University ol the State ol New Yorif Bulletin 
 
 Entered a* second-class matter August 2, 1913, at the Post Office at Albany, 
 
 N. Y., under the act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at 
 
 special rate of postage provided for in section 1103, act of 
 
 October 3, 1917. authorized July 19, 1918 
 
 Published Fortnightly 
 
 No. 764 
 
 ALBANY, N. Y. 
 
 August 15, 1922 
 
 SPELLING IN NEW YORK 
 RURAL SCHOOLS 
 
 A STUDY OF ACHIEVEMENT, OF PRACTICES IN TEACHING 
 
 AND OF METHODS FOR IMPROVING THE TEACHING 
 
 OF SPELLING IN NEW YORK RURAL AND 
 
 VILLAGE SCHOOLS 
 
 J. CAYCE MORRISON 
 
 Specialist in Educational Measurements 
 
 ALBANY 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK PRESS 
 1922 
 G13Sr-D22-10,000(1471)» 
 
► 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 
 
 Regents of the University 
 With years when terms expire 
 
 1926 Pliny T. Sexton LL.B., LL.D., Chancellor 
 
 Emeritus ------------ Palmyra 
 
 1934 Chester S. Lord M.A., LL.D., Chancellor - - Brooklyn 
 
 1924 Adelbert Moot LL.D., Vice Chancellor - - - Buffalo 
 
 1927 Albert Vander Veer M.D., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. Albany 
 
 1925 Charles B. Alexander M.A., LL.B., LL.D., 
 
 Litt. D. ------------- Tuxedo 
 
 1928 Walter Guest Kellogg B.A., LL.D. - - - - Ogdensburg 
 
 1932 James Byrne B.A., LL.B., LL.D. ----- New York 
 
 1929 Herbert L. Bridgman M.A., LL.D. - - - - Brooklyn 
 1931 Thomas J. Mangan M.A, ------- Binghamton 
 
 1933 William J. Wallin M.A. ------- Yonkers 
 
 1923 William Bondy M.A., LL.B., Ph.D. - - - - New York 
 
 1930 William P. Baker B.L., Litt. D. - - - - - Syracuse 
 
 President of the University and Commissioner of Education 
 
 Frank P. Graves Ph.D., Litt. D., L.H.D., LL.D. 
 
 Deputy Commissioner and Counsel 
 
 Frank B. Gilbert B.A., LL.D. 
 
 Assistant Commissioner and Director of Professional Education 
 
 Augustus S. Downing M.A., Pd.D., L.H.D., LL.D. 
 
 Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education 
 
 Charles F. Wheelock B.S., Pd.D., LL.D. 
 
 Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education 
 
 George M. Wiley M.A., Pd.D., LL.D. 
 
 Director of State Librjiry 
 
 James L Wyer M.L.S., Pd.D. 
 
 Director of Science and State Museum 
 
 John M. Clarke Ph.D., D.Sc, LL.D. 
 
 Chiefs and Directors of Divisions 
 
 Administration, 
 
 Archives and History, James Sullivan M.A., Ph.D. 
 
 Attendance, James D. Sullivan 
 
 Examinations and Inspections, Avery W. Skinner B.A, 
 
 Finance, Clark W. Halliday 
 
 Law, Frank B. Gilbert B.A.. LL.D., Counsel 
 
 Library Extension. William R. "Watson B.S. 
 
 Library School, Edna M. Sanderson B.A., B.L.S. 
 
 Publications, Lloyd L. C?ieney B.A. 
 
 School Buildings and Grounds, Frank H. Wood M.A. 
 
 School Libraries, Sherman Williams Pd.D. 
 
 Visual Instruction, Alfred VV. Abrams Ph.B. 
 
 Vocational and Extension Education, Lewis A. Wilson 
 
 LIBRARY OF CONGF^ESS"' ~1 
 
 RECEIVED L 
 
 JUN4 1923 
 
University ol tlie State of New Xwl Bulletin 
 
 Entered as second-class matter August 2, 1913, at the Post Office at Albany, 
 
 N. Y., under the act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at 
 
 special rate of postage provided for in section 1103, act of 
 
 October 3, 1917, authorized July 19, 1918 
 
 Published Fortnightly 
 No. 764 ALBANY, N. Y. August 15, 1922 
 
 SPELLING IN NEW YORK 
 RURAL SCHOOLS' 
 
 FOREWORD 
 
 Educational measurement aims at improving the educational treat- 
 ment of children. When tests have heen given, the papers scored, 
 and reports prepared, the first (luestions that arise are : What are 
 we going to do ahout it ? Why were the results as they were ? How 
 can we improve? Such questions invariahly lead to a reconsidera- 
 tion of sul^ject matter to he used, to efforts aiming at the improve- 
 ment of methods of teaching, and to a hetter understanding of the 
 individual needs of children to he taught. 
 
 The State Education Department is indehted to the 100 superin- 
 tendents and 5000 teachers who gave the tests and suhmitted the 
 results to the central office. Only through such fine, painstaking 
 cooperation could we see the spelling prohlem of New York rural 
 and village schools as it really is. The 204 teachers who descrihed 
 in detail their methods and practices of teaching spelling have helped 
 us to see certain reasons for the results achieved and have given us 
 a guide to further endeavor. 
 
 Fortunately, during the past 25 years and particularly during the 
 last decade a great deal of experimental work has been done in the 
 teaching of spelling. A socially worth-while spelling curriculum 
 has been determined. Experiments have indicated and in some cases 
 proved that certain methods of teaching gain much better results 
 than other methods. The section of this report devoted to ' Sug- 
 gestions for the Teaching of Spelling " has drawn freely from recent 
 pu])lications based on experimental study. So far as possible, in 
 every case reference has been made to the original source so that 
 
 ^ Including schools in villages having under 4500 population nominally under 
 the supervision of district superintendents. 
 
 [3] 
 
 
 
the reader might find what experimental evidence justified the sug- 
 gestion or recommendation made. 
 
 Many workers have contributed to the preparation of this report. 
 Particularly we would mention Miss Minnie D. Pitcher, a student 
 of educational measurements in the summer session of the State 
 College for Teachers, who very skilfully analyzed the teachers' 
 reports of practices in teaching of spelling ; and Mr E. B. Richards, 
 specialist in English, State Education Department, who critically read 
 the manuscript and assisted in preparing the section on " Suggestions 
 for Teaching Spelling." 
 
 With such splendid cooperation from everyone concerned, the 
 preparation of this report has been a real pleasure. We trust that 
 it will prove of real use to all those who made its preparation possible. 
 
 [4] 
 
A STUDY OF SPELLING ACHIEVEMENT 
 
 Early attempts to use the Ayres Spelling Scale in New York rural 
 schools showed two needs. First, the need for a test or scale which 
 could be used to test the children of all grades in one room at a single 
 period ; this was imperative, if the test was to be administered by 
 the district superintendent, who, at the best, can visit each school 
 but seldom and must do many things at each visit in addition to 
 giving tests. Second, many superintendents wanted a test that 
 they could put into the hands of teachers with a fair assurance that 
 the results of their testing would be usable. As an attempt to meet 
 these two demands, the New York State Spelling Scales- were 
 prepared. 
 
 How the Scales Were Made 
 
 Three scales equivalent in difficulty have been prepared. Each 
 scale consists of 50 words selected from the Buckingham Extension 
 of the Ayres Scale. They range in difficulty from words so easy 
 that more than 90 per cent of second grade children spell them 
 correctly to words so difficult that 50 per cent of first year high school 
 pupils misspell them. On each scale approximately 45 words are 
 contained in the original Ayres Scale^ while the additional five 
 words* are from the Buckingham Extension.^ The words from the 
 Buckingham Extension were further checked against the Thorndike 
 word list and only those included which are found in the 5000 words 
 most used in English writing.^ For each scale, from one to three 
 words were taken from each column C to AB inclusive — one word 
 only was taken from the shorter columns, two or three words from 
 each of the longer columns. The words were arranged in order of 
 difficulty, the easiest word first and the most difficult word last. 
 The difficulty of each word was calculated from the Buckingham 
 Extension of the Ayres Scale, and from these data was determined 
 the average number of words per scale that have been spelled cor- 
 
 2 Prof. William A. McCall of Teachers College, Columbia University 
 assisted in preparing the scales. 
 
 3 Ayres Scale for Measuring Ability in Spelling (the 1000 words most used 
 in the English language), Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N. Y. 
 
 4 This number ranges from 4 to 6 on scales A, B and C and may be slightly 
 larger on the scales to be prepared. 
 
 5 Buckingham Extension of the Ayres Spelling Scale (contams the Ayres 
 Scale plus 505 words chosen "according to their agreements among spellmg 
 books"). Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. 
 
 6 Thorndike. The Teacher's Word Book. (Contains the 10,000 words most 
 used in the English language). Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 
 New York, N. Y. 
 
 [5] 
 
recth^ by children in the cities which furnished data for standardizing 
 the Ay res Scale and Buckingham Extension of the Ay res Scale. 
 These scales can be used in grades 2 to 9 inclusive, although they 
 will proljably give best results in grades 3 to 8. 
 
 Directions for Giving the Test 
 
 No standardized test has any meaning apart from the conditions 
 under which it is given. Directions for giving any test should 
 create an atmosphere where children will be at ease and put forth 
 their best effort without worry. To achieve such a condition 
 directions must l)e simple, clear and so prei)ared that there will be 
 no danger of the examiner's changing or forgetting them. To 
 attain this latter end, examiners were required to read the instruc- 
 tions to pupils. In order to reduce error from misunderstanding 
 of pronunciation, a sentence was prepared to illustrate the meaning 
 or use of each word. The examiner was instructed to pronounce 
 each word, read the sentence containing it and pronounce the word 
 a second time, as follows: " run The boy can run run." 
 
 Directions for Scoring the Tests 
 In order to eliminate differences of o])inion as to scoring, the 
 following rules were ])repared : 
 
 1 Mark each word either right or wrong. 
 
 2 Where two or more s])ellings are allowed for a word by any 
 standard dictionary, count either spelling as correct. 
 
 3 Count as wrong if the letter " t " is not crossed, unless it be a 
 special final t construction, or if the letter " i " does not have a dot. 
 
 4 Do not give credit for spelling words not pronounced; for 
 example, " tops " for the word " top " or " men " for the word 
 " man." 
 
 5 If a child attempts to rewrite a word, consider the obvious 
 intention of the child as the spelling to be scored. . 
 
 Error in the use of ca])ital letters was not covered in the directions. 
 This point needs to be adjusted in later editions of the directions 
 sheet. 
 
 Giving the Tests 
 
 ^\'hen the scales were first prepared, a copy of Scale A was sent 
 to each district superintendent in the State, with the suggestion that 
 the State Education Department would be glad to furnish a copy for 
 each teacher under the superintendent's direction on condition that 
 the class record sheets be returned to the Department. One hundred 
 thirty superintendents sent in requisitions. In some cases the. tests 
 
 [6] 
 
were given by the stiperintendents during their regular visits. Other 
 superintendents called their teachers together, generally during 
 regular conference periods, and explained the giving of the tests, 
 while still others mailed the scales to their teachers with instructions 
 to follow the directions given. Papers were scored by the class- 
 room teachers, and in many cases they were reviewed by the super- 
 intendent who made summary reports to send back to his teachers. 
 The class record sheets (section A containing the name, age in years, 
 grade, and score of each child; section B. the distribution of scores 
 by grades ; and section C, the distribution of scores by age groups) 
 as made out by each teacher were sent by the superintendent to the 
 office of educational measurements in the State Education Depart- 
 ment at Albany. 
 
 Tabulating the Results 
 
 All class record sheets were checked to make sure that the dis- 
 tribution on sections B and C agreed with the original entry of data 
 on section A. Record sheets were then arranged by supervisory 
 districts into three classes: one-teacher schools, two-teacher and 
 three-teacher schools, and schools having four or more teachers. 
 In making this classification, it was intended that the latter group 
 should consist of schools having four or more teachers in the ele- 
 mentary grades. In many instances the data at hand did not indicate 
 clearly whether the four teachers gave their whole time to elementary 
 grades. Doubtful cases were classed as two-teacher or three-teacher 
 schools. This plan was followed in order that a fair comparison 
 might be made between achievement in one-room and graded village 
 schools having not more than two grades to any one teacher. Of 
 course the big majority of teachers in the latter group had only one 
 grade. 
 
 What the Study Represents 
 
 The tests were given in some supervisory districts as early as 
 January and in others as late as May. The average represented 
 spelling achievement for the month of March. The reports sent 
 in and tabulated represent 44 counties, 85 supervisory districts, the 
 work of more than 4000 classroom teachers, and achievement of 
 nearly 60,000 pupils. With few exceptions the 85 district super- 
 intendents reporting obtained results from practically every teacher 
 in their respective districts for grades 2 to 8 inclusive. Many also 
 sent in returns for grade 9. In other words, the averages given 
 in this report represent spelling achievement in 76 per cent of the 
 counties of the .State, 41 per cent of the supervisory districts, the 
 work of approximately 30 per cent of teachers and 20 per cent of 
 
 [7] 
 
pupils under the general supervision of district superintendents. It 
 is fairly representative of spelling achievement in the rural and 
 village schools of the State at large. In addition to the above, 4 
 superintendents sent in their reports after the tables were finished, 
 and 9 other superintendents sent in summarized reports showing the 
 grade averages for each school in their respective districts. There- 
 fore, in all, 98 or 47. 1 per cent of the 208 supervisory districts were 
 represented in this study. 
 
 Tables 4, 5 and 6 of the appendix give the average scores by 
 grades for each supervisory district according to the type of school. 
 Table 7 gives similar data for the 9 districts whose superintendents 
 sent in summarized reports, but did not send the class record sheets 
 from their several schools. A study of these tables shows a con- 
 siderable range in the average grade achievement of the several dis- 
 tricts. For the one-room schools (table 4) the eighth grade averages 
 ranged from 38.6 to 45.9. In the lower grades the range was even 
 greater; for the third grade of one-room schools it was from 12.4 
 to 23.4; for the second grade it was from 5.7 to 17.2. 
 
 Table 1 shows the number of supervisory districts represented in 
 each type of school, the number of pupils tested in each type, the 
 average scores by grades for each type of school and for all schools 
 combined. 
 
 Table 1 
 Spelling achievement by grades 
 
 Showing how all schools combined compared with norms derived from the Ayres 
 Scale, and how one-teacher, two-teacher and three-teacher and graded village schools as 
 types compared one with another and with Ayres norms. scnoois as 
 
 T,.>, t , , .^"-.^f ^°- ^f Average score^ for arade 
 
 Type of school districts pupils 2 3 4 >* ^'"■"^'= ^''^^ oyie ^ ^ 
 
 Y^'^f^^ 83 29 827 9.7 16.6 23.1 29.0 33.7 37 8 414 43 2 
 
 2-0 teacher 63 8 863 11.3 18.9 25.3 29.6 35 2 397 42S a\ ± 
 
 t°{."'°'^ 51 18 879 12.1 18.3 24.6 30 2 35.8 400 43'l 44'7 
 
 N. \. S. norms 85 57 569 10.8 17.8 24.2 29.5 34 7 390 422 43 S 
 
 No^Ssre'?elhe;Vchooisfeili>eiow '■' '' '■' '■' ^.3 2.0 1.8 2.5 
 village scho ols 2.4 1.7 1.5 1.2 2.1 2.2 1.7 1.5 
 
 ^ Score is average number of words spelled correctly. 
 
 The Ayres standards or norms were obtained from testing approxi- 
 mately 70,000 children in 84 cities of the United States. Since the 
 Ayres Scale was first published, the 1000 words it contains have been 
 incorporated into many of the newer spelling books and the teaching 
 of them has been emphasized in various ways. It would be reason- 
 able to expect a higher average achievement on lists of words from 
 the Ayres Scale in 1922 than was obtained previous to 1915.^ 
 
 ' Date of first publication of Ayres Spelling Scale. 
 
 [8J 
 
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 [9] 
 
Moreover, the Ayres norms represent approximately midyear 
 achievement whereas the New York norms represent average 
 achievement near the middle of the second semester. With both of 
 
 XpDajjoD paipds spjoAV jo jaquinu 33bj3av 
 
 these factors favoring a higher achievement in New York tests, the 
 latter's record is consistently lower than the Ayres standard in every 
 grade and each t}pe of school. In New York, the average grade 
 scores for one-teacher schools were lower in every case than the 
 
 [10] 
 
average grade scores for two-teacher and three-teacher schools or 
 for graded village schools ; and with the exception of grades 3 and 
 4. the scores for village schools were higher than for two-room and 
 three-room schools. The combined grade scores for all New York 
 schools tested ranged from 1.8 words to 5.2 words less than the 
 Ayres standards. This represents approximately one-half year or 
 grade below standard for each grade. The average grade scores for 
 one-room schools ranged from 1.5 to 2.4 points below the grade 
 scores for village graded schools ; or an average of approximately 
 one-third grade below. The scores for one-room schools were 
 approximately four-fifths of a grade lower than the Ayres standards. 
 In brief, the average spelling scores obtained in New York schools 
 were consistently lower than the Ayres standards for every type of 
 school studied ; and the achievement of one-room schools was con- 
 siderably lower than that for village schools having four or more 
 teachers. These facts stand forth even more vividly in chart 1. 
 
 Grade scores are not always a sufficient basis on which to make 
 comparisons between different types of schools. The average age 
 of pupils in each grade is an important factor. For those super- 
 visory districts which sent in teachers' reports, a distribution of 
 scores by age groups was made. Table 2 shows the average score 
 achieved by each age group in each of the three types of schools. 
 
 • 
 Table 3 
 
 Number 
 
 of pupils of 
 
 each 
 
 age group 
 
 in 
 
 each type 
 
 of school 
 
 Age 
 
 
 
 Type 
 
 of 
 
 School 
 
 
 group 
 
 4-room 
 
 
 2-3 room 
 
 
 
 l-roor,i 
 
 Total 
 
 6 
 
 289 
 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 293 
 
 661 
 
 7 
 
 1 162 
 
 
 466 
 
 
 
 1 380 
 
 3 008 
 
 8 
 
 1 991 
 
 
 780 
 
 
 
 2 834 
 
 5 60S 
 
 9 
 
 2 369 
 
 
 1 098 
 
 
 
 3 722 
 
 7 189 
 
 10 
 
 2 416 
 
 
 1 190 
 
 
 
 4 194 
 
 7 800 
 
 11 
 
 2 469 
 
 
 1 187 
 
 
 
 4 244 
 
 7 900 
 
 12 
 
 2 494 
 
 
 1 225 
 
 
 
 4 132 
 
 7 851 
 
 13 
 
 2 256 
 
 
 1 090 
 
 
 
 3 829 
 
 7 175 
 
 14 
 
 1 8S9 
 
 
 874 
 
 
 
 3 029 
 
 5 762 
 
 IS 
 
 1 126 
 
 
 494 
 
 
 
 1 781 
 
 3 401 
 
 16 
 
 332 
 
 
 127 
 
 
 
 325 
 
 784 
 
 17 
 
 85 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 179 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 - 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 
 18 854 
 
 
 8 659 
 
 29 824 
 
 57 337 
 
 
 
 Conclusions 
 
 
 
 
 The number of pupils tested, the number of teachers contributing, 
 and the per cent of supervisory districts involved give a fairly 
 accurate picture of spelling achievement for the State's rural schools 
 in the open country and in villages under 4500 population. In 
 reality it presents the approximate situation for more than 300,000 
 children or 20 per cent of the State's elementary school enrolment. 
 It means that New York's schools in rural supervisory districts are 
 
 [11] 
 
attaining a spelling achievement approximately one-half grade or 
 year less than American city school systems attained 7 years ago; 
 and, furthermore, that the achievement in one-room schools is much 
 lower than for the neighboring graded village schools having four 
 or more teachers. 
 
 Chart 2. Showing how the one-room and graded village schools compared with 
 each other and with the average for the three groups combined. (Comparison 
 made on basis of average age scores.) 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .yd 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 --^ 
 
 <frt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 • 
 
 
 * # 
 
 tf 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 
 
 1 • ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3« 
 
 « ■ 
 
 1 
 
 14-1 
 
 ° 1 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 <y* 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »« 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 y^ 
 y y 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 
 
 rt*'f 
 
 ^ 
 
 «0 
 
 ^ 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 L 
 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 ( / 
 
 a / 
 
 3 
 
 / 
 
 *■ 
 
 /• 
 
 rf- 
 
 / 
 
 fc ' 
 
 7 'J 
 
 ? 
 
 Age Groups 
 All rural and village schools combined. 
 
 Graded village schools with 4 or more teachers. 
 
 . One-room rural schools. 
 
 The facts given in tables 1 and 2 raise important questions. 
 
 1 Do these smaller schools have as good a spelling curriculum as 
 have city school systems? 
 
 2 Are the teachers in these smaller schools as well prepared for 
 teaching spelling as teachers in larger school systems? 
 
 3 Does the teacher in these smaller schools have supervision that 
 helps her to improve her methods of teaching? 
 
 [12] 
 
4 In these smaller schools does the good teacher have the best 
 textbooks and other teaching helps that are available to the good 
 teacher in city schools? 
 
 5 Why was the achievement in one-room schools so much less 
 than in graded schools under the direction of the same superin- 
 tendent ? 
 
 The splendid records attained in certain schools and supervisory 
 districts give assurance that teachers and superintendents responsible 
 for the success of pupils in rural schools will find a satisfactory 
 answer to the foregoing questions. 
 
 The remainder of this report analyzes the practices that have 
 gained best results in New York rural and village schools and pro- 
 poses methods whereby teachers may contribute to improving the 
 spelling opportunities of boys and girls in these schools. 
 
 PRACTICES IN SPELLING IN NEW YORK STATE 
 RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS 
 
 Measurement of pupil achievement is of value only in so far as it 
 brings about a better educational treatment of the children measured. 
 This report will be of little worth unless it tends to increase the 
 interest of teachers and pupils in the subject of spelling, to bring 
 about a better understanding, of practices which gain good results, 
 and to improve the methods of teaching spelling throughout the 
 rural and village schools of the State. 
 
 When the spelling tests were sent to district superintendents five 
 copies of " Form 12 — Practice in Spelling in Public Schools of 
 New York State " were sent to each superintendent with the request 
 that he have them filled out by the five teachers in his district who 
 secured the best results on the tests. Two hundred four replies 
 were received; these represented 34 counties and 47 supervisory 
 districts of the State. 
 
 More than 90 per cent of the 204 reports were from teachers who 
 taught spelling to two or more grades. Approximately 15 per cent 
 of those reporting had all grades represented in their school ; but the 
 majority of them had so grouped pupils that they had less than seven 
 spelling classes to be taught. The median number of grades repre- 
 sented in the spelling classes of these 204 teachers was 4.83. This 
 report in reality represents conditions in the better one-room and 
 two-room schools of the State. 
 
 Eighty per cent of the teachers reported that their upper grade 
 classes recited in spelling five times a week. There was a tendency 
 
 [13] 
 
for lower grade classes to recite oftener: 17 per cent reported that 
 second and third grade classes recited ten or more times each week. 
 The number of minutes a week devoted to spelling recitation ranged 
 from 25 to 75. The median number of minutes a week devoted to 
 recitation ranged from 50 in the third grade to 69 in the eighth grade. 
 The number of minutes given to recitation and study combined varied 
 widely in each grade : for grades 4 to 8, the range was from 25 
 to 400 minutes. The median number of minutes a week reported 
 ranged from 118 in the second grade to 150 in grades 7 and 8. 
 
 Seventy- four per cent of the 204 teachers reported that they 
 encouraged home study in spelHng. Only 15 per cent required home 
 study. 
 
 The source of word lists taught has an important bearing in any 
 consideration of the teaching of spelling. According to teachers' 
 reports, their word lists were selected from the following sources 
 approximately as follows : 75 per cent from the spelling textbooks, 
 11 per cent from reading of other lessons, 10 per cent from words 
 misspelled in the children's composition or written work, and 4 per 
 cent from specially prepared lists. 
 
 Ninety-six per cent of these teachers reported that they gave 
 special attention to the teaching of spelling in connection with other 
 subjects. Fifty-three per cent required each child to keep for drill 
 purposes a list of the words which he had previously misspelled. 
 
 Twenty-one different spelling textbooks and the " List of Words 
 for the State Spelling Contest " were used by this group of 204 
 teachers. Below are given the names of all spelling textbooks used 
 in two or more of the 204 schoolrooms. 
 
 No. schools 
 
 No. schools using as one 
 
 Name of textbook with date of publication using exclusively of 2 or 3 texts 
 
 Alton's Descriptive Speller (1901) 2 
 
 Boyce & Sherman: Aldine Speller (1916) 1 1 
 
 Alexander: A Spelling Book (1906, 1918) 8 
 
 Hicks: Champion Spelling Book (1909) 117 14 
 
 Lewis: The Common Word Speller (1921) 5 
 
 Wilson & Winship: The Merrill Speller (1912) 15 3 
 
 Pearson & Suzzallo: Essentials of Spelling (19i5) 6 2 
 
 Pierce: Pierce Speller (1912) 4 2 
 
 Rice's Rational Spelling Book (1898) 2 1 
 
 Shear & Lynch: Baldwin Speller (1903) 1 6 
 
 List of Words for the State Fair Spelling Contest 9 7 
 
 No textbooks used S 
 
 The above list of textbooks should not necessarily be considered 
 the best list of spelling texts published. It is given here merely as a 
 record of the tools used by teachers whose pupils did gain good 
 results on the New York State Spelling Scales. 
 
 Seventeen per cent of the group reported that the course of study 
 provided a minimum list of words to be taught; but very little 
 information was secured as to how these minimum lists were selected 
 or prepared. 
 
 [14] 
 
The influence of the " List of Words for the State Fair SpelHng 
 Contest "** was evident from the repHes. Six teachers did not say 
 whether they used the hst or not; 53 did not use it. More than 70 
 per cent of the group reported that they used the hst. Two used 
 it as low as the second grade; and 12 others began using it in the 
 fourth grade. Nine teachers had no other textbook for spelling. 
 The average teacher l^egan using the list in the second half of the 
 sixth grade. For the 114 teachers who estimated the proportional 
 part of the year they devoted to this word test, the median time was 
 21.9 per cent; that is, the average teacher who uses this list 
 devotes to it about one-fifth of the school year. A small number 
 of teachers reported that they used this hst as a basis for weekly 
 and monthly reviews, particularly for oral reviews or spelhng 
 matches. 
 
 The number of words assigned to the daily spelling lesson ranged 
 all the way from 2 to 75. The average number of words assigned 
 daily, however, ranged from about 10 in the second and third grades 
 to about 18 in the eighth grade. Only 159 teachers reported the 
 number of new words taught daily. The average for the lower 
 grades was 5, and for the upper grades was 10. 
 
 Fifty-four per cent of the teachers reported that they tested 
 children on the words of the spelling lesson [before they attempted to 
 study them. Ninety-two per cent said they tested pupils with words 
 in dictated exercises. 
 
 Methods of teaching new words were described by 177 teachers. 
 The dozen methods most often mentioned and the number of teachers 
 reporting each one are as follows : 
 
 1 Giving synonym or definition 85 
 
 2 Using the word in a sentence 83 
 
 3 Pronouncing the word (sometimes by syllables) IZ 
 
 4 Dividing the word into syllables 55 
 
 5 Placing emphasis on special difficulties, e. g. silent letters 35 
 
 6 Using dictionary 25 
 
 7 Giving special attention to accents and diacritical marks 24 
 
 8 Securing correct pronunciation from pupils 16 
 
 9 Writing word on board (sometimes in colors) 16 
 
 10 Having pupils spell orally 15 
 
 1 1 Having" pupils write words while in class 11 
 
 12 Pointing out application of special rules 10 
 
 The several methods listed involve three fundamental principles : 
 (a) helping the child to understand the meaning of the word before 
 he is left to study it by himself; (^) helping the child to visualize 
 the correct form of the word; and (r) encouraging the child to be 
 resourceful in his attempt to learn new words. 
 
 s This list is sometimes spoken of as the Regents 5000 Word List. 
 
 [151 
 
31 
 
 28 
 11 
 
 One hundred eighty-one teachers reported methods of reviewing 
 old words. Three methods were most used : regular reviews, con- 
 tests or oral spelling matches, reviewing words included in daily 
 lesson. The following is an inclusive outline of methods reported: 
 1 Regular reviews 87 
 
 a Written 35 
 
 weekly 8 
 
 monthly 6 
 
 miscellaneous 21 
 
 h Oral 15 
 
 weekly 7 
 
 miscellaneous 8 
 
 c Type of review not indicated 37 
 
 weekly 24 
 
 miscellaneous 13 
 
 2 Contests (including spelling games) 
 
 weekly 6 
 
 miscellaneous 25 
 
 3 Reviewing words included in daily lesson 
 
 4 Words used in sentences 
 
 dictated by teacher 9 
 
 pupil uses in original, sentence 2 
 
 5 Plan outlined in textbook 7 
 
 6 Teacher keeps record of misspelled words 
 
 and uses them for review 7 
 
 7 Pupil keeps notebook of misspelled words 5 
 
 8 Words misspelled in other subjects used in 
 
 spelling review lessons 2 
 
 9 Miscellaneous 3 
 In making the above analysis, it was often difficult to distinguish 
 
 between the oral review listed as l-h and the contest listed as 2. 
 There was considerable question as to whether the differentiation was 
 justified. Those explanations which appeared to stress contest or 
 spelling match were listed under 2 ; those that stressed reviews were 
 tabulated under \-h. 
 
 Distribution of time between oral and written spelling ranged all 
 the way from 100 per cent to oral spelling and none to written to the 
 opposite extreme of 100 per cent to written spelling and no time to 
 oral spelling. The distribution was bimodal : 57 teachers reported 
 a 50-50 distribution; 30 reported 25 per cent of the time to oral 
 spelling and 75 per cent to written spelling; 37 reported a distribu- 
 tion of 20 per cent to oral and 80 per cent to written. The average 
 distribution was approximately 25 per cent to oral spelling and 75 
 
 [16] 
 
per cent to written work. Those teachers who reported the larger 
 percentage of time to oral spelling invariably taught lower grades 
 exclusively; while a few upper grade teachers devoted their entire 
 spelling period to written work. 
 
 One hundred forty-two teachers reported rules which they taught 
 in connection with spelling. Following are the rules given and the 
 number of teachers who reported them: 
 
 1 e follows X except after c or when pronounced as c 55 
 
 (a) e follows t except after c 36 
 
 (b) e follows t except when pronounced as o 1 
 
 2 Final silent e preceded by a consonant is usually dropped before a 
 
 suffix beginning with a vowel 34 
 
 3 Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable ending in a single 
 
 consonant preceded by a single vowel double the final consonant when 
 adding a suffix beginning with a vowel 24 
 
 4 Words ending in 3; : 
 
 (o) Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form their plural by 
 
 changing y \.o i and adding es 22 
 
 (&) Words ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to i before 
 
 a suffix beginning with any other letter than i 30 
 
 5 Rules for plurals (no special rules indicated) 35 
 
 (a) The plural of a few nounsi ending in / or je is formed by changing 
 
 / or fe to ves 7 
 
 (6) Nouns ending in s, sh, ch, x or 3 form plural by adding es 4 
 
 (c) Some nouns ending in preceded by a consonant form the plural 
 
 by adding es 3 
 
 6 Words ending in ce or ge retain the e before a suffix beginning with 
 
 a or 3 
 
 7 Words ending in ie drop e and change » to y before ing 4 
 
 8 Miscellaneous 3 
 
 Sixty-seven per cent of the teachers reported that they consciously 
 attempted definite instruction in how to study spelling. Nearly 
 half of the 67 per cent made no clear distinction between methods 
 of assigning lesson and instruction in how to study. The reports 
 of the remaining 70 teachers are summarized below : 
 
 Methods used No. teachers reporting 
 
 1 Have pupils write words 24 
 
 2 Have pupils divide words into syllables when studying 18 
 
 3 Have pupils try to recall how the word was sounded 12 
 
 4 Have pupils visualize word before studying 10 
 
 5 Pupils directed to study unfamiliar words 7 
 
 6 Pupils taught how to use dictionary in learning new words 3 
 
 7 Have pupils glance at word, close eyes, visualize word, glance again, 
 
 write 3 
 
 8 Write the words in sentences 3 
 
 9 Pupils taught to apply rules 3 
 
 10 Concentration on spelling of word while writing it 2 
 
 Only eleven teachers reported any definite method of supervising 
 pupils' study of spelling. Ninety teachers who attempted to answer 
 the question showed that they had no conception of the real problems 
 involved in supervising pupils' study. 
 
 [17] 
 
P2ighty-three per cent of teachers reporting had not used the Ayres 
 Scale Ijefore in their work. 
 
 Summary — Practices of the Average Teacher 
 
 A review of the preceding pages gives a fairly complete picture 
 of the practices followed and methods used by the average teacher 
 whose pupils attained good results on the New York State Spelling 
 Scales. 
 
 This average teacher has her pupils so grouped that she has not 
 more than five spelling classes. Each class recites five times each 
 week. The length of the spelling recitation ranges from about 10 
 minutes for the second and third grade to about 14 minutes for the 
 eighth grade. The total school time devoted to study and recitation 
 of spelling ranges from 120 minutes for the second grade to 150 
 minutes for the eighth. The teacher encourages home study of 
 spelling but does not require it. 
 
 The words she teaches are selected from four general sources 
 approximately as follows : 75 per cent from the spelling textbook, 
 11 per cent from other school subjects. 10 per cent from misspelled 
 words in children's composition and other written work, and 4 per 
 cent from other word lists. The teacher makes a special point of 
 teaching spelling in connection with other school subjects and she 
 often requires the children to keep a list of the words they misspell 
 for future study. She uses whatever textbook has been provided. 
 During the second half of the sixth grade she begins using the " List 
 of Words for the State Fair Spelling Contest " and from then on 
 till they leave the elementary school, her pupils give about one-fifth 
 of their time to a study of this list. One of the most efifective uses 
 she makes of this list is as a basis for oral reviews and spelling 
 matches. 
 
 The average lesson contains about 5 new words in the lower grades 
 and as many as 10 in the upper grades. Each lesson also contains 
 as many more review words. About half the time the teacher tests 
 the pupils with the new words and then has them study the ones they 
 can not spell. Often she dictates exercises containing the words to 
 be spelled. Her favorite methods of teaching new words are : to 
 give synonym or definition, to use the word in a sentence, to pro- 
 nounce the word, to divide it into syllables, and to emphasize the 
 special difficulties. She has regular reviews, sometimes by including 
 words from previous lessons in the new assignment, by weekly and 
 monthly reviews, and by oral contests. On the average she gives 
 about 25 per cent of the time to oral spelling and about 75 per cent 
 to written: this ratio varies from grade to grade. In the lower 
 
 [18] 
 
grades the proportion to oral spelling is greater ; while in the upper 
 grades it is less. She teaches a few simple rules that have a wide 
 application; for example, c follows i except after c or when pro- 
 nounced as a, and the rules for words ending in y. This average 
 teacher would like to teach pupils how to study spelling, but she has 
 not learned any special method or technic for so doing. She has 
 given very little thought to supervising pupils' study of spelling, and 
 has not learned to what advantage she might use standardized spell- 
 ing scales as a means of improving the product of her teaching. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 
 
 During the past 20 years a great many experiments have been 
 tried to determine what methods and procedure give best results 
 in the teaching of spelling. The following discussion is based on 
 reports of experimental investigation. Wherever a quotation is 
 given or a statement made the autliority is indicated by giving in 
 parenthesis the initial letter of the author's name and the page of his 
 publication. Reference to the bibliography at the end of this bulletin 
 will guide the reader to the source of information underlying the 
 given suggestion. Recommendations are made and discussed under 
 three general headings : time allotment, source of spelling lists, and 
 methods. 
 
 . Time Allotment 
 
 Apparently " no correlation exists between the score attained by 
 the different teachers and the amount of time devoted to the teaching 
 of spelling" (W-78). "The amount of time required depends 
 somewhat upon the method l)ut it should certainly not exceed 75 
 minutes per week. This allotment should provide for both study 
 and recitation" (H-59). Tidyman says, "Results show that the 
 amount of time spent is not the most important factor of the situa- 
 tion. Of far greater importance is the way in which the time is 
 spent." Our own New York study verifies the above statements. 
 The verv fact that teachers who allowed less than 50 minutes a week 
 to the combined study and recitation of spelling secured as good 
 results as teachers who allowed more than 300 minutes indicates that 
 the time allotment must have a very limited influence. All the evi- 
 dence of this report indicates that there is no excuse for more than 
 five spelling recitation periods a week. The value of reducing the 
 total number of recitations in the rural school is a generally accepted 
 principle. If spelling has been well taught in the lower and the 
 intermediate elementary grades, the number of spelling recitations 
 in the upper grades might easily be reduced to four, three or even 
 
 [19] 
 
two : the number should be determined by use of standard tests from 
 time to time. " Further, it is possible that we may find upon more 
 extended investigation that more time and effort should be concen- 
 trated in the lower intermediate grades, where the growth in spelling 
 efficiency is most rapid" (T-136). The foregoing suggestion is 
 particularly appropriate when we consider how many boys and girls 
 fail to enter the eighth grade of the elementary school. 
 
 Source of Spelling Lists 
 
 The chief value of spelling lies in its application to writing. 
 Investigations have shown that people's writing vocabularies are 
 much smaller than their reading vocabularies. " Jones places the 
 average writing vocabulary of the eighth grade child at about 2500 
 words. Another investigation states that the average number of 
 words used by the high school graduate is not more than 4000" 
 (T-9). These facts have a considerable bearing on the number of 
 words to be taught and on the question of how they shall be selected. 
 " Thus it appears that a writing vocabulary of 4000 or 5000 words 
 is adequate for the most exacting and varied demands that are likely 
 to be made upon the average child, and that the thorough teaching 
 of 3000 to 3500 carefully selected words is about all that should be 
 expected of the elementary school; provided, that in addition the 
 child is taught how and when to use the dictionary " (T-9). 
 
 Our own study has shown that the better teachers of the rural and 
 village schools draw about 75 per cent of their word lists from the 
 regular textbook. The less successful teachers very likely depend 
 even more upon the regular textbook. For this reason, school super- 
 intendents should exercise the greatest care in seeing that the best 
 spelling textbooks attainable are placed in the hands of teachers and 
 pupils. Investigations made during the last decade have shown 
 pretty conclusively what words are most used in writing vocabularies. 
 The spelling textbook should be based upon the results of these 
 investigations. The word lists should be graded (a) according to 
 their difficulty, (b) according to their social worth to the child at 
 time of learning. The book should both in its arrangement of word 
 lists and in its instructions to teachers cover the most economical 
 methods of learning. The authors of a number of the newer spelling 
 textbooks have attempted to utilize the above principles in making 
 their books. Superintendents will find a comprehensive set of 
 criteria for use in selecting textbooks in Horn's " Principles of 
 methods in spelling " as given in the Eighteenth Yearbook, part II. 
 
 Two of Horn's principles are useful guides to teachers for select- 
 ing words from other subjects : " Those words which are commonly 
 
 [20] 
 
used by the children in any given grade should be placed in that 
 grade." " Those words needed in other subjects should be taught 
 in appropriate grades" (H-57). The better rural teachers, on the 
 average, select more than 10 per cent of the words they teach from 
 other school subjects. 
 
 The better teachers also select another 10 per cent of the words 
 they teach from children's written composition or other work. 
 Different teachers follow different methods of selecting such words. 
 The following principles are helpful guides toward improving spell- 
 ing in written work : " Insist on careful spelling in all written work 
 and religiously correct spelling errors. It does not suffice merely to 
 mark the errors. The pupil must be led to regard errors as serious 
 and should learn thoroughly the words which he misses" (H-64). 
 " Those words which are most commonly used in correspondence 
 should be taught earliest, on the ground that the school must insure 
 the correct spelling of such zvords before the elimination of pupils 
 becomes serious" (H-57). "Better provision should be made to 
 insure that each child ivork on his own special difficulties and no 
 others. There is clearly no economy in requiring a child to spend 
 time on words which he now can spell correctly and which he will 
 continue to spell correctly in any number of consecutive trials " 
 (H-60). "Each child should give special attention to those words 
 which are specially missed by him" (H-62). For carrying the 
 above principle into effect, Mr Woody offers the following helpful 
 suggestions : " On the back of each paper indicate the number of 
 misspelled words. Require each child to learn, according to the 
 method indicated below, each word so missed, and that he write the 
 correct spelling on the back of the paper. He should also write each 
 misspelled word in his individual spelling record book to serve as a 
 basis for his individual reviews. In addition, the paper with the 
 words correctly spelled on the back should be handed to the class 
 secretary who may be elected each week. The class secretary should 
 copy into the class spelling record book all of the words missed in 
 the lesson, giving dates and the names of the pupils who missed each 
 word. All of the words missed by 25 per cent or more of the class 
 should be incorporated into the class spelling list. Individual lists 
 should contain (1) all commonly used words which the teacher has 
 had to spell for the child, (2) all words which he needed in his writ- 
 ing and had to look up in the dictionary, and (3) all words misspelled 
 in his written work " (W-79). 
 
 In the teaching of spelling, probably the best thing the teacher can 
 do for upper grade children is to train them in the mastery of new 
 words and of their own spelling difficulties. They need to learn to 
 
 [21] 
 
spell without the teacher's help. The pupil's own spelling notebook 
 wisely used is a valuable aid toward this end. 
 
 There are other sources from which valuable word lists may be 
 made. The child needs to know the vocabulary of his own com- 
 munity. Mr Pittman in chapter 11 of '' Successful Teaching in Rural 
 Schools " describes how one school spent a month making its own 
 spelling book from words used to describe the " historical, agricul- 
 tural and social interests " of the county in which the school was 
 situated. Such a study not only increases interest in spelling but 
 interest in the community as well. 
 
 The average New York teacher in rural and village schools begins 
 using the '" List of Words for the State Fair Spelling Contest " about 
 the second half of the sixth grade. JMany teachers reported that 
 they used the list much earlier, a few as low as the second grade. 
 Considerable care was exercised in preparing the first part of the 
 list comprising nearly 3000 words; but the list as now printed is 
 designed primarily for use at the State Fair spelling bee, and is 
 printed and distributed under the auspices of the State Department 
 of Farms and Markets. The list has been checked against Thorn- 
 dike's list of 10.000 words most commonly used in the English lan- 
 guage (Th). Excluding the proper geographical names on pages 
 10 and 1 1. about 80 per cent of the list is to be found in the list of 
 10,000 words people use most in writing, and less than 60 per cent 
 of the list is contained in the 5000 words most commonly used. The 
 State Education Department does not now consider it a valid teaching 
 list: first, because too large a percentage of the second part of the 
 list, pages 11—16, consists of words that the average person seldom 
 uses in writing and children should learn to spell first those words 
 that are most commonly used ; second, the words are not graded 
 according to difficulty so that in using the list, some children are 
 studying words entirely too difficult, while others are wasting time 
 on words they already know. This 5000 word list serves only one 
 useful purpose — it is a good supplementary list for children to use 
 outside of class in preparing for spelling contests. In no case should 
 it be used as a teaching list. 
 
 Methods 
 1 How many words should be taught per lesson in each grade? 
 
 Most of the experimental workers are in fairly close agreement with 
 Mr Woody who recommended the following as the maximum num- 
 ber of words, old and new, that should be taught per lesson (W-79) : 
 
Grade 
 
 0/rf zvords 
 
 A^tt 
 
 ' zi'ords 
 
 Tola 
 
 1 
 
 No regular spelling lessons 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 Of course, some variation will be made liecause of different cir- 
 cumstances ; but it is quite agreed among all students of the teaching 
 of spelling that assigning 10, 15 or more new words per lesson is 
 not conducive to the best spelling achievement. While the recom- 
 mendation here given may seem to be a very slow method of gaining 
 a spelling vocabulary, the teacher can quickly calculate that it gives 
 the child a spelling vocabulary of considerably more than 4000 words. 
 The calculation is based on the assumption that spelling is taught 
 daily. 
 
 2 " Test all words before teaching. This will make it possible 
 for each pupil to work on those words which he has missed. Pupils 
 vary so widely in their ability to spell the words of a given lesson 
 that to teach each child each word involves a great loss for all. In 
 a recent experirnent with sixth grade pupils this variation in the 
 ability to spell and learn a given list was so great that the waste from 
 teaching each child each word would have amounted to over 75 
 per cent" (H-60). " Contrary to ivliat is often said, initial errors 
 mode on tliese preliminary tests do not persist. Reasoning from the 
 importance of primacy in habit formation, writers on spelling have 
 long made a point of the importance of avoiding misspellings. If 
 test errors tend to persist, the tendency is apparently offset by im- 
 mediate correction. The resulting feeling of dissatisfaction at hav- 
 ing missed the word, plus the concentrated attack on remedying the 
 exact difficulty, more than outweighs any disadvantage rising from 
 the initial misspelling " (H-61). 
 
 3 Composition spelling tests. Occasionally the teacher will 
 find a composition spelling test a valuable investment of time ; for, 
 after all, the real test of a child's spelling ability is whether or ngt 
 he spells correctly in his written work when his chief thought is on 
 what he is trying to express. An excellent plan for making such 
 tests is described in the Teachers' Manual of the Detroit Course of 
 Study in Spelling. (See bibliography) 
 
 4 Teaching new words and reteaching words previously 
 taught. Two plans are submitted below : in many respects they 
 are identical. The chief difference lies in the fact that the second 
 plan provides for teaching new words only to those pupils who do 
 
 [23] 
 
not know how to spell them. It saves the time of the child who has 
 already learned the word outside the spelling class. 
 
 "Plan P Steps in Teaching Spelling. 
 
 " Write one of the new words on the blackboard and teach it in 
 accordance with the following plan. Then erase it and write the 
 next word, teaching it in the same way. Continue in this way 
 throughout the list. 
 
 " a While writing the word, pronounce it distinctly. 
 
 " b Develop the meaning orally either by calling for a sentence 
 using the word or by giving its definition. 
 
 " c Divide the word into syllables. Call on pupils to spell orally 
 by syllables. Have them indicate what part of the word presents 
 difficulties, or whether the word contains parts they already know. 
 
 " d Have pupils write the word on practice paper several times, 
 spelling it softly as they write. 
 
 " e Allow the class a moment in which to look at the word again, 
 and then have them close their eyes and try to visualize it, or use any 
 other device of a similar nature. Have considerable repetition, both 
 oral and written." 
 
 " Plan 2^° How Can a Teacher Teach Spelling f 
 
 (In teaching spelling the teacher is active and working with the 
 class, there being no class study period.) 
 
 " a First test the entire class with written spelling on each new 
 lesson. Excuse those children who have perfect scores on this test 
 from the day's teaching exercises. However, present these same 
 words in the spelling lists on succeeding days. Do not excuse children 
 from the monthly tests. 
 
 " b After selecting the children who are to be taught, select the 
 particular words in the list which these children have misspelled. 
 
 " c Write each word to be taught in a given lesson on the board or 
 present it on a card. Not more than one word should be before the 
 child at a time. The word should be written without diacritical 
 marks to indicate syllabication. 
 
 , " rf The teacher should pronounce the word, enunciating the 
 syllables clearly. The pupils should pronounce the word in concert, 
 enunciating syllables distinctly. Different individual pupils should 
 pronounce the word. 
 
 " e Have pupil examine the word for difficult or familiar parts. 
 Apply any spelling rule previously taught. 
 
 9 Tidyman. The Teaching of Spelling, p. 146. This plan was presented by 
 the author through the courtesy of Mr H. C. Pearson, principal, Horace Mann 
 School. 
 
 10 Woody. Annual of Washington Educational Association, 1918, p. 79, 80. 
 
 [24] 
 
" f Discuss the meaning of the word and have various pupils use it 
 in sentences. 
 
 " g Have pupils look at the word and close their eyes and try to 
 recall how the word looks, pronouncing the syllables in a whisper. 
 
 " h Let them open their eyes and check with the correct form on the 
 board (recall). Ask ' how many had the correct spelling? ' 
 
 " i Erase this word and present the next word, and proceed 
 through steps c, d, e, f, g and h in a similar manner. Continue this 
 process until the list of new words is exhausted. 
 
 " i After presenting each of the new words in the above manner, 
 proceed with each old word, through steps c, d, g and h. 
 
 " k Get new impressions and recall for each word in the list by 
 presenting the words and proceeding through steps c, d, g and h. 
 Repeat the process once more. 
 
 " / Present one word for a moment, and have the child write it 
 from memory, checking with the correct form. 
 
 " m After all words in the lesson have been taught in the given 
 manner test as indicated in section 5. 
 
 " n Frequently call to the attention of the children that this method 
 should be followed in their independent study." 
 
 5 Testing the teaching of spelling. The two plans outlined 
 above emphasize five essentials of good spelling teaching the value of 
 which every successful teacher recognizes, namely: visual imagery 
 of the word, correct pronunciation, stress on syllabication, writing 
 the word, and correct understanding of its meaning or use. These 
 plans assume that the spelling period is a teaching and not a testing 
 period. The teacher should, at times, test the result of her work. 
 The following suggestions have been found helpful : 
 
 a One recitation period out of five is sufficient for testing. 
 
 b As a rule all tests should be written. 
 
 c Written lessons or tests may include test words dictated in 
 sentences, or in longer exercises. Composition spelling tests are 
 valuable teaching devices but do not measure direct results from 
 teaching certain word lists. 
 
 d Pupils should occasionally be tested on their individual lists. 
 
 e There should be general reviews monthly or oftener. These 
 may be oral or written. The spelling match or contest usually adds 
 interest. 
 
 / At least twice each year the teacher or supervisor should use a 
 standardized spelling test or scale. (P'urther use of this device is 
 given in method no. 10.) 
 
 6 Oral versus written spelling. Oral spelling as a means of 
 testing should have little place above the primary grades except in the 
 
 [25] 
 
" spelling match." As a means of teaching, however, oral spelling 
 does have an important place as is shown in the plans for teaching 
 outlined above. 
 
 7 " Rules can not replace direct instruction in spelling, even 
 in the case of words covered by them" (H-55). Experimental 
 evidence indicates that teaching rules contribute very little to the 
 learning of spelling. Time should better be expended on the direct 
 study of words covered by the rule. Until such time as this question 
 has been more thoroughly investigated teachers probably need not 
 stress more than the following five rules (W— 81) (D-58-59). 
 These should be taught inductively : 
 
 1 A word of one syllable ending in a single consonant after a 
 single vowel, or a word of more than one syllable having the accent 
 on the last syllable, double the consonant before adding a suffix ; as 
 " running " or " occurring." 
 
 2 A word ending in silent c usually drops the r before a suffix 
 beginning with a vowel ; as " giving." 
 
 3 c follows / except after c or when sounded as a. as in " weigh." 
 
 4 A word ending in y after a consonant usually changes y to i 
 before most suffixes excej)! those beginning with /', as " dried," 
 " drying." 
 
 5 A word ending in y after a vowel usually does not change the y 
 before a suffix ; as " displayed." 
 
 8 Teaching pupils how to study. The greatest thing the 
 teacher can do is to teach the children how to attack and learn new 
 words without the teacher's help. Teaching the correct use of the 
 dictionary is a part of this work. Getting the child consciously to 
 try different methods of study is a valualile means of focusing his 
 attention on economical methods of study. The following nine rules 
 should be made a part of the child's working method (H-72) : 
 
 " 1 The first step in learning to spell a word is to pronounce it cor- 
 rectly. If you do not know how to pronounce a word, look up the 
 pronunciation in the dictionary. When you are certain that you 
 know the word is jironounced, pronounce it, enunciating each syllable 
 distinctly and looking closely at each syllable as you say it. 
 
 " 2 Close your eyes and try to recall how the word looks, syllable by 
 syllable, as you pronounce it in a whisper. In pronouncing the word 
 be sure to enunciate the syllables carefully. 
 
 " 3 Open your eyes to make sure that }'0u were able to recall the 
 correct spelling. 
 
 " 4 Look at the word again, enunciating the syllables distinctly. 
 
 " 5 Recall again, with closed eyes, how the word looked. 
 
 [26] 
 
" 6 Check again with the correct form. This recall (as in 2 and 5) 
 should be repeated at least three times, and oftener if you have diffi- 
 cult}' in recalling the correct form of the word. 
 
 " 7 When you feel sure that you have learned the word, write it 
 without looking at the book, and then check with the correct form. 
 
 " 8 Repeat this two or more times without looking either at the 
 book or at your previous attempts. 
 
 " 9 If you miss the word on either of these trials, you should copy 
 it in your spelling notebook, since it probably is especially difficult 
 for you." 
 
 9 Supervising pupils' study of spelling. Pupils should have a 
 definite period for studying spelling. In the graded school, the 
 teacher should spend this time observing each child's method of work, 
 quietly eliminating wrong methods, keeping up interest, making pro- 
 vision for individual differences. The teacher of many grades in a 
 one-room school while directing the work of another class can keep 
 her eye on the pupils' studying and can often offer the individual-help 
 or suggestion implied in " supervised study." The teacher's super- 
 vision of pupils' study of spelling consists largely of making sure that 
 the pupils are putting the nine rules given above into practice so far 
 as each individual needs them. 
 
 10 The use of standardized spelling tests. Standardized 
 spelling tests or, scales are an improvement over other tests in two 
 ways: (o) they contain only those words vv^hich every child should 
 learn to spell before he leaves the pul)lic schools and {b) they are 
 graded according to known difficulty. The Ayres Spelling Scale is 
 the most widely used in elementary schools. Teachers can select 
 well-standardized lists of words for any grade from this scale. Such 
 tests given every month or every two months help pupils to know 
 what progress they are making and whether they are doing as well 
 as pupils of the same grade in other schools. The New York State 
 Spelling Scales used two or three times each year help the teacher to 
 know (a) how much her pupils have lost during vacation ; (b) how 
 much they g^in from time to time. 
 
 Superintendent Sherman L. Howe^^ found a very eft'ective means 
 of using standardized spelling tests. In his seventh and eighth 
 grades he gave a standardized test (list of words of known difficulty 
 from the Ayres Scale) each month. Any child who measured one 
 year above standard was excused from the spelling class for one 
 month and could devote the spelling period to other school subjects 
 
 11 Formerly of Carthage, N. Y. 
 
 [27] 
 
or to library reading. Each month, however, he must come back 
 for the standardized test. If he passed at the desired standing he 
 was excused for another month ; if he dropped down he had to come 
 into the class again until he had achieved the desired excellence. This 
 plan had two very good features : ( 1 ) it gave those children who 
 already were proficient in spelling a chance to expend their time at 
 something profitable to themselves; (2) pupils excused from the 
 spelling class were obliged, on their own initiative, to give attention 
 to the study of spelling. In order to avoid falling down on the next 
 standard test they had to learn to spell practically every new word 
 they met. Teachers of every subject kept this ideal constantly before 
 such pupils. In this way they were developing a new vocabulary 
 much faster than the regular spelling class and were at the same 
 time learning to spell without the teacher's direct guidance. 
 
 Summary — Practices of the Superior Teacher 
 
 The superior teacher is a student. She is continuously searching 
 for better ways or means of improving her work. She studies care- 
 fully the methods and procedure which others have found successful ; 
 and she does not hesitate to experiment with new plans or methods 
 that promise success. While her procedure in teaching spelling 
 varies somewhat according to local conditions, in the main she 
 adheres quite closely to the following principles : 
 
 1 How spelling is taught is much more important than the time 
 allotted to it. Seventy-five minutes a week is a sufficient allotment 
 for study and recitation of spelling. 
 
 2 The number of recitations a week should not exceed five and in 
 one-room schools, where consolidation of class periods is necessary, 
 the number of periods may be lessened. 
 
 3 A "minimal spelling vocabulary" is essential. Children should 
 learn to spell the words they need to express their thoughts in writing. 
 
 4 The spelling textbook should be based on the result of wide and 
 careful investigation as to what words are used in writing. It should 
 also be graded according to the difficulty of words, and to the vocabu- 
 lary needs of children. The superior teacher will use no other 
 textbook. 
 
 5 Words which children need in order to succeed in any subject 
 of any grade should be taught through the spelling class of that 
 grade. 
 
 6 A systematic plan for learning words misspelled in children's 
 written work should be followed. Use of the pupil's individual 
 spelling notebook is one device for increasing the pupil's efficiency in 
 overcoming his own spelling difficulties. 
 
 [28] 
 
7 A few words well taught daily gives pupils ultimately a much 
 better spelling vocabulary than does a large number of words assigned 
 daily but poorly taught. 
 
 8 The daily assignment should include for each pupil the words 
 of the previous lessons he has forgotten. 
 
 9 The time of pupils may be economized by testing them with 
 the new words and having them study only such words as they 
 misspell. 
 
 10 An important method of review is to insert the list of review 
 words in a paragraph or sentences to be dictated. 
 
 11 In teaching new words, the successful teacher causes the pupil 
 to get a visual image of the word, to pronounce it correctly, to see it 
 in syllables, to write it, and to understand its correct meaning or use. 
 
 12 Spelling tests should usually be written. Not more than one 
 period out of five should be devoted to testing. There should be 
 written reviews monthly or oftener. 
 
 13 Oral work is a valuable means of teaching. Oral testing 
 should not be used except in the occasional oral contest. 
 
 14 Very few rules should be taught and these only after much 
 direct teaching of the words which the rule involves. 
 
 15 The teacher's greatest problem is to teach pupils how to study 
 spelling, how to learn the spelling of new words they meet in their 
 reading. For upper grade pupils, this involves teaching them how 
 to use the dictionary. 
 
 16 It is important that the teacher supervise pupils' studying of 
 spelling in order that she may eliminate wrong methods and develop 
 right methods of study. 
 
 17 Through the use of standardized spelling scales, pupils' time 
 may be economized, pupils may be encouraged to develop initiative 
 in learning to spell without the teacher's aid and the teacher can as 
 often as seems desirable secure a check on how well her pupils' 
 achievement compares with standards that should be attained. 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 (B) Ballou. The Teaching of Spelling. School Document 
 No. 17. 1916. Boston Public Schools. 
 
 Bulletin states briefly the conclusions drawn from a number of experiments 
 in the teaching of spelling carried on under the direction of the department 
 of educational investigation and measurement. 
 
 (C) Courtis. A Tentative Course of Study in Spelling — 
 Teacher's Manual. Detroit Public Schools. 1919. 
 
 Contains many suggestions for teachers, and a well-selected, well-graded 
 spelling vocabulary. One of the most helpful parts is the description of 
 " The use of games " in teaching of spelling. 
 
 [29] 
 
(D) Davis. The Technique of Teaching'. Macmillan. New 
 York. 1922. 
 
 Chapter 2, The Teaching of Spelling, contains helpful discussion of spelling 
 with methods and devices for teaching. 
 (H) Horn. Principles of Method in Teaching Spelling as 
 
 Derived from Scientific Investigation. Eighteenth Yearbook, 
 National Society for Study of Education, Part 2, 1919. Public 
 School Pubhshing Co., Bloomington. 111. 
 
 Was a chapter of the fourth report of the committee on economy of time 
 in education. It lists 41 principles of method and gives brief discussion of 
 experimental evidence underlying each principle. Has a bibliography of 
 133 numbers. 
 (K M) Kendall & Mirick. 1>aching the Fundamental Sub- 
 jects. Houghton. New York. 1915. p. 122-44. 
 
 Spelling was treated as a subdivision of English. A brief comprehensive 
 discussion of how to teach spelling. Gives two type lessons. 
 (P) Pryor. A Suggested Minimal Spelliiig List. Sixteenth 
 Yearl)ook. National Society for Study of Education, Part 1, 
 Chap. 5. ]'u1)lic .School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Chapter in second report of committee on minimal essentials in elementary 
 school bubjects. Contains a minimal list of 1478 words arranged by grades. 
 (P P) Pryor and Pittman. A Cuide to the Teaching of Spelling. 
 Macmillan Co., New York. 1921. 
 
 The authors state, " The primary purpose of this book is to help teachers 
 to improve the quality of their teaching of spelling. While it has been 
 written with the problems of the inexperienced teacher foremost in mind, 
 it is believed that it may be of substantial value to experienced teachers as 
 well." It is a book that the classroom teacher will read and can use. 
 (P) Pittman. Successful Teaching in Rural Schools. Amer. 
 Book Co. New York. 1922. 
 
 Chapter 1 1, pages 120-28. describes method and value of having children 
 make their own spelling lists of words based on "historical, agricultural and 
 social interests of the community." Chapter 22, pages 245-57, discusses the 
 value of a " minimal spelling list " and describes how the " spelling test " 
 was used to bring rural patrons together for consideration of other questions. 
 (S) Suzzallo. The Teaching of Spelling. Houghton. 1911. 
 
 A small volume. Represented the best thought on spelling 10 j'ears ago. 
 Agrees for the most part with the results of experimental work that have 
 been carried on since its publication. 
 (T) Tidyman, The Teaching of Spelling. ^^V)rld Book Co., 
 1919. 
 
 One of the most helpful books on the teaching of spelling that is available 
 to teachers. Its discussion of almost every question that may arise con- 
 cerning the teaching of spelling is based on a wide classroom experience and 
 much experimental evidence. 
 (W) Woody. Report on Spelling. Annual of the Washington 
 Educational Assn. 1918. 
 
 Is similar in outline to report of " spelling in New York Rural Schools." 
 
 Contains many concrete suggestions from which quotations have been freely 
 
 made in New York report. 
 
 (Th) Thomdike. The Teachers Word Book. Bureau of 
 
 Publications. Teachers College. Columbia Universitv, New York. 
 
 1922. 
 
 Contains an alphabetic list of the 10,000 words most used in English writing. 
 
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