and valor ; and thence he marched his army into the heart of the em- pire, making Constantinople itself tremble. He was, how- ever, hastily recalled to Italy to protect Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) against his inveterate foe, Henry IV. of Germany ; and, raising a large army, he marched rapidly from Salerno to Rome, and compelled the German emperor to seek safety in retreat. It was with the faithful Robert Gniscard, that the illustrious pontiff at last found an asylum at Salerno. 31. Roger /., the brother of Robert Gniscard, conquered Sicily from the Saracens after several years of war; and his son, Roger II., ruled over the Norman possessions in both Sicily and Italy, and subjugated the free cities of JVajjles and Amal'fi* (1127) ; but, in the person of William II., his grandson, the Norman dynasty became extinct, and the kingdom passed under the sway of the German emperors (1189). 32. Thus it remained till the reign of Manfred, whom Charles of Anjoit defeated in the battle of Beneve7Vto\ (126G), and thus obtained the throne of Naples and Sicily, which he retained till the dreadful massacre of the Sicilian Vespers (1282). By this event he lost Sicily; bnt trans- mitted Naples to his descendants, who retained the throne of that country till 1435, when it passed to the kings of Aragon, who had ruled Sicily from the time of the Sicilian Vespers. • 33. Rome, or Papal Italy, has been governed since the 8th century by the Popes, who, in uninterrupted succession, have been elected to fill the chair of St. Peter. During a * A town on the Gulf of Salerno, southeast of Naples, noted for its extensive trade in the Middle Ages. t A town of Southern Italy, a few miles northeast of Naples. 30. Narrate the other principal events in the history of Robert Gniscard. 3 1 . What is related of Roger I. and Roger II. ? What ended the Norman dynasty ? 32. How and when did Charles of Anjou obtain Naples and Sicily? How lony did lie retain Sicily ? Najiles ? 33. What is related of Rome, or Papal Italy ? What account is given of Rienzi 1 1252.] C EXTRA L AIs^D SOUTHERN EUROPE. 225 period of 72 years (from loOo to lo77) the Pope's resi- dence was at Avignun. Itoiiie, in the meau while, was the scene of constant disorder from the lawless acts of the great nobles, who prosecuted their family feuds with the utmost fury and license. Out of these struggles arose Rienzi {re-en' ze), the " Last of the'Tribunes," Avho, in 1347, seized the chief power, and having expelled the nobles, en- deavored to restore the ancient liberties of the city. A counter-revolution overturned his government after an ex- istence of but seven months, and he was driven into exile. Rienzi was a friend of the famous poet Pe'trarch, and was distinguished for his learning and oratory. [^See Note 12.] Spai:n-. 34. On the conquest of Spain by the Saracens, the Chris- tians, who were the remnant of the Visigothic kingdom, touk refuge in the mountainous districts of As-tu'ri-as, and founded a new kingdom under their leader, Pe-la'yo. For centuries they and their descendants waged an almost incessant warfare upon the Moslems, or Mohammedans ; and new kingdoms came into existence as the country was gradually recovered. Of these, Ar'agon and Castile {cas-teel') were the chief. In 1212, these different king- doms combined their forces, and gained at 2h-Io'sa* one of the greatest victories ever achieved by the Christians over their Moslem foes. 35. After this battle, the Saracen power rapidly declined, and that of Cactile and Aragon steadily increased. The most celebrated of the Oastilian monarchs were Al-fon'so X., noted for his learning, and particularly for his love of astronomy (1252-1282) ; Peter tlie Cruel, a contemporary of Du Guesclin and the Black Prince; and Henry, his suc- * A town in the northern part of Spain, a few miles from the port of St. Sebastian, on the Bay of Biscay. (See Map, pajje 226.) 34. What followed the conquest of Spain by the Saracens? What Christian kingdoms were afterward formed ? What is said of the battle of To-lo'sa ? 35. What was the eflect of this battle ? Who was the most eminent of tho kin;,'-s of Castile ':• For what was he noted ? What other kind's are mentioned y 10* 32G CENTRAL AlUB SOUTHER:?^ EUROPE. [1469, cessor, who w;is deieated at Navar-rete (nah-var-ra'fa)* by the Black Prince, and deposed. 36. Tlie smaller Kingdom of Aragon acquired extensive foreign possessions,, the chief of which Avere Sicily, Naples, and Sardinia. Under the reign of Ferdinand the Catli- 8 l.au'S,. 'Wi'sx rroTii 4 'J- on d on olic, Avho married Isabella, Queen of Castile, both these kingdoms were united (1479) ; and from this date com- menced the real greatness of Spain. Ferdinand made war upon Granada (grah-nah'-dah), the last Moslem kingdom * A town in the northern part of Spain, near the Ebro River. (See Map.) Map Questions.— WTiat provinces of Spain border on the Atlantic ? On the Pyrenees ? On the Mediterranean ? In what part of Spain is Castile ? Leon ? Aratron? Murcia? Where is Sara->ossa ? Toledo? Valencia? Cordova? Tal- avcra ? Granada ? W^hat cities of Portugal are on or near the Atlantic ? 36. What possessions were acquired by Aragon ? How were Aragon and Cas- tile united ? AVliat was achieved by Ferdinand? For what is the year 1492 mem- orable? . -., ^ 1497.] CENTRAL AKD SOUTHERN EUROPE. 227 in the Peninsula (1481) ; and, in 1492, after x long siege, the famous Moorish fortress, the Al-ham'hra, Avas surren- dered ; and the Saracen power in Spain came to an end, after an existence of 779 years. This year (1492 j is ako memorable for the discovery of America lij Coluvilus, under the auspices of Queen Isabella. Portugal. 37. This kingdom was originally a part of Castile ; but in 1095, King Alfonso VL granted it to his son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy, who was to rule as a vassal. Henry's son and successor, Alfonso, gained a great victory over the Saracens, and, throwing off his allegiance to Castile, made Portugal an independent kingdom (1139). This led to a fierce con- test with Castile, which lasted for a long time; but ended in favor of the Portuguese, who were governed for moi-e than two centuries by the descendants of Alfonso, whom they had chosen for his virtues and his valor. 38. Alfonso III, extended the kingdom to its present lim- its, by the conquest of Al-f/ar've, the most southern province, which he wrested from the Moors, after a contest of three years (1252). During the reign of John, Prince Henry, the Navigator, one of the wisest and best men of his age, planned and directed several voyages in order to explore the coast of Africa, and discover a passage around it to the Indies. Under John IL, Bartholomeiu Diaz (de'az) reached the stormy cape at the extremity of the continent (148G), to which the king of Portugal gave the name of Good Hope;"^ and, in 1497, Vas'co da Gama doubled this cape, and succeeded in sailing to India. This voyage and that of Columbus revolutionized the commerce of the world. Dinz had called it the "Cape of all the Storms," in consequence of the tempeals which he nad experienced before reaching it. [See Note 12. end of the Sectum.] 37. What was Portnc-ai uriijinally ? How did it become independent? What did this lead to ? How was Poitniral governed ? 38. What i.s said of Alphouso lil.? Of Prince Henrj'. the navijrator? By whom and wiitMi was the Cape of Good Hope discovered 'f By whom and when was il rounded > W hat was the effect of the dibcoveries made by Columbub and Da G.'ima 1 A. D. 843. 934. 930-973 973-983. 983-1002. 1016. 228 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. Eaiipire of Germany established under Louis, grandson ol Charlemagne. The Hungarians defeated by Henry the Fowler. Otho the Great. Hungarians defeated. Otho II. Republic of Venice becomes prominent. Otho III. Kingdom of Poland begins. Invasion of Italy by the Normans. Saracens defeated. 1056-llOG. Henry IV. The Papacy of Hildebrand (Gregory VII.). 1060. Robert Guiscard, acknowledged Duke of Apuha, &c., by the Pope. 1077. Submission of Henry IV. to Gregory VII. 1084. Rome taken by Henry IV. Gregory VIL deposed. 1139 Portugal made an independent kingdom. 1176. . Battle of Lcgnano 1183. Peace of Constance. Lombard cities become independent. 1 190. Death of Frederick Barbarossa, after a reign of 38 years. 1212. Defeat of the Saracens at Tolosa by the Spanish Chris- tians. 1247. Hanseatic League formed. 1266. Charles of Anjou becomes king of Naples and Sicily. 1273. Rudolf I., the tirst of the Hapsbm-g line. 1275. Marco Polo, the Venetian, travels to the East. 1284. Alfonso the Wise, kmg of Portugal. 1315. Battle of Morgarten. Victory gained by the Swiss. 1347. Rienzi, the " Last of the Tribunes" at Rome. 1356. The Golden Bull published by Charles of Bohemia. 1386. Battle of Sempach. Death of Arnold of Winkelried. 1396. Sigismund of Hungary defeated by the Turks at Nicopolis. " Genoa ceases to exist as an independent republic. 1414-1418. Council of Constance. John Huss and Jerome of Prague condemned and burnt for lieresy. 1419. Defeat of the Turks at Nissa by the Emperor Sigismund. 1437. Religious freedom granted to the Bohemians. 1477. Marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy. 1186. Disco verj^ of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz. 1492. Granada conquered by Ferdinand of Spain. " Di.scovery of America b}^ Christopher Columbus. 1493. Accession of Maximilian, emperor of Germany. 1497. Cape of Good Hope doubled by Vasco da Gama. CEjqTRAL AKD SOUTHERN EUROPE. 229 KE\TEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. Give an account of the battle of Fontenaille, with its cansc and conse- quences 145-146-213 2. How was the Carlovingian dynasty begun ? — 14-1 3. Name, in the order of their succession, six sovereigns of the Carlovin- gian dynasty 144-145-14(i 4. To what position was Conrad of Francouia raised ? 21:3 5. By whom was Germany occupied at that time ? 213 6. Name the five Saxon emperors that succeeded Conrad 213-214 7. What did Henry the Fowler achieve for his country ? 213 8. Give an account of the achievements of Otho tlie Great 213-214 9. What events occurred during the reign of Otho II. ? 214 10. What were the achievements of Otho III. ? 214 11 . Name the four Franconian emperors of Germany . . . 214-215 12. What did Conrad II. and Henry III. accomplish ? 214 13. Give an account of the contest between Henry IV. and Gregory VII .... 214-215 14. State what you can of Conrad of Suabia (or Swabia) 215 15. Of Frederick Barbarossa 215-216-208-221 16. Of Frederick II 216-209 17. Give the history of the Ilanseatic League 216 18. Name, in chronological order, the most important events of the 10th century 202-228 19. Name those of the 11th century 184-202-211-22S 20. Name those of the 12th century 184-202-212-228 21. Name those of the 13th century 184-203-212-228 22. Name those of the 14th century 185-203-228 23. Give the facts in the reign of Rudolf 1 217 24. Give an account of the reign of Albert 1 217 25. Name seven successors of Albert I 217-218-219 2(i. What was done by Charles TV. of Bohemia 218 27. Give an account of the life and reign of Sigismund 218 28. Give the early history of Switzerland 217-218-220 29. Give the history of Northern Italy from 774 to 1183 220 30. Give the origin and early history of Venice 220-221-222-223 31. Give an account of Marco Polo 222 32. Of the operations of Otho U. in Southern Italy 22.3-214 Si. Of the Saracens in connection with Southern Italy 22:3-224 34. Of Robert Guiscard, his elevation and successes 223-224 35. Of events in Italy and Sicily which afterward occurred 224 36. State what you can of Rome, or Papal Italy 224-225 37. Of the battle of Tolosa, its causes and consequences 225 38. Give the early nistory of Aragon and Castile 22.5-226-227 39. What can you state of Queen Isabella ? 226-227 40. Of King Ferdinand and his success in Granada ? 226-227 41. Give the early history of Portugal 227 42. What can you state of Alfonzo III ? 22; 43. Of voyages made by Portuguese navigators ? ■ 227 44 Name, in chronological order, the most important events of the 15th century 185-203-22fi 230 TABLE OF CONTEMPORAKEOUS EVENTS. A.D. England. Fkancb. Other Nations. 732 Victory of Charles Martel. End of Merov. Dynasty. Accession of Charlemagne. Empire of the West resto'd Death of Charlemagne. Div. of Charlemagne's emp Charles the Fat. Period 752 of the 768 786 800 The Saxon Heptarchy. Saracen Conquests. Haroun al Raschid. 814 827 &13 871 884 Egbert, King of England AJh-edtheGreaV. Louis Emp. of Germany. 910 Fatimite dynasty begins 912 919 936 Normans settle in France. Henry the Fowler. Otho the Great. 987 QQfi Hugh Capet. Robert. 1013 1017 1031 1049 1055 1056 1060 1066 1076 1084 1087 1095 1100 1108 1137 Sweyn. Canute the Great The Normans in Italy. Henry I. Edward the Confessor. Seljuks take Bagdad. Henry IV. of Germany. Robert Guiscard. Philip I William the Conqueror. Turks take Jerusalem. Hildebrand deposed. WiUiam Rufiis. First Crusade. Louis VI. Louis vn. Henry I. 1152 1154 Henry II. Battle of Legnano. Saladin takes Jerusalem 1180 1187 Philip II. (Augustus). 1189 1199 1216 1223 Kichard I. John. Henry III. Louis Vni. Louis IX. 1226 1258 End of Saracen Empire. 1270 Philip m. 1272 Edward L 1285 1307 1314 1315 Philip IV. Louis X. Edward II. Battle of Bannockburn. Battle of Morgarten. 1317 Philip V. Charles IV. Philip VL 1322 1327 1328 Edward lii". 1347 Rieuzi 1350 John. Charles V. Charles VL 1364 1377 1380 Richard IL 1386 Battle of Sempach. Battle of Nicopolis. Council of Constance. 1396 ?399 1-113 1414 iienry iv. Henry V. 1419 Battle of Nissa. 14-22 1153 Henry VI Charles Vn. Constantinople taken. Mlil 148;3 Edward IV Edward V. Richard III. 'LouisXi. iCharles VIH. IN^OTES. 1. The inag-yars, or Hun<>-ariaiis (p. 218, IT 2).—" Magyar is the national denomination of the Hungarians ; but the Russians gave the name of Ugri, as originating from Ugria; and this name has been corrupted into Uugri and Hungarians. The consanguinity of the Hungarians and Laplanders displays the powerful energy of climate on the children of the common parent; the lively con- trast between the bold adventurers who are intoxicated with the wines of the Danube, and the wretched fugitives who are immersed beneath the snows of the polar circle. The Hungarians were a nomadic race ; but they were indebted to fish- ing as well as to the chase for a part of their subsistence. Their tents were of leather, their garments of fur ; they shaved their hair and scarified their faces ; and, except the merit and fame of military prowess, all that is valued by mankind appeared vile and contemptible to these barbarians, whose native fierceness was stimulated by the consciousness of numbers and freedom. In the abuse of victory they astonished Europe, yet smarting from the wounds of the Saracen and the Dane. Mercy they rarely asked, and more rarely bestowed ; both sexes were accused as equally inaccessible to pity ; and their appetite for raw flesh might countenance the popular tale that they drank the blood and feasted on the hearts of the slain." — Gibbon. 2. Iron Crown of the liomhards (p. 214, IT 3).—" Upon the death of Antharis without children, the Lombards devolved iipou his widow Theodolinda the choice of a successor and husband. She selected Agilulf, Duke of Turin, who reigned over the Lombards for twenty-five years {a. d. 590-61.5). The memory of Theodolinda is dear to the Catholic Church. She converted her husband from the Arian heresy, and many of his subjects adopted the Catholic faith. Her merits •were fecognized by the Roman Poutifi", Gregory, who is said to have presented to her the celebrated Iron Crown of the Lombards. This crown does not exhibit any artistic skill on the part of the Lombard or Italian goldsmiths, and is far inferior to the crown of Agilulf, which was enriched with fifteen figures of gold, represent ing Christ between two angels and the twelve apostles."— [GifeftoK.] The crown derives its name from the circle of iron, surrounding the interior, which is sup- posed to have been forged out of one of the nails of the Cross. It is chiefly com- posed of a collar of gold, adorned with precious stones and flowers of gold. This relic of the Middle Ages was, in 1859, removed by the Austriaus to Mantua, and ia now in Vienna. 3. Submission of Henry IV. (p. 215, H 6).—" It was the fourth day on which he had borne the humiliating garb of an affected penitent, and in that sor- did raiment he drew near on his bare feet to the more than imperial majesty of the Church, and prostrated himself, in more than servile deference, before the diminutive and emaciated old man, ' from the terrible glance of whose counten- ance,' we are told, 'the eye of every beholder recoiled as from the lightning.' Hunger, cold, nakedness, and shame had, for the moment, crushed the gallant spirit of the sufferer. He wept and cried for mercy, again and again renewing hia entreaties until he had reached the lowest level of abasement to which his own enfeebled heart or the haughtiness of his great antagonist, could depress him. Then, and not till then, did the Pope condescend to revoke the anathema of the Vatican. "—.S'tr J. Stephen.— Essays on Ecclesiastical Biography. 4. Death of Hiidebrand (p. 215, 1[ 7).—" A voluntary exile, Gregory sought in the castle of Salerno, and under the protection of the Normans, the security he could no longer find among his own exasperated subjects. Age and NOTES. anxiety weighed heavily upon him. An unwonted lassitude depressed a frame till now incapable of fatigue. He recognized the summons of death, and his soul rose with unconquerable power to entertain that awful visitant. He summoned round his bed the bishops and cardinals who had attended his flight from Rome. He passed before them, in firm and rapid retrospect, the incidents of his eventful life. He maintained the truth of the great principles by which it had been governed from the commencement to. the close. He named his three immediate successors in the Papacy. He assured his weeping friends of his intercession for them in Heaven. He forgave, and blessed, and absolved his enemies, though with the resolute exceptions of the emperor and the anti-pope. He then composed himself to die. Anxious to catch the last accents of that once oracular voice, the mourners were bending over him, when, struggling in the very grasp of death, he collected, for one last effort, his failing powers, and breathed out his spirit with the indignant exclamation, ' I have loved righteousness, and hated iniquity ; and therefore I die in exile ! ' " — Stephen, 5. Frederick: Barbarossa (p. 216, ^ 8).—" On the death ol Conrad, Ger- many with one consent, had placed the crown on the head of the great Hohen- staufen prince, his nephew, Frederick Barbarossa. If the Pai>acy, under Hadrian, had resumed all its haughty authority, the Empire was wielded with a terrible force which it hardly ever displayed before. Frederick was a prince of intrepid valor, consummate prudence, immeasured ambition, justice which hardened into severity, the ferocity of a barbarian somewhat tempered with a high chivalrous gallantry,— above all, with a strength of character which subjugated alike the great temporal and ecclesiastical princes of Germany, and was prepared to assert the imperial rights in Italy to the utmost. He was to the Empire what Hildebrand and Innocent were to the Popedom." — Milman. — Hidory of Latin Christianity. 6. Novg-orod (p. 216, IT 10). — "Novgorod, on the banks of the Ilmen Lake was the glory of Russia during the Middle Ages, with its strong walls, its 250 churches and convents glittering with gilt cupolas, and its 300,000 active citizens, who soon threw ofi' the yoke of the wrangling Russian princes, and constituted themselves into the celebrated republic. Later (after 1240), it entered the con- federacy of the Hanseatic cities, and became the great emporium of Indian com- merce for the north of Europe. The city had its own laws and courts of justice ; the manners were still barbarous— revenge for bloodshed, ordeal by fire, awful servitude, and burning of witches. Novgorod with its free democratic institu- tions, its active and warlike population, its commercial wealth — then the center ol the world's traffic— was the New York or the New Orleans of the Middle Ages, and made good the iiroverb, ' Who can resist God and the great Novgorod ? ' Such was the state of this remarkable city from the eleventh to the close of the fifteenth century." — Koeppen's Middle Ages. 7. Hanseatic Lieas^ue (p. 216, •[[ 10).—" While the Italians, in the south of Europe were cultivating trade with such industry and success, the commercial spirit awakened in the north towards the middle of the thirteenth century. As the nations around the Baltic were, at that time, extremely barbarous, and infested that sea with their piracies, the cities of Lubec and Hamburg, soon after they began to open some trade with these people, found it necessary to enter into a league of mutual defence. They derived such advantages from this union, that other towns acceded to their confederacy, and in a short time, eighty of the most considerable cities scattered through those extensive coTintries which stretch from the south of the Baltic to Cologne on the Rhine, joined in the famous Hanseatic League, which became so formidable, that its alliance was courted, and its enmity NOTES. was dreaded by the greatest monarclis. The members of this powerful association formed the first systematic plan of commerce kuowu iu the Middle Ages, aud con- ducted it by common laws enacted in their general assemblies. They supplied tlie rest of Europe with naval stores, and pitched on difl'erent towns, the most eminent of which was Bruges in Flanders, where they established staples in which their commerce was regularly carried on. Hither the Lombards brought the productions of India, together with the manufactures of Italy, and exchanged them for the more bulky, but not less useful, commodities of the North, The Hanseatic mer- chants disposed of the cargoes which thej- received from the Lombards, in the ports of the Baltic, or carried them up the great rivers into the interior parts of Germanj.'"— Robertson's Charles the Fifth. 8. Rudolf of Htipsburg (p. 217, IT 11).— "Rudolf of Hapsburg, the founder of the House of Austria, and who first opened the way to its future grandeur, was at length elected emperor, not that he might re-establish and extend the im- perial authority, but because his territories and influence were so inconsiderable as to excite no jealousy in the German princes, who were willing to preserve the forms of a constitution, the power and vigor of which they had destroyed. Several of his successors were placed on the imperial throne from the same motive ; and almost every remaining prerogative was rescued out of the hands of feeble princes unable fo exercise or defend them." — Robertson. 9. Jolill Hiiss (p. 218, IT 14). — " John Huss was born in Bohemia, in the year 1373. He studied at Prague ; and, in 1402, received an appointment as pastor, hav- ing previously delivered philosophical and theological lectures. He made the writings of Wiclif and the Scriptures his peculiar study. During the violent disturbances and schisms, which then agitated the Church, Huss took part with the anti-papal party. The following passage is taken from the first volume of Theobald's War of the Hussites. ' When the condemned Huss, with his crown ol paper, was led by the hangman from the church to the fagot, his spirits rose; and it is testified ol him, even by his enemies, that he seemed as though he were going to a gladsome meal, or, as the vulgar saying is, to a dance. But when he saw his books burning in the churchyard, he stopped aud smiled. As he passed along, he exhorted the people ' not to believe that he was going to be burnt for his errors ; for, that some articles were charged against him on the false testimony of his deadly enemies, although he had never taught them; that others had never been proved to be false, although he had urgently requested it.' But the people who went along with him v.'ere all armed, especially the burghers, who had been called upon to attend- When they arrived at the place where he was to be burnt, Huss fell upon his knees, clasped his hands, which were not tied, looked toward Heaven, aud repeated the thirtieth aud fiftietli Psalms of David. And he especially repeated many times the verse, ' Into thy hands I commend my spirit; Thou hast delivered it, faithful God! ' " — Lieber's Great Events. 10. Battle of Semi>acli (p. 219, H 17).— The oppression of the Swiss by the German emperor led to a confederacy of several of the cantons ; aud at Sem- pach a great victory was gained by them (1386), chiefly through the patriotic devo- tion of Arnold of Winkelriett (Win'lcel-reed). The historian. Van Miiller, thus de- scribes the incident : " The hostile lines stood unbroken and firm. Sixty Swiss had already been slain. They feared the sudden effect of some unperceived move- ment by the vanguard from the rear, or of some surprise by the troops of Bonstet- ten. This moment of delay and indecision was terminated by a man from the canton of TJnterwalden, Arnold Stvutthan of Winkelried, knight. He said to his companions, 'I'll make a lane for you,' leaped from out the i-auks, called with a KOTES. loud voice, ' Take care of my wife and children ; faithful, dear confederates, remem- ber my race; ' rushed upon the enemy, grasped some lances with his hands, bviried them iu his breast, and, being a very tall and strong man, he pressed them with him to the ground, as he sank down. Instantly his companions threw themselves over his body; and all the hosts of the confederates, in succession, pressed on with the utmost force. The lines of the astonished enemy pressed one upon another to receive them; whereby, through fear, haste, horror, and heat, many lords wounded in their armor, were sufl'ocated; while large bands, hastening from the torests, strengthened the forces of the Swiss." 11. Veiiiee (p. 221, IT 23).—" After defeating Pepin, king of Italy (in 809), the Venetians made choice of the largest island, the Riva Alta — Rialto — in the center of the Lagoons, where they had secured their families and their wealth, and there they built the city of Venice, the capital of their republic. Some years later, they transported thither from Alexandria, in Egypt, the body of Saint Mark, the Evan gelist. whom they chose patron of their State. His winged-lion figured in their arms; and under his victorious banner they afterwards raised their great colonial empire of the East." — Ko^ppen's Middle Ages. 12. Kieiizi, tlie L.ast of tlie Tribunes (p. 225, 1133).- "Never perhaps has the energy and effect of a single mind been more remarkably felt than Ln the sudden, though transient, reformation of Rome by the tribune, Rienzi. A den of robbers was converted to the discipline of a camp or convent : patient to hear, swift to redress, inexorable to punish, his tribunal was always accessible to the poor and stranger ; nor could birth, or dignity, or the immunities of the church protect the offender or his accomplices. The privileged houses, the private sane- tuaries in Rome, on which no officer could presume to trespass, were abolisbed ; and he applied the timber and iron of their barricades in the fortifications of the capitol. ... In this time (says the historian^ the woods began to rejoice that they were no longer infested with robbers ; the oxen began to plough ; the pil- grims visited the sanctuaries ; the roads and inns were replenished with trav- ellers ; trade, plenty, and good faith were restored in the markets ; and a purse of gold might be exposed without danger in the midst of the highway. As soon as the life and property of the subject are secure, the labors aud rewards of industry spontaneously revive ; Rome was still the metropolis of the Christian world ; and the fame and foriune of the tribune were diffused in every country by the stran- gers who had enjoyed the blessings of his government." — Gibbon. 13. Prince Henry the Navigator (p. 227, IT 38).— "Prince Henry died on the 13th of November, 1473, without accomplishing the great object of his am- bition. It was not until many years afterwards, that Vasco de Gama, pursuing with a Portuguese fleet the track he had pointed out, realized his anticipations by doubling the Cape of Good Hope, sailing along the southern coast of India, and thus opening a highway for commerce to the opuleut regions of the East. Henry, however, lived long enough to reap some of the richest rewards of a great and good mind. He beheld, through his means, his native country in a grand career of prosperity. The discoveries of the Portuguese were the wonder and admiration of the fifteenth century; and Portugal, from being one of the least among nations, suddenly rose to be one of the most important. All this was effected, not by arms, but by art; not by the stratagems of a cabinet, but by the wisdom of a college. It was the great achievement of a prince who has well been described ' full of thoughts of lofty enterprise and acts of generous spirit ' : one who bore for his de- vice the magnanimous motto, ' The talent to do good,'— the only talent worthy the ambition of princes." — Irving.— Life and Voyages of Columbus. MODERN HISTORY. 23J PAET III. MODERN HISTORY, Extending from tJie latter part of the Fifteenth Century to the present time. 1. The epoch at which Modern History commences is the dawn of intelligence that broke upon Europe in the latter part of the 15th century. The civilization of the Greek Empire disappeared before the conquering arms of the rude and ferocious Ottomans, just as the West, emerging from the night of medieval ignorance, began to glow with the first beams of an intellectual and social illumination. Liter- ature, science, and art, at this auspicious era, sprang into active life; as the human mind, shaking off the chains in which feudal barbarism had bound it, resumed its activity, exulting in its new-found freedom. 2. The causes of this wonderful change have been in part shown, in connection w4th the history of the middle ages ; but they are here more distinctly stated. The partial de- struction of the feudal system had released, to some extent, the masses from the degrading condition of serfdom, and given to them some share of civil and political freedom. The great barons had been obliged to surrender their dangerous privileges to the monarchs; while the people, summoned to aid one or the other party in the struggle, had been able to wrest from both the rights of which they had been un- justly deprived. 3. Science had beofun its wonderful reformation. Tlie 1 . When does Modem History commence ? What is said of this epoch T 2. What canses are assis^ned for the chanjjes which had taken place ? 3. What inventions are 'specified amon^' these causes ? 232 MODERl^ HISTORY. [1485. conyeniences and comforts of Hfe were increased ; the modes of warfare were revolutionized by the use of firearms ;* the marinerh compass made ocean navigation possible, and thus extended commerce, and gave an impulse to exploration and adventure. The East was enabled to pour her treas- ures into the lap of the West ; and the ends of the earth were brought into communication with each other. The inventiGfi of priJitiagj; gave to the modern world the intel- lectual riches of the ancients ; and literature commenced its magnificent career. The particular events connected with each stage and phase of this mighty revolution of the world, will be narrated and explained as the history proceeds. section i. England. From the Accession of Henry VIL, the first of the Tiidors (1485), tc the present time. 1. Henry VII. was the son of Edmund Tu'dor and Margaret, a descendant of John of Gaunt, duke of Lan- caster. In order to strengthen his title to the throne, and put an end to all dissensions between the rival families, he married Elizaheth, the daughter of Edward IV. Being * The process of making granulated gunpowder was invented by Sclucartz in 1320, and im- mediately tlicreafter almost every state commenced the use of cannon of small size. In i:>ifl Edward III. used them at Crecy. Plated armor could then no longer protect the feudal tyrant against the weapon of the oppressed peasant. t The credit of this invention is contested by the Dutch in favor of Coster (1426), and by the Germans on behalf of Gutenhprrj (1141). Between 1450 and 14.55, the latter succeeded in printing a Bible, in quarto size, the initial letter of each chapter being executed by the pen, in colors. Map Questions.— (See Progressive Map, No. 7.)— Wliat countries in Europe bor- der on the Atlantic Ocean ? On the Mediterranean Sea ? On tlie North Sea ? On the Baltic Sea ? On the Black Sea ? What river flows through Austria and Ttir- key ? What cities are on it ? What cities and towns are laid down on the Map in liiissia? In Prussia? In Germany ? In Italy? In France? In Spain? In Tur- key ? Where is Brussels ? Amsterdam ? Waterloo ? Warsaw ? Copenhagen ? i. Who wae Henry YII. ? How did he strengthen his title? 'Whom did he imprison ? IProgressive Map, JSTo. 7 1492.] ENGLAND. 233 afraid of competitors for the crown, he imprisoned in the ToAver the young Earl of WaTwick, son of the Duke oi Clarence, and grandson of the renowned king-maker. 2. The general favor felt toward the house of York oc • casioned Henry much trouble, and many plots and insur- rections were formed against him. A rumor having been circulated among the people that Warwick had escaped from the Tower, an attempt was made to personate him ; and for this purpose a handsome youth, named Lambert Simnel, a baker's son, was chosen. Tlie impostor was carried to Ireland, and was there proclaimed king under the title of Edward VI. (1487). The king prevented the insurrection from spreading in England by exhibiting in public the real Earl of Warwick ; and the adherents of the impostor, hav- ing landed in England, were defeated in a decisive battle by the king's troops (1487). Simnel, being taken prisoner, was pardoned, and was afterward employed as a domestic in the king's household. 3. Five years afterward, a more formidable attempt was made by the enemies of the king to raise a pretender to the throne, by counterfeiting Richard^ the younger of the two sons of Edward IV., who were said to have been smothered in the Tower. The person selected for this purpose was a young man named Ferhin Warhech ; and so well did he play his part, that the Duchess of Burgundy, sister of Ed- ward IV., acknowledged him as her nephew, and gi'eeted him with the title of the White Rose of England^- James IV., king of Scotland, also acknowledged him, and gave him the noble lady Gordon in marriage, and invaded England in order to raise an insurrection in his favor. 4. The people, however, refused to receive the pretender ; and, after making another attempt in Cornwall, Perkin gave * See Note 1, end of the Section. 2. What caus^ed the king trouble ? What accouut is given of Lambert Sinincl « 3. What led to the imposture of Perkin Warbeck? By whom was he acknowl- edged ? 4. What ended thia affair ? What became of Perkin Warbeck ? Of the Earl of Warwick ? 234 engla:n^d. Lisoo himself up, and was imprisoned in t'.e Tower (1497), There, becoming acquainted with the Earl of Warwick, he planned with him an escape, but the plot was discovered, and both were executed — Perkin being hanged at Tyburn, and the unfortunate prince beheaded on a charge of trea- son (1499). By this act of cruelty Henry destroyed the last male descendant of the Plantagenets. 5. During this reign, the celebrated navigators, John and jSebastian Cab'ot, set sail from Bristol under a commission from the king, and discovered the mainland of North America (1497). This was the year before Columbus made his third voyage, in which he reached the mainland of South America. Henry was a prudent monarch, and very much averse to war, because it prevented the gratification of his ruling passion, avarice. In order to increase his hoards, he resorted to the most unjust and tyrannical exac- tions ; and tAVO lawyers, named Emsd)i and Dudley, gained an infamous notoriety by acting as instruments of his rapacity. His treasures amounted at his death to nearly two millions sterling — an enormous sum for that period. He died after a reign of 24 years, and was succeeded by his son Henry (1509). 6. Henry VIII., when he ascended the throne, was only eighteen years of age, and was handsome, affable, and popular. During the first year of his reign he married Catliarine of Aragon, to whom he had been betrothed since his eleventh year. This princess had been previously married to his elder brother Arthur, a youth of sixteen years, who died a few months after the marriage. Henry made a special favorite of TJiomas Wolsey {wool'ze), and advanced him successively to the highest honors, thougli he was of very humble origin, being, as it is said, the son of a butcher. Wolsey had, however, received an excellent 5. What maritime adventures occurred ? For what was Henry characterized ? Who were Emson and Dudley? When did the king's death occur ? By whom waa 6. What is said of Henry VIII. ? Whom did he marry ? What is said of Wolsej ? 1527.] ENGLAND. 235 education, and was a man of very great talents. He was afterward made a cardinal by the Pope. 7. Ilenry joined the league which was formed against France by Spain, Venice, and the Pope; and, having in- vaded France at the head of 50,000 men, he routed the French in the celebrated Battle of the Sjmrs, so called from the rapid flight of the enemy (1513). In this campaign, the Emperor Maximilian enlisted in Henry's army, and received pay as one of his subjects and captains. In the same year, James IV., king of Scotland, having invaded England with a large army, was defeated by the Earl of Surrey in the battle of Flodden Field ; and the king him- self, with the flower of tlK Scottish nobility, was left dead on the field. \_>See Note 2, end of the /Section.] 8. Martin Luther having caused great excitement in Europe by the promulgation of his doctrines, Henry VIIL, who had been carefully educated in the Pomish faith, wrote a treatise against them, and dedicated it to the Pope (Leo X.), who, as a recompense, conferred on the royal author the title of Defender of the Faith (1521). A few years after this, Henry applied to the Pope (Clement VII.) for a di- vorce from Queen Catharine, professing to have some doubts of the lawfulness of a marriage with his brother's widow ; while the real reason was that he desired to marry Ajdig Boleyn {an hiil'en), an attendant of the queen, with whom he had become enamored (1527). 9. But the Pope, who had recently suffered much in a war with the Emperor Charles V., nephew of Catharine of Aragon, was unwilling to sanction the divorce ; and the king, thinking that the delay in the gratification of his wishes was due to the neglect or insincerity of Cardinal Wolsey, dismissed him from his high office, banished him 7. WHiat led to the Battle of the Spurs ? Of Flodden Field ? What was the resiJt of this battle ? Where is Flodden Field? (See Map, p. 158.) 8. Why was the king styled " Defender of the Faith V To whom and why did he apply for a divorce ': 9. What caused the fall of Woleey ? How was he treated ? What saying of his is quoted ? 236 EKGLAIs^D. [1535. from court, and deprived liim of many of his great posses- sions. Being resolved upon his entire ruin, the king after- ward caused him to be arrested on a charge of treason ; but death saved the proud cardinal from any further disgrace. Among his last words was tlie well-known exclamation, " Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs !" 10. By the advice of Cranmer, the great universities of Europe were consulted with regard to the lawfulness of Henry's marriage; and these having generally decided against it, Cranmer, who had recently been made Arch- bishop of Canterbury, opened a court to examine the ques- tion ; but tlie queen refusing to appear before it, he for- mally annulled the marriage, and ratified that with Anne Boleyn (1533). The Pope having pronounced the judg- ment of Cranmer illegal, and threatened Henry with ex- communication, the Parliament, under the king's influ- ence, confirmed his marriage with Queen Anne, and for- mally declared him " the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England."* By this declaration and other acts of Parliament, the English Church was separated en- tirely from the Church of Eome (1534). The monasteries were afterward suppressed, and some modifications intro- duced in the doctrines and forms of religion. This event is known in history as the English Reformation. 11. Sir Thomas More, one of the most virtuous and learned men of the kingdom, who had succeeded Wolsey as chancellor, was beheaded for refusing to acknowledge the king's supremacy; and the upright Bishop Fisher was con- demned and executed for the same offence (1535). The king indeed evinced, during the whole of his subsequent reign, a spirit of the most cruel bigotry and persecution. In abandoning his allegiance to the Pope, he by no means * See Note 3, end of the Section. 1 0. How was Henry's lir^t marriage annulled ? What did the opposition of the Pope lead to ? What is this change called V 1 1 . Who were executed for denying the king's supremacy ? What is said of the sentiments and conduct of the king ? 1547.] EN^GLAND. 237 became a convert to the new doctrines of Lutlier and otliera against the Romish ftiith; and Avhile he phmdered the churches and monasteries of their possessions, he caused those who dissented from their doctrines to be burnt with- out the least mercy. 12. Less than three years had elapsed from his marriage with Anne Boleyn, when he caused her to be beheaded on a charge of adultery;* but he himself proved her innocence and the wickedness of his own conduct, by immediately marrying Jane Seymour, to whom he had previously be- come attached. This queen having died a short time after- ward, he, for political reasons, contracted a marriage with Anne of Cleves ; but, on seeing her, he refused to fulfil his contract, and caused his minister Croimvcll to be executed on a charge of treason, because he had been instrumental in arranging this unfortunate affair. His next choice was Catharine Howard, who, like Queen Anne, was condemned and beheaded on a charge of adultery, but was generally believed guilt}^ Catliarine Parr, his sixth wife, had the sagacity and good fortune to escape his jealous cruelty, and survived him. 13. The last victim of Henry's tyranny was the accom- plished Henry Hoivard, Earl of Surrey, who was beheaded on Tower Hill, being unjustly condemned for treason (1547). The king survived this event only a few days. Henry VIII. was, without doubt, one of the most remorseless despots that ever reigned ; but notwithstanding his arbitrary violation of every principle of political and religious liberty, he never lost entirely the affection and esteem of his subjects. During this reign, the first complete copy of the English Bible was printed, and ordered by the king to be placed in every parish church. It was based upon the translation of Wil- See Note i, end oj the Section. 12. What account is given of the subsequent marriages of the king, and the circumtitances that led to them ? 1 3. Who was the king's last victim ? When did Henry VHI. die ? What was uis character ? What translation of the Bible was made ? Who were the most notod poets of this period ? What children did Henry VIH. leave ? 5^38 ENGLAi^D. [1553. Ham Tyndale, and executed by Miles Coverdalc. The most noted poets of this period were the unfortunate Howard, Earl of Surrey, and Sir Thomas Wyatt. Henry left three children — Mary, daughter of Catharine, Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, and Edward, son of Jane Seymour. The last succeeded him. 14. Edward VI. was in his lOtli year on his accession ; and the goyernment was administered with great firmness by his maternal uncle, Duke of Somerset, under the title of Protector. During the first years of this reign, further changes were made in the established religion, and severe laws enacted against those who refused to comply with the liturgy, as contained in the Book of Common Prayer, com- piled chiefly by Cranmer and Ridley. Some who refused obedience were committed to the flames. The Duke of Somerset was deprived of his office of Protector (1549), and finally executed, through the contrivance of the designing and ambitious Duke of Northumberland, who thus became Protector (1552). This nobleman induced Edward to set aside his sisters Mary and Elizabeth, and bequeath the crown io Jane Grey, great-granddaughter , of Henry VIL, who was married to Lord Guilford Dudley, a son of the Protector. A short time after this, Edward died, much la- mented for his many virtues (1553). 15. Mary, in spite of all the efforts of Northumberland, was acknowledged queen ; and the unfortunate pair, Dudley and Lady Jane Grey, suffered deatli upon the scaffold (1554), the queen showing no mercy notwithstanding their youth and innocence. The Lady Jane was one of the most accomplished princesses of her time, having been instructed in Latin and Greek by tlie celebrated Roger As'cliain. She was also possessed of singular amiability, virtue, and piety. 14. What is said of Edward \l. ? What changes in religion were made ? Who compiled the Book of Common Prayer? What persecution occurred? What he- came of the Duke of Somerset ? Who succeeded him ? W^hat did Northumber- land do ? When did Edward VI. die ? 1 a. What followed the accession of Mary ? Wliat is said of Lady Jane Grey ? 1558.] ENGLAND. 239 Her last message to her youthful husband (for neither of them was over 17 years of age) was : " Our separation will be only for a moment ; we shall soon meet each other in a place where our affections will be forever united, and where misfortunes will never more disturb our eternal felicity." 16. The cherished object of Mary was to restore the Roman Catholic religion; and, in pursuance of it, she consented to marry PMlij) of Simin, son of the Emperor Charles V. Tlirough an obsequious parliament, she then caused all the statutes of Edward VI. with regard to religion to be repealed, and the severe laws against heresy to be revived. Cardinal Pole was sent at her request to England as papal legate, and the kingdom formally restored to the Roman Church. One of the most dreadful persecutions on record then ensued; and no less than 277 persons were burnt at Smithfield, the most eminent among these martp'S being Cramner, Ridley, and Lat'imer. \_See Note 5.] 17. To please her husband, Philix:>, now become king of Spain, the queen engaged in a war with France ; but ill success attended her efforts ; and Calais, which the English had held for more than two centuries, fell into the hands of the French. The queen was greatly mortified at this event ; and her death occurred a short time after it (1558), much to the relief of tlie nation, who had been disgusted with her cruelty and bigotry. During this reign, commer- cial intercourse was established with Russia, a passage to Archangel having been discovered during the previous reign. [See Note 6, end of Section.'] 18. Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, who suc- ceeded Mary, had been educated in the Protestant faith, and her accession to the throne was hailed by the people with great rejoicings. The first important event of her 1 6. What measures did Mary adopt iu reference to religion ? Wliat persecution took place ? ^ . . , , 1 7. What war did Mary engage in ? What wa? its result ? Wliat is said of her death ? What was established during this reign ? By what means ? 18. W^ho succeeded Mary? What measures with respect to relig-'on were adopted ? 240 ENGLAND. [1569. reign was the re-enactment of the laws of King Edward, concerning religion, and the re-establishment of the new liturgy, to which all were required to conform under severe penalties. By the Ad of Siqyremacy all clergymen and government officers were compelled to take an oath ac- knowledging the English sovereign head of the Church ; and by the Act of Coiformity, no persons were allowed to attend any other places of worship than those of the es- tablished Church. Hundreds suffered death, imprisonment, or other persecution for refusing compliance with these ar- bitrary statutes. 19. The reign of Elizabeth for the first eleven years was distinguished for the internal quiet and prosperity of the country. She displayed that prudence, vigilance, and ac- tivity so necessary in a sovereign, and gained the almost universal esteem and admiration of her people. Though she was urged by Parliament to enter into the married state, and many distinguished princes, both Catholic and Protestant, sought her hand, she positively declined all such offers, and expressed her determination to remain single for life. She owed much of her success in adminis- tering the government to the great statesmen whom she selected as her ministers, among whom the most prominent were Cecil (ses'il), afterward JOord Burleigh, and Sir Francis Walsingham. 20. There were at this time in the kingdom three religious parties — namely : the Clmrclimen, or those who were at- tached to the established Church ; the Eomcin CafJioUcs, who, supported by the great continental powers, expected to re-establish their religion ; and the Puritmis, who con- tended for more radical changes in religious forms and doc- trines (15G9). These last had imbibed their principles from those Avho, during the persecutions of the previous reign, 19. What is said of Elizabeth's administration ? Wlio were her prime minis- ters ? 20. Describe the religious parties existing at this time. What is said of the Puritans ? 1572.] ei^gla:n^d. 241 had taken refuge in Geneva and Franlcfort ; and tliey op- posed Elizabeth's government, not only on the ground of religious differences, but on account of her assuming a prerogative and authority opposed to the civil and political rights of the people. It was not, however, until a subse- quent reign that these fearless agitators were enabled to bring their principles into thorough operation. 21. England now began to distinguish herself in that splendid career of maritime enterprise w^hich has shed such lustre upon her name. Under the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh (ratu'le), a favorite courtier of Elizabeth, voyages were made to North America, and the queen gave to the regions discovered the name of Virginia (1584). Frolislier also made explorations for a northwest passage to India ; and Sir Francis Drake completed a voyage around the world, by way of Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope (1579). 22. The people of the Nctlicrlands having revolted against Philip II. of Spain, in consequence of his dreadful oppressions and persecutions (1572), Elizabeth warmly es- poused their cause ; and Philip, therefore, made extensive preparations to invade England and conquer it, so that he might restore it to the authority of the Pope. For this purpose he equipped an immense fleet, called the Invincible Ar-nia'da, consisting of 150 ships, bearing 3,000 guns and 27,000 men. But this vast annament, as it sailed up the Channel, was attacked and partly destroyed by a much smaller fleet, under the command of Lord Hozvard, as ad- miral, assisted by those renowned captains, Drake, Fro- hisher, and Ilaivkins. The Spanish admiral, therefore, finding it impossible to effect a la^iding on the coast, or gain any advantages over the English fleet, attempted to return to Spain by sailing around Scotland ; but a storm 2 1 . \Miat maritime expeditions were carried on with success ? 22. What led to a war with Philip II. of Spain ? Give an account of the Invin- cible Armada. 11 242 ENGLAJ^"D. [1566. arising, nearly all his vessels were wrecked off the Orkney Islands (1588). 23. The year preceding this glorious event is memorable for the execution of the unfortunate Mary, Qucc7i of Scots at Foth'er-in-gay Castle,* after an imprisonment of more than 18 years. Mary was the great-granddaughter of Henry VIL, and had first married Francis IL, king of France, in wliicli country she had been educated in the Eoman Catholic faith. The early death of her husband compelled her return to Scotland, where she assumed the throne, although she A\-as much disliked by the Scots on account of her religion and her gay manners (15G1). 24. A few years afterward (1565), she married her cousin, Lord Darn'ley, with whom she lived very unhappily, on account of his misconduct, extravagance, and vicious ex- cesses. Becoming jealous of her secretary — one Rlzzio (ret'se-o), an Italian — Darnley, accompanied by several noblemen, rushed one evening into her apartment, where she Avas engaged Avitli her secretary and others, and the unfortunate man Avas seized and hurried into the ante- chamber, Avhere he was dispatched Avith fifty-six Avounds (15G6). Mary subsequently professed to luiA^e pardoned this atrocious outrage; but a fcAV months afterAvard, Darn- ley's house Avas bloAvn up by gunpowder, and he himself thus killed. 25. The suspicion that Mary was accessory to this crime, seemed afterward to be confirmed by her marriage Avitli the Karl of Both well, a dissolute nobleman, Avho Avas generally believed to haxe been concerned in its perpetration. This caused an insurrection of the nobles, avIio, having taken * Folhei-ingity, a parish in Northampton count}', in tlie central part of England. The castle was razed to the gromid after the accession of James I. 23. AVho was executed in 1587? Who was Mary, Qneen of Scots ? To whom was she first marriod ? Why was she disliked by the Scots ? 24. AA'hat accoun* is sivch of Lord Darnley? What is stated of Rizzio ? 25. AVhat led to Mary's imprisonment at Loch Leven ? Where is Loch Leven f CSce note, page 21.3.) What caused her fli<,'ht to Engluud ? 1587.] ENGLAND. 243 Iier prisoner, compelled her to abdicate the throne, and confined her in Loch Lev' en Castle.^ She, however, es- caped thence, and raised a small army, which was defeated by the Regent; whereupon she fled into England and threw herself on the protection of Elizabeth ; but instead of the generous hospitality which she anticipated, she found herself a captive for life. 26. Mary had given great offence to Elizabeth, when in France, by assuming the title of Queen of England, on the ground that the marriage of Henry VIII. with Anne Bo- leyn was unlawful ; and hence that her daughter, being ille- gitimate, had no right to the throne ; and during Mary's whole life, the Catholic party in England favored her pre- tensions, many conspiracies being formed by them to place lier upon the throne. In the last of these, the object of which was to take the life of Elizabeth, Mary was found guilty of being an accomplice, and sentenced to death ; and the warrant for her execution having been signed by Elizabeth, she was beheaded (1587). 27. Queen Mary was one of the most beautiful and accom- plished princesses of her age. Her manners were graceful and Avinning, and her conversation full of wit and spright- ly intelligence. She was a charming singer, and could ac- company herself on several instruments; and the poems which she has left attest a genius for that kind of compo- sition. Her imprudence and want of self-control, and, it is to be feared, the absence of strong moral principles, brought upon her those great calamities which have shed a mournful interest upon her name. The signing of her death-warrant is, however, considered by some the greatest blot upon the fame of the virgin queen. * Locli Leven, a small lake in the eastern part of Scotland, about twenty miles north of Edin- burgh. It contains several islands, on one of which the remains of the castle still exist. This lake is not to be confounded with Loch Leven in the western part of Scotland, near which is the famous valley oi Glenroe. 26. How had Mary displeased Elizabeth ? What led to her execution ? Where is Fotheringay ? (See note, pai^e 242.) 27. What was the character of Mary? 2M EN"GLAi^D. 11603. 28. During the religious wars in France, Elizabeth gave all the aid in her power to the cause of the Protestants ; and when Henry IV. had ascended the throne she sent him money, and a force under the Earl of Essex, to assist him in subduing his enemies (1589). Essex was a young noble- man who by his merit and accomplishments had gained very high favor with the queen ; but he afterward fell into disgrace, in consequence of misconduct during an expedi- tion against the revolted Irish (1599). Disappointed in obtaining a pardon from the queen, he entered into a plot to raise an insurrection against her, and with his accom- plices was arrested, and tried for treason, convicted, and finally beheaded (1601). 29. The fate of this young nobleman, for whom she ap- pears to have had a very deep affection, oppressed the queen's mind with a settled melancholy, which was greatly increased when she learned that a ring* which he had sent to her to recall her tenderness and incite her to clemency, had been treacherously withheld by one of his enemies. She died in the 45th year of her reign, at the age of 70 (1G03), leaving a reputation for prudence, vigor, and ability unsurpassed by any sovereign that ever reigned.f 30. During this illustrious reign, flourished the poet Spenser, who wrote tlie Faerie Queene ; Sir Pliilip Sidney, the author of Arcadia ; and the immortal poet and drama- tist ^S/zftte^^^ar^, whose works are the especial glory of Eng- lish literature. Bacon also commenced his splendid career as a philosopher, but disgraced himself by his virulence against Essex, from whom he had received many favors and benefits. » This ring had been previously given to him by the queen, with the promise that whenever he siiould send it to her, it should not fail to remind her of their friendship, and awaken her tender regard for bira. f See Note 7, end (J the Section. 28. What was Elizabeth's courge toward the French Protestants? Give an account of the Earl of Essex. 29. How was Elizabeth alfected by Ms sad fate ? When did her death occur? What is said of her reputation ? 30. What eminent writers flourished during her reign? What is said of Lord Bacon if 1603.] ENGLAND. 245 The Stuart Family. 31. James I., tlie son of Mary, Queen of Scots, succeeded Elizabeth, not only by right of birth, but by the nomination of the late queen. He had been proclaimed King of Scot- land under the title of James VI., after the abdication of Mary (1567), being then an infant; and thus, on his acces- sion to the English throne, the two countries became united under one monarch, although they continued for about a century to have their own separate legislatures.*^ 32. In the first part of this reign, a conspiracy was formed to subvert the government and place Arabella Stuart, the king's cousin, on the throne ; and in this scheme the cele- brated Sir Walter Raleigh was accused of being concerned, and was kept in imprisonment for several years, during which he wrote his " History of the World." Being released in order that he might point out a gold mine which he said existed in Guiana (ghe-ah'nah), and, having failed in the expedition, he Avas, on his return, beheaded, in pur- suance of the sentence previously pronounced against him (1618). This act reflects a lasting disgrace upon James, who sacrificed this illustrious man to appease the anger of Spain, incensed by the attack which Raleigh had made upon some of the Spanish settlements in South America. 33. The Roman Catholic party, disappointed in not re- ceiving the religious liberty which they had expected from James, arranged, in 1605, a plot to overturn the government by the destruction of the king and Parliament. For this purpose a vault below the House of Lords was hired, and thirty-six barrels of gunpow^der stored therein, which, on the opening of Parliament, were to be fired by one Giiy FawJces, an officer in the Spanish service, brought to Eng- land for the purpose. This conspiracy, styled the " Gun- * See Nate 8, end of the Section. 3 1 . Wlio succeeded Elizabeth ? What countries became united ? 3'i. 'What conspiracy was discovered? What account is given of Sir Walter Raleigh ? 33. What account is given of the Gunpowder Plot ? 246 ENGLAND. [1601 powder Plot," was discovered just on the eye of its execu- tion, and Guy Fawlvcs and some of his fellow-conspirators were executed. 34. James, although of a pusillanimous disposition, was very persistent in upholding the royal prerogative, being prone on all occasions to insist on the divine right of kings to rule without control. His arbitrary acts and principles, however, met with decided opposition from the Parliament of 1621, who declared their privileges to be the ancient and undoubted birthright of the English people ; which declaration so incensed the king, that he sent for the Journals of the Commons, and tore the record out with his own hands. The same Parliament impeached the celebrated Lord Bacon for bribery ; of which being found guilty, he was punished by a heavy fine, and dismissal from all his offices. 35. The king's high-handed measures, especially against those who refused to conform to the established Church, so disgusted the Puritans that they emigrated in large nunf- bers, at first to Holland, and afterward to New England, where they established a settlement at Plymoutli (1620). A settlement was effected in Virginia, during the previous part of this reign (1607), at a place named, in honor of the King, Jamestoion. 36. One of the worst characteristics of this monarch was his proneness to attach himself to unworthy favorites, the first of whom was Rohert Carr, a young Scotchman, on whom James for several years lavished tiie most profuse favors, bestoAvmg on him the title of the Earl of Somerset. Carr was succeeded in the king's fixvor by Gcorrje Villiers {vil'yerz), who was created Dnhe of Buckingliam, and gained an infamous notoriety by liis profligacy and arro- gant conduct. 34. What were the political principles of James I. ? What opposition was made by the Parliament of 1621 ? What is said of Lord Bacon ? 35. What led to the settlement of Jamestown and Plymouth ? 36. Who were the favorites of James IL ? What is said of them ? 1625.] ENGLAND. 247 37. James had been educated by the celebrated George Bii-chan' an of Scotland, and possessed considerable learn- ing, of which he was passionately fond of making a display ; so that, although he was excessively flattered by his cour- tiers, his pedantry gained him very general ridicule. The distinguished French minister, Sully, very aptly styled him " the -wisest fool in Christendom." He was as nKich devoid of dignity of manners and conversation as of good sense, his unseemly familiarity being equal to his childish vanity and offensive arrogance. On his death, in 1G25, he was succeeded by his eldest son Charles. 38. One of the most important events of the reign of James I. Avas a ncAV translation of the Bible, under the pat- ronage of the king, and by a numljcr of learned men desig- nated by himself. It was completed in 1611 ; and having superseded other versions, continues to be the English Bible in general use among Protestants. The charter granted to the East India Comixmy by Queen Elizabeth was renewed by James in 1G09; and in 1G12, the first English factory Avas established at Su-rat', 39. Charles I., on his accession, was in his 25th year ; and soon afterward he married Henrietta Maria, daughter of the Erench king Henry IV. In order to prosecute a war with Spain, which had been brought on by the arro- gance and misconduct of the Duke of Buckingham, he summoned a Parliament, and asked for a vote of supplies. This the Commons, under the leadership of Sir Thomas Wentworth, Sir John Eliot, and others, refused to grant, unless Charles would relinquish some of the prerogatives which had been exercised by his father, and which he still claimed as his hereditary right. Charles, therefore, dis- solved the Parliament, and levied money by his OAvn au- thority. 37. Describe the character of James TI. When did his death occur? 38. What other events occurred during the reign of James II. ? 30. Who succeeded James I. ? Whom did Charles marry ? WTiat caused a diffi culty with Parliament ? Who were the popular leaders ? 24S ENGLAI^D. LI 629. 40. These forced loans, called tonnage and j'oundage,^ and s]u])-7)wnei/,\ gave great offence to the people, whose discontent was still fnrther increased by the conduct of Buckingham, — particularly by the failure, through his mis- management, of an expedition designed to assist the Hu- guenots, or French Protestants, in their contest with Riche- lieu {reesh'e-lu). In a succeeding Parliament, accordingly, the king met with more determined opposition ; and the famous Petition of RiglUX was adopted, to which the king was obliged to give his assent (1G28). Soon after this the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated at Portsmouth, by an officer of the army whom he had offended. 41. A fourth Parliament having been assembled (1629), and proving refractory, the king determined to rule with- out a parliament, and continued his illegal exactions. He also, by means principally of the court of Star Chamber,^ attempted to punish such of the popular leaders as had made themselves particularly obnoxious. Some of them were fined for what was called their seditious language in Parliament ; but they refused to pay the fines, and Sir John Eliot died in prison. Charles, however, chose some of his ministers from among the popular leaders ; one of whom, Sir Thomas Wentworth, was created Barl of Strafford, and became the chiefminister of the king. 42. Another cause of complaint was afforded by the policy * Tonnage and ponmhige were duties ou imported merchandise which it had been customary to allow the "kiug to levy since the reign of Edward III. The Parliament of 1625 refused, however, to grant this privilege to the king for a longer period than one year. t Ship-mone.i/ was an arbitrary tax levied ou the seaports for the equipment of a fleet. Charles extended it over the whole kingdom. ij: The Petition of Right was an emphatic statement of the privileges of the people as conferred by previous enactments. It is regarded as the Second Great Charter of English liberties. § The Court of Star Ch-imher was of very ancient origin, and derived its name from the cham- ber of the king's palace at Westminster in which it used to hold its sessions, tlie ceiling of this apartment being decorated with stars. It liad very extensive powers, both civil and criminal, and could adjudge cases without tlie intervention of a jury. Hence it became a formidable ui- Strument of tyranny. It was abolished by act of Parliament in 1611. 40. What further displeased the people ? What were tonnage and poundage and sMp-rnoneyf (See note.) What did the Parliament of 1(328 do ? What is meant by the" Petition of Riqlit ? ^Sse note.) 41. What arbitrary measures did Charles afterward adopt? What was the ^tar Chamber? (See note.) Who opposed the kiug? Who became Earl of Straf 42. What other cause of complaint was given the people ? "vVhat course did the Puritans pursue ? What led to the Scottish Covenant ? What waa it ? 164 J.] Eis"GLAND. 249 of the king with regard to religion. Under the influence of Archhisltoj) Laud^ the liturgy was altered and the ritual increased by many of the ceremonial observances of the Eoman Church, very much to the disgust of the great body of the English people, but particularly of the Puritans. Many of the latter, to avoid conforming to the require- ments of the established Church, emigi-ated to Kew England, and founded Massaclmsetts and other colonies in that coun- try. Charles also attempted to force this liturgy upon the Scottish people ; but they rose in insurrection against it ; and the ftmious Covenant was formed and signed, according to which they solemnly bound themselves to unite for their mutual defence, and to resist all religious innovations (1638). 43. The king requiring them to relinquish the covenant, a war ensued ; and a Scottish army invaded England, Avhicli after defeating a detachment of the royal forces at the Tyne Eiver, took possession of Newcastle. This compelled the king finally to call another Parliament, in order to obtain supplies. This body, memorable as the Long Parliament, assembled in 1G40, and immediately commenced the re- dress of public grievances. One of its first acts was the impeachment of the Earl of Strafford, v/ho was particularly odious to the popular leaders for his desertion of their cause, and for the aid he had given the king in carrying out his most arbitrary measures. Being tried and found guilty of treason, he was beheaded, the king having ungratefully given his assent to the execution (1G41). Archbishop Laud Avas also impeached and imprisoned in the Tower; but his execution did not take place until four years afterward. In the same year, a dreadful insurrection broke out in Ireland ■.against the government, and the English were massacred with every species of cruelty (1G41). 44. Meanwhile, the Parliament continued its measures 43. What war ensued ? When did the Long Parliament meet ? What measures did it adopt? What was Strafford's fate ? Laud's? Wliat insurrection broke «mt ? 44. What extraordinary step did the king take ? What was the effect ? What ia said of Hampden ? 250 ENGLAND. [1642. of redress ; and the king took a step which still further in- flamed the popular indignation against him. Going with an armed retinue to the House, he demanded that five of its members should be pointed out to him in order that they might be seized. But the Speaker, LentUall, refused to com- \>\j, boldly declaring that he was the servant of the House, and could only act in accordance with its directions. The king therefore retired without effecting his object, amid the low murmurs of "Privilege! privilege!" from the indig- nant members (1642). Among the five members thus as- sailed was the noted patriot Jolm Ilamixlen, wlio, a few years before, had gained the applause of the people by mak- ing a bold stand against the illegal levy of ship-money. 45. The king, whose conduct was characterized by great irresolution as well as rashness and imprudence, afterward apologized for this breach of the privileges of Parliament ; but the latter was now determined on extreme measures, and demanded the royal assent to propositions which would have stripped him of all authority. Finding a large party in his favor, he collected what forces he could, and erected the royal standard, resolved to stake the issue upon the sword. The Parliament had also made preparations for the struggle; and thus was commenced that great civil war which raged for years between those who supported the authority of the king and those who wished to limit, or destroy it (1G42). 46. The royalists, or cavaliers (as they were called), in- cluded the greater part of the nobility, clergy, and landed gentry, Avith all who were attached to the established Church, and also the Catholics. The supporters of Parlia- ment were chiefly composed of the yeomanry of the coun- try, the townspeople, and the dissenters, or Puritans. 45. What was tne siibsfequent conduct of the kiu-g? Tell how and when the great civil war bei>:an. 46. Who !ain after the Dutch provinces had revolted and achieved their independence. It inclnded the present kingdom of Belgium. 67. What calamitous events occnrrod in London ? Describe each. What were the Dutch enabled to do ? When was peace made ? 68. What caused Clarendoii's fall? What was the Triple Alliance ? What led to it ? What treaty did Charles II. make with France ? 260 ENGLAND. [1674. Sweden, called the Triple Alliance ; and Louis was com- pelled to abandon his enterprise (1668). Charles afterward became dissatisfied with the alliance and concluded a dis- graceful treaty with Louis, in which he agreed to assist the latter in subjugating Holland, and also consented to make a public profession of the Catholic faith. For tliis he was to receive as a compensation an immense sum of money yearly from the French coffers (1770). 69. Shortly afterward (1672), England joined France in a war against the Dutch ; and while the fleets of the latter contended with those of the English, commanded by the Duke of York, the French army invaded the territory of the republic, captured many of its cities, and drove it to the extreme measure of opening the sluices and inundating the country. In these perilous circumstances the Dutch forces were commanded by William^ Prince of Orange, who gained great distinction by his determined courage and patriotism. The war continued till 1674; w^hen it had become so unpopular, that the king was compelled to make a treaty of peace with the Dutch provinces.* 70. While this war was in progress, the Test Act had been passed by Parliament, obliging all government officers to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and to ab- jure the Eomish doctrines. The Duke of York, therefore, who had made a public profession of Romanism, resigned his office as admiral, and was succeeded in the command by Prince Rupert. Much excitement was occasioned by an alleged conspiracy (called the " Popish Plot") on the part of the Catholics to set fire to the city of London, as- sassinate the king, and betray the country to the French. The principal witness in this absurd accusation was one * The Dutch Republic was called the " Republic of the Seven United Provinces." It included the present kingdom of Holland. 69. What war was wased with the Dutch ? To what extremity were they re- duced ? Who commanded their forces ? When and how did the war end ? 70. Wliat was the Test Act ? What course was pursued by the Duke of York ? What was the so-called " Popish Plot V Who was the chief witness ? Who Buf I'ered death ? 1683.] ENGLAND. 261 Titus Oates, who was afterward proved to be of a most infamous character. Before the imposture was discovered, many innocent persons suffered death, among them the aged and iUustrious Earl of Stafford (1680). 71. In the year 1679, was passed the famous Ha'he-as CWpus* act, securing all subjects from imprisonment, ex- cept where it can be shown to be justified by laAV. This was designed to check the illegal and arbitrary arrests made by the authority of the king, who in every respect exercised the most despotic sway. He deprived many of the cities, London included, of their charters, in order to extort money for their restoration ; and no one felt him- self secure from the numerous gang of spies and informers who were employed by the court. This state of things led to a conspiracy, called the Rye-House Plot (1683). 72. The members of this plot were, Lord William Rus- sell, Algernon Sidney, John Hampden (grandson of the great patriot), the Duke of 3fonniouth (the king's natural son), and others. The object was to restore the liberties of the country by dethroning its present arbitrary mon- arch ; but the conspirators did not agree as to the mode of accomplishing it. Monmouth expected the throne him- self, Russell wished simply reform, and Sidney was en- thusiastic for the restoration of the republic. The plot having been discovered, Russell and Sidney were beheaded (1683) ; but Monmouth, who at first had fled, was after- ward pardoned. The death of Charles occurred a short time afterward (1685) ; and his brother, the Duke of York, succeeded, under the title oi James II. [See Note 10.] 73. In the first part of the reign of Charles II. (1667), * JTaheas Corpus, means "hav6 the body." The writ, or order of tlie court of justice, was so called because it enjoins any person restraining another's liberty, to hm^f-. Inx hmhj, that is, to produce the prisoner, before the court, so that the cause of his detention may be known. Tl. When and why was the Habeas Corpus Act passed? What is meant by Habeas Corpus? (See note.) What infamous measures were resorted to by Charles ? To what did they lead ? 72. Wlio were engaged in the conspiracy? With what designs? What waa Uie result ? When did the kin'Tr''s death occur ? Who succeeded aim ? 262 EXGLAN^D. [1685. the celebrated poet, John Milton, published his greatest work, "Paradise Lost." This illustrious man had been Foreign Secretary under Cromwell, and had distinguished himself by his writings in defence of the commonwelth.* His principal contemporaries in the field of literature were John Bunyan, the author of "Pilgrim's Progress;" Samuel Butler, who wrote " Hudibras," a burlesque poem on the Puritans and the Civil War; and John Locke, the author of the immortal "Essay on the Human Understanding." Dryden also wrote several of his finest poems, and was made poet-laureate. The drama received many talented contributions from Ot'iuay, Wych'er-ly, and others; but, taking its character from the court, it was shamefully im- moral. Sir Mattheiv Hale, the just judge ajid pious writer, also flourished during this period. 74. James II., notwithstanding the glory he had acquired as a naval commander, was very unpopular on account of his religion, to which he showed the greatest attachment. The Duke of Monmouth, who had fled to Holland during the preceding reign, now set up a claim to the throne, and landing in England, was soon joined by a considerable force. He was however completely defeated at Sedge' moor, \ and being apprehended after the battle, was tried and executed (1G85). The most dreadful persecution followed of those who were implicated in the rebellion. Trials were held under the infamous Judge Jeffries; and many innocent persons were condemned and executed. This wicked judge boasted of the large number of persons (more than 300) whom he had caused to be hanged. 75. The imprudent zeal of the king in promoting the Koman Catholics to power, occasioned great excitement and * Ste Note 11, eiwi of the Section. + F!e thus the next lawful heir to the throne. 76. What excitement did it produce ? What caused the flight of the king ? 77 What was done hy the Convention ? What was the Declaration ol Eights ? What were its chief articles ? What did they afterward constitute ? 264 ENGLAND. [lG9ii. goyernment. Among these the chief articles were : 1. The king cannot suspend the hiws or their execution ; 2. He cannot levy money without the consent of Parliament; 3. The subjects have a right to petition the crown ; 4. A standing army cannot be kept in time of peace without the consent of Parliament ; 5. Elections and parliamentary debates must be free, and Parliaments must be frequently assembled. These acts of the convention were afterward confirmed by a Parliament regularly summoued, in an enact- ment called the Bill of RiglUs, and constituted what is called in English history the Glorious Revolution of 1688.* 78. William and Mary. — Although the crown had been conferred jointly upon William and Mary, the adminis- tration of the government was exclusively intrusted to the former. James II. having received a considerable naval force from the French king. Louis XIV., proceeded to Ireland, where the people were generally favorable to his cause. He was received with great demonstrations of joy, and a large army was soon collected for his support. He was, however, entirely defeated by William in the celebrated Battle of the Boyne, and was again compelled to take refuge in France. The next year Ireland was entirely subdued ; and the Scottish Highlanders, who had taken up arms in favor of James, were induced to submit to the government. In connection with the pacification of the Highlands, oc- curred the dreadful Massacre of Glencoe\ (1692). 79. The war with France still continued; and, in 1692, * So called, although it took place in 1689 (January); because, until 1752, the English com- menced the year on the 25th of March. + Mclan of Glmroe, Chief of the McDonalds, had delayed taking the oath of allegiance to the Kicg; and the enemies of the clan, taking advantage of this circumstance, obtained an order for its military execution. Accordingly, a body of soldiers entered the valley of Glencoe, and cruelly put to the sword all who failed to escape, including men, women, a'nd children. The signing of this order has subjected King William to very severe censure. Glencoe is situated at" Loch Leveu, iu the western part of Scotland. 78. Who COW administered the 6.) Where is Ramilhes ? (See :^Iap, p. 188.) What fortress was taken by the English ? What victory w^a gamed at Turin ? Where is Turin ? (See Progressive ISlap, No. 7.) 12 2 GO ENGLAND. [1713 French and Bayarians, in the memorable battle of BleU' hcim^ {hlen'hlmc) (170i). The celebratea Prince Eucicne commanded the imperial troops in this battle. Dnring the same year, the English lleet captnred Gibraltar; and this strong fortress has ever since remained in the possession of Great Britain. In 1700, Marlborongli gained another bril- liant victory over the French at RamilUcs {ram'e-lcez), and by means of it made almost an entire conqnest of Flanders. The French also received the same year a terrible over- throw from Prince Engene, at Tu'rin. 82. The year ITOS was signalized by an either great victory over the French at Ou'clen-arde, which was followed, the. next year, by the terrific battle of JfaJpJaquet {mal-jiJah'l-a), in which the allied army, nnder Marlborongh, ronted the French, bnt with the dreadful loss of 50,000 men. This decided victory finished the campaign in Flanders (1709). Shortly afterward, Marlborongli being accused of dishonest practices in connection with the army contracts and ac- counts, was dismissed by tlie queen from all his appoint- ments. The parliament also having passed a vote of cen- sure of his conduct, he retired from England in disgust, and took up his abode in the Netherlands. Peace was concluded with France by the treaty of Utrecht {u'trcli), in 1713. The following year the queen died. She was very popular, receiving the title of the "Good Queen Anne;" but, according to some anthorities, she was full of preju- dices, easily iniluenced by flattery, and blindly guided by her female favorites. 83. Her reign was not only distinguished for military achievements, bnt was characterized to snch an extent for • Blenheim is n small village in Bavnriii, ou the Danube, 23 miles W. N. W. of Augsburg. (See I'rogressive Map, Xo. 7.) 82. What other victories were iriUiiecl by Marlboron'e wars cost Great lii itain . ioT men Ud the death of Geor^^e HI. occur? What is said of this rei^nt Wh?t celebrated writers flourished duriujj it? What was the character of Geoig- IILf 270 ENGLAND. [1827 poet, critic, and essayist. Gihhon and Hume stand promi- nent as historians; and Yoimg, Gray, BumSy and Cotvper as poets. Tlie closing portion of tlie reign is illumined by the names of Byron, Sliel'ly, Words' wortli, Cole'ridgc, Scott, and a host of others, whose works have been the especial glory of the present century. The private character of George III., in every relation of life, was worthy of esteem ; but his moderate abilities, narroAV views, and obstinacy as a king, have subjected his name to considerable obloquy, if not contempt. 104. George IV"., who succeeded his father at the age of 58, had been noted for his profligacy and extravagance in the previous part of liis life. He was a man of polished manners, but was perfectly unprincipled and heartless. As Prince Eegent he had been virtually king for ten years be- fore his accession, George III. having become incapable of governing on account of insanity. Almost the first act of the new monarch was an attempt to obtain a divorce from his wife, Caroline of Brunsiuich, The accusations brought against her were believed to be unfounded, and popular sympathy was strongly in her favor ; so that when, on ac- count of the able defence of her by Henry Brougham [after- ward Lord Brougham (hroo'am)], the king failed in his object, the public joy was so great that there was a general illumination. She died a short time afterward. 105. The Greeks having for some years struggled to throw off the Turkish yoke, finally secured the aid of Eng- land, France, and Russia, whose combined fleets defeated and destroyed the Turkish and Eg}^)tian fleet in the battle of Navarino {nali-vali-re'no) (1827). By this event the independence of Greece was achieved ; after which it was erected into a separate kingdom, the crown being conferred 104. What is said oi George IV.? Give an acconnt of the trial of Queen Caroline. 105. now did the Greeks obtain their independence? Where is Nararino ^ vSee Prog. ISTap, No 7.) Who became kin<^ of Greece ? What is said ol' Byron J What important measure was adopted? Who aided in bringing this about? 1837.1 e:n"Gla:n"d. 277 upon Prince Otlio, of Biivaria. During this contest Lord Byron went to Greece to render aid to the oppressed in- habitants ; but he did not live to witness the triumph of the cause, dying at Mis-so-lon' glii {-(/he) in 1824. Another important event of this reign was the removal of civil and political disabilities from the Eoman Catholics, a measure greatly aided by the efforts of the celebrated Irish orator and patriot, Daniel O'Connell George IV. died in 1830. 106. William IV., late Duke of Clarence, and brother of George IV., succeeded to the throne on the death of the latter. A short time after his accession, measures of Par- liamentary reform were loudly called for by the people ; and a Reform Bill was brought in by Lord John Russell, \^\\\q\\ passed in 1832. The effect of this law was to extend the right of suffrage, and distribute the representation more equitably among the different parts of the kingdom. The year 1831 is memorable for the ahoUtion ofslcivery through- out all the British colonies. The sum of £20,000,000 was awarded by Parliament to the planters as a compensation for the loss of the slaves emancipated ; and nearly three- fourths of a million of human beings were set free. Wil- liam's reign was terminated by his death in 1837; but, brief as it was, it was replete with beneficent measures which have made it dear to the memory of the English people. 107. Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, and niece of William IV., succeeded the latter on the throne, which she has continued to occupy up to the present time. The connection between Great Britain and Hanover, which had lasted 123 years, was dissolved on her accession, since the laAVS of the latter country exclude females from the throne. Her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, accordingly succeeded William IV. as King of Hanover. In 1837, an insurrection 106. By whom was George IV. sncceecled ? Give an account of the Reform Bill. What other important measure was adopted? When did William IV. die ? What was the character of his reii^n ? 107. Who succeeded William IV. ? What country was separated from Great Britain ? Give au account of the Chartists. 378 e:n"gland. [1846. broke out in Lower Canada, on account of the discontent of the people toward the g(n'ernment; but tranquillity was soon restored, Upper and Lower Canada being united into one province. Disturbances Avere also caused by the Chm^tists, an association of radical reformers, who demanded a "new charter," embodying universal suffrage, vote by ballot, and the entire abolition of the property qualification of members of Parliament. Great mass meetings of the people were held, at one of Avhicli as many as 200,000 per- sons were computed to have been present. The demands of the Chartists beingrefused, riots ensued, which, however, were soon put down (1839). 108. In 1840, Queen Victoria was married to Prince Al- lert of Saxe-Co'burg-Go'tha (one of the German states). An insurrection in CaMl {kaJi-hool') expelled the English from Af-ghan-is-tan' ; and the retreating army, of 17,000 men, nearly all perished from cold, famine, and the attacks of the Afghans (1841). Under Lord EXlen-bor-ougli, Ca- bul was retaken, and its fortifications destroyed; but Af- ghanistan was abandoned (1842). The reduction of Scinde (sind), a district on the lower Indus, by Sir Charles Na'pi-er, was the next event of importance (1843), which was soon followed by a war with the Sikhs of the Pun-jab', who, after several severe conflicts, were obliged to yield to the skill and valor of the British. The conquest of these districts gave the British government control of the whole peninsula of Hin-dos-tan' (1849). 109. The most important measure of Parliament was the Repecd of the Corn Laws, thus opening the country to the free importation of foreign grain (184G). The Russians having seized upon the Danubian principalities, Wal-la'cM-a and Mol-da'vi-a, England formed an alliance 108. When and to whom was Victoria married ? Wliat account is given of the AfgiianWar? Of the conqnef^t of Scinde ? Of the Punjab ? Where is the Punjab ? {Aiif!. In the northwestern part of niudot?tan.) 109. What laws were repealed in 1846? What led to the war with Russia? What battles were fought in the Crimea? How and when was Sebastopol taken 5 When did the war end"? 1857.] E2s"GLAXD. 279 with France, to protect Turkey from the encroachments of the Czar (1853). This led to the Crim'e-an War, during which the allied fleets blockaded the harbor of Se-has'to- 2)ol,^ and, after a siege of eleven months, captured the city (1855). During this siege, were fought the celebrated battles oi Al'ma,Bal-ak-la'va, and Inh' er-mann,\ in the second of which the " Six Hundred" made their famous charge. The fortifications defending the city were of immense extent and strength, and the French greatly distinguished them- selves by the vigor and gallantry of their assaults. The Malahoff' and Redan, two of the strongest works, were stormed by them, after the Euglish troops had failed in the attempt. Peace was signed with Russia in 1856. 110. The next year (1857) is remarkable for the Indian Mutiny, occasioned by the introduction of Enfield rifles, for which greased cartridges were used. The native soldiers being forbidden by their religion to taste animal food, re- belled, because in loading the rifles it was necessary to bite off the ends of the cartridges. After the outbreak of the rebellion in 3fee'rut,l ^^^® Sepoys (native troops) seized DelJii (del'le), which was besieged for more than two months by the British, and only taken after the most desperate fight- ing (Sept. 20, 1857). 111. Cazvn'jjore and Luch'noiv% were the scene of other insurrections. At the former place the Euglish were mas- sacred with frightful atrocity by the Sepoys, under Nena Sahib {sail' eel)), who was afterward defeated by General Havelock and Sir Col'in Cami^lell. These two officers showed the greatest courage and skill in their operations * Seljostopol, a strongly fortified seaport in the Crimea— a peninsula in the southern part of Russia. t Alma is a small river in the Crimea; Balnlinva, a town on the Black Sea, southwest from Sebastopol; In/cervtann, a seaport near Balaklava. i MeeriU is situated about 35 miles northeast from Delhi, a noted city of llindostaii, on the Jumna, an affluent of the Ganges. § Cawnpore and Lnclcnow are important towns in Hindoostan, the former on the Ganges, tlo latter on a tributary to it. They are some distance east of Delhi. 110. What led to the Indian mutiny ? How and when did it begin ? 111. What other events occurred ? What generals distinguished themselves I When did the rebellion cud ? What atrocities vr ere perpetrated 'i 280 EN-GLAJ^D. [1868. against the rebellion, wliicli was finally crushed in 1859. The dreadful outrages on men, women, and children, per- petrated during this war by the native troops, and the hor- rible punishments afterward inflicted upon the latter by the British, scarcely find a parallel in history. 112. Meanwhile, Avars had been waged with the Chinese. The first was caused by the seizure of opium imported into China, contrary to her laws, by British merchants. At the close of this war China was compelled to cede Hong Kong* to Great Britain, and open five seaports to British com- merce, besides paying $21,000,000 as indemnity for the expenses of the war (1842). In 1857, hostilities were re- sumed; and, Canton having been stormed and some of the forts near Pekin taken, the Cliinese submitted to the de- mands of the English, one of which Avas that a British minister should be allowed to reside at Pe'kin (18G0). 113. The other most interesting events of this reign are, the death of Prince Albert, in 18G1 ; the laying of the Atlantic Cable, in 1866; the passage of the Second Reform Bill, in 1867, by which bill the elective franchise Avas great- ly extended by diminishing the property qualifications of voters for members of parliament ; the expedition to Abys- sinia, in Avhich King Theodore Avas defeated (1868) ; the dis- establishment of the Irish churcli (1871) ; the settlement of the Alabama claims (1872) ; the passage of the Ballot Act, by Avhich members of parliament are elected by secret ballot (1872) ; and the Ashantee Avar (1872-3), which re- sulted in the defeat of the barbarous king of that country, and the capture and burning of his capital, Coomassie. 114. The progress made in science and the useful arts during this reign has been beyond precedent. The coun- * IJop;] Kong is an island at the mouth of the estuary which leads to Canton, in the soiith- castera part of China. 112. AVhat led to wars with China ? AVhat were their results ? 113. What otlier interesting events occurred during this reign ? AVTiat is said of the Ashantee Wari" 114. Describe the progress made in science and the useful arts. AVhat inveu* tions have been made 'i ENGLAND. 281 try has been crossed in every direction by railroads of tb'^ very best construction ; ocean steam-vessels have revolu- tionized commerce and navigation ; the electric telegraph has brought every part of the kingdom into instant com- munication with all other parts of the civilized world; while the building of iron-clad war-steamers has rendered obsolete all former achievements in naval architecture, and changed entirely the character of maritime warfare. 115. The steam i^rinting-press has greatly facilitated the spread of intelligence, and increased the number of jour- nals and periodicals of all kinds circulated among the people. The literature of the period is enriched by the productions of Ten'ny-son, the poet-laureate ; Thach'e-ray, Dickens, and Bul'wer, among novelists; and Ma-cau'lay, Carlyle, Buchle, De Quincey, and many others, historians, essayists, etc., who, in every department of prose and poetry, have shed lusta-e upon the language and literature of their country. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A.. D. 14S5. Henry VII. First of the Tudors. Reign of 24 years. 1509. Henry VIII. Reign of 38 years. 1513. Battle of the Spurs. Battle of Flodden Field. 1534. Separation of tlie English Church from that of Rome. 1547. Edward VI. Reign of 6 years. 1553. Mary. . Reign of 5 years. vl558. Elizabeth, Reign of 44 years. 1579. Completion of a voyage round the world by Sir Francis Draka 1587. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. 1588. Destruction of the " Invincible Armada." 1601. Execution of the Earl of Essex. 1603. James I. First of the Stuarts. Reign of 22 years. 1605. Gunpowder plot. ^ 1611. Translation of the Bible. _^^ lin. What has been the effect of the application of Bteam to printing ? Men tiou some of the most prominent writerB of the period. ^82 ENGLAND. 1618. Sir Walter Raleigh beheaded. 1625. Charles I. Reign of 24 years. 1628. Petition of Right granted. 1638. The Covenant signed by the Scots. 1641. Execution of the Earl of Strafford. 1642. Commencement of the Civil War. Battle of Edgehill. 1643. Battle of Newbury. Death of Lord Falkland. 1644. Battle of Marston Moor. Defeat of the Royalists. 1645. Battle of Naseby. The royalists defeated by Cromwell. 1649. Execution of Charles I. The Commonwealth declared. 1650. The Scottish Covenanters defeated at Dunbar by Cromwell 1651. Battle of Worcester. Charles II. defeated by Cromwell. " Navigation Act passed. 1653. The Long Parliament dispersed. " Cromwell made " Protector." 1658. Death of Oliver Cromwell. Richard Cromwell Protector. 1660. Charles II. restored. Reign of 25 years. 1665. Defeat of the Dutch by James, Duke of York. " Great Plague in England. 1680. Supposed Popish plot. Earl of Stafford executed. 1683. Execution of Lord William Russell and Algernon Sidney. 1685. James II. Reign of 4 years. 1689. William III. and Mary. Reign of 13 years. - " Revolution of 1688" (Jan. 1688-89). 1690. Battle of the Boyne. James II. defeated. 1697. Treaty of Ryswick. 1702. Anne. Reign of 12 years. 1704. Battle of Blenheim. The French defeated by Marlborough and Prince Eugene. 1706. Battle of Ramillies. The French defeated by Marlborough. 1708. Victories of Marlborough at Oudenarde and Malplaquet. 1713. Treaty of Utrecht. 1714. George I, Reign of 13 years. 1727. George II. Reign of 33 years. 1743. Battle of Dettingen. The French defeated by George XL 1745. Mai'shal Saxe victorious at Fontenoy. 1746. Battle of Culloden. 1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1759. Capture of Quebec, and death of General Wolfe. 1760. George III. Reign of 60 years. 1783. The Independence of the American colonies acknowledged by Great Britain. ENGLAND. ^83 1788. Trial of Warren Hastings, lasting till 1795. 1798. The Frencli fleet defeated by Nelson in the Battle of the Nile. 1801. Legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland. 1805. Battle of Trafalgar. Death of Lord Nelson. 1809. Battle of Corunna. Death of Sir John Moore. " Battle of Talavera. 1814 Treaty of Ghent. Peace declared with the United States. 1815. Battle of Waterloo. Victory of Wellington over Napoleon. 18''0 George IV. Reign of 10 years. 1827. Battle of Navarino. Independence of Greece declared. 1830. William IV. Beign of 7 years. 1834. Slavery abolished in all the British colonies. 1837. Victoria. 1841. Afghan War. Cabul taken and dismantled. Chinese War. 1843 Conquest of Scinde by Sir Charles Napier. 184€. Corn Laws repealed. 1853. Commencement of the Crimean War. 1855. Sebastopol taken by the forces of Great Britain and France. 1857. Indian Mutiny. Delhi taken. Chmese War. 1861. Death of Prince Albert. 1873. End of Ashantee War. REVIEW QUESTIONS. ■• Give an account of Henry VII. and his reign 183-iai-2.32-2.33-2;34 2. How many wives did Henry VHI. have ? Give their names 234-236-237 3. Give the history of his contest with Pope Clement U 235-236 4. State all you can in relation to Cardinal Wolsey 234-235-236 5. Give an account of Edward VI. and his reign ^ 2:38 6. Who was Queen Mary ? and give the events of her reign 23&-239 7. Who was Queen Elizabeth, and how long did she reign ? 23S-239-244 8. Name the most important events in the early part of her reign 239-240 9. What important voyages were made during her reign ? 241 10. Give the particulars in relation to the great Armada 241-242 11. State all you can in relation to Mary, Queen of Scots ^^^2 12 Give the facts, as far as you can, in relation to the Earl of Essex 244 13. \\Tiat authors of note lived during the time of Queen Elizabeth ? 244 14. Give the history of James I. to the time of his becoming king of England. 245 is! Give what you can of the history of Sir Walter Raleigh 241-245 16. Give a full account of the Gunpowder Plot 04^0!? "or 17. Name the important acts of the reign of James I ot-Iol? 18. What was the length of the reign of James I. ? ll 19. What troubles did Charles I. have with his first Parliament ? ^ -47 20. Give an account of Buckingham and his acts „ ,« 21. Of the difficulties between Charles I. and his fourth Parliament * l-- J284 engla:n-d. 22. Of the Earl of Strafford and his fate S48-249 23. Of the difficulties which led to the civil war 249 -250 24. Of the principal events in that war 251-252 25. Of the closing acts of Charles I., his fate, and character 252-253 26. Of events during the rule of Oliver CromweJl 254-255-256 27. Of the Covenant and Covenanters 24&-251-254 28. Of Richard Cromwell and his administration 257 29. Of the Puritans 240-241-240-249-250-251-258 30. What event is known in English history as the Restoration ? 257 31. Name the principal events in the reign of Charles II 257—262 32. Give an account of the war with the Dutch 258-259 3:3. Of the next war with the Dutch, in which France joined 260 34. Of the Triple Alliance, its objects and consequences 259-260 35. Of the Test Act, its object and consequences 260-261 36. Of the Habeas Corpus Act, its design and consequences 261 37. Of the Rye-House Plot, its cause, object, and result 261 3S. What noted authors lived during that period ? 262 39. By whom was Charles II. succeeded on the throne ? 261 40. Give the history of James II. previous to his accession 259-260 41. Give a sketch of his reign and subsequent career 262—265 42. By whom was James succeeded on the throne ? 263-264 43. How was the succession made and the king's power restricted ? 263-264 44. Give a sketch of the reign of William and Mary 264-265 45. What was the Grand Alliance of 1701, its origin and object ? 265 46. Name the principal events of Queen Anne's reign 265-266-267 47. Narrate the facts in relation to the Duke of Marlborough 265-266-268 48. What authors of note lived during the reign of Queen Anne ? 267 49. Give the history of Scotland to that period 171-172-173-174-242-245-267 50. By whom was Queen Anne succeeded on the throne ? 267 51. Give an account of George's struggle to retain his crown 2(57 52. Name the principal acts in the reign of George 11 268-269-270-271 53. Give the facts relating to the " War of the Austrian Succession" 269-270 54. The facts relating to the contest for territory in America 270 55. Those relating to the famous Seven Years' War , 270-271-272 56. Those relating to the War of the American Revolution 271-272 57. Relating to the war which ended in the peace of Amiens 273 58. Give the history of Ireland to ISOl 165-244-254-274 59. Give an account of the "Peninsular War" 274 60. Of the struggle ending in the battle of Waterloo 275 61. What authors of note lived daring the reign of George III. ? 275-276 62. Give the principal events in the reign of George IV 276-277 63. Give those in the reign of William IV 277 64. Mention those in the reign of Victoria 277-27S-279-2S0-281 (i5. What noted authors lived during Victoria's reign ? 281 66. Name, in chronological order, the most important events from the time of Henry IV. to the time of Cromwell 281-282 67. From the time of Cromwell to the reign of George 1 282 68. From that of George I. through Victoria's reign 282- 283 69. Who were the three kings of England named George ? 267-268-271-276 70. Who were the four, named William ? 160-161-265-277 71. The six, named Edward ? 170-172-173-181-183-238 72. The eight, named Henry ? 162-1 63-169-1 "9-180 232-234 NOTES. 1. Margaret, Ducliess of Burgundy- (p. 233, U 3).—" Margaret was second sister to King Edward the Fourth, and had been second -wife to Charles surnamed the Hardy, Duke of Burgundj', by whom having no children of her own she did with singular care and tenderness intend the education of Philip and Margaret, grandchildren to her former husband ; which won her great love and authority among the Dutch. This princess (having the spirit of a man and the malice of a woman), abounding in treasure by the greatness of her dower and her provident government, and being childless and without any nearer cares, made it her design and enterprise to see the Majesty Royal of England once again re- placed in her house; and had set up King Henry as a mark at whose overthrow all her actions should aim and shoot; insomuch as all the counsels of his suc- ceeding troubles came chiefly out of that quiver." — Bacon. — Reign of Henry VII. 2. Battle of Flodden Field (p. 235, IT 7).— A short time after his ac- cession, Heni-y VIII. commenced war against Louis XII., King of France, and in- vading the country, gained a decided victory over the French in a brief conflict styled the "Battle of the Spurs." In the meantime, King James of Scotland, who had formed an alliance with Louis, made an invasion into England with a brave but tumultuous army of above fifty thousand men; but was met at Flodden, near the Cheviot Hills, by the Earl of Surrey, with an army of about half that number of men, and totally defeated (1513). The battle was long and bloody, and at its close the king and the flower of the Scottish nobility lay dead on the field. The Scots would not believe that their king was slain, asserting that the body which was taken to London and Interred as his, was in reality that of one Elphlnston, who, to deceive the English, was arrayed in arms resembling the king's during the battle. Henee, the populace entertained the opinion that James was still alive, having secretly gone on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and that he would return and take possession of the throne. To this fond conceit they clung for many- years. 3. Coronation of Anne Boleyn (p. 236, H 10).— " On entering the abbey, she was led to the coronation chair, where she sat while the train fell into their places, and the preliminaries of the ceremonial were dispatched. Then she was conducted up to the high altar, and anointed Queen of England, and she re- ceived from the hands of Cranmer, fresh come in haste from Dunstable, with the last words of his sentence upon Catherine scarcely silent upon his lips, the golden scepter, and St. Edward's crown. Did any tinge of remorse, any pang of painful recollection, pierce at that moment the incense of glory which she was inhaling? Did any vision flit across her of a sad, mourning figure Avhich once had stood where she was standing, now desolate, neglected, sinking into the darkening twilight of a life cut short by sorrow ? Who can tell ? At such a time, that figure would have weighed heavily upon a noble mind; and a wise mind would have been taught by the thought of it, that, although life be fleeting as a dream, it is long enough to experience strange vicissitudes of fortune. But Anne Boleyn was not noble and was not wise,— too probably she felt nothing but the delicious, all-absorbing, all- intoxicating present; and if that plain, suffering face presented itself to her memory at all, we fear It Avas rather as a foil to her own surpassing loveliness." — Froude. — History of England. 4. Execution of Anne Boleyn (p. 237, "U 12).— " The high resolve with NOTES. which she had nerved herself to go through the awful scene that awaited her, as became a queen, had doubtless recalled the luster to her eyes, and flushed her faded cheek with hues of feverish brightness; for she came forth in fearful beauty. •Never,' says an eye-witness of the tragedy, 'had tlie queen looked so beautiful before.' She was attended by the four maids of honor who had waited upon her in prison. One of her ladies covered her eyes with a bandage; and then they withdrew themselves some little space, and knelt down over against the scaffold, bewailing bitterly and shedding many tears. And thus, and without more to say or do, was her head struck off; she making no confession of her fault, but saying, « O Lord God, have pity on my soul! ' She died with great resolution. Her eyes and lips were observed to move when the head was held up by the executioner. It is also said that before those beautiful eyes sunk in the dimness of death, they seemed for an instant mournfully to regard her bleeding body as it fell on the scaffold." — Agnes Strickland.— Queens of England. 5. Execution or Crannier (p. 239, U 16).— "At length the fatal day ar. rived. At the appointed hour, the procession set forward, and, on account of the rain, halted at the church of St. Mary, where the sermon was preached by Dr. Cole. Cranmer stood on a platform opposite the pulpit. At the conclusion of the sermon, he began to read a paper, and was heard lor a time with profound silence. But when he recalled his former recantations, rejected the papal author- ity, and confirmed the doctrines contained in his book, he was interrupted by the murmurs aud agitations of the audience. As soon as order could be re- stored, he was conducted to the stake, declaring that he had never changed his belief; and that his i-ecantations had been Avrung from him by the hope of life; and that, as his hand had offended by Meriting contrary to his heart, it sliould be the first to receive its punishment. Wheu the fire was kindled, to the surprise of the spectators, he thrust his hand into the flame, exclaiming, ' This hath offended.' His sufleriugs were short; the flames rapidly ascended above his head, and he expired in a few moments." — Lingard. — History of England. 6. E:!i$>-Iis3i Voyage to Arcliangel (p. 239, H 17). -" In the year 1553, the English sent forth three ships for the discovery of a northeastern passage to Cathay, or China. Two of these were wrecked; the third, commanded by Richard Chancellor, proceeded to ' an unknown part of the world,' and reached a place where there was 'no night at all but a continual light and bi-ightness of the sun shining clearly upon the huge and mighty sea.' At length they came to a bay, and the mouth of the Dwina, and report having announced them to the terrified natives as men of 'a strange nation, of singular gentleness and courtesy,' Chancellor was able to travel into the interior. He found that the country was called Russia, of Muscovy, and that Ivan Vassilievitch II., 'ruled and governed far and wide.' This was ' the discovery of Russia,' of which the fame spread through Spain the belief ' of the discovery of New Indies,' and in England gave immediate impulse to mercantile adventure." — Bancroft. — Studies in History. 7, Beatli of Q,neeu Elizabetli (p. 244, H 29).— "Ten days and nights she lay upon the carpet, leaning on cushions which her maids brought her; aud her physicians could not persuade her to allow herself to be put to bed, much less to make trial of any remedies which they prescribed to her. Her anxious mind at last had so long preyed on her frail body, that her end was visibly approaching, and the council, being assembled, sent the keeper, admiral, and secretary to know her will with regard to her successor. She answered with a faint voice, that as she had held a regal scepter, she desir(;d no other than a royal successor. Cecil requesting her to explain herself more particularly, sho subjoined that she NOTES. would have a king succeed lier; and who should that be but her nearest kinsman, the Kiug of Scots ? Being then advised by the Archbishop of Canterbury to fix her thoughts upon God, she replied that she did so, nor did her mind in the least wander from him. Her voice soon after left her, her senses failed, she fell into a leth- argic slumber, which continued some hours, and she expired gently, without farther struggle or convulsion (March 24, 1603), in the seventieth year of her age, and the forty-fifth of her reign."'— Hume.— History of England. 8. Scotland united witli England (p. 245, H 31).— " Scotland, in be- coming a part of the British monarchy, preserved all her dignity. Having, during many generations, courageously withstood the English arms, she was now joined to her stronger neighbor on the most honorable terms. She gave a kiug instead of receiving one. She retained her own constitution and laws. Her tribunals and parliaments remained entirely independent of the tribunals and parliaments which sate at Westminster. The administration of Scotland was in Scottish bands ; for no Englishman had any motive to emigrate northward, and to contend with the shrewdest and most pertinacious of all races for what was to be scraped together in the poorest of all treasuries. Meanwhile, Scottish adventurers poured southward, and obtained, in all the walks of life, a prosperity which excited much envy, but which was, in general, only the just reward of prudence and industry. Nevertheless, Scotland by no means escaped the fate ordained for every country which is connected, but not incorporated, with another country of greater re- sources. Though in name an independent kingdom, she was, during more than a century, really treated, in many respects, as a subject province."— ^/acaw/ay.— History of England. 9. Death of Joltn Hampden (p. 251, IT 47).— "The news of Hampden's death produced as great a consternation in his party, according to Clarendon, as if their whole army had been cut oft'. The journals of the time amply prove that the parliament and all its Iriends were filled with grief and dismay. Lord Nugent has quoted a remarkable passage from the next Weekly Intelligencer. ' The loss of Colonel Hampden goeth near the heart of every man that loves the good of his king and country ; and makes some conceive little content to be at the army now that he has gone. The memory of this deceased colonel is such that in no age to come but it will more and more be had in honor and esteem ;— a man so religious, and of that prudence, judgment, temper, valor, and integrity, that he hath left few his like behind him.' "—Macaulay.— Miscellaneous Essays. 10. Character of Charles II. (p. 261, II 72).-" Charles II. was in society the most amiable and engai,nng of men. This, indeed, is the most shining part of his character ; and he seems to have been sensible of it, for he was fond of dropping the formality of state, and of relapsing every moment into the com- panion. His relations with the other sex were in the highest degree immoral, and hence his court became a school of vice and profligacy. Yet he was a friendly brother, an indulgent father, and a good-natured master. As a sovereign, his character was dangerous to his people and dishonorable to himself. Negligent of the interests of the nation, careless of its glory, averse to its religion, jealous of its liberty, lavish of its treasure, sparing only of its blood, he exposed it by his measures, which, however, were often the result of mere indolence, to the danger of a furious civil war, and even to the ruin and ignominy of a foreign conquest. It has been remarked of Charles that he never said a foolish thing, nor ever did a wise one ; which he explained by observing that his discourse was his own, his actions were the mimsirys."— Hume.— History of England. 11. John Milton (p. 262, If 73).— "In the character of Milton the noblest NOTES. qualities of every party were combiaed in harmonious union. From the parlia- ment and from the cjurt, from the conventicle and from the Gothic cloister, from the gloomy and sepulchral circles of the Roundheads and from the Christmas revel of the hospitable cavalier, his nature selected and drew to itself whatever was great and good, while it rejected all the base and pernicious ingredients by which those fine elements were defiled. Like the Puritans, he lived * As ever in his great Taskmaster's eye.' Like them, he kept his mind continually fixed on an Almighty Judge and an eternal reward ; and hence he acquired their contempt of external circumstances, their fortitude, their tranquillity, their inflexible resolution." — Macaulay. 12. Prince €Iiarles, tlie Pretender (p. 269, H 8Q).—" Charles Edward Stuart is one of those characters that cannot be portrayed at a single sketch, but have so greatly altered, as to require a new delineation at different periods. View him in his later years, and we behold the ruins of intemperance — as wasted but not as venerable as those of time ; we find him in his anticipated age a besotted drunk- ard, a peevish husband, a tyrannical master ; his understanding debased and his temper soured. But not such was the Charles Stuart of 1745 ! Not such was the gallant prince full of youth, of hope, of courage, who, landing with seven men in the wilds of Moidart. could rally a kingdom round his banner, and scatter his foes before him at Preston and at Falkirk ! Not such was the gay and courtly host of Holyrood ! Not such was he whose endurance of fatigue and eagei'ness for battle shone pre-eminent even amongst Highland chiefs ; while fairer critics proclaimed him the most winning in conversation, the most graceful in the dance. Can we think lowly of one who could acquire such unbounded popularity in so few months, and over so noble a nation as the Scots ; who could so deeply stamp his image on their hearts that, even thirty or forty years after his departure, his name, as we are told, always awakened the most ardent praises from all who had known him? The most rugged hearts were seen to melt at his remembrance, and tears to steal down the furrowed cheeks of the veteran." — Lord Mahon. — History of England. 13. William Pitt, Earl of Cliatliam (p. 271, U 92).— "llehadreceived from nature a tall and striking figure, aquiline and noble features, and a glance of fire. Lord Waldegrave, after eulogizing the clearness of his style, observes that his eye was as significant as his words. In debates, his single look could some- times disconcert an orator opposed to him. His voice most happily combined sweetness and strength. It had all that silvery clearness which at the present day delights us in Sir William Follett's, and even when it sank to a whisper it was distinctly heard; while its higher tones, like the swell of some majestic organ, could peal and thrill above every other earthly sound. His most elaborate speeches were his worst ; but when, without forethought, or any other preparation than those talents which nature had supplied and education cultivated, Chatham rose — stirred to anger by some Sudden subterfuge of corruption or device of tyranny, then was heard an eloquence never surpassed either in ancient or in modern times. It was the highest power of expression ministering to the highest power of thought. Dr. Franklin declares that, in the course of his life, he had seen sometim3s eloquence without wisdom, and often wisdom without eloquence ; in Lord Chatham alone had he seen both united." — Lord Mahon. 14. liOrd. Cllve ^p. 271, IT 92). — ''Clive was indeed, as Chatham once called him, a 'Heaven-born general,' who with no military training, had shown consum- mate military genius. With nearly as little study of politics, he displayed nearly as great abilities for government. Energy,— which perhaps, of all human qualities KOTES is the one most conducive to success,— energy and fearlessness, were peculiarly hia own. Whatever gratitude Spain owes to her Cortes, or Portugal to her Albuquerque, this, and in its results more than this, is due from England to Clive. Had he never been born, I do not believe that we should, at least in that generation, have conquered Hindostan ; had he lived longer, I doubt if we should, at least in that generation, have lost North America." — Lord Mahon. Clive's conduct in India, a short time after his return to England, in 1767, was brought under parliamentary censure, and, smarting with disgrace, he committed suicide (1774). 15. George I. and George II. (p. 271, IT 92).—" It must be considered as a most fortunate circumstance, that after the death of Anne, the throne should be occupied for nearly fifty years by two princes, aliens in manners and in country, of whom one spoke our language but indifferently, and the other knew it not at all. The immediate predecessors of George III. were, indeed, of so sluggish a disposi- tion, and were so profoundly ignorant of the people they undertook to govern, that, notwithstanding their arbitrary temper, there was no danger of their organ- izing a party to extend the boundaries of the royal prerogative. And as they were foreigners, they never had sufficient sympathy with the English Church to induce them to aid the clergy in their natural desire to recover their former power. Be- sides this, the fractious and disloyal conduct of many of the hierarchy, must have tended to alienate the regard of the sovereign, as it had already cost them the affection of the people." — BucJde's History of Civilization, 16. War of tlie American Revolution (p. 272, H 94).— "In order to enforce the monstrous claim of taxing a whole people without their consent, there was waged against America a war ill-conducted, unsuccessful, and what is far worse, accompanied by cruelties disgraceful to a civilized nation. To this may be added, that an immense trade was nearly annihilated; every branch of commerce was thrown into confusion ; we were disgraced in the eyes of Europe ; we incurred an expense of £140,000,000; and we lost by far the most valuable colonies any nation has ever possessed." — Buckle. 17. Acquittal of Warren Hai^tings (p. 273, ^ 96).— "At length, in the spring of 1795, the decision was pronounced, nearly eight years after Hastings had been brought by the Sergeant-at-arms of the Commons to the bar of the Lords. On the last day of this great procedure, the public curiosity, long suspended, seemed to be revived, ^nxiety about the judgment there could be none; for it had been fully ascertained that there was a great majority for the defendant. But many wished to see the pageant, and the hall was as much crowded as on the first day. But those who, having been present on the first day, now bore a part in the proceedings of the last, wei-e few, and most of those wei"e altered men. As Hast- ings himself said, the arraignment had taken place before one generation, and the judgment was pronounced by another. Only twenty-niue peers voted. Of these only six found Hastings guilty on the charges relating to Cheyte Sing and to the Begums; on other charges the majority in his favor was still greater. On some he was unanimously absolved. He was then called to the bar, informed from the woolsack [the seat of the Lord Chancellor] that the Lords had acquitted him, and solemnly discharged. He bowed respectfully, and retired." — Macaulay. Hastings lived twenty-four years after his acquittal. His death occurred on the 22d of August. 1819, in the eighty-sixth year of his age. 18. Nelson at tlie Brittle of Copenhagen (p. 273, IT 97).— "In the midst of the terrific cannonade, ^Nelson was rapidly walking the quarter-deck. A shot through the mainmast scattered splinters around. He observed to one ol NOTES. his officers, with a smile, ' This is warm work, and this day may be the last to any of us in a moment ; but mark me, I would not be elsewhere for thousands.* About this time the signal-lieutenant called out that the sii,nial for discoutiuuing the action had been thrown out by the commander-in-chief, and asked if he should repeat it. 'No,' he replied; ' acknowledge it.' He then continued walking about in great emotion; and, meeting Captain Foley, said, ' What think you, Foley, the admiral has hung out No. 39 [the signal for discontinuing action]. You know I have only one eye; I have a right to be blind sometimes;' and then putting the glass to his blind eye, he exclaimed, ' I really don't see the signal. Keep mine for closer battle still flying. That's the way I answer such signals. Nail mine to the mast.' ... The rapidity and precision of the British fire was irresistible. At one o'clock the cannonade of the Danish fleet began to slacken; loud cheers from the English sailors announced every successive vessel which struck; and before two, the whole front line, consisting of six sail of the line and eleven huge floating batteries, was all either taken, sunk, burned, or destroyed. I:i this desperate battle, the loss on board the British fleet was very severe, amounting to no less than 1,200, a greater proportion to the number of seamen engaged than in any other general action during the whole war. . . . Thus terminated this murder- ous battle, one of the most obstinately contested ever fought by the British navy. Nelson said, he had been in above a hundred engagements, but that of Copenhagen was the most terrible of them all." — Alison. — History of Europe. 19. Deatli of Nelson (p. 271, H 99.— "As Nelson Avas walking on the quar- ter-deck, he was pierced by a shot from one of the French marksmen, not more than fifteen yards distant. ' They have done for me at last. Hardy,' said he. ' I hope not,' said Hardy. 'Yes,' he replied, 'my backbone is shot thi'ough.' He was immediately carried below; but even then, such was his presence of mind, that he directed the tiller-rope, which had been shot away, to be replaced, and taking out his handkerchief, covered his face and stars, lest the crew should be discouraged by the sight. The cockpit was crowded with Avounded and dying men; he insisted that the surgeon should leave him, and attend to those to whom he might be useful; 'for to me,' he said, 'you can do nothing.' All that could be done was to fan him with paper, and give him lemonade to assuage lus burning thirst. -As the action continued, however, several ships of the enemy began to strike; and as the crew of the Victory [Nelson's ship] cheered as each successive flag was lowered, at every hurra a gleam of joy illuminated the countenance of the dying hero .' . . Hardy, taking Nelson by the hand, congratulated him, even in the arms of death, on his glorious victory; adding that fourteen or fifteen of the enemy were taken. ' That's well,' replied Nelson : ' but I bargained for twenty ; ' and then, in a stronger voice, added, ' Anchor, Hardy, anchor. Do you make the signal. Kiss me. Hardy,' said he. Hardy knelt down and kissed his cheek. 'Now I am satisfied,' said Nelson. ' Thank God, I have done my duty.' His artic- ulation now became difficult; but he was repeatedly heard to say, 'Thank God. I have done my duty,' and expired at half-past four without a groan, leaving a name unrivaled, even in the glorious annals of the English navy. . . . His whole career, from his first entrance into the navy to the battle of Trafalgar, exhibited a pattern of every manly virtue. Bold in conception, cautious in construction, firm in execution, cool in danger, he was the most successful, because the most profound and intrepid of leaders." The most triumphant death is that of the martyr ; the most splendid, that of the hero in the hour of victory; and if the chariot and horses of fire had been vouchsafed for Nelson's translation, h"e could scarcely have departed in a brighter blaze of glory.— Alison. 1483.] FllAJ^CE. 285 section ii. Fkakce, From tlie Accession of Charles VIII. (1483) to the present Time. 1. Charles VIII., the son and successor of Louis XI., was only thirteen years of age when he commenced to reign. He was, moreover, feeble both in body and mind, and very ignorant. A dispute arising as to who should have the guardianship of the young king, the question was referred to the States-Grcneral, a meeting of that body being called for the purpose (148-4). This assembly of the States is noted for the ineffectual attempt made by the Third Estate (i. e., the Commons) to obtain a redress of grievances, and to acquire some influence in the government. Charles, by his marriage ^ii\\ Anne, Duchess of Brittany, acquired possession of that country; and tlius was de- stroyed the last stronghold of feudal independence and rebellion. 2. By this marriage, Charles gave offence to Maximilian of Austria, to whom Anne had been previously betrothed ; and that monarch was joined by Henry VII. of England and Ferdinand of Spain in a league against Charles ; but the latter succeeded, by means of concessions of territory and the pa3^ment of large sums of money, in effecting a peaceful accommodation (1493). Tlie next year he invaded Italy with a large army to recover Naples, then in posses- sion of Alfonso IL, a prince of Aragon, who, on the ap- proach of Charles, abdicated the throne, and the French 1 . What is said of Charles VIII. ? Why were the States-General called ? For what is this meeting noted? How did Charles acquire Brittany? 2. To what hostilities did this marriage lead? How were they settled? Give an account of tlie invasion of Italy and its result. What was the conduct of Charles after this ? When and how did his death occur ? What line ended with him ? 286 FRAIv^CE. L1498. monarch entered the city in triumph. A league being formed against him by Venice, Mihm, and other states of Nortliern Italy, he retreated ; but, on the confines of Lom- bardy, gained a brilliant victory oyer a much superior army of the allies, thus securing his retreat to France. Naples a short time afterward was abandoned by the French ; so that Charles, who had been desirous of winning the glory of Alexander or Charlemagne, had the mortification of seeing his expedition prove a total failure. He afterward gave himself up to every species of vicious indulgence, and thus ruined his health. His death, which happened soon after, was, however, the result of an accident (1498). Charles VIII. was the last of the family of Valois. 3. Louis XII. — Charles VIII. dying without heirs, Louis, Dulce of Orleans, succeeded to the throne, with the title of Louis XII. He v/as the great-grandson of Charles v., and commenced his reign by the exercise of a noble forbearance and moderation which gained for him the esteem of all classes. Those who had opposed and injured him during the previous reign were freely forgiven, the king saying that " it did not become the King of France to resent the injuries of the Duke of Orleans." Desiring to marry Anne of Brittany, the w^idow of Charles VIIL, he applied to the Pope (Alexander VI.) for a divorce from his wife, who, though distinguished for her talents and virtue, was deformed in person. The divorce being granted, his marriage Avith Anne was solemnized with great splendor. 4. Most of this reign v/as occupied by Avars undertaken by Louis to acquire possession of territories in Italy. His first conquest Avas that of Milan (1500), after Avhich, in alliance with Ferdinand of Aragon, he took Naples; but a dispute arising between the allies as to the partition of the conquered territory, the French Avere defeated by the 3. AVho sncceeded Charles VIII. ? What is said of the conduct of Louis XII. } How and why did he obtain a divorce from his wife ? 4. What conquests did he make in Italy ? What disasters did he suffer ? 1513.] FKAJfCE. 287 Spanish forces under Gon-zaTvo of Cordova, called the " Great Captain," and Ferdinand thus gained almost ex- elusive possession of the Neapolitan States (1503). Louis attempted to retrieve his loss ; but Gonzalvo inflicted upon the French one of tlie severest disasters that ever befell their arms (Dec, 1503). 5. Louis, some time afterward, entered into the celebrated League of Camhray, formed by France, Germany, Spain, the Pope (Julius II.), and the minor states of Italy, in order to check the power of Venice, then at the height of its glory and influence. Under the command of the illus- trious Clievalier Bdy'ard, the French completely defeated the Venetians in the battle of Agnadello {an-yah-del'lo) ; and the other allies were also successful (1500). But the iiitrigues of Julius II. soon afterward diverted the force of the alliance from Venice and turned it against France, with the view to deprive the latter of all its possessions in Italy. In this way the " Holy League," consisting of the Po2)c, Ferdinand of Spain, and the Venetian Republic, was formed (1511) ; but the French, under the command of the re- nowned Gaston de Foix {fivah), gained two brilliant vic- tories over the allies. That heroic general having fallen in one of these battles (1512), Louis was soon afterward obliged to succumb to the power of the League, and sur- render all his Italian acquisitions in Northern Italy. 6. Louis then formed an alliance with Venice to recover these possessions (1513), and, at first, gamed some suc- cesses ; but was finally defeated with severe loss by the Swiss, who had been hired by the Italians for their defence. This disaster encouraged the enemies of France to attack- it ; and while it was threatened by Ferdinand of Spain, the Swiss invaded it from the west, and Henry VIII. landed with a large army at Calais. The latter a short time after- ward fought the noted " Battle of the Spurs," in which 5. "Wliat was the League of Cambray? Wliat was its result? What was tht Holy League ? What victory was gained by the French ? What followed ? 6. What other disasters befell Louis in Italy and France ? When did he die ? 288 FRAJ^CE. [1516. several of the French officers, inchidiiig Bayard, were taken piisoners (1513). Louis, "wearied with these harassing Avars, shortly afterward succeeded in making a treaty of peace with his enemies, but survived it only a few months. His virtues had made him exceedingly i)opular, and he died universally regretted by his subjects (1515). 7. Francis I., Duke of AngouUme {ang-go-Unn), and cousin of Louis XII., succeeded to tlie throne, at the age of 21 years. He was of a very chivalrous disposition, and was eager to distinguish himself by military achievements. His first enterprise was to recover Milan, which had been lost during tlie previous reign ; and, at the head of 40,000 men, commanded by Bayard, the Constable Bour'bon, and other illustrious generals, he invaded Italy. There, in tlie ])attle of 31arignano {mali-reen-ijah'no), he totally defeated the Swiss mercenaries, 10,000 of Avhom were left dead upon the held (1515). Milan, therefore, surrendered ; and Francis wisely augmented his influence by establishing a lasting alliance with the Swiss Republic (1516). 8. On the death of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, Francis became a competitor with Charles, of Spain, for tlie vacant throne. The election of the latter excited the anger of Francis, and gave rise to a series of wars tliat lasted nearly twenty-five years, between him and his great rival, afterward so illustrious as Charles V. of Germany. Both parties sought the alliance of Henry VIII. of England ; and, on the occasion of the interview which took place between the English and French monarch s,/.^/e5 of such extraordi- nary splendor were given, that the place of the interview was called the " Field of the Cloth of Gold." Owing, how- ever, to the intrigues of Wolsey, Henry declared in favor of the Emperor. 9. Francis unwisely quarrelled with his great general, 7. Who gucceeded Louis XH. ? What was his character? What led to the battle of JMariijnano ? What were its consequences ? 8. What led to wars with Charles V. of Germany? What course was puriiued by Uenry YIII. ? How was this brought about 1' 1529.] FRANCE. 289 the Constable of Bourbon, and the latter was gladly taken into the service of the emperor. The first step of the French king was to invade Italy ; but his army was under the command of an incompetent general, and Bourbon soon drove it into a disastrous retreat, during which the gallant and chivalrous Bayard was killed. Francis then conducted the army in person ; but, at Pa' via, suffered a dreadful defeat, all his most distinguished generals being slain, and he himself made prisoner (1525). [See Note 1.] 10. He remained in captivity more than a year, during which he suffered considerable indignity from the emperor, who extorted from him an assent to the most humiliating conditions before he would grant his release. These, on regaining his liberty, he refused to fulfil ; and the war was renewed, Francis having effected an alliance with Venice and the Pope. Bourbon accordingly marched to Rome, with a large army, consisting partly of German troops, whose minds had been excited by the new doctrines of Luther, and partly also composed of a multitude of ad- venturers and bandits, ferocious as the Huns or Vandals. 11. Bourbon was slain in the first assault; but Rome was taken, and for seven months became a scene of the most remorseless violence and pillage, the Pope being kept a prisoner, and treated with the grossest indignities (1527).* This led to an alliance between the kings of France and England; and Charles, embarrassed by the movements of the German Protestants, and threatened by the Turks under their great sultan, Soliman the Magnificent, con- sented to a treaty of peace with Francis (1529). 12. Twice, however, was the war renewed ; and Francis degraded himself and shocked Christendom by forming an alliance with the Turkish sultan. In 1541:, he wiped out * Ste Note 2. end of the Sertion. 9. With whom did Francis quarrel ? What led to the battle of Pavia ? What was its result? Where is Pavia '? (See Prog. Map, No 7.) 10 IIow did Francis obtain his release ? What led to the taking of Rome? 11. Gi ve an account of the sack of Rome ? To wiuit did it lead 'f 12. What were the subsequent events of this reign? When did it end? 13 i^OO FRAl!^"CE. [1547. the disgrace of his defeat at Pavia, by a splendid victory in Italy over the Imperial army ; but Charles formed an alli- ance with Henry VIII., both monarchs engaging to invade France, capture Paris, and divide the French dominions between them. The French king successfully defended his capital against the invading armies of these two powerful foes, and finally succeeded in making jieace with both. His death occurred the next year (1547). 13. Francis I. was a liberal patron of literature and the arts, both of which made very great progress during his reign . He was possessed of considerable talents, unbounded ambition, and very extraordinary courage, activity, and en- terprise ; but his private vices, his acquiescence in the ir ilu- ence of incapable favorites, and his want of prudence and self-control, brought upon his people great misfortunes and miseries. 14. Henry II., on his accession to the throne, T/as in the twenty-ninth year of his age. He was slothfid and luxurious in his disposition, and possessed but few of the talents of his father. Before he commenced to reign, he married Catharine de^ Medici (med'e-che), a descendant of tlie illustrious Lorenzo de' Medici, of the Florentine Republic, who, on account of his accomplishments and his liberal patronage of learning and art, was utyled the " Magnificent." Pope Leo X. was a son of Lorenzo, and Clement VII. a nephew ; and when, through the influence of the latter and Charles V., Florence lost her liberty, a member of this celebrated fiimily was made the first Duke of Florence (1529) ; and its descendants, for a century afterward, continued to occupy the ducal throne of Tus- cany. 15. Hostilities between France and Charles V. were re- 1 3. What was the character of Francis I. ? 14. What is said of Uenry II. ? Whom did he marry? Who was Catharine de" Medici ? 1 5. What war was continued ? What led to the treaty of Pass«iti? What were its terms ? What victory was gained by Francis, Duke of Guise ? 1559.] FRANCE. 291 sumed soon after the commencement of Henry's reign; and the latter allied himself with the great Protestant champion, Maurice, Elector of Saxony, who at once de- clared against the emperor as the enemy of the civil and religious liberty of Germany. Cliarles V., prudently yield- ing to the force of so powerful a combination, concluded with the Germans the treaty of Fassau, conceding to the Protestants freedom of worship (1552). Henry IL, how- ever, having refused to be included in the treaty, the imperial army was repulsed with severe loss at 3Ietz, defended by the Freruch under Francis, Duke of Guise {gweez). 16. Charles V. having resigned his throne to his son Philip, the French king embraced the occasion to invade the Netherlands and Italy; but sustained severe disasters in each of these enterprises. In the former, the Constable Montmorency sustained a total defeat at St. Que)}! tin, where the flower of his army were either slain or taken prisoners (1557).* Queen Mary of England had given assistance to her husband Philip ; and, through the energy of Guise, the French gained possession of Calais (1558). This was soon followed by a treaty of peace between the contending par- ties, and by the king's death, which was occasioned by a wound received at a tournament (1559). 17. Francis II., a youth of sixteen years, succeeded to the throne. The year before, he married Mary, Queen of Scots; and, being of feeble intellect, he was entirely ruled by his fascinating queen, who herself was under the control of her uncles, the Duke of Guise and his brother. Cardinal of Lorraine. These two noblemen thus acquired the supreme power in the government; which they pro- ceeded to employ for the destruction of the Protestants, or Huguenots, the persecution of whom had commenced in the previous reign. The Huguenots had, nevertheless, * See Note. 3, end of the Section. 1 6. What countries did Henry III. invade ? What were the results ? Why did the French take Calais ? When and how did Henry's death occur ? 1 7. Who succeeded Henry II. ? What was his character ? Who was his queen Y Who obtained the control of the government ? What is said of the Protestants ? 292 FRANCE. [1560. rapidly increased in number and influence, and now included withiu their ranks tlie King of Navarre, his brother Louis, Prince of Condc {hon'da), Admiral Co- ligny {ho-leen-ye), with many others of high rank and great ability. 18. On account of the tyrannical administration of the Guises, a conspiracy was formed, under Condo; which proving unsuccessful, the Duke of Guise took the oppor- tunity of executing a dreadful vengeance on those who had been concerned in it, executing upward of 1200 persons with the most revolting cruelty (1560). This was soon followed by the arrest of the King of Navarre and the Prince of Conde, the latter of whom was convicted of high treason and sentenced to be executed ; but the king's death taking place soon afterward, he was released. The reign of Francis II. lasted less than eighteen months; and he was succeeded by his brother Charles, a youth ten years and a half old (loGO). 19. Charles IX. — The government was now adminis- tered by the Queen-mother, Catharine de' Medici, who had previously selected for her chief friend and adviser the moderate and virtuous Cliancellor de V Ilointal {Juo'pe-taT) ; and the leaders of both religious parties were placed in the great offices of state. The States-General were assembled, and proclaimed entire freedom of religion, which was after ward confirmed by a royal edict. These excellent measures, however, proved ineffectual, in consequence of the excesses and bitter feelings of both parties; and the country was soon plunged into the miseries of a civil war. 20. The Prince of Conde at first assumed the command of the Protestants, Avho were assisted by the English Queen Elizabeth, while the government was aided by Philip of 18. What conspiracy was formed? What was its result? Who succeeded Francis II. ? 1 9. Who administered the government under Charles IX. ? What measures were adopted ? With what results ? 20. Give an account of the war that ensued. How did it end ? 15 72.J FRAJs^CE. 293 Spain. This war was carried on with great fury, and with various successes on both sides, till 1570, Avhen Catharine obtained peace by granting to the Huguenots the free ex- ercise of their religion in all parts of France, except PariS; placing in their power, as a guarantee, four cities, one of which Avas RocUelle {ro-sJiel'). While this arrangement gave great dissatisfaction to the Catholic party, it did not restore confidence to the Protestants, who entertained a mistrust of the sincerity of Catharine, by whose counsels and intrigues the king was entirely controlled. 21. Admiral Coligny and the other Protestant leaders finally repaired to the court; and the former gained so much influence over Charles, that the Queen-mother en- tered into a conspiracy to remove him by assassination, and thus arouse the vengeance of the Huguenots, so that a pretext might be found for their destruction. Coligny was, however, but slightly wounded, and the plot failed. Catharine and her accomplices next wrung from the king his consent to the death of Coligny and the other principal members of the Protestant faction. The dreadful " Massa- cre of St. Bartholomew's Day" followed, in which the Huguenots throughout France were butchered, without distinction of age or sex. Coligny was the first victim, and the number of those that fell in Paris is estimated at 10,000; the whole number slaughtered in different parts of the kingdom amounting to 30,000 (August 24, 1572). 22. The Huguenots were not, liowever, destroyed. They successfully repelled the attacks made on their stronghold, Roclielle, and succeeded in obtaining very favorable terms of peace from the government. Charles soon afterward died (1574), having suffered on his death-bed the most poignant remorse for the crimes and atrocities which had been pei'pe- trated with his sanction. His imbecility luis, however, 21. What led to the Massacre of " St. Bartholomew's Day?" Give an account of it. 22. What was its effcci. on the Huguenots ? When did the king die ? What ia said of him ? 294 FRAN"CE. [1589 saved his name from most of this guilt, resting, as it does, upon Catharine de' Medici, and her associates in the dark intrigues by means of which those acts of cruelty were committed. 23. Henry III., brother of the late king, succeeded to the throne; although, in the preceding year, he had been elected King of Poland. He was a weak and dissolute man, neglecting his duties to indulge in the most infa- mous debauchery. The Huguenots, under the leadership of Henry of Navarre, and the Prince of ConcU, became very powerful ; and the king and Catharine were compelled to make the most humiliating concessions (1576). This led to the " Holy League," formed by the Catholic party to extirpate the Huguenots, overturn the government, and place oue of the Guises on the throne. 24. The contest that followed has been styled the " War of tlie Three Henries " — Henry, the king, Henry of Guise, and Henry of Navarre. It was commenced in 1587 ; and the king, in union with the Leaguers, gained some ad- vantages over their opponents. At last, disgusted and en- raged at finding himself at the mercy of the Guises, and being treated with considerable indignity by them, he caused them to be assassinated. This crime excited a vio- lent outbreak of popular fury against the king, who, in order to resist the opposition which he had created, allied himself to Henry of Navarre and the Huguenots. A few months after this, he was assassinated by a Dominican Monk, named Clement, who was prompted to the deed by feelings of religious enthusiasm (1589). Thus ended the royal dynasty of Valois, the throne passing to the House of Bourbon, in the person oi Henry III., King of Navarre, who now assumed the title of Heury IV. 23. Who succeeded Charles IX.? What is said of him? What caused the Holy Leaffue ? 2-4. What was the War of the Three Henries ? WTiat is said of it ? What crime was committed by the Icinjir ? How did his death occur ? What line euded ? By whom was Henry lU. succeeded ? 1598.1 FRAIs'CE. 295 House of Bourbo:?^. .25. Henry IV. was in his 3Gtli year when he came to the throne, from which the Catholic nobles at first attempt- ed to exclude him, except on condition of his renounc- ing his religion, which he refused to do ; but he prom- ised to give security to the Catholics and their religion, and to abide the decision of a national Council. This not being satisfactory to the League, now commanded by the DulcG of May-enne , brother of the late Duke of Guise, a war ensued, in which Henry defeated his enemies in the famous battle of Ivry (eev're) (1590) ; but the fruits of this victory were afterward lost, and the Duke of Mayenne entered Paris in triumph. 26. The war was continued for some time with varied success, Henry being aided by the English troops under the Earl of Essex. At last, the States-General were called ; and Henry, to satisfy the prevailing party, and to secure a recognition of his right to the throne, abjured Protestant- ism and declared himself satisfied of the truth of the Catholic faith (1593). Though injurious to his personal reputation, this act of the king's delivered France from a condition of the most dreadful anarchy ; and, for patriotic reasons, it was approved by many of the Huguenots them- selves. On moral and religious grounds, it cannot, of course, be at all justified. 27. The next five years were occupied in securing his possession of the throne, and in a war which was carried on with Philip of Spain. This was closed by a treaty in 1598, a year memorable for the grunt by the king of the celebrated Edict of Nantes {nautz), in which he con- firmed the rights and privileges of the Huguenots, conferred 25. What course was pursued by Henry and the Catholic nobles ? What led to the battle of Ivry? What was its result? Where is Ivry? (See Map, p. 188.) 26. What were the other events of the war? What course did Henry pursue with respect to his religion ? What is said of it ? 27. What were the chief events of the next five years ? What was the Edict ol Nautes ? Where is Nantes ? (See Map, p. 18^.) i^96 FRANCE. [1610. upon them entire liberty of conscience, and admitted tliem to all offices of honor and emolument. 28. lie next directed his attention to the internal condi- tion of the kingdom, which, on account of the long con- tinuance of civil war, had become entirely disorganized. By the construction of roads and canals, he brought all parts of the country into ready communication, encouraged traffic and commerce, and thus opened new sources of wealth and intelligence to the people. Manufactures, mining, and every other department of industry were fostered by his beneficent measures, in devising which he was greatly aided by the wise and upright Duhe of SuTli/. The latter reorganized the finances; and, although many of the taxes were remitted, the national debt was almost entirely liquidated. [See Note 4, end of the Section.'] 29. In the latter part of his reign, Henry IV. formed a project to rearrange the various states of Europe, and form them into an association, so as more completely to secure the balance of power, and to diminish the influence of the imperial house of Austria. A dispute having arisen be- tween the emperor and some of the Protestant princes of Germany, Henry took sides Avith the latter, and thus gave great offence to his Catholic subjects. He was on the point of setting out to commence the war, when he was assassinated (1610) in the streets of Paris by a half-insane fanatic, named Ravaillac {raJi-val-yah'). The death of the king, who was the idol of the people, occasioned the utmost grief and indignation ; and his murderer Avas put to death with every refinement of torture. Henry was possessed of great abilities and force of character ; and, as a monarch, was deserving of very high praise ; but his private life was sullied with very great vices and immoralities. 30. Iiouis XIII. succeeded his father at the age of nine 28. What wipe measures were aclopted by the king? Who was his minister ? 29. What scheme was planned by Henry IV. ? How did he ofl'eud his Catholic subjects ? How was his death caused ? What was his character ? 1628.] FRANCE. 297 years, under the regency of his mother, Mary de' MedicL Snlly, the great minister of Henry IV., becoming disgnstcd with the injudicious measures of the regent, and particularly with her attention to Italian favorites, resigned his offices, and went into retirement. An assembly of the States- General, in 1G14, is noted for the first great occasion on which the celebrated Richelieu (reesh'e-lu) made display of his extraordinary talents. He was made a cardinal in 1622 ; and, two years afterward, he became the chief adviser of the king. 31. Eichelieu's first object was to subdue the Huguenots, who for some time had been in rebellion against the gov- ernment. Rochelle, their chief city, was besieged; and, although Charles I. of England sent a considerable force to its assistance, it was compelled, after a vigorous defence of fifteen months, to surrender (1G28). Richelieu himself took a very active part in this siege. The other towns in the possession of the Huguenots were shortly after obliged to submit ; and the cause of Protestantism in France was en- tirely prostrated. 32. Richelieu's next object was to humble the power of the imperial house of Austria, to effect which he took part in the "Thirty Years' War," on the side of the Protestants (then commanded by the great Swedish monarch Gustavus Adolphus), against Spain and the Empire. After the death of that hero at Lut'zen, the French suffered some reverses, the imperialists invading France, devastating the country, and penetrating within three days' march of the capital. The persevering energy of Richelieu, however, finally triumphed over all his enemies; and the French armies made conquest of Alsace and other territories. 33. The vigor of Richelieu's government excited much 30. WTio succeeded Henrv IV. ? Who became Ecgent ? What is said of the States-General? To what offices was Richelieu promoted? . ^^ „ , 31. Give an account of the war waged by Richelieu against the Hugnenots. Where is Rochelle ? (See Map, p. 1S8.) .. * , 32. What was the next object of Richelieu ? How did he carry it out ? 298 FRANCE. [1642. opposition on the part of the princes and nobles of France^ and many conspiracies were formed to destroy him. All these sell ernes he was enabled to thwart by his consum- mate yigilance and address, and several of those who had engaged in them he caused to be executed. The most con- spicuous among his enemies were Mary cW Medici, the queen-mother ; Gaston, DuTce of Orleans, the brother of the king ; and the Dulce of Montmorency. The last was exe- cuted, having been taken prisoner in a conflict with the government forces. 34. Notwithstanding these difficul'Jes, Richelieu sustained the influence of France, and made its power respected by every foreign state. In no period of its history, has its glory shone forth with more splendor than during the ad- ministration of this talented and ambitious cardinal, be- neath whose comprehensive genius and indefatigable energy the king himself became a mere cipher. Eichelieu was also a patron of science and literature ; and to him France owes the foundation of the French Academy. His death occurred in 1642, and was followed the next year by that of the king. 35. Louis XIV. was scarcely five years of age when his father died ; and the regency was intrusted to his mother, Anne of Austria, who selected as her prime minister Cardi- nal Maz'a-rin, a former disciple and associate of Eichelieu. France was again drawn into the " Thirty Years' War," by the renewal of hostilities on the part of the house of Aus- tria; but several splendid victories were gained by the- French army, under the Prince of Conde, afterward so illustrious as the "Great Conde," and by the celebrated Marshal Tu-renne'. This long Avar Avas closed by the "Treaty of "Westphalia," in 1G48, by Avhich the boundaries of France were settled, nearly as they exist at present. 33. What conspiracies were formed ajjainst him ? With what results ? 34. What is said of the administration of Richelieu? What did he found? \Vhen did his death occur ? When did the kincc die ? 3.>. By whom was Louis XIII. succeeded ? What is said of Louis XIV. ? Who became Reg^ent ? What minister did she choose ? In what war was Prance in- volved ? With what result ? What is said of the Peace of Westphalia? 1661.] FKAKCE. 299 36. Meantime, the civil luar of tlie Fronde^ had broken out (1648), caused by the resistance of the people, repre- sented in the parhament of Paris, to the unjust and op- pressive measures of taxation adopted by the government, and probably incited by the rebellion of the Euglish against their king, Charles I., which had just been brought to a successful issue. In these commotions, the court was op- posed by many of the nobles ; and, during the latter part of the war, the Great Conde also took sides against the government. The principal leader of the revolt, however, was Cardinal de Retz {rats). With much difficulty it was subdued in 1653, having lasted about five years. 37. The death of Mazarin, who had accumulated enor- mous wealth, occurred in 1661, after which date Louis XIV., from wiiom, on account of his neglected education, little had been expected, suddenly assumed the reins of government. He at once exhibited great sagacity and tal- ent as a ruler; and during his subsequent reign, which lasted more than half a century, the vastness of his mili- tary enterprises, the grandeur of his plans for the internal improvement of his kingdom, his magnificent court cere- monial, and his enlightened patronage of literature and the arts and sciences, obtained for him the title of the " Great King." His government was, however, a com- plete despotism, its fundamental principle being compre- hended in his famous saying, " I am the state." 38. The prosperity of France was, at this time, greatly promoted by the wise financial measures of Colbert {Jcol- bdre'), and by the able administration of foreign affiiirs, con- ducted by the prime minister Louvois {loo-vwah'). The first * The members of the political faction opposed to the povernment were called, in derision Frnndeurs, that is, SUrujers; being compared to the vajjrant boys djamins) of Paris who fought with slings {ftonde). 36. What caused the war of the Fronde? Give an accwmt of it. Why called the Fronde ? (See note.) 37. When did Mazzarin's death occur? What is said of the conduct and char- acter of Louis XIV. ? 38. Bv whom was the prosperity of France promoted ? \Vhat caused the Trinle Alliance ? The war with the Dutch ? Whore is Franche Cniate ? (Sec Map, p. li^.) 300 FRANCE. [1681. military enterprise of Louis was the seizure of Flanders and Franche Comte (fi^ansh hong'ta) ; but the " Triple Alliance" (England, Holland, and Sweden) arrested his career of con- quest (1668). This excited the anger of Louis against Hol- land; and, having bribed Charles II. of England to aid him, and obtained promises of neutrality from the other great powers of Europe, he directed his armies, commanded by Turenne and Oonde, against that republic. 39. At first, the affairs of the Dutch appeared to be des- perate, as they were weakened by the dissensions between tlie adherents of William of Orange and the democratic party under De Witt. The latter having been overthrown by a pox)ular insurrection, William, Prince of Orange, then a young man in his 23d year, became stadtholder (presi- dent) of the republic. Through his genius and patriot- ism the country was successfully defended, the progress of the enemy being at first arrested by opening the vast sluices, and laying the whole district surrounding Amster- dam under water (1672). 40. This war lasted six years longer, the Prince of Orange having succeeded in forming an alliance with the Emperor of Germany. The French fleets gained important victories in the Mediterranean over those of Holland under De Ruyter, who was slain in one of these battles. Peace was made, in 1678, between Prance and Holland. The former gained nothing of importance by this severe war ; but Louis had lost his great general Turenne ; and Conde, enfeebled by age, had fought his last campaign. The free city of Stras'hurg was captured by the French a short time after- ward (1681) ; and, through the engineering skill of the celebrated Frw^Z'rni {vo-haJuig'), it was made an impregnable bulwark of France on the eastern frontier. 39. What weakened tlie Dutch? Who 1] ecame stadtholder? What measures did he adopt ? 40. What other events of the war are mentioned? What were its resijts? When and how was Strasburg taken? Where is Strasburg? (See Progressive Map, No. 7.) 1713.] FRANCE. 301 41. By the advice of the celebrated Madame de Main'' fe-non (-nong), Louis adopted the impolitic measure of re- voking the Bdict of Nantes (1685); after which a lierce persecution of the Huguenots ensued, which drove upward of 500,000 of the most industrious of the citizens of France from their country. The flight of James II. from England involved the French monarch in another war, in which he had to cope with the combined forces of the " Grand Al- liance," consisting of all the great powers of Europe (1G89). For over seven years was this mighty struggle maintained by sea and land; and, France being utterly exhausted, Louis was compelled to assent to the Treaty of EysAvick, and thus submit to humiliating conditions of peace (1689). 42. A few years afterward, followed the great " War of the Spanish Succession" (1701). On the death of Charles II. of Spain, Louis claimed the throne of that country for his grandson Pliilip V., whilst the emperor supported the claim of his son, afterward the Emperor Charles VI. This led to an alliance between Holland and Germany against the French king ; Avhich was joined by William of Orange, Louis having recognized the son of James II. king of Eng- land. The war was carried on in Spain, Belgium, Germany, and Italy; and the French experienced a series of disas- trous defeats, having to contend against the genius of Marl- borough and Prince Eugene. The Treaty of Utrecht closed the war (1713), according to which Louis gave up some of his American possessions to England, but obtained the re- cognition of Philip V. as King of Spain. [See Note 5.] 43. The condition of France was now most deplorable, through the ambition, pride, and bigotry of her despotic monarch. He sustained, however, his haughty mien and pompous state ceremonial to the last, notwithstanding he 41. T\niat impolitic act did Louis XIV. commit? What was the result? Give an account of the Grand Alliance and the events that followed it. 42. Give an account of the war of the Spanish Succession. What was its resrilt ? 43. What was now the condition of France? What is said of Louis XIV. ? When did his death occur? Who succeeded him ? What writings did he leave V What is the period of his reign called ? 302 FRAKCE. [1715. had lost by death, his son, the Dauphin, his eldest grand- son, and many others of his kindred. He died in 1715, after a reign of more than 72 years, and was succeeded by Louis, his great-grandson. Louis XIV. left several volumes of writings, containing his " Instructions to his Sons," and his letters, which give valuable information respecting the events of his reign. This period is regarded as the Augus- tan age of French literature. [See Note 6. J 44. Louis XV. was only five years of age on his acces- sion, and the Eegency fell into the hands of the dissolute Duke of Orleans, who was controlled by his shameless and unprincipled minister, ■ the infamous Ahhe Dubois (du- hwaW). The education of the young king was intrusted to the Ahhe de Fleu'ry, noted for his virtues and accom- plishments, and for his work on the History of the Church. Cardinal Fleury succeeded him in 1722. During the re- gency occurred the famous " Mississippi Scheme," devised by a Scotch adventurer named John Law, who proposed to issue paper money on the seciirity of certain gold and dia- mond mines said to exist near the Mississippi Eiver, in Louisiana, and in this way to extinguish the vast debt of i\\Q country. Such was the rage for speculation excited by this project, that the shares sold for forty times their par value. Thousands were ultimately ruined by this scheme, as in England by the " South Sea Bubble." 45. Cardinal Fleury was made prime minister in 1726, in the 72d year of his age; and the country greatly pros- pered under his prudent and skilful administration, which lasted seventeen years. His policy was peaceful ; but the marriage of Louis XV. with the daughter of the dethroned King of Poland, involved him in a war with Russia, Austria, and Denmark, to reinstate his father-in-law, Stan'is-las, on 44. What was the a^e of Lonis XV. ? Who became Regent and minister ? Who were the instructors of the king ? Give an account of the Mississippi scheme, 45. When did Cardinal Fleury become minister? What is said of his adminis- tration? What caused war with Russia. Austria, and Denmark? What was Ue result ? What war followed ? ^Vllat victory was gained ? What treaty ended t he war ? What followed ? 1774.] FRAKCE. 303 the throne ; but in this object he was unsnccessful. The "War of the Austrian Succession" followed soon after, during which Fleury died (1743). The most important victory gained by the French during this war was tliat of Fonteuoy, under Marshal Saxe (1745). The Treaty of Aix- la- CliajMle gave a brief rest to Europe, which was broken by the "Seven Years' War" in 1756. 46. During this struggle France lost Canada, and some of her West Indian possessions ; and her army was severely defeated at Min'deii, by the English and Hanoverians, commanded by the Duke of Brunswick (1759). The Treaty of Paris deprived France of many important possessions, and left her heavily laden with taxes (1763). The year 1769 is remarkable for the conquest of Corsica, after a brave struggle for its independence, under' Faoli. During the same year was born on this island, Napoleon Bonaparte, destined to play so great a part in the subsequent history of France. Louis XV. died in 1774, after having, by a long course of tyranny, debauchery, and reckless j^rofusion, dis- gusted his subjects, and plunged the country into anarchy and ruin. 47. Louis XVI. succeeded his grandfather at the age of 20 years. His character presented a striking contrast to that of the preceding king, being beneficent and upright ; and he commenced his reign with the sincere desire to amelio- rate the condition of his suffering ]oeople, by redressing their grievances, and restoring the financial prosperity of the kingdom. He was, however, deficient in judgment and decision ; and, although he selected for his ministers the patriotic Turgot (toor-go') and Malsherhes {mal-zdrV), he soon became involved in great difficulties on account of the irreparable confusion of the finances. These were still 46. Wliat (lifl France lose during the Seven Years' War? Wliat took place at Minden ? What was lost hy the Treaty of Paris ? For what is the year 17(30 noted i When did Louis XV. die ? What was the effect of his reiijn ? 47. Who succeeded to the tlirone? At what ajje? What was his character J What minister did he select ? What caused ditficulties ? Who was the queen ? 304 FRAKCE. [1789, further deranged by the extravagant habits of the Court, presided 07 er by the young and fascinating queen, 3fari6 Antoinette {an-twah-nct'), daughter of Maria Theresa * 48. Various ministers of well-established reputation for financial skill were selected, — among them the celebrated Neclc'eVy a banker of Geneva ; but the national difficulties increased. A war with England, caused by the interference of France in the struggle of the English colonies of America for independence, still further embarrassed the government of Louis XVI., by compelling a new levy of taxes, greatly to the discontent of the people, wlio complained loudly of the extravagance of the Court and Marie Antoinette. At length an assembly of the States-General was vehemently demanded, a meeting of which had not been called since 1614. To this Louis gave his assent (1789). [See Note 8.] 49. By the advice of Neckerj it had been decreed that the representatives of the Third Estate, or Commons, should be equal in number to those of the nobility and clergy together ; and, on their assemblage at Ver-sailles' (May 5, 1789), a dispute arose as to the mode in Avliich the votes should be taken in deciding questions, — whether the three Orders should vote as separate bodies, or, all being assembled in one body, the votes should be taken numeri- cally. The latter mode was advocated by the Third Es- tate ; and, after contending for several weeks, against the opposition of the two other orders, they finally resolved themselves into a distinct body, under the title of the Na- tional Assembly, and claimed to be the legitimate rep- resentatives of the French people (June 17). They were soon joined by many of the clergy. 50. Thus was inaugurated the great French Revolu- tion, which in its progress not only convulsed France, but * See Note 7, end oj the Section. 48. What financial ministers were selected? What increased the troubles' What measure was finally resolved on ? 49. How had the number of representatives been awanged? A^Tiat disputes arose ? What was the course of the Third Estate ? By whom were they joined :' 50. What did these proceedings inaugurate? What causes led to the Revo- lution ? 1789.] FKANCE. 305 threw the whole civilized world into violent commotion, uprooting institutions which had withstood the assaults of ages. For this mighty outbreak many circumstances had prepared the way, the chief of which were the following : 1. The despotism, recklessness, and profligacy of the gov- ernment of France during the three preceding reigns ; 2. The oppressions to which the lower classes were subjected from the unjust laws which favored the nobility and cler- gy, by exempting them from their due share in the weight of taxation ; 3. The dissemination of knowledge among the people, and the spread of infidelity, occasioned by the writings of Vol-taire', and others ; 4. The notions and feel- ings in favor of popular freedom inspired by the success of the American Eevolution, in which so many of the French nation had borne a distinguished part. 51. The king and his ministers, dismayed at the deter- mination shown by the Commons, and desiring to check their proceedings, attempted to exclude them from their hall, and thus suspend their sittings. But the Assembly, through the energy of their president Bail'ly (or hahl-ye'), and the eloquence of their great leader Mirabeau {me-rah- bo'), thwarted this attempt ; and the king showed his in- decision by afterward sanctioning their measures, and re- questing all the deputies of the clergy and nobility to join with the Third Estate. 52. By the advice of the queen, large bodies of troops were collected to overawe the Assembly, and Necker was dismissed. This excited an insurrection of the populace in Paris, and the Bastile {bas-teel'), a noted prison, was stormed and captured by the mob (July 14, 1789). The excited populace then proceeded to Versailles, and de- manded that the king and royal family should return to Paris ; and Louis felt himself obliged to comply. Lafay- 5 1 . What course did the kin^ take ? The Assembly ? 52. What led to an insurrection ? What acts did the populace commit ? Who was made commandant of the National Guard ? With whom did it sympathize ? 306 FKANCE. [1791. ette ilali-fd-et') was then placed at the head of the mili- tia, called the National Guard, the members of which sympathized with the popular movements, so that the king was withont any support except from the Swiss and Ger- man mercenaries. 53. The violence of the Parisian mob, inflamed by the political writings which were circulated among the people, soon became ungovernable ; and several obnoxious individu- als were seized and put to death with great cruelty. The Assembly energetically prosecuted its measures of reform, and decreed the entire abolition of the principles and prac- tices of the former government. They subsequently agreed upon a constitution, limiting the power of the king and securing popular rights ; and then passed a resolution by which the National Assembly (now called the Constitu- ent Assembly) was dissolved, and a new body authorized to be summoned, entitled the Legislative AssemUy, to which none of the members of the National Assembly Avere eli- gible (1791). 54. Meanwhile, several insurrections had taken place in Paris ; and the king and his family had been treated with the greatest indignity by tlie infuriated mob, whose pas- sions were particularly excited against the unfortunate queen. Attempting flight, they were pursued, arrested, and brought back to Paris. The Legislative Assembly met in 1791 ; and, although the king had accepted the constitu- tion and promised to abide by its requirements, a large party were hostile to the monarchy, desiring to destroy it, and establish a republican form of government. These views were fostered by the political clubs which had been formed in Paris a short time after the commencement of the Eevolution, among which the fiimous Jac'ohin Club had attained the complete control of the Assembly. 53. Wliat was the conduct of the Parisian mob? Of the National Assembly I What body succeeded it? 5 4. What had taken place in Paris ? Against whom were the populace excited ? Who desired a republic ? By whom were these sentiments fostered V 1792.] FKANCE. ^^'^ 55 The kino- repeatedly made concessions to the repub- licans, while he cherished schemes for escaping from their control; but each month added to his humiliations and to the boldness of his enemies. Foreign nations looked on with alarm, and sympathized with the royal family. Austria and Prussia declared war upon the French, in order to rescue the hapless monarch. This still further excited the Pa- risi-m mob They rushed to the Tuileries {tweelre), the pahxce in which the king resided, took it by storm massa- cred the brave Swiss soldiers who defended it, and obliged the king to take refuge in the Assembly, by whose orders he and his family were imprisoned (August 10, 1792). 56 The supreme authority being now seized by the mu- nicipality of Paris, a special criminal tribunal was insti- tuted; and all persons suspected of hostility to the revolu- tion were dragged before it, condemned, and massacred in the most shocking manner. Lafayette being at the head of the army, refused to recognize the authority of the Assem bly but, he not being sustained by the troops, retired from the country. The Legislative Assembly was dissolved ; and havino- been reorganized as the National Convention, it formally abolished the monarchy, and declared France a republic (September 1792). The next month, the revolu- tionists were emboldened by the victory gained by the French General Dumourier {du-moo-re-a) over the Aus- trian army at Jeinejype (zha-mep'), in Belgium. 57 The Convention, now composed of strict repubhcans, was divided into two parties, bitterly hostile to each other, one called the Ifozmtain Party and the other the Gironch ists {zhe-rond'ists). Of the former, the leaders were Bo- 55 What was clone by the king? W.o declared war upon France? To what What nobleman voted against the km^ ? 308 FRAN^CE. [1793. lespierre [ro-hes-pe-are'),'*' Dan'ton, and Marat {maJi-rah'), noted for their wickedness and cruelty. One of tlie most eminent of the Girondists was Vergniaiid {vCirn-yo'), dis- tinguished for his eloquence. One of the first acts of the Conyention was the trial of the king, who was charged with conspiring against the liberties of France; and, notwith- standing the eloquent and unanswerable defence made by his advocate, Deshze {duh-sdz), he was found guilty of the charges, with very few dissenting yotes, and condemned to deatn. The sentence was executed by the guillotine, one week afterward (January 21, 1793). Among those who voted for the king's condemnation was the infamous Duhe of Orleans, who took part in the popular excesses, abandon- ing his title and taking the name of Philip E-gal'i-te {equal- ity). 58. The Mountain Party having triumphed in the Con- vention, the Girondist leaders were guillotined. The Reign of Terror was then inaugurated, during which the Revolutionary Tribunal, controlled by Eobespierre, Danton, and others, caused thousands to be seized and hurried to the guillotine. Among these i-ictims was the un- fortunate Marie Antoinette (Oct. 1793), who, during her imprisonment, had been subjected to every indignity and insult which could be devised by her relentless jailers. Similar deeds of cruelty were perpetrated in other parts of France, the number guillotined being estimated at more than 18,000. \See Note 10, end of the Section.] 59. The cruel and wicked men concerned in these atroci- ties almost invariably met with a violent death. Marat was assassinated by Cliarlotte Cor' day. The faction of Iiobespierre,t triumphing over that of Danton, caused him ;iiul his adherents to be guillotined; and a few months * See Note 9, end of the Section. + See Note U. 58. WTiat was the fate of Marat? What party triumphed in the Convention ? >Vhat followed ? What was the fate of Marie Antoinette ? What occurred in other parts of France ? 59. What closed the Reign of Terror ? What change took place in the govern- menl ? What brought Napoleon Bonaparte into notice ? 1796.1 FRAKCE. 309 afterward, this dreadful period closed by the execution of Eobespierre himself (1794).* A new constitution was then adopted by the Convention, the executive authority being intrusted to a Directory, consisting of five members. This constitution being opposed by several of the Parisian Sec- tions (divisions of the city), who threatened an insurrec- tion, Najooleon Bo7iaparte, a young officer, who had pre- viously distinguished himself at the siege of Tou-lon', was selected to conduct the military operations against the in- surgents. Planting his cannon adroitly, he opened fire upon the populace, and dispersed them without difficulty (1795). 60. The service rendered by Napoleon on the " Day of the Sections," was soon afterward rewarded by conferring upon him the command of the Anmj of Italy, designed to operate against the Austrians (1796). In two campaigns he achieved a succession of the most brilliant victories over the Austrian armies;t and, entering the Venetian territory, in consequence of hostilities committed against the French, he captured Venice itself, and overturned her ancient gov- ernment (1797). The emperor was at length compelled to assent to the terms of the treaty of Cam'po For'mi-o, by which an independent commonwealth was established in Northern Italy, called the " Cisalpine Eepublic," and the city of Venice was ceded to Austria. 61. Bonaparte, after considerable persuasion, induced the Directory to consent to an expedition designed to conquer Egyiot, as a means of attacking the commerce and power of"" England in the East. Landing there with an immense army, he captured Alexandria, and then marched toward Cairo {hi'ro), Avhich, after defeating the Mamelukes in the noted "Battle of the Pyramids," he entered (1798).J: This gave him possession of the co untry; but a fe\v days after - * See Note 12, e,ul of Section. t See Kote^^ IJeeSote 14. 60 Whatcoiii^i^and^vasl^sto^w^d'^irN^^ the campaigns id I.Uv How did they end? What was tlie (7i^a/2>^n6i^6;J^W^cf^ 01 What account is given of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt? 310 FRAN"CE. [1800. ward, Nelson destroyed his fleet, in the memorable " Battle of the Nile," and thus cut off the retreat of the inyaders. 62. The Turkish empire having declared war against France, Bonaparte at once invaded Syria, captured Jaffa by assault, and cruelly caused 1200 Turkish prisoners to be put to death. He then laid siege to Ac7'e {a'/cer), but failed to capture it ; although he defeated the Turks with great slaughter at Mount Ta'hor. Eeturning to Egypt, he attacked and almost annihilated a considerable army of Turks at Aboukir [ah-oo-keer'), General Miirat (mu-raW), at the head of the French cavalry, particularly distinguishing himself in this obstinate battle (1799). Leaving his army with General Kleber (I'la-bdr), he then returned to France, and was received with unbounded enthusiasm by the people. 63. Meanwhile, a new coalition of the great powers of Erirope had been formed against France, and the Eussians under Su-war'roiv\i'dd gained several important victories in Italy. This made the Directory very unpopular, and Bona- parte took the opportunity of overturning the government at the point of the bayonet. A new constitution was then formed, and accepted by the people, according to which the executive power was vested in three Consuls, elected for ten years. Bonaparte was appointed First Consul (1799), and by his vigor and address introduced reforms in every department of the government. 61. The military operations were conducted Avith splen- did ability and success. The Austrians were defeated by General Morean {mo-ro') in the battle of Ho-lien-lin' den ; while Napoleon himself gained new laurels by his daring passage of the Alps, and by his brilliant victory over the Austrians at Ma-ren'go (1800). This compelled the empe- 62. What account is given of the Syrian expedition ? What victory was gained over the Turks ? Whom did Napoleon leave in Egypt ? 63. What made the Directory unpopular? Ho\v was a change in the govern- ment elTected ? What did Napoleon become ? 64. What victory was gained by Moreau ? By Napoleon ? What treaties were tiien made ? To what ofiftce was Napoleon elected ? When and how was he made emperor '? 1805.] FRA>^CE. 311 roi' to conclude the Treaty of Lune'vilU (1801), which was followed by the Treaty of Amiens, in which peace was made with Eii.i^land (1802). Bonaparte Avas next elected Consul for life; and, various conspiracies being formed against him, he determined still further to augment his power, and caused himself to be declared by the Legislature EmjJeror of the French (1804). 65. A short time after this, Moreau Avas banished for being concerned in a conspiracy against the government, and eleven of the other conspirators were put to death. Napoleon received the crown of France from the hands of the Pope; and subsequently caused himself to be crowned King of Italy, with the famous " iron crown" of the Lom- bards (1805). These assumptions of power led to another coalition against him, on the part of England, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Prussia ; but Xapoleon, with his ac- customed promptitude, marched against the Austrians, and succeeded in capturing a large army at Uhn (1805). This was soon followed by the decisive battle oi Aus'ter-litz,\Y). which the combined army of the Austrians and llussians were routed with overwhelming loss. The emperors of France, Austria, and Pussia were present at this battle, and the conditions of peace were at once agreed upon. The treaty was afterward concluded at Preshury, Austria making great sacrifices of territory. 66. Napoleon now took possession of Naples, and con- ferred the crown upon his brother Joseph. His brother Louis was made king of Holland ; and various principali- ties and duchies Avere bestowed upon his most eminent generals and ministers. He next formed a union of several states of Germany, Avhich Avas styled the " Confederation of the Rhine," and placed under his OA\ai control. Tliia 65. AA'ho was banished ? AATiat other crown did Napoleon obtain? AATiat co- alition wai? formed? AVhat victories were gained by Napoleon? AVhat is said of the battle of Austerlitz ? AAliat treaty was tlien made ? 66. AA'iiat crowns were bestowed by Napoleon upon his relatives and others? A\'hat was the " Confederation of the lihine ?"' What title did the emperor of Gfei- many assume? 312 FRA?TCE. [1807. was practically a dissolution of the empire of Germany ; and tlie emperor, accordingly, assumed, the title of EmjMror of Austria, relinquishing that of " Emperor of Germany and King of the Romans," which he had hitherto possessed. 07. These encroachments and usurpations led to a fourth coalition, consisting of Prussia, Russia, Austria, Great Britain, and Sweden, against the French empire. The Prussian monarch raised an immense army of 150,000 men, and commenced hostilities ; but Napoleon, Avith wonderful skill and promptitude, attacked and utterly defeated the Prussians, in the sanguinary battle of Je'na (1806). So complete was the victory, that the kingdom of Prussia lay at tlie mercy of the victor, who a few weeks afterward en- tered Ber-lin' in triumph. There, he issued his celebrated decree, declaring the British Isles in a state of blockade, and forbidding all commercial intercourse, on the part of any nation, with Great Britain or her colonies. 68. During the winter, he attacked the Russians at Eilau {i'loiv) ; but his army was repulsed with tremendous slaughter (January, 1807). Six months later, with an army of 200,000 men, he gained a victory over the Russians at Fried' land ; and thus was enabled to dictate terms of peace to the Russian emperor Alexander, at Til' sit. Peace was also made witli Prussia, on condition that she should give up the territory between the Rhine and Elbe rivers, which Napoleon bestowed on his brother Jerome, with the title of King of Westjihalia (1807). 69. Napoleon's commercial restrictions, as declared in the Berlin decree (called the Continental System), were not obeyed by Portugal, into wliich country British merclian- dise was freely admitted, and thence transported into Spain. He therefore ordered General Junot to invade Portugal and 67. What was the fourth coalition? Give an account of the battle of Jena? What were the consequences ? What decree was issued by Napoleon ? 68. What battles were fought with the Russian!^? To what treaty did the vic- tory of Frierlland lead ? What was given to Jerome Bonaparte ? 69. What country was invaded by the French ? Why ? What follo\ved ? Wh^t Qieasures did Napoleon adopt in regard to Sinviii ? 1809.] FRANCE. 313 take -possession of Lisbon ; and the prince regent was com- pelled to seek refuge with the British fleet in the Tagus, whence he sailed to Brazil, and fixed the seat of his gov- ernment in that country. Portugal was then declared a province of the French empire. Napoleon next determined to take possession of Spain ; and, after compelling its law- ful king to resign the crown, he conferred it upon his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, whom he had transferred from the throne of Naples. The latter throne he conferred on 3furat, who had married his sister (1808). 70. The people of Portugal and Spain were aroused to insurrection by these arbitrary measures ; and the British government resolved to aid them in their efforts to expel the invaders. The " Peninsular War" followed, which lasted nearly five years, and in which Wellington gained those re- splendent victories Avhich have already been referred to in the history of England. Meanwhile, hostilities were again resumed on the part of Austria, with armies which amount- ed, in the aggregate, to about 500,000 men. Napoleon, notwithstanding his iuferior forces, defeated the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, at Eck'niuld (1809), but was compellpd to fall back from his position after the bloody battle of As'2)ern. A week afterward, he gained a decisive victory at Wagram {wah'gram) ; after which the Austrian emperor was ol)liged to submit to terms of peace dictated by the victor (1800). 71. While these events were in progi*ess. Napoleon deposed the Pope (Pius VII.), and caused him to be imprisoned in France, on account of his refusal to concur in the Conti- nental System, and to recognize Murat as king of Naples. Having divorced liis faithful and virtuous wife Josephine, he next haughtily demanded the Austrian princess 3faria Louisa in marriage ; and so thoroughly had the Emperor 70. To what war did the seizure of Spain lead ? \A'hat battles were fought by Napoleon with the Austrians? What followed the victory at Wagram? 7 1 . What were the next measures of Napoieou ? What cities aiid territory were seized ? 14 314 FRANCE. [1812. Francis been subdued at Wagram, that he was compelled to give his assent; and the nuptials, accordingly, took place a short time afterward (1810). In order the more effectually to carry out his policy of commercial prohibition, he, in the same year, seized the Hanse toAvns, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubec, and annexed the northern coast of Germany to the French empire. 72. Difficulties having arisen with Sweden and Eussia, in consequence of the French emperor's arbitrary demands in the carrying out of the Continental System, the latter determined to iuA-ade Russia with an overwhelming force. Accordingly, in June, 1812, he set out Avith a splendidly equipped army of nearly 500,000 men, crossed the Niemen, and directed his march to Mos'cow, the ancient capital of the Russian empire. Arriving at Snio-lensk', he captured the city after a tremendous conflict, Avhich closed with the retreat of the Russians. About two weeks after this, he fought a desperate battle with the Russian army at Bor-o- di'no {i like e) ; but, although 45,000 of the enemy were either killed or wounded, he failed to destroy their army, and gained no decisive victory. His own losses had been immense (September 7). 73. Unable to defend Moscow, the Russians abandoned it, and the French entered it in triumph ten days after the battle of Borodino. But the city had been set on fire by the Russians, and the French vainly attempted to stop the conflagration. Nine-tenths of the whole city became a prey to the flames. This disconcerted the plans of Napo- leon, who had designed to pass the winter at Moscow; and as the Russians were menacing his communications with Smolensk, where his magazines and reserves had been left, he determined to retreat (October 19). 74. But the dreadful Russian winter soon commenced, 72. What led to the invasion of Russia? When was it commenced? What bill ties were foui^ht with the Russians? 73. Wlial city was entered by the French? Wliat compelled Napoleon to retreat ? 1813.] FRAI^CE. 315 and the French soldiers perished by thousands, of cold and famine.* To add to tlieir sufferings, they were constantly harassed by the Russian army, witli which tliey had sev- eral severe conflicts before reaching the Ber-c-suia River, where their passage was disputed by the Russians in strong force. The loss of life was frightful. Multitudes fell by the sabres of the Russians, but still larger numbers per- ished in the icy waters of the j-iver ; so that only 20,000 men remained to Napoleon of the splendid army with which he had set out. During these terrific scenes and conflicts, Marshal Key (ncl) had w^on for himself the ap- pellation of the " Bra\ ust of the Brave."f 75. After the dreadful passage of the Beresina, Napo- leon abandoned the army, and fled in disguise to Paris, wliere his arrival restored public confidence and courage ; and such were his extraordinary energy and the i-esources of the French nation, that, in the beginning of the next year (1813), he was enabled to resume operations with an army of 350,000 men, exclusive of his forces in Spain. Europe was once more allied against him ; but, on the fa- mous battle-ground of Lut'zen, he defeated the army of the allies, and triumphantly entered the city of Dresden. Two other battles were fought with indecisive results, after which he consented to an armistice. 76. But operations were soon resumed by the allies with an immense army ; and they attacked the French at Dres- den, but were repulsed with severe loss. Moreau, fighting on the side of the allies, was here mortally wounded (Ju- ly 2G). In October, the allies, with large re-enforcements, threatened Napoleon's communications, and compelled his retreat to Leip'sic, where the greatest conflict of the war ensued, the allied army amounting to about 250,000 * See Note 16, end of the Section. t See Note 17. 74 Describe the retreat, of the French. The passage of the Beresina. How naiiy were l-^ft of Napoleon's grand army ? V/hat was Marshal Ney called ? ■7 ,■> . What did Napoleon next do ? What army did he raise ? What battles were foiiu'ht? 76. Where were the French attacked? W^ith what result? Give an account of t)ie battle of Leipsic and its consequences. 816 FRANCE. [1815 men ; while that of Napoleon contained less than 150,000. This has been called the " Battle of the Nations." After a desperate struggle the French were compelled to retreat; and Napoleon's great conquests were at once lost. 77. Against the immense forces of the allies, Napoleon could now make no effectual resistance. Having defeated every army sent to impede their progress, they at last pene- trated into France, and entered Paris (March 31, 1814). Napoleon, who had fled from the city, was obliged to abdi- cate the throne of France as w^ell as of Italy, and to retire to the island of El'ha, of which he was to have the sover- eignty. Louis XVII. having died a prisoner in the Tem- ple, during the Reign of Terror, his uncle was declared king, under the title of Louis XVIII. (May 3, 1814). 78. The next year, while a Congress of the European powers was assembled at Vienna, to arrange and settle the affairs of Europe, they were suddenly surprised by the escape of Napoleon from Elba. Landing on the southern shore of France {at Cannes [Jcan^ ), he was at once re- ceived with enthusiasm by the troops ; and Marshal Ney, who had been sent to oppose his progress, having deserted to him, he once more entered Paris in triumph, and was greeted with acclamations of joy by all classes (March 20, 1815). Louis XVIII. having fled, Napoleon found himself again on the throne of France ; and in less than two months, an army was organized of over 200,000 men, ex- clusive of the National Guards. 79. Meantime, the allies had prepared for tliC impending conflict. Three vast armies were collected ; the first con- sisting of Austrians, under Prince Schwartz'en-berg; the second, of British, Germans, and Prussians, under Welling- ton and Blu'cher {hloo'ker) ; and the third, of Russians, 77. Wliat led to Napoleon's abdication? Where was he sent? Who was placed on the throne? 78. What Conj^ress was held ? What was accomplished by Napoleon ? 79. Wliat armies were collected to oppose him? What battle was fought/ What was the result ? To whom did Napoleon surrender ? 1821.] FRANCE. 317 iiuder the Emperor Alexander. Operations commenced on the 15th of Jnne; and, on the 18th, was fought the memorable battle of Wa'ter-loo, in which the army under Wellington repulsed the French, and drove them into irre- trievable retreat and ruin.* Napoleon fled to Paris; but finding that no further effort could be made to retrieve hia ruined fortunes, he surrendered hmiself to the commander of a British vessel of war, and was carried to England. 80. By agreement of the allied sovereigns, he was sent a captive to the little island of St. Ue-Wnciy where he arrived in October, 1815, and Avhere he continued to reside as a prisoner until his death, in 1821, at the age of 52 years. Such was the termination of this extraordinary career of ambition and conquest — the most extraordinary in the world's annals. From the ranks of private life, and a con- dition of total obscurity, this vv^onderful man, by his genius and force of character, lifted liimself above the greatest po- tentates on earth, to whom he gave laws as to his lowliest subjects. No one can read the details of his brilliant career without being dazzled by his achievements ; but, at the same time, all must be shocked at his entire indifference to human suffering. With the talents to have enabled him to confer the greatest blessings on his race, he chose to be its scourge, and sacrificed to his selfish schemes every principle of benevolence and rectitude. However mourn- ful, therefore, his f\ill may appear, it must be regarded as a just retribution for his cnmes; while it affords an impres- sive lesson on the vanity and instability of all human glory. In 1840, Napoleon's remains were transported from St. Helena to Paris, and there entombed with every possi- ble circumstance of splendor and solemnity. 81. Louis XVIII.— Soon after the bat'tle of Waterloo, Paris was entered by the allies, and the greater part of the * See Note 18, end of the Serlion. 80. What disposKion was made of him? When did he die? What is said of hit" character and conduct? 81. What measures were adopted by the Allies? Who were executed ? Whst were the chief events of the reign of Louis XVIII. ? Who succeeded him ? 318 FRANCE. L1830 French territory was occupied by foreign armies. Louis XVIII. was restored, and Marslial Ney, who had deserted to Napoleon, was shot as a traitor. The same year Murat, liaving made a rash attempt to regain the throne of Na- ples, was seized and put to death. The measures of the restored Bourbon dynasties of Spain and Italy, had been so tyrannical that insurrections broke out in those coun- tries. In Spain, the army, under General O'Boinell, sup- ported the liberal constitution, and Ferdmand, the king, was obliged to submit. Louis XVIII., by the persuasions of the allied sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, sent an army into Spain, to restore the supreme authority to Ferdinand ; and the constitutionalists having been de- feated, tlie liberal government was overturned (1823). Louis XVIII. died the next year (1824), and was suc- ceeded by his brother Cliarles, Count of Ar to is {ar'tiuali). 82. Charles X. — During this reign, the contests be- tween the ultra-royalist and liberal parties in the Chamber of Deputies, as the legislature was called, became very vio- lent; and Charles, taking sides Avith the former, adopted very arbitrary measures to enforce his views. The liberal party having secured a majority in the Chamber, the king caused the latter to be dissolved, altered the law of elec- tions, and suspended the liberty of the press. In conse- quence of these despotic measures, the people rose in insur- tion; and, after a contest of "three days," dispersed the royal guards and sacked the Tuileries. Lafayette was then appointed general of the National Guards; and the Chamber of Deputies, declaring the throne vacant, sum- moned Lou'is Phil'ippe (or loo'e fil-lee^)') to occupy it (1830). Cliarles took refuo-e in Eno-land. 83. Louis Philippe was the son of the infamous Duke of Orleans, who, as r/tilij) Egidiie, had shared in the ex- 82. Into what parties was the Chamber of Deputies divided ? Give ao account of tlie Second Revolution. What followed ? 83. What is related of the career of Louis Philippe? 1848.J FRANCE. 319 cesses of the Reyolution, and had become one of its many victims. Tlie new king, since that dreadful period, had suffered every variety of fortune, being an exile from his native land, and in a condition of privation and distress travelling or sojourning in foreign countries. He had spent some years in the United States. Now, by a strange re- vulsion of fortune, he was called to ascend the throne of his native country, from which he had been previously banished. 84. A charter of rights was agreed upon by the Chamber of Deputies, and accepted by the newly-elected king. His reign was, for several years, quite prosperous ; and the country advanced in education, commerce, and internal improvements. Louis Philippe, however, was very odious to the extreme republicans, and several attempts were made upon his life. He afterward became generally unpopular, by his opposition to the reforms which were demanded in the government, as well as by his avarice and his selfisli concern for the aggrandizement of his family. 85. An attempt to repress, by arbitrary prohibition, a re- form banquet appointed on Washington's birthday (Feb- ruary 22, 1848), excited an insurrection of the people, with whom the troops fraternized ; and Louis Philippe was com- pelled to flee. With much difficulty, he made his escape to England, where he died about two years afterward. One of the most important events of this reign was the con- quest oi Algei'ia (1847), after a long and sanguinary strug- gle on the part of the native tribes, under their leader AM-el Ka'der. 86.. After the flight of the king, a provisional govern- ment was instituted, consisting of seven members, among whom were La-mar-tine' and Ar'a-go, distinguished for their attainments in literature and science. France was 84. What were the lirs^t events of his reign? What made hira odious to the re- publicans '? How did lie become generally unpopular ? 8 5. What caused the flight of Louis Philippe ? What conquest had been made! 86. What followed the flight of the king ? Who was elected president ? 320 FRAN"CE. [1849. declared a republic, with the motto,." Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity ;" hereditary titles and distinctions of nobilit} were abolished, and a national assembly was called for the purpose of framing a constitution. The constitution after- ward adopted vested the government in a president, to be elected for four years, and a national assembly, to consist of 750 members. By the election which followed, Louis Napoleon was chosen, by an immense majority, first presi- dent of France (1848). 87. Louis Napoleon is the nephew of the Great Napo- leon, being the son of Louis Bonaparte and Hortense Beau- liarnais {ho-ar-7ia'), daughter of the Empress Josephine. During the reign of Louis Philippe, he had become noted for two attempts to obtain possession of the government by endeavoring to raise a revolt in his favor among the troops. One of these was at Strasburg, in 1836 ; and the other at Boulogne {hoo-lone'), in 1840. For the second he was con- demned to perpetual imprisonment, but succeeded in making his escape in 1846. These rash enterprises sub- jected him to considerable ridicule. 88. In the first year of his presidency, a revolution broke out in Rome, and the Pope (Pius IX.) fled to Gaeta {gah-a'- tali). Louis Napoleon having sent an army under General Oudinot {oo'de-no) to restore him to his government, the republicans under Gar-i-hdTdi w^ere entirely defeated, and Pius IX. returned to Rome the next year. Revolutions broke out in other parts of Italy, Avith similar want of suc- cess. 89. Difficulties arising between the president and the Assembly, the former determined to overturn the existing form of government, so as to obtain an increase of power. His measures were devised and executed with great adroit- ness. Having gained over the military, he seized and im- 8 7. Who is Louis Napoleon ? How had he made himself notorioaB ? 88. What events took place in Italy during his presidency? 89. What caused the overthrow of the government? 1859.] PRAKCE. 321 prisoned such of the members of the Assembly as were liostile to his yiews, as well as other distinguished citizens from whom he apprehended opposition. He then sup- pressed the newspapers, and proclaimed a dissolution of the Assembly and Council of State (Dec, 1851). 90. A despotic constitution sketched by Louis ]N"apoleon was accepted by the people, and he was elected president for a term of ten years. A short time after this, he obtained the passage of a decree by the Senate, declaring him he- reditary Emperor ; and this decree was ratified by the popu- lar sufirages. JS'apoleon Bonaparte's son by Maria Louisa {Napoleon II.) having died, Louis Napoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III. Thus was effected one of the most disgraceful usurpations recorded in history, by means of a dishonorable stratagem which has been dignified by the name oiconp cVetat {koO'detaW) — i. e. stroke of state p)olicy. 91. In 1854, the French united with the English in the Eussian War, and under Marshal Pelissier (pa-lis-se-a) acquired the glory of the final storming of the tremendous fortresses of Sebastopol. In 1859, war having arisen be- tween Austria and Sardinia, the French empwor formed an alliance with th^ latter, and took the field in person in Northern Italy. Austria sufiered disastrous defeats at 3Ia- aen'ta and Sol-fer-i'no ( i like e ), and by the treaty of Vil'- lafran'ca was obliged to relinquish possession of Lombardy. In 1862, a French army occupied Mexico; and, on the invitation of Napoleon, Arclidiike Maximilian, of Austria, took the throne as emperor of that country. His govern- ment was, however, soon overturned, and he himself was shot by the insurgent general (1867). 92. The preservation of the Papal power in Italy from the attacks of Garibaldi and his republican associates 90. In what way did Louis Napoleon become emperor of France? What title dill iie a>=:iiime ? Why ? What is called the coup d'etat ? 91 What were the chief events of Napoleon III.'s reign ? 92. What else is remarked of his policy? What progress has been made bj t ranee during his reign ? 14* 322 FKAKCE. was a striking feature of the Emperor's policy, which in its general character was strongly on the side of absolutism as opposed to the spread of liberal principles and the establishment of democratic governments. Under his sway, France, tliough kept under severe restraint by the imperial power, made great and rapid strides in every de- partment of national well-being ; and her internal improve- ments and progress in commerct^ and manufactures, were unsurpassed by those of any of the great nations of the civilized world. 93. In 1870, war was declared by France against Ger- many; and the French armies, under Marshals McMahon and Bazaine, marched to the Khine. But the States of the North German Confederation, as well as the South German States, with perfect unanimity, joined all their forces under King William of Prussia, to repel the in- vaders; and immense armies, splendid in discipline and equipment, were promptly concentrated near the east bank of the Rhine, under the Prussian monarch, aided by Von Moltke and other generals. 94. In tlie first conflicts, McMahon was defeated and driven into retreat; but he took up a strong position at Sedan. Here was fought a great and decisive battle, on the 1st of September ; and the French, driven from their position and surrounded, were compelled to surrender. More than 80,000 men laid down their arms, and Napo- leon himself became a prisoner. While a part of the German army marched on Paris, and invested that city, Bazaine was shut up in Metz, where, on the 21st of Octo- ber, he surrendered his army of 173,000 men prisoners of war. 95. Paris held out until January 28, 1871, when it yielded, and was occupied by the German forces. Mean- while, Napoleon being a prisoner, the French Republic had been declared, and Thiers was elected president. Soon FRANCE. 323 afterward an insurrection broke out in Paris, supported by the Commune, which Listed several months, during which the insurgents committed many acts of atrocity and violence. It was put down in May, 1871. On this, finding it impossible to reconcile the hostile frictions, Thiers re- si State, as far as you can, who each one was 189-290-294-295 DO. Which of the kings of France were fcxecated ? 142— 32;i NOTES. 1. Defeat of Francis I. at Pavia (p. 289, 119).— "The ront became uuiversal; and I'esistance ceased iu almost every part, but where the king was in person, who fought now not lor fame or victory, but for safety. Though wouuded in several places, and thrown from his horse, which was killed vinder him, Fran- cis defended himself on foot with an heroic courage. Many of his bravest officers gathering around him, and endeavoring to save his life at the expense of their own, fell at his feet. Among these was Bonnivet, the author of this great calamity, who alone died uulameuted. The king, exhausted with fatigue, and scarcely capa- ble of further resistance, was lelt almost alone, exposed to the lury of some Spanish soldiers, strangers to his rank, and enraged at his obstinacy. At that moment came up Pomperant, a French gentleman, who had entered together with Bourbon into the emperor's service, and placing himself by the side of the monarch against whom he had rebelled, assisted in protecting him from the violence of the soldiers; at the same time beseechiug him to surrender to Bourbon, who was not far distant. Imminent as the danger was which now surrounded Francis, he re- jected with indignation the thought of an action which would have afforded such matter of triumph to his traitorous subject, and calling for Launoy, who happened likewise to be near at hand, gave up his sword to him, which he, kneeling to kiss the king's hand, received with profound respect; and taking his own sword from his side, presented it to him, saying, ' That it did not become so great a monarch to remain disarmed in the presence of one of the emperor's subjects.' Ten thousand men fell on this day, one of the most fatal France had ever seen. Among these were many noblemen of the highest distinction, who chose rather to perish than to turn their backs with dishonor. Not a few were taken prisoners, of whom the most illustrious was Henry d'Albret, the unfortunate King of Navarre. A small body of the rearguard made its escape, under the command of the Duke of Alen- yon. The feeble garrison of Milan, on the first news of the defeat, retired without being pursued, by another road ; and in two weeks after the battle, not a French- man remained in Italy." — Robertson's Charles the Fifth. 2. Sack of Home by tlie Imperialists (p. 289, If 11).— "It is im- possible to describe, or even to imagine, the misery and horror of the scenes which followed. Whatever a city taken by storm can dread from military rage unrestrained by discipline; whatever excesses the ferocity of the Germans, the avarice of the Spaniards, or the licentiousness of the Italians could commit, these the wretched inhabitants were obliged to suffer. Churches, palaces, and the houses of private persons, were plundered without distinction. No age, or character, or sex was exempt fx'om injury. Cardinals, nobles, priests, matrons, virgins, were all the prey of soldiers, and at the mercy of men deaf to the voice of humanity. Nor did these outrages cease, as is usual in towns which are carried by assault, when the first fury of the storm was over. The imperialists kept possession of Rome sev- ei-al months; and, during all that time, the insolence and brutality of the soldiers hardly abated. Their booty in ready money alone amounted to a million of duc- ats; what they raised by ransoms and exactions far exceeded that siun. Eome, though taken several times by the northern nations, who overran the empire iu the fifth and sixth centuries, was never treated with so much cruelty by the bar- barous and heathen Huns, Vandals, or Goths, as now by the subjects of a Catholic monarch." — Robertson. 3. Battle of St. Queiitin (p. 291, H 16).— " A deadly blow was struck to the very heart of France. The fruits of all the victories of Francis and Henry KOTES. ■withered. The battle, with others which were to follow it, won by the same hand, were soon to compel the signature of the most disastrous treaty which had ever disgraced the history of France. The fame and power of the Constable faded —his misfortunes and captivity fell like a blight upon the ancient glory of the house of Montmorency — his enemies destroyed his influence and popularity — while the degradation of the kingdom was simultaneous with the downfall of his Illustrious name. On the other hand, the exultation of Philip was as keen aa his cold and stony nature would permit. The magnificent palace-convent of the Escurial, dedicated to the saint on whose festival the battle had been fought, and built in the shape of a gridiron, on which that martyr had suffered, was soon after- wards erected in pious commemoration of the event." — Motley-— Rise of the Dutch Repubiic. 4. France at the Death of Henry IV. (p. 296, H 29).—" Though great advances were made in France during this reign, it was still far from that state of civilization which it attained a century afterwards. It contained about fifteen millions of inhabitants, and Paris about one hundred and fifty thousand. The nobles were numerous and powerful, aud engrossed the wealth of the nation. The people were not exactly slaves, but were reduced to great dependence, were uneducated, degraded, and enjoyed but few political or social privileges. They were oppressed by the government, by the nobles, and by the clergy. The king was nearly absolute. The parliament was a judicial tribunal, which did not enact laws, but only registered the edicts of the king. Commerce and manufactures were extremely limited, and far from flourishing; and the arts were in an infant state. Architecture, the only art in which half-civilized nations have excelled, was the most advanced, and was displayed in the chxirches and royal palaces. Paris was crowded with uncomfortable houses, and the narrow streets were favor- able to tumult as well as pestilence. Tapestry was the most common and the most expensive of the arts, and the hangings on a single room often reached a sum which would be equal, in these times, to one hundred thousand dollars. The floors of the palaces were spread with Turkey carpets. Chairs were used only in kings* palaces, and carriages were but just introduced, and were clumsy and awk- ward. Mules w'ere chiefly used in traveling, the horses being reserved for war. Dress, especially of females, was gorgeous and extravagant; false hair, masks, trailed petticoats, and cork heels ten inches high, were some of the peculiarities. The French, then, as now, were fond of the pleasures of the table, and the hour for dinner was eleven o'clock. Morals Avere extremely low, and gaming was a uni- versal passion, in which Henry IV. extravagantly indulged." — Lord' s Modern His- tory. 5. Effect of IWarlborougli's Victories (p. 301, IT 42).—" The victories of Malplaquet, Ramilies, and Blenheim, broke the military power of France; and it wa:* only by a change of ministry in England, brought about by the agency of Abigail Masham, Queen Anne's waiting-woman, that Marlborough's apparitiou upon the heights of Montmartre was prevented. Louis obtained a peace much more favorable to France than her ruler had a right to expect; but the false glitter of his reign was efl'aced, and, as the phantasm of glory faded from before the eyes of the French people, they awoke to a sense of the incalculable evils of a reigu which, having endured seventj'-two years, left the country, after all its prodigious expenditure of blood and treasure, in debt to the then almost fabulous amount of £140,000.000 sterling. Louis XIV., once so idolized, expired amidst the scarcely suppressed murmurs and execrations of his subjects, bequeathing an inheritance of danger and difficulty to his successor, which nothing but the wisest fore- KOTES. bought, the most consummate prudence, could hope to dissipate or overcome."^ Chambers. — The Bourbon Family. 6. Death ol' Louis XIV, (p. 302, IT 43).— "At eight o'clock on the follow- ing morning, Louis XIV. expired. As he exhaled his last sigh, a man was seen to approach a window of the State apartment which opened on the great balcony, and throw it suddenly back. It was the captain of the body-guard, who had no sooner attracted the attention of the populace, by whom the courtyard was thronged in expectation of the tidings which they knew could not be long delayed, than, raising his truncheon above his head, he broke it in the center, and throwing the pieces among the crowd, exclaimed, in a loud voice, 'The king is dead!' Then, seizing another staff from an attendant, without the pause of an instant, he flourished it in the air as he shouted, 'Long live the king!' And a multitudinous echo from the depths of the lately deserted apartment answered as buoyantly, ' Long live the king!' " — Pardoe's Louis XIV. 7. ITlarie Antoinette (p. 304, U 47).— "Meanwhile the fair young Queen, iu her halls of state, walks like a goddess ot Beauty, the cynosure of all eyes; as yet mingles not with affairs; heeds not the future; least of all, dreads it. Weber and Campan have pictured her there within the royal tapestries, in bright boudoirs, baths, peignoirs, and the Grand and Little Toilet; with a whole brilliant world wait- ing obsequious on her glance: fair young daughter of Time, what things has Time in store for thee ! Like Earth's brightest Appearance, she moves gracefully, envi- roned with the grandeur of Earth: a reality, and yet a magic vision; for, behold shall not utter Darkness swallow it ? "—Carlijle's French Revolution. 8. States-General of 1789 (p. 304, 1149).— "No event ever interested Europe so much as the meeting of the States-General in 1789. There was no enlightened man who did not found the greatest hopes upon that public struggle of prejudices with the lights of the age, and who did not believe that a new moral and political world was about to issue from the chaos. The besoin of hope Avas so strong that all faults were pardoned, all misfortunes were represented only as acci- dent ; in spite of all the calamities which it induced, the balance leaned always towards the Constituent Assembly. It was the struggle of humanity with despot- ism. The States-General, six weeks after their convocation, was no longer the States-General, but the National Assembly. Its first calamity was to have owed its new title to a revolution; that is to say, to a vital change in its power, its essence, its name, and its means of authority. According to the C(mstitutiou the com- mons should have acted in conjunction with the nobles, the clergy, and the king. But the commons in the very outset, subjugated the nobles,the clergy, and the king. It was in that that the Revolution consisted." --Dumont's Recollections of Mirabeati. 9. Robespierre (P- 308, 1157). — " Maxi milian Robespierre was born at Arras, of a poor family, honest and respectable; his father, who died in Germany, was of English origin. This may explain the shade of Puritanism in his character. The Bishop of Arras had defrayed the cost of his education. Young INIaximilian had distinguished himself on leaving college, by a studious life and austere manners. Litei-ature and the bar shared his time. The philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau had made a profound impression upon his understanding; that philosophy, falling upon an active imagination, had not remained a dead letter; it had become in him a leading principle, a faith, a fanaticism. Robespierre was the Luther of politics; and in obscurity he brooded over the confused thoughts of a renovation of the social Avorld, and the religious world, as a dream which unavailingly beset his youth, when the Revolution came to offer him what destiny always offers to those who watch her progress— opportunity. He seized on it. He was named deputy KOTES. of the third estate in the States-Geueral. Alone, perhaps, among all these men who opened at Versailles the first scene of this vast drama, he foresaw the termination; like the soul, whose seat in the human frame philosophers have not discovered, the thought of an entire people sometimes concentrates itself in the individual, the least known in the great mass."— Lamartine.— History of the Girondists. 10. Reign of Terror (p. 308, IT 58).—" Night and day the cars incessantly ' discharged victims into the prison; weeping mothers and trembling orphans were thrust in without mercy with the brave and the powerful; the young, the beauti- ful, the unfortunate, seemed in a peculiar manner the prey of the assassins. Nor were the means of evacuating the prisons augmented in a less fearful progression. Filteen only were at first placed on the chariot, but their number was soon aug- mented to thirty, and gradually rose to eighty persons who daily were sentforth to the place of execution; when the fall of Robespierre put a stop to the murders, arrangements had been made for increasing it to one hundred and fifty. An im- mense aqueduct, to remove the gore, had been dug as far as the Place St. Antoine (plahs sang ahntwahn) ; and four men were daily employed in emptying the blood of the victims into that reservoir. It was at three in the afternoon when the melan- choly procession set out from the Conciergerie; the troop passed slowly through vaulted passages of the prison, amid crowds of captives who gazed with insatiable avidity on the aspect of those about to undergo a fate which might so soon become their own. The higher orders, in general, behaved with firmness and serenity; silently they marched to death, with their eyes fixed on the heavens, lest their looks should betray their indignation. Numbers of the lower class piteously be- wailed their fate, and called heaven and earth to witness their innocence."— ^Wso?i. ^History of Europe. 11. Kobespierre and liis Associates (p. 308, H 58).— "This combina- tion of wicked men had filled France with terror. By them opulent cities were overturned ; the inhabitants of the communes decimated, the country impover- ifihed by means of absurd and terrible regulations ; agriculture, commerce, and the arts destroyed ; the foundations of every species of property shaken ; and all the youth of the kingdom driven to the frontiers, less to uphold the integrity of France than to protect themselves against the just vengeance which awaited them both with- in and without. All bowed the neck before this gigantic assemblage of wickedness ; virtue resigned itself to death or dishonor. There was no medium between falling the victims of such atrocities or taking a part in them. A universal disquietude, a permanent anxiety settled over the realm of France ; energy appeared only in the ex- tremity of resignation : it was evident that every Frenchman preferred death "to the effort of resistance, and that the nation would submit to this horrid yoke -is long as it pleased the Jacobins to keep on."— Dumont. 12. Execution of Kobespierre (p. 309, IT 59).— "When Robespierre ascended the fatal car, his head was enveloped in a bloody cloth, his color was livid, and his eyes sunk. When the procession came opposite his house, it stopped, and a group of women danced round the bier of him whose chariot-wheels they would have dragged the day before over a thousand victims. Robespierre mounted the scaffold last, and the moment his head fell, the applause was tremendous. In some cases the event was announced to the prisoners by the waving of handker- chiefs from the tops oihonses."—nazlitt. 13. Napoleon at Liodi (p. 309, IT 60).— "This battle, which he used to call « The terrible passage of the bridge of Lodi,' carried his lame to the highest pitch, while the great personal bravery he displayed in it endeared him to the troops. The men who cannot always appreciate military genius and science, know perfectly NOTES. well how to estimate courage, and they soon idolize a commander that shows himself ready to share in their greatest dangers. It was on this occasion that the soldiers gave Bonaparte the honorary and affectionate uick-name of 'the Little Corporal.' He was then slight in figure, and had almost an effeminate appearance. « It was a strange sight,' says a French veteran, ' to see him on that day on loot on thebridge, tinder a ftu d'enfer, and mix'^d up with our tall grenadiers— he looked like a little boy.' " — Bourienne's Memoirs. 14. JBatlleoftlie Pyramids (p. 309, IT 61).— On the 21st of July, the French army set itself in march before daybreak. It knew that it should soon come in sight of Cairo, and encounter the enemy. At dawn of day, it at last discovered on its left and on the other side of the river, the lofty minarets of that great capital, and on its right, in the desert, the gigantic Pyramids, gilded by the sun. At sight of these monuments, it halted, as if seized with curiosity and admiration. The face of Bonaparte beamed with enthusiasm. He began to gallop before the ranks of the soldiers, and pointing to the Pyramids, ' Consider,' he exclaimed, ' that from the summits of thosa Pyramids, forty centuries have their eyes fixed upon you!' They advanced at a quick step. They saw, as they advanced, the minarets of Cairo shooting up ; they saw the Pyramids increase in height; they saw the swarming multitudes which guarded Embabeh ; they saw the glistening arms of the ten thousand horsemen, resplendent with gold and steel, and forming an immense line. Bonaparte immediately made his dispositions, * * * He immediately gave the signal. Desaix, who formed the right, first set himself in march. Mourad Bey resolved to charge during the decisive movements of the French. He left two thou- sand Mamelukes to support Embabeh, and then rushed with the rest on the two squares upon the right. That of Desaix, having got among some palm-trees, waa not yet formed, when the first horsemen came up to it ; but it formed instantane- ously, and was ready to receive the charge. It is an enormous mass that is com- posed of eight thousand horse, galloping all at once in a plain. They bore down with extraordinary impetuosity upon Desaix's division. Our brave soldiers, who had become as cool as they had formerly been fiery, waited for them calmly, and received them at the muzzle of their guns with a tremendous fire of musketry and grape. Checked by this fire, these innumerable horsemen hovered along the ranks, and galloped around the blazing citadel. Some of the bravest threw themselves on the bayonets, then, turning their horses, and backing them upon our infantry, they succeeded in making a breach, and thirty or forty penetrated to the very center of the square, where they expired at the feet of Desaix." — Thiers — History of the French Revolution. 15. Charge of tlie Mamelukes (p. 309, H 61).— "Nothing in war was ever seen more desperate than the charge of the Mameluke cavalry. Failing to force their horses through the French squares, individuals were seen to wheel them round, and rein them back on the ranks, that they might disorder them by kick- ing. As they became frantic with despair, they hurled at the phalanxes which they could not break, their pistols, their poniards, and their carbines. Those who fell wounded to the ground dragged themselves on, to cut at the legs of the French with their crooked sabres. But their efforts were all in vain." — Scott's Life oj Napoleon. 16. The Retreat of the French from Moscow (p. 375,11 74).— " On the 6th of November, the Paissiau winter set in with unwonted severity. Cold fogs first rose from the surface of the ground, and obscured the heretofore unclouded face of the sun; a few flakes of snow next began to float in the atmos- phere, and filled the army with dread; gradually the light of day declined, and a KOTES. thick, murky darkness overspread the firmament. The wind rose, and soon blew with frightful violence, howling through the forests, or sweeping over the plains with resistless fury. The snow fell in thick and continued showers, which soon covered the earth with an impenetrable clothing, confounding all objects together, and leaving the army to wander in the dark through an icy desert. Great num- bers of the soldiers, in struggling to get forward, fell into hollows or ditches which were concealed by the treacherous siirface, and perished miserably before the eyes of their comrades; others were swallowed up in the mDviug hills, which, like the sands of the desert, preceded the blast of death. To fall was certain de- struction; the severity of the tempest speedily checked respix'ation; and the snow accumulating around the sufferer soon formed a little sepulcher for his remains. The road, and the fields in its vicinity, were rapidly strewed with these melan- choly eminences; and the succeeding columns found the surface rough and almost impassable, for the multitude of these icy mounds that lay upon their route."— Alison. — History of Eurox>e. 17, Character of Marshal Ney (p. 315, If 74).— '-The great character- istic of Marshal JSey was his impetuous courage, which gained for him, even among the giants of the era of Napoleon, the suruaine of the 'Bravest of the Brave.' This remarkable characteristic is thus described in the Memoirs pub- lished by his family: 'It is well known with what power and energy he could rouse the masses of the soldiers, and precipitate them upon the enemy. Vehe- ment and impetuous when heading a charge, he was gifted with the most impertur- bable sang froid when it became necessary to sustain its movements. Dazzled by the luster of that brilliant valor, many persons have imagined that it was the only illustrious quality which the Marshal possessed; but those who were nearer his person, and better acquainted with his character, will concede to him greater qualities than the enthusiasm which captivates and subjugates the soldier. Calm in the midst of a stoi'm of grape-shot — imperturbable amid a shower of balls and sliells, Ney seemed to be ignorant of danger; tJ have nothing to fear from death. This rashness, which twenty years of perils had not diminished, gave to his mind the liberty, the promptitude of judgment and execution, so necessary in the midst of tbe complicated movements of war. This quality astonislied those who sur- rounded him, more even than the courage in action which is more or less felt by all who are habituated to the dangers of war." — Alison's Miscellaneous Es-ays. 18. Battle of Watea-loo (p. 317, H 79).— "Waterloo moreover is the strang- est encounter in history. Napoleon and Wellington— they are not enemies, they are opposites. Never has God, who takes pleasure in antitheses, made a more strik- ing contrast and a more extraordinary meeting. On one side, precision, foresight, geometry, prudence, retreat assured, rei^erves economized, obstinate composure, imperturbable method, strategy to profit bj' the ground, tactics to balance bat- talions, carnage drawn to the line, was directed, watch in hand, nothing left vol- untarily to chance, ancient classic courage, absolute correctness ; on the other, intuition, inspiration, a military marvel, a superhuman iustinct; a flashing glance, a mysterious something which gazes like the eagle, and strikes like the thunderbolt, prodigious art in disdainful impetuosity, all the mysteries of a deep soul, intimacy with Destiny; river, plain, forest, hill, commanded and in some sort forced to obey, the despot going even so far as to tyrannize over the battle-field; faith in a star joined to strategic science,. increasing it, but disturbing it. Wellington was the Barreme of war, Napoleon was its Michael Angelo; and this time genius was vanquished by calculation."— Fic^o/- Hugo. S2G EUROPEAiq" STATES. [153; SECTION III. EuROPEAi^ States. 1. The history of the States of Southern and Central Europe, down to the latter part of the fifteenth century, has been given in connection ^vith the history of the Middle Ages. The more northern states, having a later origin, have not as yet been treated of. A brief outline of the history of each of the European States is given in this section. Germais^y, From tJie Accession of Maximilian. 2. The reign oi Maximilian (1493-1519) is noted for the commencement of the preaching of Martin Luther against the doctrines of the Church of Kome (1517). Charles V., who succeeded Maximilian, his grandfather, was one of the greatest monarchs of ancient or modern times. He had l:)ecome King of Spain by hereditary right, pre,vious to his election as Emperor of Germany; and was, besides, ruler over Austria, the Netherlands, and Naples. His contests with Francis I. of France have been already sLetched. 3. The other interesting events of his reign are his con- flicts with the Turks, his defeat of the pirate Bar-da-ros' sa at Tunis (1535), and his repeated contests wirli the Prot- estants. This name was first given to the followers of Luther at Spire, on account of their protest against the decree passed by the representatives of the Catholic States 1. What portion of the histoiy is contained in this section ? 2. For what is the reiLrn of Maximilian noted? What is? said (^f Charles V. ? 3. What are tlie mos^t interestin<^ events of his rcii^i ? What is the oriijin of the name Protestants f What is said of the "Confession of Angsbnrg?" Of the ••League of Sraalcalde?" Wliat was the effect of the latter? Where is Aug-s- hurg ? {Ans. In Germany— Map, No. 7.) IIo\r was protestantism secured ? Wha{ oocurred in 1556 ? 1629.] EUROPEAIf STATES. 327 (1529). At Augsburg they published their Confession of Faith, which was drawn up by Me-lanc'tUon (1530), and signed by the Protestant princes. The hitter, after the con- demnation of the " Confession of Augsburg" by the Diet, formed, for their defence, the famous "League of Smal' cal-de." This firm stand on the part of the supporters of the new doctrines compelled Charles to relax the severity of his measures against them. Protestantism was secured by the efforts of Maurice of Saxony, resulting in the treaty of Passau (1552). Charles V. abdicated the throne in 1556, and was succeeded by his brother Ferdinand. 4. The next important event in the history of Germany is the " Thirty Years' War," which commenced in 1G18, in Bohemia, on account of the attempt of the king {Ferdinand) to extinguish Protestantism within his domin- ions. During the progress of this outbreak in Bohemia, Ferdinand was elected Emperor of Germany ; but the Bo- hemians chose Frederic, Elector-palatine, son-in-law of James I. of England. Frederic being defeated in the battle of Prague, was obliged to flee ; and the Bohemians were punished without mercy (1620). This is considered the first period of the war. 5. Frederic's general, Mansfeldt, held out for a time against the imperial generals Til'ly and Wal'len-ste'm ; and succeeded in gaining the assistance of Christian IV., king of Denmark. The latter was defeated by Tilly; and Wal- len stein invaded and took possession of nearly the whole of Denmark. A defeat sustained by Wallenstein at Stral- smid* afterward compelled the emperor to grant peace to Christian IV., on condition of his deserting the Protestant cause (1629). This ended the second j^eriod of the war. 6. The next year (1630), by the intrigues of Richelieu^ * Striihund is a strongly fortified town of Prussia, on the Baltic Sea. 4. What led to the TJiirty Years' War? Give au account of i\i(i fijst period of it. 5 . Give au account of the second period. 328 EUROPEAN- STATES. [1648. Wallenstein, the greatest of the imperial generals, was dis- missed; and Gustavus Adol^jhus, King of Sweden, was in- duced to enter the contest as the cliampion of the Prot- estant cause. With a small, but finely disciplined army, he invaded Germany, and passed triumphantly through the country, having defeated Tilly in a great battle near Leip- sic (IGol). Tilly being slain soon afterward, the emperor was obliged to recall Wallenstein, who by his skilful opera- tions soon retrieved the imperial cause. In 1632, occurred the memorable battle of Lutzeiiy in which the Protestants triumphed, but with the loss of their great leader Gustavus (1G32). Soon after this, Wallenstein, being accused of trea- son, was assassinated by the command of the emperor (1634). This ended the third jjeriod of the war. 7. Richelieu now directly took part in the struggle on the side of the Protestants, allying France with Sweden, Holland, and the Protestant states of Germany against his implacable foe, the House of Austria. During the remain- der of the war, the imperial cause declined, through the in- fluence of Richelieu's masterly diplomacy and energetic military operations. The Emperor Ferdinand II. died in 1637, and Richelieu, in 1642 ; but the war lingered on six years longer. The peace of Westphalia established the re- ligious independence of the Protestant states, made Hol- land and Switzerland free, increased the territories of France, and stripped the German empire of very much of its ancient power and splendor (1648). 8. The long reign of the emperor Leopold I. (1658- l'/05) was principally occupied in wars with the Turks and witn France. The former, in 1683, penetrated to the heart of the empire, and laid siege to Vienna, from which Le'o- 6. What caused the intervention of Gusta\'us Adolphus ? Give an account of the third period of this war. 7. Wha't was the effect of Richelieu's intervention? How did the war end? What were the terms of tlie treaty of Westphalia ? When was it made ? 8. With what was the reign of Leopold I. occupied? What was done by tht Turks ? By whom were they defeated and expelled ? In what other wars v at Germany involved ? What is said of Prince Eugene ? 1745.] EUROPEAN" STATES. 329 pold was compelled to flee. Through the courao-e and ad- dress of the celebrated Polish king, Jolui So'hi-es-hi, the city was relieved, and the Turks were obliged to retreat to their own dominions. Germany was involved in the wars caused by the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV. of France; and several brill: ant yictoi'ies were gained in her interest by her illustrious general, Prince Eugene, who, as has been already stated, participated in the great battles fought during the "War of the Spanish Succession, at Blenheim, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. 9. Prince Eugene also gained several important victories over the Tuiks, of which the greatest were that of Zeiita, in Hungary (1697) ; and that of Bel-grade' (1717), the lat- ter resulting in an immense loss to the Turks, including the city itself, over whicli, as being the key of Hungary, very many severe conflicts had taken place between the Austrian and Ottoman forces. Charles VI., who reigned from 1711 to 1740, was the last of the male line of the Hapsburgs ; and his death was followed by disputes which led to the famous War of the i^.ustrian Succession. 10. In this war, Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, joined the enemies of Maria Theresa, in their attempt to deprive her of her dominions ; and the elector of Bavaria, assuming the imperial throne, under the title of Charles VII., and being assisted by France, advanced to Vienna, and compelled her to flee to Hungary. The Hungarians drew their swords enthusiastically in her favor, and Charles VII. was forced to retreat. The latter died in 1745 ; and Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, the husband of Maria Theresa, was elected emperor, under the title of Francis I. 11. The r.ngn of Francis I. was distinguished by the 9. Wliat victories over the Turks' were gained by Prince Eugene? What is paid of Belgrade ? What line ended with Charles YI. ? What war followed ? 10. Give an account of the '• War of the Austrian Succession." Who became emperor in 1745 ? 11. For what was the reign of Francis I. distinguished? What raised the " Seven Years' War V 330 EUKOPEAK STATES. [1815. great " Seven Years' War"^\\\\ch. broke out eight years after the Treaty of Aix-hi-Chapelle (1756). Great Britain and France quarrelled about their colonial possessions in North America ; Austria was eager to regain the territories which Frederick of Prussia had conquered during the previous war ; and the Empress of Eussia was desirous of curbing the pride and ambition of the Prussian monarch. Poland and Sweden joined Eussia ; and thus Frederick, whose only ally was Great Britain, had to contend against five great states. 12. The Prussian king was, however, the greatest general of his age ; and the many splendid victories which he gained with his small but highly-disciplined army, illus- trate, in a very striking manner, to what an extent the genius of a military commander can triumph over superior numbers. This war was closed by the Treaty of Paris, in 17G3. 13. During the reign of Francis II. (1792-1835), occurred the great wars with Napoleon, the result of which was, that the Empire was dissolved in 1806, after an existence of more than a thousand years. Most of the states were formed into the " Confederation of the Ehine ;" and Austria became an hereditary empire, over which Francis continued to rule until his death in 1835. 14. After the defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, in 1814, the Confederation of the Ehine was dissolved ; and, in 1815, the Congress of Vienna formed the " Germanic Confedera- tion," consisting of 39 states, of which the central assem- bly, or Diet, held its sessions at Frankfort on the Mayne {mine). Subsequently, the peace of Germany was much -disturbed by the repeated contests of Austria and Prussia for supremacy in the affairs of tlie Confederacy. During the revolutionary period of 1848-9, the King of Prussia, 1 2. What was accomplished by Frederick the Great ? 1 3. What distinguished the reign of Francis II. ? What took place in 1S06 T 14. What change occurred in the constitution of Germany in 1814 and 1815^ How was the quiet of Germany disturbed ? What occurred in 1849 ? 1849.] EUEOPEAN^ STATES. 331 wliose policy had been to give greater unity to Germany, obtained, by a vote of half the states, the title of Em^jeror of the Germans ; but to this the other states would not consent. 15. The " Six Weeks' War" of 1866 gave to Prussia that leading control in Germany for which she had so long con- tended. In June of that year, war was declared against Austria by Prussia and Italy ; by the latter, to obtain pos- session of the Venetian territories. The Italians were de- feated; but the Prussians, under the command of their king ( William L), invaded Bohemia, and in the battle oi Sad'o-tva, defeated with great loss the Austrian s, under Marshal Benedek. By the treaty which soon followed, Austria was excluded from the Germanic Confederation ; and Prussia, after incorporating with her own dominions some of the states, formed of those north of the Mayne, with herself, the North German Confederation. After the German- French war of 1870, a union of all the states, north and south, was formed; and in January, 1871, the German Empire was re-established, with King William at its head. 16. Austria. — Austria, after its organization as a sepa- rate empire in 1806, continued to be involved in the great conflict with Napoleon, in which she suffered terrible disas- ters. The great defeat at Wagram left her powerless ; and the Emperor Francis was obliged to submit to the humilia- tion of accepting the victorious Corsican as his son-in-law (1810). Since the settlement of affairs by the Congress of Vienna, the most noted events in the history of the Austrian empire have been the unsuccessful revolt of Hungary, in which Kossuth {kos-shoot') took so distinguished a part (1849), and the wars waged with Prussia and Italy. Since then, concessions have been made to Hungai-y, and en- larged rights of representation granted. The present title of the united nation is the Austr o- Hungarian Monarchy {1%!^). 15. Give an account of the " Six Weeks' War ? Subsequent history ? 1 6. Give a sketch of the history of Austria since 1806. 332 EUROPEAN STATES. [1701. Prussia. 17. Prussia derives its name from tlie Bo-rus'si, a fierce and warlike tribe of the Slavonic race, who early settled on the lands bordering on the Baltic Sea. In the first part of the eleventh century they were i:»artially subdued by Bo- les'las, king of Poland ; but, for more than two centuries, they resisted every eff'ort made to convert them to Chris- tianity. This was finally established among them by means of the crusade carried on against them by the Knights of the Teutonic Order,* during more than fifty years. The country remained under the government of the Knights for about two centuries, when it became partly dependent upon the great kingdom of Poland (1462). 18. The Duchy of Brau'clen-Mrg, a part of these Prus- sian territories, became, in 1640, the nucleus of the present kingdom of Prussia, through the efforts of Frederick Wil- liam, styled the Great Elector. From Poland he obtained a recognition of his claim to the Duchy of Prussia, which had been hitherto possessed by that kingdom. He partic- ularly distinguished himself for his successful wars agaiust the Swedes, whom, in 16*79, he entirely expelled from the country. He was also noted for his strenuous efibrts in the cause of the Protestants ; for which he received letters of congratulation and tlianks from Oliver Cromwell. When the Edict of Nantes was revoked by Louis XIV., many of the exiled Huguenots found a refuge in the dominions of the Great Elector. 19. Prussia became a kingdom in 1701, the last Elector, * The order of Teutonic Knipchts was founded during the Crusades. Their first seat was at Acre ; but, after the destruction of the kinjcdom of Jerusalem, they removed to the banks of the Vistula, and succeeded finally in establishing a sovereignty, which had the control of nearly three millions of people. 17. What is the origin of the name Prussia f Give an account of the Borussi. How was Christianity established ? Who were the Teutonic Knights ? (See note.) Into whose control did the country pass, and when ? 18. What was the nucleus of the kingdom of Prussia? Who was called the Great Elector ? What is related of him ? 1 9. How and when did Prussia become a kingdom ? What is said of Frederick William I. ? 1S14.] EUROPEAIT STATES. 333 Frederick III., having been acknowledged king by the em- peror of Germany, on condition that he should aid the cause of Austria in the War of the Spanish Succession. His troops gained great distinction by their valor in the battle of Blenheim. He was succeeded by Frederick Wil- Uam L, in 1713, noted for his harsh and eccentric charac- ter, his fondness for tall soldiers, and his savage treatment of his son, who succeeded him as Frederich the Great (1740). 20. Under the latter, Prussia became one of the greatest military powers in Europe, partly through the magnificent army which had been collected by Frederick William I., and disciplined to the highest degree of efficiency. The achievements of Frederick the Great in the Seven Years' War, have already been referred to. The details of this remarkable struggle present one of tlie most interesting chapters in history. In 1772, the Prussian territories were greatly enlarged by the first partition of Poland. Fred- erick gave considerable attention to the internal improve- ment of his kingdom, encouraging agriculture, manufac- tures, and commerce. He was passionately fond of litera- ture, was an intimate friend and associate of Voltaire, and acquired himself some distinction as an author. He died in 1786, at the age of 75. 21. The wars with Napoleon occurred during the reign of Frederick William III. In these, Prussia suffered the terrible overthrow of Jena (180G), but redeemed her honor through the achievements of Blucher {bloo'Jcer), to whose skill, courage, and promptitude the great victories of Leip- sic and Waterloo were partly due. Blucher's hatred of Napoleon and the French was intense ; and, had he not been overruled by the other generals, Paris, in 1814, would have been given up to be pillaged by the soldiers. 20 What is said of the reij^ of Frederick the Great? Of the " Seven Years* War ?" How was Prussia enlarged iu UT2 ? What is said of Fredericlc ? W hec 2 1 . During whose reign did the wars with Napoleon occur ? How was her de- feat at Jena r'etrieved ? What is related of Blucher ? 334 EURO PEAK STATES. [1861. 22. By the Congress of Vienna the Prussian territoriea were much enlarged ; and during the subsequent part of the reign of Frederick William, the condition of Prussia was greatly improved. The commercial league among the states, called the ZoU-ver-eln' , has very considerably facilitated trade ; and the establishment of common schools of a high order of excellence, has done much to enlighten the people and augment the real strength of the kingdom. Frederick William III. was succeeded in 1840 by his son, Frederick William IV., who died in 1861. During the reign of his successor, William I., the changes in the Prus- sian dominions occurred, which have been explained in connection with the history of Germany. The reconstruc- tion of the Empire of Germany, Avitli King W^illiam as Emperor, has made him one of the great potentates of the world. Poland. 23. Polaiid was erected into a kingdom, and became an extensive and powerful monarchy, during the Middle Ages. In the latter part of the fourteenth century occurred its tirst union with Lith-u-a'ni-a, a large district extending to the Nic'men and Dnie'per rivers. Soon after this, successful wars were waged with the Teutonic Knights, which re- sulted in uniting the Prussian provinces with Poland (14G2). During the reign of Sigismund I. (1506-1548), a war was carried on with the Russians, who thus acquired Smolensk. Through the wise and beneficent measures of this sovereign, Poland was much improved, and reached a very high degree of greatness and splendor. 24. In the next reign {Sigismund II.), occurred the final union of Poland and Lithuania (1569) ; and the Protestant 22. What other events are mentioned in the rei^n of Frederick William III. ? Who succeeded him ? What occurred iu the reign of William I. ? How did these kings reign ? 23. Give a sketch of the early history of Poland. By whom was the kingdom much improved ? 24. When was Protestantism introduced ? Who was the first elected moc- arch? 1793. EUROPEAN STATES. 335 doctrines took a firm hold of the higher classes. At the close of this reign (1572), the monarchy was made elective; and tlie first king chosen was Ilenrij of Valois, afterward Henry III. of France. This change in the constitution of the kingdom was very injurious to its interests, since it fomented faction and gave rise to repeated civil wars. 25. The next century Avas chiefly occupied in wars with the two great northern powers, Sweden and Russia. Dur- ing the reign oi John Cas'i-mer (1648-G8), a Swedish army overran Poland, took War'saw and Cra'cow, and com- pelled the king to flee. The Poles, however, made a vigor- ous effort to preserve their independence, and, having ex- pelled the Swedes, restored their sovereign to his throne. 26. The reign of John SoUesU is one of the most brilliant in Polish history. He was a great warrior, and saved his country from the Cossacks and the Turks. His defeat of the latter near Vienna, in 1683, has already been referred to. The constant dissensions and turbulence of the Polish nobles, however, frustrated all his efforts to improve and strengthen the kingdom, and prepared the way for its final dismemberment and ruin. The last king of Poland was Stanislas Augustus, during whose reign occurred the first partition (1772), by which Austria, Russia, and Prus- sia divided most of its dominions among themselves, leav- ing to the Polish king only a nominal authority over those remaining to him. 27. Twenty years later, the war with the Russians again broke out; but they were defeated by the Poles, under their renowned leader Prince Po-ni-a-toiv'sJci, in several engagements, notwithstanding which Stanislas submitted to the second partition, by which the Polish territories were still further diminished (1793). The next year, the 25. How was the next century occupied? What occurred during the reign of %6. What is? said of John Sobieski ? Who was the last king of Poland ? De- scy\hi^ the first pari.ition. . .^-, . 27. Wliat events preceded the second partition ? \\ hat was done in 1 Cd\ > 336 EUROPEAN STATES. [1862. Poles made an ineffectual effort to regain their lost liber- ties, under that noble and illustrious patriot Tliad'dc-us Kos-ci-us'lco, Avho had so generously lent his sword to the cause of American freedom, in the war of the Reyolution. 28. At first victorious, the brave Poles were soon obliged to succumb to the overwhelming masses of the Russians, commanded by the fierce and relentless Suioarroio ; and Kosciusko was wounded and made a prisoner (1794). Warsaw was soon after taken by storm ; and the last relic of Polish independence was destroyed by the thii^d parti- tion (1795). Stanislas died a broken-hearted exile in St. Petersburg (1798). Kosciusko, kept for some time a cap- tive at St. Petersburg, was afterw^ard released ; and for many years wandered in America, France, and Switzerland. In the last-named country he died, from the effects of a fall from his horse (1817). 29. The w^ars waged by Napoleon I. against the enemies of Poland excited new hopes in the people of regaining their independence ; but these were destroyed by the Con- gress of Vienna, who gave some of the Polish territories to Prussia and Austria, and formed of the remainder the Kingdom of Poland, under the control of the Czar. After the unsuccessful insurrection of the Poles in 1830, this kingdom was incorporated with the Russian empire. Another, hut still unsuccessful, insurrection against the Russian government, took place in 1862. Holland and Belgium. 30. Holland and Belgium, called the Ketherlands, or Loic Countries, constituted, in 843, a part of Germany. For several centuries, it was under the rule of petty princes ; and afterAvard constituted a part of the Duchy of 28. What led to the third partition f What is related of Stanislas and Kosci- usko ? 29. Whew and how was the kingdom of Poland formed ? What occurred in ISJW and 1862 ? 30. Give a sketch of the early history of Holland and Bel316-329 11. Give the history of the " Germanic Confederation" 329-330 12. Give the history of the " North German Confederation" 3:^0 13. Of Austria, after its organization as a separate empire in 1806 3:^0 14. Give a sketch of the history of Prussia up to the year 1462 331 15. Give the subsequent history of Prussia up to the year 1701 331 16. Give the further history of Prussia to the time of Frederick the Great. 331-332 17. Give the history of Prussia during the reign of Frederick the Great. .. 332-3:33 18. State all the facts you can in relation to Blucher 315-316-317-332 19. Give a sketch of the recent history of Prussia *33 20 Give a sketch of the history of Poland to the reign of Sigismund H.. . . 3:33-3:31 9a . Of subsequent events, to the reign of John Sobieski 33:3-334 22. Give the facts, as far as you can, in relation to Sobieski 328-3:34 23. What occurred in Poland during the reign of Stanislas Augustus ? 334-3:35 24. Give the particulars of the further history of Poland 335 25. Give the history of the Netherlands, to the reign of Charles V 3:36-3:38 26. Give a sketch of the subsequent history of the Netherlands 336-3:37 27. Give a sketch of the early history of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark . . 337 28. Name the important facts in the history of Sweden 3:37-.338-3:39 29. Name the important facts in the history of Nor way ^ 337-:3:38-3:39 30. Give a sketch of the history of Denmark 337-3:38-3:39-340 31. Of Russia, to the reign of Peter the Great ^^'^^^ ;32. Give the particulars, as far as you can, in the life of Peter the Great. . . 341-342 33. Of Charles XII. of Sweden 338-341-342 34. Of Catharine I. and Catharine H. of Russia 342 35. Of Nicholas I. of Russia 342-343 36. Of Alexander I. and Alexander IT. of Russia 342-:343 37. Give a sketch of the history of Switzerland 217-219-34.3-344 38. Of events in the modem history of Italy 344-345-346 39 Of events in the modern history of Spain :i46-347 40. Give a sketch of the life of Philip II. of Spain 230-291-336-340-348 41. Of events in the modern history of Portugal f^ft^ 42. Of events in the modern history of Turkey 351-352 43. Of events in the modern history of Greece 352-353 44. Name, in order, important events of the 15th century. . .185-203-228-281-322-3,^4 45. The important events of the 16th century 281-322-32:3-3.34 40. The important events of the 17th century 281-282-323-3o4-rf55 47. The important events of the 18th century 2S2-283-32.3-354-3o.t 48. The important events of the 19th century 383-32:3-355 49. Give the names, as far as you can. of all the European monarchs of modern times that have died of other than a natural death 231—35:^ 358 TABLE OF CONTEMPOKANEOUS EVENTS. A.D. 1483 1485 1493 1498 1509 1515 1519 1520 1547 1552 155:3 England. France. Otuer Countries. Charles VIH. Henry VH. Maximilian of Germany. Louis XTI. Francis I. Henry VHI. Charles V. of Germany. Soliman the Magnificent. Edward VI Henry II. Treaty of Passau. Philip II. of Spain. Mary. 1558 1559 Elizabeth. Francis U. Charles IX. 1560 1571 1572 1574 1579 1589 1603 1610 1618 1625 1632 1640 1(>43 1648 165:3 1660 1()83 16S5 1689 1700 1702 1709 1714 1715 Battle of Lepanto. St. Bartholomew's Massa. Henry III. William the Silent. Henry IV. Louis xm James I. Moors expelled fromSpain Thirty Years' War begine Charles I. Portugal independent. Louis XIV. Peace of Westphalia. Cromwell, Protector. Charles II. Sobieski defeats theTurka James 11. William and Mary. Battle of Narva. Anne. Battle of Poltava. George I. Louis XV. 1718 1727 1740 1760 Death of Charles XII. George II. Frederick the Great. George III. Louis XVI. French Kevolution. 1789 1795 1799 Third Partition of Poland Napoleon First Consul. Napoleon Emperor. 1804 1806 1814 End of German Empire. Louis XVIII. Charles X. 1820 1824 George IV. 1825 1821 18:3C Brazil independent. Battle of Navarino. William IV Louis Philippe. Isabella of Spain. 183- lt>4f: 1841 185-. 185: 186i Victoria. ' Louis Philippe dethroned. 1 Victor Emanuel. i::.-.v.v.v.-.v.-.v.;::::;;; Napoleon III. Sebastopol taken. '] :::::;::.:,.;::-.-.:;:- Solferino. AMERICAN HISTORY. 359 360 AMERICAN HISTORY. (1792. section iv. American History. Discoveries and Settlements. 1. America was discovered in 1492 by ChriMoplier Co- himhits, a native of Genoa (jen'o-a), Italy. With a fleet of three vessels, supplied by Queen Isabella, he set sail from Spain, and, after a voyage of ten weeks, reached one of the Bahama islands, to which he gave the name of Sa7i Salva- dor. He also discovered other islands belonging to the group of the West Indies ; and in anotlier voyage he dis- covered the mainland, at the mouth of the 0-ri-no'co (1498), in South America; but he was not aware that he had reached a new continent, supposing that the l«»nds dis- covered belonged to Asia. [See Note 1, end of Section.'] 2. The mainland of North America was first reached at Labrador, by John Cabot (kab'bot) and his son Sebastian, while sailing under a commission from Henry VII. of England (1497). The country was called America, from Amerigo Vespucci {ah-7na-re'go ves-^JOot'cJie), a Florentine navigator, who, in 1499 and 1501, visited the eastern coast of South America, and, on his return to Europe, gave an interesting account of his voyages, thus acquiring the repu- tation of being the first discoverer of the country. 3. Twenty years after Columbus's first voyage, Po7ice de Leon {pon'tlia da la-on'), an aged Spaniard, accidentally Map Questions.— (See Map, p. 358.) Where are the Bahama Islands ? The West Indies? Where is Gnanahani, or San Salvador? Labrador? Florida? Quebec? Acadia? Nova Scotia ? New Brunswick ? Port Royal Entrance ? St. Au^nistine ? Vir^rinia ? Cape Cod ? Maine ? Jamestown ? 1 . By whom and when was America discovered ? Who was Columbus ? What land was first discovered? What else did Columbus discover? What did he riuppose these lands to be ?. 2 When and by whom was North America discovered ? Why was the country called America ? 3 What account is given of the discovery of Florida ? Why was it so called } Give an account of the discovery and conquest of Mexico. 1583.] AMERICAN HISTORY. 361 discovered Florida, which received its name from the abun- dance of flowers with which its forests were adorned (1512). Five yeai's later, Cor'do-va discovered Mexico, and explored the coast of Yu-ca-tmi'. Mexico was afterward conquered by another Spaniard named Cor'tez, and became a province of Spain (1521). 4. The belief being general among the Spaniards that Florida abounded in riches, De Solo {da so' to) landed on its shores in 1539, and penetrated into the interior. During his wanderings, which lasted nearly three years, he discov- ered the Mississippi (1541).* Meanwhile, the French had sent out Verrazzani (ver-ral-tsah'ne), who explored the eastern coast of North America (1524) ; and James Cartier {car-te-a'), who, in two voyages, discovered the gulf and river of St. Lawrence (1534-5). 5. The Huguenots desiring a place of refuge, at first at- tempted a settlement at Port Royal entrance (1562), in the region afterward named Carolina (in honor of the Freuch king, Charles IX.) ; and two years later on the banks of the St. John's Eiver, Florida. Both attempts were unsuc- cessful. The year after (1565), the Spaniards made a set- tlement in Florida, at St Augustine, having previously put the French settlers to death with barbarous cruelty. 6. In 1583, an uusuccessful expedition was made by >SVr Humplirey Gilbert, sailing from England under a patent granted by Queen Elizabeth ; and the next year Sir Walter Raleigh dispatched two vessels to the new world, under Am'idas and Barlotu, who visited the islands near the coast of North Carolina, and on their return gave so glowing an account of the country, that Elizabeth named the region discovered Virginia, xis a memorial of her unmarried state. 7. Two unsuccessful attempts were afterward made to es- See Note 2, end of the Section. 4 What account is aiven of De Soto's expedition ? Verrazzani's ? ^Cartier's ? 5 Where did the Huguenots attempt to settle? With what results? Wlien find bv whom was St. Augustine settled ? 6. What voyages were made by the English ? Why was the country called Vir- ginia • 16 3G2 AMERICAN" HISTORY. [1623. tablish a colony on Roanoke Island (1585-7);* and an at- tempt farther north Avas made by Bartholomeiu Gosnold, who discovered Cape Cod (1G02), but failed to effect a settlement. Martin Pring the following year explored the coast and large rivers of Maine. In 1606, King James I. divided the territory claimed by the English into North and Sotith Vir- ginia, and granted the former to the Plymouth Company, the latter, to the London Company. The first permanen. settlement under this grant was made at Jamestoivn, in 1607, by an expedition sent out by the London Company. 8. Virginia was thus the first English colony success- fully planted in North America. The want of industrial habits among the settlers at Jamestown at first greatly impeded its prosperity, and brought it at one time to the verge of ruin (1610). New emigrants, however, arrived; and its affairs being managed by the virtuous and prudent Lord Dclaiuare (appointed governor in 1609), it soon began to assume a flourishing condition. Virginia afterward be- came a royal province, the London Company being dis- solved by the king (1624). 9. Massachusetts was first settled in 1620, at Plymoutli, Dy English Puritans, who, during the reign of James L, emigrated to America to find that religious liberty of which they were deprived in their own country. After the acces- sion of Charles I., another company of emigrants settled at Salem (1628) ; and two years afterward Boston was settled, principally by Puritans (1630). These two settlements belonged to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. 10. New Hampshire was first settled in 1623, at Lit- tle Llarhor, near Portsmouth, and at Dover, by English emigrants sent out by Ferdinand Gorges (gor'jez) and John * Sie Note 3, end of the Section. 7. What other attempts at settlement were made by the English ? What is said of Martin Pring? How was the territory divided by James I. ? What was the first settlement made ? 8- What is said of the early history of Virginia? When and how did it become a royal province ? 9. Give an acconnt of the settlement of Plymouth. Of Salem. Of Boston, Vhat were the first settlements of the Massachusetts Bay Colony ? 10. Give a sketch of the early history of New Hampshire, 1614.] AMERICAN HISTORY. 363 ]\Iasoii, to whom this region had been granted, under the name of Laco7iia. The name JVetu Hampshire was given to it in 1629. From 1641 to 1680, this colony was united to Massachusetts, from which it was not permanently sepa- rated until 1741. 11. Connecticut was settled in 1633, by a company of persons from Plymouth, at a place called PTw^sor (win'- zer). Other settlements were made, by emigrants from Massachusetts, a short time afterward, the principal one being that at Hartford (1635-6).* These settlements formed at first the Connecticut Colony. About the same time, a colony was planted at the mouth of the Connecticut Eiver, which was called Saytrook. A third colony was established in 1638, which received the name of New Haven. These three colonies subsequently formed the colony of Connecticut (1665). 12. Rhode Island was settled by Roger Williams, who had been banished from Massachusetts because of his de- nunciation of the religious intolerance practised there, as well as for certain opinions entertained by him Avith respect to civil matters. The settlement was made in 1636, at Providence. The next year a company of emigrants left Boston on account of religious persecution, and settled on the island of Ehode Island, which was purchased from the Indians. Tliese two settlements were united by a charter in 1644. 13. New York, at first called New Netherlands, was settled in 1614 by the Dutch, who built a fort on Man-hat'- tan Island, for the purpose of trading with the Indians. Their attention had been directed to this spot by the dis- ?owry (in 1609) of the Hudson Eiver, by Hcmry Hudson, an English navigator, in the service of the " Dutch East * See Note 4, end of the Section. 1 1 . What were the first settlements made in Connecticut ? What other colo nie? were planted ? What did they afterward form ? 12. What account is -riven of the early history of Rhode Island ? 13. By whom was New York first settled? What led to it? What was its name at first? When did its colonization commence? A\Tiat settlements were made ? 364 AMERICAN HISTORY. [1738. India Company." On this discovery the Dutcli claimed the whole region from Cape Cod to the southern shore of Delaware Bay. The actual colonization of the country did not commence until 1G23, when two settlements were made — one on Manhattan Island, called New Amsterdam, 'iud the other at Albany, called Fort Orange, 14. Four governors ruled in succession, the last and most noted of whom was Peter Stuyvcsant {sti've-sant), during whose administration (1664) New Amsterdam was taken by the English ; and New Netherlands accordingly became in English colony, with the name of Neiu York, being so ailed in honor of the Duke of York, to whom Charles II. had granted the territory. In 1673, during a war between England and Holland, the Dutch regained their formei possessions ; but, after a period of fifteen months, returned them to the English. 15. New Jersey. — The Dutch, who included New Jersey in the province of New Netherlands, established a trading-post at Bergen as early as 1622 ; but the coloniza- tion of the country did not commence till 1664, when a settlement was made at Elizahetlitoiun (now Elizabeth) by emigrants from Long Island. Previous to this, however, this portion of New Netherlands had been sold by the Duke of York to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, and was named New Jersey in honor of the latter, who had been governor of the island of Jersey in the English Chan- nel. The whole territory, in 1682, became the property of William Penn and other Quakers; but in 1702, being given up by the proprietors, it formed, with New York, a royal province, and thus continued till 1738, when it became a separate province. 16. Maryland was settled under a charter granted by Charles I. to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, who wished to 14. Uow many jrovcrnors ruled ? Who was the most noted ? WTiat occurred luring Stuyvesant^j rule? Why was the country called New York? What hap- pened" in 1(573? 15. What was the first settlement made in New Jersey ? Why was it so called i Give a sketch ol' its history. 1638.] AMEKiCAN HISTORY. 365 provide an asylum for Roman Catholics, who were then persecuted in England. It was named Maryland in honoi of Henrietta Maria, wife of King Charles. The first settle- ment was made in 1634, at a place which was called St. Mary^Sy under the direction of Leonard Calvert, brother of the proprietor. Free toleration was granted to settlers of every Christian denomination. Upon the death of Cecil Calvert, his son Charles became proprietor of the province, of which he retained possession until deprived of it by King William (1691). In 1715, the proprietor's rights were re- stored to his infant heir, the fourth Lord Baltimore; and Maryland remained a proprietary government till the Rev- olution. 17. Pennsylvania. — Although small settlements had been previously made by the Swedes on both sides of the DelaAvare River, the permanent settlement of Pennsylvania dates from the founding of Philadelphia, in 1682, by WiU liam Fenn, a distinguished Quaker. Penn had obtained a grant of the country from Charles IL, with a view to found a colony where civil and religious liberty might be enjoyed, and where the people might dwell together in peace. Ilis conduct toward both the Indians and the Swedish settlers was characterized by remarkable uprightness. With the for- mer he made a treaty, and paid them for their lands ; to the latter he gave assurances of protection in every civil and relioious riaht. His descendants continued to administer the government till the Revolution. [See Note 5.] 18. Dela-ware. — This territory was first settled by Swedes, in 1638, and named Neio Sweden. Subsequently, Governor Stuyvesant subjected it to the authority of Hol- land (1655), to which it continued to belong till 1664, when it became the property of the Duke of York. By him it 1 6. What account is given of the eettlcment of Maryland ? What was granted to all settlers ? Give the subsequent history of the colony. 17. By whom and where was Pennsylvania first settled? Who was William Penn ? What course did he pursue ? What else is related of this colony ? 1 8. Give a brief sketch of the early history of Delaware. 366 AMEBIC AK HISTORY. [1605. was granted to William Penn, under the name of " The Territories ;" and continued to be connected with Pennsyl- vania, althougli having a separate Assembly, until the Revolution. 19. North and South Carolina. — The first perma- nent settlement in this tract was made in 1650, by emi grants from Virginia, who settled near the present village of Eden-ton. In 1670, a colony was planted on the western bank of the Ashley River ; but was soon after removed to the present site of Charleston. In 1729, Carolina was sold to the king of England, and separated into North and South Carolina. From that time they were royal provinces till the Revolution. 20. Georgia. — This part of the country was granted by the English king, George II., to General Oglethorpe {o'gl- thorp) and others, who desired to provide an asylum for their destitute countrymen. In honor of the king it was called Georgia. The first settlement was made in 1733, at Savannah. Oglethorpe defended the settlers against the hostile attacks of their Spanish neighbors ; but the people, afterward, becoming dissatisfied with the government of the trustees, the latter relinquished their rights to the crown, and Georgia became a royal province (1752). 21. French Colonies. — The first permanent French settlement in America was made by De Monts {da 7nong) a wealthy Huguenot, who, having obtained a grant from the French king, Henry IV., of an extensive region in the vicinity of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, planted a settlement on the present site of An-nap'o-lis, Nova Scotia (1605). To this place he gave the name of Poi^t Royal, and to the whole territory that of A-ca'di-a. At the close of the War of the Spanish Succession (called in American history Queen A?i7ie's IFar), this region, including Nova Scotia, 19. What account is given of the settlement of North and South Carolina? 20. What led to the settlement of Georgia ? Give its subsequent history, 21. What was the first permanent French settlement? Uow was it made? Give the subsequent history of Acadia and PortKoyal. Progressive IVIaps ISTo. 8 1500.] AMERICAN- HISTORY. 367 New Brunswick, and some of the adjacent islands, waa given up to the English by the treaty of Utrecht (1713), Port Royal was then named, in honor of Queen Anne, A71- najJoUs. 22. Canada, originally called New France, was first perma- nently settled at Quebec, by the French, under Champlain, in 1608 ; and continued in their possession until 1760, when, by the successful expedition of General Wolfe, in the pre- vious year, it was surrendered to the English, whose pos- session of it was confirmed by the treaty of Paris (1763). By this treaty, the French ceded to Great Britain nearly all her American possessions east of the Mississippi River, and thus put an end to those boundary disputes, about which the war, called the " French and Indian War," had been waged for more than six years (1754-60). 23. Louisiana was visited by La Salle, who discovered the mouth of the Mississippi River in 1691 ; and an unsuc- cessful attempt at settlement was made by rber-ville, in 1699. It was named after Louis XIV., who made a grant of it in 1712 : and was subsequently purchased by the Mis- sissippi company of John Law, after whose failure it was restored to tlie crown. In 1762, it became the property of Spain, by which it was retained until 1800, when it was given back to the French government, then under the con- trol of Napoleon. Louisiana at that time comprised nearly all the territory included between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains; and, in 1803, this immense tract was ceded by France to the United States for $15,000,000. 24. Discovery and Colonization in South Amer- ica. — In 1500, Cabral, a Portuguese navigator, reached the coast of Brazil, and took possession of the country for the crown of Portugal, although it had been visited by one of 22. Wnen and by -whom was Canada settled ? How aud when was it conquered bv the British? . ,, _, "23. What is said of the early history of Louisiana? Why was it so called? Give its subsequent history. What was its extern? 24. What is said of the discovery of Brazil ? Of the Amazon River ? 368 AMERICAJq- HISTORY. [1541. the companions of Columbus a short time preyiously. Set- tlements were afterward made along the coast by the Por- tuguese, in whose possession the country continued until its independence was acknowledged in 1825. The Amazon River was first explored by a Spaniard, named Orcllana [o-rel-y all' nail), in 1539. 25. In 1520, Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the ser- vice of Spain, having discovered the strait which now bears his name, crossed the Pacific Ocean (so named by him), but was killed at one of the Philippine Islands. The voy- age was, however, continued after his death ; and one of the ships reached Spain by the Cape of Good Hope, — thus completing the first vovage ever made round the world (1533). 26. In 1513, a Spaniard named Bal-lo'a crossed the Isthmus of Darien, and obtained a view of the ocean lying beyond.* He then turned to the southward and penetrated many miles into the country. Subsequently, Francisco Pi-zar'ro, a brave but cruel leader, who had accompanied Balboa in the previous expedition, sailed from Panama with a company of less than 200 men, and landed on the western coast of Peru — the wealthiest and most powerful state in America at the time of its discovery. By means of the basest treachery and the most revolting cruelties, Pizarro succeeded in effecting the conquest of the country, although the unfortunate natives defended their liberties with admi- rable spirit and valor (1533). The monster, Pizarro, was afterward assassinated (1541). 27. Peru became, after Pizarro's conquest, the principal seat of the Spanish empire in America; and Lima {le'rnah), its capital, rose to a very high degree of magnificence. It received from Pizarro the appellation of the City of the Kings. Chili {cliil'le), which originally belonged to the ^SerXntf 6, end of the Section. 25. What acconnt is given of Magellan's voyage ? 26. What was done by Balboa '? By Pizarro ? What is said of Pizarro? 27. What account is given of Peru ? Of Lima ? Of Chili ? 1824.1 AMERICAN HISTORY. 3G9 Peruvian empire, was conquered by Almagro and Yal- div'i-a, two of the successors of Pizarro, the latter of whom founded Santiago (salm-te-aligo) in 1541. Southern Chili was so bravely defended by the Indians, that it resisted for centuries the rule of the invaders. 28. Venezuela {ven-e-zwe-lali) was so called by Vespucci and Ojeda {o-ha'dah), the latter one of the companions of Columbus, who, near the Lake of Maracaybo {mali-raU-hi'- 1)0), discovered an Indian village built on piles in the water. Hence, they named it Venezuela, or Little Venice (1499), The interior of the country was not conquered till the mid- dle of the next century. The Rio tie la Plata was explored in 1530, by Sebastian Cabot, then in the service of Spain ; and, in 1580, the city of Buenos Ayres {bo'mis a'riz) was founded by the Spaniards. 29. Thus, nearly all South America, except Brazil, fell into the possession of Spain, and was retained under her rule until the beginning of the present century, when, by a series of revolutions, commencing in Chili, this extensive region was wrested from her, and formed into independent states. Peru was the last to secure her independence, which was acknowledged in 182f). 30. The most prominent individual connected with tliese movements was the patriot BoTi-var, in honor of whom the republic of Bo-liv'i-a received its name. Nine states now occupy the territory formerly included in the several Spanish viceroyalties of South America: Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador {eh-iuali-dore'), Co-lom'hia, Venezuela, Cliili, The Argentine RijjuUic, Paraguay {imli-rali-gwi'), and TJru- guay (oo-roo-gwi'). These states, since their formation, have been under republican governments, but have been very much disturbed by internal dissensions and civil'war. 28. What is? said of Venezuela ? Of the Rio de la Plata ? Buenos Ayres ? 29. now lon^ did these territoiics remain under the Spanish government? When did Peru oecome indei)endent ? 30. Who was Bolivar ? What states were formed ? What is said of them ? 16* 370 american" history. [1773. The Ukited States. 31. The expenses which Great Britain had incurred in the French and Indian War greatly increased her national debt; and the British ministry, asserting that this had been done in defending their American possessions, pro- posed to lessen the burden by taxing the colonies. In pur- suance of this proposition, the Stamp Act was passed in 1765 ; the effect of which was to excite a great storm of indignation throughout the colonies, the people of which opposed all measures of taxation, on the ground that they had no representatives in the Britisli Parliament. 32. A change having occurred in the British ministry, the act was repealed in 1766 ; but the next year, the at- tempt to tax the colonies was renewed, by the passage of an act levying duties on glass, paper, tea, etc. This measure met with decided opposition from the colonists, particularly in Boston, to which General Gage ordered two regiments to overawe the inhabitants (1770). This greatly exasper- ated the people, and led to the affray called the " Boston Massacre," in which the soldiers fired upon the populace, killing three men and wounding others (1770). 33. Parliament, wishing to conciliate the people, revoked all the duties except that on tea ; but as the people were contending for the 'principle of " no taxation without rep- i"3sentation," the concession was without avail. Some of die tea sent over was returned ; and no one would purchase that which was landed. At Boston, a party of men, dis- guised as Indians, boarded the ships, broke open the chests uf tea, and emptied their contents into the water (1773). 34. The next year, delegates from all the thirteen colonies, except Georgia, met at Philadelphia, and formed the " First 3 1 . What led to the passa? related of Van Bareirs administration? ^ « tr-u * ■ 58. Who succeeded Van Burcn ? How did Tyler become President ? What it ciuted of Texas 5" 382 AMEKICAlSr HISTORY. 847. successor in office was James K. Polk. On the fourth of July, 1845, the legislature of Texas having approved the " annexation bill" passed by Congress, Texas be^ came one of the United States. This led to a war with Mexico, she not having acknowledged the independence of lier revolted province. Hostilities were commenced in 184G, near the Rio Grande {re'o grahn'da), to which General Taylor had been sent to protect the new state from Mexican invasion. Having defeated the Mexicans in two battles, he took possession of Mat-a-mo'ras, and marcliing to the strongly fortified city of Monterey (mon-ta-ra') compelled it to capitulate (Sept. 24). 60. In another expedition under Gen. Kearny (Icar'ne), the Americans gained possession of New Mexico ; and a party under Caj^tain Fre-mont', entered California, and defeated the Mexicans in scA^eral skirmishes. The conquest of this important territory was afterward completed by means of the fleet under Commodores Slote and Stockton, assisted by Fremont and General Kearny (1847). Taylor's last engagement in Mex- ico was the battle of Buena Vista {hiva'nah vees'tah), in which he defeated an army under Santa Anna nearly four times as numerous as his own, driving the Mexicans in disorder from the field (Feb. 23, 1847). SCOTT'S C AM PAl G>N 59. Who succeeded Tyler ? What cau?ed a war with Mexico ? How were he F- tilitits commenced ? What was done by Taylor ? GO. How was California conquered ? What occurred at Buena Vista ? 1853.] AMEBIC AIT HISTORY. 383 61. With a view to "conquer a peace," General Scott waa ordered to in'oceed against tlie cai)ital of Mexico (1847). Landing liis army near Vera Cruz, he, with the aid of the fleet, compelled this strongly fortified city to surrender, and then marched into the interior. Having defeated Santa Anna at the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo {sar'ro gov' do), and captured in succession all the strong posts by which the capital was defended, Scott entered it in triumph (Sept. 14). On the second of February following, a treaty of peace was signed, by which all the territory north of the Rio Grande, together with the whole of New Mexico and California, was relinquished to the United States, the latter agreeing to pay to Mexico $15,000,000, and to assume her debts to American citizens, to the amount of $3,000,000. 62. Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations (1849-1853).— Polk Avas succeeded by Zachary Taylor, the hero who had achieved such brilliant victories in the war with Mexico. Gold having been discovered in California, thousands of emigrants from all parts of the world rushed thither;* and so rapidly did the territory become populated, that in the fall of 1849 it contained a sufficient number of settlers to constitute a state, and, accordingly, applied for admission. The application met with violent opposition from the southern states, because the constitution of the proposed state excluded slavery ; but a compromise having been effected through the efforts of Henry Clay, California was admitted as a free state (1850).' Meantime, General Taylor died (July 9, 1850), and Avas succeeded by the vice- president, Millard Fillmore. 63. Pierce's Administration (1853-1857).— During tlie administration of Franklin Pierce, the successor of * f^t^e JVotell, end of the Section. 61 Give an account of Scott's expedition. What was the result ? 62. Who succeeded Polk ? What occurred in California? Why was its admis- Pion opposed? How and when was it admitted? How and when did fillmore become "President? , , . ^. , - • • ^ .• « n'u * 63. What controversy was continued during Pierce's a'_mimstration ? What again excited the slavery question ? 384 AMEKICAN HISTORY. [I860. Fillmore, the controversy between the slaveh Dlding and non-slayeholding sections of the Union was renewed, the one being in favor of, and the other opposed to, the exten- sion of slavery into the territories. This question, supposed to have been settled by the compromise of 1850, was again excited by the passage of a bill for the organization of Kansas and Nebraska as territories, the bill containing a clause by which the " Missouri Compromise" was repealed, and the question of permitting or excluding slavery was left to be determined by the inhabitants of the territories (1854). 6i. No sooner had the bill passed, than emigrants from both sections of the Union began to pour into Kansas, those from the North being determined to make it a free state, while those from the South were equally resolved that slavery should be permitted within it. With such undue zeal Avas this strife maintained, that frequent colli- sions took place, in which blood was shed. While these things were in progress, Pierce was succeeded in office by James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. 65. Buchanan's Administration (1857-1861).— The slavery question continued to be the prominent topic of discussion during this administration ; and the feeling of opposition prevailing in the South against the North, was greatly intensified by "John Brown's raid," — an attempt, by seizing the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, to capture and liberate a large number of slaves. The undertaking failed; and several of those engaged in it, including Brown him- self, were tried and hung:^^ Kansas was not admitted until 1801, when it came in as a free, state. 60. The election, in the fall of 18G0, of Airaham Lincoln^ 6-1. W)iat led to civil war in Kansas? Who Bucccedcd Pierce ? 65. What question was continued ? How were the bitter feelings of the South intensified? What was "John Brown's raid?" What was its result? When was Kansas admitted ? 66. What ciiuscd a violent outbreak at the South ? What was done at Charles- ton ? \Vhat events followed this ? What property was seized by the iusurgeuts i What forts were retained by the goverumeut ? .^ 1849.1 AMERICAN niSTOKT. 385 \P__^;p _N_S_^V_g^^£NKJ^ -J'^ ^ARTINSBURC 1) *^i ^ \ V /WINCHESTER/ <<.«^^ \/ ^i^ ^ \ CO 2/ #.J- .^C^ %, ^PORT. TOBACCO^ / | >|, .\ v PART OF -"vo/;£-^^>i^ "JACKSON ^ rr-.-AR L 1 N A \ — 'i II ^ I >v'»^^^~'C-'c■.•^-'=_^^^^. ■ '„ ^ ir 386 america:n- history. [isgi. the candidate of the Republicans (the party opposed to the fiirtlier extension of slavery), occasioned a violent outbreak in the South; and in South Carolina, a convention was called, which met at Charleston, and passed an ordinance declaring that the State had seceded from the Union (Dec. 20). This was soon foUowed by the passage of similar secession ordinances in six other states : Mississi]jpi, Flor- ida, Alahamaf Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas ; and a con- gress of delegates from the insurgent states met at Mont- gomery, Alabama, and having adopted a constitution, assumed the title of the " Confederate States of America," and elected Jefferson Davis, president (Feb. 9). Forts, ar- senals, navy-yards, and other property belonging to the general government, within the Confederate states, were seized, Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, Fort Sumter, near Charleston, and Fortress Monroe, near the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, being nearly all that remained to the United States. 67. Lincoln's Administration. — The Great Civil War. (18G1-18G5.) — In this sad and distracted condi- tion were the affairs of the country when Lincoln en- tered upon the office of president. One of the first acts of the Confederates, after his inauguration, was the bom- bardment and capture o^ Fort Sumter ; and this was soon followed by the passage of secession ordinances in Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Nortli Carolina. The excite- ment consequent upon these events tlirougliout the North, was intense. Troops Avere at once called for by the presi- dent; and a large army was soon collected near Wash- ington, under General Scott, to oppose the Confederate army stationed at Manassas Junction, a few miles distant. Near this spot, on the 21st day of July, occurred the first great conflict of the war — the battle of Bull Run, in whicli 67. How was the war of the rebellion brought on? Wliat led to the battle of Bull llua ? What was its result ? 1862.] AMERICA:^' HISTOEY. 387 the Union forces were defeated, and fled panic-stricken from the field. 68. General McClellan was then called to take the chief command; and an immense army was collected at Wash- ington, with the purpose of invading Virginia, and cap- turing Eichmond, the capital of the Confederate States. 1'his army did not set out until April, 1862. Meanwhile an active warfare had been carried on in Missouri, with varying success; the Federal navy had been greatly in- creased and strengthened; and by means of it, strong positions in North and South Carolina were wrested from the Confederates. The capture of Roanohe Island, and of Fort PulasM, near Savannah, still further strengthened the Union cause. 69. The remarkable contest between the "Monitor" and the powerful ram, Virginia, near Norfolk ; the victo- ries of General Pojye on the Mississippi : and the capture, hj General Grant, of Forts Henry and Donelson, on the Cumberland and Tennessee Eivers, were important events of the winter of 1861-2 and the following spring. The taking of New Orleans by the fleet under Far'ra-gut and Porter, aided by a military force under General Butler, was a still more valuable conquest (xVpril 25). 70. These great victories were counterbalanced by the ill success of McClellan, who had attempted to reach Ricli- mond by the peninsula between the York and James Rivers. Having arrived within a short distance of the city, he was suddenly attacked by the Confederates at Fair Oaks, where a bloody, but indecisive contest took place (May 31). A movement of McClellan's to change his base of operations to the James River, brought on a series of destructive bat- tles, lasting through seven days (June 25-July 1), the re- 68. Who took the command ? What was collected ? For what purpose ? What events occurred in the West and South ? 69. What other important events occurred during the winter of 1861-2 and the followintr spring? -What inii)ortant citv was captured? How ? 70. Wluit was done by McClellan ? Where was a great battle fought? Whaf was its result ? What battles followed ? o88 AMEKICA]^ HISTORY. [1863. suit of which was to leave the Union army in a very weak- ened condition. 71. Taking advantage of this, the Confederates, under Goner al Lee, marched toward Washington; but were con- fronted by the armies of Gen. Banks and Gen. Pope. These were defeated, the latter in the Second Battle of Bull Ru7i (Aug. 29th and 30th) ; and Lee crossed the Potomac into Maryland. Meanwhile, McClellan had been recalled from the James ; and having assumed the command of the army in Maryland, defeated the Confederate general, Lee, in the great battle of Antietam (au-te'tam) (Sept. 17). Lee at once retreated across the Potomac ; but McClellan made no pursuit, and in November was superseded by Burnside, 72. A dreadful repulse of the Union army at Fredericks- hurg soon followed (Dec. 13); and Burnside, at his own request, was superseded by Gen. Hooker. The latter, how- ever, was defeated in the great battle of Chancellor sville (May 2d and 3d, 1863), Avhicli was followed by another in- vasion by the Confederate army under Lee, who at this time penetrated into Pennsylvania. At Gettysburg, how- ever, a dreadful conflict of three days occurred (July 1st, 2d, and 3d), the result of which was, that Lee was com- pelled to retreat. 73. In the mean time, Genenil Grant having gained a series of victories over the Confederate forces in the south- west, succeeded in taking Viclcshurg, after a siege of several months (July 4) ; and Port Hudson having soon afterward surrendered to Gen. Banks, the Mississippi was completely opened. Gen. Eosecrans {roz'hrants), who, in the begin- ning of the year, had gained an important victory over a large Confederate army, under Gen. Bragg, at Mur' frees- lo-ro (Jan. 2, 1863), was attacked near CMck-a-mau'ga 7 1 . What was then clone by General Lee ? \Miat victories did he gain ? Where was he defeated ? By whom was McClellan superseded ? 72. What disasters ensued? Where Avas Lee defeated ? With what result? 73. How was the Mississippi opened? What victory did Rosecrans gain) Where was he defeated ? How was Bragg driven into Georgia ? 1S65.] AMERICAJq- HISTORY. 380 CreeJc by Bragg, and compelled to fall back (Sept. 20). The timely arrival of Hooker and Grant, the latter ol whom took the command, enabled the Union army to gain a decided victory, after a tliree days' conflict ; and Bragg was driven back into Georgia (Nov. 25). 71. Gen. Grant, having been appointed commander-in- chief of all the armies of the Union, arranged, in the spring of 1864, two campaigns — one against Richmond, under his own direction, and the other against Atlantn, under General Sherman. The latter, by a series of masterly^ movements, compelled the Confederates to retreat, and finally succeeded in taking Atlanta (Sept. 2), which hav- ing destroyed, he made his memorable march througli Georgia to the sea-coast, and occupied Savannah (Dec. 21). Meanwhile, Gen. Thomas, who had been left by Sherman with a considerable force in Tennessee, attacked the Con- federate army under Hood, and, after a battle of two days, routed it with great slaughter (Dec. 16). 75. In Virginia, Gen. Grant had in the mean time en- countered the Confederate army under Lee ; and after a series of terrific battles, com]3elled it to retreat toward Richmond; but Grant having transferred his army to the south bank of the James, Lee, whose movements had been conducted with consummate skill, occupied Petersburg, and thus compelled the Unionists to lay siege to that city (June). This siege lasted until tlie following April, when, by a skilful movement, Grant compelled its evacuation; and both Petersburg and Richmond were occupied by the nation's victorious troops (April 3, 1865). 78. Ge)i. Sheridan, distinguished for his brilliant victo- ries over the Confederate forces in the Shenandoah valley, was ordered to pursue the retreating army of Lee ; and so 74. What campaifi^ns were planned in the eprinor of 18G5? What was accom- l^lislied by General Sherman ? By General Thomas '? 75. Describe Grant's campaign in Virginia. When and how was Richmond taken ? 76. What was done by Sheridan ? By Sherman, after leaving Savannah ? 390 AMERICAK IIISTOllY. [ISG5. Vigorously was the order obeyed, that in less than a week, Lee, being overtaken and surrounded, was compelled to surrender to Gen. Grant (April 9). Meanwhile, Sherman had continued his victorious march from Savannah. Pass- ing through South Carolina, he occupied Columbia, com- pelled the evacuation of Charleston and Fort Sumter ; an(\ entering North Carolina, defeated the Confederates in two l)attles (March). 77. The surrender of Lee was soon followed by that oi the other Confederate generals, and the great civil war was at an end, having been brought to a close by the most per- severing and gigantic eflforts ever put forth by any nation. Through all disasters and discouragements, the patriotic and high-minded president had resolutely striven to saA'e the integrity of the country, and had won the esteem and affection of all by his conscientious devotion to this noble cause. On the first of January, 1863, he had issued his memorable emaiicijMtion prodaniatioji, giving freedom to all the slaves in the Confederate States, excepting in such portions as were occupied by the national troops. By this more than three millions of slaves were declared free. 78. Having been re-elected president in the fall of 18G4, he had served but a few weeks of his second term, Avlien, in less than one Aveek after Lee's surrender, he was assassinated l)y a desperado acting in sympathy with the Confederate cause (April 1^1:). The intelligence of this sad event filled every loyal heart throughout the land with sorrow and dismay, and for several weeks all the great cities throughout the Noi'th were draped in badges and emblems of mourning. The funeral cortege Avas followed by hundreds of thousands of the citizens of the republic, as it wended its Avay from the capital to Springfield, the former home of the deceased 77. How did the rebellion end? What is remarked of President Lincoln « What proclamation did he i^sue in January, 18G3 ? What was its effect ? 78. When and by whom was Abraham Lincoln absassinated ? What yyhn the result ? 1869*] AMERICAiq^ HISTOllY. 391 president, — tlieuceforth to be rendered sacred as liis burial- place. 79. Johnson's Administration ( 18G5 - 18G0).— Andrew Jolmson became president by the death of Abraham Lincoln, April 15. The assassin of the late president was pursued, and refusing to surrender, was shot. ^lost of his accomplices were apprehended, and, after trial, Avere hung Jefferson i)«y/'5, president of the late Confederacy, who had fled to Georgia, was arrested ; but, after a long confinement in Fortress Monroe, was released. A resolution of Congress jn-oposing an amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery, having been api)roved by the requisite number of states, slavery Avas declared to be abolished (Dec. 18th, I8G0). At this time the national debt amounted to about $2,700,000,000. 80. NotAvithstanding the A'eto of the president, the " re- construction act" Avas passed, admitting the states recently in rebellion to their former participation in the govern- ment, on the adoption of re])ublican constitutions, and the election, by the suffrages of both Avhite and black citizens, of representatives, Avho had not been concerned 'n\ the rebellion. Under this laAv, most of the states have formally returned to their allegiance, and are noAv (1869) represented in Congress. During the year 1867, Nebraska Avas admitted into the Union, and the territorial possessions of the United States were incj-cased by the pui'chase of Russian America, to which the name Alaska Avas given. In the fall of 1868, General Grant and ScliuyJcr Colfax Avere elected president and vice-president, respectively, of the United States. 79. AAlio snccoeded Lincoln in the presidency? AA'liat wa? done with the assas- sin of the President, and his accomplices ? With Jellersou Davis ? How was slavery abolished ? AAliat did the national debt amount to ? 80. Wliat was the " reconstruction act V How was it passed? What were its chief provisions ? AA'hat has resulted from it ? AVhat new state Avas admitted in 18G7 ? What territory was purchased ? AVho were elected President and Vice President in 1808 V 392 AMERICAN HISTORY. [1825. Mexico. 81. Mexico was inhabited, previous to the discovery of America, by a race called the Aztecs, and had risen to a condition of considerable civilization and splendor. It had its orators and poets, its sculptors and architects ; and the mighty ruins which still greet tlie traveller amid the overgrowing forests, attest the genius and enterprise of its inhabitants. As already stated, this great nation was subdued by a few Spaniards under Cortez, a bold and un- scrupulous leader, and became a Spanish province (1521). 82. It thus remained for three centuries; but bitter dissensions grew up between the Spaniards and the Creoles md mixed races, and the government was frequently threatened with insurrection. This was particularly tlie case during the troubles in Spain occasioned by the Penin- sular war; but the viceroy succeeded in crushing the various chiefs who sprang up, and preserved the government from overthrow (1811). 83. The revolutionary movement, however, soon com- menced again ; and Iturhide (e-toor'hc-thci) became emperor in 1822, but in consequence of a tyrannical abuse of power was obliged to abdicate. This was followed by tlie estab- lishment of the independence of Mexico (182-4), which was soon acknowledged by all the principal foreign nations except Spain (1825). A government was then organized on the plan of that of the United States; but its benefits were entirely prevented by the ceaseless intrigues of the military leaders, each ambitious to acquire the supreme authority, and constantly plotting revolution to overturn the established government. 81. By whom was Mexico inhabited pre\iou9 to the discovciy of America! What is said of tlie Aztecs ? By whom was Mexico subdued ? 82. How long did it remain a in-ovince of Spain? What dissensions arose J When were there insurrections ? How were they subdued ? 83. Who became emperor in 1822 ? What followed ? When was tlie independ- ence of Mexico ackuowiedged by foreign nations ? AVhat government was organ ized ? How were ita beuollts preveutc'd ? 1867-J AMEBIC Aiq- HISTORY. 393 84. Prominent among these was Santa Anna, whose remarkable career presents a singular series of vicissitudes. Repeatedly made president or dictator, he has as often been deposed and driven into exile. During the war with tlie United States (1846-7), he was at the head of the govern- ment, and experienced a succession of disastrous defeats, resulting in the total prostration of the Mexican republic to the power of the United States. 85. Since liis final deposition and banishment in 1855, Mexico has been a constant scene of strife and anarchy ; and during the civil war waged by the rival chiefs Miramon (me'rah-mon) and Juarez {hwah'rez), such acts of flagrant injustice were committed against foreigners, that Great Britain, France, and Spain sent fleets into the Gulf of Mexico, to enforce satisfaction. The allied forces were about to proceed against the capital, when a treaty was entered into with the provisional government of Mexico by all the allies except France (18G2). 86. In April, 18G2, the French emperor declared war against Mexico, then under the government of Juarez, and having sent a considerable force there, captured PueUa (1863), and compelling Juarez to flee, took possession of the country. He then invited the Archduke Maximilian, brother of the emperor of Austria, to take the imperial throne of Mexico, which was accepted in 1864. It was, however, soon overturned by an insurrectionary movement under Juarez, who, gaining possession of the emperor, caused him to be shot (June 19, 1867). Since then, tlie country has continued under the rule of that successful popular leader. Oextral America. 87. Central America, like Mexico, was formerly inhabited 84. Who was prominent among the Mexican leaders? What is said of Santa Anna ? 85. What led to the interfer'ince of Great Britain, France, and Spain ? Wliat treaty was made ? 86. What was done by the French emperor? Who was made emperor of Mexico ? Bow and by whom was he deposed ? What followed ? 17* 304 AMERECAN" HISTORY. [1763. by the Aztecs, the massive riiius of whose cities still aston- ish the traveller amid its luxuriant tropical forests. It was subdued by the Spaniards soon after the conquest of Mexico, and remained in their possession until 1821, when it became a part of the dominions of the Mexican emperor Iturbide. After his fall (1823) the five states of Guatemala {givali-ie- inah'lah), Ilondu'ras, Nicaragua {nUc-a-rali' givah), San Salvador, and Costa Kica {reHcali). formed a federal union, with the title of the " United States of Central America." In 1839 the union was dissolved, and the states became independent republics. Belize {ha-leez'), since 1783, has been in the undisputed possession of Great Britain, and the Mosquito Kingdom, is an independent Indian state under British protection. The West Indies. 88. These islands were discovered by Columbus in his first voyage {lAQ%),Guaiiciliani, or San Salvador, being the first spot of the new world on which he landed. His dis- covery of these islands gave to the Spaniards the exclusive rightwhich they claimed to their possession. All the larger islands were soon colonized by them ; and such was their harsh and cruel treatment of the mild and inoffensive aborigines, that the latter soon became almost extinct. Their places as slaves were then sup})licd by the unfortu- nate negroes, kidnapped from their homes in Africa. The smaller islands, left uninhabited, became places of shelter for the pirates, called Bnccancers. who swarmed in the Caribbean {car-iJj-b^ an) Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and made navigation subject to great peril and disaster. 89. Cuba, still in the possession of Spain, was attacked in I7G2 by the British ; and Havana was taken at the point 87. I'y whom was Central America formerly inhabited ? By whom was it sub- dued ? What happened in 18-21 ? In 1823 ? When was the union dissolved ? Wliat is said of Belize ? Of the Mosquito kingdom ? 8 8. Who discovered the West Indies ? Which of them were colonized by the Spaniards ? What was their treatment of the natives ? Who were the Baccaueere ! 1803.1 amertca:n' history. 395 of the bayonet. It was, liowever, given back the next year. Sir Francis Drake distinguished himself for seyeral success- ful attacks on the Spanish possessions in the West Indies, particularly Porto Rico. Jamaica was colonized by the Spaniards in 1509 ; and by means of the enforced labor of the Indians, and subsequently of the negroes, great quanti- ties of sugar, cotton and other rich products, were raised. It was taken by an expedition under Admiral Penn and Gen. Venables, sent out by Cromwell in 1655. In 1834, the slaves were emancipated by the British government, but were bound as apprentices to their former masters. In 1865, a negro insurrection broke out, but was put down by the prompt and terribly severe measures of Governor Eyre (Ire). 90. Hayti {ha' tee), or His-pan-i-o'la {Little Spain) was discovered by Columbus in 1492, and remained the undis- puted property of Spain until 1697, when the western part of the island was surrendered to France. The latter part attained a high degree of prosperity, while the Spanish set- tlements languished and declined. In 1790, the population of the island was estimated at 550,000, a large part of whom were negro slaves. During the French revolution (1794), the negroes found an heroic champion in one of their number named ToiissaintL' Ouverture {too' sang loo'ver-ture), who contended for a long time, with great success, against the white oppressors of his race, finally proclaiming him- self Emperor of Hayti, in imitation of Napoleon. At last taken prisoner by the French, he was sent to France, and was confined in prison, where lie died after ten months' captivity (1803). 91. The sad fate of this man, the greatest and noblest 89. By whom was Cuba attacked in 1762 ? What was done by Drake ? Give a sketch of the history of Jamaica. 90. By whom was Uayti discovered ? What happened in 1773? Wiiat was the population in 1790 ? Give the history of Toussaint L'Ouverture. 91. What is remarked of his late? When was the Haytien Republic estab- lished ? The Republic of St. Domingo ? Who was Soulouque ? What title did he ciBPume ? Wlien did he abdicate ? 300 AMETUOAN IIISTOIiY. ri8K». of tlio negroes inciMtioncd in hlnlory, Ikih j-ellceiod undying disgrjiec upon ISIiipoleon J., by whom lie was thus eruelly irculcd for Ibllowiii;^ liis (!Xtinij)l<', l)iii witli a nmoli more j)al,rio(,i(; dcvolioii l,o his coiinii-y and his raee. Aflcr many years of ii-oiihlc, (182^), ihe Jhtjiticu Jlcjmljlio was estal)- lished, l-o vv'hicii ihe SjKinish ])Oi'tion of tlve island was annexed. Iti IS 11, Ihc inhabitants of the lattei", by a Bnccessrii! insnncetion, i'ormed themselves into a separate republic, under the name of HI. Domhujo. A few years iifterwai'd (1840), Souloiiqiw (soo-look'), tlie president of the llaytien republic, made, an unsuccessful attemi)t to subju- gate St. Domingo; but the next year he succeeded in making himself cmjx'i-or of Iljiyfi, witii the; tit](! of Fdiistin I. In 1850, iiowevcr, Ik; was compelled to abdicate, and the n'j)ul)ii(; was restored. NOTES. 1. <'oliiitibiiK III Chains (p. 360, If 1).— "While Columbup, iluring his third voyage, in 141)8, was iiiiiking discoveries in the New Worhl, his eiunnies iu Spain ' artfully cndeavorcul to undermine his credit with his sovereign,' by circu- lating false reports about his integrity and loyalty. At last the queen acquiesced in sending out a connnission to investigate tlie aiTairs of the colony (Ilispaniola). The person appointed to this delicate trust was Don Fran(;isco do Rob-a-dil-la. * * * Frf)nj the very first, liobadilla regarded Columbus iu the light of a convicted criminal, on whom it was his business to ex-tou (p. 379, H 51).—" This," says an ofdcer in Ross's army, " was a night of dismaj to the inhabitants of Washing- ton. The streets were crowded with men, women, and children, horses, carriages, and carts loaded with household furniture, all hastening toward a wooden bridge which crosses the Potomac." * * * * " At a small beer house opposite to the Treasury, fire was procured, Avith which the Treasury and then the President's liouse were set fire to. Before setting fire to the latter building, it was ransacked /for booty, especially for objects of curiosity, to be carried off as spoils; but few were found. Some pictures and books, chosen from Mr. Madison's library, were all that were deemed worth preserving, except a small parcel of pencil notes, which, during the last few days, had been received by Mrs. Madison from her husband, while he was with the troops, and which she had rolled up together and put into a table-drawer. To all the rest of the contents of the building — furniture, wines, provisions, groceries, and family stores, together with an excellent library— the torch was applied. After incendiarism had done its worst, both at the President's house and the Navy Yard, indiscriminate piUage closed the scene. * * * * But the day's victory and night's devastation brought the conquerors to a pause and retirement." — IngersoU's Second War loith Great Britain. NOTES. 9. The Slar-Spangled Banner (p. 379, H 51).— " During the tremen- dous bombardment of Fort McHeury, Francis S. Key lay in a little vessel under the British admiral's frigate. He had visited the fleets for the purpose of obtaining an exchange of some prisoners of war, especially of one who was a personal friend, and was directed to remain till after the action. During the day his eye had rested eagerly on that low fortification over which the flag of his country was flying; and he watched with the iuteusest anxiety the progress of each shell in its flight, rejoicing when it fell short of its aim, and filled with fear as he saw it descend without exploding within those silent enclosures. At night, when darkness shutout that object of so much intense interest, around which every hope and desire of his life seemed to cling, he still stood straining his eyes through the gloom, to catch, if he could, by the light of the blazing shells, a glimpse of his country's flag, waving proudly in the storm. The early dawn found him stiU a watcher; and there, to the music of bursting shells and the roar of cannon, he composed 'The Star-Spangled Banner.' "—Headley's Second War with England. 10. Jackson's Cotton-Bale Befenses of New Orleans (p. 378, IF 52). — " Each company had its own line ot embankment to throw up, which it called its castle, and strained every muscle in fierce but friendly rivalry to make it overtop the castles of the rest. The nature of the soil rendered the task one of peculiar difiiculty. Dig down three feet anywhere in that singular plain, and you come to water. Earth soon becomes the scarcest of commodities near the lines, and had to be brought from far after the first hours. An idea occurs to an ingen- ious French intellect. Cotton bales ! The town is full of cotton. And, lo, here, close to the lines, is a vessel laden with cotton, waiting for a chance to get to sea. The idea, however, plausible as it was, did not stand the test of service. The first cannonade knocked the cotton bales about in a manner that made General Jacksou more eager to get rid of them than he had been to use them. Some of the bales, too, caught fire, and made a most intolerable and persistent smoke, so that, before the final conflict, every pound of cotton was removed from the lines. A similar error was made by the enemy, who, supposing that sugar would off"er resistance to cannon-balls equal to sand, employed hogsheads of t^ugar in the formation of their batteries. The first ball that knocked a hogshead to pieces, and kept on its destructive way unchecked, convinced them that sugar and sand, though often found together, have little in common." — Parton's Life of Jackson. 11. The Kusb for Gold (p. 3S3, H 62).— " An agent of the United States Government, who visited California about three mouths after the first discovery of gold there, reported that, ' San Francisco was deserted of nearly aU its male inhabitants, and even females were very scarce. The mills in the vicinity were idle, the fields were open to cattle, the houses were vacant, and the farms going to waste. At Sutter's, where the discovery was made, there was much life and bustle. Flour was selling at thirty-six dollars a barrel (it sold afterwards at a hundred), and Captain Sutter was carefully gathering his crop of wheat, estimated at forty thousand bushels. The captain had two mechanics in his employ, to each of whom he gave ten dollars a day. A two-story house, within the fort, was rented as a hotel at five hundred dollars a month. At a place about twentj^-five miles up the American fork of the Sacramento river, there was a mining camp in full operation. Canvas tents and arbor3 of bushes covered the hill-side. There was a store, and several shanties were used as boarding-houses. The sun poured down its rays with intense heat upon two hundred miners working for gold, some using tin pans, some baskets, and some rude cradles.' "—Tutldll's History q/ California. AMERICAN HISTORY. 397 CHRONOLOGICAL KECxiPITULATIOK A. D. 1493. Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. 1497. IMuinlancl of Nortli America reached by John Cabot. 1498. ]\Iainland of South America reached by Columbus. 1499. Vo3'age of Vespucci and Ojeda. 1500. Coast of Brazil reached by Cabral. 1512. Discovery of Florida by Pouce de Leou. 1518. Pacific Ocean first seen by Balboa. 1519-22. Voyage of Magellan. 1521. Conquest of Mexico by Cortes. 1524. Coast of North America explored by Verrazzani. 1530. Rio dc la Plata explored by Sebastian Cabot. 1533. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro. 1534. Gulf and river of St. Lawrence discovered by Cartier. 1539. Amazon River explored by Orellana. 1541. Mississippi River discovered by De Soto. " Santiago, Chili, founded by Valdivia. 1505. St. Augustine, Florida, founded by the Spaniards. 1580. Buenos Ayres founded by the Spaniards. 1585. First English Colony on the island of Roanoke. 1005. Port Royal, Acadia, settled by De Monts. 1007. Virginia (I.) settled at Jamestown by the English. 1008. Quebec settled by the French under Champlain. 1 009. The Hudson River discovered by the Dutch under Hudson. 1014. New York (II.) settled by the Dutch at New Amsterdam. 1020. Massachusetts (III.) settled by the Pm'itans at Plymouth. 1023. New Hampshire (IV.) settled by the English. 1030. Boston settled by the English. 1033. Connecticut (V.) settled by emigrants from Massachusetts. 1034. Maryland (VI.) settled by the English Catholics. 1030. Rhode Island (VII.) settled by Roger Williams. 1038. Delaware (VIII.) settled by the Swedes. 1050. North Carolina (IX.) settled by emigrants from Virginia. 1004. New Netherlands takeil by the English. " New Jersey (X.) settled by the English at Elizabethtown. 1070. South Carolina (XL) settled by the English. 1082. Pennsylvania (XII.) settled by the Quakers under Penn. 1091. Mouth of the Mississippi discovered by La Salle. 1710. Port Royal taken by the English, and named Annapolis. 1732. Georg<3 Washington born in Virginia, (February 22). • 1733. Georgia (XIII.) settled by the English at Savannah. 398 america:n' iirsTORy. 1754. Commencement of tlie French and Indian War. 1759. Quebec taken by the English. Death of General Wolfe. 17G3. Treaty of Paris. Canada given up to the English. 17G5. Passage of the Stamp Act. 1773. The tea thrown ovei'board at Boston. 1774. The First Gontinenial Congress me-t at Philadelphia. 1775. Battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill. " Montgomeiy slain at Quebec. 177G. Declaration of American Independence (July 4th). *' Battles of Long Island and Trenton. 1777. Battles of Chad's Ford and Germantown. " Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga (October 17th). 1778. American independence acknowledged by France. " Battle of IMonmouth. 1779. Repulse of the Americans and French at Savannah. 1780. Charleston taken by the British. " Gates defeated by Cornwallis at Camden. " Treason of Benedict Arnold. 1781. Greene's Campaign in the South. " Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown (October 19tlr;. 1783. Independence of U. S. acknowledged by Great Britain. 1787. Constitution of U. S. adopted by the Convention at Phila- delphia. 1789. Washington (I.) the first President of the United States. 1791 Vermont admitted into the Union. 1792. Kentucky admitted into the Union. 1796. Tennessee admitted into the Union. 1797. -John Adams (II.) President of the United States. 1799. Death of Washington. 1800. Capital of U. S. removed from Philadelphia to Washington. 1801. Thomas Jefferson (III.) President of the United States. 1803. Louisiana purchased from France. " Death of Toussaint L'Ouverture in prison in France. 1809. James Madison (IV.) President of the United States. 1811. Victory over the Indians at Tippecanoe by General Harrison. 1813. War declared by the United States against Great Britain. " Surrender of Detroit by General Hull. 1813. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. " Victory at the Thames by General Harrison. 1814. Battles of Chippewa and Lundy Lane. " The city of Washington taken by General Ross. " Treaty of peace signed at Ghent. AMERICAN" HISTORY. 399 1815. Victory over the British nt New Orleans by Jackson. 1817. James Monroe (V.) President of the United States. 1820. Passage of the Missouri Comjjromise bill. 1826. Independence of Peru acknowledged by Spain. 1825. John Quincy Adams (VI.) President of the United States. " Independence of Mexico acknowledged. 1829. Andrew Jackson (VII.) President of the United States. 1835. War with the Seminoles in Florida. 1837. Martin Van Buren (VIII.) President of the United States. " Defeat of the Seminoles by Taylor. 1841. William Henry Harrison (IX.) President of the United States, " John Tyler (X.) President of the United States. 1842. The war with the Seminoles terminated. 1845. James K. Polk (XI.) President of the United States. " Texas admitted into the Union. 1846. Commencement of war between the United States and Mexico 1847. Victory over Santa Anna by Taylor at Buena Vista. " The city of j\Iexico taken by General Scott. 1848. Treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico. 1849. Zachary Taylor (XII.) Pi'esidcnt of the United States. 1850. Death of President Taylor. " Millard Fillmore (XIII.) President of the United States. '* California admitted into the Union. " Soulouque {Faustin T.) Emperor of Hayti. 1853. Franklin Pierce (XIV.) President of the United States. 1854. Passage of Kansas and Nebraska bill. 1857. James Buchanan (XV.) President of the United States. 1859. Abdication of Soulouque, Emperor of Hayti. 1860. Secession ordinance passed by South Carolina. 1861. Secession ordinances passed by ten other States. *' Abraham Lincoln (XVI.) President of the United States. " Beginning of the great war of the Rebellion. " First battle of Bull Run. 1862. New Orleans taken by the Unionists. " The Seven Days' battles under McClellan. " Defeat of the Union army at Bull Run. " Victory over the Confederates at Antietam by McClellan. War declared against Mexico by France. 1863. Emancipation proclamation issued by President Lincoln. " Victory gained by Rosecrans at Murfreesboro. " Defeat of the Unionists at Chancellorsvillc. '* Defeat of the Confederates under Lee at Gettysburg. 400 AMERICAN HISTORY. 1863. Vicksburg taken by General Grant. 1864. Campaii^n of Grtint in Virginia. Petersburg besieged. " Atlanta taken by General Sherman. *' Battle of Nashville, Confederates defeated by Thomas. 1865. Surrender of General Lee. End of the Rebelhon. *' Assassination of President Lincoln. " Andrew Johnson (XVIL) President of the United States. " Slavery abolished throughout the United States. 1867. Kcconstruction Bill passed by Congress. " The Emperor Maximilian shot in IVIexico. 1808. Election of General Grant and Schuyler Colfax^ President and Vice-President of the United States. AMERICAN HISTOKT. 401 RE\1EW QUESTIONS. rAGi 1. What important voyages were made to America in the 15th centurj ? 227-234-:359 2. Whf.t important voyages were made iu the lOth century ? 3tJ0-3()l 3. Give a sketch of the colonial history of Virginia Sfil 4. Of Massachusetts 361 5. Of New Hampshire. ... Sfi! 6. Of Connecticut 302 7. Of Rhode Island m 8. Of New York 363-363 9. Of New Jersey 3(i.] 10. Of Maryland 303-364 11. Of Pennsylvania 364 12. Of Delaware 364-365 13. Of Georgia 365 14. Of North and South Carolina . . 360-365 15. Of Louisiana 366 16. What French colonies were established in America ? 365-36^6 17. What did the Portuguese accomplisii in America ? 366-367 18. Who was Pizarro, and what did he accomplish ? 367- 368 19. What else was accomplished for Spain in South America ? 368 20. In what wars did the British colonies of America suffer ? 270-301 21. Give a sketch of the causes of the Revolutionary war 369-370 22. What military events took place before Independence was declared?.. 370-371 23. Give an account of those that occurred iu Massachusetts 370-371 24. Give an account of the other events of the year 1775 370-371 25. What events of importance took place in 1776 ? 371-373 26. Describe the battle of Long Island and Washington's retreat to Penna. 371 27. What were the important events of 1777 ? 371-372-373 28. Describe Washington's contests with General Howe 371-372 29. Give an account of the invasion and surrender of Burgoyne 372-373 30. Give an account of the events of 1778 373 31. Give an account of the events of 1771 •3 32. Give an account of the events of 1780 373-374 33. Give an account of the events of 1781, and close of the v/ar 374 ?4. What is said of the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution?,.. 374-375 35. Give an outline of the events of Washington's administration 375 36. Of John Adams's 375 37. Of Jefferson's 375-370 38. What were the causes of the second war with England ? , 376 39. Give a sketch of the military events previous to 1813 376 40. Give a sketch of the military events of 1813 376 41. Give a sketch of the military events of 1814 377-378 42. Give a sketch of the naval events of the war 376-377-275 43. What were the important events of Monroe's adrainistratioL ? 37S-379 44. Of John Q. Adams's ? 379 45. Of Jackson's ? 379-380 46. Of Van Buren'6 ? 380 47. Of Tyler's ? m 48. Give the cause and commencement of the Mexican war 380-381 49. Give an account of the events of 1846 381 50. Give an account of the events of 18^17 381-382 ^51. When was a treaty made, and what were its terms ? 382 '^52. What were the events of Taylor's and Fillmore's administration ? 382 53. Of Pierce's? 382^383 54. Of Buchanan's ? 383-3S-I 55. Relate the causes which led to the " Great Civil War" 3S4-3Sf 56. What did the Confederates do before the inauguration of Lincoln ? . . . . 38.' 57. What afterward occurred before ilcClellan took command ? 38E 58. Give an account of McClelkin's movements 385- 3S6- 387 59. Give an account of the operations in Missouri 386 60. Give an account of the operations iu Louisiana 38 Cabot, Sebastian 234, 359, 368 Ca-bral' 3I8, 306 Cabul (kah-bool') 278 Cade, Jack 18I Ca-de'sia {-she-ah) 150 Cadiz {ka'diz) 25 Cssar, Julius 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 Ciesars. the Twelve Ill Cairo (Ai'ro) 153, 309 Ca-la'bri-a 223 Calais {kal'is) 174, 196, 239, 291 Ca'led 150 California 381, 382 Ca-liij'u-la, Caius 106, 108, 110, 114 Cal'vin 344 Cam-by'sSs. 21,24,29,31 Cam'den 374 Ca-mil'lus 72, 74, 75 Cam-pa'ni-a 83,110 Campbell, Sir Col'in 279 Campo Formio, Treaty of 309 Canada. . . 270, 278, 303, 366, 371, 372, 380 Ca-na'ries 25 Cannie {kati'ne) SO, 81 Cannes (A;a/i) 316 Cannon 154, 174 Ca-nos sa 215 Can-ton' 2S0 C'a-nute' the Great 159 Cap'et, Hugh (or kd'pet) 147, 187 Capetian Dynasty 147 Ca'po d'Is'tri-a 353 Cap-pa-do cia {-she-ah) 84, 118 Ca'pre-ie 106,108 Capu-a 81,91 Car-a-cal la 11; Ca-rac'ta-cu8 107 406 INDEX. PAGE Cardinal de Retz {ratz) 290 Car-ib-be'an Sea 393 Ca-ri'niis 120 Carlisle (kar-lile') 172 Car'lo-man 144 Car-lo-vin'gi-an Dynasty 144, 22^* Car-Iyle' 281 Car-o-li'na 360 Caroline of Brunswick 27(5 Carr, Robert 246 Car'te-ret, Sir George. 303 Car'thage, 29, 77, 78, 79, SO, 81, 82, 85, 86 126, 151 Car-tha-^e'na 268 Cartier {ka?--te-a') 360 Cas'pi-an 16, 31, 94 Cas-san'der 57, 58 Cas'si-mer, John 334 Cassias (kash'e-us) 94, 97, 98, 99 Cassias, Spurius '. 70 Castile {cas-ted') 225, 227 Catliarine de' Medici {med'e-che). 290, 292. 293, 294 Catharine of Ar'a-gon 2^34 Catharine I. of Russia 342, a51 Catharine II. of Russia 342, 351 Cat'i-llne 93 Ca'to 97 Cau'ca-sus 343 Cau'dlne ForliS 75 Cavaliers 250 Gawn-pore' 279 Caxt'on, William 183 Cecil {ses'il). Lord Burleigh 240 Cecrops {se'krops) 37 Cel-ti-be'ri-a, (note) 86 Cel-ti-be'ri-ans 86 Central America 392 Cer'ro Gor'do 3t.2 Chad's Ford 372 Chn\d.Qai (kal-de' ah) 12 Chaldees {kal-dez) 13 Champagne (sham-pan'ya) 187 Champlain {sham-plane') 366 Chancellor de I'Hopital {lo'pe-tal) 292 Chancellorsville 3S7 Charlemagne {shar'le-mahn) 144, 145, 146. 148, 152, 213, 220, 221 Charles Albert, of Savoy 345 Charles the Bold 201, 202, 219 Charles the Fat 146 Charles the Simple 146, 160 Charles the Pretender 269, 270 Charles I. of England 247, 299 Charles II. of England, 253, 254, 257, 300, 363, 364 Charles II. of Spain 301 Charles IV. of France 174, 196 Charles IV, of Bohemia 218 Charles V. of France 198 Charles V. of Germany, 235, 2S8, 289, 290, 291, 325, 34(), 350 Charles VI. of France 198, 199 Charles VI. of Germany 269, 328 Charles VII. of France 199, 200, 201 Charles VIII. of France 285, 286 Charles IX. of France 292, 293, 3t0 Charles X. of France 318 Charles XI. of Sweden 3:38 PAGH Charles Xn. of Sweden. . . . 338, 311, 351 Charles XIII. of Sweden 339 Charles XIV. of Sweden 339 Charles XV. of Sweden 339 Charles of Anjou 193, 224 Charles of Valois {val-ivah') 195 Charles, Archduke of Austria 313 Charleston 365, 371, 373, 385, 389 Chartists 278 Chatham, Earl of 271, 272 Chaucer {chau'sei^) 176 Chesapeake Bay 372, 3S5 Chesapeake, the Frigate 376 Chev'y Chase, Ballad of 178 Chick-a-mau'ga 387 Chili {che'le) 367, 368 China 138, 222, 280 Chinese Tartary 137 Chip'pe-wa 377 Chceronea {ke-ro-ne'ah) 51 Christ 9, 105, 123 Christian II. of Denmark 337 Christian IV. of Denmark 326, 339 Christian IX. of Denmark 340 Christianity 148, 165, 331 Christians, Persecution of, 107, 112, 113, 117, 121 Christina {kiis-ti'nah) 338 Christina of Spain 340 Chronolotry 9 Church, English 236 Church, Greek 137 Church, Romish 137, 236, 249 Chrysostom {kHs'os-tom) 131 Cicero {sis'e-ro) 93. 98, 99 Cilicia {se-lish'^-ah) Ill, 118 Cimon {si'tnon) 43 Cim'bri-ans {sim-) 88, 89 Cin-cin-na'tu8 71 Cinna (sin'nah) 90 Cis-al'pine Gaul 89 Cisalpine Republic 309 Citium (sish'e-um) 43 Clairvaux (clare-vo') 208 Clar'en-don 163 Clarendon, Constitutions of 164 Clau'di-us 106, 107, 109, 119 Clay, Henry 382 Cle-ar'chus (-kus) 46 Clem'ent, the Assassin of Henry HI. 294 Clement v.. Pope 194 Clement Vll., Pope 235, 290 Cle-om'e-nes 59, 60 Cle'on 44, 45 Cle-o-pat'ra 96, 99, 100 Cler-mont' 206 Clifford, Rosamond 166 Clinton, George 373, 374 Clisson (kles'song), Oliver 195 Cllve, Lord 271 Clon'tarf 165 Clo-til'da 143 ; Clo'vis 143 Clusium {kill' iQ\h\ {del'le) 279 De Leon, Ponce {da la-on\ pon'tha). 359 De'li-um 44 Del'phi 50, 59, 62, 63 Delta of the Nile 22 De-me'tri-us Pha-le're-us 57 Demetrius Po-li-or-ce'tes 57, 58, 59 De Monts (da mong) 3()5 De Mont'fort, Simon . 191 De-mos'the-nes 51,56,99 Denmark, 146, 147, 148, 158, 263,302,337..S39 De Quincey 281 De Ruyter (ri'ter) 255, 259 Der'went River 160 Deseze (duh-sdz') 308 De So'to 360 Dettingen (def ling-en) 2(i9 De Witt 300 Diaz (de'az), Bartholomew 227 408 IKDEX. PAGE Dickens 281 Dictator 09 Diflo 25 Did'i-us Ju-li-a'nus 114 Die^kau (de-es-ko') 270 Di'et, German 213, 320, 329, 330 Di-o-clo'ti-an {-sJie-an) 120, 121 Dionysius {di-0-nisk e-us 78 Dnieper {ne'per) 340, 351 Dniester {nees'ter) 340 Doge of Venice 221 Domes'dayBook 101 Domitian {do-inish' e-an) ... . — 110, 111 Don Carlos 347 Don Carvalho {kar-val'yo) 348 Don Miguel {im'ghel) 'iV.) Don River 340, 350 Don'nel-son, Fort." 380 Dor 'ches-ter Ueiglits , 371 Do ri-aus 35 Doris U Douglas 178 Dover 301 Dra'co 37 Drake, Sir Francis 241 Dre.s'deu 315 Dru'sus 104 Dry'deu 202 Dublin 105 Dubois {du-bwah') •3U2 Dudley 2:34 Dudley, Lord Guilford 2:38 Du Guesclin {ga-klang') 198, 225 Du-il'li-us 78, 79 Dumourier {du-moo-re-a') 307 Dun'bar 171, 254, 250 Dun'kirk 256, 258 Du Quesue {kane) 270 Durazzo (doo-rat'so) 223 Dur'tiam 174 Dutch Republic 20(J Earl of Essex 2 14, 251, 295 Earl of Lind'say 251 Earl of Mar 207 Earl of Richmond 183, 184 Earl of Surrey 235,- 237, 2:38 , Earl of Warwick ISO, 181, 182, 233 EastAnglia 148 East Indies 222 East Locris 34 E'bro 145, 152 Ec-bata-na 17,32,54,55 Eckmuhl 313 Ecuador (ek-wah-dor') 3( )8 E'den-ton 305 Edes-sa 207,208 Edgehill 251 Edict of Nantes (nantz) 295, 301, 3:31 Edinburgh {ed'in-bur-ro) 251, 2()9 Edmund Ironside 159 Edward 1 109, 194 Edward II 172,190 Edward III 173, 190, 209, 210 Edward IV 181, 2:32, 2:33 Edward V 183 Edward VI 2:38, 2:39, 240 Edward the Confessor 159, 160, 161 VAGM Edward the Eider 157 E-gal'i-te, Philip. 308 Eg'bert 148, 157 Egypt, 11, 14, 15, 19, 49, 53, 54, 58, 93, 95 100, 135, 150, 309, 352 Egyptians, civilization of 22 Eilau {i'low) 312 Ek'ron 20 El-a-gab'a-lus 116 E'lam 13 El'iia 275. .316 El'ean-or of Guienne {ghe-en'), 103, Kib I9f El'i-ot, Sir John ^7,248 E'lis 34, 35, (S Elizabeth of England, 238, 247, 292, 360 Elizabeth of Russia 342 Ehzabethtown 303 El-len-bor'ough, Lord 278 Embalming 24 Em'e-sa 115 Era'son 2:34 England (ing' gland), 148, 157, 232, :353, .300 English Justinian 172 E-pam-i-non'das 48, 49 Eph'e-sus 01 Eph'o-ri .36 E-pi'rus 33, .34, 58, 70, 95 Era, Christian 8, 105 Era of Martyrs 121 Erie, Lake 377 E'sar-had'don 15 Essex 148 Essex, Earl of 244 Eth'el-red, the Unready 158, 159 E-tru'ria 72, 73 E-trus'cans 75 E-thi-o'pi-a 11, 15,21,23,^,29 Euboea {n-be'ah) ;34 Eu-dox'i-a 126, 1-31 Eugene, Prince 206, 301, .328 Eu-phra'tes 12, 27, 31, 54, 58, 84, 94 Europe 11, 54, 142, 152, 153, 175, 206, 210, 221 Europe, Central and Southern 213 European States 325 Eu-ry-bi'a-des 40 Eu-rym'e-don 43 Eux'ine 47,02, 125 Eves'ham 170 Ex-ar'chate of Ra-ven'na. .. 1:34, 114, 221 Eyre (ire)., Governor 394 E-zXi'ki-el 21 ' E'zi-on-ge'ber 27 Ez'ra 32 F. Fa'b-i-us Max'i-mus 80, 81 Faineants (/a-7?a-(wg'0 144 Fairfax, Lord 251 Fairfax, Sir Thomas 252 Fair Oaks. Battle of 386 Falkirk {faui'kirk) 171 Falkland ( fcnck'land), Lord 251 Faroe (Ja'ro) Islands W^ Far'ra-gut, Admiral 386 Fat'i-mites, Kingdom of 153 Faus-ti'na 113 Fawkes, Guy {faxix, ghi) 245 IKDEX. 409 PAGE Fer'di-nand the Catholic 226, 28() Ferdinand II. of Germany 32H, 337 Ferdinand VII. of Spain 318, 347 Ferdi nand of Bohemia 326, 327 Feudal System 153 Fill'more, Mii'lard 382 Fin'land 331 Firearms, commencement of u?e of. 174 (note), 2;W Fish'er, Bishop 236 Flanders. . . 187, 194, 199, 202, 265, 266, 300 Flemings 194,199 Fleu'ry, Abhe de 3U2 Fleury, Cardinal 302 Flod'den Field, Battle of 2:3.5 Flor'ence 346, 359 Florence, First Duke of 290 Florida 360, 378, 379, 3-5 Fontenaille {fon-te-nel') 145, 213, 220 Fontenoy (Jon-ta-n wah') 269 Foth'er-in-gay Castle 242 Fox 273 France. . . 143, 1S7, 244, 285, 352. 360, • 375, 376, Franche Comte (fransh Tcong'ta) — Francis I. of France 288, Francis I. of Germany Francis II. of France 242, Francis II. of Austria Francis of Lorraine Francis, Duke of Guise (gweez) Fran-co'ni-an Emperors "of Germany Frank'fort 241, Franklin, Benjamin Franks 142, 209, 213, Franks, Sali-an Frederick Barbarossa 208, Frederick, Elector-palatine Frederick of Austria Frederick of Bohemia Frederick the Great (of Prussia) 329, Frederick I. of Denmark Frederick II. of Germany 209, Frederick III. of Germany Frederick III. of Prussia Frederick William, the Great Elector Frederick William I. of Prussia — Frederick William III. of Prussia... Frederick William IV. of Prussia. . . Fredericksburt;, Battle of Fre-raont', John C French and Indian War Friedland {freed' land) Battle of Fro'bish-er Fronde, Civil War of Fu'ri-us Ca-Qiillas 573, 392 300 325 328 291 329 328 291 214 329 373 221 143 ,215 326 218 326 271, 332 339 216 219 332 331 332 332 333 387 381 366 312 241 2'.t9 70 Ga'des 25 Gaeta {gah-a'tah) 320 Gage, General 369. 370 Ga-!a'tia {-she-cih) 59, 84 Gal'ba 108 Ga-le'ri-us 121 Gal-li-e'-nu9 118,119 Gama (ghah'mah), Vasco da 227 Gar-i-bal'di 320, 345 Gas'co-ny 187 l8 Gas'ton de Foix {fivah). Gaston, Duke of Orleans. Gates, General Gath PAGK 287 298 273, 373, 374 2(i Gau-ga-me'la 54 Gaul 88, 94, 97, 125, 126, 14.3, 147 Gauls 59,75,94 Ga'za 53 Gelon ije'lon) 78 Ge-ne'va . 211, 344 Genoa (jen'o-ah) 211, 222, 3 15, :359 Genseric {jen'se?'-ik) 126 Geoffrey {jef're) 166, 1 67 George I. of England 267 George I. of Greece 3.53 George II. of England 269, 365 George III. of England 271, 275 George IV. of England 276, 277 George, Prince ol^'Denmark 263 Georgia 268,365,385,388 Gepidte (jep'e-de) 134 Ger-man'i-cus 105, 106 Ger'man-town 372 Germany, 105, 134, 144, 146, 188, 213, 287, 325 Germanic Confederation 3.29 Gesler (ghes'ler) 217 Geta ije'tah) 115 Gettysburg (ghet-) 387 Ghent 275, 33(i, 378 Ghib'el-lTnes 215, 220 Gibbon, a distinguished historian... 276 Gibraltar (jib-rawl' ter) 151, 266 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 360 Girondists {zhe-rond' ists) 307, 308 Glencoe. Massacre of 264 Glen'dow-er, Owen 17S God'frey of Bouillon (boo-eel-ijong'), 207, 221 Godwin. Earl 159 Gon-zal'vo of Cordova 287 Good Hope, Cape of, 223, 227, 241, 269, 348, 367 Gor'di-an 117, 119 Gordon, Lady 233 Gorges (gor'jez), Ferdinand 361 Go'shen. the Land of 20 Gos'nold, Bar-thol'o-mew 360 Goths, 117, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 133 Gower, a distinguished poet 176 Grac'chus, Ca'i-us 87 Grac'chus, Ti-be'ri-us 86,87 Granada {grah-nak' dak) 22(i Grand Alliance 265, 301 Gran-i'cus 53, .54 Grant, General .... 386, 387, 388, 389, 390 Gratian iqra' she-an) 123 Gray, a distinguished poet 276 Gray, Elizabeth 182 Great Britain, 312, 316, 352, 369, 374. 375, 376, 392 Great Desert 22 Grecian Colonies 39. 6t Greece 33, 84, 124, 452 Greek Empire 131, 137 Greek Fire 155, 151 Greek Historians 14 Greeks 35, 47, 138, 352, 353 Greene, General 87'1 410 IXDEX. PAGE Greenland 146 Greff 'o-ry the Great 134, 148 Gregory VII., Pope. . . . 205, 214, 215, 224 Gregory X., Pope 217 Grey, Lady Jane . . 2:38 Gnaiiahani (givali nah-Jiah' m) 393 Guatemala (rjwah-te-mah'lah) 393 Guiana (gM-ah'nali) 245 Guieune (g/ie-en').. 103, 187, 190, 194, 196 Guelphs igwelfs) 215, 220 (iuis'card (or ghees-kar'), Robert, 223. 2^ Gunpowder, invention of, 174, (note), 2:32, (note) Gus-ta'vus A-dol'phu8 297, 327, 338 Gustavus Vasa {vah'sah) 337 Gustavus IV. of Sweden 339 H. Hale, Sir Matthew 262 Hal'i-doun Hill 173 Ha'lys River... 16, 18 Ham 12 Ilam'burg 216, 314 Ham-il'car 79 Ham'il-ton, Alexander 375 Hampden Qiam'den), John. . 250, 251, 201 Han 'ui-bal 79, 80, 81, 82 Ilan'o-ver 267,271,277 Han'sa 216 Hanse Towns 314 Han-se-at'ic League 216 Haps'bnrg 217 Hard'i-ca-nute 159 Har-fleur' 197,199 Har'old 159, 100 Harold Harefoot 159 Ilaroun al Raschid {Jia'rooa al rash'id), 1.52 Har'ri-pon, General 376, 377, 3S0 Hart'ford 362 Hast'ingi, Battle of 100 Hast'ings, Lord 183 Hasting(<, Warren 272, 273 Havana {hah-vak' nah) 393 Hav'e-lock, General 279 Haw'kini? 241 Hay ti {ka'tee) 394 Hay'ti-en Republic 395 Haz'a-el 26 He-gi'ra 149 He'li-o-gab'a-lus 115, 116 Hel'las 33, 34, 61 Hel-le'nes 34, 353 Hel'le-spont 40, 45, 53, 137 Hen'ghist 147 Henry of Burgundy 227 Henry I. of England 162, 190 Henry II. of England 163, 190 Henry III. of England 169, 192, 193 Henry IV. of England 178 Henry V. of England 179, lii9 Henry VI. of England 180, 200 Henrj- VII. of England, 184, 217, 232, 242. 285, 359 Henry VIII. of England, 234, 243, 287, 288, 290 Henry I. of France 189 Mcnry II. of France 290 PA en Henry HI. of France 294, 334 Henry IV. of France 247, 294, 365 Henry I. of Germany, (the Fowler). 213 Henry II. of Germany 214 Henry III. of Germanv 214 Henry IV. of Germany, 214, 215, 224, 244 Henry V. of Germany 215 Henry VI. of Germany I(i7 Henry of Guise (gweez) 291 Henry, Fort 386 Henry of Navarre (na-var') 294 Henry, Prince, the Navigator 227 Hep-tan'o-mis 22 Heraclidai {her'a-kli'de) 37 He-rac/li-n8 134, 135, 150 Her-cu-la'ne-um 110 Hercules (her'cu-Uz) 34, 35 Heristal {er-is-tal'), Pep'in d' 144 Her'mann 105 Her'od the Great 105 He-rod'o-tU8 16, 19 Hez-e-ldah 15, 21,28 Hi-ber'ni-a 165 Hi'e-ro 78,81 Hil'de-braud 214. 224 Hiu-do-stan' 278 Hip-par'chus 38 Hip'pi-as 38, 39 His-pan-i-o'la 394 Hogue {hog). Cape la 265 Ho-hen-lin'den 310 Hoiaand, 205, 269, 273, 300, 301, 327,335,303 Holsteiu ilidl-stine') 339, 340 Ho'mer 35, 3? Hon-du'ras 393 Hong Kong 280 Ho-no'ri-us . . 124, 125, 131 Hood. General 383 Hooker, General 387 Hor'ace 105 Horn, Cape 241 Hor'sfa 147 Hoshea {ho-she'nh) 28 House of Commonij, English 170 Howara, Catharine 2^37 Howard, Henry, Earl of Surrey, 237, 238 Howard, Lord 371 Howe, General 371 Howe, Lord, Admiral 241 Hud'son, Henry 362, 371 Hudson River 302 Hugh Cap'et 147 Hugh the Great 207 Hu'<,'o 147 Huguenots {hu'ghe-not). 292, 293, 294, 295, 297, 301, 331, 360, 365 Hull, Captain 376 Hull, General 370 Hume 276 Hungary (Jmng'ga-re)... 218, 328, 343, 350 Huns 123, 125, 134 Huss, John 218 Hy-das'pes 55 Hyde {hide). Sir Edward 2.58 Hyksos {hik'isds) SO, 28 Ilyph'a-sis 55 Hyr-ca'nus, John 93 Hystaspeb {his-ias'pez) 32 t:n^dex. 411 I. PAGE I-ax'ar-t59 54 I'bcr-ville 3(i() I-be'ius Kiver 80 Ib'ra-him Pacha (pash-aw') 352 Ice'land 14(i I-co'ni-iim 137 Tl-li-nois' («oi)... 378 Il-lvr'i-a • 114 ludia. . . 23, 54, 137, 227, 241, 271, 272, 348 Indiana 378 Indian Mutiny 279 In'dus River 32, 55, 04, 278 Ink'er-manu 279 Innocent III., Pope 168, 191, 209 Inquisition 192 lonians 32,39 lon'ic Colonization 35 Ip'gus, Battle of 57, 58 Ireland 165, 249, 254, 254, 274 Ire'ton 254, 258 Irkorit>?k {er-kootsk') 341 Isabella of Castile (kas-ted') . . . 226, 227, 347, 359 Isabella of England 173, 174. 196 Is'ra-el 15,22,20,27, 28 Is-ra-el-ites' 26 Is'sus 53, 114 Isth'mi-an Gaines 63 Italy, 61, 67, 77, 80, 127, 132, 133, 134, 146, 213. 215, 220, 223, 224, 344 Iturbide (e-toor'be-i/ia) 391, 393 Ivan III 341 Ivry (iiev're) 295 J. Jack'son, Grcneral 377, 378, 379 Ja'cob 20 Jac'o-bin Club 306 Jacquerie {zhak'e-re). Insurrection of, 197 Ja r 'la 310 Ja-mai'ca 256 James I. of Encjland S45 James II. of England 262, 301 James IV. of Scotland 2:^3, 2:35 James VI. of Scotland 245,' 267 James, Duke of York 259, 261, 3f)3 James River 386, 388 James the Pretender 267, 270 Jamestown 246, 361 Ja'phet 11, 34 Ja'van 34 Jefferson 375, 379 Jefferson Davis 385, 390 Jeffries, Judge 262 Je-hoi'a-kim 14 Je-hosh'a-phat 28 Jc-ho'vah 27 Jemeppe (zha-niep') 307 Jft'na :;12, 332 Jen'ghis Khan 138, 153 Jer-o-bo'am 27 Jer-ome' Bonaparte 312 Jerome of Prai^ue 218 Je-ru'sa-lem. 14, 20, 26, 28. 92, 93, 109, 123. 135, 137, 150, 205, 207, 208. 209 Jews 15. 21, 26 Joan of Arc 180, 200, 201 John of England 167, 191 PAGH John of France 175, 196, 197 John I. of Portugal 227 John II. of Portugal 227 John IV^., Duke of Bra-gan'za 348 John VI. of Portugal 349 John, Don, of Austria 351 John of Gaunt 177, 232 John of Suabia 217 Johnson, Andrew 389, 390 Johnson, General 270 Johnson, Samuel 275 Jor'dan 26 Joseph 20 Joseph Bonaparte 311, 313 Joseph of Portugal 348 Josephine 313, 320 Jo-se'phus 109 Josh'u-a 26 Jo-si'ah 21 Jo'vi-an 123 Juarez {Jiwah'rez) 392 Ju'ba 96 Judah 20, 27,28 Ju-de'a 15, 92, 105 Ju-gur'tha 88, 90 Ju'ti-an 122, 147 Julius II., Pope 287 Ju'ni-us Bru'tus — 68 Junot {zhoo-no') 312, 349 Ju'pi-ter 35, 63 Jupiter Am'mon 53 Jus'tin II 134 Jus-tin'i-an 132, 133, 134 Jutes ijoots) 147 Kairwan Qcire'wahn) ... 151 Kan'sas 383 Kar'nak 21 Kearny (kar'ne) », 381 Kent ^ 148 Ken-tuck'y 375 Kharasra (ka-rasm') 138 Khosru {koz'roo) 135 Kief {ke-ef) 340 Kiel (keel) 339 Kleber {kla-bare') 310 Knights Hospitallers of St. John... 207 Knights of the Teutonic Order 331 Knights Templars 194, 207 Ko'fan . 150 Kosciusko {kos-se-vs'ko) 3;i5 Kossuth {kos-shoot') 330 Lacediemon (las-e-de'nion) 36 La-co'ni-a 34, 36, 48, 36:* LcTe-vi'nus 76 Lafayette (lah-fa-et') 305, 307, 31S La Hogue {hog) 2((5 Lamartine {idh-mar-teen') 319 La'ini-a 56 Lamian War 56 Lang'lon, Stephen 168 Languedoc {Ian' g he-doc) 191, 192 l.a galle {sal) 366 Lat'i-mer 239 Latins 67, t)8 Latium (la'n/ie-ian) W 412 II^DEX. PAGE Laud, Archbishop 249 Lauenburj,' {low'en-burg) 340 Law, John 303, . 306 Lue, General 387, 338, 389 Loi,'iiano {len-yah'no). Battle of 216 Leicester (les'ter). Earl of 169 Lei j).9 Lu'bec 216, 314 Lu'cau 107 Luck'now 279 Lu-cul'lus 92 Lundy's Lane 377 Lune'ville.. 311 Lu-te'tia i-she-ah) 143 La'ther, Martin... 235,237,289,325,342 Lutzen {loot'zen) 297, 315, 327 Ly-cur'gus 36, 63 Lyd'i-a 16,17,18,19 Lyons 115 Ly-sau'der 45 Ly-sim'a-chus. 58, 84 M. Ma-caulay 280, 281 Mac-ca-be'us, Judas 93 McClel'lan, General 385, 386, .387 Macedon {nuts' e-don) 58, 139 Macedonia 33, 49, 58, 59, 60. 84 Macedonian Empire 49, 84 Ma-cri'nus 114 Madison 37(; Ma-gcl'lan 361 Ma-gen'ta x 321, 34£ Mag'i {nia-jl) 3.'1 Mag'na Charta (kar'tah) 168 Magna Gntcia (il Mag-nen'tius {-slie-us) 122 Mag-ne'sia 83 Ma'ho-met 149 Maine 191, 192, 361 Maiutenon {main'te-nong), Madame de, 301 Mal'a-kotr 279 Malcolm {mal'kurn) 161 Malphuiuet (m«/-/;to^'Aa) 266, 328 Mulsherbes (mal-zarV) 303 Malta {manVtah) 350 Mam'e-lukes 209, 309 Mam'er-tines 78 Ma- 385 Ma-nas'seh 15 Ma-ne'tho 19 Man'lred 224 Man-hat'tan Island 363 Mans'foldt 326 Man-ti-ne'a ,. 49 Man'u-el 205 Manuel Com-ne'nus 208 Manuel the Great 348 Mar-a-can'da 54 Maracay bo {mah-rah-ki'bo) 368 Marat (mah-rah') . 308 Mar'a-thon 39, 42 Mar-eel' 197 81 ;Mar-cel'lus Marco Bozzaris (see Bozzans). Marco Po'io.. 222 INIarcus Maulius 72, 74 i\Iar-do^ni us 39, 40, 41 Ma-ren'go 310 Margaret of Anjou [ahn'joo), 180, 181, 182 Margaret of Denmark 337 INDEX. 413 PAGE Marie Antoinette {mah-re' aii-tioah- net') 304 Maria da Gloria {mah-re' ah) 349 .Maria Louisa 313. 321 Maria of Portugal 348 Maria Tlieresa 2(59, 328 Marignano {mah-reen-yah' no) 288 Mariyny {mnh-reen'ye) 105 Mar'i-on. General 374 Ma'ri-us. Caiua 88,89,90.96 Mailbor-onsh, Duke of . . . 265. 26(5. 268 Marston Moor 252 .Alar-tel', Charles 144, 149, 152 Martyr, Justin 113 Mary de' Medici {med'e-che) 297, 298 Mary of Bur^'undy 202, 219, 336 Mary, Queen of England..., 238, 239, 291 Mary, wife of William lU... 263, 204, 265 >rary, (^ueen of Scots 242, 243, 244 Maryland 363, 387 Mas-i-nit.'?a 85 ISIason, John 362 Massachusetts 249, 272, 361, 362 IMassagetije (jnas-saj'e-te) 31 Mas-sa'li-a 61 Mat-a-mo'ras 381 Matilda 162 Mau-mee' 375 Maurice, Elector of Saxony 291, 326 Mau-ri-ta'ni-a 96 Mav-ro-cor-da'to 352 Max-en'tius {-she-us) 121, 122 Max-i-mil'i-an, Emperor of Germany, 202, 219, 220, 235, 285, 288, 325, 336 Maximilian, Ai-chduke of Austria. . . 392 Max-im'i-an 120, 121 Mas'i-min 116 Max'i-mu3 117 Maximus, Pe-tro'ni-us 126 Mayeune {ina-en^), Duke of 295 Maz'a-riu 298, 299 Meci^nas {me-se'nas) 105 Mec'ca 149 Mech'lin 336 Medes 16, 18, 29, 33 Me'di-a 10, 17, 31 Me-di'na 149 Mee'rut 279 MehemetAli iina' he-met ah' le) 352 Me-lanc'thon 326, 343 Mem'phis 19, 20, 22 Men'a-hem 15 Meues (me'nlz) 19, 28 Men'schi-koft' 342 Mer'cia {-sJie-ah) 148 Mer'o-e 24 M er-o-vin'gians 143, 144 Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a, 13, 14, 111, 117,118, 121 Mes-sa-li'na 107 Mes-sa'na 61, 78 Mes-se'ue 60 ]SI es-se'ni-a 34 Mes-se'ni-ans Me-tel'lu8 88 Me-tau'ru8 82 Metz 291 Mexico 321, 360, 380, 391 Mexico, Gulf of 392,393 Michigan Territory 376, 377 PAGE Mi-cip'r'a 83 Mi-cis'las 214 Mil'an 119, 214, 286. 288 Mi-le'tus 39, 61 Milford Haven 184 Mil-ti'a-des 40,43 Milton, John 262 Min'den 303 i\Iirabeau (rne-rah-ho') 305 Miramon {me'rah-mon) 392 Mississippi 378. 385 Mississippi River 302, 360, 366. 376 Mis-so-lon'ghi 277, 353 Missouri 378, 379, 386 Mith-ri-da'tes 89, 92, 96 Moawiyah {mo-ah-tve' ijah) 151 Moesia (me'she-ah) 117, 119, 120 Mo-liam'med 149 Mohammed II 139, 349 Mohawk River 373 Mol-da'vi-a 278 I\Ionck'ton, Colonel 270 Mongols 314 INIouitor (Ram) 380 Monk, General 254, 257, 259 Monmouth, Battle of 373 Monmouth, Duke of 261, 262 Monroe, Fortress 389 Monroe, James 378 Montcalm {mont-kam'). Marquis of. . 270 Monterey {mon-ta-ra') 381 Montgomery 385 Montgomery, General 371 Montmorency, Constable 291 Moore, Sir John 274 Moors 346 More, Sir Thomas 230 Mo-re'a 33, 222, 351 Moreau {mo-ro'), General... 310, 311, 315 Mor'gar-ten 219 Mor'ti-mer 173 Mortimer, Edmund 178, 196 Moscow 314, 341 Moses 28, 29 Mosquito Kingdom 393 Moultrie {mole'tre)^ Colonel 371 Moultrie, Fort 371, 379 Mum'mi-us 61 Muu'da 97, 98 Murat {mu-rah') 310, 313 Mur-frees-bor'o, Battle of 387 Mnsa 151 Myc'a-le ." 42 N. Na-bo-nas'sar 13 Nan'cy 202 Na'pi-er, Sir Charles 278 Naples.... 214, 223, 224, 285, 280, 311, 345 Narses {nar's'tz) 132, 133, 134 Nar'va 341 Naseby {naze'be) 252 Navarino {nah-vah-re'no) 270 Navarre (na-var') 187 Navarrete (nah-var-ra'ta) 19S, 225 Ne-ar'chus 55 Ne-bras'ka 383, 390 Neb-u-chad-nez'zar 14, 21, 25, 28, 29 Nccker 304,305 4.14 INDEX-. PAGK Nc-ka'o or Ne'chos II 21 Nelson 273, 310, 340 Ne-me'a 63 Ne-me'an Games 63 Nena Sahib {gah'eeb) &T9 Ncp'tune (53 Ne'ro 107, 109. 110 Ner'va 111,114 Neth'er-laiids 219, ^1, 266, 291, 335 Ncn'stri-a 143 Nev'ille's Cross 174 New Amsterdam 363 New Brunswick 31)5 Newbury 251 Newcastle 249 New Eni,rland 246, 249 New P'rauce 366 New Hami)shire 361 New Jersey 363, 371 New Mexico 3S1, 382 New Netherlands 258, 362, 363 New Orleans 378, 386 New Sweden 364 New York 362, 363, 371, 372, 375 Ney («a). Marshal 315, 316, 318 Nicaragua (nik-ar-aw'gitah) 393 Ni'ce 122, 137, 138, 206, 207 Nicholas 1 342 Nicholas II 352 Nicias {nish'e-as) 45, 78 Ni-cop'o-lis 218 Niemen {ne'men) , 314 Nile 22,24,273 Nim'rod 12 Nin'e-veh 14, 16, 20, 29 Nls'sa 218 No'ah 11 Nor'folk 386 No'ri-cum 104, 134 Normandy 146, 100, 161, 223 Normans 142, 146, 154, ICO North America 147, 359 North Carolina. . . . 360, 365, 375, 386, 389 Northampton 181 Northern Italy 220 Northmen 146 Norway 337 Nova Scotia. . . 270, 365 Nov'go-rod 216, 340 Nu'bi-a ■ 20 Nu'ma Pom-pil'i-us 67 Nu-n^n'tia {-she-ah) 86 Nu-mid'i-a 85, 88, 97 O. Gates {Gts), Titus 261 Oc-ta'vi-a 100 Oc-ta'vi-us 99, 100 O'Connell, Daniel 277 O-den-a'tus 119, 120 Od-o-a'cer 127, 132 O'Donnell 318 O gle-thorpe. General 268 Ohio 376 Ohio River 375 Ojeda {o-ha'dah) 368 Oliver Clisson (see Clisson). O-lym'pi-a 35, 63 U-lym'pi-ad, First 63 O-lym'pi-as O-lym'pic Games O-lyn'thus O'mar Orange, Fort Orellana (p-rel-yah' nah) . O-res'tes O-ri-no'co River O-ri'on Ork'ney Islands Or'leans O-ron'tee Os'car 53, Os-ce-o'la Os'ti-a Os'tro-goths Oth'man 139, O'tho, Emperor of Rome Otho I., the Great 213, 220, OthoII 214, Otho III Otho, Prince of Bavaria Otho, King of Greece 0-tran'to Ot'ter-buru Ot'to-car Ot'to-man Empire Ot'to-mans 139, Ot'way Ou'de-narde 266, Oudinot {00' de-no) Ov'id Ox'en-stiern {-stern) Ox'ford AGB 57 63 50 150' 363 367 126 359 12 242 200 208 339 379 116 132 150 108 221 223 214 277 S53 133 178 217 350 218 2(52 328 320 105 338 157 Pacific Ocean 367 Pac-to'his 17 Pakenham {jmk'n-am) 378 Pa-ler'mo 345 PaKes-tlne. ... 15, 25, 26, 137, 205, 207, 209 Pal-my'ra 27, 119, 120 Pal-ffi-ol'o-gus 138, 139 Panama {imn-ah-mah') 367 Pan-no'ui-a 113, 114, 119, 134, 145 Pa-o'li 303 Paris, 143, 146, 191, 196, 197, 198, 199, 293, 295,303, 317 Paris, Treaty of 271, 303, 352, 366 Parr, Catharine 237 Par'thi-a Ill Paul the Apostle 107 Paul, Emperor of Russia 342 Pau-sa'ni-as 41, 42, 43, 51 Pa'vi-a lai, 144, 213, 289, 290 Pe'kin 280 Pe-las-'gi-ans or Pe-las'gl 34 Pe-la'yo 225 Pelissier {pa-lis-se-a^ 321 Pe-lop'i-das 48 Pel-o-pon-ue'sns, 33, 34, 35, 36, 48, 49, 56 Pe-lu'si-um {-zJie-um) 21, 29 Penn, Admiral 256 Penn, William 363, 364, 365 Pennsylvania 364, 371 , 387 Pen-sa-co'la 377, 378, 385 Pep'in d'ller-is-tal' 144 Pepin the Short 144 I'ercy, Harry 178 II^^DEX. 415 PAGE Per-dic'cas 55, 5«, 57 Per'f,ra-mu9 83, 84, 87 Per-i-an'der — 38 Per'i-cles {-Mm 43, 44 Perry, Commodore 3T7 Per-sep'o-lis; 54, 55 Per'seu? {-suse) '>! Persia, 31 , 46, 51, 116, 134, 136, 138, 150, 350 Persian Gulf 13,222 Persians 14, 17 Per'ti-uax 114 Pc-rii' 367,368 Peter of Aragon 193 Peter the Cruel 225 Peter the Great 338, 341, 351 Peter the Hermit 189, 206, 207 Petersburg !^8 Petersburg, St 341 Pe'trurch 225 Pha-le're-us, Demetrius 57 Phar-na'ces {-sez) 96 Phar-sa'li-a 98 Phil-a-del'phia 364, 370, 372, 373, 375 Philip of Burgundy 198 Philip, Emperor of Rome 117 Philip I. of France 167, 168, 189 Philip II. of France (Augustus), 190, 191, 192, 208 Philip in. of France 193, 210 Philip IV. of France 172, 193 Philip V. of France 195 Philip VI. of France 174, 175, 196 Philip of Macedon 49, 50, 51 Philip II. of Macedon 60, 83, 84 Philip II. of Spain, 239, 241, 291, 292, 294, 33(i, 346, 348 Philip III. of Spain 346 Philip V. -of Spain 301 Philip Van Artevelde {ar'te-veUl) — 199 Phi-lip'pa 1T4 Philippe, Louis (see Louis PhUippey Phi-lip'pi Philippine {fil-ip-peen') Islands Phil-ip-pop'6-lis PhfMs'tines 20 Phil-o-pce'men 60 Phocion ifo'she-on) 56 Phocis ifo'sls) 34, 59 Phoebus (fe'bus), Statue of 150 Phoenicia (fe-nish'e-ah) 24, 53 Phra-or'tes (-fe) 17 Pick'ens, Fort 385 Pickens, General 374 Pierce. Franklin 382 Pi-le'ser, Tig'lath 15 Pi-sis'tra-tus 37 Pitt, William (elder) 271 Pitt, William (younger) 273 Pius VII.. Pope 313 Pius IX., Pope 320 Pizarro (pe-zar'ro) 367 Pla-cid'i-a. 125 Plains of Abraham 270 Plan-tag'e-uet {-taj-), Geoffrey 169 Pla-tie'a 41,42,44 Pla'to 46 Plymouth {iMm'uth) ai6, 361 PUn'y 109 Plu'tarch Ill 50,99 367 117 PAGH Po River 108 Poitiers (poi-terz), 175, 197, 198, 199, 200 Poi-tou ipwah-too') 190, 191 Poland 134, 333, 342, 343, 351 Pole, Cardinal 239 Polk, James K 380, 381, 382 Po'lo, Marco 222 Poltava ipol-tah'vah) 338, 342, 351 Pol'y-carp 113 Pol-y-sper'chon 57 Pompeii (pom-pe'yi) 110 Pom'pey tlie Great, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 Po'ni-a-tow'ski 334 Pon'tus 84, 89, 92, 96, 97 Pope, the distinguished poet 267 Pope. General 386, 387 Port Hudson 387 Port Royal, Acadia 360 Port Royal, South Carolina 365, 366 Porter. Admiral 38ti Porto Bello 268 Ports'mouth 248. 3(51 Por'tu-gal 227, 313, .348, 366 Po'rus 54 Po-tem'kin 342 Po-to'mac River 387 PriB-to'ri-an Guards 104 Prague (prag) 218 Pres'burg 311 Pride, Colonel 252 Prince of Wales, origin of the title. . 170 Pring, Martin 361 Pro-pon'tis 62 Protestants 325, .327 Provence {pro-valuis') 187 Providence 362 Pru'sa 139 Prussia 307, 311, 312, 316, 331, 334 Pruth ii^root) River 342 Psam-men'i-tus 21 Psam-met'i-chus 1 21, 24 Ptolemy {toVe-im) 13, 57, 58, 93 Ptolemy, Ce-rau'nus {se-) 59 Pub'li-us Scipio {sip'e-o) 81 Puebla ijjweb'lak) 392 Pul 15 Pu-las'ki, Count 373 Pulaski, Fort 386 Pul-che'ri-a (-ke-) 132 Pun'jab 278 Pu'ri-tans SWO, 246, 249, 250, .361 Pydna {ind'nah) 61, 84 Pyr-en-ees' 80,143,191 Pyrrhus {pir'rus) 58, 76, 77 Quebec 270, 366, 371 Queen Anne's War 365 Quesne (kam), Fort du 270 Quin-til'i-an 109 R. Raleigh (mw7e),.Sir Walter, 241, 245, 360 Ra-me'ses I 20 Rameses II 20. 29 Ramillies {ram'e-leez) 266 Ravaillac (jah-val-yak') 290 Rii-ven'na l'^, 133, 214, 221 Raymond VI., Count of Lauguedoc, 191, 416 II^DEX. PAGE Rajnnond, Count i Coalouse 207 Red Sea 22,27 Ke-dan' 279 Ke-gil'lus 08 Keg'u-lus 7!) Re-ho-bo'ara 27 Ke'mus 07 liheims {reemz) 200 Rhine Eivcr 94, 143 Rhodes 140, 350 Rhode Island 302, 375 Rialto (re-ahl'to) 221 Richard I. of England 166, 391, 208 Richard II. of England 170, 177, 178 Richard III. of England 183 Richard, Duke of York 180, 181 Riclielieu (resh'e-lu), 248, 297, 298, 320, 327 Richmond 386. 3S8 Rid'ley 238, 239 Rieuzi (re-en'ze) 225 Rio de la Plata {re'o da lah iMh'tah, 368 Rio Grande {re'o grahn'da) 381, 382 Rivers, Lord 183 Rizzio {reet'se-o) 242 Roanoke Isjland 361, 386 Robert, Count of Flanders •. . 207 Robert, King of France 187, 189 Robert Guiscard (c/hees-kar') 223 Robespierre (ro-bes-pe-are'), 307, 308, 309 Rochelle (ro-sM') 293, 297 Rod'er-ick 151 Roger 1 224 Roger II 224 Roger Williams 362 Ro'land 145 Rol'lo 146, 160 Roman Empire 320 Rome. . . 67, 107, 110, 124, 126, 215, 224, 289 Rom'u-lu9 67 Roncesvalles (ron-ses-val' les) 145 Rosebecque {rose'bek) 199 Rose'crans, General 387 Ross, General 377 Rouen {roo'aiig) 199, 201 Roum (j-oam) 137, 138 Roxana {rox-ah'nah) 54, 56 Ru'bi-con 95 Rudolf 1 217 Rudolf of Suabia 215 Run-ny-mede' 108 Ri'pert, Prince 251, 252, 259, 260 Riiss'ell, Admiral 205 Russell, Lord John 277 Russell, Lord WUliam 261 Russia 340, 351, 352, 353 Rye-IIouse Plot 201 Rys'vvick 205, 301 Sab'a-cu3 ^,29 Sacred War (Greece) 50, 51 Sad'o-wa 3.30 Sa-guu'tum 80 St. Albans (awl'bans) 181 St. Au-gus-tine' {-feen) 148 St. Augustine, City of 360 St. Ber'iiard of Clairvaux (dare-vo') . . 208 St. Ile-le'na 317 St, John, Kuiahts of 350 ( PAGE St. John's River 36G St. Lawrence, River and Gulf.. 360, 305 St. Louis 1J)2 St. Mark 221 St. Marks 378 St. Mary's 3()4 St. Patrick , 105 St. Peter 224 St. Petersburg'. 335, 341 St. Quen'tin, Battle of 291 Sal'a-din 153, 166, 2U8 Sal-a-man'ca 274 Sal'a-mis , 40, 43 Sa'leni 361 Sa-ler'no 215,223, 224 Sal'ic Law 174, 195, 196, 347 Sa-lo'na 121 Sam'ar-cand 54 Sa-ma'ri-a 15, 28 Sam'nite War 75 Sam'nites 75 Samuel 26 San'croft 203 San Sal-va-dor' 359, 393 San'ta An'na 381, 382, 392 Sa'por 117, 118 Saracen Empire 152, 1.53 Saracens 135, 144, 149, 225 Sar'a-cu9 16 Sar-a-to'ga 272, 373 Sar-dan-a-pa'lus 1(> Sar-din'i-a, Kingdom of 321 , 344 Sar'dis 18, 32, 45, 58 Sar'gon 15 Sas-san'i-des 116, 135 Saul 26,29 Sa-van'nah 365, 373, 386, 388, 3S9 Sa-voy' ...,-. 344, 345 SaxeCo'burg, Go'tha 278 Saxe (sax). Marshal 269 Saxon llcp'tar-chy 148 Saxons 142,147,148, 213 Say'brook 362 Scan-di-na'via 117 Schwartzeuberg {shivariz' en-berg). Prince, 316 Schweitz (shwites) 219 Scinde {sind) 278 Scipio (dp'e-o), Romnn Consul 80 Scipio, Lucius (Asiat.cus) 83 Scipio, Pub'li-U8 Cor-ne'li-us (Af-ri- ca'nus), 81, ■&i, 83 Scotland 171, 172, 173, 235, 242, 267 Scots 112, 115, 147 Scott, General 377, 382, 385 Scott, Sir Walter 276 Se-bas'tian III. of Portuga 348 Sebastian Cab'ot 234, 359, 368 Se-bas'to-pol 279, 321 Sedge Moor, Battle of. 202 Seine {sane) River 1*46 Se-ja'nu8 106 Se-leu'cia {-she-ah) 1)1,115,152 Se-leu'cu8 58, 84 Se'lim 1 350 Selim II 350 Seljuk {seVyook) Turks 137, 205 Sem'i-noles 378, 379 Sem'pach, Battle of 219 INDEX. 417 PAGE 5em-pro'ni-u9 80 Sen-nach'e-rib 15, 21, 28 Sen'e-ca 107 Sen-ti'uum 'J'S Scp-tim'i-us Se-vc'rua 114 Serfdom in England 176, 177 Scr-to'ri-as 91 Ser'vi-a 139 Ser'vi-iis Tul'li-us G8, 70 Servile War 91 Se-sos'tris 20 Seven Years' War 329, 332 Sc-ve'rus, Alexander 116 Severus. Septimius 114 Seymour. Jane 237, 328 Shakeg'peare 244 Shal-man-e'ser 15, 25 She'chem 27 Shelly: 276 Shem 11 Shen-an-do'ah Valley 388 Sher'i-dan 273 Sheridan, General 38S Sherman. General 388 She'shonk 20 Shi'ites 150 Shi'nar 12 Ship Money 248 Shi'^hak 20,29 Shrewsbury, Battle of 178 Si-be'ri-a.. &41 Sicilian Vespers. Massacre of.. . 193, 224 Sicily, 61, 76, 77, 78, 79, 132, 193, 223, 224, Mi, 345 Sicyon (sish'e-on) 38 Sidney, Al'ger-nou 261 Sidney, Sir Philip 244 Si'don 52 Sigismund (sifis-mund) of Hungary, 218 Sigismund I. of Poland 333 Sigismund II. of Poland 333 Sikhs 278 Sim'nel, Lambert 233 Simon de Mont'fort 169, 170 Sin'o-pe 62 Si-\vah' 31 Six Weeks' War 330 Slaves 214 Sla-vo'ni-ans 133, 214 Sles'wick 339, 340 Slote, Commodore 3.81 Smal'cal-de, League of 326 Smer'dis 31, 32 Smo'lensk 314, 333 Smyr'na 113 So-bi-es'ki. John 328, 334, 351 Social War (Greece) 50 Social War (Italy) 89 Soc'ra-tes (-teez) 45, 46 Sog-di-a'na 54 Solferiuo (sol-fa-re' no) 821, 345 Sol'i-man, Sultan of Roum 137, 207 Soliraan the Magnificent 289, 350 Sol'o-mon 27, 29 So'lon 37 Somerset, Earl of 246 Sophia, grand-daughter of James I.. 267 Souloiique (soo-look') 395 South America 359, 366, 368, 369 PAGE South Carolina, 365, 371, 374, 375, 385, 386 South Sea Scheme 267 Spain, 77. SO. 81, 82, 86, 91, 104, 125, 145. 151, 152, 225, 250, 265, 268, 274, 313. 346, 366, 367, 368, 378 Spanish Netherlands 336 Spanish Succcstion, War of 265, 30i Spanish War S(i Spar'ta. ... 36, 37, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 60 Spar'ta-cus 91, 92 Spenser 244 Sphac-te'ri-a 4-1 Spire 325 Spu'ri-us Cassius 70 Spurs. Battle of 235, 287 Stafford, Earl of 261 Stan'is-las, Augustus 334, 3:35, 3:38 Stanislas of Poland 302 States General of France... 195, 285, 292, 297, 304 Steele 2(i7 Stephen, King of England 162, l(i3 Stil'i-cho i-ko) 124 Stir'iing 171 Stock'tou, Commodore 381 StraPford, Earl of 248, 249 Stral'sund 326 Stra#'burir 300, 320 Sru'art. Arabella 245 Stuart Family 245 Stuyvesaut (sti've-sanf), Peter. . . 363, 364 Suabians {swa'be-ans) 213 Su'cz 21 Sul'ly, Duke of 247, 296, 297 Sum'ter, Fort 385, 389 Sumter, General 374 Sun'iian 151 Sun'nites 150 Supremacy, Act of 240 Su-rat' ^7 Surrey, Earl of 237 Susa (soo'sah) 32, 54, 5? Sus'sex • 148 Su-war'row. Marshal 310, 335, 351 Sweden. 260. 311, 312, 314, 327, 331, 334, 337 Sweyn (su-ane) 158. 159 Swift 267 Switzerland 217, 219, 327, 335, 343 Syb'a-ris ^61 Sylla (sil'lah) 89, 90, 91, 92, 96 Syr'a-cuse 45, 79. 81 Syr'i-a.... 15, 25, 84, 92, 94, 117, 118, 137, 138, 150, 205, 310, 351 Ta'bor, Mount 310 Tacitus (tas'e-ius), Emperor 120 Tacitus, the historiJR 110 Tad'mor 27 Tal-a-ve'ra 274 Tam'er-lane 139 Tan'a-is, River 134 Tan'cred 207 Tara {tah'rah) 1()5 Ta-ren'tum 61, 76, 77, 207, 214. 223 Ta'rik 151 Tar'quin the Elder 68 Tarquin the Proud (>fi Tar-quin'i-i {-e-%) 75 418 IKDEX. PAGE Tar'ta-ry 137, 222 Tau'rus Mouutains 84 Taylor, Geucral 379, 380, 381, 382 Te-cum'seh 3TG Tell, William 217 Tcn-nes-eee' 375 Tciiiiessoe River 3S6, 388 Ten'iiy-sou 2S1 Tet^t Act 2(30 Teu-ton'ic Order of Knighta 331 Tcwks'bu-ry 182 Tex'as 380, 381, 382, 385 Tliack'e-ray 281 Thames (temz). Battle of 377 Thames Kiver 25t» Thajj'sus 9G, 1^8 Thel)'a-is 22 Thebes (theebz) in Egypt 22 Thebes in Greece , 48, 49, 51 The-mis'to-cles (-klez) 41 , 42 The'o-dore. King of Abyssinia 280 The-od'o-ric 132 Tlie-o-do'si-ns (she-us) the Great, 123, 124 Theodosius II 131, 132 The-re'sa, Jiaria 269, 270, 304 Ther-mop'y-lse 40, (J2 Theseus {tlie'suse) 34 Thes'sa-ly 33, 35, 50, 50, GO Thomas, General 388 Thot'mes II 29 Thotmes III 20 Thot mes IV 20 Thrace 32, 34, 44, 59, 117, 122, 139 Thras-y-bu'his 46 Thu-cyd'i-des (sid-) 45 Ti'ber 116 Ti-be'ri-us 104, 105, 106, 108 Tiberius of France ... 201 Tiberius Gracchus 86, 87 Ticinus {fe-si'n us) 80 Ti-con-dc-ro'ga 373 Tig'lath Pi-le'ser 15 Tigranes {te-grah'nez) 92 Ti'giis Kiver 14, 121, 131, 150, 351 Til'ly 326, 327 Til'sit 312 Ti-mu'le-ou 78 Ti'mour 139 Tip-pe-ca-uoe' {-noo) 376 Tir-ha'kah. Tis-sa-pher'nes {-nZz) Ti'tus Titus, Colonel To-lo'sa Tor'bay ... , Tos'tig Tutila {tot'e-lah) Tou-lou' %. Tou-louse' {-loos) Tou-i'aine' Tours {tool') Tou'ton, Battle of..., Tral-al-gar' 109, il 45 110 256 225 263 159 133 309 207 195 144 182 274 Tra'jauV Ill Tras-i-nie'nu3 80 Tre'bi-a 80 Treu'tou 371 Triple Alliance 260 Tri-um'vir-atc 94,99 ,191,192, PAQH Troyes {trivah) . 179, 199, 200 Tu'dor, Edmuna 232 Tudor Henry 183, 184 Tui lerioR [tweel're) 307, 318 Tul'lus Ilos-til'i-us 67 Tu'nis 193,210 Turgot {toor-go') 303 Turenne (^M-?-mO, Marshal 298,300 Tu'rin 266 'J^irkey. . . . 279, 325, 338, 342, 349, 351, 352 Tur-kis-tan' 3t3 Turks, Ottoman 137, 352 Turks, Seljuk 137 Tus'ca-ny , 67 Tus'cu-lum 68 Ty'burn 234 Ty'ler, John 380 Tyler, Wat 176, 177 Tyn'dale, William 238 Tyne {tine) 249 Tyre(CI/'6) 25,27,29,53 U. Ulm 311 Um'bri-a 75,82 Union of England and Scotland 267 United Statel 275, 366, 3*;;) Uuterwaldeu {oon' ter-wal-den) 219 Ur 13 Ur^^an II., Pope 206 Uri {oo'j-e) 219 TJruo-uay {oo'roo-gw'l) 368 U'ti~ca 25, 82, 85, 96 U'trecht, Treaty of 266, 301, 366 V. Va'lens 123 Val-en-tin'i-an 1 12^3 Valcntinian II 123 Valentinian III 125, 126, 147 Val-div'i-a 368 Va-le'i-i-an 117, 118, 119 Van Ar'te-velde, Philip 199 Van Bu'ren, Martin 380 Vane, Sir Henry 251 Van Trorap, Admiral 255 Var'ro SO Va'rus .^ 105 Vas'co da Gama (c/ah'mah) 3'i8 Vauban {vo-hahng') 300 Veil {ve'yV) 72 Ven'a-bles, Admiral 256 Vea'e-ti 126, 220 Ven-e'tia {-she-ah) 345 Ve-ne'tiau3 {-she-ans) 351 Ven'ice. . . 214, 220, 235, 286, 287, 309, 350 Venezuela {ven-e-zwa'lah) 363 Vera Cruz 3S2 Vergn iaud {vdrn'yd) J308 Vermont 375 Vernon, Admiral 268 Vernon, Mount 375 Ve-ro'na 124, 214 Verraz/ani {ver-rat-tsah' ne) 360 Ver-sailles' 304 Ve'rus Luciu^s 113 Ves-pa'si-an {-she-an) 109, 110 Vespucci, Amerigo {ves-iwof che, ah- ma-re'go, 359, 368 IXDFX. 419 PAGE Ve-su'vi-us.... 91, 110 V'icks'lnirg -^8^ Victor Emanuel •• 34o Victoria, Queen 271 Vienna (,ve-en'nah\ 113, 316, 328, 3-29, 334, 340, 350, 351 Villa Franca 321 Villiers (vWyerz), George 206 Vimeira {ve-ma' e-rah) 2*4 Viii-(lo-bo'na 113 Vhi-de-li'cia {4ish'e-ah) 104 \'irgil 105 Vir'trin'i-a . . 241, 360, 361, 365, 370, 386 Vir-i-a'tu9 S6 vi-tel'li-u8 108, 109 Vit-to'ri-a 274 Vorc-ro, Law of TO Vol'ga 350 VoFsci-ans (she-ans) 71 Vol-taire' 305,3:32 AV. Wa'gram. 313, 314, 330 Walrc'ficld, Battle of 181 Wales 147,162, 170 Wallace, William 171 Wal-la'chi-a {-ke-ah) 278 Wal'len-steiu {-st'ine) 326, 327 Wal'pole, Sir Robert 268 Wal'sins-ham, Sir Francis 240 Wal'ter the Pcnnyless 206 Wal'worth 1~~ War'bcck, Perkin 233, 234 War'saw 335 Warwick (luar'rik). Earl of, 180, 181, 182 Washington City, 375, 377, 385, 386, 387 Washington, George, 272, 370, 371, 372^ Waterloo, Battle of 275, 317 Wayne, General 375 Wel'les-ly, Sir Arthur, I 274,275,313, 316, Wcl'ling-ton, Duke of, f 317 Went' worth. Sir Thomas ^7, 248 We'ser 45 Wes'ses l-io West Indies 359, 393 WestLo'cris 34 Weet-pha'li-a 298 Wick'Uffe, John 176,178 PAfiB William. Duke of Normandy I(i8 William I, of England (the Conciueror), 1()0, 189 William II. of England (Rufus), 161, 189 William III. of England, 263, 2(;4, 265. 300, 336 William TV. of England 277 William III. of Holland 337 William the Silent 336 William and Mary 2()4 Williams, Roger 362 Wind'ham 273 Wind'sor 362 Win'kel-ried (-reed), Arnold of 219 Wolfe, General 270, 366 Wolsey, Thomas (Cardinal).. 234, 235, 236.288 Worcester (woos'ter), Battle of.. 254, 25(i Words'worth 276 Wur'tem-berg 330 Wy'att, Sir Thomas 238 Wycherly (wiich'er-le) 262 X. Xan-thip'pu8 79 Xen'o-phon 16, 45, 46, 47 Xerxes I. (ze^^x'eez) 32, 40, 42, 54 Ximeues (he-ma' nez) 346 Y. York, City of 115, 121, 1 80, 252 York. Duke of (James).. 259, 260, 261, 3(53 York River 38(5 Young 276 Z. Zach'a-ry, Pope 144 Zama (za'mah) 82 Zed-e-ki'ah 14, 28 Ze/la 96 Ze'no 132 Ze-no'bi-a 119, 120 Zenta 328 Zim'is-ces (scz) 136 Zis'ca, John 218 Zoll'ver-ein (-me) 3;i3 Zo-ro-as'ter , 33 Zu'rich 343 Zwingle 543, 344 LBJa'15