Pass J l(^:^ Book \/J^zS Gopjiiglit N?_ COPYRIGHT DEPOSm f du^^ dm • tti to Home Com^^^n^ Mtd d^ut^ftt^ Id tdfe (l>t to a& II,LUMINATED MANUSCRIPT From a manuscript of Chancer's Canterbury Tales in the British Museum. The shrine of Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, was a celebrated resort for medieval pilgrims. The city with its cathedral appears in the background. MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY BY HUTTON WEBSTER, Ph.D. PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA "For the roots of the present lie deep in the past, and nothing in the past is dead to the man who would learn how the present comes to be what it is." William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO ^,:y WEBSTER'S HISTORIES Webster's Ancient History From prehistoric times to the Age of Charlemagne Webster's Early European History From prehistoric times to the seventeenth century Webster's European History Part I — Ancient Times The Ancient History section of the above book Part II — Medieval and Early Modern Times From the fall of Rome to the seventeenth century Part III — Modern Times From the Age of Louis XIV to the present Webster's Medieval and Modern History From the fall of Rome to the present Webster's Readings in Ancient History Webster's Readings in Medieval and Modem History D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers Copyright, 1919 By D. C. Heath & Co. I C 9 MAV -3 1919 A515431 PREFACE This book, as the title indicates, covers both the Middle Ages and modern times. The chapters treating the period from the sixth to the seventeenth century are reproduced from my Early European History, with minor modifications and with additional maps and illustrations. The entire work has been written since the outbreak of the World War, and its probable consequences have been kept constantly in mind. If it be true, as Bishop Stubbs once said, that "nothing in the past is dead to the man who would learn how the present comes to be what it is," then surely the prime business of the author of a text-book deaHng with European history is to make plain the remoter causes, as well as the immediate ante- cedents, of a struggle epochal in the Hfe of humanity. How far I have succeeded in doing so must be left to the reader's judgment. The "Suggestions for Further Study" contain a classified and annotated bibliography of those historical works which appear to be reasonably well adapted to the needs of pupils in secondary schools. References to the appropriate chapters of my Readings in Medieval and Modern History are also inserted in footnotes. This volume consists of extracts from the sources, chiefly of a biographical or narrative character. As stated in the preface, "Each chapter deals with a single epoch or personality and presents the work of a single author. The passages quoted are long enough to make a definite impression on the reader, thus avoiding the scrappy effect necessarily produced by a set of short, unrelated extracts. Since many of the selections are good literature as well as good history, I hope that students will be tempted to turn to the original sources from which excerpts have been taken, and to read in them at length for their own enjoyment." The pedagogical apparatus supplied includes a table of events and dates and an index and pronouncing vocabulary. The studies following each chapter are based directly on the text. Most of them take the form of suggestive questions, which do not test the memory only, but stir the sluggish mind, provoke debate, and lead to con- structive thinking. There are also numerous exercises requiring the preparation of outline maps. iv Preface It remains to acknowledge with hearty thanks the assistance received from teachers who have read and criticized parts of the manuscript. I may mention the following: Professor James M. Leake of Bryn Mawr College; Professor J. C. Hildt of Smith College; Professor E. F. Humphrey of Trinity College; Professor H. D. Foster of Dartmouth College; Very Rev. Patrick J. Healy, Professor of Church History in the Catholic University of America; Dr. James Sullivan, Director of the Division of Archives and History, State Department of Education of New York; Constantine E. McGuire, Assistant Secretary General, International High Com- mission, Washington; Miss Margaret E. McGill, of the Newton (Mass.) High School; and Miss Mabel Chesley, of the Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn. They have all helped me to make a better book than I could have made alone. HUTTON WEBSTER Lincoln, Nebraska March, 19 19 CONTENTS PAGE List of Illustrations xiii List of Maps xix List of Plates xxii Suggestions for Further Study xxiii CHAPTER I. Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages, 476-962 1. Western Europe 1 2. The Ostrogoths in Italy, 488-553 3 3. The Lombards in Italy, 568-774 6 4. The Franks under Clovis and His Successors 8 5. The Franks under Charles Martel and Pepin the Short 10 6. Charlemagne and the Revival of the Roman Empire, 800 12 7. Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire, 814-870 ... 16 8. Otto the Great and the Restoration of the Roman Empire, 962 19 9. The Anglo-Saxons in Britain, 449-839 23 10. Christianity in the British Isles 25 11. The Fusion of Germans and Romans 29 11. Eastern Europe During the Early Middle Ages, 395-1095 12. The Roman Empire in the East 32 13. The Reign of Justinian, 527-565 33 14. The Empire and Its Asiatic Foes 35 15. The Empire and Its Foes in Europe 37 16. Byzantine Civilization 38 17. Constantinople " 40 III. Christianity in the East and in the West to 1054 18. Development of Christianity 45 19. Eastern Christianity 48 20. Western Christianity: Rise of the Papacy 50 21. Growth of the Papacy 52 22. Monasticism 54 23. Life and Work of the Monks 57 v vi Contents CHAPTER PAGE 24. Spread of Christianity over Europe 60 25. Separation of Eastern and Western Christianity . . . 63 26. The Greek Church 65 27. The Roman Church 66 IV. The Orient Against the Occident: Rise and Spread OF Islam, 622-1058 28. Arabia and the Arabs 68 29. Mohammed: Prophet and Statesman, 622-632 ... 69 30. Islam and the Koran 73 31. Expansion of Islam in Asia and Egypt 75 32. Expansion of Islam in North Africa and Spain ... 78 33. The Caliphate and its Disruption, 632-1058 .... 80 34. Arabian Civilization 82 35. The Influence of Islam 87 V. The Northmen and the Normans to 1066 36. Scandinavia and the Northmen 90 37. The Viking Age 92 38. Scandinavian Heathenism 94 39. The Northmen in the West 97 40. The Northmen in the East 100 41. Normandy and the Normans 101 42. Conquest of England by the Danes; Alfred the Great 103 43. Norman Conquest of England; William the Conqueror 106 44. Results of the Norman Conquest 109 45. Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily. . . Ill 46. The Normans in European History 112 VI. Feudalism 47. Rise of Feudalism 114 48. Feudalism as a Form of Local Government 115 49. Feudal Justice 118 50. Feudal Warfare 120 51. The Castle and Life of the Nobles 123 52. Knighthood and Chivalry 126 53. Feudalism as a Form of Local Industry 129 54. The Village and Life of the Peasants 132 55. Serfdom 134 56. Decline of Feudalism 135 VII. The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, 962-1273 57. Characteristics of the Medieval Church 137 58. Church Doctrine and Worship 138 Contents vii AFTER PAGE 59. Church Jurisdiction 141 60. The Secular Clergy 143 61. The Regular Clergy 144 62. The Friars 146 63. Power of the Papacy 149 64. Popes and Emperors, 962-1122 151 65. Popes and Emperors, 1122-1273 156 66. Significance of the Medieval Church 159 VIII. The OccroENT Against the Orient: the Crusades, 1095-1291 67. Causes of the Crusades 162 68. First Crusade, 1095-1099 164 69. Crusaders' States in Syria 168 70. Second Crusade, 1147-1149, and Third Crusade, 1189-1192 170 71. Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constanti- nople, 1202-1261 173 72. Results of the Crusades 175 IX. The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks to 1453 73. The Mongols 179 74. Conquests of the Mongols, 1206-1405 ....... 180 75. The Mongols in China and India 183 76. The Mongols in Eastern Europe 184 77. The Ottoman Turks and their Conquests, 1227-1453 187 78. The Ottoman Turks in Southeastern Europe .... 190 X. European Nations During the Later Middle Ages 79. Growth of the Nations 192 80. England under William the Conqueror, 1066-1087; the Norman Kingship 193 81. England under Henry II, 1154-1189; Royal Justice and the Common Law 195 82. The Great Charter 198 83. ParHament in the Thirteenth Century 200 84. Expansion of England under Edward I, 1272-1307 . 204 85. Unification of France, 987-1328 207 86. The Hundred Years' War between France and Eng- land, 1337-1453 210 87. Unification of Spain (to 1492) 214 88. Austria and the Swiss Confederation, 1273-1499. . . 217 89. Expansion of Germany 220 viii Contents CHAPTER PAGE XI. European Cities During the Later Middle Ages 90. Growth of the Cities 224 91. City Life 227 92. Civic Industry; the Guilds 229 93. Trade and Commerce 232 94. Money and Banking 235 95. Italian Cities 238 96. German Cities: the Hanseatic League 242 97. The Cities of Flanders 243 XII. Medieval Civilization 98. Formation of National Languages 247 99. Development of National Literatures 249 100. Romanesque and Gothic Architecture; Cathedrals 252 101. Education; the Universities ....*. 256 102. Scholasticism 261 103. Science and Magic 262 104. Popular Superstitions 265 105. Popular Amusements and Festivals 269 106. Manners and Customs 273 XIII. The Renaissance 107. Meaning of the Renaissance 279 108. Revival of Learning in Italy 281 109. Paper and Printing 284 110. Revival of Art in Italy 286 111. Revival of Learning and Art beyond Italy 289 112. The Renaissance in Literature 290 113. The Renaissance in Education 294 114. The Scientific Renaissance 296 115. The Economic Renaissance 298 XIV. Geographical Discovery and Colonization in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 116. Medieval Geography 302 117. Aids to Exploration 304 118. To the Indies Eastward: Prince Henry and Da Gama 307 119. The Portuguese Colonial Empire 310 120. To the Indies Westward: Columbus and Magellan. 311 121. The Indians 317 132. Spanish Explorations and Conquests in America . . 320 123. The Spanish Colonial Empire 322 124. English and French Explorations in America. . . . 325 125. The Old World and the New '. . . . 327 Contents ix CHAPTEK PAGE XV. The Reformation and the Religious Wars, 1517-1648 126. Decline of the Papacy 330 127. Heresies and Heretics 334 128. Martin Luther and the Beginning of the Reformation in Germany, 1517-1522 337 129. Charles V and the Spread of the Reformation . . . 341 130. The Reformation in Switzerland; ZwingU and Calvin 343 131. The English Reformation, 1533-1558 345 132. The Protestant Sects 348 133. The Catholic Counter Reformation 351 134. Spain under Philip II, 1556-1598 355 135. Revolt of the Netherlands 357 136. England under Ehzabeth, 1558-1603 361 137. The Huguenot Wars in France 366 138. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648 369 XVI, Absolutism in England and France, 1603-1715 139. The Divine Right of Kings 375 140. Absolutism of the Stuarts, 1603-1642 376 141. Oliver Cromwell and the Civil War, 1642-1649. . . 382 142. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate, 1649-1660 387 143. The Restoration and the "Glorious Revolution" 390 144. England in the Seventeenth Century 394 145. Absolutism of Louis XIV, 1661-1715 396 146. The Wars of Louis XIV T 401 ^ 147. France under the " Grand Monarch " 407 XVII. The European Balance of Power, 1715-1789 148. The Eighteenth Century in PoHtics 411 149. Rise of Russia 412 150. Russia under Peter the Great, 1689-1725 415 151. Sweden and the Career of Charles XII 418 152. Russia under Catherine II, 1762-1796; the DecHne of Turkey 422 153. The Partitions of Poland, 1772-1795 424 154. Rise of Prussia 428 155. Prussia under Frederick the Great, 1740-1786. . . 431 156. Constitutional Monarchy in Great Britain 435 XVIII. Commerce and Colonies in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 157. Mercantilism and Trading Companies 440 . 158. The Dutch Colonial Empire 442 X Contents CHAPTER PAGE 159. Rivalry of France and England in India (to 1763) . 445 160. The English Settlement of Virginia and Massachu- setts 449 161. The Thirteen Colonies 455 162. Transit of Civilization from England to America . . 459 163. French Settlements in Canada and Louisiana . . . 464 164. Rivalry of France and England in North America 467 165. Revolt of the Thirteen Colonies, 1776-1783 .... 471 166. Progress of Geographical Discovery 476 XIX. The Old Regime in Europe 167. The Eighteenth Century in Culture 480 168. The Privileged Classes 481 169. The Unprivileged Classes 483 170. Liberal Ideas of Industry and Commerce; the Economists 485 171. The Scientists . .' ' . . 486 172. Liberal Ideas of Religion and PoUtics; the English Philosophers 489 173. The French Philosophers 490 174. The Enhghtened Despots 493 XX. The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, 1789-1815 175. Preparation for the French Revolution 497 176. Eve of the French Revolution 499 177. The Estates-General, 1789 502 178. Outbreak of the French Revolution 504 179. The National Assembly, 1789-1791 508 180. The First French Republic, 1792 511 181. The National Convention, 1792-1795 516 182. The Directory and Napoleon, 1795-1799 520 183. The Consulate, 1799-1804 523 184. The French Empke, 1804 525 185. Napoleon at War mth Europe, 1805-1807 526 186. The Napoleonic Reorganization of Europe 529 187. The Continental System 531 188. Revolt of the Nations, 1808-1814 533 189. Downfall of Napoleon, 1814-1815 537 190. ''Liberty, EquaHty, Fraternity" 539 XXI. The National Movement in Europe, 1815-1871 191. Modern Nationalism 543 192. Congress of Vienna 545 Contents XI XXII. PAGE 193. The Reaction under Metternich, 1815-1830 .... 548 194. France and the "July Revolution," 1830 550 195. The "July Revolution" in Europe 551 196. The "February Revolution" and the Second French Republic, 1848 554 197. The " February Revolution " in Europe 555 198. The Second French Empire, 1852-1870 559 199. United Italy, 1859-1870 560 200. United Germany, 1864-1871 567 The Democratic Movement in Europe, 1871-1914 201. Modern Democracy 575 202. The United Kmgdom 576 203. The Third French Republic 582 204. Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Belgium 584 205. The German Empire 586 206. The Dual ISIonarchy 589 207. Switzerland, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden 590 208. The Russian Empire 591 209. Turkey and the Balkan States 595 XXIII. Colonial Expansion and World Politics in the Nine- teenth AND Twentieth Centuries 210. Greater Europe 602 211. The Opening-Up of Africa 603 212. The Partition of Africa 605 213. The Opening-Up and Partition of Asia 609 214. China 614 215. Japan 617 216. The Opening-Up and Partition of Oceania 621 217. British North America 623 218. Latin America 626 219. The United States 629 220. Close of Geographical Discovery 634 221. Inter-racial Problems 636 XXIV. The Industrial Revolution 222. Modern Industrialism 640 223. The Great Inventions 641 224. Effects of the Great Inventions 646 225. Improvements in Transportation 649 226. Improved Communications 654 xii Contents CHAPTER PAGE 227. Commerce 656 228. Commercial Policies 658 229. Agriculture and Land Tenure 660 230. The Labor Movement 662 23 L Government Regulation of Industry 665 232. Rise and Spread of Socialism 667 233. Progress and Poverty 671 XXV. Modern Civilization 234. Internationalism 675 235. Social Betterment 677 236. Emancipation of Women and Children 679 237. Religious Toleration and the Separation of Church and State . 681 238. Popular Education and the Higher Learning .... 683 239. Science 685 240. Philosophy and Literature 687 241. Music and the Fine Arts 690 242. Historic and Artistic Paris 692 243. Historic and Artistic London 700 XXVI. The World War, 1914-1918 244. National Rivalries and Antipathies 708 245. Colonial Problems and the Eastern Question . ... 712 246. MiUtarism 717 247. Pan-Germanism 720 248. Beginning of the War 723 249. The War in Europe, 1914-1917 727 250. The War outside of Europe and on the Sea, 1914-1917 732 251. The Intervention of the United States 734 252. The Russian Revolution 737 253. End of the War, 1918 740 XXVII. The World Settlement, 1919 Appendix — Table of Events and Dates 747 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 765 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna 3 Charlemagne 12 Iron Crown of Lombardy 13 Charlemagne's Signature 14 Cathedral at Ak-la-Chapelle 15 Ring Seal of Otto the Great 20 St. Martin's Church, Canterbury 26 Canterbury Cathedral 27 Justinian and his Suite 33 The Three Existing Monuments of the Hippodrome, Constantinople. 42 Religious Music 47 The Nestorian Monument 49 Papal Arms 51 St. Daniel the Stylite on his Column 55 An Abbot's Seal 56 Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, Paris 58 A Monk Copyist 60 Mecca 70 A Passage from the Koran 73 Naval Battle Showing Use of ''Greek Fire" 77 TheAlhambra 79 Interior of the Great Mosque of Cordova 84 Capitals and Arabesques from the Alhambra 87 Swedish Rock Carving 90 A Runic Stone 91 A Viking Ship 93 Norse Metal Work 95 Alfred the Great 105 Alfred's Jewel 106 A Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry 107 Trial by Combat 119 Mounted Knight 121 Chateau Gaillard (restored) 124 King and Jester 126 Falconry 127 A Joust 128 Farm Work in the Fourteenth Century 131 A Bishop Ordaining a Priest 143 xiii xiv List of Illustrations PAGE St. Francis Blessing the Birds 147 The Spiritual and the Temporal Power 152 Henry IV, Countess Matilda, and Gregory VII 155 Worms Cathedral 156 Combat between Crusaders and Moslems 163 "Mosque of Omar," Jerusalem 166 Effigy of a Knight Templar 169 Richard I in Prison 172 " The Last Crusade" 1^4 Hut-Wagon of the Mongols (reconstruction) 180 Tomb of Timur at Samarkand .181 Mohammed II 1^^ The "White Tower" 194 A Passage from Domesday Book 195 Extract from the Great Charter 199 Windsor Castle 201 A Queen Eleanor Cross 202 Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey 204 Royal Arms of Edward III 211 Battle of Crecy 212 Walls of Carcassonne 22:> A Scene in Rothenburg 226 A London Bellman 228 House of the Butchers' Guild, Hildesheim, Germany 230 Baptistery, Cathedral and "Leaning Tower" of Pisa 237 Duomo and Campanile of Florence 239 Belfry of Bruges 244 Town Hall of Louvain, Belgium 245 Roland at Roncesvalles 250 Gargoyles on the Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris 256 View of New College, Oxford 258 Tower of Magdalen College, Oxford 260 Roger Bacon 263 Magician Rescued from the Devil 265 The Witches' Sabbath 267 Chess Pieces of Charlemagne 269 Bear Baiting 270 Mummers A Miracle Play at Coventry, England 272 974 Sulgrave Manor ^'^ Interior of an English Manor House 275 Costumes of Ladies during the Later Middle Ages 276 Anglo-Saxon Drinking Horn 277 List of Illustrations xv PAGE Mask of Dante 281 Petrarch 282 An Early Printing Press 284 Facsimile of Part of Caxton's "^neid" (reduced) 285 Desiderius Erasmus 290 Geoffrey Chaucer 292 Shakespeare's Birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon 293 Boys' Sports 295 Richard II 300 Geographical Monsters 303 An Astrolabe 306 Vasco da Gama 309 Christopher Columbus 313 Isabella 314 Caravel of the Fifteenth Century 315 The Name "America" 316 Ferdinand Magellan 317 Aztec Sacrificial Knife 318 Aztec Sacrificial Stone 319 Cabot Memorial Tower 325 English Battleship of the Sixteenth Century 326 John Wycliffe 336 Martin Luther 338 Charles V 341 John Calvin 343 Henry VIII 344 Ruins of Melrose Abbey 347 Chained Bible 350 St. Ignatius Loyola 352 Philip II 356 The Escorial 357 WilUam the Silent 359 Elizabeth 362 Silver Crown of Elizabeth's Reign 363 Mary Stuart 364 The Spanish Armada in the English Channel 365 Henry IV 367 Cardinal Richelieu 368 Gustavus Adolphus 371 Gold Coin of James I 377 A Puritan. Family 378 Charles I 379 Execution of the Earl of Strafford 381 xvi List of Illustrations PAGE Oliver Cromwell 383 Interior of Westminster Hall 386 Great Seal of England Under the Commonwealth (reduced) 389 Silver Crown of Charles II 391 Coach and Sedan Chair 394 John Milton 396 Cardinal Mazarin . 397 Louis XIV 398 Versailles 400 Marlborough 404 Gibraltar 405 Medal of Louis XIV 408 Moliere 409 Peter the Great 416 Charles XII 420 Catherine II . . 422 The Partition of Poland 425 Frederick the Great 432 Maria Theresa 434 William Pitt, Earl of Chatham 437 Robert, Lord CUve 448 Ruins of the Brick Church at Jamestown 451 The Mayflower 453 The Mayflower Compact 454 First Page of Penn's Account of Pennsylvania 458 A Ti tie-Page of Poor Richard's Almanac 459 A Page from the New England Printer 461 Join or Die 463 Montcalm 467 James Wolfe 469 Opening Lines of the Declaration of Independence 473 Medal Commemorating the Declaration of Independence 474 Captain James Cook 478 Adam Smith 486 Death Mask of Sir Isaac Newton 487 Linnaeus 488 Voltaire 491 Jean Jacques Rousseau 492 Marie Antoinette 500 Mirabeau 503 Lafayette 504 The Storming of the Bastille 505 The Destruction of Feudalism 507 List of Illustrations xvii ^ PAGE An Assignat 509 Danton 513 The Lion of Lucerne 514 Seal of the French Repubhc, 1792-1804 515 Execution of Louis XVI 517 Napoleon 520 Horatio, Lord Nelson 522 Cross of the Legion of Honor 526 A Napoleonic Medal 527 The "Victory" 528 WilHam Pitt, the Younger 530 Josephine 534 Baron vom Stein 536 The Duke of Wellington 539 The Tomb of Napoleon 540 Talleyrand 545 Metternich 549 Palais de Justice, Brussels 552 Louis Kossuth 556 Napoleon III and Eugenie 560 Count Cavour 562 Giuseppe Garibaldi 563 "The Right Leg in the Boot at Last" 564 Leo XIII 566 Bismarck 569 Moltke 572 The Union Jack 577 Interior of the House of Commons 579 Benjamin Disraeli 580 William E. Gladstone 581 L. A. Thiers 583 The German National Monument 587 Francis Joseph 1 589 The Kremlin, Moscow 593 Florence Nightingale, 597 Henry M. Stanley 604 Paul Kruger ' 607 Cecil Rhodes 608 " The Lion's Vengeance on the Bengal Tiger " 610 Queen Victoria 611 Simon Bolivar 627 Robert E. Peary 634 Hargreaves's " Spinning Jenny " 643 xviii List of Illustrations PAGE Arkwright's Spinning Machine 643 Robert Fulton 650 George Stephenson 651 The "Rocket," 1830 652 First Adhesive Penny Postage Stamp ■ 655 Karl Marx 669 "Ridiculous Taste, or the Ladies' Absurdity" 676 John Wesley 682 Marie Curie 686 Charles Darwin 687 Herbert Spencer 688 Sir Walter Scott 688 Victor Hugo 689 Mozart's Spinet 690 Ludwig van Beethoven 691 Richard Wagner 691 "Colonne Vendome 695 Arc de Triomphe 697 Notre Dame 699 The Tower of London 703 The Nelson Monument, Trafalgar Square 704 St. Paul's Cathedral 705 Westminster Abbey 707 " Dropping the Pilot " 710 The Peace Palace at the Hague 718 William H 721 King Albert I . 726 Marshal Joffre 728 Hindenburg 730 The Victoria Cross 733 A Submarine 735 Herbert Hoover 737 Nicholas II 738 Ferdinand Foch 741 LIST OF MAPS PAGE Europe at the Deposition of Romulus Augustulus, 476 a.d. . . Facing 2 Europe in the Sixth Century 5 Lombard Possessions in Italy about 600 a.d 7 Growth of the Prankish Dominions, 481-768 a.d 9 Europe in the Age of Charlemagne, 800 a.d Facing 14 The Frankish Dominions as Divided by the Treaties of Verdun (843 a.d) and Mersen (870 a.d) 17 Europe in the Age of Otto the Great, 962 a.d 22 Continental Home of the English 24 Anglo-Saxon Britain 28 The Peoples of Europe at the Beginning of the Tenth Century Facing 30 The Roman Empire m the East During the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries 36 Vicinity of Constantinople 41 Constantinople 43 Plan of Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire 57 Growth of Christianity from the Fifth to the Fourteenth Century (double page) Between 62 atid 63 Expansion of Islam Facing 78 Dismemberment of the Caliphate^ 81 Discoveries of the Northmen in the West 98 Alfred's England 104 Dominions of William the Conqueror 108 Norman Possessions in Italy and Sicily Ill Plan of Chateau Gaillard 125 Plan of Hitchin Manor, Hertfordshire 133 Germany and Italy during the Interregnum, 1254-1273 a.d. . Facing 158 Crusaders' States in Syria 168 Mediterranean Lands after the Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204 a.d. (double page) Between 170 and 171 The Mongol Empire 182 Russia at the End of the Middle Ages 186 Empire of the Ottoman Turks at the Fall of Constantmople, 1453 a.d. 189 Dominion of the Plantagenets in England and France "~196r Scotland in the Thirteeenth Century 205 Unification of France during the Middle Ages 208 Unification of Spain during the Middle Ages 215 xix XX List of Maps PAGE Hapsburg Possessions, 1273-1526 a.d 218 The Swiss Confederation, 1291-1513 a.d 219 German Expansion Eastward during the Middle Ages 222 Trade Routes between Northern and Southern Europe in the 13th and 14th Centuries 233 Medieval Trade Routes (double page) Between 234 a>id 235 Plan of Salisbury Cathedral, England 253 Cross Section of Amiens Cathedral 255 Geographical Knowledge during the Middle Ages 305 Portuguese Exploration of the African Coast 308 Behaim's Globe 312 Portuguese and Spanish Colonial Empires in the Sixteenth Century (double page) Between 314 a;«/ 315 West Indies 321 An Early Map of the New World (1540 a.d.) 323 The Great Schism, 1378-1417 a.d 332 Europe at the Beginning of the Reformation, 1519 a.d. . . . Facing 342 Extent of the Reformation, 1524-1572 a.d 349 The Netherlands at the Truce of 1609 a.d 360 Europe at the End of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 a.d. . . . Facing 372 England and Wales 384 Ireland in the 16th Century 388 Acquisitions of Louis XIV and Louis XV 402 Europe after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713 a.d Facing 406 Growth of Russia to the End of the Eighteenth Century ...'... 413 Scandinavia in the Seventeenth Century .^ 419 The Ottoman Empire to 1683 a.d Facing 424 Partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795 a.d 427 Hapsburg Possessions, 1526-1789 a.d 433 Growth of Prussia to the End of the Eighteenth Century . . Facing 434 East Indies 443 India at the Time of Clive 446 Virginia 450 Captain John Smith's Map of New England 452 The Exploration of North x\merica by the Middle of the Seventeenth Century 456 La Salle's Explorations 466 North America after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713 A.D 468 North America after the Peace of Paris, 1763 A.D 470 Colonial Empires in the Eighteenth Century (double page) Between 472 atid 473 Europe at the Beginning of the French Revolution, 1789 a.d. . Facing 498 First French Empire, 1812 a.d 531 List of Maps xxi PAGE Napoleon's Russian Campaign 535 Plan of the Battle of Waterloo 538 Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815 A. D Facing 546 Unification of Italy, 1815-1870 a.d 565 Unification of Germany, 1815-1871 A.D Facing 572 Europe in 1871 A.D Facing 576 The Peoples of Europe at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century (double page) Between 590 and 591 The Ottoman Empire, 1683-1914 A.D Facing 600 Exploration and Partition of Africa (double page) . . Between 604 and 605 Suez Canal 609 The European Ad'/ance in Asia (double page) .... Between 610 and 611 Extension of British Rule in India 612 The Peoples of Asia Facing 616 Religions of the World 619 The Woi-ld Powers, 1919 a.d. (double page) Between 622 and 623 Canada, the United States, and Mexico 625 Exclusion of Spain and Portugal from South America .... Facing 628 The Louisiana Purchase 629 Relief Map of the Panama Canal 630 Discoveries in the Polar Regions 633 Races of Man 637 Industrial England •• ■ 648 Plan of Paris 694 Plan of London 701 Europe in 1914 A.D. Facing 710 Berlin to Bagdad Railway 715 The Western Front 729 Europe after the Peace of Versailles, 1919 a.d. (double page) Between 754 and 755 LIST OF PLATES Illuminated Manuscript Frontispiece Sancta Sophia, Constantinople Facing 42 A Castle on the Rhine 122 St. Peter's, Rome 150 Joan of Arc 212 Campanile and Doge's Palace, Venice 240 Reims Cathedral 254 Cologne Cathedral 255 Interior of King's College Chapel, Cambridge 260 Ghiberti's Bronze Doors at Florence 288 Italian Paintings of the Renaissance 289 The Taj Mahal, Agra 448 "1807" 528 The Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815 546 Monument to Victor Emmanuel II, Rome 564 The Congress of Berlin 598 Early Passenger Trains 652 Paris and the Seine 700 Houses of Parliament, London 701 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY All serious students of history should have access to the Aikerican His- torical Review (N.Y., 1895 to date, quarteriy, $4.00 a year). This journal, the organ of the American Historical Association, con- tains articles by scholars, critical reviews of all important works, and notes and news. The Historical Outlook (formerly the History Teacher's Magazine) is edited under the supervision of a committee of the American Historical Association (Philadelphia, 1909 to date, monthly, $2.00 a year). Every well-equipped school library should contain the files of the National Geographical Magazine (Washington, 1890 to date, monthly, $2.00 a year) and of Art and Afchceology (Washington, 19 14 to date, monthly, $3.00 a year). These two periodicals make a special feature of illustrations. Current History (N.Y., 1914 to date, monthly, $3.00 a year) contains many of the valuable articles appearing in the daily edition of the Nriv York Times, as well as much additional matter of contemporary interest. Useful books for the teacher's library include H. E. Bourne, The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and the Secondary School (N.Y., 1902, Longmans, Green & Co., $1.50), Henry Johnson, The Teaching of History (N.Y., 1915, Macmillan, $1.40), ^^^^^ °^ *^® H. B. George, Historical Evidence (N.Y., 1909, Oxford Uni- Xeachine of versity Press, American Branch, 75 cents), J. H. Vincent, History Historical Research (N.Y., 1911, Holt, $2.25), Frederic Harrison, The Meaning of History and Other Historical Pieces (new ed., N.Y., 1900, Macmillan, $1.75), J. H. Robinson, The New History (N.Y., 191 2, Macmillan, $1.50), and H. B. George, The Relations of History and Geography (4th ed., N.Y., 1910, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $1.10). The following reports are indispensable: The Study of History in Schools. Report to the American Historical Association by the Committee of Seven (N.Y., 1899, Macmillan, 50 cents). The Study of History in Secondary Schools. Report to the American Historical Association by a Committee of Five (N.Y., 191 1, Macmillan, 25 cents). Historical Sources in Schools. Report to the New England History Teachers' Association by a Select Committee (N.Y., 1902, out of print). A History Syllabus for Secondary Schools. Report by a Special Committee of the New England History Teachers' Association (N.Y., 1904, Heath, $1.32). A Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries. Published under the auspices of the Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland (2d ed., NY., 1915, Longmans, Green & Co., 60 cents). xxiii xxiv Suggestions for Further Study For chronology, genealogies, lists of sovereigns, and other data the most valuable works are Arthur Hassall, European History, 476-1 gio (new ed., N.Y., 191 1, Macmillan, $2.25), G. P. Putnam, Tabular Dictionaries • y-^.^^ ^j Universal History (new ed., N.Y., 1915, Putnam, pedias $2.50), and K. J. Ploetz, A Handbook of Universal History, translated by W. H. Tillinghast (new ed,, Boston, 19 15, Houghton Mifflin Co., $3.00). Syllabi and The following syllabi and bibhographies have been pre- Bibliographies pared for collegiate instruction: Beazley, C. R. a Note-Book of Medieval History, 323-1453 (N.Y., 19 17, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $1.20). Lees, Beatrice A. Bibliography of Medieval History (London, 191 7, Historical Association, 25.). A classified and annotated list of references, covering the period 400-1500. McKiNLEY, A. E. Collected Materials for the Study of the War (Philadelphia, 1918, McKinley Publishing Co., 80 cents). MuNRO, D. C, and Sellery, G. C. A Syllabus of Medieval History, 395-1500 (N.Y., 1913, Longmans, Green & Co., $1.00). Paetow, L. J. Guide to the Study of Medieval History (Berkeley, Cal., 1918, Univ. of California Series, $2.00). Elaborate bibliographies and topical outlines. Perkins, Clarence. An Outline of Recent European History, 1815-1916 (Colvun- bus, Ohio, 191 7, College Book Store, 50 cents). Richardson, O. H. Syllabus of Continental European History from the Fall of Rome to 1870 (Boston, 1904, Ginn, boards, 75 cents). Stephens, H. M. Syllabus of a Course of Eighty-seven Lectures on Modern European History (N.Y., 1899, Macmillan, $1.60). Covers the period 1600-1890. Thompson, J. W. Reference Studies in Medieval History (2d ed., Chicago, 1914, University of Chicago Press, $1.25). An admirable collection of maps for school use is W. R. Shepherd, Histori- cal Atlas (N.Y., 191 1, Holt, $2.50), with about two hundred and fifty maps covering the historical field. Other valuable works are E. W. Dow, Atlas of European History (N.Y., 1907, Holt, $1.25), Ramsay Muir, Hammond's New Historical Atlas for Students (2d ed., N.Y., 1914, Hammond, $2.50), and C. G. Robertson and J. G. Bartholomew, An Historical Atlas of Modern Europe from 178Q to 1914 (N.Y., 1915, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $1.50. Much use can be made of the inexpensive and handy Literary and Historical Atlas of Europe by J. G. Bartholomew in "Everyman's Library" (N.Y., 1910, Button, 70 cents). Other atlases in "Everyman's Library" are devoted to Asia, Africa and Australasia, and America, respectively. S. R. Gardiner, A School Atlas of English History (N.Y., 1891, Longmans, Green & Co., $1.50) is a standard work. Very valuable, also, is J. G. Bartholomew, An Atlas of Economic Geography (N.Y., 191 5, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $2.00), with maps showing temperature, rainfall, population, races, occupations, religions, trade routes, products, etc. Suggestions for Further Study xxv The Spruner-Bretschneider Historical Maps are ten in number, size 62 x 52 inches, and cover the period from 350 to 18 15. The text is in German (Chicago, Nystrom, each $6.00; Rand, McNally & Co., -ny ,, « each $6.50). Johnston's Medieval and Modem History ^^^^ Charts Maps twenty-four in number, size 40 x 30 inches, empha- size the political aspects of European history (Chicago, Nystrom, com- plete set with tripod stand, $28.00). A series of European History Maps, twenty-three in number, size 44x32 inches, has been prepared for the medieval and modern periods by Professor S. B. Harding (Chicago, Denoyer- Geppert Co., complete set with tripod stand, $32.00). Philips's Wall Atlas of Modern History consists of eight maps, size 45 x 36 inches (N.Y., Ham- mond, complete set with roller, $18.00). The school should also possess good physical wall maps such as the Sydow-Habenicht or the Kiepert series, both to be obtained from Rand, McNally & Co. The text is in German. Philips's Physical Maps and Johnston's Neiv Series of Physical Wall Maps are obtainable from A. J. Nystrom & Co. The only large charts available are those prepared by MacCoun for his Historical Geography Charts of Europe. The two sections, "Ancient and Classical" and "Medieval and Modern," are sold separately (N.Y., Silver, Burdett & Co., $15.00). A helpful series of Blackboard Outline Maps is issued by J. L. Engle, Beaver, Penn. These are wall maps, printed with paint on black- board cloth, for use with an ordinary crayon. Such maps are also sold by the Denoyer-G^ppert Co., Chicago. The "Studies" following each chapter of this book include various exercises for which small outline maps are required. Such maps are sold by D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, New York, Chicago. Useful atlases of outline maps are also to be had of the McKinley j^^pg PubHshing Co., Philadelphia, A. J. Nystrom & Co., Chicago, Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover, Chicago, and of other publishers. The best photographs of medieval and modern works of art must usually be obtained from the foreign publishers in Naples, Florence, Rome, Munich, Paris, Athens, and London, or from their American agents. ..„ ^ ^. ' , 1 . , , . „ • 1 „ Illustrations Such photographs, m the usual size, 8 x 10 mches, sell, unmounted, at from 6 to 8 francs a dozen. In addition to photographs and lantern sHdes, a collection of stereoscopic views is very helpful in giving vividness and interest to instruction in history. An admirable series of photographs for the stereoscope is issued by Underwood and Underwood, New York City. The same firm supphes convenient maps and handbooks for use in this connection. The Keystone stereographs, prepared by the Keystone View Company, Meadville, Penn., may also be cordially recom- mended. The architecture, costumes, amusements, and occupations of the Middle Ages in England are shown in Longmans' Historical Illustrations (six portfolios, each containing twelve plates in black-and-white. New York, Longrrians, Green & Co., 90 cents, each portfolio). The same xxvi Suggestions for Further Study firm issues Longmans^ Historical Wall Pictures, consisting of twelve colored pictures from original paintings illustrating English history (each picture, separately, 80 cents; in a portfolio, $10.50). The Bureau of University Travel, Boston, Mass., publishes several series of "University Prints" representing subjects in European painting, sculpture, and architecture. These prints are sold for one cent each or eighty cents a hundred. They may also be had in bound form (five volumes, each $3.00). Other notable collections are Lehmann's Geographical Pictures, Historical Pictures, and Types of Nations, and Cybulski's Historical Pictures (Chicago, A. J. Nystrom & Co., and Denoyer-Geppert Co.; each picture separately mounted on rollers, $1.35 to $2.25). The New England History Teachers' Association pubUshes a series of Authentic Pictures for Class Room Use, size 5x8 inches, price 3 cents each. The Catalogue of the Collection of Historical Material at Simmons College, prepared by the New England History Teachers' Associa- tion (2d ed., Boston, 191 2, Houghton MifHin Co., 25 cents), contains an extensive Hst of pictures, slides, models and other aids to history teaching. Two useful collections in book form of photographic reproductions and drawings are the following: Henderson, E. F. Side Lights on English History (NA''., 1900, out of print). Source extracts and illustrations for the period from Elizabeth to Victoria. Parmentier, a. Album kistorique (Paris, 1894-1905, Colin, 4 vols., each 15 francs) . Illustrations covering the medieval and modem periods, with descrip- tive text in French. To vitalize the study of geography and history there is nothing better Works of than the reading of modem books of travel. Among these Travel may be mentioned: Du Chaillu, Paul B. The Land of the Midnight Sun (N.Y., 1881, Harper, 2 vols., $S-oo). DwiGHT, H. G. Constantinople, Old and New (N.Y., 1915, Scribner, $5.00). Forman, H. J. The Ideal Italian Tour (Boston, 191 1, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.25). A brief and attractive volume covering all Italy. Hay, John. Castilian Days (Boston, 1871, Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.25). Hutton, Edward. Rome (N.Y., 1909, Macmillan, $2.00). Jackson, A. V. W. Persia, Past and Present (N.Y., 1906, Macmillan, $4.00). From Constantinople to the Home of Omar Khayyam (N.Y., 191 1, Mac- millan, $4.00). Kinglake, a. W. Eothen (N.Y., 1844, Button, 70 cents). Sketches of travel in the East. Lucas, E. V. A Wanderer in London (N.Y., 1906, Macmillan, $2.00). A Wanderer in Paris (5th ed., N.Y., 191.0, Macmillan, $2.00). A Wanderer in Florence (N.Y., 191 2, Macmillan, $2.00). Ross, E. A. The Changing Chinese (N.Y., 1912, Century Co., $2.40). Stanley, H. M. Through the Dark Continent (N.Y., 1878, Harper, 2 vols., $7.50). Taylor, Bayard. Views A-Foot (N.Y., 1855, Putnam, $1.50). A classic work of European travel. Warner, C. D. In the Levant (N.Y., 1876, Harper, $2.00). Suggestions for Further Study xxvii Winter, William. Shakespeare's England (2d ed., N.Y., 1892, out of print). Gray Days and Gold in England and Scotland (N.Y., 1892, out of print). The following works of historical fiction comprise only a selection from a very large number of books suitable for supplementary reading. For extended bibliographies see E. A. Baker, A Guide to Histori- tt- x • 1 cal Fiction (new ed., N.Y., 1914, Macmillan, $6.00) and pjction Jonathan Nield, A Guide to the Best Historical Novels and Tales (3d ed., N.Y., 1914, Putnam, $1.75). An excellent list of historical stories, especially designed for children, will be found in the Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries, parts viii-ix. Blackmore, R. D. Lorna Doone (N.Y., 1869, Button, 70 cents). Monmouth's Rebellion, 1685. Church, A. J. Stories of Charlemagne and the Twelve Peers of France (N.Y., 1902, Macmillan, $1.75). Churchill, Winston. Richard Carvel (N.Y., 1899, Macmillan, $1.50). Colonial Maryland and London in the eighteenth century. Cooper, J. F. The Last of the Mohicans (N.Y., D. C. Heath & Co. 50 cents). The French and Indian War, 17 54-1 763. Dickens, Charles. Barnaby Rudge (N.Y., 1841, Button, 70 cents). Gordon riots in London, 1780. The Tale of Two Cities (N.Y., B. C. Heath & Co., 50 cents). London and Paris at the time of the French Revolution. Doyle, (Sir) A. C. The White Company (Boston, 1890, Caldwell, 75 cents). The English in France and Castile, 1366-1367. Micah Clarke (N.Y., 1888, Longmans, Green & Co. $1.25). Mon- mouth's Rebellion, 1685. BuMAS, Alexandre. The Three Musketeers (N.Y., 1844, Button, 70 cents). Time of Richelieu. Twenty Years After (N.Y., 1845, Button, 70 cents). Time of Mazarin. Eliot, George. Romola (N.Y., 1863, Button, 70 cents). Florence in the latter part of the fifteenth century. Erckmann, Emile, and Chatrian, Alexandre. The Conscript and Waterloo (N.Y., 1864-1865, Button, 70 cents). Hale, E. E. In His Name (Boston, 1873, Little, Brown & Co., $1.00). The Waldenses about 11 79. Hardy, A. S. Passe Rose (Boston, 1889, Houghton MifHin Co., $1.25). Franks and Saxons of Charlemagne's time. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter (N.Y., 1850, Button, 70 cents). Massachusetts in the seventeenth century. Hugo, Victor. Notre-Dame de Paris (N.Y., 1831, Button, 70 cents). Paris, late fifteenth century. ■ Ninety-Three (Boston, 1872, Little, Brown & Co., $1.00). Insurrection in La Vendee, 1793. Irving, Washington. The Alhambra (N.Y., 1832, Putnam, $1.00). Sketches of the Moors and Spaniards. Jacobs, Joseph (editor). The Most Delectable History of Reynard the Fox (N.Y., 1895, Macmillan, $1.50). xxviii Suggestions for Further Study KiNGSLEY, Charles. Westward Ho! (N.Y., 1855. Dutton, 70 cents). Voyages of Elizabethan seamen and thp struggle with Spain. Alton Locke (N.Y., 1850, Dutton, 70 cents). Christian socialism and the Chartist agitation. Lane, E. W. (translator). The Arabian Nights' Entertainments (2d ed., N.Y., 1859, Macmillan, 35 cents). Lang, Andrew. The Monk of Fife (N.Y., 1895, Longmans, Green & Co., $1.25). The Maid of Orleans and the Hundred Years' War. Lever, Charles. Charles O'Malley (N.Y., 1841, Macmillan, $1.25). The Pen- insular War. Tom Bourke of "Ours" (N.Y., 1848, Macmillan, $1.25). French wars of the Consulate and Empire. Manzoni, Alessandro. The Betrothed (N.Y., 1825, Macmillan, 2 vols., 70 cents). Milan under Spanish rule, 1628-1630. Mason, Eugene (translator) . A ucassin and Nicolette and other Medieval Romances and Legends (N.Y., 1910, Dutton, 70 cents). Mitchell, S. W. Hugh Wynne (N.Y., 1896, Century Co., $1.50)'. Philadelphia during the American Revolution. Parker, (Sir) Gilbert. The Seats of the Mighty (N.Y., 1896, Appleton, $1.50). Capture of Quebec by Wolfe. Reade, Charles. The Cloister and the Hearth (N.Y., 1S61, Dutton, 70 cents). Eve of the Reformation. Scheffel, J. VON. Ekkehard, translated by Helena Easson (N.Y., 1857, Dutton, 70 cents). Germany in the tenth century. Scott, (Sir) Walter. The Talisman (N.Y., 1825, Dutton, 70 cents). Reign of Richard I, 1193- Ivanhoe (N.Y., D. C. Heath & Co., 50 cents). Richard I, 1194. Old Mortality (N.Y., 1816, Dutton, 70 cents). Scottish Covenanters, 1679- Shorthouse, J. H. John Lnglesant (N.Y., 1881, Macmillan, 75 cents). Life in England and Italy during the seventeenth century. SiENKiEWicz, Henryk. With Fire and Sword (Boston, 1884, Little, Brown & Co., $1.50). Poland in the seventeenth century. Steel, (Mrs.) F. A. On the Face of the Waters (N.Y., 1896, Macmillan, $1.50). Indian Mutiny, 1857. Stevenson, R. L. The Black Arrow (N.Y., 1888, Scribner, $i.od). War of the Roses. Suttner, (Baroness) Bertha von. Lay Down Your Arms (2d ed., N.Y., 1904, Longmans, Green, & Co., 75 cents). European wars of the nineteenth century. Thackeray, W. M. Henry Esmond (N.Y., 1852, Dutton, 70 cents). England during the reigns of William III and Queen Anne. The Virginians (N.Y., 1858-1859, Dutton, 2 vols., each 70 cents). England and colonial Virginia in the eighteenth century. Tolstoy, (Count) L. N. War and Peace (N.Y., 1864-1869, Dutton, 3 vols., each 70 cents). Napoleon's campaigns in Russia. Sevastopol (N.Y., 1855-1856, Crowell, $1.25). Crimean War. "Twain, M.ark." A Connecticut Yankee at the Court of King Arthur (N.Y., 1889, Harper. $1.75). Suggestions for Further Study xxix It is unnecessary to emphasize the value, as collateral reading, of historical poems and plays. To the brief list which follows should be added the material in Katharine Lee Bates and p^^x°"^^ Katharine Coman, English History told by English Poets (N.Y., 1902, Macmlllan, 60 cents). Aytoun, W. E. The Execution of Montrose. Browning, Elizabeth B. The Cry of the Children and The Forced Recruit. Browning, Robert. Herve Kiel and An Incident of the French Camp. Burns, Robert. The Battle of Bannockburn. Byron, (Lord). "The Eve of Waterloo" {Childe Harold, canto iii, stanzas 21- 28) and Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte. Campbell, Thomas. Hohenlinden, The Battle of the Baltic, Rule Britannia, and Ye Mariners of England. Clough, a. H. Columbus. Coleridge, S. T. Kubla Khan. CowPER, William. Loss of the ''Royal George.'^ Drayton, Michael. The Battle of Agincmrt. Halleck, Fitz-Greene. Marco Bozzaris. Hemans, Felicia. The Landing of the Pilgrims. Kipling, Rudyard. Recessional. Lang, Andrew. Three Portraits of Prince Charles. Longfellow, H. W. "The Saga of King Olaf" {Tales of a Wayside Inn), The Skeleton in Armor, The Norman Baron, The Belfry of Bruges, and Nuremberg. Lowell, J. R. Villafranca. Macaulay, T. B. The Armada, The Battle of Ivry, and The Battle of Naseby. Miller, Joaquin. Columbus. Milton, John. To the Lord General Cromwell. Norton, Caroline E. S. The Soldier from Bingen. RossETTi, D. G. The White Ship. Schiller, Friedrich. The Maid of Orleans, William Tell, Maria Stuart, and Wallenstein. Scott, (Sir) Walter. "Flodden Field" {Marmion, canto vi, stanzas 19-27, 33-35). Shakespeare, William. King John, Richard the Second, Henry the Fourth, parts i and ii, Henry the Fifth, Henry the Sixth, parts i, ii, and iii, Richard the Third, Henry the Eighth, and The Merchant of Venice. Taylor, Bayard. The Song in Camp. Tennyson, Alfred. Boadicea, St. Telemachus, St. Simeon Stylites, Sir Galahad, " The Revenge": A Ballad of the Fleet, Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington, The Charge of the Light Brigade, and The Defense of Lucknow. Thackeray, W. M. King Canute. Thornbury, G. W. The Three Troopers, The Jacobite on Tower Hill, La Tricoteuse, and The Old Grenadier's Story. Wolfe, Charles. The Burial of Sir John Moore. Full information regarding the best translations of the sources of medieval and modern history is to be found in one of the Reports previously cited — Historical Sources in Schools, parts ii-iv. The use of the following collections of extracts from the sources will go far toward remedying the lack of library facilities. XXX Suggestions for Further Study DuNCALF, Frederick, and Krey, A. C. Parallel Source Problems in Medieval History (N.Y., 191 2, Harper, $1.10). Fling, F. M., and Fling, Helene D. Source Problems on the French Revolution (N.Y., 1913, Harper, $1.10). Henderson, E. F. Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages (N.Y., 1892, Mac- millan, $1.50). Ogg, F. a. a Source Book of Medieval History (N.Y., 1907, American Book Co., $1.50). Robinson, J. H. Readings in European History (Abridged ed., Boston, 1906, Ginn, $1.50). Thatcher, O. J., and McNeal, E. H. A Source Book for Medieval History (N.Y., 1905, Scribner, $1.85). Webster, Hutton. Readings in Medieval and Modern History (N.Y., 191 7, Heath, $1.36). Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History (N.Y., 1894-1899, Longmans, Green & Co., 6 vols., each $1.50). Most of the books in the following list are inexpensive, easily procured, and well adapted in style and choice of topics to the needs of high-school pupils. Some more advanced and costly works are in- Works dicated by an asterisk (*). For detailed bibliographies, often accompanied by critical estimates, see C. K. Adams, A Manual of Historical Literature (3d ed., N.Y., 1889, Harper, $2.50), and the Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries, parts iii-v. GENERAL WORKS * Abbott, W. C. The Expansion of Europe, 1415-178Q (N.Y., 1918, Holt, 2 vols., $6.50). Emphasizes cultural aspects of modem European history. * Beard, C. A. Introduction to the English Historians (N.Y., 1906, Macmillan, $1.80). A book of selected readings. Carlyle, Thomas. On Heroes, Hero-Worshlp, and the Heroic in History (N.Y., 1840, Button, 70 cents). Chapin, F. S. An Historical Introduction to Social Economy (N.Y., 191 7, Cen- tury Co., $2.00). An elementary treatment of industrial and social history; illustrated. Creasy, E. S. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World from Marathon to Waterloo (N.Y., 1854, Button, 70 cents). * Cunningham, William. An Essay on Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects {Medieval and Modern Times) (N.Y., 1901, Putnam, $1.25). "Cambridge Historical Series." Bay, Clr-e. A History of Commerce (2d ed., N.Y., 1914, Longmans, Green & Co., $2.00). The most scholarly treatment in English. GiBBiNS, H. DE B. The History of Commerce in Europe (2d ed., N.Y., 1897, Macmillan, $1.20). Goodyear, W. H. Roman and Medieval Art (2d ed., N.Y., 1897, Macmillan, $1.00). Renaissance and Modern Art (N.Y., 1894, Macmillan, $1.00). * Green, J. R. Short History of the English People, edited by Mrs. J. R. Green and Suggestions for Further Study xxxi Miss Kate Norgate (N.Y., 1893-1895, Harper, 4 vols., $20.00). A beauti- fully illustrated edition of this standard work. * Hayes, C. J. H. A Political and Social History of Modern Europe (N.Y., 1916, Macmillan, 2 vols., $4.25). A college text-book covering the period 1500- 1915; provided with full bibliographies. Herbertson, a. J., and Herbertson, F. D. Man and His Work (3d ed., N.Y., 1 9 14, Macmillan, 60 cents). An introduction to the study of human geog- raphy. Jacobs, Joseph. The Story of Geographical Discovery (N.Y., 1898, Appleton, 50 cents) . Jenks, Edward. A History of Politics (N.Y., 1900, Button, 45 cents). A very illuminating essay. Keane, John. The Evolution of Geography (London, 1899, Stanford, 6s.). In- terestingly written and helpfully illustrated. Kerr, P. H., and Kerr, A. C. The Growth of the British Empire (N.Y., 191 1, Longmans, Green and Co., 50 cents). LiBBY, Walter. An Introduction to the History of Science (Boston, 1917, Hough- ton Mifflin Co., $1.50). Fascinating reading. Marvin, F. S. The Living Past (2d ed., N.Y., 1915, Oxford University Press, American Branch, $1.40). Thoughtful and suggestive essays in intellectual history. * Monroe, Paul. A Text-Book in the History of Education (N.Y., 1905, Mac- millan, $2.00). Nevinson, H. W. The Growth of Freedom (N.Y., 191 2, Dodge Publishing Co., 25 cents). "The People's Books." Pattison, R. p. D. Leading Figures in European History (N.Y., 1912, Mac- millan, $1.75). Biographical sketches of European statesmen from Charle- magne to Bismarck. Powers, H. H. Mornings with Masters of Art (N.Y., 1912, Macmillan, $2.00). Christian art from the time of Constantine to the death of Michelangelo. Reinach, Salomon. Apollo; an Illustrated Manual of the History of Art through- out the Ages, translated by Florence Simmonds (last ed., N.Y., 1914, Scribner, $1.50). The best brief work on the subject. Seignobos, Charles. History of Medieval and Modern Civilization, edited by J. A. James (N.Y., 1907, Scribner, $1.35). History of Contemporary Civilization, edited by J. A. James (N.Y., 1909, Scribner, $1.35). * Wilson, Woodrow. The State. Elements of Historical atid Practical Politics (new ed., N.Y., 1918, Heath, $2.00). THE MIDDLE AGES Adams, G. B. Civilization during the Middle Ages (2d ed., N.Y., 1914, Scribner, $2.00). Archer, T. A., and Kingsford, C. L. The Crusades (N.Y., 1894, Putnam, $1.50). "Story of the Nations." Baring-Gould, Sabine. Curious Myths of the Middle Ages (N.Y., 1869, Long- mans, Green and Co., $1.25). Bateson, Mary. Medieval England (N.Y., 1903, Putnam, $1.50). Deals with social and economic life; "Story of the Nations." xxxii Suggestions for Further Study * Bryce, James. The Holy Roman Empires (new ed., N.Y., 1904, Macmillan, $1-75) • A famous work, originally published in 1864. Church, R. W. The Beginning of the Middle Ages (N.Y., 1877, Scribner, $1.00), "Epochs of Modem History." CuTTS, E. L. Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages (London, 1872, De La More Press, 75. dd.). An almost indispensable book. Davis, H. W. C. Medieval Europe (N.Y., 191 1, Holt, 60 cents). "Home Uni- versity Library." Charlemagne, the Hero of Two Nations (N.Y., 1899, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations." Emerton, Ephraim. An Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages (Boston, 1888, Ginn, $1.10). Of special value to beginners. * Flick, A. C. The Rise of the Medieval Church (N.Y., 1909, Putnam, $3.75)- By a competent Protestant scholar. FooRD, Edward. The Byzantine Empire (N.Y., 191 1, Macmillan, $2.00). The most convenient short treatise; lavishly illustrated. * Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by J. B. Bury (N.Y., 1914, Macmillan, 7 vols., $25.00). The best edition, illustrated and provided with maps, of this standard work. GuERBER, H. A. Legends of the Middle Ages (N.Y., 1896, American Book Co., $1.50). Haskins, C. H. The Normans in European History (Boston, 191 5, Houghton Mifflm Co., $2.00). Jessopp, Augustus. The Coming of the Friars, and Other Historic Essays (N.Y., 1888, Putnam, $1.50). A book of great interest. * Lacroix, Paul. Manners, Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance Period (London, 1874, out of print). * Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages and at the Period of the Renaissance (London, 1874, out of print). * Science and Literature in the Middle Ages and at the Period of the Renais- sance (London, 1878, out of print). Lawrence, W. W. Medieval Story (N.Y., 1911, Columbia University Press, $1.50). Discusses the great literary productions of the Middle Ages. * LucHAiRE, Achille. Social France at the Time of Philip Augustus, translated by E. B. Krehbiel (London, 191 2, Murray, los. 6d.). A historical masterpiece. Mawer, Allen. The Vikings (N.Y., 1913, Putnam, 50 cents). "Cambridge Manuals." * MuNRO, D. C, and Sellery, G. C. Medieval Civilization (2d ed., N.Y., 1907, Century Co., $2.00). Translated selections from standard works by French and German scholars. Rait, R. S. Life in the Medieval University (N.Y., 191 2, Putnam, 50 cents). "Cambridge Manuals." Tappan, Eva M. When Knights were Bold (Boston, 191 1, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.00). An economic and social study of the Feudal Age; charmingly written for j^oimg people. * Thorndike, Lynn. The History of Medieval Europe (Boston, 191 7, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.75). A college text-book. Wright, Thomas. The Homes of Other Days (London, 1871, out of print). Valuable for both text and illustrations. Suggestions for Further Study xxxiii TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES Bourne, E. G. Spain in America, 1430-1580 (N.Y., 1904, Harper,. $2.00). Cheyney, E. p. European Background of Aftterican History, 1300-1600 (N.Y., 1904, Harper, $2.00). Eggleston, Edward. The Transit of Civilization from England to America in the Seventeenth Century (N.Y., 1902, Appleton, $1.75). Gardiner, S. R. The Thirty Years' War (N.Y., 1874, Scribner, $1.00). "Epochs of Modern History." Harrison, Frederic. William the Silent (N.Y., 1897, Macmillan, 80 cents). "Foreign Statesmen." Hudson, W. H. The Story of the Renaissance (N.Y., 191 2, Cassell, $1.50). A well-written volume. * HuLME, E. M. The Renaissance, the Protestant Revolution, and the Catholic Reformation in Continental Europe (rev. ed., N.Y., 1915, Century Co., $2.75). The best work on the subject by an American scholar. Hume, M. A. S. Philip II of Spain (N.Y., 1897, Macmillan, So cents). "Foreign Statesmen." * Joyce, T. A. Mexican Archeology (N.Y., 1914, Putnam, $4.00). * South American Archeeology (N.Y., 1912, Putnam, $3.50). Oldham, J. B. The Renaissance (N.Y., 1912, Button, 45 cents). Seebohm, Frederic. The Era of the Protestant Revolution (N.Y., 1875, Scribner, $1.00). "Epochs of Modern History." Smith, Preserved. Life and Letters of Martin Luther (Boston, 1910, Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.75). Written from a Protestant standpoint. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES Firth, C. H. Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of the Puritans in England (N.Y., 1900, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations." * Hassall, Arthur. The Balance of Power, 171S-1789 (N.Y., 1896, Macmillan, $1.90). "Periods of European History." Louis XIV and the Zenith of the French Monarchy (N.Y., 1S95, Putnam, $1.50). Lowell, E. J. The Eve of the French Revolution (2d ed., Boston, 1893, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.00). A satisfactory account of the Old Regime in France. * Macaulay, T. B. History of England, edited by C. H. Firth (N.Y., 1913-1915, Macmillan, 6 vols., $19.50). A beautifully illustrated edition of this standard work. Frederick the Great (N.Y., Merrill, 25 cents). A brilliant essay. Motley, J. L. Peter the Great (N.Y., Merrill, 25 cents). An essay originally published in 1845. Reddaway, W. F. Frederick the Great and the Rise of Prussia (N.Y., 1904, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations." THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC PERIOD Belloc, Hilaire. The French Revolution (N.Y., 191 1, Holt, 60 cents). "Home University Library." * Bourne, H. E. The Revolutionary Period in Europe, 1762,-1815 (N.Y., 1914, Century Co., $2.75). "Century Historical Series." xxxiv Suggestions for Further Study Carlyle, Thomas. The French Revolution (N.Y., 1837, Button, 2 vols., each 70 cents). Not a history, but a literary masterpiece. Fisher, Herbert. Napoleon (N.Y., 1913, Holt, 60 cents). "Home University Library." * Henderson, E. F. Symbol and Satire in the French Revolution (N.Y., 191 2, Putnam, $4.00). Contains 171 illustrations from contemporary prints. Johnston, R. M. Napoleon (N.Y., 1909, Holt, $1.30). An excellent short sketch. Madelin, Louis. The French Revolution (N.Y., 1916, Putnam, $2.50). A popular work translated from the French. Mathews, Shailer. The French Revolution (N.Y., 1900, Longmans, Green & Co., $1.25). Ends with the year 1795. Rose, J. H. The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, 178Q-1815 (2d ed., N.Y., 189s, Putnam, $1.25). The work of a very competent British scholar; "Cambridge Historical Series." Rosebery (Lord). Pitt (N.Y., 1891, Macmillan, 80 cents). "English States- men." * Stephens, H. M. Revolutionary Europe, 178Q-1815 (N.Y., 1893, Macmillan, $1.90). "Periods of European History." Wheeler, F. B. The French Revolution from the Age of Louis XIV to the Coming of Napoleon (N.Y., 1914, out of print). A popular survey, interestingly illustrated. THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES * Andrews, C. M. The Historical Development of Modern Europe (N.Y., 1896- 1898, Putnam, two vols, in one, $3.50). Covers the period 1815-1897. Davis, W. S., Anderson, William, and Tyler, M. W. The Roots of the War (N.Y., 1918, Century Co., $1.50). A non-technical, yet scholarly, history of Europe, 1870-1914. Gibbons, H. A. The New Map of Europe (4th ed., N.Y., 1915, Century Co., $2.00). A history of the years 1911-1914. GoocH, G. P. History of Our Time, 1885-1911 (N.Y., 191 1, Holt, 60 cents). "Home University Library." Hayes, C. J. H. A Brief History of the Great War (N.Y., 1919, Macmillan, $2.00). Hazen, C. D. Modern European History (N.Y., 1917, Holt, $1.75). Chiefly a political narrative; "American Historical Series." Headlam, J. W. Bismarck and the Founding of the German Empire (N.Y., 1899, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations." Hearnshaw, F. J. C. Main Currents of European History, 1815-1915 (N.Y., 191 7, Macmillan, $2.50). Illuminating comment; not a continuous historical narrative. Johnston, (Sir) H. H. The Opening-up of Africa (N.Y., 1911, Holt, 60 cents). "Home University Library." LiPSON, E. Europe in the Nineteenth Century (N.Y., 1916, Macmillan, $2.00). A good poUtical history in brief compass. Macdonald, J. R. The Socialist Movement (N.Y., 191 1, Holt, 60 cents). "Home University Library." McKiNLEY, A. E., Coulomb, C. A., and Gerson, A. J. A School History of the Great War (N.Y., 1919, American Book Co., $1.50). Suggestions for Further Study xxxv * Ogg, F. a. The Governments of Europe (N.Y., 1913, Macmillan, $3.00). * Economic Development of Modern Europe (N.Y., 1917, Macmillan, $2.50). * Phillips, W. A. Modern Europe, 1815-18QQ (5th ed., N.Y., 1915, Macmillan, $1.90). "Periods of European History." Reinsch, p. S. World Politics at the End of the Nineteenth Century (N.Y., 1900, Macmillan, $1.25). * Rose, J. H. The Development of the European Nations, 1870-IQ14 (5th ed., N.Y., 1916, Putnam, two vols, in one, $2.75). * ScHAPiRO, J. S. Modern and Contemporary European History (Boston, 1918, Houghton Mifflin Co., $350). An admirable college text-book covering the period from the French Revolution to the present time. Shepherd, W. R. Latin America (N.Y., 1914, Holt, 60 cents). "Home Uni- versity Library." Wallace, A. R. The Wonderful Century (N.Y., 1898, out of print). Weir, Archibald. An Introduction to the History of Modern Europe (Boston, 1907, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.00). A suggestive book for teachers. MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY CHAPTER I WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES, 476-962 1 1. Western Europe The geographical boundary between western and eastern Europe may for practical purposes be taken as a line drawn northward from the Adriatic through the Baltic xjnityof Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia to the North Cape, western That part of the continent west of this line has "^°^® had a unified civilization. Many of the countries of western Europe once formed provinces of the Roman Empire; all of them during the Middle Ages came under the dominion of the Roman Papacy; and even in modern times they possess a certain community of interests and ideals which separates them sharply from the countries of eastern Europe. But the civiHzation of western Europe has not been confined within the narrow limits of the Continent. During the last four centuries it has expanded over America, Australia, Expansion the islands of the Pacific, and vast areas of Asia of western and Africa. Western Europeans have introduced "^°^® into these remote regions their languages, government, customs, religion, even their literature and art, until to-day the greater part of the world has become subject to European influence. The civiUzation of western Europe is traceable to four prin- cipal origins, naniely, Greece, Rome, Christianity, origins of and the Teutonic peoples. To Greece Europe owes western the characteristic qualities of its intellectual life. ^°^® ^ Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter i, "Stories of the Lombard Kings"; chapter ii, "Charlemagne." I 2 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages From Rome it derives its conceptions of law and politics. The Christian Church gave to Europe religious unity. The invasions of the Germans broke up the Roman Empire and led to the foundation of what became the separate European nations. We are not to suppose that the inroads of the Germans ended with the dissolution of the Roman Empire in the West (476). Transition Odoacer, who in that year deposed the puppet-em- to the peror, Romulus Augustulus, was himself followed ^®® by other German leaders. Their efforts to carve out kingdoms for themselves in western Europe introduced a long period of disorder and confusion. The study of these troubled times leads us from the classical to the medieval world, from the history of antiquity to the history of the Middle Ages. The period called the Middle Ages is not well defined either as to its beginning or its close. For an initial date we may Limits of select the year 476, when western Europe was the Middle almost wholly occupied by the Germans. Roman ^^^ emperors still reigned in the East, but in the West barbarian kings divided between them the heritage of the Caesars. The extinction of the line of western emperors does indicate, in a somewhat striking way, the close of ancient times. For concluding dates we may select those of the invention of print- ing (about 1450), the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks (1453), the discovery of America (1492), and the opening up of a new sea-route to the East Indies (1498). Such signifi- cant events, all falling within the second half of the fifteenth century, seem to mark the conclusion of medieval, and the beginning of modern, times. The student will understand, however, that it is really impossible to separate by precise dates one historic period from another. The change from antiquity to the Middle Ages and, again, from the medieval to the modern world, was in each case a gradual process extend- ing over several centuries. The truth is that the social life of man forms a continuous growth, and man's history, an uninter- rupted stream. The Ostrogoths in Italy 3 2. The Ostrogoths in Italy, 488-553 The kingdom which Odoacer estabhshed on ItaUan soil did not long endure. It was soon overthrown by the Ostrogoths. At the time of the "fall" of Rome in 476 they -pj^^ ostro- occupied a district south of the middle Danube, goths under which the government at Constantinople had ^° °"*^ hired them to defend. The Ostrogoths proved to be expen- sive and dangerous allies. When, therefore, their chieftain, Tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna A two-storied marble building erected by Theodoric in imitation of a Roman tomb. The roof is a single block of marble, 33 feet in diameter and weighing more than 300 tons. Theodoric's body was subsequently removed from its resting place, and the mausoleum was converted into a church. Theodoric, offered to lead his people into Italy and against Odoacer, the Roman emperor gladly sanctioned the under- taking. Theodoric led the Ostrogoths — women and children as well as warriors — across the Alps and came down to meet Odoacer and his soldiers in battle. After suffering several ^ Ostrogothic defeats, Odoacer shut himself up in the strong invasion of fortress of Ravenna. Theodoric could not capture V^}^' *^®~ the place and at last agreed to share with Odoacer the government of Italy, if the latter would surrender. The agreement was never carried into effect. When Theodoric 4 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages entered Ravenna, he invited Odoacer to a banquet and at its conclusion slew him in cold blood. Theodoric had now no rival in Italy. Though Theodoric gained the throne by violence and treach- ery, he soon showed himself to be, as a ruler, wise, broad-minded, Theodoric ^^^ humane. He had lived as a youth in the idng of Italy, imperial court at Constantinople, and there had become well acquainted with Roman ideas of law and order. Roman civilization impressed him; and he wished not to destroy but to preserve it. Theodoric reigned in Italy for thirty-three years, and during this time the country enjoyed unbroken peace and prosperity. The enlightened policy of Theodoric was exhibited in many ways. He governed Ostrogoths and Romans with equal con- Theodoric's sideration. He kept all the old offices, such as rule in Italy ^}^g senatorship and the consulate, and by pref- erence filled them with men of Roman birth. His chief counsel- ors were Romans. A legal code, which he drew up for the use of Ostrogoths and Romans alike, contained only selections from Roman law. He was remarkably tolerant and, in spite of the fact that the Ostrogoths were Arians, was always ready to extend protection to CathoHc Christians. Theodoric patron- ized hterature and gave high positions to Roman writers. He restored the cities of Italy, had the roads and aqueducts repaired, and so improved the condition of agriculture that Italy, from a wheat-importing, became a wheat-exporting country. At Ravenna, the Ostrogothic capital, Theodoric erected many notable buildings, including a palace, a mauso- leum, and several churches. The remains of these structures are still to be seen. The influence of Theodoric reached far beyond Italy. He alHed himseh by marriage with most of the German rulers of Theodoric's ^^^ West. His second wife was a Prankish prin- foreign cess, his sister was the wife of a Vandal chieftain, ^° ^^ one of his daughters married a king of the Visi- goths, and another daughter wedded a Burgundian king. Theodoric by these alhances brought about friendly relations The Ostrogoths m Italy Europe in the Sixth Century 6 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages between the various barbarian peoples. It seemed, in fact, as if the Roman dominions in the West might again be united under a single ruler; as if the Ostrogoths might be the Ger- man people to carry on the civilizing work of Rome. But no such good fortune was in store for Europe. Theodoric died in 526. The next year a great emperor, Justinian, came to the throne at Constantinople. Justinian End of the ^^^ ^° intention of abandoning to the Germans Ostrogothic the rich provinces of Sicily and Italy. Although kmg om, ^j^^ Ostrogoths made a stubborn resistance to his armies, in the end they were so completely overcome that they agreed to abandon the Itahan peninsula. The feeble remnant of their nation withdrew northward through the passes of the Alps and, mingling with other barbarian -tribes, disappeared from history. 3. The Lombards in Italy, 568-774 The destruction of the Ostrogothic kingdom did not free Italy of the Germans. Soon after Justinian's death the country was again overrun, this time by the Lombards. The name of these invaders (in Latin, Langohardi) may have been derived Invasion of f ro^i the long beards that gave them such a fero- Itaiy by the cious aspect. The Lombards seized the territory om ar s north of the river Po — a region ever since known as Lombardy — and estabhshed their capital at Pavia. They afterwards made many settlements in central and southern Italy, but never succeeded in subduing the entire peninsula. The rule of the Lombards at first bore hard on Italy, which they treated as a conquered land. In character they seem to Lombard have been far less attractive than their predeces- nile in Italy g^j-g^ ^^iQ Visigoths and Ostrogoths. Many of them were still heathen when they entered Italy, and others were converts to the Arian form of Christianity. In course of time, however, the Lombards accepted Catholicism and adopted the customs of their subjects. They even forgot their German language and learned to speak Latin. The Lombard The Lombards in Italy kingdom lasted more than two centuries, until it was over- thrown by the Franks.^ The failure of the Lombards to conquer all Italy had im- portant results in later history. Sicily and the extreme southern part of the Italian peninsula, besides large dis- Results of tricts containing the cities of Naples, Rome, the Lom- Genoa, Venice, and Ravenna, continued to belong to the Roman Empire in the East. The rulers at Constanti- bard invasion Lombard Possessions in Italy about 600 a.d. nople could not exercise effective control over their Italian possessions, now that these were separated from one another by the Lombard territories. The consequence was that Italy broke up into a number of small and practically independent states, which never combined into one kingdom until our own 1 See page 13. 8 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages time. The ideal of a united Italy waited thirteen hundred years for its realization.^ 4. The Franks under Clovis and His Successors In 486, just ten years after the deposition of Romulus Augus- tulus, the Franks went forth to conquer under Clovis,^ one of their chieftains. By overcoming the governor of°tiie' ^ of Roman Gaul, in a battle near Soissons, Clovis Franks, 481- destroyed the last vestige of imperial rule in the West and extended the Frankish dominions to the river Loire. Clovis then turned against his German neigh- bors. East of the Franks, in the region now known as Alsace, lived the Alamanni, a people whose name still survives in AUemagne, the French name of Germany.^ The Alamanni were defeated in a great battle near Strassburg, and much of their territory was added to that of the Franks. Clovis subse- quently conquered the Visigothic possessions between the Loire and the Pyrenees, and compelled the Burgundians to pay tribute. He thus made himself supreme over nearly the whole of Gaul and even extended his authority to the other side of the Rhine. Clovis reigned in western Europe as an independent king, but he acknowledged a sort of allegiance to the Roman emperor by accepting the title of honorary consul. Hence- The Franks . , , ^ „ -r. ^ 11 and the forth to the Gallo-Romans he represented the GaUo- distant ruler at Constantinople. The Roman in- Romans , , . . . habitants of Gaul were not oppressed; their cities were preserved; and their language and laws remained undis- turbed. Clovis, as a statesman, may be compared with his eminent contemporary, Theodoric the Ostrogoth. The Franks were still a heathen people, when they began their career of conquest. Clovis, however, had married a 1 The modern kingdom of Italy dates from 1859-1870. 2 His name is properly spelled Chlodweg, which later became Ludwig, and in French, Louis. 2 On the other hand, the inhabitants of Gaul came to call their covmtry France and themselves Franqais after their conquerors, the Germanic Franks. The Franks Under Clovis and His Successors 9 Burgundian princess, Clotilda, who was a devout Catholic and an ardent advocate of Christianity. The story is christianiza- told how, when Clovis was hard-pressed by the tion of the Alamanni at the battle of Strassburg, he vowed ^* ^' that if Clotilda's God gave him victory he would become a Christian. The Franks won, and Clovis, faithful to his vow, had himself baptized by St. Remi, bishop of Reims. I I Territory of the Franks 481 A.D. I I Conquests of Clovis 486-511 A.D. I I Conquests of successors 511-768 A.D. Scale of Miles 50 100 200 300 400 .5° Longitude West 0° Longitude EasT Growth of the Prankish Dominions, 481-768 a.d. The conversion of Clovis was an event of the first importance. He and his Franks naturally embraced the orthodox Catholic faith, which was that of his wife, instead of the significance Arian form of Christianity, which had been ac- of Clevis's cepted by almost all the other German invaders. Furthermore, the conversion of Clovis gained for the Frankish king and his successors the support of the Roman Church. The friendship between the popes and the Franks afterwards ripened into a close alliance, which greatly influenced European history. lo Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages The descendants of Clovis are called Merovingians. ^ They The earUer occupied the throne of the Franks for nearly two Merovingian hundred and fifty years. The earlier Merovingians ^^ were strong men, under whose direction the Prank- ish territory continued to expand, until it included nearly all of what is now France, Belgium, and HoUand, besides a con- siderable part of Germany. The Frankish conquests differed in two important respects from those of the other German peoples. In the first place, Character of ^^^ Franks did not cut themselves off completely the FranMsh from their original homes. They kept permanently conques s ^j^^.^ territory in Germany, drawing from it con- tinual reinforcements of fresh German blood. In the second place, the Franks steadily, added new German lands to their possessions. They built up in this way what was the largest and the most permanent of all the barbarian states founded in western Europe. 5. The Franks under Charles Martel and Pepin the Short After the middle of the seventh century the Frankish rulers, worn out by violence and excesses, degenerated into weakHngs, The later ^^^ reigned but did not rule. The actual manage- Merovingian ment of the State passed into the hands of officers, ^^ called "mayors of the palace." They left to the kings little more than their title, their long hair, — the badge of royalty among the Franks, — and a scanty allowance for their support. The later Merovingians, accordingly, are often known as the ''do-nothing kings." The most illustrious of the mayors was Charles, surnamed Martel, ''the Hammer," from the terrible defeat which he Charles administered to the Mohammedans near Tours, Martel ^^ central France. Charles Martel was virtually a king, but he never ventured to set aside the Merovingian ruler and himself ascend the throne. This step was taken, however, by Charles's son, Pepin the Short. 1 From Merovech, grandfather of Clovis. Charles Martel and Pepin the Short ii Before dethroning the last feeble ''do-nothing," Pepin sought the approval of the bishop of Rome. The pope, without hesi- tation, declared that it was only right that the Accession of man who had the real authority in the state Pepin the should also have the royal title. Pepin, accord- **^' ingly, caused himself to be crowned king of the Franks, thus founding the Carohngian^ dynasty (751). Three years later Pope Stephen II came to Pepin's court and solemnly anointed the new ruler with holy oil, in accordance with ancient Jewish custom. The rite of anointing, something unknown to the Germans, gave to Pepin's coronation the sanction of the Roman Church. Henceforth the Frankish sovereigns called themselves "kings by the grace of God." Pepin was soon able to repay his great obligation to the Roman Church by becoming its protector against the Lombards. These barbarians, who were trying to extend their „ donation rule in Italy, threatened to capture Rome and of Pepin," the territory in the vicinity of that city, then under the control of the pope. Pepin twice entered Italy with his army, defeated the Lombards, and forced them to cede to Pope Stephen an extensive district lying between Rome and Ravenna. Pepin might have returned this district to the emperor at Constantinople, to whom it had belonged, but the Frankish king declared that he had not fought for the advantage of any man, but for the welfare of his own soul. He decided, therefore, to bestow his conquests on St. Peter's representative, the pope. Before this time the bishops of Rome had owned much land in Italy and had acted as virtual sovereigns in Rome and its neighborhood. Pepin's gift, known as the ''Donation of Pepin," greatly increased their possessions, which came to be called the States of the Church. They remained in the hands of the popes until late in the nineteenth century.^ ^ So called from Pepin's son, Charles the Great (in Latin, Carolus Magnus). The French form of his name is Charlemagne. ^ In 1870 the States of the Church were added to the newly formed kingdom of Italy. 12 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages Charle magne man 6. Charlemagne and the Revival of the Roman Empire, 800 Pepin was succeeded in 768 by his two sons, one of whom, Charlemagne, three years later became sole king of the Franks. Charlemagne reigned for nearly half a century, the and during this time he set his stamp on all later European history. His appearance and character are familiar to us from a brief biography, written by his secretary, Einhard. Charlemagne, we learn, was a tall, square-shouldered, strongly built man, with bright, keen eyes, and an expression at once cheerful and dignified. Riding, hunt- ing, and swimming were his favorite sports. He was sim- ple in his tastes and very temperate in both food and drink. Except when in Rome, he wore the old Frankish cos- tume, with high-laced boots, hnen tunic, blue cloak, and sword girt at his side. He was a clear, fluent speaker, used Latin as readily as his native tongue, and understood Greek when it was spoken. Much of Charlemagne's long hfe, almost to its close, was filled with warfare. He fought chiefly against the heathen peoples on the fron- tiers of the Frankish realm. The subjugation of the Saxons, Conquest who lived in the forests and marshes of north- western Germany, took many years. Once when Charlemagne was exasperated by a revolt of the Saxons, he ordered forty-five hundred prisoners to be executed. This savage massacre was followed by equally Charlemagne Lateran Museum, Rome A mosaic picture, made during the lifetiine of Charlemagne, and probably a fair likeness of him. and con- version of the Saxons 772-804 Charlemagne and the Roman Empire 13 severe laws, which imposed the death penalty on those who refused baptism or observed the old heathen rites. By such harsh means Charlemagne at length broke down the spirit of resistance among the people. All Saxony, from the Rhine to the Elbe, became a Christian land and a permanent part of the Frankish realm. Shortly after the beginning of the Saxon wars the king of the Franks received an urgent summons from the pope, who was again being threatened Conquest by his old enemies, the Loi^lrds, Lombards. Charle- 774 magne led an army across the Alps, captured Pavia, where the Lombard ruler had taken refuge, and added his possessions to those of the Franks. Thus passed away one more of the German states which had arisen on the ruins of the Roman Empire. Charlemagne now placed on his own head the famous "Iron Crown" and assumed the title of ''King of the Franks and Lombards, and Patrician of the Romans." The conquests of Charlemagne were not confined to German peoples. He forced the wild Avars, who had advanced from the Caspian into the Danube valley, to acknowl- ^ , 1 1 . Tx n 1 • r-ii • Charle- edge his supremacy. He compelled various Slavic magne's tribes, including the Bohemians, to pay tribute. He °*^®^ conquests also invaded Spain and wrested from the Moham- medans a considerable district south of the Pyrenees.^ This fron- tier territory received the name of the Spanish March (or Mark) . Charlemagne was a statesman, as well as a warrior. He divided his wide dominions into counties, each ruled by a count, 1 The rearguard of Charlemagne's army, when returning from Spain, was attacked and overwhehned by the mountaineers of the Pyrenees. This incident gave rise to the famous French epic known as the Song of Roland. See page 250. Iron Crown of Lombardy A small gold diadem, about two inches high. It is studded with jew- els. A strip of iron, which, according to pious legend, had been eaten out of one of the nails of the True Cross, is inserted within. The crown was a gift to the Lombards from Pope Gregory I, as a reward for their con- version to Roman Catholicism. 14 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages Charlemagne's who was expected to keep order and admin- government ister justice. The border regions, which lay exposed to invasion, were organized into "marks," under the military supervision of counts of the mark, or mar- graves (marquises). These officials had so much power and lived so far from the royal court that Charlemagne appointed special agents, caXltd missi dominici ("the lord's messengers"), to maintain control over them. The mis si were usually sent Charlemagne's Signature The emperor's signature as attached to a charter signed at Kurstein in 790. Only the small lines withJn the diamond were made by Charlemagne. out in pairs, a layman and a bishop or abbot, in order that the one might serve as a check upon the other. They traveled from county to county, bearing the orders of their royal master. In this way Charlemagne kept well informed as to the condi- tion of affairs throughout his kingdom. Charlemagne did something for the promotion of education and literary culture among the Franks. He encouraged the Revival of establishment of schools in the monasteries and u^r"^ cathedrals, where the sons of both freemen and Charlemagne serfs might be trained for the Christian ministry. He also formed his court into a "school of the palace," in which learned men from Italy, Spain, and England gave instruction to his own children and to those of his nobles. All this work formed only a hopeful beginning. Centuries were to pass be- fore learning in western Europe fully recovered from the low state to which it had fallen during the period of the invasions. Charlemagne, the champion of Christendom and the fore- most ruler in Europe, seemed to the men of his day the rightful Coronation successor of the Roman emperors. He had their of Charle- power, and now he was to have their name. In magne, ^^^ ^^^^ g^^ ^^ Frankish king visited Rome 1 6 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages who had protected the Church and had done so much to spread the CathoHc faith among the heathen. The Roman people also welcomed the coronation, because they felt that the time had come for Rome to assume her old place as the capital of the world. To reject the eastern ruler, in favor of the great Prankish king, was an emphatic method of asserting Rome's independence of Constantinople. The coronation of Charlemagne forms one of the most sig- nificant events in medieval history. It might be thought a Significance small matter that he should take the imperial title, of the when he already exercised imperial sway through- out western Europe. But Charlemagne's con- temporaries believed that the old Roman Empire had now been revived, and that a German king now sat on the throne once occupied by Augustus and Constantine. Henceforth there was estabhshed in the West a Hne of Roman emperors which lasted until the opening of the nineteenth century.^ 7. Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire, 814-870 The empire of Charlemagne did not long remain intact. So vast was its extent and so unlike were its inhabitants in After Charle- race, language, and customs that it could be magne managed only by a ruler of the greatest energy and strength of will. Unfortunately, the successors of Charle- magne proved to be too weak for the task of maintaining peace and order. Western Europe now entered on a long period of confusion and violence, during which the Prankish dominions broke up into separate and warring kingdoms. Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, who became emperor in 814, was a well-meaning but feeble ruler, better fitted for the Treaty of quiet Ufe of a monastery than for the throne. He Verdun, could not control his rebellious sons, who, even 843 during his lifetime, fought bitterly over their in- heritance. The unnatural strife, which continued after his death, was temporarily settled by a treaty concluded at the ^ The title of "Holy Roman Emperor," assumed by the later successors of Charlemagne, was kept by them till 1806. ' Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire 17 city of Verdun. According to its terms Lothair, the eldest brother, received Italy and the imperial title, together with a narrow stretch of land along the valleys of the Rhine and the Rhone, between the North Sea and the Mediterranean. Louis and Charles, the other brothers, received kingdoms lying to the east and west, respectively, of Lothair's territory. The Treaty I 1 East Frankish Kingdom I 1 of Louis I ] West Frankish Kingdom ' of Charles 1 Lothair's Kingdom , The Boundaries in 870 A.D. according to the Treaty of_Mersen Scale of Miles 50 100 200 ann / The Frankish Dominions as divided by the Treaties OF Verdun (843 a.d.) and Mersen (870 a.d.) of Verdun may be said to mark the first stage in the dissolution of the CaroUngian Empire. A second treaty, made at Mersen in Holland, was entered into by Louis and Charles, after the death of their brother Lothair. They divided between themselves Lo- Treaty of thair's kingdom north of the Alps, leaving to his Mersen, 870 young son the possession of Italy and the empty title of "em- peror." The Treaty of Mersen may be said to mark the second stage in the dissolution of the Carolingian Empire. That empire, as such, had now ceased to exist. • i8 Western Europe During* the Early Middle Ages The territorial arrangements made by the treaties of Verdun and Mersen foreshadowed the future map of western Europe. Importance ^^^ 'Esist Frankish kingdom of Louis, inhabited of the two almost entirely by German peoples, was to de- treaties velop into modern Germany. The West Frank- ish kingdom of Charles, inhabited mainly by descendants of Romanized Gauls, was to become modern France. Lothair's kingdom, separated into two parts by the Alps, never became a national state. Italy, indeed, might be united under one government, but the long, narrow strip north of the Alps had no unity of race, no common language, and no natural bound- aries. It was fated to be broken into fragments and to be fought over for centuries by its stronger neighbors. Part of this territory now forms the small countries of Belgium, Hol- land, and Switzerland, and another part, known as Alsace and Lorraine,^ has remained until modern times a bone of conten- tion between France and Germany. Even had Charlemagne been followed by strong and able rulers, it would have been a difficult matter to hold the empire Renewed together in the face of the fresh series of barbarian barbarian inroads which began immediately after his death, invasions ^j^^ Mohammedans, though checked by the Franks at the battle of Tours, continued to be dangerous: enemies. They ravaged southern France, Sicily, and parts of Italy. The piratical Northmen from Denmark and Norway harried the coast of France and made inroads far beyond Paris. They also penetrated into western Germany, sailing up the Rhine in their black ships and destroying such important towns as Cologne and Aix-la-Chapelle. Meanwhile, eastern Germany lay exposed to the attacks of the Slavs, whom Charlemagne had defeated but had not subdued. The Magyars, or Hungarians, were also dreaded foes. These wild horsemen entered Europe from the plains of Asia and, like the Huns and Avars to whom they were probably related, spread devastation far and wide. A great part of Europe thus suffered from invasions ahnost 1 The French name Lorraine and the German name Lothringen are both derived from the Latin title of Lothair's kingdom — Lotharii regnum. Otto the Great 19 as destructive as those which had brought ruin to the old Roman world. 8. Otto the Great and the Restoration of the Roman Empire, 962 The tenth century saw another movement toward the resto- ration of law and order. The civilizing work of Charlemagne was taken up by German kings, not of the old Frankish stock, but belonging to that Saxon people Jtem-^ucWe^ which had opposed Charlemagne so long and bitterly. Saxony was one of the five great territorial states, or stem-duchies, as they are usually called, into which Germany was then divided.^ Germany at that time extended only as far east as the river Elbe, beyond which lay the territory occu- pied by half-civilized Slavic tribes. The rulers of the stem-duchies enjoyed practical independ- ence, though they had recognized some king of Germany ever since the Treaty of Verdun. Early in the tenth Elective century the Carolingian dynasty died out in Ger- kingship of many, and the German nobles then proceeded to ®"°^^y elect their own kings. Their choice fell first upon Conrad, duke of Franconia, but he had little authority outside his own duchy. A stronger man was required to keep the peace among the turbulent nobles and to repel the invaders of Germany. Such a man appeared in the person of Henry, duke of Saxony, who, after Conrad's death, was chosen king. Henry I, called the Fowler, because he was fond of hunting birds, spent the greater part of his reign in wars against the Slavs, Magyars, and other invaders. He began _ , r 1 01 r 1 . , Reign, of the conquest from the Slavs of the territory be- Henry the tween the Elbe and the Oder. Here arose the Fowler, 919- 936 mark of Brandenburg, estabhshed as an outpost against the Slavs. Brandenburg was to furnish Germany, in later centuries, with the dynasty of the Hohenzollerns.^ Henry 1 The others were Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, and Lorraine. 2 The Hohenzollerns became electors of Brandenburg in 141 5, kings of Prussia in 1701, and emperors of Germany in 1871. 20 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages Ring Seal of Otto THE Great The inscription reads Oddo Rex. the Fowler also conquered the southern part of Denmark and Christianized it. Here he reestabUshed the mark of Schleswig, which had first been formed by Charlemagne. Henry the Fowler was succeeded by his son, Otto I, whom history knows as Otto the Great. He well deserved the title. „ . , Like Charlemagne, Otto pre- Reign of , , r 1 otto the sented the aspect of a born Great, 936- j-uigr. He is described as be- 973 ing tall and commanding in presence, strong and vigorous of body, and gifted with much charm of manner. In his bronzed face shone clear and sparkhng eyes, and down his breast hung a long, thick beard. Though subject to violent outbursts of temper, he was liberal to his friends and just to his foes. Otto was a man of immense energy and ambition, with a high conception of his duties as a sovereign. His reign forms a notable epoch in German history. Otto continued Henry's work of defending Germany from the foes which threatened to overrun that country. He won his Otto and the most conspicuous success against the Magyars, Magyars ^^io suffered a crushing defeat on the banks of the river Lech in Bavaria (955). These barbarians now ceased their raids and retired to the lands on the middle Danube which they had seized from the Slavs. Here they settled down, accepted Christianity from the Roman Church, and laid the foundations of the kingdom of Hungary.^ As a protection against future Magyar inroads Otto established the East Mark. This region afterwards assumed importance under the more familiar name of Austria. Otto the Great is not to be remembered only as a German 1 The Magyar settlement in central Europe had the important result of dividmg the Slavic peoples into three groups. Those who remained south of the Danube (Serbians, Croatians, etc.) were henceforth separated from the northwestern Slavs (Bohemians, Moravians, and Poles) and from the eastern Slavs (Russians). See the map facing page 30. Otto the Great 21 king. His reign was also noteworthy in the history of Italy. The country at this time was hopelessly divided Condition of between rival and contending peoples. The em- ^^^y peror at Constantinople controlled the southern extremity of the peninsula. The Mohammedans held Sicily and some cities on the mainland. The pope ruled at Rome and in the States of the Church. A so-called king of Italy still reigned in Lom- bardy, but he could not manage the powerful counts, dukes, and marquises, who were virtually independent within their own domains. Even the imperial title died out, and now there was no longer a Roman emperor in the West. The deplorable condition of Italy invited interference from abroad. Following in the footsteps of Charlemagne, Otto the Great led two expeditions across the Alps, assumed coronation the /'Iron Crown" ^ of Lombardy, and then pro- of Otto the ceeded to Rome, where he secured the pope (John ^^^*' XII) against the latter's enemies in that city. Otto's reward was the same as Charlemagne's. On Candlemas Day ,2 962, the grateful pope crowned him Roman emperor. The coronation of Otto the Great seemed to his contempo- raries a necessary and beneficial act. They still believed that the Roman Empire was suspended, not extinct; and Meaning of that now, one hundred and fifty years after Charle- the coro- magne, the occasion was opportune to restore the "^*^°^ name and power associated with the golden age of the first Frankish emperor. Otto's ardent spirit, one may well imagine, was fired with this vision of imperial sway and the renewal of a title around which clustered so many memories of success and glory. But the outcome of Otto's restoration of the Roman Empire was good neither for Italy nor for Germany. It became the rule, henceforth, that the man whom the German ^ . Ultimate nobles chose as their king had a claim, also, to the results of Italian crown and the imperial title. The efforts *^® of the German kings to make good this claim led to their constant interference in the affairs of Italy. They 1 See the illustration, page 13. 2 February 2. 22 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages treated that country as a conquered province which had no right to a national Hfe and an independent government under its own rulers. At the same time they neglected Germany and failed to keep their powerful territorial lords in subjection. Neither Italy nor Germany, in consequence, could become a Europe in the Age of Otto the Great, 962 a.d. unified, centralized state, such as was formed in France and England during the later Middle Ages. The empire of Charlemagne, restored by Otto the Great, came to be called in later centuries the "Holy Roman Empire." The Holy ^^^ ^^^^^ points to the idea of a world monarchy — the Roman Empire — and a world religion — Roman Christianity — united in one institution. This magnificent idea was never fully realized. The popes and emperors, instead of being bound to each other by the closest Roman Empire The Anglo-Saxons in Britain 23 ties, were more generally enemies than friends. The conflict between the Empire and the Papacy formed a significant epi- sode in the later history of the Middle Ages. 9. The Anglo-Saxons in Britain, 449-839 From the history of Continental Europe we now turn to the history of Britain. That island had been overrun by the Germans after the middle of the fifth century. Anglo-Saxon The Jutes came from northern Denmark, the conquest of Angles, from what is now Schleswig-Holstein, and "**^ the Saxons, from the neighborhood of the rivers Elbe, Weser, and Ems in northern Germany. The Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain was a slow process, which lasted at least one hundred and fifty years. The invaders followed the rivers into the interior and gradually subdued more than half of what is now England, comprising the fertile plain district in the southern and eastern parts of the island. Though the Anglo-Saxons probably destroyed many flourish- ing cities and towns of the Romanized Britons, it seems likely that the conquerors spared the women, with whom Nature of they intermarried, and the agricultural laborers, *^® conquest whom they made slaves. Other natives took refuge in the hill regions of western and northern Britain, and here their de- scendants stin keep up the Celtic language and traditions. The Anglo-Saxons regarded the Britons with contempt, naming them Welsh, a word which means one who talks gibberish. The antagonism between the two peoples died out in the course of centuries; conquerors and conquered intermingled; and an English nation, partly Celtic and partly Teutonic, came into being. The Anglo-Saxons started to fight one another before they ceased fighting their common enemy, the Britons. Throughout the seventh and eighth centuries, the Anglo- jj^g ^^^^^ Saxon states were engaged in almost constant kingdoms in struggles, either for increase of territory or for " ^^^ supremacy. The kingdoms farthest east — Kent, Sussex, Essex, and East Anglia — found their expansion checked by 24 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages other kingdoms — Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex — which grew up in the interior of the island. Each of these three stronger states gained in turn the leading place. e 8° East from 10° Greenwich 12° Continental Home of the English The beginning of the supremacy of Wessex dates from the reign of Egbert. He had lived for some years as an exile at the Egbert and court of Charlemagne, from whom he doubtless the suprem- learned valuable lessons of war and statesmanship. Wessex, After returning from the Continent, Egbert became 802-839 ]^jj^g Qf Wessex and gradually forced the rulers of the other states to acknowledge him as overlord. Though Christianity in the British Isles 25 Egbert was never directly king of all England, he began the work of uniting the Anglo-Saxons under one government. His descendants have occupied the English throne to the present day. When the Germans along the Rhine and the Danube crossed the frontiers and entered the western provinces, they had already been partially Romanized. They under- Anglo-Saxon stood enough of Roman civilization to appreciate ^^^^ it and to desire to preserve it. The situation was quite different with the Anglo-Saxons. Their original home lay in a part of Germany beyond the borders of the Roman Empire and remote from the cultural influences of Rome. Coming to Britain as barbarians, they naturally introduced their own language, laws, and customs wherever they settled. Much of what the Anglo-Saxons brought with them still lives in England, and from that country has spread to the United States and the vast English colonies beyond the seas. The English language is less indebted to Latin than any of the Romance languages, and the Common law of England owes much less to Roman law than do the legal systems of Continental Europe. England, indeed, looks to the Anglo-Saxons for some of the most charac- teristic and important elements of her civilization. 10. Christianity in the British Isles The Anglo-Saxons also brought to Britain their heathen faith. Christianity did not come to them until the close of the sixth century. At this time more or less in- preparation tercourse had sprung up between the people of for Roman Kent, lying nearest to the Continent, and the stia^ty Franks in Gaul. Ethelbert, the king of Kent, had even married the Frankish princess. Bertha. He allowed his Christian wife to bring a bishop to her new home and gave her the deserted church of St. Martin at Canterbury as a place of worship. Queen Bertha's fervent desire for the conversion of her husband and his people prepared the way for an event of first importance in English history — the mission of Augustine. 26 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages :^f?^ The pope at this time was Gregory I, better known, from his services to the Roman Church, as Gregory the Great. The Mission of kingdom of Kent, with its Christian queen, Augustine, seemed to him a very promising field for mission- ary enterprise. Gregory, accordingly, sent out the monk Augustine with forty companions to bring the gospel to the heathen EngHsh. The king of Kent, already well disposed toward the Christian ^^ faith, greeted the mis- sionaries kindly and told them that they were free to convert whom they would. Be- fore long he and his court embraced Chris- tianity, and the people of Kent soon followed the royal example. The monks were as- signed a residence in Canterbury, a city which has ever since remained the religious capital of England. From Kent Chris- tianity in its Roman form gradually spread into the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Augustine and his monks were not the first missionaries to Britain. Roman soldiers, merchants, and officials had in- Celtic troduced Christianity among the Britons as early Christianity g^g ^j^g second century. During the fifth century the famous St. Patrick had carried Christianity to the heathen Irish. The Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain drove many Christians to Ireland, and that island in the sixth and seventh centuries became a center from which devoted monks went forth to labor in western Scotland and northern Britain. Here they came in contact with the missionaries from Rome. The Celtic Christians followed some customs which differed St. Martin's Church, Canterbury The present church, dating from the thirteenth cen- tury, occupies the site of a chapel built before the arrival of Augustine. The walls still contain some of the Roman bricks used in the original structure. St. Martin's Church was the scene of the earliest work of Augustine in Canterbury. Christianity in the British Isles 27 from those observed by Roman Christians. They computed the date on which Easter fell according to a system Differences unHke that of the Romans. They permitted between ... 1 ^ r , , , Celtic and their priests to marry; the Romans forbade the Roman practice. Their monks shaved the front of the Christianity head from ear to ear as a tonsure, while Roman monks shaved the top of the head, leaving a "crown of thorns." These dif- Canterbury Cathedral The choir dates from the twelfth century, the nave, transepts, and central tower, from Whe fifteenth century. One of the two towers at the west front was built in 1834-1840. The beautiful stained glass in the windows of the choir belongs to the thirteenth century. ferences may not seem very important, but they were enough to prevent the cooperation of Celtic and Roman missionaries for the conversion of the heathen. The rivalry between Celtic and Roman Christians was finally settled at a church gathering, or s5mod, called by the king of Northumbria at Whitby. The main controversy Synod of at this synod concerned the proper date for Easter. Whitby, 664 In the course of the debate it was asserted that the Roman custom had the sanction of St. Peter, to whom Christ had 28 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages ' The Fusion of Germans and Romans 29 intrusted the keys of heaven. This statement was enough for the Northumbrian king, who thereupon decided in favor of the Roman claim, declaring that he would not oppose St. Peter, "lest when I come before the gates of the kingdom of heaven, he who holds the keys should not open to me." ^ The repre- sentatives of the Celtic Church then withdrew from England, leaving the field clear for Roman missionaries. The decision of the Synod of Whitby in favor of Rome meant that all England henceforth would recognize the pope's author- ity in religious matters. It remained a Roman ^, „ . . , ^ 1 T ., 1 . r ^ ^ r • ^hc Brftish Catholic country until the time of the Reformation, isles become nearly nine hundred years later.^ The Celtic 5°^^ . . -^ Catholic Christians in Ireland and Scotland in the course of time also became the devoted children of the Roman Church. 11. The Fusion of Germans and Romans We have now followed the fortunes of the Germans for five centuries from the end of the Roman Empire in the West. Most of their kingdoms, it has been seen, were not ^j^^ permanent. The Visigothic and Burgundian do- Germanic minions in Gaul yielded to the Franks, and those "^ °"^^ of the Visigoths in Spain, to the Mohammedan Arabs. The Vandal possessions in North Africa were regained by the em- perors at Constantinople. The rule of the Ostrogoths in Italy endured for only sixty years, and that of the Lombards passed away after two centuries. The kingdoms established by the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons alone developed into lasting states. But even where the Germans did not found permanent king- doms, they mingled with the subject provincials and adopted much of the old Roman civilization. The fusion Hindrances of the two peoples naturally required a long time, *° fusion being scarcely completed before the middle of the tenth century. It was hindered, in the first place, by the desire of the Germans to secure the lands of the Romans. Wherever the barbarians ^ Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, iii, 25. 2 The separation from Rome occurred in 1534, during the reign of Henry VIII. 30 Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages settled, they appropriated a large part of the agricultural soil. How much they took varied in different countries. The Ostrogoths seem to have seized one- third of the land in Italy; the Visigoths, two-thirds of that in Gaul and Spain; the Anglo- Saxons, perhaps all the tillable soil of Britain. It could not but be galling to the Romans to surrender their farms to the barbarians. In the second place, the Germans often assessed heavy taxes on the Romans, which they themselves refused to pay. Tax -paying seemed to the Germans a mark of servitude. In the third place, a barrier between the two peoples arose from the circumstance that each had its particular law. For several centuries following the invasions there was one law for the Romans — that which they had enjoyed under the empire — and another law for the Germans — their old tribal customs. After the Germans had lived for some time in contact with the Romans they wrote out their laws in the Latin language. These "Laws of the Barbarians" still survive and throw much light on their early beliefs and manners. In spite of the hindrances to fusion, it seems true that con- querors and conquered felt no great dislike for each other Conditions ^^^ ^^^^' ^^ ^ ^^^^' ^^^y freely intermingled, favoring Certain conditions directly favored this result. First, many Germans had found their way within the empire as hired soldiers, colonists, and slaves, long before the invasions began. Second, the Germans came in relatively small numbers. Third, the Germans entered the Roman world, not as destroyers, but as homeseekers who felt a real reverence for Roman civilization. Fourth, some of the princi- pal Teutonic peoples, including the Visigoths, Burgundians, and Vandals, were already Christians at the time of their invasions, while other peoples, such as the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, were . afterwards converted to Christianity. As long, however, as most of the barbarians remained Arian Christians,^ their belief stood in the way of friendly intercourse with the Roman provincials, who had accepted the Catholic faith. ^ See page 47. note i. The Fusion of Germans and Romans 31 If western Europe during the early Middle Ages presented a scene of violence and confusion while the Germans were set- tling in their new homes, a different picture was ^ Contrast afforded by eastern Europe. Here the Roman between Empire still survived and continued to uphold 5^^* *^^ for centuries the Roman tradition of law and order. The history of that empire forms the theme of the following chapter. Studies I. On an outline map indicate the boundaries of the empire of Charlemagne, distinguishing his hereditary possessions from those which he acquired by conquest. 2. On an outline map indicate the boundaries of the empire of Otto the Great. 3. What events are connected with the following places: Soissons; Mersen; Whitby; Reims; Verdun; Canterbury; and Strassburg? 4. What is the historical importance of Augustine, Henry the Fowler, Pepin the Short, Charles Martel, Egbert, and Ethelbert? 5. Give dates for the following events: battle of Tours; crowning of Charlemagne as emperor; crowning of Otto the Great as emperor; deposition of Romulus Augustulus; Augustine's mission to England; and the Treaty of Verdun. 6. Explain the following expressions: "do-nothing kings"; missi dominici; Holy Roman Empire; and "Donation of Pepin." 7. Why have some historians chosen to begin medieval history with the year 313? With 378? With 395? 8. Why was the extinction of the Ostrogothic kingdom a misfortune for Italy? 9. Why did Italy remain for so many centuries after the Lombard invasion merely "a geographical expression"? 10. Why does Clovis deserve to be called the founder of the French nation? 11. What difference did it make whether Clovis became an Arian or a CathoHc? 12. What events in the lives of Clovis and Pepin the Short contributed to the alliance between the Franks and the popes? 13. What provinces of the Roman Empire in the West were not included within the limits of Charlemagne's empire? 14. What countries of modern Europe are included within the limits of Charlemagne's empire? 15. Show that Charle- magne's empire was not in any true sense a continuation of the Roman Empire. 16. What is the origin of the word "emperor"? As a title distinguish it from that of "king." 17. Why has Lothair's kingdom north of the Alps been called the "strip of trouble" ? 18. Why might the inhabitants of England be more properly described as Anglo-Celts rather than as Anglo-Saxons? 19. How did the four EngUsh counties, Sussex, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, receive their names? 20. What was the importance of the Synod of Whitby? 21. Set forth the condi- tions which hindered, and those which favored, the fusion of Germans and Romans. CHAPTER II EASTERN EUROPE DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES, 395-1095 12. The Roman Empire in the East The Roman Empire in the West moved rapidly to its "faU" in 476, at the hands of the Germanic invaders. The Roman Empire in the East, though threatened by enemies the Roman from without and weakened by civil conflicts Empire in irom within, endured for more than a thousand the East years. Until the middle of the eleventh century it was the strongest state in Europe, except during the reign of Charlemagne, when the Frankish kingdom eclipsed it. Until the middle of the fifteenth century it preserved the name, the civilization, and some part of the dominions, of ancient Rome. The long life of the Roman Empire in the East is one of the marvels of history. Its great and constant vitahty appears Causes of the more remarkable, when one considers that its stirvival j|- j^^^^j ^q easily defensible frontiers, contained many different peoples with little in common, and on all sides faced hostile states. The empire survived so long, because of its vast wealth and resources, its despotic, centralized govern- ment, the strength of its army, and the almost impregnable position occupied by Constantinople, the capital city. The changing fortunes of the empire during the Middle Ages are reflected in some of the names by which it is often known. Character '^^^ term "Greek Empire" expresses the fact that of the the state became more and more Greek in char- empire acter, owing to the loss, first of the western prov- inces in the fifth century, and then of Syria and Egypt in the seventh century. Another term — "Byzantine Empire" — appropriately describes the condition of the state in still later times, when its possessions were reduced to Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) and the territory in the neighborhood of 32 The Reign of Justinian 33 that city. But through all this period the rulers at Constanti- nople regarded themselves as the true successors of Augustus, Diocletian, and Constantine. They never admitted the right of Charlemagne and Otto the Great to establish a rival Roman Empire in western Europe.^ They claimed to be the only legitimate heirs of Old Rome. Justinian and his Suite A mosaic dating from 547 in the church of San Vitale, Ravenna. It shows the emperor (in the center) with a bishop, his suite, and imperial guards. The picture probably gives us a fair idea of Justinian's appearance, though it represents him as somewhat younger than he was at the time. 13. The Reign of Justinian, 527-565 The history of the Roman Empire in the East, for more than one hundred years after the death of Theodosius the Great, is uneventful. His successors, though unable to prevent the Germans from seizing Italy and the of Theodo- other western provinces, managed to keep their ^^"^' ^^^~ own dominions intact. The eastern provinces escaped the fate of those in the West, because they were more populous and offered greater obstacles to the barbarian in- vaders, who followed the line of least resistance. The gradual 1 See pages 15-16 and 21. 34 Eastern Europe During the Early Middle Ages recovery of the empire in strength and warlike energy prepared the way for a really eminent ruler — Justinian. It was the ambition of Justinian to conquer the German kingdoms which had been formed out of the Mediterranean Conquests of provinces. In this task he relied chiefly on the Justinian military genius of Belisarius, one of the world's foremost commanders. Belisarius was able in one short cam- paign to destroy the Vandal kingdom in North Africa. The Vandals by this time had lost their early vigor; they made but a feeble resistance; and their Roman subjects welcomed Beli- sarius as a deliverer. Justinian awarded a triumph to his victorious general, an honor which for five centuries emperors alone had enjoyed. The conquest of North Africa, together with the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, was followed by the overthrow of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Sicily and Italy.^ Jus- tinian also recovered from the Visigoths the southeastern part of Spain. He could now say with truth that the Mediter- ranean was once more a Roman sea." The conquests of Justinian proved to be less enduring than his work as a lawgiver. Until his reign the sources of Roman Codification ^^^' including the legislation of the popular assem- of Roman blies, the decrees of the senate, the edicts of the praetors and emperors, and the decisions of learned lawyers, had never been completely collected and arranged in scientific form. Justinian appointed a commission of legal scholars to perform this task. The result of their labors, in which the emperor himself assisted, was the publication of the Corpus Juris Civilis, the "Body of Civil Law." Under this form the Roman principles of jurisprudence have become the foundation of the legal systems of modern Italy, Spain, France, Germany, and other European countries. These principles even influenced the Common law of England, which has been adopted by the United States.^ The Corpus Juris Civilis, 1 See page 6. 2 See the map, page 5. ^ Roman law still prevails in the province of Quebec and the state of Louisiana, territories formerly under French control, in all the Spanish-American countries, in the Philippines, and in {he Dutch East Indies. The Empire and Its Asiatic Foes 35 because of its widespread influence, is justly regarded as one of Rome's most valuable gifts to the world. Justinian's claim to the title of "Great" rests also on his civil- izing work. He wished to restore the prosperity, as well as the provinces, of the empire. During his reign civilizing roads, bridges, and aqueducts were repaired, and work of commerce and agriculture were encouraged. It J"^*^^*" was at this time that two Christian missionaries brought from China the eggs of the silkworm, and introduced the manu- facture of silk in Europe. As a builder Justinian gained special fame. The edifices which he caused to be raised throughout his dominions included massive fortifications on the exposed frontiers, splendid palaces, and many monasteries and churches. The most noteworthy monument to his piety is the church of Sancta Sophia ^ at Constantinople, long used as a Mohammedan mosque. By his conquests, his laws, and his buildings, Justin- ian revived for a time the waning glory of imperial Rome. 14. The Empire and Its Asiatic Foes The Roman Empire in the East did not long remain at the pinnacle of greatness to which Justinian had raised it. His conquests, indeed, weakened rather than strength- After ened the empire, since now there were much more J^stiman extensive frontiers to defend. Within half a century after his death it was attacked both in Europe and in Asia. The Lom- bards 2 soon seized Italy, and in the East the Persians renewed their contest against the Roman power. The Persians at first were able to overrun all the Asiatic provinces of the empire. A deliverer arose, however, in the person of the Roman emperor, Heraclius (610-641). . His brilliant campaigns partook of the nature of a "holy war," for the Persians had violated the Holy Sepulcher at Jerusalem and had stolen away the True Cross, the most sacred relic of Christendom. Heraclius recovered all his prov- inces, but only at the cost of a bloody struggle which drained them of men and money and helped to make them fall easy ^ In Greek, Uagia Sophia, "Holy Wisdom." 2 See pages 6-7. 36 Eastern Europe During the Early Middle Ages victims to foes still more terrible than the Persians. These were the Arabs. Heraclius had not closed his reign before he saw all his vic- tories undone by the advance of the Arabs. The first wave of invasion tore away Syria and Egypt from the empire, penetrated Asia Minor, and reached the shores of the Bosporus. Repulsed before the walls of Con- stantinople, the Arabs carried their arms to the West and seized Arabs I 1 Lands of the Eastern emperors I 1 before 960 A. D. I 1 The lands conquered betweea I 1 960 A.D. and 1045 A.D. 2 0° Longitude 25° East from 30° Greenwich 35 The Roman Empire in the East DURING THE TeNTH AND ELEVENTH CENTURIES North Africa, Spain, part of southern Italy, and the Mediter- ranean islands. Asia Minor and the Balkan peninsula still held out, however, and during the tenth century a hne of able rulers at Constantinople succeeded in winning back some of their lost provinces. During the eleventh century the empire had to face new enemies. These were the Seljuk Turks,^ fierce nomads from the steppes beyond the Caspian. After their conversion to Mohammedanism, they swept with irresistible force through the East and conquered nearly all 1 So named from one of their leaders. Seljuk Turks The Empire and Its Foes in Europe 37 Asia Minor. The ruin of this country, in earlier ages one of the most populous and flourishing regions of the world, dates from its occupation by the Seljuks. To resist their further advance the Roman emperor sought in 1095 the help of the Christians of Europe. His appeals for aid resulted in the First Crusade, with which a new chapter of medieval history began.^ Thus, for more than five centuries after Justinian, the Roman Empire in the East was engaged in a long struggle with the foes — Persians, Arabs, and Seljuk Turks — which -^0^^ of the successively attacked its dominions. By its stub- empire in born resistance to the advance of the invaders ^^^ the old empire protected the young states of Europe from attack, until they grew strong enough to meet and repulse the hordes of Asia. This work was not less important than that which had been performed by Greece and Rome in the contests with the Persians and the Carthaginians. 15. The Empire and Its Foes in Europe The troubled years after Justinian's death also witnessed the beginning of the Slavic ^ settlements in southeastern Europe. The Slavs belonged to the Indo-European race, but had not progressed in civilization as far as the Germans. Their cradle land seems to have been in western Russia, whence they slowly spread to the Baltic, the Elbe, and the Danube. We have already mentioned the campaigns which Charlemagne and Henry the Fowler waged against them.^ The emperors at Constantinople were less successful in resist- ing that branch of the Slavs which tried to occupy the Balkan peninsula. After crossing the Danube, the Slavs pressed on farther and farther, until they reached the southern extremity of ancient Greece. They avoided the cities, but formed peasant communities in the open country, where they readily mingled with the inhabitants. Their descendants have remained in the Balkan peninsula to this day. The inhabitants of modern ^ See chapter viii. 2 The word slova means "speech"; the Slavs are those who speak the same language. 3 See pages 13 and 19. 38 Eastern Europe During the Early Middle Ages Serbia are Slavs, and even in the Greeks there is a considerable strain of Slavic blood. The Bulgarians, a people akin to the Huns and Avars, made their appearance south of the lower Danube in the seventh ^ . . century. For more than three hundred years Bulganans . these barbarians, brutal, fierce, and cruel, were a menace to the empire. At one time they threatened Constan- tinople and even killed a Roman emperor, whose skull was converted into a drinking cup to grace their feasts. The Bul- garians settled in the region which now bears their name and gradually adopted the speech and customs of the Slavs. Modern Bulgaria is essentially a Slavic state. The empire was attacked in southeastern Europe by still other barbarians, among whom were the Russians. This . Slavic people, led by chieftains from Sweden, Russiflns descended the Dnieper and Dniester rivers and, crossing the Black Sea, appeared before the walls of Constan- tinople. Already, in the tenth century, that city formed the goal of Russian ambitions. The invaders are said to have made four attempts to plunder its treasures. Though unsuccessful, they compelled the emperors from time to time to pay them tribute. Christianity reached the invaders of the Balkan peninsula from Constantinople. The Serbians, Bulgarians, and Russians Work of the were converted in the ninth and tenth centuries, empire in With Christianity they received the use of letters ^^^^ and some knowledge of Roman law and methods of government. Constantinople was to them, henceforth, such a center of religion and culture as Rome was to the Germans. 16. Byzantine Civilization The Roman Empire in the East, though often menaced by barbarian foes, long continued to be the leading European power. Strength and ^^^ highest degree of prosperity was reached be- weaith of tween the middle of the ninth and the middle of empire ^-^^ eleventh century. The provinces in Asia Minor and the Balkan peninsula produced a large annual revenue, much of which went for defense. It was necessary to Byzantine Civilization 39 maintain a strong, well-disciplined army, great fleets and engines of war, and the extensive fortifications of Constantinople and the frontier cities. Confronted by so many dangers, the empire could hope to survive only by making itself a military state. The merchant ships of Constantinople, during the earlier part of the Middle Ages, carried on most of the commerce of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The products commerce of Byzantine industry were exchanged at that city and for the spices, drugs, and precious stones of the East. *" "^ ^ Byzantine wares also found their way into Italy and France and, by way of the Russian rivers, reached the heart of eastern Europe. Russia, in turn, furnished Constantinople with honey, wax, fur, wool, grain, and slaves. A traveler of the twelfth century well described the city as a metropoUs ''common to all the world, without distinction of country or religion." Many of the Roman emperors from Justinian onward were great builders. Byzantine architecture, seen especially in the churches, became a leading form of art. Its most character of striking feature is the dome, which replaces the Byzantine flat, wooden roof used in the basilican churches of Italy. The exterior of a Byzantine church is plain and unim- posing, but the interior is adorned on a magnificent scale. The eyes of the worshipers are dazzled by the walls faced with marble slabs of variegated colors, by the columns of polished marble, jasper, and porphyry, and by the brilliant mosaic pictures of gilded glass. The entire impression is one of richness and splendor. Byzantine artists, though mediocre painters and sculptors, excelled in all kinds of decorative work. Their carvings in wood, ivory, and metal, together with their em- broideries, enamels, and miniatures, enjoyed a high reputation throughout medieval Europe. Byzantine art, from the sixth century to the present time, has exerted a wide influence. Sicily, southern Italy, Rome, Ravenna, and Venice contain many examples of influence of Byzantine churches. Italian painting in the Mid- Byzantine die Ages seems to have been derived directly from *" the mosaic pictures of the artists of Constantinople. Russia 40 Eastern Europe During the Early Middle Ages received not only its religion but also its art from Constanti- nople. The great Russian churches of Moscow and Petrograd follow Byzantine models. Even the Arabs, in spite of their hostiUty to Christianity, borrowed Byzantine artists and profited by their services. The Mohammedan mosques of Damascus, Cairo, and Cordova, both in methods of construc- tion and in details of ornamentation, reproduce Byzantine styles. The libraries and museums of Constantinople preserved classical learning. In the flourishing schools of that city the o ,. , ^- wisest men of the day taught philosophy, law, Scholarship . . medicme, and science to thousands of pupils. It is true that Byzantine scholars were erudite rather than original. Impressed by the great treasures of knowledge about them, they found it difhcult to strike out into new, unbeaten paths. Most students were content to make huge collections of extracts and notes from the books which antiquity had bequeathed to them. Even this task was useful, however, for their encyclopedias preserved much information which otherwise would have been lost. During the Middle Ages the East cherished the productions of classical learning, until the time came when the West was ready to receive them and to profit by them. 17. Constantinople The heart of Byzantine civilization was Constantinople. The city lies on a peninsula between the Sea of Marmora and Position of ^^^ spacious harbor called the Golden Horn. Constanti- Washed on three sides by the water and, like ^°^ ^ Rome, enthroned upon seven hills, Constantinople occupies a magnificent site, well-fitted for an imperial capital. It stands in Europe, looks on Asia, and commands the entrance to both the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. As an old writer once pointed out, Constantinople ''is a city which Nature herself has designed to be the mistress of the world." The position of Constantinople made it difl&cult to attack Constantinople 41 but easy to defend. To surround the city an enemy would have to be strong upon both land and sea. A constanti- hostile army, advancing through Asia Minor, nopie a found its further advance arrested by the long, ""^^^ "^^'^^^ winding channel which the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles combine to form. A hostile fleet, coming by way of the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, faced grave Vicinity of Constantinople difficulties in attempting to penetrate the narrow strait into which this waterway contracts at each extremity. On the landward side the Hne of defense was so short — about four miles in width — that it could be strongly fortified and held by a small force against large numbers. During the Middle Ages the rear of the city was protected by two huge walls, the remains of which are still visible. Constantinople, in fact, was all but impregnable. Though each new century brought a fresh horde of enemies, it resisted siege after siege and long continued to be the capital of what was left of the Roman Empire.^ 1 Of the eight sieges to which Constantinople was subjected in medieval times, only two succeeded. In 1204 it was captured by the Venetians and in 1453, by the Ottoman Turks. 42 Eastern Europe During the Early Middle Ages Constantine had laid out his new capital on an imposing scale and adorned it with the choicest treasures of art from Greece, Monuments Italy, and the Orient. Fourteen churches, four- of Con- teen palaces, eight pubhc baths, and several s an nop e triumphal arches are assigned to the founder of the city. His most stately building was the Hippodrome, an immense structure devoted to chariot races and all sorts of popular gatherings. There new emper- ors, after their con- secration in Sancta Sophia, were greeted by their subjects; there civic festivals were held; and there the last Roman triumphs were cel- ebrated. Theodo- sius the Great built the principal gate of Constantinople, the ''Golden Gate," as it was called, by which the emperors made their solemn entry into the city. But it was Justinian who, after Constan- tine, did most to adorn the new cap- ital by the Bos- porus. He is said to have erected more than twenty-five churches in Constanti- nople and its suburbs. Of these, the most beautiful is the world-famed cathedral dedicated by Justinian to "Holy Wisdom." On its completion the Emperor declared that he had surpassed Solomon's Temple. Though nearly fourteen The Three Existing Monuments of the Hippodrome, Constantinople These three monuments preserve for us the exact line of the low wall, or spina, which divided the race course and around which the charioteers drove their furious steeds. The obelisk was transported from Egypt by Constantine. Be- tween it and the crumbling tower beyond is a pillar of three brazen serpents, originally set up at Delphi by the Greeks, after the battle of Plataea. On this trophy were engraved the names of the various states that sent soldiers to fight the Persians. Exterior Interior SANCTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE Built by Justinian and dedicated on Christmas Day, 538 a.d. The main building is roofed over by a great central dome, 107 feet in diameter and 179 feet in height. After the Ottoman Turks turned the church into a mosque, a minaret was erected at each of the four exterior angles. The outside of Sancta Sophia is somewhat disappointing, but the interior, with its walls and columns of polished marble, granite, and porphyry, is magnificent. The crystal balustrades, pulpits, and large metal disks are Turkish. Constantinople 43 hands, it Christian hundred years old and now defaced by vandal remains perhaps the supreme achievement of architecture. Excepting Athens and Rome, no other European city can lay claim to so long and so important a history as Constantinople. Her day came after theirs was done. Throughout the Middle Ages Constantinople remained the JgSficance most important place in Europe. When London, Paris, and Vienna were small and mean towns, Constantinople was a large and flourishing metropolis. of Con- stantinople The re- Wall of old( Greek) Byzantium(?) Wall of ConstanUHc(JSO) ~ Double Wall of T/ieodosius IlUOS-iSO) ■i-i wall of Heraclius(626-6il) Wall of mediaeval Galata Wall of the New Ser aglio Cosrnidion (Eyiub) Palace ofxBlachenjae \ Palace vof the\ \ Hebdorrion ^ (Tekfour SerclTKerko ^, Gate ofj^Purta?'ii Charisiuay Phanariot \r Quarter /-tfhurch of the A Gate o/{5r(MV,sque of MohanimeJ fl^^'^-^JJ (Can,rfi GatcK.^ ■^^^Sheik-ul-fPtnrrj-^ ,>.> StTTAUI -. .-n"'" M»» i o«;eVv(CHRYSOPOLIS) M<,sriueg?Ta of Leand\ »--, vie vof Suleiman. . ^^^ „ Old'^V ''Sublinie Eortey^^'w Seraglio 'Seraglio * 3 ^ / KCAcropolis of Greek irn^f Constantir?e >ia^ Byzantium n^~*-9J^P"^™'" ''^ ^Bucoleon Palace •"•^ vA-ttnoidan) /Injperial ^'"'"""--^Palace SEA OF MARMORA GoT^n Castle of the Seven Towers CP^y(YediKouleb) ^^^^^^^^ ^"^ CONSTANTINOPLE ^^^^^<^^^o^^ Scale 1:125000 1 1/^ Mile? nown of the city penetrated even into barbarian lands. The Scandinavians called it Micklegarth, the ''Great City"; the Russians knew of it as Tsarigrad, the "City of the Cssars." But its own people best described it as the ''City guarded by God." Here, for more than eleven centuries, was the capital of the Roman Empire and the center of eastern Christendom. 44 Eastern Europe During the Early Middle Ages Studies I. Compare the respective areas in 800 of the Roman Empire in the East and Charlemagne's empire. 2. On the map, page 41, locate Adrianople, GalUpoli, Nicaea, the Bosporus, Sea of Marmora, and Dardanelles. 3. Explain the terms "Greek Empire," "Byzantine Empire," and "Roman Empire in the East." 4. In your opinion which of the two rival imperial lines after 800 had the better title to represent ancient Rome? 5. Why has Justinian been called the "lawgiver of civilization"? 6. Why was it necessary to codify Roman law? Is the English Common law codified? 7. What were the principal sources of the Corpus Juris Civilis? 8. "The Byzantines were the teachers of the Slavs, as the Romans were of the Germans." Comment on this statement. 9. In what parts of Europe is the influence of Byzantine art most clearly traceable? 10. The Byzantine Empire was once called "a gigantic mass of mold, a thousand years old." Does this seem a fair description? 11. "The history of medieval civilization is, in large measure, the history of the Roman Empire in the East." Comment on this statement. 12. Show that Constantinople formed "a natural citadel." 13. Describe the prin- cipal architectural features of Sancta Sophia (plate facing page 42). 14. On the map, page 43, trace the successive walls of Constantinople. CHAPTER III CHRISTIANITY IN THE EAST AND IN THE WEST TO 10541 18. Development of Christianity Christianity, at the time of its victory over paganism, had become a great and powerful organization, with fixed laws, with a graded system of officers, and with councils ^ , ,. . ,11 , r n r , ^ CathoUclsm attended by clergy irom all parts of the Roman world. To this organization the word Catholic, that is, "uni- versal," came to be applied. Membership in the Catholic Church, secured only by baptism, was essential to salvation. As St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, had said, ''He can no longer have God for his Father who has not the Church for his Mother." The first three centuries of Christianity witnessed the devel- opment of the episcopal system in the Church. Each pro- vincial city had its bishop, assisted by priests The and deacons. An archbishop (sometimes called a episcopate metropolitan) presided over the bishops of each province, and a patriarch had jurisdiction, in turn, over metropohtans. This graded arrangement of ecclesiastical officers, from the lowest to the highest, helped to make the Church centralized and strong. It appears to have been modeled, almost unconsciously, on the government of the Roman Empire.^ The development of the patriarchate calls for special notice. 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter iii, "The Benedic- tine Rule"; chapter iv, "The Reestablishment of Christianity in Britain"; chapter V, "St. Boniface, Apostle to the Germans." ^ The correspondence may be indicated as follows: The Roman Empire The Christian Church City — Municipal officials. Bishop. Province — Governor. Archbishop, or Metropolitan. Diocese — Vicar. Patriarch. Prefecture — Prefect. (No corresponding division.) 45 46 Christianity in the East and in the West At the time of the Council of Nicaea there were three patri- Xhe archs, namely, the bishops of Rome, Antioch, and patriarchs Alexandria. These cities ranked among the most important in the Roman Empire. It was only natural, there- fore, that the churches established in them should be singled out for preeminence. Some years after the removal of the capital to Constantinople, the bishop of that imperial city was recog- nized as a patriarch at a general council of the Church. In the fifth century the bishop of Jerusalem received the same dignity. Henceforth there were five patriarchs — four in the East but only one in the West.^ The Church formed a very democratic organization. Patri- archs, archbishops, bishops, priests, and deacons were drawn Clergy and from all ranks of life. No special training at first laity was considered necessary to fit them for their duties, though the more celebrated ministers wefe often highly educated. To eke out their salaries the clergy sometimes carried on business as farmers and shopkeepers. Where, how- ever, a church had sufficient funds to support its bishop, his engagement in secular affairs was discouraged and finally pro- hibited. In the fourth century, as earlier, priests and bishops were generally married men. The sentiment in favor of celibacy for the clergy became very pronounced during the early Middle Ages, especially in the West, and led at length to the general abandonment of priestly marriage in those parts of Europe where papal influence prevailed. Distinctive garments for clergymen did not begin to come into use until the fifth century, when some of them began to don clothing of a more sober hue than was fashionable at the time. Clerical vestments were developed from two pieces of ancient Roman dress — the tunic and the toga. Thus the clergy were gradually separated from the people, or laity, by differences in costume, by their celibate lives, and by their abstention from worldly occupations. While the Church was perfecting her organization, she was also elaborating her doctrines. Theologians engaged in many ^ For the boundaries of the patriarchates in 622 see the map between pages 52-63. Development of Christianity 47 controversies upon such subjects as the connection of Christ with God and the nature of the Trinity. In order „ 1 • , . . . ^ ^, . . Heresies to obtain an authoritative expression of Christian opinion, councils of the higher clergy were held, at which the opposing views were debated and a decision was reached. The Council of Nicaea, which condemned Arianism,^ formed the first, and one of the most important, of these general gatherings of the Church. After the Church had once expressed itself on any matter of Christian belief, it was regarded as unlawful to maintain a contrary opinion. Those who did so were frequently persecuted for heresy. As soon as Christianity had triumphed in the Roman Empire, thus becoming the religion of the rich and powerful as well as the religion of „, , . ° Worship the poor and lowly, more attention was devoted to the conduct of worship. Magnificent church buildings were often erected. Their architects seem to have followed as models the basilicas, or public halls, which formed so familiar a sight in Roman cities. Church interiors were adorned with paint- ings, mosaic pictures, images of saints and martyrs, and the figure of the cross. Lighted candles on the altars and the burning of fragrant incense lent an additional impressiveness to worship. ^ Some theologians, headed by Arius, a priest of Alexandria, maintained that Christ the Son, having been created by God the Father, was necessarily inferior to him. Athanasius, another Alexandrian priest, opposed this view and held that Christ was not a created being, but was in all ways equal to God. The Council accepted the arguments of Athanasius, condemned Arius as a heretic, and framed the Nicene Creed. Though thrust out of the Church, Arianism continued to flourish among the Teutonic tribes, of which the majority were converted to Chris- tianity by Arian missionaries. Religious Music From a window of the cathedral of Bourges, a city in central France. Shows a pipe organ and chimes. 48 Christianity in the East and in the West Beautiful prayers and hymns were composed. Some of the early Christian hymns, such as the Gloria in Excelsis and the Te Deum Laudamus, are still sung in our churches. Organs did not come into use until the seventh century, and then only in the West, but church bells, summoning the worshiper to divine service, early became attached to Christian edifices. The Christians from the start appear to have observed "the first day of the week"^ in memory of Christ's resurrection. They attended pubHc worship on the Lord's Day, but otherwise did not rigidly abstain from worldly business and amusements. During the fourth century Sunday, as the Lord's Day was now generally called, came more and more to be kept as a day of obligatory rest. Constantine's Sunday law formed the first of a long series of imperial edicts imposing the observance of that day as a legal duty. In this manner Sunday, like the Jewish Sabbath on the seventh day of the week, was dedicated wholly to the exercises of religion. The great yearly festivals of the Church gradually took shape during the early Christian centuries. The most important anniversary to be observed was Easter. A period of fasting (Lent), which finally lasted forty days, preceded the festival. Whitsunday, or Pentecost, was cele- brated on the fiftieth day after Easter.^ Two other festivals of later adoption were Christmas, the celebration of which was finally assigned to the 25th of December, and Epiphany (Jan- uary 6), commemorating the baptism of Christ. Many other feasts and fasts, together with numerous saints' days, were afterwards added to the calendar of the "Christian Year." 19. Eastern Christianity By the time of Constantine, Christianity had spread widely throughout the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Asia Minor Expansion of ^^^ ^^^^ largely Christian. Thrace, Macedonia, Christianity Epirus, and Greece were all ecclesiastical prov- "^ ^ ^^ inces with their own metropolitans. Many Christians were found in Syria and Eg3^t. Churches also ex- ^ John, XX, I, 19; compare i Corinthians, xvi, 2. ^ See Acts, ii, 1-4. Eastern Christianity 49 isted in Mesopotamia and Arabia, and even beyond the bound- aries of the empire in Armenia and Persia. Between the time of Constantine and that of Jus- tinian, Christianity continued to expand in the East, until the gospel had been carried to such distant regions as Abyssinia and India. Most of the Christian communi- ties in the Orient owed allegiance to the patriarchs of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, union of and Alexandria. The Church and Tj 1, State Roman emperor, how- ever, was the supreme religious authority in the East. He felt it as much his duty to maintain the doctrines and organization of Chris- tianity as to preserve the imperial dominions against foreign foes. Since he presided over the Church, there could be no real independ- ence for its officers. Bishops, met- ropolitans, and patriarchs were in every respect subordinate to his will. This union of Church and State formed one of the most characteristic features of Christianity in the East. Eastern Christians, far more than those in the West, devoted themselves to theolog- Theological ical speculations. Con stantinople and the great Hellen- istic cities of Antioch and Alexandria contained many learned scholars who had prolonged and heated arguments over subtle questions of belief. After the Arian controversy had been settled in the fourth century, other disputes concerning the The Nestorian Monument Evidence of Nestorian missions in China is afforded by the famous monument at Chang'an, province of Shensi. The stone, which was set up in 781, commemorates by an in- scription in Chinese characters and the figure of a cross the introduction of Christianity into northwestern China. A replica of the Nestorian monument was taken to the United States in 1908 speculations and was deposited in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. 50 Christianity in the East and in the West true nature of Christ broke out. These gave rise to many heresies. The heresy known as Nestorianism, from Nestorius, a patri- arch of Constantinople, spread widely in the East. Nestorian missionaries even penetrated to India, China, and Mongolia. The churches which they established were numerous and influential during the Middle Ages, but since then most of them have been destroyed by the Moham- medans. Members of this sect are still to be found, however, in eastern lands. After the formation of the Nestorian and other heretical sects, the orthodox faith was preserved in the East only by the Greeks of Asia Minor and Europe. The Greek Church, which calls itself the ''Holy Orthodox Church," for a time remained in unity with the Roman Church in the West. Their final separation occurred in the eleventh century.^ 20. Western Christianity: Rise of the Papacy Christianity in the West presented two sharp contrasts to eastern Christianity. In the first place, the great heresies which divided the East scarcely affected the West. The Pfl.D£LCV In the second place, no union of Church and State existed among western Christians. Instead of acknowledging the religious supremacy of the emperor at Constantinople, they yielded obedience to the bishop of Rome, the head of the Roman Church. He is known to us as the pope, and his office is called the Papacy. A church in Rome must have been established at an early date, for it was to Roman Christians that St. Paul addressed Rome an ^^^ ^^ ^^^ Epistles now preserved in the New apostolic Testament. St. Paul visited Rome, as we know churc from the Acts of the Apostles, and there he is said to have suffered martyrdom. Christian tradition, very ancient and very generally received, declares that St. Peter also labored in Rome, where he met a martyr's death, perhaps during the 1 See pages 64-65. Western Christianity: Rise of the Papacy 51 reign of the emperor Nero. To the early Christians, therefore, the Roman Church was especially sacred, for it had been founded by the two greatest apostles and had been nourished by their blood. Another circumstance helped to give the Roman Church a superior position in the West. It was a vigorous missionary church. Rome, the largest Rome ^ and most flourishing city " mother- in the empire and the seat of the imperial government, naturally became the center from which Christianity spread over the western provinces. Many of the first Christian communities planted in Spain, Gaul, and Africa owed their start to the missionary zeal of the popes. The independence of the Roman Church also furthered its develop- ment. The bishop of The -r, j^i 1 Roman Rome was the sole pa- Church in- triarch in the West, while dependent in the East there were two, and later four patriarchs, each exercising au- thority in religious matters. Fur- thermore, the removal of the capital from Rome to Constantinople helped to free the Roman bishop from the close oversight of the imperial government. He was able, henceforth, to promote the interests of the church under his control without much interference on the part of the eastern emperor. Finally, it must be noted how much the development of the Roman Church was aided by its attitude on disputed questions of behef. While eastern Christendom was torii -j-j^^ Roman by theological controversies, the Church of Rome Church stood firmly by the Nicene Creed. After the °^^°^°^ Arian, Nestorian, and other heresies were finally condemned, Papal Arms According to the well-known pas- sage in Matthew (xvi, 19), Christ gave to St. Peter the " keys of the kingdom of heaven," with the power " to bind and to loose." These keys are always represented in the papal arms, together with the tiara or head- dress, worn by the popes on certain occasions. 52 Christianity in the East and in the West orthodox Christians felt indebted to the Roman Church for its unwavering championship of "the faith once deUvered to the saints." They were all the more ready, therefore, to defer to that church in matters of doctrine and to accept without question its spiritual authority. The claim of the Roman bishops to supremacy over the Christian world had a double basis. Certain passages in the The Petrine New Testament, where St. Peter is represented as supremacy t^g j-Q^k on which the Church is built, the pastor of the sheep and lambs of the Lord, and the doorkeeper of the kingdom of heaven, appear to indicate that he was regarded by Christ as the chief of the Apostles. Furthermore, a well-established tradition made St. Peter the founder of the Roman Church and its first bishop. It was then argued that he passed to his successors, the popes, all his rights and dignity. As St. Peter was the first among the Apostles, so the popes were to be the first among bishops. Such was the doctrine of the Petrine supremacy, expressed as far back as the second century, strongly asserted by many popes during the Middle Ages, and maintained to-day by the Roman Church. 21. Growth of the Papacy Up to the middle of the fifth century about forty-five bishops had occupied St. Peter's chair at Rome. The most eminent Pontificate °^ these was Leo the Great. When he became of Leo I, bishop, the Germans were overrunning the western provinces of the empire. The invaders professed the Arian faith, as we have seen, and often prosecuted the orthodox Christians among whom they settled. At Such a time, when the imperial power was growing weaker, faithful Catholics in the West naturally turned for support to the bishop of Rome. Leo became their champion against the barbarians. Tradition declares that he succeeded in diverting Attila from an attack on Rome, and when the Vandals sacked the city Leo also intervened to prevent its destruction. After Leo, no important name occurs in the list of popes Growth of the Papacy 53 until we come to Gregory the Great. Gregory, as the son of a rich and distinguished Roman senator, enjoyed pontificate f a good education in all the learning of the time. Gregory i. He entered public life and at an early age became ^''"^^ prefect of Rome. But now, almost at the outset of his career, Gregory laid aside earthly ambition. He gave up his honorable position and spent the fortune, inherited from his father, in the foundation of monasteries and the relief of the poor. He himself became a monk, turned his palace at Rome into a mon- astery, and almost ruined his health by too great devotion to fasts and midnight vigils. Gregory's conspicuous talents, how- ever, soon called him from retirement and led to his election as pope. The work of Gregory lay principally in two directions. As a statesman he did much to make the popes virtual sovereigns at Rome and in Italy. At this time the Italian Temporal peninsula, overrun by the Lombards and neglected power of by the eastern emperor, was in a deplorable con- ^^^^^y dition. The bishop of Rome seemed to be the only man who could protect the people and maintain order. Gregory had conspicuous success in this task. He appointed governors of cities, issued orders to generals, drilled the Romans for military defense, and sent ambassadors to treat with the king of the Lombards. It was largely owing to Gregory's efforts that these barbarians were prevented from conquering central Italy. Gregory was no less eminent as a churchman. His writings and his personal influence greatly furthered the advancement of the Roman Church in the West. We find him Gregory's sternly repressing heresies wherever they arose, spiritual aiding the conversion of Arian Visigoths in Spain *^ °" ^ and Arian Lombards in Italy, and sending out monks as mis- sionaries to distant Britain.^ He well deserved by these labors the title ''Servant of the servants of God," ^ which he assumed, and which the popes after him have retained. The admira- tion felt for his character and abilities raised him, in later ages, to the rank of a saint. ^ See page 26. 2 Servus servorum Dei. 54 Christianity in the East and in the West When Gregory the Great closed his remarkable career, the Papacy had reached a commanding place in western Christen- Position of dom. To their spiritual authority the popes had the Papacy j^q^ begun to add some measure of temporal power as rulers at Rome and in Italy. During the eighth century, as we have already learned,^ the alliance of the popes and the Franks helped further to establish the Papacy as an ecclesiastical monarchy, ruling over both the souls and bodies of men. 22. Monasticism The Papacy during the Middle Ages found its strongest supporters among the monks. By the time of Gregory the Great ^j^g monasticism ^ was well established in Christianity, monastic Its origin must be sought in the need, often felt ^^^^ by spiritually minded men, of withdrawing from the world — from its temptations and its transitory pleasures — to a Hfe of solitude, prayer, arid religious contemplation. Joined to this feeling has been the conviction that the soul may be purified by subduing the desires and passions of* the body. Men, influenced by the monastic spirit, sought a closer approach to God. * The monastic spirit in Christianity owed much to the example of its founder, who was himself unmarried, poor, and without a Early place "where to lay his head." Some of Christ's Christian teachings, taken literally, also helped to exalt the monasticism ^^^^^i of the monastic life. At a very early period there were Christian men and women who abstained from marriage and gave themselves up to devotional exercises and works of charity. This they did in their homes, without aban- doning their famihes and human society. Another monastic movement began about the middle of the third century, when many Christians in Egypt withdrew into the desert to live as hermits. St. Anthony, who The hermits , , „ , , ^ ^i • . i • ^ has been called the first Christian hermit, passed twenty years in a deserted fort on the east bank of the Nile. ^ See page I'l. ^ From a Greek word which means "living alone." Monasticism 55 During all this time he never saw a human face. Some of the hermits, beheving that pain and suffering had a spiritual value, went to extremes of self-mortification. They dwelt in wells, tombs, and on the summits of pillars, deprived themselves of necessary food and sleep, wore no clothing, and neglected to bathe or to care for the body in any way. Other hermits, who did not practice such austerities, spent all day or all night in St. Daniel the Stylite on his Column From a Byzantine miniature in the Vatican. prayer. The examples of these recluses found many imitators in Syria and other eastern lands. ^ A life shut off from all contact with one's fellows is difficult and beyond the strength of ordinary men. The mere human need for social intercourse gradually brought the Rule of hermits together, at first in small groups and then ^*' ^*^*^ in larger communities, or monasteries. The next step was to give the scattered monasteries a common organization and government. Those in the East gradually adopted the regu- lations which St. Basil, a leading churchman of the fourth See Tennyson's poem, .9/. Simeon Styliles. 56 Christianity in the East and in the West St Benedict century, drew up for the guidance of the monks under his direc- tion. St. Basil's Rule, as it is called, still remains the basis of monasticism in the Greek Church. The monastic system, which early gained an entrance into western Christendom, looked to St. Benedict as its organizer. While yet a young man, St. Benedict had sought to escape from the vice about him by retiring to a cave in the Sabine hills near Rome. Here he lived for three years as a hermit, shutting himself off from all human inter- course, wearing a hair shirt, and rolling in beds of thistles to subdue "the flesh." St. Bene- dict's experience of the hermit's life convinced I dm that there was a surer and better road to religious peace of mind. His fame as a holy man had attracted to him many disciples, and these he now began to group in monastic communities under his own supervision. St. Benedict's most important monastery was at Monte Cassino, midway between Rome and Naples. It became the capital of monasticism in the West. To control the monks of Monte Cassino St. Benedict framed a Rule, or constitution, which was modeled in some respects Rule of St. upon the earher Rule of St. Basil. The monks Benedict, formed a sort of corporation, presided over by an abbot,^ who held office for life. Every candidate for admission took the vow of obedience to the abbot. Any man, rich or poor, noble or peasant, might enter the mon- 1 From a Syrian word, abba, meaning "father." Hence a monastery was often called an abbey. An Abbot's Seal The seal of Abbot Samson, head of the monastery of St. Edmundsbury, England, 1 182-12 12. Monasticism 57 ♦ ••^i^ I astery, after a year's probation; having once joined, however, he must remain a monk for the rest of his days. The monks were to hve under strict discipHne. They could not own any property; they could not go beyond the monastery walls with- out the abbot's con- sent; they could not even receive letters from home; and they were sent to bed early. A violation of the regulations brought punishment in the shape of pri- vate admonition, ex- clusion from com- mon prayer, and, I in extreme cases, expulsion. The Rule of St. Benedict came to . > * 1,1 . , Plan of Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire have the same wide influence in the West which that of St. Basil exerted in the East. Gregory the Great established it in many places spread of in Italy, Sicily, and England. During Charle- magne's reign it was made the only form of monas- ticism throughout his dominions. By the tenth century the Rule prevailed everywhere in western Europe.^ the Bene- dictine Rule 23. Life and Work of the Monks St. Benedict sought to draw a sharp line between the monastic life and that of the outside world. Hence he required that, as far as possible, each monastery should form a monastic an independent, self-supporting community. In community course of time, as a monastery increased in wealth and number 1 Other monastic orders arose during the later Middle Ages (see pages 145-146), but the Benedictines still exist, chiefly in Austria and Italy. Their order was introduced into the United States during the nineteenth century. 58 Christianity in the East and in the West of inmates, it might come to form a large establishment, covering many acres and presenting within its massive walls the appearance of a fortified town. The principal buildings of a Benedictine monastery of the Abbey of Saint-Germain des Pres, Paris This celebrated monastery was founded in the sixth century. Of the orig- inal buildings only the abbey church remains. The illustration shows the mon- astery as it was in 1361, with walls, towers, drawbridge, and moat. Adjoining the church were the cloister, the refectory, and the dormitory. larger sort were grouped around an inner court, called a cloister. The monas- These included a church, a refectory, or dining room, with the kitchen and buttery near it, a dormitory, where the monks slept, and a chapter house, where they transacted business. There was also a Hbrary, a school, a hospital, and a guest house for the reception of strangers, besides barns, bakeries, laundries, workshops, and storerooms for provisions. Beyond these buildings lay tery build- ings Life and Works of the Monks 59 vegetable gardens, orchards, grain fields, and often a mill, if the monastery was built on a stream. A high wall and ditch gave the monks the necessary seclusion and in time of danger protected them from attack. St. Benedict defined a monastery as "a school for the service of the Lord." The monks under his Rule occupied themselves with a regular round of worship, reading, and Monastic manual labor. Each day was divided into seven occupations sacred offices, beginning and ending with services in the mon- astery church. The first service came usually about two o'clock in the morning; the last, just as evening set in, before the monks retired to rest. In addition to their attendance at church, the monks spent several hours in reading from the Bible, private prayer, and meditation. For most of the day, however, they worked harci with their hands, doing the neces- sary washing and cooking for the monastery, raising the neces- sary suppUes of vegetables and grain, and performing all the other tasks required to maintain a large establishment. This emphasis on labor, as a religious duty, was a characteristic feature of western monasticism. ''To labor is to pray," be- came a favorite motto of the Benedictines.^ It is clear that life in a Benedictine monastery appealed to many different kinds of people in the Middle Ages. Those of a spiritual turn of mind found in the career of a Attractive- monk the opportunity of giving themselves wholly ness of the to God. Studious and thoughtful persons natu- °^°^*^^*^ ® rally turned to the monastery as a secure retreat. The friendless and the disgraced often took refuge within its walls. Many a troubled soul, to whom the trials of this world seemed unen- durable, sought to escape from them by seeking the peaceful shelter of the cloister. The civilizing influence of the Benedictine monks during the early Middle Ages can scarcely be over-emphasized. A monas- tery was often at once a model farm, an inn, a The monks hospital, a school, and a library. By the careful *^ civiUzers cultivation of their lands the monks set an example of good 1 Laborare est orare. 6o Christianity in the East and in the West farming wherever they settled. They entertained pilgrims and travelers, at a period when western Europe was almost destitute of inns. They performed many works of charity, feeding the hungry, healing the sick who were brought to their doors, and distributing their medi- cines freely to those who needed them. In their schools they trained both boys who wished to become priests and those who intended to lead active lives in the world. The monks, too, were the only scholars of the age. By copying the manuscripts of clas- sical authors, they pre- served valuable books that would otherwise have been lost. By keep- ing records of the most striking events of their time, they acted as chroniclers of medieval history. To all these services must be added the work of the monks as mis- sionaries among the heathen. 24. Spread of Christianity over Europe Almost all Europe had been won to Christianity by the end of the eleventh century. In the direction of this great mis- _ „ sionary campaiorn the Roman Church took the The Roman , ,. S.i ^ r i Church and leadmg part. The officers of her armies were the bar- zealous popes, bishops, and abbots; her private barians , ,. r- r- ? „ , , . , «, soldiers were equally zealous monks, priests, and laymen. Pagan Rome had never succeeded in making a com- plete and permanent conquest of the barbarians. Christian Rome, however, was able to bring them under her spiritual sway. A Monk Copyist From a manuscript in the British Museum, London, Spread of Christianity over Europe 6i Christianity first reached the Teutonic invaders in its Arian ^ form. Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians, and Lom- bards were all Arians. The Roman Church Reconversion regarded them as heretics and labored with success of the Teu- to reconvert them. This work was at last com- *°"'*^ peoples pleted when the Lombards, in the seventh century, accepted the Catholic faith. The Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, whose kingdoms were to develop into the chief states of medieval Europe, adopted from the outset the Cathohc form of Christianity. Franks and The conversion of the Franks provided the Roman Anglo-Saxons /-.I 1 • 1 • 1 r ' ■, r ■, converted to Church with its strongest and most faithful Roman adherents among the Germans.^ The conversion Catholicism of Anglo-Saxon Britain by Augustine and his monks, followed later by the spread of Roman Catholicism in Ireland and Scotland, firmly united the British Isles to the Papacy.^ Thus Rome during the Middle Ages came to be the one center of church life for the peoples of western Europe. An Anglo-Saxon monk, St. Boniface, did more than any other missionary to bring Christianity to the remote tribes of Germany. Like Augustine in England, St. T) -r . u .1. 1 / 1 . St. Boniface Bomiace was sent by the pope, who created him and the con- a missionary bishop and ordered him to ''carry version of the word of God to unbelievers." St. Boniface also enjoyed the support of the Frankish rulers, Charles Martel and Pepin the Short. Thanks to their assistance this intrepid monk was able to penetrate into the heart of Germany. Here he labored for nearly forty years, preaching, baptizing, and founding numerous churches, monasteries, and schools. His boldness in attacking heathenism is illustrated by the story of how he cut down with his own hands a certain oak tree, much reverenced by the natives of Hesse as sacred to the god Woden, and out of its wood built a chapel dedicated to St. Peter. St. Boniface crowned a lifetime of missionary labor with a martyr's death, probably in 754. His work was continued by Charle- magne, who forced the Saxons to accept Christianity at the ^ See page 47, note i. ^ See page 9. ' See pages 25-29. 62 Christianity in the East and in the West point of the sword.^ All Germany at length became a Christian land, devoted to the Papacy. Roman Catholicism not only spread to Celtic and Teutonic peoples, but it also gained a foothold among the Slavs. Both Conversion Henry the Fowler and Otto the Great attempted of the Slavs j-q Christianize the Slavic tribes between the Elbe and the Vistula, by locating bishoprics in their territory. The work of conversion encountered many setbacks and did not reach completion until the middle of the twelfth century. The most eminent missionaries to the Slavs were Cyril and Methodius. These brother-monks were sent from Constan- tinople in 863 to convert the Moravians, who formed a king- dom on the eastern boundary of Germany. Seeing their great success as missionaries, the pope invited them to Rome and secured their consent to an arrangement which brought the Moravian Christians under the control of the Papacy.^ From Moravia Christianity penetrated into Bohemia and Poland. These countries still remain strongholds of the Roman Church. The Serbians and Russians, as we have learned,^ received Christianity by way of Constantinople and so became adherents of the Greek Church. Roman Catholicism gradually spread to most of the remaining peoples of Europe. The conversion of the Norwegians and Swedes was well advanced by the middle of the Final exten- , , rT^^ ^ r tt • sion of eleventh century. The Magyars, or Hungarians, Roman accepted Christianity at about the same date. The king of Hungary was such a devout CathoUc that the pope sent to him a golden crown and saluted him as "His Apostolic Majesty." The last parts of heathen Europe to hear the message of the gospel were the districts south and east of the Baltic, occupied by the Prussians, Lithuanians, and Finns. Their conversion took place between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. ^ See pages 12-13. 2 Cyril and Methodius were canonized by Pope Leo XIII in 188 1. A millennial celebration of the two apostles was held in f'^6s by the inhabitants oi Moravia and Bohemia. 3 See page 38. The Bulgarians also received Christianity from Constantinople. GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY I I Extent of Christianity about 400 A. D. I I Mohammedanism is shown by white bands I Division between the Greek and Roman Churches T= H Area Christianized 400-800 A. D. D Area Christianized 800-1100 A, D. J Area Christianized 1100-1300 A, D. Boundaries (in 622 A.D.)of the patriarchates of Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria Longritui Separation of Eastern and Western Christianity 63 25. Separation of Eastern and Western Christianity Before the Christian conquest of Europe was finished, Chris- tianity had divided into two great communions — the Greek Church and the Roman Church. Their separa- j^j^^^. ^^ tion was a long, slow process, arising from the of East and deep-seated differences between East and West. ^®^* Though Rome had carried her victorious arms throughout the Mediterranean basin, all the region east of the Adriatic was imperfectly Romanized. It remained Greek in language and culture and tended, as time went on, to grow more and more unlike the West, which was truly Roman. The founding of Constantinople and the transference of the capital from the banks of the Tiber to the shores of the Bosporus still further widened the breach between the two halves of the Roman world. After the Germans established their kingdoms in Italy, Spain, Gaul, and Britain, western Europe was practically independent of the rulers at Constantinople. The coronation of Charlemagne in 800 marked the final severance of East and West. The division of the Roman Empire led naturally to a grouping of Christian churches about Rome and Constantinople, the two chief centers of government. The popes, it has been seen, had always enjoyed spiritual leader- and the ship in the West. In temporal matters they ac- eastern knowledged the authority of the eastern emperors, until the failure of the latter to protect Rome and Italy from the barbarians showed clearly that the popes must rely on their own efforts to defend Christian civilization. We have already learned how well such men as Leo the Great and Gregory the Great performed this task. Then in the eighth century came the alliance with the Prankish king, Pepin the Short, which gave the Papacy a powerful and generous protector beyond the Alps. Finally, by crowning Charlemagne, the pope definitely broke with the emperor at Constantinople and transferred his allegiance to the newly created western emperor. The patriarch of Constantinople, as bishop of the capital 64 Christianity in the East and in the West city, naturally occupied a prominent position in eastern Chris- tendom. Before long he assumed the high- Rise of the r ..XT • 1 * 1 , • 1 ,, . patriarchate soundmg title of Universal Archbishop. His of Con- authority was immensely strengthened when the Mohammedans, having conquered Syria and Egypt, practically extinguished the three patriarchates of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria.^ The Church in the East now had a single patriarch, just as that in the West had the one bishop of Rome. Rivalry between them was inevitable. One source of strife between pope and patriarch was the controversy, arising in the eighth century, over the use of images in the churches. These images seem to Rivalry , ^ , i • /. x r between have been, not statues, but pictures (icons) of pope and ^j^g apostles, saints, and martyrs. Many eastern patriarch ^, . . , • i , , /• Christians sought to strip the churches of icons, on the ground that by the ignorant they were venerated almost as idols. The Iconoclasts ('4mage-breakers") gained no support in the West. The Papacy took the view that images were a help to true devotion and might, therefore, be allowed. When a Roman emperor issued a decree for the destruction of all images, the pope refused to obey the order in the churches under his direction, and went so far as to exclude the Icono- clasts from Christian fellowship. Although the iconoclastic movement failed in the East, after a violent controversy, it helped still further to sharpen the antagonism between eastern and western Christianity. Other causes of dispute arose in later times, chiefly concerning fine points of doctrine on which neither side would yield. The final rupture of Christendom was delayed until the middle of the eleventh century. In 1054 the pope sent his The final legates to Constantinople to demand obedience to rupture, the Papacy. This being refused, they laid upon the high altar of Sancta Sophia the pope's bill of excommunication. Against the patriarch and his followers they pronounced a solemn curse, or anathema, devoting them 1 See page 76. The Greek Church 65 "to the eternal society of the Devil and his angels." Then, we are told, they strode out of- Sancta Sophia, shaking the dust from their feet and crying, ''Let God see and judge." The two branches of Christendom, thus torn apart, were never afterward reunited.^ 26. The Greek Church Both the Greek and Roman churches recognize three orders for the ministry, namely, bishops, priests, and deacons. Baptism, by both churches, is admin- and Roman istered to infants, but by the Greek Church churches , . , , . . ^ ^ compared under the form of total immersion. Confirma- tion in the Greek Church follows immediately after baptism; in the Roman Church it is postponed to the age of reason. In the communion service the Greek Church gives leavened bread, dipped in wine. The Roman Church withholds wine from the laity and uses only a dry, unleavened wafer. The festivals of the Greek Church do not coincide in time of celebration with those of the Roman Church, since the "Julian Calendar" followed in the East is now thirteen days behind the "Gregorian Calendar." The Greek Church has not lacked missionary zeal. Through her agency the barbarians who entered southeastern Europe during the early Middle Ages were converted to spread of Christianity. At the present time nearly all the the Greek peoples of the Balkan peninsula, including Greeks, ^^^ Montenegrins, Serbians, Bulgarians, and Rumanians, belong to the Greek Church.^ Its greatest victory was won toward the close of the tenth century, when the Russians were induced to accept the Greek form of Christianity. Outlying branches of the Greek Church are found also in the Turkish Empire. The patriarch of Constantinople is the spiritual head of the 1 Unsuccessful attempts to bring the two churches together took place in the Middle Ages. The latest movement in this direction was made by Pope Leo XIII in 1894, but his efforts were not crowned with success. 2 Many Roman CathoHcs are found in Croatia-Slavonia, Bosnia, Daknatia, and Albania. 66 Christianity in the East and in the West Greek Church. He enjoys, however, no such wide authority over eastern Christians as that exercised by the Present or- i >-, i ganization of pope over all Roman Catholics. There are as ttie Greek many as sixteen branches of the Greek Church, Church ^ ' each self-governing and under its own officers. Despite the local independence of its branches, the Greek Church remains unified in doctrine. It claims to be the only "Ortho- dox" church and clings with almost Oriental conservatism to the traditions of earher ages. Nevertheless, as the principal church of Russia, the largest and most swiftly growing of European countries, the Greek Church has before it a future of great importance. 27. The Roman Church The Roman Empire in the West had gone down before the assaults of the Teutonic barbarians, but in its place had arisen _ _ a new creation — the Roman Church. The leading The Roman . r , i , . , , • i r Church sur- City of the old empire became the capital of the vives the Papacy. The pope took, and has since retained, the title of Supreme Pontiff {Pontifex Maximus), once given to the head of the Roman state religion. Latin has continued to be the official language of Roman Catholicism. The Roman genius for law and government found a new expres- sion in the creation of the papal power. The true successors of the ancient Roman statesmen were the popes of the Middle Ages. The idea of Rome, of her universality and of her eter- nity, lived on in the Roman Church. The Roman Church, as the successor of the Roman Empire in the West, formed the chief center of civilization during the Work of earher part of the Middle Ages. She stood between the Roman the conquering Germans and the Romanized ^^ provincials and helped to join them both in lasting union. To the heathen she sent out her missionaries, preach- ing a religion of love and charity and introducing a higher morality than the barbarians had ever known before. She multiplied hospitals, orphanages, and asylums. Her bishops were the only protectors of the weak and the oppressed. She The Roman Church 67 fostered education, art, and learning within the walls of churches and monasteries. Her priests and monks were the only teachers in an ignorant age. In an age of bloodshed and violence, when might made right, she proclaimed the superiority of the spirit to mere brute force. To sum up: The Roman Church was an indispensable agent in the making of medieval Europe. Christianity in its Greek and Roman forms was not the only great religion of the Middle Ages. In the seventh century, before the separation of the two churches had ^j^g menace been completed and before all Europe had become to Christen- Christian, another religion arose. It grew with °°^ marvelous rapidity, stripped the Church of much territory in western Asia, northern Africa, and Spain, and promised for a time to become the dominant faith of the world. This was Islam, or Mohammedanism, the religion of the Arabs. Studies I. In what different senses is the word " church " of ten used? 2. "The eastern patriarch was the shadow of the emperor, cast on the spiritual world." Explain this statement. 3. Why did heresies develop in the East rather than in the West? 4. Look up in the New Testament the following texts relating to the primacy of St. Peter: Matthew, xvi, i8-ig; Luke, xxii, 31-32; and JoAn, xxi, 15-17. 5. What is "the power of the keys" which the popes claim to possess? 6. What reasons for the growth of the Papacy have been set forth in this chapter? 7. In what non- Christian religions is monasticism an estabUshed institution? 8. Look up in the New Testament the following texts quoted as favorable to monasticism: Matthew, xix, 21; Mark, x, 29-30; and Luke, xiv, 26. 9. What is the origin of the words "monk," "hermit," "anchorite,"- and "abbot"? 10. Summarize the principal benefits which the monastic system conferred on Europe. 11, Give reasons for the rapid conversion of the Germans to Christianity. 12. In what sense is it true that "half Europe owes its Christianity to women"? 13. Who was the "Apostle to the Germans"? 14. Who were the "Apostles to the Slavs"? 15. Comment on the significance to European civilization of the missionary activity of the Chris- tian Church in the Middle Ages. i6.' Why has the separation of the Greek and Roman churches been described as "the most momentous fact in the history of Christendom during the Middle Ages"? 17. Why could not such an institution as the Papacy develop in the East? CHAPTER IV THE ORIENT AND THE OCCIDENT: RISE AND SPREAD OF ISLAM, 622-10581 28. Arabia and the Arabs Arabia, a vast peninsula between the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea, forms the link between Asia The Arabian and Africa. It is connected with Asia by the peninsula g^j-j^j plains extending northward to the Euphrates; with Africa, by the equally arid isthmus of Suez. Though the country is more than one-third the size of the United States (excluding Alaska), it has never supported a large population. The interior, except for occasional oases, is a desert, inhabited only by wandering tribes. Along the southern and western coasts, between the mountains and the sea, the soil is generally fertile, the climate temperate, and the rainfall sufficient. Here the chief cities and towns are located. The Bedouin Arabs, by which name the nomadic inhabitants of the desert are known, claim Ishmael, the son of Abraham The Bedou- ^^^ half-brother of Isaac, as their ancestor. The ins of the life which they lead in the Arabian wilderness closely resembles that of the Hebrew patriarchs, as described in the Old Testament. The Bedouins are shep- herds and herdsmen, continually moving with their sheep and camels from one pasturage and water-hole to another. Their virtues — hospitality to the stranger, generosity, faithfulness to the ties of kinship — are those of a nomadic, barbarian people. Such also are their vices — love of fighting and plunder, re- vengefulness, and impatience of restraint. Nothing like a settled government is known to them. The only tribal author- ity is that of the chief, or "sheik," who, because of his birth, 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter vi,"The Teach- ings of Mohammed." 68 Arabia and the Arabs 69 courage, or wealth, has been chosen to the leadership. This description of the Bedouins to-day applies equally well to them in the age of Mohammed, during the sixth century. The Arabs who settled along the southern and western coasts of the peninsula had reached in the sixth century a considerable degree of civilization. They prac- The seden- ticed agriculture and carried on a flourishing trade **^y Arabs across the Red Sea and even to distant India. Between these sedentary Arabs and the Bedouins raged constant feuds, lead- ing to much petty warfare. Nevertheless the hundreds of tribes throughout the peninsula preserved a feeling of national unity, which was greatly strengthened by Mohammed's ap- pearance on the scene. The city of Mecca, located about fifty miles from the Red Sea, formed a commercial metropolis and the center of Arabian heathenism. Every year the Arab tribes ceased Arabian fighting for four months, and went up to Mecca heathenism to buy and sell and visit the famous sanctuary called the Kaaba. Here were three hundred and sixty idols and a small, black stone (probably a meteorite), which legend declared had been brought from heaven. The stone was originally white, but the sins of the people who touched it had blackened it. Al- though most of the Arabs were idolaters, yet some of them recognized the ''Unknown God" of the Semites, Allah, the Creator of all things. Arabia at this time contained many Jews, Zoroastrians, and Christians, who helped to spread abroad the conception of one God and thus to prepare the way for a prophet of a new religion. 29. Mohammed: Prophet and Statesman, 622-632 Mohammed,^ born at Mecca about 570, belonged to the tribe of the Ko'reish, who had long been guardians of the Kaaba. Left an orphan at an early age, the future prophet Early life of was obliged to earn his own Hving. He served Mohammed first as a shepherd on the hillsides of Mecca. This occupation, though lowly, gave him the love of solitude and helped to 1 The earlier spelling was Mahomet. yo Rise and Spread of Islam Mohammed: Prophet and Statesman 71 nourish in his soul that appreciation of nature which later found expression in so many of his utterances. While still a youth, he became a camel-driver and twice crossed the deserts with cara- vans to Syria. Doubtless he made many acquaintances on these journeys and picked up much useful information. Mo- hammed, however, did not receive a regular education; it is doubtful whether he could read or write. His marriage, when about twenty-five years of age, to a rich widow, named Kadija, brought him wealth and consideration. For some time, hence- forth, he led the Hfe of a prosperous merchant of Mecca. Mohammed seems always to have been a deeply religious man. As he grew older, his thoughts more and more centered on spiritual themes. JHe could not reconcile the Mohammed's idolatry of the Arabs with that behef in the unity visions of God which he himself had reached. In his distress he would withdraw into the wilderness, where he spent much time in fasting and sohtary vigils, practices perhaps suggested to him by the example of Christian hermits. During these lonely hours in the desert strange scenes passed before his eyes and strange voices sounded in his ears. Mohammed at first thought that evil spirits possessed him, but Kadija encouraged him to beheve that his visions were a revelation from another world. One day, so he declared, the archangel Gabriel appeared to him and bade him preach a new religion to the Arabs. It was very simple, but in its simplicity lay its strength: ''There is no god but God, and Mohammed is the prophet of God." Mohammed made his first converts in his wife, his children, and the friends who knew him best. Then, becoming bolder, he began to preach publicly in Mecca. In spite The Hegira, of his eloquence, obvious sincerity, and attractive ^^^ personality, he met a discouraging reception. A few slaves and poor freemen became his followers, but most of the citizens of Mecca regarded him as a madman. Mohammed's disciples, called Moslems,^ were bitterly persecuted by the Koreish, who 1 From the Arabic muslim, "one who surrenders himself" (to God's will). Dur- ing the Middle Ages the Moslems to their Christian enemies were commonly known as Saracens, a term which is still in use. 72 Rise and Spread of Islam resented the prophet's attacks on idolatry and feared the loss of their privileges at the Kaaba. Finally Mohammed and his converts took refuge in Medina, where some of the inhabitants had already accepted his teachings. This was the famous Hegira (Flight of the prophet).^ At Medina Mohammed occupied a position of high honor and influence. The people welcomed him gladly and made him their- Later life of chief magistrate. As his adherents increased in Mohammed number, Mohammed began to combine fighting with preaching. His military expeditions against the Arab tribes proved to be very successful. Many of the conquered Bedouins enhsted under his banner and at length captured Mecca for the prophet. He treated its, inhabitants leniently, but threw down all the idols in the Kaaba. After the submis- sion of Mecca most of the Arabs abandoned idolatry and ac- cepted the new religion. Mohammed did not long enjoy his position as uncrowned king of Arabia. He died in 632, at Medina, where he was Death of buried and where his tomb is still visited by pious Mohammed, Moslems. His followers could scarcely believe that their great prophet had gone away from them forever. They were ready to worship him as a god, until old Abu Bekr, Mohammed's father-in-law, rebuked them with the memorable words: ''Whoso worshipeth Mohammed, let him know that Mohammed is dead; but whoso worshipeth God, let him know that God liveth and dieth not." The character of Mohammed has been variously estimated. Moslem writers make him a saint; Christian writers, until Mohammed's recent times, have called him an ''imposter." character j^^ know that he was a man of simple habits, who, even in the days of his prosperity, lived on dates, barley bread, and water, mended his woolen garments, and attended to his own wants. He was mild and gentle, a lover of children, devoted to his friends, and forgiving toward his foes. He seems ^ The year 622, in which the Hegira occurred, marks the beginning of the Mo- hammedan era. The Christian year 1919 a.d. nearly corresponds to the Moham- medan year 1338 a.h. {Anno Hegira). Islam and the Koran 73 to have won the admiration of all with whom he came in con- tact. We know, too, that Mohammed was so deeply impressed with the consciousness of his rehgious mission that he was ready to give up wealth and an honorable position and face for years the ridicule and hatred of the people of Mecca. His faults — deceitfulness, superstitiousness, sensuality — were those of the Arabs of his time. Their existence in Moham- med's character should not prevent our recognition of his real greatness as a prophet and as a statesman. 30. Islam and the Koran The religion which Mohammed preached is called Islam, an Arabic word meaning "surrender," or "resignation." This religion has its sacred book, the Koran ("thing Formation of read" or "thing recited"). It contains the ^^ ^°^*^ speeches, prayers, and other utterances of Mohammed at L A ^. ^ . — ^ ^ L ^ L -«b^ J L » Law J L Jl L Aj^ A Passage from the Koran From a manuscript in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. various times during his career. Some parts of the Koran were dictated by the prophet to his disciples and by them were written out on skins, leaves of palm trees, bones, and bits of parchment. Many other parts remained at first only in the memory of Mohammed's followers. Soon after his 74 Rise and Spread of Islam death all the scattered passages were collected into one book. Since the middle of the seventh century the Koran, every word of which the Moslems consider holy, has remained un- changed. The doctrines found in the Koran show many adaptations from the Jewish and Christian rehgions. Like them Islam Religious emphasizes the unity of God. The Moslem cry teachings of —"Allah Akhar!'' "God is Great !" — forms its cardinal principle. Like them, also, Islam recog- nizes the existence of prophets, including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, but insists that Mohammed was the last and great- est of the prophets. The existence of angels and demons is recognized. The chief of the demons, Iblis, bears some resem- blance to the Jewish Satan and the Christian Devil. The account of the creation and fall of man is taken, with varia- tions, from the Old Testament. The descriptions of the resur- rection of the dead and the last judgment, and the division of the future world into paradise and hell, the former for believers in Islam, the latter for those who have refused to accept it, were also largely borrowed from other religions. The Koran imposes on the faithful Moslem five great obli- gations. First, he must recite, at least once in his life, aloud. Observances correctly, and with full understanding, the short of Islam creed: " There is no god but God, and Mohammed is the prophet of God." Second, he must pray five times a day: at dawn, just after noon, before sunset, just after sunset, and at the end of the day. In every Mohammedan city the hour of prayer is announced from the tall minaret of the mosque by a crier {muezzin). Before engaging in prayer the worshiper washes face, hands, and feet; during the prayer he turns toward Mecca and bows his head to the ground. Third, he must ob- serve a strict fast, from morning to night, during every day of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Mohammedan year.^ In this month God presented the Koran to Gabriel for revelation to the prophet. Fourth, he must give alms to the poor. Fifth, he must, "if he is able," undertake at least one pilgrimage to ^ Feasting during the nights of this month is allowable. Islam and the Koran 75 Mecca. The annual visit of tens of thousands of pilgrims to the holy city helps to preserve the feeling of brotherhood among Moslems all over the world. These five obligations are the "piUars" of Islam. As a religious system Islam is exceedingly simple. It does not provide any elaborate ceremonies of worship and permits no altars, pictures, or images in the mosque. Organization Islam even lacks a priesthood. Every Moslem ^^ ^^lam acts as his own priest. There is, however, an official, who on Friday, the Mohammedan Sabbath, offers up pubHc prayers in the mosque and delivers a sermon to the assembled worshipers. All work is suspended during this service, but at its close secular activities are resumed. The Koran furnishes a moral code for the adherents of Islam. It contains several noteworthy prohibitions. The Moslem is not to make images, to engage in games of chance, ^^^^^ ^^^^^_ to eat pork, or to drink wine. This last prohibi- ings of the tion has saved the Mohammedan world from the ^°^*° degradation and misery which alcohol has introduced into Christian lands. To Mohammed strong drink was "the mother of all evil," and drunkenness, a sin. The Koran also inculcates many active virtues, including reverence toward parents, protection of widows and orphans, charity toward the poor, kindness to slaves, and gentle treatment of the lower animals. On the whole, it must be admitted that the laws of the Koran did much to restrain the vices of the Arabs and to provide them with higher standards of right and wrong. Islam marked a great advance over Arabian heathenism. 31. Expansion of Islam in Asia and Egypt Islam was a religion of conquest. It proclaimed the right- eousness of a "holy war," or jihad, against unbehevers. It promised rich booty for those who fought and ^^^^^ ^^ ^ won, and paradise for those who fell. The Arab religion of soldier, dying on the battle-field, expected to be *^°"^"^^* carried away by bright-eyed maidens to a garden of delight, where, reclining on soft cushions and rugs, he was to enjoy 76 Rise and Spread of Islam forever an existence of sensual ease. "Whosoever falls in battle," so runs a passage in the Koran, "his sins are forgiven, and at the day of judgment his limbs shall be supplied by the wings of angels and cherubim." The creation of the Arabian power must not be understood, however, as solely a rehgious movement. Pride and greed, Islam as a ^^ ^^^^ ^^ fanaticism, drove the Arabs forward on poUtical their conquering career. Long before Moham- °^^® med's time Arabia had been in a state of unrest. Its warlike tribes, feeling a sense of their superiority to other peoples, were eager to overrun the rich districts of western Asia, much as the Germans had overrun western Europe. Islam strengthened the racial pride of the Arabs, united them into one nation, and gave them an effective organization for world-wide rule. The most extensive conquests of the Arabs were made within ten years after Mohammed's death. During this period the . , Moslem warriors, though poorly armed, ill-dis- Arab con- . ,. , , . 1 i 1 , quests in the ciplmed, and m every battle greatly outnumbered, East, 632- attacked with success the two strongest military powers then in the world — Rome and Persia. From the Roman Empire in the East they seized the province of Syria, with the famous cities of Damascus, Antioch, and Jerusalem.^ They took Mesopotamia from the Persians and then, invading Iran, overthrew the Persian power. Egypt was also subjugated by these irresistible soldiers of the Crescent. According to the strict teaching of the Koran, those who refused to accept Islam were either to be killed or to be reduced , to slavery. As a matter of fact, the Arabs treated Treatment of , . ■' , . . , , 1 ,.1 i- the con- their new subjects with marked hberahty. No quered massacres and no persecutions occurred. The peoples conquered peoples were allowed to retain their own religions, on condition of paying ample tribute. In course of time, however, many of the Christians in Syria and Egypt and most of the Zoroastrians in Persia adopted Islam, in order 1 See page 36. Expansion of Islam in Asia and Egypt 77 that they might acquire the rights and privileges of Moslem citizens. The sweeping conquests of the decade 632-642 were followed in later years by a further extension of the boundaries of the Arabian Empire. In the remote East the Arabs Later Arab sent their victorious armies beyond the Oxus and conquests Indus rivers to central Asia and India. They captured the island of Cyprus, annexed parts of Armenia and Asia Minor, and at length threatened to take Constantinople. Had that city fallen, all eastern Europe would have been laid open to invasion. |ii>=- Naval Battle Shom^ing Use of "Greek Fire" From a Byzantine manuscript of the fourteenth century at Madrid. "Greek fire" in marine warfare was most commonly propelled through long tubes of copper, which were placed on the prow of a ship and managed by a gunner. Combustibles might also be kept in tubes flung by hand and exploded on board the enemy's vessel. The first attempts on Constantinople were made by sea and were repulsed, but early in the eighth century the city had to face a combined attack by a Moslem navy and «. rr-i T , -r . Siege of army, ine eastern emperor, Leo the Isaunan, Constanti- conducted a heroic defense, using with much ^°p^®' '^^®~ effectiveness the celebrated mixture known as " Greek fire." This combustible, probably composed of sulphur, naphtha, and quickUme, was poured or hurled on the enemy's ships in order to burn them. "Greek fire," the rigors of an uncommonly severe winter, and timely aid received by the 78 Rise and Spread of Islam emperor from the Bulgarians, at length compelled the Arabs to beat a retreat. Their failure to take Constantinople gave the Roman Empire in the East another long lease of life. 32. Expansion of Islam in North Africa and Spain Though repulsed before the impregnable walls of Constanti- nople, the Arabs continued to win new dominions in other North Africa parts of the Christian world. After their occupa- subdued ^[q^ ^f Egypt, they began to overrun North Africa, which Justinian, Uttle more than a century earlier, had reconquered from the Vandals. The Romanized provin- cials, groaning under the burdensome taxes imposed on them by the eastern emperors, made only a slight resistance to the Moslem armies. A few of the great cities held out for a time, but after the capture and destruction of Carthage in 698, Arab rule was soon established over the whole extent of the Mediter- ranean coast from Eg}^t to the Atlantic. Islam made in North Africa one of its most permanent con- quests. Some of the Christian inhabitants were exterminated Arabs and by the Arabs, while many more appear to have Berbers withdrawn to Spain and Sicily, leaving the field clear for the introduction of Arabian civilization. The Arabs who settled in North Africa gave their religion and government to the Berbers, as the natives of the country were called, and to some extent intermingled with them. Arabs and Berbers still comprise the population of North Africa, though their once independent states have now been absorbed by European powers.^ With North Africa in their hands the Moslems did not long delay the invasion of Spain. In 711 an army of Arabs and „ , . . Berbers, under their leader Tarik, crossed the Subjugation . . of Spain Strait which still bears his name ^ and for the begun, £j.g|- ^jjj^g confronted the Germans. The Visi- gothic kingdom, already much enfeebled, proved to be an easy prey. A single battle made the invaders masters 1 Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis belong to France; Tripoli, to Italy. 2 Gibraltar = Gibal al Tarik, " the mountain of Tarik." •2. o IS 1.1 3- 3 to n s ^ OS a. 3 C w n n 8o Rise and Spread of Islam of half of Spain. Within a few years their hosts swept north- w^ard to the Pyrenees. Only small districts in the northern part of the Spanish peninsula remained unconquered. The Moslems were not stopped by the Pyrenees. Crossing these mountains, they captured many of the old Roman cities The Moslem ^^ ^^^ south of Gaul and then advanced to the advance in north, attracted, apparently, by the booty to be found in Christian monasteries and churches. In the vicinity of Tours they encountered the great army which Charles Martel, the chief minister of the Frankish king,^ had collected to oppose their advance. The battle of Tours seems to have continued for several days. Of its details we know nothing, though a Spanish chron- Battie of ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ heavy infantry of the Franks Tours, stood "immovable as a wall, inflexible as a block of ice" against the desperate assaults of the Moslem horsemen. When the Franks, after the last day's fighting, wished to renew the struggle, they found that the enemy had fled, leaving a camp filled with the spoils of war. This engagement, though famous in history, was scarcely decisive. For some time afterward the Moslems maintained themselves in southern Gaul. It was the Frankish ruler, Pepin the Short, who annexed their possessions there and drove them back across the Pyrenees to Spain.^ 33. The Caliphate and its Disruption, 632-1058 The title of caliph, meaning "successor" or "representative," had first been assumed by Mohammed's father-in-law, Abu Bekr, who was chosen to succeed the prophet as "Orthodox" the civil and religious head of the Moslem world. cauphs, After him followed Omar, who had been one of 632-661 Mohammed's most faithful adherents, and then Othman and AH, both sons-in-law of Mohammed. These four rulers are sometimes known as the "Orthodox" caliphs, because their right to the succession was universally acknowl- edged by Moslems. 1 See page lo. ^ For Charlemagne's Spanish conquests, see page 13. The Caliphate and its Disruption 8i After Ali's death the governor of Syria, Moawiya by name, succeeded in making himself caliph of the Moslem world. This usurper converted the caliphate into a hered- itary, instead of an elective, office, and established caUphs at the dynasty of the Ommiads.^ Their capital l>amascus, was no longer Medina in Arabia, but the Syrian city of Damascus. The descendants of Mohammed's family refused, however, to recognize the Ommiads as legitimate caliphs. In 750 a sudden revolt, headed by the party of the Dismemberment of the Caliphate Abbasids,^ established a new dynasty. The Abbasids treacher- ously murdered nearly all the members of the Ommiad family, but one survivor escaped to Spain, where he founded at Cordova an independent Ommiad dynasty. Early in the tenth century this became the caliphate of Cordova, About the same time North Africa and Egypt united in another caliphate with its capital at Cairo. The Abbasids continued to reign over the Moslems in Asia for more than three hundred years. The most celebrated of Abbasid rulers was Harun-al-Rashid (Aaron the Just), a con- 1 So called from a leading family of Mecca, to which Moawiya belonged, 2 So called from Abbas, an uncle of Mohammed. 82 Rise and Spread of Islam temporary of Charlemagne, to whom the Arab ruler sent several presents, including an elephant and a water-clock which struck The Abbasid the hours. The tales of Harun-al-Rashid's mag- caliphs, nificence, his gold and silver, his silks and gems, his rugs and tapestries, reflect the luxurious life of the Abbasid rulers. Gradually, however, their power decHned, and the Asiatic provinces became practically independent. This process of dismemberment went on until 1058, when the Seljuk Turks took over the caliph's political authority. He remained, however, the religious head of Islam until the middle of the thirteenth century.^ The Abbasids removed their capital from Damascus to Bagdad on the banks of the middle Euphrates. The new city, „ , , under the fostering care of the caUphs, grew with Bagdad . ,. ^^ , . . , ' . , great rapidity. Its population in the nmth cen- tury is said to have reached two milhons. For a time it was the metropolis of the Moslem world. How its splendor im- pressed the imagination may be seen from the stories of the Thousand and One Nights. After the extinction of the Abbasid caliphate, its importance as the religious and pohtical center of Islam declined. But memories of the former grandeur of Badgad still cling to it, and even to-day it is referred to in Turkish oflicial documents as the "glorious city." 34. Arabian Civilization The great Moslem cities of Bagdad, Damascus, Cairo, and Cordova were not only seats of government for the different The Arabs divisions of the Arabian Empire; they were also as absorbers the centers of Arabian civilization. The conquests of the Arabs had brought them into contact with highly developed peoples whose culture they absorbed and to some extent improved. They owed most to Persia and, after Persia, to Greece, through the empire at Constantinople. In their hands there was somewhat the same fusion of East ^ Descendants of the Abbasids subsequently took up their abode in Egypt. Through them the claim to the caliphate passed in 1538 to the Ottoman Turks. The Turkish sultan still calls himself caliph of the Moslem world. Arabian Civilization 83 and West which Alexander the Great had sought to accompHsh. Greek science and philosophy mingled with the arts of Persia and other Oriental lands. Arabian civilization, for about four centuries under the Ommiad and Abbasid caliphs, far surpassed anything to be found in western Europe. Many improvements in agriculture were due to the Arabs. They had a good system of irrigation, practiced rotation of crops, employed fertilizers, and understood how . . , .,, .. r 1 1 Agnculture to graft and produce new varieties of plants and fruits. From the Arabs we have received cotton, flax, hemp, buckwheat, rice, sugar cane, and coffee, various vegetables, including asparagus, artichokes, and beans, and such fruits as melons, oranges, lemons, apricots, and plums. The Arabs excelled in manufactures. Damascus was long famous for its brocades, tapestries, and blades of tempered steel. The Moslem cities in Spain had also their Manufac- special productions: Cordova, leather; Toledo, ^^^^s armor; and Granada, rich silks. Arab craftsmen taught the Venetians to make crystal and plate glass. The work of Arab potters and weavers was at once the admiration and despair of its imitators in western Europe. The Arabs knew the secrets of dyeing and made a kind of paper. Their textile fabrics and articles of metal were distinguished for beauty of design and perfection of workmanship. European peoples during the early Middle Ages received the greater part of their manufactured articles of luxury through the Arabs.^ The products of Arab farms and workshops were carried far and wide throughout medieval lands. The Arabs were keen merchants, and Mohammed had expressly encour- ^ ' ^ -^ Commerce aged commerce by declaring it agreeable to God. The Arabs traded with India, China, the East Indies (Java and Sumatra), the interior of Africa, Russia, and even with the Baltic lands. Bagdad, which commanded both land and water routes, was the chief center of this commerce, but other ^ The European names of some common articles reveal the Arabic sources from which they were first derived. Thus, damask comes from Damascus, muslin from Mosul, gauze from Gaza, cordovan (a kind of leather) from Cordova, and morocco leather from North Africa. 84 Rise and Spread of Islam cities of western Asia, North Africa, and Spain shared in its advantages. The bazaar, or merchant's quarter, was found in every Moslem city. The trade of the Arabs, their wide conquests, and their reHgious pilgrimages to Mecca vastly increased their knowledge Geographical of the world. They were the best geographers of knowledge ^j^e Middle Ages. An Abbasid caliph, the son of Harun-al-Rashid, had the Greek Geography of Ptolemy trans- Interior of the Great Mosque of Cordova The Great Mosque of Cordova, begun in the eighth century, was gradually enlarged during the following centuries to its present dimensions, 570 by 425 feet. The building, one of the largest in the world, has now been turned into a cathedral. The most striking feature of the interior is the forest of porphyry, jasper, and marble pillars supporting open Moorish arches. Originally there were 1200 of these pillars, but many have been destroyed. lated into Arabic and enriched the work with illuminated maps. Arab scholars compiled encyclopedias describing foreign coun- tries and peoples, constructed celestial spheres, and measured closely the arc of the meridian in order to calculate the size of the earth. There is some reason to beheve that the mariner's compass was first introduced into Europe by the Arabs. The geographical knowledge of Christian peoples during the Middle Ages owed much, indeed, to their Moslem forerunners. Arabian Civilization 85 Schools and universities flourished in Moslem lands. The largest institution of learning was at Cairo, where the lectures of the professors were attended by thousands of „^ „ ... , . , . Education students. Famous universities also existed in Bagdad and Cordova. Moslem scholars especially delighted in the study of philosophy. Arabic translations of Aristotle's writings made the ideas of that great thinker familiar to the students of western Europe, where the knowledge of Greek had nearly died out. The Arabs also formed extensive libraries of many thousands of manuscripts, all carefully arranged and catalogued. Their libraries and universities, especially in Spain, were visited by many Christians, who thus became ac- quainted with Moslem learning and helped to introduce it into western Europe. The Arabs have been considered to be the founders of modern experimental science. They were relatively skillful chemists, for they discovered a number of new compounds Chemistry (such as alcohol, aqua regia, nitric acid, and cor- ^^ medicine rosive sublimate) and understood the preparation 'of mercury and of various oxides of metals. In medicine the Arabs based their investigations on those of the Greeks, but made many additional contributions to the art of healing. They studied physiology and hygiene, dissected the human body, performed difficult surgical operations, used anaesthetics, and wrote treatises on such diseases as measles and smallpox. Arab medicine and surgery were studied by the Christian peoples of Europe throughout the later period of the Middle Ages. The Arabs had a strong taste for mathematics. Here again they carried further the old Greek investigations. In arith- metic they used the so-called "Arabic" figures. Mathematics which were borrowed from India. These were and astron- afterwards introduced from Spain into Chris- °°^^ tian Europe, where they gradually supplanted the awkward Roman numerals. In geometry the Arabs added Httle to Euclid, but algebra is practically their creation. An Arabic treatise on algebra long formed the text-book of the subject in the universities of Christian Europe. Spherical trigonometry 86 Rise and Spread of Islam and conic sections are Arabic inventions. This mathematical knowledge enabled the Arabs to make considerable progress in astronomy. Observatories at Bagdad and Damascus were erected as early as the ninth century. Some of the astronomical instruments which they constructed, including the sextant and the gnomon, are still in use.^ There are two Moslem productions in prose and verse which have attained wide popularity in European lands. The first Romance work is the Thousand and One Nights, a collection and poetry ^f ^-^j^g written in Arabic and describing Hfe and manners at the court of the Abbasids. The book, as we now have it, seems to have been composed as late as the fifteenth century, but it borrows much from earlier Arabic sources. Many of the tales are of Indian or Persian origin, but all have a thoroughly Moslem coloring. The second work is the Ru- bdiydt of the astronomer-poet of Persia, Omar Khayyam, who wrote about the beginning of the twelfth century. He composed a little volume of quatrains, about five hundred in all, dis- tinguished 'for wit, satirical power, and a vein of melancholy, sometimes pensive, sometimes passionate. These character- istics of Omar's poetry have made it widely known in the western world.^ Painting and sculpture owe Httle to the Arabs, but their architecture, based in part on Byzantine and Persian models, * t-.x ^ reached a high level of excellence. They seem to Architecture . ^ ■, . ., . . ^ have mtroduced the pomted arch mto Europe. Swelling domes, vaulted roofs, arched porches, tall and graceful minarets, and the exquisite decorative patterns known as "arabesques" are some of the prominent characteristics of Arab architecture. Glazed tiles, mosaics, and jeweled glass were extensively used for ornamentation. The best known of Arab buildings include the so-called "Mosque of Omar" at 1 Many words in European languages beginning with the prefix al (the definite article in Arabic) show how indebted was Europe to the Arabs for scientific knowl- edge. In English these words include alchemy (whence chemistry), alcohol, alembic, algebra, alkali, almanac, Aldebaran (the star), etc. - The translation of the Rubdiydt by Edward Fitzgerald is almost an English classic. The Influence of Islam 87 Jerusalem/ the Great Mosque of Cordova, and that archi- tectural gem, the Alhambra at Granada. 35. The Influence of Islam The dismemberment of the Arabian Empire did not check the growth of Islam. The Turks and other converts during the Middle Ages carried Growth of it to the uttermost regions ^slam of Asia and throughout southeastern Europe. Some parts of the territory thus gained by it have since been lost. Spain and all of the Balkan peninsula are once more Christian lands. In other parts of the world, and notably in Africa and India, the religion of Mohammed is spreading faster than any rival faith. Its simple creed — the unity of God, man's immortal soul, and material rewards and penalties in a future life — adapt it to the understanding of half -civilized peoples, it is immeasurably superior to the , I'll One of Mohammed's laws forbid- rude nature worship and idolatry ding the use .of idols was subse- Which it has supplanted. ^"^^'ly expanded by religious _-, - 1 J • r teachers into a prohibition of all I'rom the moral standpoint one Ot imitations of human or animal forms the least satisfactory features of Is- lam is its attitude toward Treatment women. The ancient °^ women Arabs, like many other peoples, seem to have set no limit to the number of wives a man might possess. Women were regarded by them as mere chattels, and female infants were frequently put to death. Mohammed recognized polygamy, but limited the number of legitimate wives to four. At the same time Mohammed sought to improve the condition of women by forbidding female infanticide, by ^ See the illustration, page 166. As a relision Capitals and Arabesques ° FROM THE Alhambra in art. Sculptors who observed this prohibition relied for ornamentation on intricate geometrical designs called " arabesques." These were carved in stone or molded in plaster. 88 Rise and Spread of Islam restricting the facilities for divorce, and by insisting on kind treatment of wives by their husbands. ''The best of you," he said, "is he who behaves best to his wives." According to eastern custom Moslem women are secluded in a separate part of the house, called the harem. They never appear in public, except when closely veiled from the eyes of strangers. Their education is also much neglected. Slavery, like polygamy, was a custom which Mohammed found fully established among the Arabs. He disliked slavery and tried in several ways to lessen its evils. He declared that the emancipation of Moslem slaves was an act of special merit, and ordered that in a war between Moslems the prisoners were not to be enslaved. Mohammed also insisted on kind treatment of slaves by their masters. "Feed your slaves," he directed, "with food of that which you eat and clothe them with such clothing as you wear, and com- mand them not to do that which they are unable to do." The condition of Moslem slaves does not appear to be intolerable, though the slave traffic which still exists in some parts of Africa is a disgrace to Islam. It was a very great misfortune for the eastern world when the Arabian Empire passed under the control, first of the Seljuk Islam Turks, and then of the Ottoman Turks. These among the rude Asiatic peoples held a degenerate form of Turks Islam, as compared with that practiced by the Arabs. The stagnant, non-progressive condition of the East at the present time is largely due to the influence of its Turkish conquerors. Studies I. On an outline map indicate the Arabian Empire at its widest extent. Locate the more important cities, including Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, Bagdad, Cairo, Alexandria, Granada, Cordova, and Seville. 2. Define the following: Kaaba; Islam; Koran; caliph; harem; a.nd jihad. 3. How did the geographical situation of Arabia preserve it from being conquered by Persians, Macedonians, or Romans? 4. Why had the Arabs, until the time of IMohammed, played so incon- spicuous a part in the history of 'the world? 5. Mohammed "began as a mule driver and ended as both a pope and a king." Explain this statement. 6. How does Mohammed's career in Mecca illustrate the saying that "a prophet is not without honor save in his own country"? 7. What resemblances may be traced The Influence of Islam 89 between Islam on the one side and Judaism and Christianity on the other side? 8. Did religion have anything to do with the migrations of the Germans? How was it with the Arabs? 9. "Paradise Has vmder the shadow of swords." What is the significance of this Moslem saying? 10. Contrast the methods of propagat- ing Christianity in Europe with those of spreading Islam in Asia. 1 1 . Why is the defeat of the Moslems before Constantinople regarded as more significant than their defeat at the battle of Tours? 12. Show that the Arabian Empire, because of its geographical position, was less easily defended than the Roman Empire. 13. Locate on the map facing page 78 the following commercial cities in the Arabian Empire: Samarkand; Cabul; Bokhara; Mosul; Kairwan; Fez; Seville; and Toledo. 14. Can you suggest any reason why the Arabs did little in painting and sculpture? 15. What are some of the best-known stories in the Thousand and One Nights? 16. Discuss the justice of this statement: "If our ideas and our arts go back to antiquity, all the inventions which make life easy and agreeable come to us from the Arabs." 17. "From the eighth to the twelfth century the world knew but two civilizations, that of Byzantium and that of the Arab^." Comment on this statement. 18. Show that Islam was an heir to the Gr^co-Oriental civilization. 19. Can you suggest any reasons for the rapid spread of Islam to-day among the negroes of Africa? 20. How does Islam, by sanctioning polygamy and slavery, hinder the rise of women and of the working classes? CHAPTER V THE NORTHMEN AND THE NORMANS TO 1066 i Scandinavia 36. Scandinavia and the Northmen The Northmen, with whose raids and settlements we are concerned in the present chapter, belonged to the Teutonic Renewed family of European peoples. They were kinsmen Teutonic of the Germans, the Anglo-Saxons, and the Dutch, migra ons. 'pj^gij- migrations may be regarded, therefore, as the last wave of that great Teutonic movement which in earlier times had inundated western Europe and overwhelmed the Roman Empire. The Northmen lived, as their descendants still live, in Den- mark, Sweden, and Norway. The name Scandinavia is some- times applied to all three countries, but more commonly it is restricted to the peninsula com- prising Sweden and Norway. Sweden, with the exception of the northern highlands, is mostly a level region, watered by copious streams, dotted with „ , many lakes, and Sweden . ^. ^ smkmg down grad- ually to the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia. The fact that Sweden faces these inland waters determined the course of her development as a nation. She never has had any aspirations to become a great oceanic power. Her whole historic life has centered about the Baltic. Norway, in contrast to Swedish Rock Carving Shows a man plowing. Sweden, faces the Atlantic. The country is little more than a strip of rugged seacoast reach- 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter vii, "The Saga of a Viking"; chapter viii, "Alfred the Great"; chapter ix, "WiUiam the Con- queror and the Normans in England." 90 Scandinavia and the Northmen 91 Norway ^•'S^'^f^S, ing northward to well within the Arctic Circle. Were it not for the influence of the ''Gulf Stream drift," much of Norway would be a frozen waste during many months of the year. Vast forests of fir, pine, and birch still cover the larger part of the country, and the land which can be used for farming and grazing does not exceed eleven per cent ol the territory. But Norway, like Greece, has an extent of shore- line out of all proportion to its superficial area. So numerous are the fiords, or inlets of the sea, that the total length of the coast approximates twelve thousand miles. Slight won- der that the Vikings,^ as they called themselves, . should feel the lure of the ocean and should put forth in their frail barks upon the "pathway of the swans" in search of booty and adventure. The Swedes and Norwegi- ans, together with their kins- men, the Danes, prehistoric probably settled in times in c 1- • 1 Scandinavia bcandmavia long before the beginning of the Christian era. They gradually became acquainted with the use of bronze and afterwards with that of iron. Excavations in grave mounds have revealed implements of the finest polished stone, beautiful bronze swords, and coats of iron ring mail, besides gold and silver ornaments which may have been im- ported from southern Europe. The ancient Scandinavians have left to us curious records of the past in their picture writing chiseled on the flat surface of rocks. The objects repre- sented include boats with as many as thirty men in them, 1 The word perhaps comes from the old Norse vik, a bay, and means "one who dwells by a bay or fiord." Another meaning assigned to Viking is "warrior." A Runic Stone A stone, twelve feet high and six feet wide, in the churchyard of Rok, Ostergotland, Swe- den. The runic inscription, which contains more than 760 letters, is the longest known. 92 The Northmen and the Normans horses drawing two-wheeled carts, spans of oxen, farmers en- gaged in ploughing, and warriors on horseback. By the close of the prehistoric period the northern peoples were also familiar with a form of the Greek alphabet (the runes) and with the art of writing. 37. The Viking Age The Viking Age, with which historic times begin in northern Europe, extends from about 800 to the introduction of Chris- Dawn of his- tianity in the tenth and eleventh centuries. This tory in was the period when the Northmen, or Vikings, can mavia j-gaJizing that the sea offered the quickest road to wealth and conquest, began to make long voyages to foreign lands. In part they went as traders and exchanged the furs, wool, and fish of Scandinavia for the clothing, ornaments, and other articles of luxury found in neighboring countries. But it was no far cry from merchant to freebooter, and, in fact, expeditions for the sake of plunder seem to have been even more popular with the Northmen than peaceful commerce. Whether the Northmen engaged in trade or in warfare, good ships and good seamanship were indispensable to them. They The North- became the boldest sailors of the early Middle men as Ages. No longer hugging the coast, as timid sai ors mariners had always done before them, the North- men pushed out into the uncharted main and steered their course only by observation of the sun and stars. In this way they were led to make those remarkable explorations in the Atlantic Ocean and the polar seas which added so greatly to geographical knowledge. It was not uncommon for a Viking chieftain, after his days of sea-roving had ended, to be buried in his ship, over which Ships of the a grave chamber, covered with earth, would be Northmen erected. The discovery of several of these burial ships enables us to form a good idea of Viking vessels. The largest of them might reach a length of seventy feet and hold as many as one hundred and twenty men. A fleet of the North- men, carrying several thousand warriors, mail-clad and armed The Viking Age 93 with spears, swords, and battle-axes, was indeed formidable. During this period the Northmen were the masters of the sea, as far as western Europe was concerned. A very important source of information for the Viking Age consists of the writings called sagas.^ These narratives are in prose, but they were based, in many instances, _ / , . , . ' . . The sagas on the songs which mmstrels sang to appreciative audiences assembled at the banqueting board of a Viking A Viking Ship The Gokstad vessel is of oak, twenty -eight feet long and sixteen feet broad in the center. It has seats for sixteen pairs of rowers, a mast for a single sail, and a rudder on the right or starboard side. The gunwale was decorated with a series of shields, painted alternately black and gold. This ship, which probably dates from about goo, was found on the shore of Christiania Fiord. A still larger ship, of about the same date, was taken in 1904 from the grave of a Norwegian queen at Oseberg. With the queen had been buried a four-wheeled wagon, three sleighs, three beds, two chests, a chair, a large loom, and various kitchen utensils, in fact, everything needed for her comfort in the other world. chieftain. It was not until the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that the sagas were committed to writing. This was done chiefly in Iceland, and so it happens that we must look to that distant island for the beginnings of Scandinavian literature. The sagas belong to different classes. The oldest of them relate the deeds of Viking heroes and their families. Others ^ The word is derived from old Norse segya, "to say"; compare German sagen. 94 The Northmen and the Normans deal with the lives of Norwegian kings. Some of the most Subject matter important sagas describe the explorations and set- of the sagas tlements of the Northmen and hence possess con- siderable value as historical records. The sagas throw much light on the character of the Northmen. Love of adventure and contempt for the quiet joys of home The North- come out in the description of Viking chiefs, men as seen who ''never sought refuge under a roof nor emptied m e sagas |-]^g^j. drinking-horns by a hearth." An intense love of fighting breathes in the accounts of Viking warriors, "who are glad when they have hopes of a battle; they will leap up in hot haste and ply the oars, snapping the oar- thongs and cracking the tholes." The undaunted spirit of Viking sailors, braving the storms of the northern ocean, expresses itself in their sea songs: "The force of the tempest assists the arms of our oarsmen; the hurricane is our ser^^ant, it drives us whithersoever we wish to go." The sagas also reveal other characteristics of the Northmen: a cruelty and faithlessness which made them a terror to their foes; an almost barbaric love of gay clothing and ornament; a strong sense of public order, giving rise to an elaborate legal system; and even a feeling for the romantic beauty of their northern home, with its snow-clad mountains, dark forests of pine, sparkUng water- falls, and deep, blue fiords. Another literary production of the Viking Age consists of the poems forming the Elder Edda. Like the prose sagas they Eddaic wxre collected and arranged in Iceland during the poems later Middle Ages. The Elder Edda is a store- house of old Norse mythology. It forms our chief source of knowledge concerning Scandinavian heathenism before the introduction of Christianity. 38. Scandinavian Heathenism The religion of the Northmen bore a close resemblance to that of the other Teutonic peoples. The leading deity was Odin (German Woden), whose exploits are celebrated in many of the songs of the Elder Edda. Odin was represented as a tall, Scandanavian Heathenism 95 Odin gray-bearded chieftain, carrying a shield and a spear which never missed its mark. Though a god of battle, Odin was also a lover of wisdom. He discovered the runes, which gave him secret knowledge of all things. Legend told how Odin killed a mighty giant, whose body was cut into pieces to form the world: the earth was his flesh, the water his blood, the rocks his bones, and the heavens his skull. Having created the world and peopled it with human beings, Odin retired to the sacred city of Asgard, where he reigned in company with his children. Enthroned beside Odin sat his eldest son, Thor (German Thunor), god of thunder and „, f. 1 . ^x. Thor lightnmg. His weapon, the thunderbolt, was imagined as a hammer, and was especially used by him to protect gods and men against the giants. The hammer, when thrown, returned to his hand of its own accord. Thor also possessed a belt of strength, which, when girded about him, doubled his power. Many stories were told of Thor's adventures, when visiting Jotun- heim, the abode of the Myths of giants. In a drinking- ^^^^ match he tried to drain a horn of liquor, not knowing that one end of the horn reached the sea, which was appreciably lowered by the god's huge draughts. He sought to lift from the ground a large, gray cat, but struggle as he might, could raise only one of the animal's feet. What Thor took for a cat, however, was really the Midgard serpent, Norse Metal Work Museum, Copenhagen A door from a church in Iceland; date, tenth or eleventh century. The iron knob is inlaid with silver. The slaying of a dragon is represented above, and below is shown the Midgard ser- pent. 96 The Northmen and the Normans which, with its tail in its mouth, encircled the earth. In the last trial of strength Thor wrestled with an old woman, and after a violent contest was thrown down upon one knee. But the hag was in truth relentless old age, who sooner or later lays low all men. Most beautiful and best beloved of the Scandinavian divinities was Odin's son. Balder. He was represented as a gentle deity Myth of of innocence and righteousness. As long as he Balder lived, evil could gain no real control in the world and the power of the gods would remain unshaken. To pre- serve Balder from all danger his mother Frigga required every- thing on earth to swear never to harm her son. Only a single plant, the mistletoe, did not take the oath. Then the traitor Loki gathered the mistletoe and came to an assembly where the gods were hurling all kinds of missiles at Balder, to show that nothing could hurt him. Loki asked the blind Hoder to throw the plant at Balder. Hoder did so, and Balder fell dead. The gods tried to recover him from Hel, the gloomy underworld, but Hel demanded as his ransom a tear from every living creature. Gods, men, and even things inanimate wept for Balder, except one cruel giantess — Loki in disguise — who would not give a single tear. She said, ''Neither living nor dead was Balder of any use to me. Let Hel keep what it has." Disasters followed Balder's death. An immense fire burned up the world and the human race. The giants invaded Asgard "Twilight of and slaughtered its inhabitants. Odin fell a the Gods" victim to the mighty wolf Fenris. Thor, having killed the Midgard serpent, was suffocated with the venom which the dying monster cast over him. The end of all things arrived. This was the catastrophe which had been predicted of old — the ''Twilight of the Gods." Besides the conception of Hel, the Northmen also framed the idea of Valhalla,^ the abode to which Odin received the V ih souls of those who had died, not ingloriously in their beds, but on the field of battle. A troop of divine maidens, the Valkyries,^ rode through the air on Odin's ^ "Hall of the slain." 2 "Choosers of the slain." ' The Northmen in the West 97 service to determine the issue of battles and to select brave warriors for Valhalla. There on the broad plains they fought with one another by day, but at evening the slayer and the slain returned to Odin's hall to feast mightily on boar's flesh and drink deep draughts of mead. Christianity first gained a foothold in Denmark through the work of Roman CathoUc missionaries sent out by Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious. Two centuries elapsed be- christianiza- fore the Danes were completely converted. From tion of the Denmark the new faith spread to Sweden. Nor- °^ "^^^ way owed its conversion largely to the crusading work of King Olaf (1016-1029), better known as Olaf the Saint. The Nor- wegians carried Christianity to their settlements in Iceland. With the general adoption of the Christian religion in Scan- dinavian lands, the Viking Age drew to an end. 39. The Northmen in the West The Viking movement, which began when the Northmen were still heathen, was due principally to land-hunger. Like the Arabs, the Northmen went forth from a Expansion of sterile peninsula to find better homes abroad. Scandinavia The political condition of Scandinavia in the ninth century also helps to explain the Viking movement. Denmark and Norway had now become strong kingdoms, whose rulers forced all who would not submit to their sway to leave the country. Thus it resulted that the numbers of the emigrants were swelled by exiles, outlaws, and other adventurers, who turned to the sea in hope of gain. The Northmen started out as pirates and fell on the coasts of England, France, and Germany. They also found it easy to ascend the rivers in their shallow boats and Raids of the reach places lying far inland. The Northmen Northmen directed their attacks especially against the churches and monasteries, which were full of treasure and less easily defended than fortified towns. Their raids inspired such great terror that a special prayer was inserted in the church services: "From the fury of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us." 98 The Northmen and the Normans The incursions of the Northmen took place at first only in summer, but before long they began to winter in the lands which they visited. Year by year their fleets became larger, and their attacks changed from mere forays of pirates to well-organized expeditions of conquest and colonization. Early in the ninth century we find them making permanent settlements in Ireland, and for a time bringing a considerable part of that The North men in Ireland, Scotland, and the islands Discoveries of the Northmen in the West country under their control. The first cities on Irish soil, including Dublin and Limerick, were founded by the Northmen. Almost simultaneously with the attacks on Ireland came those on the western coast of Scotland. In the course of their west- ward expeditions the Northmen had already discovered the Faroe Islands, the Orkneys, the Shetlands, and the Hebrides. These barren and inhospitable islands received large numbers of Norse immigrants and long remained under Scandinavian control. The Northmen in the West 99 The Northmen soon discovered Iceland, where Irish monks had previously settled. Colonization began in 874.^ One of the most valuable of the sagas — the ''Book of j^^ North- the Land-taking" — describes the emigration to men in the island and enumerates the Viking chiefs who ^^^^ took part in the movement. Iceland soon became almost a second Norway in language, Uterature, and customs. It re- mains to-day an outpost of Scandinavian civilization. The first settlement of Greenland was the work of an Ice- lander, Eric the Red, who reached the island toward the end of the tenth century. He called the country ^j^^ North- Greenland, not because it was green, but because, men in as he said, ''there is nothing like a good name to ^^^ *^ attract settlers." Intercourse between Greenland and Iceland was often dangerous, and at times was entirely interrupted by ice. Leif Ericsson, the son of Eric the Red, estabUshed a new route of commerce and travel by sailing from Greenland to Norway by way of the Hebrides. This was the first voyage made directly across the Atlantic. Norway and Greenland continued to enjoy a flourishing trade for several centuries. After the connection with Norway had been severed, the Green- landers joined the Eskimos and mingled with that primitive people. Two of the sagas give accounts of a voyage which Leif Erics- son about 1000 made to regions lying southward from Green- land. In the sagas they are called Helluland /j-j^g North- (stone-land), Markland (wood-land), and Vinland. men in Just what part of the coast of North America these countries occupied is an unsolved problem. Leif Ericsson and the Greenlanders who followed him seem to have reached at least the shores of Labrador, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia. They may have gone even farther southward, for the sagas describe regions where the climate was mild enough for wild vines and wild wheat to grow. The Northmen, how- ever, did not follow up their explorations by lasting settlements. ^ The Icelanders in 1874 celebrated the thousandth anniversary of the Scandi- navian settlement of their island. loo The Northmen and the Normans All memory of the far western lands faded before long from the minds of men. The curtain fell on the New World, not again to rise until the time of Columbus and Cabot. 40. The Northmen m the East The Norwegians took the leading part in the Viking move- ment westward across the Atlantic. They also sailed far north- Arctic ex- ward, rounding the North Cape and reaching the of^'^e North- mouth of the Dwina River in the White Sea. men Viking sailors, therefore, have the credit for under- taking the first voyages of exploration into the Arctic. The Swedes, on account of their geographical position, were naturally the most active in expeditions to eastern lands. The North- ^^ ^ "^^^y early date they crossed the Gulf of men in Bothnia and paid frequent visits to Finland. Its ^ rude inhabitants, the Finns, were related in lan- guage, and doubtless in blood also, to the Huns, Magyars, and other Asiatic peoples. Sweden ruled Finland throughout the Middle Ages. Russia obtained control of the country early in the nineteenth century, but Swedish influence has made it largely Scandinavian in civilization. The activities of the Swedes also led them to establish settle- ments on the southern shore of the Baltic and far inland along The North- ^^^ waterways leading into Russia. An old men in Russian chronicler declares that in 862 the Slavs sent an embassy to the Swedes, whom they called "Rus," saying, "Our country is large and rich, but there is no order in it; come and govern us." The Swedes were not slow to accept the invitation. Their leader, Ruric, established a dynasty which reigned in Russia over seven hundred years. ^ The first Russian state centered in the city of Novgorod, near Lake Ilmen, where Ruric built a strong fortress. Nov- Novgorod gorod during the Middle Ages was an important and Kiev station on the trade route between the Baltic and the Black Sea.^ Some of Ruric's followers, passing southward 1 Russia in 1862 celebrated the millenary of her foundation by Ruric. 2 See the map between pages 234 and 235. Normandy and the Normans loi along the Dnieper River, took possession of the small town of Kiev. It subsequently became the capital of the Scandinavian possessions in Russia. The Northmen in Russia maintained close intercourse with their mother country for about two centuries. During this period they did much to open up northeastern Scandinavian Europe to the forces of civilization and progress, influence in Colonies were founded, cities were built, commerce "^^^* was fostered, and a stable government was established. Russia under the sway of the Northmen became for the first time a truly European state. During the reign of Vladimir, a descendant of Ruric, the Christian religion gained its first foothold in Russia. We are told that Vladimir, having made up his mind to Christianity embrace a new faith, sent commissioners to Rome in Russia, 988 and Constantinople, and also to the adherents of Islam and Judaism. His envoys reported in favor of the Greek Church, for their barbarian imagination had been so impressed by the majesty of the ceremonies performed in Sancta Sophia that "they did not know whether they were on earth or in heaven." Vladimir accepted their report, ordered the idols of Kiev to be thrown into the Dnieper, and had him- self and his people baptized according to the rites of the Greek Church. At the same time he married a sister of the reigning emperor at Constantinople. Vladimir's decision to adopt the Greek form of Christianity is justly regarded as one of the formative influences in Russian history. It meant that the eastern Slavs were to , Importance come under the religious influence of Constanti- of the con- nople, instead of under that of Rome. Further- version of . ..... Russia more, it meant that Byzantine civilization would henceforth gain an entrance into Russia. 41. Normandy and the Normans No part of western Europe suffered more severely from the Northmen than France. They first appeared on the French coast toward the end of Charlemagne's reign. After that I02 The Northmen and the Normans ruler's death the wars of his grandsons left the empire defense- less, and the Northmen in consequence redoubled their attacks. The North- They sailed far up the Seine, the Loire, and the men in Garonne to plunder and murder. Paris; then a small but important city, lay in the path of the invaders and more than once suffered at their hands. The destruction by the Northmen of many monasteries was a loss to civilization, for the monastic establishments at this time were the chief centers of learning and culture.^ The heavy hand of the Northmen also descended on Germany. The rivers Scheldt, Meuse, Rhine, and Elbe enabled them to The North- .proceed at will into the heart of the country, men in Liege, Cologne, Strassburg, Hamburg, and other ermany great Frankish cities fell before them. Viking raiders even plundered Aix-la-Chapelle and stabled their horses in the church which Charlemagne had built there.^ The ancient homeland of the Franks was laid completely waste. The history of the Northmen in France began in 911, when the Carolingian king granted to a Viking chieftain, RoUo, dominion over the region about the lower Seine. RoUo and ^ „ , . ^ , ^, . . . the grant of Rollo on his part agreed to accept Christianity Normandy, ^^^^ ^q acknowledge the French ruler as his lord. It is said, however, that he would not kneel and kiss the king's foot as a mark of homage, and that the follower who performed the unwelcome duty did it so awkwardly as to overturn the king, to the great amusement of the assem- bled Northmen. The story illustrates the Viking sense of independence. The district ceded to Rollo developed into what in later times was known as the duchy of Normandy. Its Scandinavian Duchy of settlers, henceforth called Normans,^ soon became Normandy French in language and culture. It was amazing to see how quickly the descendants of wild sea-rovers put off their heathen ways and made their new home a Christian land, noted for its churches, monasteries, and schools. Normandy 1 See page 59. 2 gee the illustration, page 15. 3 "Norman" is a softened form of "Northman." Conquest of England by the Danes 103 remained practically independent till the beginning of the thirteenth century, when a French king added it to his possessions. The Normans helped to found the medieval French monarchy. During the tenth century the old Carohngian line of rulers, which had already died out in Germany and Italy, came also to an end in France. A new dynasty mans and was then founded by a nobleman named Hugh ^"^^ Capet, Capet, who secured the aid of the powerful Nor- man dukes in his efforts to gain the throne. The accession of Hugh Capet took place in 987. His descendants reigned over France for almost exactly eight hundred years.^ 42. Conquest of England by the Danes; Alfred the Great Even before Egbert of Wessex succeeded in uniting all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, bands of Vikings, chiefly from Den- mark, had made occasional forays on the Enghsh England coast. Egbert kept the Danes at bay, but after overrun by his death the real invasion of England began. ^ ^"^^ The Danes came over in large numbers, made permanent settlements, and soon controlled all England north of the Thames. Wessex before long experienced the full force of the Danish attack. The country at this time was ruled by Alfred, the grandson of Egbert. Alfred ascended the throne Alfred and in 871, when he was only about twenty- three years ^^ Danes old. In spite of his youth, he showed himself the right sort of leader for the hard-pressed West Saxons. After much fighting Alfred gained a signal victory over the enemy, who were now glad to make peace and accept the religion of their conquerors. The English and Danes finally agreed to a treaty dividing the country between them. The eastern part of England, where the invaders were firmly established, came to be called the Danelaw, because here the Danish, and not the Anglo-Saxon, law prevailed. In the Danelaw the Danes have left memorials ^ The abolition of the French monarchy dates from 1792, when Louis XVI was deposed from the throne. I04 The Northmen and the Normans ALFRED'S ENGLAND Scale of English Miles Longitude West 2 from Greenwich Conquest of England by the Danes 105 of themselves in local names/ and in the bold, adventurous char- acter of the inhabitants. It was a well-nigh ruined country which Alfred had now to rule over and build up again, civilizing His work of restora- activities of ^. . .^ . Alfred tion invites compari- son with that of Charlemagne. Alfred's first care was to organize a fighting force always ready at his call to repel invasion. He also created an efficient fleet, which patrolled the coast and engaged the Vikings on their own element. He had the laws of the Anglo- Saxons collected and reduced to writing) taking pains at the same time to see that justice was done between man and man. He did much to rebuild the ruined churches and monasteries. Alfred labored with especial diligence to revive education among the Eng- lish folk. His court at Winchester became a literary center where learned men wrote and taught. The king himself mastered Latin, in order that he might translate Latin books into the English tongue. So great were Alfred's services in this direction that he has been called the "father of English prose." 1 The east of England contains more than six hundred names of towns ending in by (Danish "town"); compare by-law, originally a law for a special town. Alfred the Great A lofty, bronze statue by H. Thor- neycraft set up at Winchester, Alfred's ancient capital. It was dedicated in 1 90 1 on the thousandth anniversary of his death. The inscription reads: " Alfred found learning dead, And he restored it; Education neglected. And he revived it; The laws powerless. And he gave them force; The Church debased, And he raised it; The land ravaged by a fear- ful enemy, Fiom which he delivered it." io6 The Northmen and the Normans About seventy-five years after the close of Alfred's reign the Danes renewed their invasions. It then became necessary to From Alfred buy them off with an to the Nor- annual tribute called the man Con- i i t-. i • quest, 901- Danegeld. Early m the 1066 eleventh century Canute, the son of a Danish king, succeeded in establishing himseh on the Enghsh throne (1016-1035). His dynasty did not last long, however, and at length the old West-Saxon line was restored in the person of Edward the Confessor (or "the Saint"). Edward had spent most of his early life in Normandy, and on coming to England brought with him a large following of Normans, whom he placed in high positions. During his reign (1042-1066) Norman wrought." Found at Atheiney in nobles and churchmen gained a foot- the seventeenth century. ^^^^ ^^ England, thus preparing the way for the conquest of the country. Alfred's Jewel Ashmolean Museum, Oxford A jewel of blue enamel inclosed in a setting of gold, with the words around it ' ' Alfred had me 43. Norman Conquest of England; William the Conqueror Edward the Confessor having left no direct heirs, the choice of his successor fell lawfully upon the Witenagemot,^ as the Harold and national assembly of noblemen and higher clergy WiiUam ^g^g called. This body chose as king, Harold, earl of Wessex, the leading man in England. Harold's right to the succession was disputed by William, duke of Normandy, who declared that the crown had been promised to him by his cousin, the Confessor. William also asserted that Harold had once sworn a solemn oath, over a chest of sacred reUcs, to sup- port his claim to the throne on Edward's death. When word came of Harold's election, William wrathfully denounced him 1 "Meeting of wise men.' formal meeting. The word gemot or moot was used for any kind of Norman Conquest of England 107 as a usurper and began to prepare a fleet and an army for the invasion of England. Normandy under Duke William had become a powerful, well-organized state. Norman knights, attracted by promises of wide lands and rich booty if they should con- invasion of quer, formed the core of William's forces. Adven- England turers from every part of France, and even from Spain and Italy, also entered his service. The pope blessed the enter- prise and sent to William a ring containing a hair from St. A Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry Museum of Bayeux, Normandy The Bayeux Tapestry, which almost certainly belongs to the time of the Norman Con- quest, is a strip of coarse linen cloth, about 230 feet long by 20 inches wide, embroidered in worsted thread of eight different colors. There are seventy-two scenes picturing various events in the history of the Norman Conquest. The illustration given above represents an attack of Norman cavalry on the English shield wall at the battle of Hastings. Peter's head and a consecrated banner. When all was ready in the late fall of 1066, a large fleet, bearing five or six thousand archers, foot soldiers, and horsemen, crossed the Channel and landed in England. William at first met no resistance. Harold was far away in the north fighting against the Norwegians, who had seized the opportunity to make another descent on the English Battle of coast. Harold defeated them decisively and then Hastings, 1066 hurried southward to face his new foe. The two armies met near Hastings on the road to London. All day they fought. The stout English infantry, behind their wall of shields, threw back one charge after another of the Norman knights. io8 The Northmen and the Normans 4 Longitude West 2 from Greenwich Longitude East 2 . .I.onfr.nt /--• S V-i-py ^V Mencon ^^^J Results of the Norman Conquest 109 Again and again the duke rallied his men and led them where the foe was thickest. A cry arose that he was slain. "I live," shouted William, tearing off his helmet that all might see his face, "and by God's help will conquer yet." At last, with the approach of evening, Harold was killed by an arrow; his house- hold guard died about him; and the rest of the English took to flight. William pitched his camp on the battle-field, and "sat down to eat and drink among the dead." The battle of Hastings settled the fate of England. Fol- lowing up his victory with relentless energy, William pressed on to London. That city, now practically the William be- capital of the country, opened its gates to him. co^^^s king The Witenagemot, meeting in London, offered the throne to William. On Christmas Day, 1066, in Westminster Abbey the duke of Normandy was crowned king of England. What manner of man was William the Conqueror? Tall of stature, endowed with tremendous strength, and brave even to desperation, he seemed an embodiment of the William's old Viking spirit. "No knight under heaven," personality men said truly, "was William's peer." A savage temper and a harsh, forbidding countenance made him a terror even to his closest followers. "So stern and wrathful was he," wrote an Enghsh chronicler, "that none durst do anything against his will." Though William never shrank from force or fraud, from bloodshed or oppression, to carry out his ends, he yet showed himself throughout his reign a patron of learning, a sincere supporter of the Church, and a statesman of remarkable insight. He has left a lasting impress on English history. 44. Results of the Norman Conquest The coming of the Normans to England formed the third and last installment of the Teutonic invasion. Norman mer- chants and artisans followed Norman soldiers and 11 • 1 1 • 1 1 1 Norman ele- settled particularly m the southern and eastern ment in the parts of the island. They seem to have emigrated English in considerable numbers and doubtless added an important element to the English population. The Normans no The Northmen and the Normans thus completed the work of the Anglo-Saxons and Danes in making England largely a Teutonic country. It must be remembered, however, that the Normans in Normandy had received a considerable infusion of French blood and had learned to speak a form of the French Norman ele- ment in the language (Norman-French) . In England Norman- English French naturally was used by the upper and ruling classes — by the court, the nobility, and the clergy. The English held fast to their own homely language, but could not fail to pick up many French expressions, as they mingled with their conquerors in churches, markets, and other places of public resort. It took about three hundred years for French words and phrases to soak thoroughly into their speech. The result was a very large addition to the vocabulary of Enghsh.^ Until the Norman Conquest England, because of its insular po*sition, had remained out of touch with Continental Europe. Union of William the Conqueror and his immediate suc- Engiand and cessors were, however, not only rulers of England, orman y ^^^ ^j^^ dukes of Normandy and subjects of the French kings. Hence the union of England with Normandy brought it at once into the full current of European affairs. The country became for a time almost a part of France and profited by the more advanced civilization which had arisen on French soil. The Norman Conquest much increased the pope's authority over England. The English Church, as has been shown, ^ England ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^*^ ^^ Rome, but during the Anglo- and the Saxon period it had become more independent apacy ^^ ^|^^ Papacy than the churches on the Con- tinent. William the Conqueror, whose invasion of England took place with the pope's approval, repaid his obHgation by bringing the country into closer dependence on the Roman pontiff. Although the Normans came to England as conquerors, yet after all they were near kinsmen of the EngUsh and did not 1 See page 248. - See page 29. Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily iii long keep separate from them. In Normandy a century and a half had been enough to turn the Northmen into French- men. So in England, at the end of a like period, pusion of the Normans became Englishmen. Some of the English and qualities that have helped to make the modern o"^*ns English a great people — their love of the sea and fondness for adventure, their vigor, self-reliance, and dauntless spirit — are doubtless derived in good part from the Normans. 45. Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily The conquest of England, judged by its results, proved to be the most important undertaking of the Normans. But during this same eleventh century they found Gorman another field in which to display their energy expansion and daring. They turned southward to the ^°"*^^" Mediterranean and created a Norman state in Italy and Sicily. Norman Possessions in Italy and Sicily The unsettled condition of Italy gave the Normans an op- portunity for interference in the affairs of the country. The founding of Norman power there was largely the conquests work of a noble named Robert Guiscard ("the of Robert Crafty"), a man almost as celebrated as William the Conqueror. He had set out from his home in Normandy 112 The Northmen and the Normans with only a single follower, but his valor and shrewdness soon brought him to the front. Robert, united the scattered bands of Normans in Italy, who were fighting for pay or plunder, and wrested from the Roman Empire in the East its last ter- ritories in the peninsula. Robert's brother, Roger, crossed the strait of Messina and began the subjugation of Sicily, then a Moslem possession. Roger ^^^ recovery from the hands of "infidels" was con- Guiscard's sidered by the Normans a work both pleasing to conquests q^^ ^^^ profitable to themselves. By the close of the eleventh century they had finally established their rule in the island. The conquests of the Normans in southern Italy and Sicily were united into a single state, which came to be known as Kingdom ^^^ kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Normans of the governed it for only about one hundred and fifty wo ic les yga^js, but under other rulers it lasted until the middle of the nineteenth century, when the present kingdom of Italy came into existence. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies was well- governed, rich, and strong. Art and learning flourished in the cities of Naples, Norman Salerno, and Palermo. Southern Italy and Sicily culture in under the Normans became a meeting place of Byzantine and Arabic civilization. The Norman kingdom thus formed an important channel through which the culture of the East flowed to the North and to the West. 46. The Normans in European History The conquests of the Normans in England, Italy, and Sicily were effected after they had become a Christian and a French- Norman speaking people. In these lands they were the faculty of armed missionaries of a civilization not their a ap on own. The Normans, indeed, invented Uttle and borrowed much. But, like the Arabs, they were more than simple imitators. In language, Hterature, art, religion, and law what they took from others they improved and then spread abroad throughout their settlements. The Normans in European History 113 It seems at first sight remarkable that a people who occu- pied so much of western Europe should have passed away. Normans as Normans no longer exist. They lost Assimilation themselves in the kingdoms which they founded of the and among the peoples whom they subdued. •'^^^"^^^^ Their rapid assimilation was chiefly the consequence of their small numbers: outside of Normandy they were too few long to maintain their identity. If the Normans themselves soon disappeared, their influence was more lasting. Their mission, it has been well said, was to be leaders and energizers of society — " the Norman Httle leaven that leaveneth the whole lump." influence The peoples of medieval Europe owed much to the courage and martial spirit, the genius for government, and the reverence for law, of the Normans. In one of the most significant move- ments of the Middle Ages — the crusades — they took a prom- inent part. Hence we shall meet them again. Studies I. What events are associated with the following dates: 988; 862; 1066; 911; and 987? 2. What was the origin of the geographical names Russia, Greenland, Finland, and Normandy? 3. Mention some of the striking physical contrasts between the Arabian and Scandinavian peninsulas. 4. Why has the Baltic Sea been called a "secondary Mediterranean"? 5. How does it happen that the Gulf of Bothnia is often frozen over in winter, while the Norse fiords remain open? 6. Why is an acquaintance with Scandinavian mythology, literature, and history especially desirable for English-speaking peoples? 7. What is meant by the "berserker's rage"? 8. What names of our weekdays are derived from the names of Scandinavian deities? 9. Compare the Arab and Scandinavian conceptions of the future state of departed warriors. 10. What is meant by "sea-power"? What people possessed it during the ninth and tenth centuries? 11. Compare the inva- sions of the Northmen with those of the Germans as to (o) causes, (b) area covered, and (c) results. 12. What was the significance of the fact that the Northmen were not Christians at the time when they began their expeditions? 13. Show how the voyages of the Northmen vastly increased geographical knowledge. 14. Show that the Russian people have received from Constantinople their writing, religion, and art. 15. Mention three conquests of England by foreign peoples before 1066. Give for each conquest the results and the approximate date. 16. On the map, page 104, trace the boundary line between Alfred's possessions and those of the Danes. 17. Compare Alfred and Charlemagne as civilizing kings. 18. Compare Alfred's cession of the Danelaw with the cession of Normandy to Rollo. 19. Why is Hastings included among "decisive" battles? 20. "We English are not our- selves but somebody else." Comment on this statement. 21. What is meant by the "Norman graft upon the sturdy Saxon tree"? CHAPTER VI FEUDALISM 47. Rise of Feudalism The ninth century in western Europe was a period of violence, disorder, and even anarchy. Charlemagne for a time had ar- rested the disintegration of society which resulted from the invasions of the Germans, and had united their warring tribes under something like a centralized government. But his work, it has been well said, was only a desperate rally in the midst of confusion. After his death the Carolingian Empire, attacked by the Northmen and other invaders and weakened by civil conflicts, broke up into separate kingdoms. Charlemagne's successors in France, Germany, and Italy enjoyed little real authority. They reigned, but did not rule. Decline of During this dark age it was really impossible the royal for a king to govern with a strong hand. The authority absence of good roads or of other easy means of communication made it difficult for him to move troops quickly from one district to another, in order to quell revolts. Even had good roads existed, the lack of ready money would have prevented him from maintaining a strong army devoted to his interests. Moreover, the king's subjects, as yet not welded into a nation, felt toward him no sentiments of loyalty and affection. They cared far le^s for their king, of whom they knew httle, than for their own local lords who dwelt near them. The decline of the royal authority, from the ninth century onward, meant that the chief functions of government came to Increased ^^ "^^^^ ^^^ "^^^^ performed by the nobles, who power of were the great landowners of the kingdom. Under the nobles Charlemagne these men had been the king's offi- cials, appointed by him and holding office at his pleasure. 114 Rise of Feudalism 115 Under his successors they tended to become almost independent princes. In proportion as this change was accompUshed during the Middle Ages, European society entered upon the stage of feudalism.^ Feudalism in medieval Europe was not a unique develop- ment. Parallels to it may be found in other parts of the world. Whenever the state becomes incapable of protect- parallels to ing life and property, powerful men in each locality European will themselves undertake this duty; they will assume the burden of their own defense and of those weaker men who seek their aid. Such was the situation in ancient Egypt for several hundred years, in medieval Persia, and in modern Japan until about two generations ago. European feudalism arose and flourished in the countries which had formed the Carolingian Empire, that is, in France, Germany, and northern Italy. It also spread Extent of to Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, and the Christian European states of Spain. Toward the close of the eleventh century the Normans transplanted it into England, southern Italy, and Sicily. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the crusaders introduced it into the kingdoms which they founded in the East. Still later, in the fourteenth century, the Scandinavian countries became acquainted with feudalism. The institution, though varying endlessly in details, presented certain common features througout this wide area. 48. Feudalism as a Form of Local Government The basis of feudal society was usually the landed estate. Here lived the feudal noble, surrounded by dependents over whom he exercised the rights of a petty sovereign. Feudal He could tax them; he could require them to give sovereignty him mihtary assistance; he could try them in his courts. A great noble, the possessor of many estates, even enjoyed the 1 The word has nothing to do with "feuds," though these were common enough in feudal times. It comes from the medieval Latin feudum, from which are derived the French fief and the English fee. ii6 Feudalism privilege of declaring war, making treaties, and coining money. How, it will be asked, did these rights and privileges arise? Owing to the decay of commerce and industry, land had be- come practically the only form of wealth in the early Middle Feudal Ages. The king, who was regarded as the ab- tenure of solute owner of the soil, would pay his officials for ^^^^ their services by giving them the use of a certain amount of land. In the same way, one who had received large estates would parcel them out among his followers, as a reward for their support. Sometimes an unscrupulous noble might seize the lands of his neighbors and compel them to become his tenants. Sometimes, too, those who owned land in their own right might surrender the title to it in favor of a noble, who then became their protector. An estate in land which a person held of a superior lord, on condition of performing some "honorable" service, was called a fief. At first the tenant received the fief only for a specified term of years or for his life- time; but in the end it became inheritable. On the death of the tenant his eldest son succeeded him in possession. This right of the first-born son to the whole of the father's estate was known as primogeniture.^ If a man had no legal heir, the fief went back to its lord. The tie which bound the tenant who accepted a fief to the lord who granted it was called vassalage. Every holder of land was in theory, though not always in fact, the vassal of some lord. At the apex of the feudal pyramid stood the king, the supreme landlord, who was supposed to hold his land from God; below the king stood the greater lords (dukes, marquises, counts, and barons), with large estates; and below them stood the lesser lords, or knights, whose possessions were considered to be too small for further subdivision. The vassal, first of all, owed various services to the lord. In 1 The practice of primogeniture has now been abolished by the laws of the various European countries and is not recognized in the United States. It still prevails, however, in England. Feudalism as a Form of Local Government 117 time of war he did garrison duty at the lord's castle and joined him in military expeditions. In time of peace personal the vassal attended the lord on ceremonial occa- services of sions, gave him the benefit of his advice, when required, and helped him as a judge in trying cases. The vassal, under certain circumstances, was also required to make money payments. When a new heir succeeded to the fief, the lord received from him a sum usually j.^^ vassal's equivalent to one year's revenue of the estate, money This payment was called a "relief." Again, if a p^^^®" ^ man sold his fief, the lord demanded another large sum from the purchaser, before giving his consent to the transaction. Vassals were also expected to raise money for the lord's ransom, in case he was made prisoner of war, to meet the expenses connected with the knighting of his eldest son, and to provide a dowry for his eldest daughter. Such exceptional payments went by the name of "aids." The vassal, in return for his services and payments, looked to the lord for the protection of life and property. The lord agreed to secure him in the enjoyment of his fief, to guard -^j^g j^jj.^,g him against his enemies, and to see that in all duty to the matters he received just treatment. This was no slight undertaking. The ceremony of homage^ symbolized the whole feudal rela- tionship. One who proposed to become a vassal and hold a fief came into the lord's presence, bareheaded and unarmed, knelt down, placed his hands be- tween those of the lord, and promised henceforth to become his "man." The lord then kissed him and raised him to his feet. After the ceremony the vassal placed his hands upon the Bible, or upon sacred relics, and swore to remain faithful to his lord. This was the oath of "fealty." The lord then gave the vassal some object — a stick, a clod of earth, a lance, or a glove — in token of the fief with the possession of which he was now "mvested." It is clear that the feudal method of land tenure, coupled ^ Latin homo, "man." ii8 Feudalism with the custom of vassalage, made in some degree for security A substitute and order. Each noble was attached to the lord for anarchy above him by the bond of personal service and the oath of fidelity. To his vassals beneath him he was at once protector, benefactor, and friend. Unfortunately, feudal ob- Hgations were not always strictly observed. Both lords and vassals often broke their engagements, when it seemed profit- able to do so. Hence they had many quarrels and indulged in constant warfare. But feudahsm, despite its defects, was better than anarchy. The feudal lords drove back the pirates and hanged the brigands and enforced the laws, as no feeble king could do. They provided a rude form of local government for a rude society. 49. Feudal Justice Feudalism was not only a form of local government; it was also a form of local justice. Knights, barons, counts, and dukes Judicial had their separate courts, and the king had his rights court above all. Cases arising on the lord's estate were tried before him and the vassals whom he called to his assistance in giving justice. Since most wrongs could be atoned for by the payment of a fine, the conduct of justice on a large fief produced a considerable income. The nobles, ac- cordingly, regarded their judicial rights as a valuable property, which they were loath to surrender to the state. The law followed in a feudal court was largely based on old Germanic customs. The court did not act in the public interest, Judicial ad- as with US, but waited until the plaintiff requested ministration j^g service. Moreover, until the case had been decided, the accuser and the accused received the same treat- ment. Both were imprisoned; and the plaintiff who lost his case suffered the same penalty which the defendant, had he been found guilty, would have undergone. Unlike a modern court, again, the feudal court did not require the accuser to prove his case by calhng witnesses and having them give testimony. The burden of proof lay on the accused, who had to clear himself of the charge, if he could do so. In one form of trial it was enough Feudal Justice 119 for him to declare his innocence under oath, and then to bring in several '' oath-helpers," sometimes relatives, but more often neighbors, who swore that they believed him to be telling the truth. The number of these "oath-helpers" varied according to the seriousness of the crime and the rank of the accused. This method was hardly as unsatisfactory as it seems to be, for a person of evil repu- tation might not be able to secure the required number of friends who would commit perjury on his behalf. To take an oath was a very solemn proceeding; it was an appeal to God, by which a man called down on himself di- vine punishment if he swore falsely. The consequences of a false oath were not ap- ^ ^ , ^ Ordeals parent at once. Ordeals, how- ever, formed a method Trial by Combat From a manuscript of the fifteenth century. of appealing to God, the results of which could be immedi- ately observed. A common form of ordeal was by fire. The accused walked barefoot over live brands, or stuck his hand into a flame, or carried a piece of red-hot iron for a certain distance. In the ordeal by hot water he plunged his arm into boiling water. A man established his innocence through one of these tests, if the wound healed properly after three days. The ordeal by cold water rested on the belief that pure water would reject the criminal. Hence the accused was thrown bound into a stream: if he floated he was guilty ; if he sank he was innocent and had to be rescued. Though a crude method of securing justice, ordeals 1 20 Feudalism were doubtless useful in many instances. The real culprit would often prefer to confess, rather than incur the anger of God by submitting to the test. A form of trial which especially appealed to the warHke nobles was the judicial duel.^ The accuser and the accused fought The judicial with each Other; and the conqueror won the case. *^"®^ God, it was beheved, would give victory to the innocent party, because he had right on his side. When one of the adversaries could not fight, he secured a champion to take his place. Though the judicial duel finally went out of use in the law courts, it still continued to be employed pri- vately, as a means of settling disputes which involved a man's honor. The practice of dueling has now nearly died out in civilized communities. Oaths, ordeals, and duels formed an inheritance from Ger- manic antiquity.^ They offered a sharp contrast to Roman Feudal and law, which acted in the public interest, balanced Roman law evidence, and sought only to get at the truth. After the middle of the twelfth century the revival of the study of Roman law, as embodied in Justinian's code,^ led gradually to the abandonment of most forms of appeal to the judgment of God. The kings at the same time grew powerful enough to take into their own hands the administration of justice. 50. Feudal Warfare Feudalism, once more, was a form of local defense. The knight must guard his small estate, the baron his barony, the Local count his county, the duke his duchy. At the defense lord's bidding the vassal had to follow him to war, either alone or with a certain number of men, according to the size of the fief. But this assistance was limited. A vassal served only for a definite period (varying from one month to three in the year), and then only within a reasonable distance from the lands for which he did homage. These restrictions 1 Sir Walter Scott's novel, Ivanhoe (chapter xliii), contains an account of a judi- cial duel. 2 See page 30. ^ See pages 258-259. Feudal Warfare 121 made it difficult to conduct a lengthy campaign, or one far re- moved from the vassal's fief, unless mercenary soldiers were employed. The feudal army, as a rule, consisted entirely of cavalry. Such swiftly moving assailants as the Northmen and the Mag- yars could best be dealt with by mounted men The feudal who could bring them to bay, compel them to ^^^ fight, and overwhelm them by the shock of the charge. In this way the foot soldiers of Charlemagne's time came to be replaced by the mailed horsemen who for four centuries or more domi- nated European battle- fields. The armor used in the Middle Ages was gradually perfected, until Anns and at length the "™°' knight became a living fortress.^ In the early feudal period he wore a cloth or leather tunic, covered with iron rings or scales, and an iron cap with nose guard. About the beginning of the twelfth century he adopted chain mail, with a hood of the same material for the head. During the fourteenth century the knight began to wear heavy plate armor, weighing fifty pounds or more, and a helmet with a visor which could be raised or lowered. Thus completely in- cased in metal, provided with shield, lance, straight sword, or battle-ax, and mounted on a powerful horse, the knight could ride down almost any number of poorly armed peasants. Not till the development of missile weapons — the longbow, and later the musket — did the foot soldier resume his importance in warfare. The feudal age by this time was drawing to a close. * See the illustrations, pages 107, 119, 121, and 169. Mounted Knight Seal of Robert FitzwaUer, showing a mounted knight in complete mail armor; date about 1265. 122 Feudalism The nobles regarded the right of waging war on one another as their most cherished privilege. A vassal might fight with Prevalence ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ various lords to whom he had done of private homage, in order to secure independence from them, with bishops and abbots whom he disliked for any reason, with his weaker fellow vassals, and even with his own vassals. Fighting became almost a form of business enterprise, which enriched the nobles and their retainers through the sack of castles, the plunder of villages, and the ransom of prisoners. Every hill became a stronghold and every plain a battle-field. Such private warfare, though rarely very bloody, spread havoc throughout the land. The Church, to its great honor, lifted a protesting voice against this evil. It proclaimed a ''Peace of God" and for- The Peace bade attacks on all defenseless people, including and Truce priests, monks, pilgrims, merchants, peasants, and women. But it was found impossible to pre- vent the feudal lords from attacking one another, even though they were threatened with the eternal torments of hell; and so the Church tried to restrict what it could not altogether abolish. A ''Truce of God" was established. All men were to cease fighting from' Wednesday evening to Monday morn- ing of each week, during Lent, and on various holy days. The truce would have given Christendom peace for about two hundred and forty days each year; but it seems never to have been strictly observed except in limited areas. As the power of the kings increased in. western Europe, they naturally sought to put an end to the constant fighting between AboUtion ^^^^^ subjects. The Norman rulers of Normandy, of private England, and Sicily restrained their turbulent nobles with a strong hand. Peace came later in most parts of the Continent; in Germany, "fist right" (the rule of the strongest) prevailed until the end of the fif- teenth century. The abohtion of private war was the first step in Europe toward universal peace. The second step — the abolition of public war between nations — is yet to be taken. ^^ ?3 D ?^ 3 D •< 3 n ^ c i' P i sr p w 3 5- cr ^ o !;*, (T> The Castle and Life of the Nobles 123 51. The Castle and Life of the Nobles The outward mark of feudalism was the castle/ where the lord resided and from which he ruled his fief. The castle, in its earUest form, was simply a wooden block- oeveloo- house placed on a mound and surrounded by a ment of the stockade. About the beginning of the twelfth ^^^^^ century the nobles began to build in stone, which would better resist fire and the assaults of besiegers. A stone castle con- sisted at first of a single tower, square, or round, with thick walls, few windows, and often with only one room to each story.2 As engineering skill increased, several towers were built and were then connected by outer and inner walls. The castle thus became a group of fortifications, which might cover a wide area. Defense formed the primary purpose of the castle. Until the introduction of gunpowder and cannon, the only siege engines employed were those known in ancient The castle times. They included machines for hurling heavy *^ ^ fortress stones and iron bolts, battering rams, and movable towers, from which the besiegers crossed over to the walls. Such engines could best be used on firm, level ground. Conse- quently, a castle would often be erected on a high cliff or hill, or on an island, or in the center of a swamp. A castle without such natural defenses would be surrounded by a deep ditch (the "moat"), usually filled with water. If the besiegers could not batter down or undermine the massive walls, they adopted the slower method of a blockade and tried to starve the gar- rison into surrendering. Ordinarily, however, a well-built, well-provisioned castle was impregnable. Behind its frown- ing battlements even a petty lord could defy a royal army. A visitor to a medieval castle crossed the drawbridge over the moat and approached the narrow doorway, which was protected by a tower on each side. If he was admitted, the 1 The French form of -the word is chateau. ^ A good example is the "White Tower," which forms a part of the Tower of London. See the illustration, page 194. 124 Feudalism Chateau Gaillard (Restored) The finest of all medieval castles. Located on a high hill overlooking the Seine, about twenty miles from Rouen. Built by Richard the Lion-hearted within a twelvemonth (1197-1198) and by him called " Saucy Castle." It was captured a few years later by the French king, Philip Augustus, and was dismantled early in the seventeenth century. The castle consisted of three distinct series of fortifications, besides the keep, which in this case was merely a strong tower. The Castle and Life of the Nobles 125 iron grating ("portcullis") rose slowly on its creaking pulleys, the heavy, wooden doors swung open, and he found himself in the courtyard commanded by the great central Description tower ("keep"), where the lord and his family of a castle lived, especially in time of war. At the summit of the keep 5=i^j3=,^2a^. KHighAngleTower Klnirance Ga ie ^.Gate H-omEscarpment E,'&Sma//er Side Tower L.Counterscarpe TT.F/anking To\A/erS CCDB.Corner Tower W./Ceep V. Outer Towers YL. Outer Enciefiie,orIowerCouri\i Escarpment "K.ConnBcting h/a// Y. Well 0. Postern Tower y Stockade m River G.H.Bui'/dings in LowerCourt P. Postern Gate Z.Z GreatDiiches 1. Moat 'R.-R..ParapetWa//s Plan of Chateau Gaillard The plan is intended to represent that of a typical castle, as the plan of Kirkstall Abbey represents that of a typical monastery. rose a platform whence the sentinel surveyed the country far and wide; below, two stories underground, lay the prison, dark, damp, and dirty. As the visitor walked about the courtyard, he came upon the hall, used as the lord's residence 126 Feudalism in time of peace, the armory, the chapel, the kitchens, and the stables. A spacious castle might contain, in fact, all the build- ings necessary for the support of the lord's servants and soldiers. Life within the castle was very dull. There were some games, especially chess, which the nobles learned from the Amusements Moslems. Banqueting, however, formed the chief of the nobles jndoor amusement. The lord and his retainers sat down to a feast and, as they ate and drank, watched the pranks of a profes- sional jester or listened to the songs and music of minstrels or, it may be, heard with wonder the tales of far-off countries brought by some returning traveler. Outside castle walls a common sport was hunting in the forests and game preserves attached to every estate. Deer, bears, and wild boars were hunted with hounds; for smaller animals trained hawks, or falcons, were employed. But the nobles, as we have just seen, found in fighting their chief outdoor occupation and pastime. "To play a great game" was their description of a battle. King and Jester From a manuscript of the early fifteenth century. 52. Knighthood and Chivalry The prevalence of warfare in feudal times made the use of arms a profession requiring special training. A nobleman's Apprentice- ^^^ served for a number of years, first as a page, ship of the then as a squire, in his father's castle or in that of ^^^^* some other lord. He learned to manage a horse, to clhnb a scaling ladder, to wield sword, battle-ax, and lance. He also waited at the lord's table, assisted him in his toilet, followed him in the chase, and attended him on campaigns. This apprenticeship usually lasted from five to seven years. Knighthood and Chivalry 127 When the young noble became of age, he might be made a knight, if he deserved the honor and could afford the expense. The ceremony of conferring knighthood was often Conferring of most elaborate. The candidate fasted, took a knighthood bath — the symbol of purification — and passed the eve of his admission in prayer. Next morning he confessed his sins, went to mass, and Hstened to a sermon on the duties of knighthood. This ended, his father, or the noble who had brought him up, girded him with . a sword and gave k %^ him the "acco- lade," that is, a blow on the neck or shoulder, at the same time saying, "Be thou a good knight." Then the youth, clad in shining armor and wear- ing golden spurs, mounted his horse and exhibited his skill in warlike exercises. If a squire for valorous conduct received knighthood on the battle-field, the accolade by stroke of the sword formed the only ceremony. In course of time, as manners softened and Christian teach- ings began to affect feudal society, knighthood developed into chivalry. The Church, which opposed the war- like excesses of feudalism, took the knight under her wing and bade him be always a true soldier of Christ. To the rude virtues of fidelity to one's lord and bravery in battle, the Church added others. The "good knight" was he who re- spected his sworn word, who never took an unfair advantage of another, who defended women, widows, and orphans against their oppressors, and who sought to make justice and right prevail in the world. Chivalry thus marked the union of pagan and Christian virtues, of Christianity and militarism. Falconry From a manuscript of the thirteenth century in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. 128 Feudalism Needless to say, the ''good knight" appears rather in romance than in sober history. Such a one. was Sir Lancelot, in the The chival- stories of King Arthur and the Round Table. ^ As lie code gjj. Lancelot lies in death, a former companion addresses him in words which sum up the best in the chivalric code: '"Thou wert the courthest knight that ever bare shield; and thou wert the truest friend to thy lover that ever bestrode horse; and thou wert the truest lover among sinful men that ever loved woman; and thou wert the kindest man that ever struck with sword; and thou wert the goodUest person that A Joust From a French manuscript of the early fourteenth century. Shows knights jousting with cronels on their lances. ever came among press of knights; and thou wert the meekest man, and the gentlest, that ever ate in hall among ladies; and thou wert the sternest knight to thy mortal foe that ever put spear in the rest.'" ^ The all-absorbing passion for fighting led to the invention of mimic warfare in the shape of jousts and tournaments.^ These Jousts and exercises formed the medieval equivalent of the tournaments Greek athletic games and the Roman gladiatorial shows. The joust was a contest between two knights; the tour- nament, between two bands of knights. The contests took place in a railed-off space, called the "lists," about which the spectators gathered. Each knight wore upon his helmet the 1 See page 251. 2 Malory, Alorte d'Arthur, xxi, 13. See also Tennyson's poem, Sir Galahad, for a beautiful presentation of the ideal knight. ^ Sir Walter Scott's novel, Ivanhoe (chapter xii), contains a description of a tournament. Feudalism as a Form of Local Industry 129 scarf or color of his lady and fought with her eyes upon him. Victory went to the one who unhorsed his opponent or broke in the proper manner the greatest number of lances. The beaten knight forfeited horse and armor and had to pay a ransom to the conqueror. Sometimes he lost his life, espe- cially when the participants fought with real weapons and not with blunted lances and pointless swords. The Church now and then tried to stop these performances, but they remained universally popular until the close of the Middle Ages. Chivalry arose with feudalism, formed, in fact, the religion of feudalism, and passed away only when the changed conditions of society made feudalism an anachronism. While influence of chivalry lasted, it produced some improvement in chivalry manners, particularly by insisting on the notion of personal honor and by fostering greater regard for women (though only for those of the upper class). Our modern notion of the con- duct befitting a "gentleman" goes back to the old chivalric code. Chivalry expressed, however, simply the sentiments of the warlike nobles. It was an aristocratic ideal. The knight despised and did his best to keep in subjection the toiling peasantry, upon whose backs rested the real burden of feudal society. 53. Feudalism as a Form of Local Industry Under the Roman Empire western Europe had been filled with flourishing cities. The Germanic invasions led to a gradual decay of trade and manufacturing, and hence of Decline of the cities in which these activities centered. As ^^^^ ^^® urban life declined, the mass of the population came to live more and more in isolated rural communities. This was the great economic feature of the early Middle Ages. An estate in land, when owned by a lord and occupied by dependent peasants, was called a manor.^ It naturally varied in size according to the wealth of its lord. In ^, ^ . The manor England perhaps six hundred acres represented the extent of an average estate. Every noble had at least ^ From the Old French manoir, "mansion" (Latin manere, "to dwell"). 130 Feudalism one manor; great nobles might have several manors, usually scattered throughout the country; and even the king depended on his many manors for the food supply of the court. England, during the period following the Norman Conquest, contained more than nine thousand of these manorial estates. Of the arable land of the manor the lord reserved as much as needful for his own use. The lord's land was called his "demesne," or domain. The rest of the land he Common n 1 , , i • cultivation of allotted to the peasants who were his tenants. the arable They cultivated their holdings in common ac- cording to the "open field" system. A farmer, instead of having his land in one compact mass, had it split up into a large number of small strips (usually about half an acre each) scattered over the manor, and separated, not by fences or hedges, but by banks of unplowed turf. The ap- pearance of a manor, when under cultivation, has been likened to a vast checkerboard or a patchwork quilt. The reason for the intermixture of strips seems to have been to make sure that each farmer had a portion both of the good land and of the bad. It is obvious that this arrangement compelled all the peasants to labor according to a common plan. A man had to sow the same kinds of crops as his neighbors, and to till and reap them at the same time. Agriculture, under such circumstances, could not fail to be unprogressive. In other ways, too, agriculture was very backward. Farmers did not know how to enrich the soil by the use of fertilizers Farming or how to provide for a proper rotation of crops, methods Hence each year they cultivated only two-thirds of the land, letting the other third lie "fallow" (uncultivated), that it might recover its fertility. It is said that eight or nine bushels of grain represented the average yield of an acre. Farm animals were small, for scientific breeding had not yet begun. Farm implements, also, were few and clumsy. It took five men a day to reap and bind the harvest of two acres. Besides his holding of arable land, which in England averaged about thirty acres, each peasant had certain rights over the non-arable land of the manor. He could cut a limited amount Feudalism as a Form of Local Industry 131 Farm Work in the Fourteenth Century Plowing. Harrowing. Cutting Weeds. Reaping. 132 Feudalism of hay from the meadow. He could turn so many farm animals — cattle, geese, swine — on the waste. He also enjoyed the Common use Privilege of taking so much wood from the forest of the non- for fuel and building purposes. A peasant's holding, which also included a house in the village, thus formed a complete outfit. 54. The Village and Life of the Peasants The peasants on a manor lived close together in one or more villages.- Their small, thatch-roofed, and one-roomed houses Description were grouped about an open space (the ''green"), of a village ^j. qj^ both sides of a single, narrow street. The only important buildings were the parish church, the par- sonage, a mill, if a stream ran through the manor, and possibly a blacksmith's shop. The population of one of these communities often did not exceed one hundred souls. A village in the Middle Ages had a regular staff of officials. First came the headman or reeve, who represented the peasants Village in their dealings with the lord of the manor, officials Next came the constable or beadle, whose duty it was to carry messages round the village, summon the inhabi- tants to meetings, and enforce the orders of the reeve. Then there was the poundkeeper, who seized straying animals, the watchman, who guarded the flocks at night, and the village carpenter, blacksmith, and miller. These officials, in return for their services, received an allowance of land, which the villagers cultivated for them. Perhaps the most striking feature of a medieval village was its self-sufficiency. The inhabitants tried to produce at home A viUage as everything they required, in order to avoid the self-sufficing uncertainty and expense of trade. The land gave them their food; the forest provided them with wood for houses and furniture. They made their own clothes of flax, wool, and leather. Their meal and flour were ground at the village mill, and at the village smithy their farm implements were manu- factured. The chief articles which needed to be brought from some distant market included salt, used to salt down farm The Village and Life of the Peasants 133 animals killed in autumn, iron for various tools, and millstones. Cattle, horses, and surplus grain also formed common objects of exchange between manors. Life in a medieval village was rude and rough. The peasants labored from sunrise to sunset, ate coarse fare, lived in huts, and suffered from frequent pestilences. They Hard lot of were often the helpless prey of the feudal nobles, the peasantry If their lord happened to be a quarrelsome man, given to fight- Plan of Hitchin Manor, Hertfordshire Lord's demesne, diagonal lines. Meadow and pasture lands, dotted areas. Normal holding of a peasant, black strips. ing with his neighbors, they might see their lands ravaged, their cattle driven off, and their village burned, and might themselves be slain. Even under peaceful conditions the narrow, shut-in life of the manor could not be otherwise than degrading. Yet there is another side to the picture. If the peasants had a just and generous lord, they probably led a fairly comfortable 134 Feudalism existence. Except when crops failed, they had an abundance AUeviations ^^ food, and possibly wine or cider to drink, of the They shared a common Ufe in the work of the peasant s ot ^gj^^g^ jj^ ^}^e sports of the village green, and in the services of the parish church. They enjoyed many holidays; it has been estimated that, besides Sundays, about eight weeks in every year were free from work. Festivities at Christmas, Easter, and May Day, at the end of ploughing and the com- pletion of harvest, relieved the monotony of the daily round of labor. Perhaps these medieval peasants were not much worse off than the agricultural laborers in most countries of modern Europe. 55. Serfdom A medieval village usually contained several classes of laborers. There might be a number of freemen, who paid a Freemen fixed rent, either in money or produce, for the slaves, and use of their land. A few slaves might also be ^^ ^ found in the lord's household or at work on his domain. By this time, however, slavery had about died out in western Europe. Most of the peasants were serfs. Serfdom represented a stage between slavery and freedom. A slave belonged to his master; he was bought and sold like Nature of other chattels. A serf had a higher position, for serfdom ]^g could not be sold apart from the land nor could his holding be taken from him. He was fixed to the soil. On the other hand, a serf ranked lower than a freeman, because he could not change his abode, nor marry outside the manor, nor bequeath his goods, without the permission of his lord. The serf did not receive his land as a free gift; for the use of it he owed certain duties to his master. These took chiefly the ObUgations form of personal services. He must labor on the of the serf lord's domain for two or three days each week, and at specially busy seasons, such as ploughing and harvesting, he must do extra work. At least half his time was usually de- manded by the lord. The serf had also to make certain pay- ments, either in money or more often in grain, honey, eggs, Decline of Feudalism 135 or other produce. When he ground the wheat or pressed the grapes which grew on his land, he must use the lord's mill, the lord's wine-press, and pay the customary charge. Serfdom developed during the later centuries of the Roman Empire and in the early Middle Ages. It was well estabhshed by the time of Charlemagne. Most serfs seem Origin of to have been the descendants, or at least the sue- serfdom cessors, of Roman slaves, whose condition had gradually im- proved. The serf class was also recruited from the ranks of freemen, who by conquest or because of the desire to gain the protection of a lord, became subject to him. Serfdom, how- ever, was destined to be merely a transitory condition. By the close of medieval times, the serfs in the more progressive countries of western Europe had secured their freedom. 56. Decline of Feudalism Feudalism led a vigorous life for about five hundred years. Taking definite shape early in the ninth century, Duration of it flourished throughout the later Middle Ages, feudaUsm but became decadent by the opening of the fourteenth century. As a form of local government, feudalism tended to pass away when the rulers in England, France, and Spain, and later in Germany and Italy, became powerful enough to put down private warfare, execute justice, and opposed to maintain order everywhere in their dominions, ffudahsm: the kings The kings were always anti-feudal. We shall study in a later chapter ^ the rise of strong governments and centralized states in western Europe. As a form of local industry, feudalism could not survive the great changes of the later Middle Ages, when reviving trade, commerce, and manufactures had begun to lead _ ° Forces to the increase of wealth, the growth of markets, opposed to and the substitution of money payments for those feudalism: in produce or services. Flourishing cities arose, as in the days of the Roman Empire, freed themselves from the control of the nobles, and became the homes of liberty and ^ See chapter x. 136 Feudalism democracy. The cities, like the kings, were always anti-feudal. We shall deal with their development in a later chapter.^ There was still another anti-feudal force, namely, the Roman Church. It is true that many of the higher clergy were feudal The Church lords, and that even the monasteries owned and feudalism manorial estates which were parceled out among tenants. Nevertheless, the Roman Church as a universal organization, including men of all ranks and classes, was neces- ■ sarily opposed to feudalism, a local and an aristocratic system. The work and influence of this Church will now engage our attention. Studies I. Write a brief essay on feudal society, using the following words: lord; vassal; castle; keep; dungeon; chivalry; tournament; manor; and serf. 2. Ex- plain the following terms: vassal; fief; serf; "aid"; homage; squire; investiture; and "relief." 3. Look up the origin of the words homage, castle, dungeon, and chivalry. 4. Mention some feudal titles which survive in those of European nobles. 5. "The real heirs of Charlemagne were from the first neither the kings of France nor those of Italy or Germany; but the feudal lords." Comment on this statement. 6. Why was the feudal system not found in the Roman Empire in the East during the Middle Ages? 7. Why has feudalism been called "confusion roughly organized"? 8. Contrast feudalism as a political system with (a) the classical city-states, {b) the Roman Empire; and (c) modern national states. Q. What was the effect of feudaUsm on the sentiment of patriotism? 10. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of primogeniture as the rule of inheritance? 11. Explain these phrases: "to be in hot water"; "to go through fire and water " ; and ' ' to haul over the coals. " 12. Compare the oaths administered to witnesses in modern courts with medieval oaths. 13. WTiy was war the usual condition of feudal society? 14. Compare the "Peace of God" with the earlier "Roman Peace" {Pax Romano). 15. Mention some modem comforts and luxuries which were unknown in feudal castles. 16. What is the present meaning of the word "chivalrous"? How did it get that meaning? 17. Why has chivalry been called "the blossom of feudalism"? 18. Describe the agricultural processes and implements shown in the illustration on page 131. 19. Show that the serf was not a slave or a "hired man" or a tenant-farmer paying rent. ^ See chapter xi. CHAPTER VII THE PAPACY AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, 962-1273 ^ 57. Characteristics of the Medieval Church A PRECEDING chapter dealt with the history of Christianity in the East and West during the early Middle Ages. We learned something about its organization, belief, The Roman and worship, about the rise and growth of the Church Papacy, about monasticism, and about that missionary cam- paign which won all Europe to the Christian rehgion. Our narrative extended to the middle of the eleventh century, when the quarrel between pope and patriarch led at length to the disruption of Christendom/ We have now to consider the work and influence of the Roman Church during later centuries of the Middle Ages. The Church at the height of its power held spiritual sway throughout western Europe. Italy and Sicily, the larger part of Spain, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, the xemtorial British Isles, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and extent of the Iceland yielded obedience to the pope of Rome. Church Membership in the Church was not a matter of free choice. All people, except Jews, were required to belong to it. A person joined the Church by baptism, a rite usually The Church performed in infancy, and remained in it as long *^ universal as he lived. Every one was expected to conform, at least outwardly, to the doctrines and practices of the Church, and any one attacking its authority was Hable to punishment as a heretic. The existence of one Church in the western world furnished a bond of union between European peoples during the age ^ Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter x, "Monastic Life in the Twelfth Century"; chapter xi, "St. Francis and the Franciscans." 137 138 The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire of feudalism. The Church took no heed of political boundaries, The Church ^^^ ^^^ °^ ^^^ nationalities entered the ranks as inter- of the priesthood and joined the monastic orders, nation Priests and monks were subjects of no country, but were "citizens of heaven," as they sometimes called themselves. Even differences of language counted for little in the Church, since Latin was the universal speech of the educated classes. One must think, then, of the Church as a great international state, in form a monarchy, presided over by the pope, and with its capital at Rome. The Church in the Middle Ages performed a double task. On the one hand, it gave the people religious instruction and Twofold watched over their morals; on the other hand, it duties of the played an important part in European politics and ^^^ provided a means of government. Because the Church thus combined ecclesiastical and civil functions, it was quite unlike all modern churches, whether Greek, Roman, or Protestant. Both sides of its activities deserve, therefore, to be considered. 58. Church Doctrine and Worship The Church taught a behef in a personal God, all-wise, all-good, all-powerful, to know whom was the highest goal " The gate of life. The avenue to this knowledge lay through of heaven" faith in the revelation of God, as found in the Scriptures. Since the unaided human reason could not properly interpret the Scriptures, it was necessary for the Church, through her officers, to declare their meaning and set forth what doctrines were essential to salvation. The Church thus appeared as the sole repository of religious knowledge, as "the gate of heaven." Salvation did not depend only on the acceptance of certain beliefs. There were also certain acts, called "sacraments," in The which the faithful Christian must participate, if sacramental he was not to be cut off eternally from God. These sysem ^^^^ formed channels of heavenly grace; they saved man from the consequences of his sinful nature and filled Church Doctrine and Worship 139 him with ''the fullness of divine life." Since priests alone could administer the sacraments/ the Church presented itself as the necessary mediator between God and man. Seven sacraments were generally recognized by the thirteenth century. Four of these marked critical stages in human life, from the cradle to the grave. Baptism cleansed Baptism, the child from the taint of original sin and admitted confirmation, 1 . . 1 /-.I • . . ^ matnmony, him mto the Christian community. Confirma- and extreme tion gave him full Church fellowship. Matrimony ^"^ction united husband and wife in holy bonds which might never be broken. Extreme unction, the anointing with oil of one mor- tally ill, purified the soul and endowed it with strength to meet death. Penance held an especially important place in the sacra- mental system. At least once a year the Christian must confess his sins to a priest. If he seemed to be truly 1 . , , , , Penance repentant, the priest pronounced the solemn words of absolution and then imposed lipon him some penalty, which varied according to the nature of the offense. A man who had sinned grievously might be required to engage in chari- table work, to make a contribution to the support of the Church, or to go on a pilgrimage to a sacred shrine. The more distant and difficult a pilgrimage, the more meritorious it was, especially if it led to some very holy place, such as Rome or Jerusalem. This system of penitential punishment referred only to the earthly life; it was not supposed to cleanse the soul for eternity. The sacrament of the Holy Eucharist formed the central feature of worship. It was more than a common meal in commemoration of the Last Supper of Christ Holy with the Apostles. It was a solemn ceremony Eucharist by which the Christian believed himself to receive the body and blood of Christ, under the form of bread and wine.^ The right of the priest to withhold the Eucharist from any person, 1 In case of necessity baptism might be performed by any lay person of adult years and sound mind. ^ This doctrine is known as transubstantiation. In the Roman Church, as has been noted (page 65), wine is not administered to the laity. I40 The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire for good cause, gave the Church great power, because the failure to partake of this sacrament imperiled one's chances of future salvation. The seventh and last sacrament, that of ordination, or "Holy Orders," admitted persons to the priesthood. Accord- ^ ^. ^ ing to the teaching of the Church the rite had Ordination ° . . ° been mstituted by Christ, when He chose the Apostles and sent them forth to preach the Gospel. From the Apostles, who ordained their successors, the clergy in all later times received their exalted authority.^ The Church did not rely solely on the sacramental system as a means to salvation. It was believed that holy persons, called Reverence saints,^ who had died and gone to heaven, offered for saints ^^ Q^^ their prayers for men. The earliest saints were Christian martyrs, who had sealed their faith with their blood. In course of time many other persons, renowned for pious deeds, were exalted to sainthood. Canonization, or the making of a saint, is now done only by the pope. High above all the saints stood the Virgin Mary. Devo- tion to her as the "Queen of Heaven" increased rapidly in Devotion to the Church after the time of Gregory the Great, the Virgin Everywhere churches arose in her honor, and no cathedral or abbey lacked a chapel dedicated to Our Lady. The growing reverence for saints led to an increased interest in relics. These included the bones of a saint and shreds of his _ J. garments, besides such objects as the wood or nails of the cross on which Christ suffered. Relics were not simply mementos; the faithful believed them to possess miraculous power which passed into them through con- tact with holy persons. This belief explains the use of relics to heal diseases, to ward off danger, and, in general, to bring good fortune. An oath taken upon rehcs was especially sacred.^ The Church also taught a belief in purgatory as a state or place of probation.'^ Here dwelt the souls of those who were ^ Hence the term "Apostolical Succession." ^ Latin sanclus, "holy." •■' See pages io6 and 117. * The belief in purgatory is not held by Protestants or by members of the Greek Church. Church Jurisdiction 141 guilty of no mortal sins which would condemn them to hell, but yet were burdened with imperfections which _ Purgatory prevented them from entering heaven. Such imperfections, it was held, might be removed by the prayers of the living, and hence the practice arose of praying for the dead. Masses were also often said for the repose of souls in purgatory. 59. Church Jurisdiction The Church had regular courts and a system of "canon law" for the trial of offenders against its regulations. Many cases, which to-day would be decided according to the church civil or criminal law of the State, in the Middle courts Ages came before the ecclesiastical courts. Since marriage was considered a sacrament, the Church took upon itself "to decide what marriages were lawful. It forbade the union of first cousins, of second cousins, and of godparents and god- children. It refused to sanction divorce, for whatever cause, if both parties at the time of marriage had been baptized Chris- tians. The Church dealt with inheritance under wills, for a man could not make a legal will until he had confessed, and confession formed part of the sacrament of penance. All contracts made binding by oaths came under Church juris- diction, because an oath was an appeal to God. The Church tried those who were charged with any sin against rehgion, including heresy, blasphemy, the taking of interest (usury), and the practice of witchcraft. Widows, orphans, and the families of pilgrims or crusaders also enjoyed the special pro- tection of Church courts. The Church claimed the privilege of judging all cases which involved clergymen. No layman, it was declared, ought to interfere with one who, by the sacrament of "Benefit of ordination, had been dedicated to God. This clergy" demand of the Church to try its own officers, according to its own mild and intelligent laws, seems not unreasonable, when we remember how rude were the methods of feudal justice. An interesting illustration of the power of the Church is 142 The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire afforded by the right of "sanctuary." Any lawbreaker who Right of fled to a church building enjoyed, for a limited " sanctuary " time, the privilege of safe refuge. It was consid- ered a sin against God to drag even the most wicked criminal from the altar. The most that could be done was to deny the refugee food, so that he might come forth voluntarily. This privilege of seeking sanctuary was not without social usefulness, for it gave time for angry passions to cool, thus permitting an investigation of the charges against an offender. Disobedience to the regulations of the Church might be followed by excommunication. This was a punishment which Excommuni- cut off the offender from Christian fellowship. He cation could neither attend religious services nor enjoy the sacraments so necessary to salvation. If he died excommuni- cate, his body could not be buried in consecrated ground. By the law of the State he lost all civil rights and forfeited all his property. No one might speak to him, feed him, or shelter him. Such a terrible penalty, it is well to point out, was usually imposed only after the sinner had received a fair trial and had spurned entreaties to repent. The interdict, another form of punishment, was directed against a particular locality, for the fault of some of the inhabi- tants who could not be reached directly. In Interdict , . . ,. , . , , . . . time of mterdict, the priests closed the churches and neither married the living nor buried the dead. All the inhabitants of the afflicted district were ordered to fast, as in Lent, and to let their hair grow long in sign of mourning. The interdict also stopped the wheels of government, for courts of justice were shut, wills could not be made, and public officials were forbidden to perform their duties. In some cases the Church went so far as to lay an interdict upon an entire kingdom, whose ruler had refused to obey her mandate. The interdict has now passed out of use, but excommunication still retains an important place among the spiritual weapons of the Church.^ ^ Two instances of the use of excommunication are mentioned below (pages 155 and 158). For two instances of interdicts see pages 157-158. The Secular Clergy 143 60. The Secular Clergy Some one has said that in the Middle Ages there were just three classes of society: the nobles who fought; the peasants who worked; and the clergy who prayed. The ^j^^ ^^^^^ latter class was divided into the secular ^ clergy, and regular including deacons, priests, and bishops, who lived ^^^^^ active lives in the world, and the regular ^ clergy, or monks, who passed their days in seclusion be- hind monastery walls. An account of the secular clergy naturally Pansh begins P^^^^ts with the parish priest, who had charge of a parish, the smallest divi- sion of Christen- dom. No one could act as a priest without the approval of the bishop, but the nobleman who supported the parish had the privilege of nomi- nating candidates for the position. The priest derived his income from lands belonging to the parish, from tithes,^ and from voluntary contributions, but as a rule he received httle more than a bare living. The parish priest was the only Church 1 Latin sceculum, used in the sense of "the world." 2 Latin regula, a "rule," referring to the rule or constitution of a monastic order. 3 The tithe was a tenth part of the yearly income from land, stock, and personal industry. A Bishop Ordaining a Priest From an English manuscript of the twelfth century. The bishop wears a miter and holds in his left hand the pastoral staff, or crosier. His right hand is extended in blessing over the priest's head. 144 The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire officer who came continually into touch with the common people. He baptized, married, and buried his parishioners. For them he celebrated mass at least once a week, heard con- fessions, and granted absolution. He watched over all their deeds on earth and prepared them for the life to come. A group of parishes formed a diocese, over which a bishop presided. It was his business to look after the property be- longing to the diocese, to hold the ecclesiastical Bishops . . , , courts, to visit the clergy, and to see that they did their duty. The bishop alone could administer the sacra- ments of confirmation and ordination. He also performed the ceremonies at the consecration of a new church edifice or shrine. Since the Church held many estates on feudal tenure, the bishop was usually a territorial lord, owing a vassal's obligations to the king or to some powerful noble for his land, and himself ruling over vassals in different parts of the country. As sym- bols of his power and dignity, the bishop wore on his head the miter and carried the pastoral staff, or crosier.^ Above the bishop in rank stood the archbishop. In Eng- land, for example, there were two archbishops, one residing at York and the other at Canterbury. The Archbishops . latter, as "primate of all England," was the highest ecclesiastical dignitary in the land. An archbishop's distinc- tive vestment consisted of the pallium, a narrow band of white wool, worn around the neck. The pope alone could confer the right to wear the pallium. The church which contained the official seat or throne ^ of a bishop or archbishop was called a cathedral. It was ordinarily the largest and most magnifi- cent church in the diocese. 61. The Regular Clergy The regular clergy, or monks, during the early Middle Ages belonged to the Benedictine order. By the tenth century, Decline of however, St. Benedict's Rule had lost much of its monasticism force. As the monasteries increased in wealth through gifts of land and goods, they sometimes became centers 1 See the illustration, page 143. 2 Latin cathedra. The Regular Clergy 145 of idleness, luxury, and corruption. The monks forgot their vows of poverty; and, instead of themselves laboring as farmers, craftsmen, and students, they employed laymen to work for them. At the same time powerful feudal lords frequently obtained control of the monastic estates by appointing as abbots their children or their retainers. Grave danger existed that the monasteries would pass out of Church control and decline into mere fiefs ruled by worldly men. A marked revival of monasticism began i« 910, with the foun- dation of the monastery of Cluny in eastern France. The monks of Cluny led lives of the utmost self-denial and fol- The Cluniac lowed the Benedictine Rule in all its strictness, revival Their enthusiasm and devotion were contagious; before long Cluny became a center from which a reformatory movement spread over France and th-en over all western Europe. By the middle of the twelfth century more than three hundred monasteries looked to Cluny for inspiration and guidance. Each of the earlier Benedictine monasteries had been an isolated community, independent and self-governing. Conse- quently, when discipline grew lax or when the abbot r^^^ « ^ proved to be an incapable ruler, it was difficult gregation of to correct the evils which arose. In the Cluniac ^"^^ system, however, all the monasteries formed parts of one organ- ization, the "Congregation of Cluny." The abbot of Cluny appointed their "priors," or heads, and required every monk to pass several years of his monastic life at Cluny itself. This arrangement helps to explain why for two hundred years the abbot of Cluny was, next to the pope, the most important churchman in western Europe. Other monastic orders arose in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Of these, the most important was the Cistercian, founded in 1098 at Citeaux, not far from Cluny. ^j^^ The Cistercians especially emphasized the need Cistercian for manual labor. They were the best farmers ^^ and cattle breeders of the Middle Ages. Western Europe owes even more to them than to the Benedictines for their hard work as pioneers in the wilderness. "The Cistercians," 146 The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire declared a medieval writer, "are a model to all monks, a mirror for the diligent, a spur to the indolent." The whole spirit of medieval monasticism found expression in St. Bernard, a Burgundian of noble birth. While stiU a St. Bernard, young man, he resolved to leave the world and 1090-1153 ggg]^ ^YiQ repose of the monastic life. He entered Citeaux, carrying with him thirty companions. Mothers are said to have hid their sons from him, and wives their hus- bands, lest they should be converted to monasticism by his persuasive words. After a few years at Citeaux St. Bernard established the monastery of Clairvaux, over which he ruled as abbot till his death. His ascetic life, piety, eloquence, and ability as an executive soon brought him into prominence. People visited Clairvaux from far and near to listen to his preaching and to receive his counsels. The monastery flourished under his direction and became the parent of no less than sixty- five Cistercian houses which were planted in the wilderness. St. Bernard's activities widened until he came to l^e the most influential man in western Christendom. It was St. Bernard who acted as an adviser of the popes, at one time deciding between two rival candidates for the Papacy, who combated most vigorously the heresies of the day, and who by his fiery appeals set in motion one of the crusades.^ The charm of his character is revealed to us in his sermons and letters, while some of the Latin hymns commonly attributed to him are still sung in many churches, both Roman Catholic and Protestant. 62. The Friars The history of Christian monasticism exhibits an ever- widening social outlook. The early hermits ^ had devoted Coming of themselves, as they believed, to the service of the friars Qq^ ^y retiring to the desert for prayer, medita- tion, and bodily mortification. St. Benedict's wise Rule, as followed by the medieval monastic orders, marked a change for the better. It did away with extreme forms of self-denial, brought the monks together in a common house, and required 1 See page 170. 2 See page 54. The Friars 147 them to engage in daily manual labor. Yet even the Bene- dictine system had its limitations. The monks lived apart from the world and sought chiefly the salvation of their own souls. A new conception of the religious life arose early in the thirteenth century, with the coming of the friars.^ The aim of the friars was social service. They took an active part in affairs and devoted themselves entirely to the salvation of others. The founda- tion of the orders of friars was the work of two men, St. Fran- cis in Italy and St. Dominic in Spain. St. Francis was the son of a prominent merchant St. Francis, of Assisi. 1181(?)-1226 The young man had before him the pros- pect of a fine career, but before long he put away all thoughts of riches and honor, deserted his gay com- panions, and, choosing "Lady Poverty" as his bride, started out to minister to lepers and social outcasts. One day, while attending mass, the call came to him to preach the gospel as Christ had preached it, among the poor and lowly. The man's earnestness and charm of manner soon drew about him ■ devoted followers. After some years St. Francis went to Rome and obtained Pope Innocent Ill's sanction of his work. The Franciscan order spread so rapidly that even in the founder's • 1 Latin /m/er, "brother." St. Francis Blessing the Birds From a painting by the Italian artist Giotto. 148 The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire lifetime there were several thousand members in Italy and other European countries. St. Francis is one of the most attractive figures in all history. Perhaps no other man has ever tried so seriously to imitate in Personality I his own life the life of Christ. St. Francis went of St Francis about doing good. He resembled, in some re- spects, the social workers and revivalist preachers of to-day. In other tespects he was a true child of the Middle Ages. An ascetic, he fasted, wore a hair-cloth shirt, mixed ashes with his food to make it disagreeable, wept daily, so that his eye- sight was nearly destroyed, and every night flogged himself with iron chains. A mystic, he lived so close to God and nature that he could include within the bonds of his love not only men and women, but also animals, trees, and flowers. He preached a sermon to the birds and once wrote a hymn to praise God for his "brothers," sun, wind, and fire, and for his "sisters," moon, water, and earth. When told that he had but a short time to live, he exclaimed, "Welcome, Sister Death! " He died at the age of forty-five, worn out by his exertions and seK-denial. Two years later the pope made him a saint. St. Dominic, unlike St. Francis, was a clergyman and a student of theology. After being ordained, he went to southern St. Dominic, France and labored there for ten years among a 1170-1221 heretical sect known as the Albigenses. The order of Dominicans grew out of the little band of volunteers who assisted him in the mission. St. Dominic sent his fol- lowers — at first only sixteen in number — out into the world to combat heresy. They met with great success, and at the founder's death the Dominicans had as many as sixty friaries in various European cities. The Franciscans and Dominicans resembled each other in many ways. They were "itinerant," ^ going on foot from place Character- ^^ place, and wearing coarse robes tied round the istics of the waist with a rope. They were "mendicants," ^- "^^ who possessed no property but lived on the alms of the charitable. They were also preachers, who spoke to the 1 Low Latin itinerare, "to make a journey." 2 Latin mendicare, "to beg." Power of the Papacy 149 people, not in Latin, but in the common language of each country which they visited. The Franciscans worked especially in the slums of the cities; the Dominicans addressed them- selves rather to educated people and the upper classes. As time went on, both orders relaxed the rule of poverty and be- came very wealthy. They still survive, scattered all over the world and employed as teachers and missionaries. The friars by their preaching and ministrations did a great deal to call forth a religious revival in Europe during the thir- teenth century. In particular, they helped to j^ie friars strengthen the papal authority. Both orders and the received the sanction of the pope; both enjoyed ^^^^^ many privileges at his hands; and both looked to him for direction. The pope employed them to raise money, to preach crusades, and to impose excommunications and interdicts. The Franciscans and Dominicans formed, in fact, the agents of the Papacy. 63. Power of the Papacy The name "pope" ^ seems at first to have been applied to all priests as a title of respect and affection. The Greek Church still continues this use of the word. In the West j^^ pope's it gradually came to be reserved to the bishop of exalted Rome as his official title. The pope was addressed ^^^^ ^^ in speaking as "Your Holiness." His exalted position was further indicated by the tiara, or headdress with triple crowns, worn by him in processions. ^ He went to solemn ceremonies sitting in a chair supported on the shoulders of his guard. He gave audience from an elevated throne, and all who ap- proached him kissed his feet in reverence. The pope was the supreme lawgiver of the Church. His decrees might not be set aside by any other person. He made new laws in the form of "bulls" ^ and by his "dis- The pope's pensations" could in particular cases set aside old authority laws, such as those i^orbidding cousins to marry or monks to ^ Latin papa, "father." ^ See the illustration, page 51. 3 So called from the lead seal (Latin bulla) attached to pai^l documents. 150 The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire obtain release from their vows. The pope was also the su- preme judge of the Church, for all appeals from the lower ecclesiastical courts came before him for decision. Finally, the pope was the supreme administrator of the Church. He confirmed the election of bishops, deposed them, when neces- sary, or transferred them from one diocese to another. No archbishop might perform the functions of his office until he had received the pallium from the pope's hands. The pope also exercised control over the monastic orders and called general councils of the Church. The authority of the pope was commonly exercised by the ''legates," ^ whom he sent out as his representatives at the vari- The papal o^s European courts. These officers kept the pope legates j^ close touch with the condition of the Church in every part of western Europe. A similar function is performed in modern times by the papal ambassadors known as ''nuncios." For assistance in government the pope made use of the cardi- nals,2 who formed a board, or "college." At first they were The chosen only from the clergy of Rome and the cardinals vicinity, but in course of time the pope opened the cardinalate to prominent churchmen in all countries. The number of cardinals is now fixed at seventy, but the college is never full, and there are always ten or more "vacant hats," as the saying goes. The cardinals, in the eleventh century, received the right of choosing a new pope. A cardinal ranks above all other church officers except the pope. His dignity is indicated by the red hat and scarlet robe which he wears and by the title of "Eminence" applied to him. To support the business of the Papacy and to maintain the splendor of the papal court required a large annual income. Income of This Came partly from the States of the Church the Papacy [^ i^-^jy^ partly from the gifts of the faithful, and partly from the payments made by abbots, bishops, and arch- bishops when the pope confirmed their election to office. Still another source of revenue consisted of "Peter's Pence," a tax of a penny on each hearth. It was collected every year in 1 Latin /ega/w5^,." deputy." * Latin cardmalis, "principal." Interior ST. PETER'S, ROME St. Peter's, begun in 1506 a.d., was completed in 1667, according to the designs of Bramante, Raphael, Michelangelo, and other celebrated architects. It is the largest church in the world. The central aisle, nave, and choir measure about 600 feet in length; the great dome, 140 feet in diameter, rises to a height of more than 400 feet. A double colonnade encircles the piazza in front of the church. The Vatican is seen to the right of St. Peter's. Popes and Emperors 151 England and in some Continental countries until the time of the Reformation. The modern "Peter's Pence" is a voluntary contribution made each- year by Roman Catholics in all parts of the world. Rome, the Eternal City, from which in ancient times the known world had been ruled, formed in the Middle Ages the capital of the Papacy. Tens of thousands of pil- The capital grims went there every year to worship at the °^ *^® Papacy shrine of the Prince of the Apostles. Few traces now remain of the medieval city. Old St. Peter's Church, where Charle- magne was crowned emperor, gave way in the sixteenth cen- tury to the world-famous structure that now occupies its site. The Lateran Palace, which for more than a thousand years served as the residence of the popes, has also disappeared, its place being taken by a new and smaller building. The popes now live in the splendid' palace of the Vatican. The powers exercised by the popes during the later Middle Ages were not secured without a struggle. As a matter of fact, the concentration of authority in papal hands ^j^^ Panacv was a gradual development covering several hun- and the dred years. The pope reached his exalted position °^P^^® only after a long contest with the Holy Roman Emperor. 64. Popes and Emperors, 962-1122 One might suppose that there could be no interference between pope and emperor, since they seemed to have separate spheres of action. It was said that God had made the . r o T. . Relations pope, as the successor of St. Peter, supreme m between pope spiritual matters, and the emperor, as heir of the *^^ emperor tT r> . , i» theory Roman Caesars, supreme m temporal matters. The former ruled men's souls, the latter, men's bodies. The two sovereigns thus divided on equal terms the government of the world. The difficulty with this theory was that it did not work. No one could decide in advance where the authority ^^^^ ^.^j^, of the pope ended and where that of the emperor tions in began. When the pope claimed certain powers ^^^^^^^ and the Papacy 152 The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire which were also claimed by the emperor, a conflict between the two rulers became inevitable. In 962 Otto the Great, as we have learned,^ restored imperial rule in the West, thus founding what in later centuries came Otto the Great to be known as the Holy Roman Empire. Otto made the city of Rome the imperial capital, deposed a pope who proved disobedient to his wishes, and on his own authority ap- pointed a successor. At the same time Otto exacted from the people of Rome an oath that they would never recognize any pope to whose election the emperor had not consented. Otto's successors repeatedly interfered in elections to the Pa- pacy. One strong ruler, Henry HI (1039-1056), has been called the "pope- maker." Early in his reign he set aside three rival claimants to the Papacy, creating a German bishop pope, and on three subsequent occasions filled the papal throne by fresh appointments. It was clear that if this situation continued much longer the Papacy would become simply an imperial office; it would be merged in the Empire. The death of Henry III, which left the Empire in weak hands, gave the Papacy a chance to escape from the control of the 1 See page 21. The Papacy and Otto's successors The Spiritual and the Temporal Power A tenth-century mosaic in the church of St. John, Rome. It represents Christ giving to St. Peter the keys of heaven, and to Constantine the banner symbolic of earthly dominion. Popes and Emperors 153 secular power. A church council held at the Lateran Palace decreed that henceforth the right of choosing the p^^ ^^^^_ supreme pontiff should belong exclusively to the tion by the cardinals, who represented the clergy of Rome. ^^^ ^^^^ This arrangement has tended to prevent any interference with the election of popes, either by the Roman people or by foreign sovereigns. Now that the Papacy had become independent, it began to deal with a grave problem which affected the Church at large. According to ecclesiastical rule bishops ought to Feudalizing be chosen by the clergy of their diocese and abbots °^ *^® Church by their monks. With the growth of feudalism, however, many of these high dignitaries had become vassals, holding their lands as fiefs of princes, kings, and emperors, and owing the usual feudal dues. Their lords expected them to perform the ceremony of homage, before "investing" them with the lands attached to the bishopric or monastery. One can readily see that in practice the lords really chose the bishops and abbots, since they could always refuse to "invest" those who were displeasing to them. To the reformers in the Church lay investiture was intolerable. How could the Church keep itself unspotted from the world when its highest officers were chosen by laymen ^ 111 • 1 1 • -. ^^y investi- and were compelled to perform unpnestly duties? ture from In the act of investiture the reformers also saw *^® Church r . , , 1 r ^ Standpoint the sin of simony ^ — the sale of sacred powers — because there was such a temptation before the candidate for a bishopric or abbacy to buy the position with promises or with money. The lords, on the other hand, believed that as long as bishops and abbots held vast estates on feudal tenure they should con- tinue to perform the obligations of vassalage. Lay investi- To forbid lay investiture was to deprive the lords *Y^® */, ... viewed by of all control over Church dignitaries. The real the secular difficulty of the situation existed, of course, in the a^tJiority ^ A name derived from Simon Magus, who offered money to the Apostle Peter for the power to confer the Holy Spirit. See Ads, viii, 18-20. 154 The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire fact that the bishops and abbots were both spiritual officers and temporal rulers, were servants of both the Church and the State. They found it very difficult to serve two masters. The throne of St. Peter was occupied at this time by Hilde- brand, one of the most remarkable of the popes. Of obscure Pontificate of Italian birth, he received his education in a Bene- Gregory VII, dictine monastery at Rome and rose rapidly to a position of great influence in papal affairs. On becoming pope he assumed the name of Gregory VII. He is described as a small man, ungainly in appearance and with a weak voice, but energetic, forceful, and of imperious will. Gregory devoted all his talents to the advancement of the Papacy. A contemporary document,^ which may have been Gregory's of Gregory's own composition, and at any rate *"^^ expresses his ideas, contains the following state- ments: "The Roman pontiff alone is properly called universal. He alone may depose bishops and restore them to office. He is the only person whose feet are kissed by all princes. He may depose emperors. He may be judged by no one. He may absolve from their allegiance the subjects of the wicked. The Roman Church never has erred, and never can err, as the Scrip- tures testify." Gregory did not originate these doctrines, but he was the first pope who ventured to make a practical appUca- tion of them. Two years after Gregory became pope he issued a decree against lay investiture. It declared that no emperor, king, duke, marquis, count, or any other lay person should against lay presume to grant investiture, under pain of ex- 1075^***^^^* communication. This decree was a general one, applying to all states of western Europe, but circumstances were such that it mainly affected Germany. Henry IV, the ruler of Germany at this time, did not refuse the papal challenge. He wrote a famous letter to Gregory, Henry IV and calhng him "no pope, but false monk," telling him Gregory VII Christ had never called him to the priesthood, and bidding him "come down," "come down" from St. Peter's 1 The so-called Dictatus papa. Popes and Emperors 155 throne. Gregory, in reply, deposed Henry as emperor, excom- municated him, and freed his subjects from their allegiance. This severe sentence made a profound impression in Ger- many. Henry's adherents fell away, and it seemed probable that the German nobles would elect another ruler Canossa, in his stead. Henry then decided on abject sub- ^^'^'^ mission. He hastened across the Alps and found the pope at the castle of Canossa, on the northern slopes of the Ap- ennines. It was January, and the snow lay deep on the ground. For three days the emperor stood shivering out- side the castle gate, barefoot and clad in a coarse woolen shirt, the garb of a penitent. At last, upon the entreaties of the Countess Matilda of Tus- cany, Gregory admitted Henry to his presence and granted absolution. This strange and moving spectacle revealed the tremendous power which the Church in the Middle Ages exercised over the minds of RcxRo^T AflB^jeofj '0?aT>^i]djo9 SuppLicATAr'j^- Henry IV, Countess Matilda, AND Gregory VII From a manuscript of the twelfth century, now in the Vatican Library at Rome. men. The dramatic scene at Ca- nossa did not end the investiture conflict. It dragged on for half a century after Gregory's death. At length Concordat of the opposing parties agreed to what is known as Worms, 1122 the Concordat of Worms, from the old German city where it was signed. The concordat drew a distinction between spiritual and lay investiture. The emperor renounced investi- ture by the ring and crosier — the emblems of spiritual author- ity — and permitted bishops and abbots to be elected by the clergy and confirmed in office by the pope. On the other hand, the pope recognized the emperor's right to be present 156 The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire at all elections and to invest bishops and abbots by the scepter for whatever lands they held within his domains. This reason- able compromise worked well for a time. But it was a truce, not a peace. It did not settle the more fundamental issue, whether the Papacy or the Holy Roman Empire should be supreme. '■-m^^S'^^i^^^^d Worms Cathedral The old German city of Worms possesses in the Cathedral of SS. Peter and Paul one of the finest Romanesque structures in Europe. The exterior, with its four round towers, two large domes, and a choir at each end, is particularly imposing. The cathedral was mainly built in the twelfth century. 65. Popes and Emperors, 1122-1273 Thirty years after the signing of the Concordat of Worms the emperor Frederick I, called Barbarossa from his red beard, succeeded to the throne. Frederick, the second the Hohenstaufen dynasty,^ was capable, imaginative, and ambitious. He took Charle- magne and Otto the Great as his models and aspired like them ^ The name of this German family comes from that of their castle in south- western Swabia. Frederick I, emperor, of 1152-1190 Popes and Emperors 157 to rule Christian Europe and the Church. His reign is the story of many attempts, ending at length in failure, to unite all Italy into a single state under German sway. Frederick's Italian policy brought him at once into conflict with the Papacy. The popes gave their support to a league of the free cities of northern Italy, which were Frederick also threatened by Frederick's soaring ambi- and the tions. The haughty emperor, having suffered a *^**^^ severe defeat, sought reconciliation with the pope, Alexander III. In the presence of a vast throng assembled before St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice, Frederick knelt before the pope and humbly kissed his feet. Just a century had passed since the humiliation of Henry IV at Canossa. The Papacy reached the height of its power under Innocent III. The eighteen years of his pontificate were one long effort, for the most part successful, to make the pope pontificate of the arbiter of Europe. Innocent announced the Innocent ill, claims of the Papacy in the most uncompromising manner. "As the moon," he declared, "receives its light from the sun, and is inferior to the sun, so do kings receive all their glory and dignity from the Holy See." This meant, according to Innocent, that the pope has the right to interfere in all secular matters and in the quarrels of rulers. "God," he continued, "has set the Prince of the Apostles over kings and kingdoms, with a mission to tear up, plant, destroy, scatter, and rebuild." That Innocent's claims were not idle boasts is shown by what he accomplished. When Philip Augustus, king of France, divorced his wife and made another marriage, innocent and Innocent declared the divorce void and ordered King Philip him to take back his discarded queen. Philip ° ^^^^^ refused, and Innocent, through his legate, put France under an interdict. From that hour all religious rites ceased. The church doors were barred; the church bells were silent, the sick died unshriven, the dead lay unburied. Philip, deserted by his retainers, was compelled to submit. On another occasion Innocent ordered John, the Enghsh 158 The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire king, to accept as archbishop of Canterbury a man of his own Innocent and choosing. When John declared that he would King John of never allow the pope's appointee to set foot on ^^^ English soil, Innocent replied by excommunicat- ing him and laying his kingdom under an interdict. John also had to yield and went so far as to surrender England and Ireland to the pope, receiving them back again as fiefs, for which he promised to pay a yearly rent. The tribute money was actually paid, though irregularly, for about a century and a half. Innocent further exhibited his power by elevating to the imperial throne Frederick II, grandson of Frederick Barbarossa. The young man, after Innocent's death, proved Frederick II, ^q j^g ^l most determined opponent of the Papacy. emperor, . . . 1212-1250 He passed much of his long reign in Italy, warring against the popes, whose territories separated Frederick's possessions in North Italy from his kingdom of Naples and Sicily (the Two SiciUes). Frederick was a man of remarkable talents, but he failed, as his grandfather before him had failed, to unite Italy under German rule. The death of Frederick II 's son (1254) ended the Hohen- staufen dynasty. There now ensued what is called the Inter- regnum, a period of nineteen years, during which The Inter- Germany was without a ruler. At length the regnum, 1254-1273 pope sent word to the German electors that if they did not choose an emperor, he would himself do so. The electors then selected Rudolf of Hapsburg^ (1273). Rudolf gained papal support by resigning all claims on Italy, but recompensed himself through the conquest of the German state of Austria. It was in this way that the Hapsburgs became an Austrian dynasty. The conflict between popes and emperors was now over. Its results were momentous. Germany, so long neglected by Condition of ^^^ rightful rulers, who pursued the will-o'-the- Germany wisp in Italy, broke up into a mass of duchies, ^ ^ counties, archbishoprics, bishoprics, and free cities. ^ Hapsburg was the name of a castle in northern Switzerland. ^ORTH SEA ■ •.aUJLAN■**>■■ 'FALSTER ^ ^ LSoi4g5bu;rg;° fet'^ff ^^S^X P0MEBE1 ilA ^•x^ . Dahaig Koni^oerg jr>:ndenij(ur< :ot-<- , ^ ."^ ^.« <---.\ L- ,--. ■:- HESS ^_ 'x on?|ance \it'r- GERMANY AND ITALY Puring: the luterregnam 1254-1273 A.D. Longitude East 10° from THE M.-N. WORKS, BUFFALO Significance of the Medieval Church 159 The map of the country at this time shows how numerous were these small feudal states. They did not combine into a strong government till the nineteenth century.^ Italy like- wise remained disunited and lacked even a common monarch. The real victor was the Papacy, which had crushed the Em- pire and had prevented the union of Italy and Germany. 66. Significance of the Medieval Church Medieval society, we have learned, owed much to the Church, both as a teacher of religion and morality and as an agency of government. It remains to ask what was the The Church attitude of the Church toward the social problems *°^ warfare of the Middle Ages. In regard to warfare, the prevalence of which formed one of the worst evils of the time, the Church, in general, cast its influence on the side of peace. It deserves credit for establishing the Peace and the Truce of God and for many efforts to heal strife between princes and nobles. Yet the Church did not carry the advocacy of peace so far as to condemn warfare against heretics and infidels. Christians beUeved that it was a religious duty to exterminate these enemies of God. The Church was distinguished for charitable work. The clergy received large sums for distribution to the needy. From the doors of the monasteries, the poor, the sick. The Church and the infirm of every sort were never turned *^^ charity away. Medieval charity, however, was very often injudicious. The problem of removing the causes of poverty seems never to have been raised; and the indiscriminate giving multiplied, rather than reduced, the number of beggars. Neither slavery nor serfdom, into which slavery gradually passed, was ever pronounced unlawful by pope or Church council. The Church condemned slavery only ^j^^ church when it was the servitude of a Christian in bondage and slavery to a Jew or an infidel. Abbots, bishops, and ^^ serfdom popes possessed slaves and serfs. The serfs of some wealthy monasteries were counted by thousands. The Church, ^ The modem German Empire was founded in 1871. i6o The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire nevertheless, encouraged the freeing of bondmen as a meri- torious act and always preached the duty of kindness and forbearance toward them. The Church also helped to promote the cause of human freedom by insisting on the natural equality of all men in the Democracy ^^§^^ ^^ ^^^' ''The Creator," wrote one of the of the popes, "distributes his gifts without regard to ^^^^ social classes. In his eyes- there are neither nobles nor serfs." It was not necessary to be of aristocratic birth to become a bishop, a cardinal, or a pope. Naturally enough, the Church attracted to its service the keenest minds of the age. The clergy in medieval Europe were almost the only persons of education. Few except churchmen were able to read or The clergy as write. So generally was this the case that an the only edu- offender could prove himself a clergyman, thus Gated class gecuring "benefit of clergy," if he showed his abihty to read a single line. It is interesting, also, to note that the word "clerk," which comes from the Latin clericus, was originally limited to churchmen, since they alone could keep accounts, write letters, and perform other secretarial duties. It is clear that priests and monks had much importance quite aside from their religious duties. They controlled the Importance schools, wrote the books, framed the laws, and, of the clergy jj^ general, acted as leaders and molders of public opinion. A most conspicuous instance of the authority wielded by them is seen in the crusades. These holy wars of Christen- dom against Islam must now be considered. Studies I. Explain the following terms: abbot; prior; archbishop; parish; diocese; regular clergy; secular clergy; friar; excommunication; simony; interdict; sac- rament; "benefit of clergy"; right of "sanctuary"; crosier; miter; tiara; papal indulgence; bull; dispensation; tithes; and "Peter's Pence." 2. Mention some respects in which the Roman Church in the Middle Ages differed from any reUgious society of the present day. 3. "Medieval Europe was a camp with a church in the backgrovmd." Comment on this statement. 4. Distinguish between the faiih of Significance of the Medieval Church i6i the Church, the organization of the Church, and the Church as a force in history. 5. How did the belief in purgatory strengthen the hold of the Church upon men's minds? 6. Name several historic characters who have been made saints. 7. Why has the Roman Church always refused to sanction divorce? 8. Compare the social effects of excommunication with those of a modern "boycott." g. What reasons have led the Church to insist upon celibacy of the clergy? 10. Name four famous monks and four famous monasteries. 11. Could monks enter the secular clergy and thus become parish priests and bishops? 12. Mention two famous popes who had been monks. 13. What justification was found in the New Testa- ment {Matthew, x, 8-10) for the organization of the orders of friars? 14. How did the Franciscans and Dominicans supplement each other's work? 15. "The monks and the friars were the militia of the Church." Comment on this statement. 16. Who is the present Pope? When and by whom was he elected? In what city does he reside? What is his residence called? 17. Why has the medieval Papacy been called the "ghost" of the Roman Empire? 18. In what sense is it true that the Holy Roman Empire was "neither holy nor Roman, nor an empire"? CHAPTER VIII THE OCCIDENT AGAINST THE ORIENT: THE CRUSADES, 1095-12911 67. Causes of the Crusades The series of military expeditions undertaken by the Chris- tians of Europe for the purpose of recovering the Holy Land Place of the f^om the Moslems have received the name of cru- crusades in sades. In their widest aspect the crusades may ^^°^ be regarded as a renewal of the age-long contest between East and West, in which the struggle of Greeks and Persians and of Romans and Carthaginians formed the earlier episodes. The contest assumed a new character when Europe had become Christian and Asia, Mohammedan. It was not only two contrasting types of civilization but also two rival world religions which in the eighth century faced each other under the walls of Constantinople and on the battle-field of Tours. Now, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, they were to meet again. Seven or eight chief crusades are usually enumerated. To number them, however, obscures the fact that for nearly two Ntimber of hundred years Europe and Asia were engaged in the crusades almost constant warfare. Throughout this period there was a continuous movement of crusaders to and from the Moslem possessions in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The crusades were first and foremost a spiritual enterprise. They sprang from the pilgrimages which Christians had long ™, . been accustomed to make to the scenes of Christ's Pilgmnages , , . j r i to the life on earth. Men considered it a wonderful Holy Land pj-iyilege to see the cave in which He was born, to kiss the spot where He died, and to kneel in prayer at His 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xii, "Richard the Lion-hearted and the Third Crusade"; chapter xiii, "The Fourth Crusade and the Capture of Constantinople." 162 Causes of the Crusades 163 tomb. The eleventh century saw an increased zeal for pil- grimages, and from this time travelers to the Holy Land were very numerous. For greater security they often joined them- selves in companies and marched under arms. It needed little to transform such pilgrims into crusaders. The Arab conquest of the Holy Land had not inter- Abuse of rupted the S'fs^fjuk' Stream of Turks pilgrims, for the early caKphs were more tolerant of unbelievers than Christian em- perors of heretics. But after the coming of the Seljuk Turks into the East, pilgrim- ages became more difficult and dan- gerous. The Seljuks were a ruder people than the Arabs whom they displaced, and in their fanatic zeal for Islam were not inclined to treat the Christians with consideration. Many tales floated back to Europe of the outrages committed on the pilgrims and on the sacred shrines venerated by all Christen- dom. Such stories, which lost nothing in the telling, aroused a storm of indignation throughout Europe and awakened the desire to rescue the Holy Land from " infidels." But the crusades were not simply an expression of the simple faith of the Middle Ages. Something more than religious enthusiasm sent an unending procession of sol- diers along the highways of Europe and over the trackless wastes of Asia Minor to Jerusalem. The crusades, in fact, appealed strongly to the warlike instincts of the feudal nobles. They saw in an expedition against the Combat between Crusaders and Moslems A picture in an eleventh-century window, formerly in the church of St. Denis, near Paris. The crusades and the upper classes 164 The Crusades East an unequaled opportunity for acquiring fame, riches, lands, and power. The" Normans were especially stirred by the prospect of adventure and plunder which the crusading movement opened up. By the end of the eleventh century they had established themselves in southern Italy and Sicily, from which they now looked across the Mediterranean for further lands to conquer.^ Norman knights formed a very large element in several of the crusaders' armies. The crusades also attracted the lower classes. So great was the misery of the common people in medieval Europe that The lower ^^^ them it seemed not a hardship, but rather a classes and relief, to leave their homes in order to better them- e crusa es ggjygg abroad. Famine and pestilence, poverty and oppression, drove them to emigrate hopefully to the golden East. ' The Church, in order to foster the crusades, promised both religious and secular benefits to those who took part in them. Privileges of A warrior of the Cross was to enjoy forgiveness of crusaders ^dj j^^g pa^sj- gins. If he died fighting for the faith, he was assured of an immediate entrance to the joys of Paradise. The Church also freed him from paying interest on his debts and threatened with excommunication any one who molested his wife, his children, or his property. 68. First Crusade, 1095-1099 The signal for the First Crusade was given by the conquests of the Seljuk Turks.^ These barbarians, at first the mercenaries Occasion of ^^^ thtn the masters of the Abbasid caliphs, in- the First fused fresh energy into Islam. They began a ^^ ^ new era of Mohammedan expansion by winning almost the whole of Asia Minor from the Roman Empire in the East. One of their leaders established himself at Nicaea, the scene of the first Church Council, and founded the sul- tanate of Rum (Rome). . The presence of the Seljuks so close to Constantinople formed 1 See page 112. 2 See pages 36 and 82. First Crusade 165 a standing menace to all Europe. The emperor, Alexius I, on succeeding to the throne toward the close of ^ppgai of the eleventh century, took steps to expel the in- emperor to vaders. He could not draw on the hardy tribes ^°^® of Asia Minor for the soldiers he needed, but with reinforce- ments from the West he hoped to recover the lost provinces of the empire. Accordingly, Alexius sent an embassy to Pope Urban II, the successor of Gregory VII, requesting aid. The fact that the emperor appealed to the pope, rather than to any king, shows what a high place the Papacy then held in the affairs of Europe. To the appeal of Alexius, Urban lent a willing ear. He sum- moned a great council of clergy and nobles to meet at Cler- mont in France. Here, in an address which, council of measured by its results, was the most momentous Clermont, recorded in history, Pope Urban preached the First Crusade. He said little about the dangers which threat- ened the Roman Empire in the East from the Turks, but dwelt chiefly on the wretched condition of the Holy Land, with its churches polluted by unbelievers and its Christian inhabitants tortured and enslaved. Then, turning to the proud knights who stood by, Urban called upoA them to abandon their wicked practice of private warfare and take up arms, instead, against the infidel. '^Christ Himself," he cried, "will be your leader, when, like the Israelites of old, you fight for Jerusalem. . . . Start upon the way to the Holy Sepulcher; wrench the land from the accursed race, and subdue it yourselves. Thus shall you spoil your foes of their wealth and return home victorious, or, purpled with your own blood, receive an everlasting reward." Urban's trumpet call to action met an instant response. From the assembled host there went up, as it were, a single shout: *^God wills it! God wills it!" "It is, in "God wills truth. His will," answered Urban, "and let these **•" words be your war cry when you unsheath your swords against the enemy." Then man after man pressed forward to receive the badge of a crusader, a cross of red cloth. ^ It was to be worn ^ Hence the name "crusades," from Latin crux, Old French crois, a "cross." i66 The Crusades on the breast, when the crusader went forth, and on the back, when he returned. The months which followed the Council of Clermont were marked by an epidemic of rehgious excitement in western p lude to Europe. Popular preachers everywhere took up the First the cry "God wills it!" and urged their hearers Crusade ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ Jerusalem. A monk named Peter the Hermit aroused large parts of France with his passionate elo- ' "Mosque of Omar," Jerusalem More correctly called the Dome of the Rock. It was erected in 691, but many restorations have been made since that date. The walls enclosing the entire structure were built in the ninth century, and the dome is attributed to Saladin (1189). This build- ing, with its brilliant tiles covering the walls and its beautiful stained glass, is a fine example of Mohammedan architecture. quence, as he rode from town, to town, carrying a huge cross before him and preaching to vast crowds. Without waiting for the main body of nobles, which was to assemble at Con- stantinople in the summer of 1096, a horde of poor men, women, and children set out, unorganized and almost unarmed, on the road to the Holy Land. One of these crusading bands, led by Peter the Hermit, managed to reach Constantinople, after suffering terrible hardships. The emperor Alexius sent his ragged allies as quickly as possible to Asia Minor, where most of them were slaughtered by the Turks. First Crusade 167 Meanwhile real armies were gathering in the West. Recruits came in greater numbers from France than from any other country, a circumstance which resulted in the The main crusaders being generally called ''Franks" by their cmsade Moslem foes. They had no single commander, but each con- tingent set out for Constantinople by its own route and at its own time.^ The crusaders included among their leaders some of the most distinguished- representatives of European knighthood. Count Raymond of Toulouse headed a band of volun- Leaders of teers from Provence in southern France. Godfrey ^^ crusade of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin commanded a force of French and Germans from the Rhinelands. Normandy sent Robert, William the Conqueror's eldest son. The Normans from Italy and Sicily were led by Bohemond, a son of Robert Guiscard, and by his nephew Tancred. Though the crusaders probably did not number more than fifty thousand fighting men, the disunion which prevailed among the Turks favored the success of their enterprise. With some assistance from the eastern crusaders in emperor they captured Nicaea, overran Asia Asia Minor Minor, and at length reached Antioch, the key to northern Syria. The city fell after a siege of seven months, but the crusaders were scarcely within the walls before they found themselves besieged by a large Turkish army. The crusaders were now in a desperate plight: famine wasted their ranks; many soldiers deserted; and Alexius disappointed all hope of rescue. The news of the discovery in an Antioch church of the Holy Lance which had pierced the Savior's side restored their drooping spirits. The whole army issued forth from the city, bearing the relic as a standard, and drove the Turks in headlong flight. This victory opened the road to Jerusalem. Reduced now to perhaps one-fourth of their original numbers, the crusaders advanced slowly to the city which formed the goal of all their efforts. Before attacking it they marched barefoot in religious procession around the walls, with Peter ^ For the routes followed by the crusaders see the map between pages 170-171. i68 The Crusades the Hermit at their head. Then came the grand assault. Ca ture of Godfrey of Bouillon and Tancred were among the Jerusalem, first to mount the ramparts. Once inside the city, the crusaders massacred their enemies without mercy. Afterwards, we are told, they went "rejoicing, nay for excess of joy weeping, to the tomb of our Savior to adore and give thanks." 69. Crusaders' States in Syria After the capture of Jerusalem the crusaders met to elect a king. j^^^ Their choice fell upon Kingdom of Godfrey of Bouillon. Jerusalem ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^ crown of gold in the city where Christ had worn a crown of thorns and accepted, instead, the modest title of "Protector of the Holy Sepulcher." ^ Godfrey died tJie next year and his brother Baldwin who succeeded him, being less scrupulous, was crowned king at Bethlehem. The new kingdom contained nearly a score of fiefs, whose lords made war, admin- istered justice, and coined money like independent rulers. The main features of European feudahsm were thus transplanted to Asiatic soil. Crusaders' States in Syria ^j^^ winning of Jerusalem and the district about it formed hardly more than a preliminary stage in the conquest of Syria. Much fighting had to take place 1 The emperor Constantine caused a stately church to be erected on the sup- posed site of Christ's tomb. This church of the Holy Sepulcher was practically County of Edessa destroyed by the Moslems, early in the eleventh century, and enlarged the structure, which still stands. The crusaders restored Crusaders' States in Syria 169 before the crusaders could establish themselves firmly in the country. Instead of founding one strong other power in Syria, they split up their possessions into crusaders' three small states centering about Tripoli, ^***®® Antioch, and Edessa. These states owed allegiance to the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. The abihty of the crusaders to maintain themselves for many years in the Holy Land was largely due to the foundation of two military-religious orders. The members were MiUtary- both monks and knights; religious that is, to the monastic vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience they added a fourth vow, which bound them to protect pilgrims and fight the infidels. Such a combination of religion and war- fare made a strong appeal to the medie- val mind. The Hospitalers, the first of these orders, grew out of a brotherhood for the care of sick pilgrims in a Hospitalers hospital at Jerusalem. Many and Templars knights joined the organization, which soon proved to be very useful in defend- ing the Holy Land. Even more impor- tant were the Templars, so called because their headquarters in Jerusalem lay near the site of Solomon's Temple. Both orders built many castles in Syria, the remains of which still impress the be- holder. They established numerous branches in Europe and, from presents and legacies, acquired vast wealth. The Templars were dis- banded in the fourteenth century, but the Hospitalers con- tinued to fight valiantly against the Turks long after the close of the crusading movement.^ ' The order of Hospitalers, now known as the "Knights of Malta," still survives in several European countries. Effigy of a Knight Templar Temple Church, London Shows the kind of armor worn between iigo and 1225. 170 The Crusades The depleted ranks of the crusaders were constantly filled by fresh bands of pilgrim knights who visited Palestine to pray Christian and ^^ ^^^ Holy Sepulcher and have a taste of fighting, infidel in the In spite of Constant border warfare, much trade °^ *° and friendly intercourse prevailed between Chris- tians and Moslems. They learned to respect one another both as foes and neighbors. The crusaders' states in Syria became, like Spain ^ and Sicily ,2 a meeting-place of East and West. 70. Second Crusade, 1147-1149, and Third Crusade, 1189-1192 The success of the Christians in the First Crusade had been largely due to the disunion among their enemies. But the Origin of the Moslems learned in time the value of united action, Second and at length succeeded in capturing Edessa, one ^^^ ® of the principal Christian outposts in the East. The fall of the city, followed by the loss of the entire county of Edessa, aroused western Europe to the danger which threat- ened the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, and led to another crusading enterprise. The apostle of the Second Crusade was the great abbot of Clairvaux, St. Bernard.^ Scenes of the wildest enthusiasm Preaching of marked his preaching. When the churches were St. Bernard ^q^ large enough to hold the crowds which flocked to hear him, he spoke from platforms erected in the fields. In addition to many princes and lesser nobles, two monarchs, Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, assumed the blood-red cross of a crusader. The Second Crusade, though begun under the most favorable auspices, had an unhappy ending. Of the host that set out Failure of from Europe, only a few thousands escaped an- the Second nihilation in Asia Minor at the hands of the rusa e Turks. Louis and Conrad, with the remnants of their armies, made a joint attack on Damascus, bufliad to raise the siege after a few days. This closed the crusade. As a chronicler of the expedition remarked, "having practically accomplished nothing, the inglorious ones returned home." 1 See page 85. 2 gee page 112. ^ gee page 146. MEDITERRANEAN LANDS AFTER THE FOURTH CRUSADE ^ 1202-1204 A.D. First crusade, 1096 - 1099 Second crusade, 1147 - 1149 Third crusade, 1189 - 1192 Fourth crusade, 1202 - 1204 Scale of Miles C.= County D.= Duchy Dom.= Dominion Emp.=Empire K.=Kingdom P.=Principality THE M.-N. WORKS, BUFFALO, U. Y. Longitude West East from Greenwich Second and Third Crusades 171 Not many years after the Second Crusade, the Moslem world found in the famous Saladin a leader for a holy war against the Christians. Saladin in character was a typical ^ , , •^ ^ Saladin Mohammedan, very devout in prayers and fast- ing, fiercely hostile toward unbelievers, and full of the pride of race. To these qualities he added a kindliness and humanity not surpassed, if equaled, by any of his Christian foes. He lives in eastern history and legend as the hero who stemmed, once for all, the tide of European conquest in Asia. Having made himself sultan of Egypt, Saladin united the Moslems of Syria under his sway and then advanced against the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Christians met him in a great battle near the Lake of Galilee. Jerusalem It ended in the rout of their army and the capture J^ ^*^***^°' of their king. Even the Holy Cross, which they had carried in the midst of the fight, became the spoil of the conqueror. Saladin quickly reaped the fruits of victory. The Christian cities of Syria opened their gates to him, and at last Jerusalem itself surrendered after a short siege. Little now remained of the possessions which the crusaders had won in the East. The news of the taking of Jerusalem spread consternation throughout western Christendom. The cry for another crusade arose on all sides. Once more thousands of men ^, . ^ Third sewed the cross in gold, or silk, or cloth upon their Crusade garments and set out for the Holy Land. When JJI^^^®^' the three greatest rulers of Europe — Philip Augustus,^ king of France, Richard I, king of England, and the German emperor, Frederick Barbarossa ^ — assumed the cross, it seemed that nothing could prevent the restoration of Christian supremacy in Syria. The Germans under Frederick Barbarossa were the first to start. This great emperor was now nearly seventy Death of years old, yet age had not lessened his crusading Barbarossa, zeal. He took the overland route and after 1190 much hard fighting reached southern Asia Minor. Here, 1 See page 157. 2 See page 156. 172 The Crusades however, he was drowned, while trying to cross a swollen stream. Many of his discouraged fol- lowers at once returned to Germany; a few of them, however, pressed on and joined the other crusaders before the walls of Acre. The expedition of the French and English achieved little. Philip and Acre cap- Richard, who came by sea, tured by captured Acre after a hard PMip and . ^ Richard, Siege, but their quarrels ^^^^ prevented them from fol- lowing up this initial success. Philip soon went home, leaving the further conduct of the crusade in Richard's hands. The English king remained four- teen months longer in the Holy Land. His campaigns during this in the time gained for him the ?.n7h^1?' title of "Lion-hearted," 1 1191-1192 I,- I, I, . 1 by which he is always known. He had many adventures and performed knightly exploits with- out number, but could not capture Jerusalem. Tradition declares that when, during a truce, some crusaders went up to Jerusalem, Richard refused to accompany them, saying that he would not enter as a pilgrim the city which he could not rescue as a con- queror. He and Saladin finally concluded a treaty which permitted Christians to visit Jerusalem without paying tribute. Richard then set sail for England, and with his departure from the Holy Land the Third Crusade came to an end. 1 In French Cceur-de-Lion. Richard I in Prison From an illuminated manuscript of the thirteenth century. King Richard on his return from the Holy Land was shipwrecked off the coast of the Adriatic. At- tempting to travel through Austria in disguise, he was captured by the duke of Austria, whom he had offended at the siege of Acre. The king regained his liberty only by paying a ransom equivalent to more than twice the annual revenues of England. Fourth Crusade 173 71. Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constan- tinople, 1202-1261 The real author of the Fourth Crusade was the famous pope, Innocent III.^ Young, enthusiastic, and ambitious for the glory of the Papacy, he revived the plans of ^ 1 TT , 1 . , r Innocent III Urban II and sought once more to unite the forces and the of Christendom against Islam. No emperor or Fourth 11- 1 1 r Crusade kmg answered his summons, but a number of knights (chiefly French) took the crusader's vow. The leaders of the enterprise decided to make Egypt their objective point, since that country was then the center of the Moslem power. Accordingly, the crusaders pro- ^j^^ ^^_ ceeded to Venice, for the purpose -of securing saders and transportation across the Mediterranean. The Venetians agreed to furnish the necessary ships only on condition that the crusaders first seize Zara on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. Zara was a Christian city, but it was also a naval and commercial rival of Venice. In spite of the pope's protests, the crusaders besieged and captured the place. Even then they did not proceed against the Moslems. The Venetians per- suaded them to turn their arms against Constantinople. Thus it happened that these soldiers of the Cross, pledged to war with the Moslems, attacked a Christian city, which for centuries had formed the chief bulwark of Europe against the Arab and the Turk. The crusaders — now better styled the invaders — took Constantinople by storm. No 'infidels" could have treated in worse fashion this home of ancient civilization. ^^^^^ ^^ q^^_ They burned down a great part of it; they slaugh- stantinople, tered the inhabitants; they wantonly destroyed monuments, statues, paintings, and manuscripts — the ac- cumulation of a thousand years. Much of the movable wealth they carried away. Never, declared an eye-witness of the scene, had there been such plunder since the world began. The victors hastened to divide between them the lands of ^ See page 157. 174 The Crusades Latin Empire of Constanti- nople, 1204- 1261 the Roman Empire in the East. Venice gained some districts in Greece, together with nearly all the iEgean islands. The chief crusaders formed part of the remaining territory into the Latin Empire of Constantinople. It was organized in fiefs, after the feudal manner. There was a prince of Achaia, a duke of Athens, a marquis of Corinth, and a count of Thebes. Large districts, both in Europe and Asia, did not acknowledge, how- ever, these ''Latin" rulers. The new empire lived less than sixty years. At the end of this time the Greeks returned to power. Constantinople, after the Fourth Crusade, declined in strength and could no longer cope with the bar- barians menacing it. Two centuries later the city fell an easy victim to the Turks. The responsibility for the disaster which gave the Turks a foothold in Europe rests on the heads of the Venetians and the French nobles. Their greed and lust for power turned the Fourth Crusade into a political adventure. The so-called Children's Crusade illustrates at once the reh- gious enthusiasm and misdirected zeal which marked the whole The Children's Crusading movement. Thousands of French chil- Crusade, dren assembled in bands and marched through 1212 the towns and villages, carrying banners, candles, and crosses, and singing, "Lord God, exalt Christianity. Lord Disastrous consequence of the Fourth Crusade "The Last Crusade" Richard I Gooking down on the Holy City): " My dream comes true." A cartoon which ap- peared in Punch, Dec. ig, 1917, at the time of the British capture of Jerusalem. Results of the Crusades 175 God, restore to us the true Cross." The children could not be restrained at first, but finally hunger compelled them to return home. In Germany, a lad named Nicholas really did succeed in launching a crusade. He led a mixed multitude of men and women, boys and girls over the Alps into Italy, where they expected to take ship for Palestine. But many perished of hardships, many were sold into slavery, and only a few ever saw their homes again. "These children," Pope Innocent III declared, "put us to shame; while we sleep they rush to recover the Holy Land." The crusading movement came to an end by the close of the thirteenth century. The emperor Frederick II ^ for a short time recovered Jerusalem by a treaty, but in 1244 End of the the Holy City became again a possession of the crusades Moslems. Acre, the last Christian post in Syria, fell in 1291, and with this event the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem ceased to exist. The Hospitalers, or Knights of St. John, still kept possession of the important islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, which long served as a barrier to Moslem expansion over the Mediterranean. 72. Results of the Crusades The crusades, judged by what they set out to accomplish, must be accounted a complete failure. After two hundred years of conflict, after a great expenditure of wealth Failure of and human lives, the Holy Land remained in *^® crusades Moslem hands. It is true that the First Crusade did help, by the conquest of Syria, to check the advance of the Turks toward Constantinople. But even this benefit was more than undone by the weakening of the Roman Empire in the East as a result of the Fourth Crusade. Of the many reasons for the failure of the crusades, three require special consideration. In the first place, -^j^ ^^ there was the inability of eastern and western crusades Europe to cooperate in supporting the holy wars. ® A united Christendom might well have been invincible, but ^ See page 158. 176 The Crusades the bitter antagonism between the Greek and Roman churches effectually prevented all unity of action. The emperors at Constantinople, after the First Crusade, rarely assisted the crusaders and often secretly hindered them. In the second place, the lack of sea-power, as seen in the earher crusades, worked against their success. Instead of being able to go by water directly to Syria, it was necessary to follow the long, over- land route from France or Germany through Hungary, Bul- garia, the territory of the Roman Empire in the East, and the deserts and mountains of Asia Minor. The armies that reached their destination after this toilsome march were in no condition for effective campaigning. In the third place, the crusaders were never numerous enough to colonize so large a country as Syria and absorb its Moslem population. They conquered part of Syria in the First Crusade, but could not hold it per- manently in the face of determined resistance. In spite of these and other reasons, the Christians of Europe might have continued much longer their efforts to recover the Wh the -^^^y Land, had they not lost faith in the move- crusades ment. But after two centuries the old crusading ceased enthusiasm died out, the old ideal of the crusade as "the way of God" lost its spell. Men had begun to think less of winning future salvation by visits to distant shrines and to think more of their present duties to the world about them. They came to believe that Jerusalem could best be won as Christ and the Apostles had won it — "by love, by prayers, and by the shedding of tears." The crusades could not fail to affect in many ways the life of western Europe. For instance, they helped to undermine Influence of feudalism. Thousands of barons and knights mort- the crusades gaged or sold their lands in order to raise money on feudaUsm ^^^ ^ crusading expedition. Thousands more per- ished in Syria, and their estates, through failure of heirs, reverted to the crown. Moreover, private warfare, that curse of the Middle Ages, also tended to die out with the departure for the Holy Land of so many turbulent feudal lords. Their decUne in both numbers and influence, and the corresponding Results of the Crusades 177 growth of the royal authority, may best be traced in the changes that came about in France, the original home of the crusading rnovement. One of the most important effects of the crusades was on commerce. They created a constant demand for the trans- portation of men and suppUes, encouraged ship- building, and extended the market for eastern and Medi- wares in Europe. The products of Damascus, terranean commerce Mosul, Alexandria^ Cairo, and other great cities were carried across the Mediterranean to the Italian seaports, whence they found their way into all European lands. The elegance of the Orient, with its silks, tapestries, precious stones, perfumes, spices, pearls, and ivory, was so enchanting that an enthusiastic crusader called it "the vestibule of Paradise." Finally, it must be noted how much the crusades contributed to intellectual and social progress. They brought the inhab- itants of western Europe into close relations with . , . . The crusades one another, with their fellow Christians of the and Roman Empire in the East, and with the natives European culture of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The intercourse between Christians and Moslems was particularly stimulating, because the East at this time surpassed the West in civiliza- tion. The crusaders enjoyed the advantages which come from travel in strange lands and among unfamiliar peoples. They went out from their castles or. villages to see great cities, marble palaces, superb dresses, and elegant manners; they returned with finer tastes, broader ideas, and wider sympathies. The crusades opened up a new world. When all is said, the crusades remain one of the most remark- able movements in history. They exhibited the nations of western Europe for the first time making a united significance effort for a common end. The crusaders were not of the hired soldiers, but volunteers, who, while the re- ^^^^ ^^ Hgious fervor lasted, gladly abandoned their homes and faced hardship and death in pursuit of a spiritual ideal. They failed to accomplish their purpose, yet humanity is the richer for the memory of their heroism and chivalry. 178 The Crusades studies I . On an outline map indicate Europe and the Mediterranean lands by religions, about 1 100. 2. On an outline map indicate the routes of the First and the Third Crusades. 3. Locate on the map the following places: Clermont; Acre; Antioch; Zara; Edessa; and Damascus. 4. Identify the following dates: 1204; 1095; 1096; and 1 291. 5. What parts of Europe had not been Christianized at the time of the First Crusade? 6. Write a short essay describing the imaginary experiences of a crusader to the Holy Land. 7. Mention some instances which illustrate the religious enthusiasm of the crusaders. 8. Compare the Mohammedan pilgrimage to Mecca with the pilgrimages of Christians to Jerusalem in the Middle Ages. 9. Compare the Christian crusade with the Mohammedan jihad, or holy war. 10. How did the expression, a "red-cross knight," arise? 11. Why is the Second Crusade often called "St. Bernard's Crusade"? 12. Why has the Third Crusade been called "the most interesting international expedition of the Middle Ages"? 13. Would the crusaders in 1204 have attacked Constantinople, if the schism of 1054 had not occurred? 14. "Mixture, or at least contact of races, is essential to progress." How do the crusades illustrate the truth of this statement? 15. Were the crusades the only means by which western Europe was brought in contact with Moslem civilization? CHAPTER IX THE MONGOLS AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS TO 1453 73. The Mongols The extensive steppes in the middle and north of Asia have formed, for thousands of years, the abode of nomadic peoples belonging to the Yellow race. In prehistoric ^j^^ Asiatic times they spread over northern Europe, but they counter- were gradually supplanted by white-skinned Indo- * ^^ Europeans, until now only remnants of them exist, such as the Finns and Lapps. In later ages history records how the Huns, the Bulgarians, and the Magyars have poured into Europe, spreading terror and destruction in their path. These invaders were followed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by the even more terrible Mongols and Ottoman Turks. Their inroads might well be described as Asia's reply to the crusades, as an Asiatic counter-attack upon Europe. The Mongols, who have given their name to the entire race of yellow-skinned peoples, now chiefly occupy the high plateau bounded on the north by Siberia, on the south by ,, Mongolia China, on the east by Manchuria, and on the west by Turkestan. Although the greater part of this area consists of the Gobi desert, there are many oases and pastures available to the inhabitants at different seasons of the year. Hence the principal occupation of the Mongols has always been cattle breeding, and their horses, oxen, sheep, and camels have always furnished them with food and clothing. Like most nomads the Mongols dwell in tents, each family often by itself. Severe simplicity is the rule of life, for property consists of little more than one's flocks and herds, Mongol life clothes, and weapons. The modern Mongols are ^^'^ character a peaceable, kindly folk, who have adopted from Tibet a 179 i8o The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks debased form of Buddhism, but the Mongols of the thirteenth century in rehgion and morals were scarcely above the level of savagery. To ruthless cruelty and passion for plunder they added an efficiency in warfare which enabled them, within fifty years, to overrun much of Asia and the eastern part of Europe. The daily life of the Mongols was a training school for war. HUT-WAGON OF THE MONGOLS (RECONSTRUCTION) On the wagon was placed a sort of hut or pavilion made of wands bound together with narrow thongs. The structure was then covered with felt or cloth and provided with latticed windows. Hut-wagons, being very light, were sometimes of enormous size. Constant practice in riding, scouting, and the use of arms made Miiit every man a soldier. The words with which an prowess of ancient Greek historian described the Scythians the Mongols ^^^^^^^ perfectly to the Mongols: ''Having neither cities nor forts, and carrying their dweUings with them wherever they go; accustomed, moreover, one and all, to shoot from horseback; and hving not by husbandry but on their cattle, their wagons the only houses that they possess, how can they fail of being irresistible?" ^ 74. Conquests of the Mongols, 1206-1405 The Mongols had dwelt for ages in scattered tribes throughout their Asiatic wilderness, engaged in petty struggles with one 1 Herodotus, iv, 46. Conquests of the Mongols i8i another for cattle and pasture lands. It was the celebrated Jenghiz Khan/ chief of one of the tribes, who jenghiz brought them all under his authority and then led ^^^ them to the conquest of the world. Of him it may be said with truth that he had the most victorious of military careers, and that he constructed the most extensive empire known to history. Had Jenghiz possessed the ability of a statesman, he would have taken a place by the side of Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. Jenghiz first sent the Mongol armies, which contained many Mongol Turkish allies, ^"^^^^^ under over the Great jenghiz, Wall and into 1206-1227 the fertile plains of China. All the northern half of Tomb of Timur at Samarkand the country was quickly Samarkand in Russian Central Asia became overrun. Then Tenghiz Timur's capital in 1369. The city was once a , J J • center of Mohammedan wealth and culture, famous turned westward and m- for its beautiful mosques, palaces, and colleges. The Vaded Turkestan and Gur-Amir, or tomb of Timur, consists of a chapel, ^ . _ . crowned by a dome and inclosed by a wall. Time r erSia. oeven centuries and earthquakes have greatly injured this fine build- have not sufficed to repair ^°S- ^he remains of Timur lie here under a huge block of jade. the damage which the Mongols wrought in these once-prosperous lands. The great cities of Bokhara, Samarkand, Merv, and Herat, long centers of Moslem culture, were pillaged and burned, and their inhabit- ants were put to the sword. Still further conquests enlarged the empire, which at the death of Jenghiz stretched from the Dnieper River to the China Sea. 1 "The Very Mighty King." • i82 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks The Mongols in China and India 183 The Mongol dominions in the thirteenth century were in- creased by the addition of Korea, southern China, Tibet, and Mesopotamia, as well as the greater part of Asia Mongol Minor and Russia. Japan repulsed the Mongol Empire , . r A . , under the hordes, but at the other extremity of Asia they successors captured Bagdad, sacked the city, and brought °^ Jenghiz the Abbasid caliphate to an end.^ The Mongol realm was very loosely organized, however, and during the fourteenth century it fell apart into a number of independent states, or khanates. It was reserved for another renowned Oriental monarch, Timur the Lame,- to restore the empire of Jenghiz Khan. His biographers traced his descent from that famous Reign of Mongol, but Timur was a Turk and an adherent Timur, of Islam. He has come down to us as perhaps the most terrible personification in history of the evil spirit of con- quest. Such distant regions as India, Syria, Armenia, Asia Minor, and Russia were traversed by Timur's soldiers, who left behind them only the smoking ruins of a thousand cities and abominable trophies in the shape of columns or pyramids of human heads. Timur died in his seventieth year, while lead- ing his troops against China, and the extensive empire which he had built up in Asia soon crumbled to pieces. 75. The Mongols in China and India The Mongols ruled over China for about one hundred and fifty years. During this period they became thoroughly imbued with Chinese culture. '' China," said an old writer, Mongol sway ''is a sea that salts all the rivers flowing into it." ^" ^^"* The most eminent of the Mongol emperors was Jenghiz Khan's grandson, Kublai. He built a new capital, which in medieval times was known as Cambaluc and is now called Peking. While Kublai was on the throne, the Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, visited China, and he describes in glowing colors the virtues and glories of the "Great Khan." There appears to have been considerable trade between Europe and China at this time, and Franciscan missionaries and papal legates penetrated to the ^ See page 82. ^ Commonly known as Tamerlane. 1 84 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks remote East. After the downfall of the Mongol dynasty, China again shut her doors to foreign peoples. All inter- course with Europe ceased until the arrival of the Portuguese in the sixteenth century.^ Northern India, which in earlier ages had witnessed the coming of Persian, Macedonian, and Arabian conquerors, did not escape Timur and visitations by fresh Asiatic hordes. Timur the Baber Lame, at the head of an innumerable host, rushed in India down upon the banks of the Indus and the Ganges and sacked Delhi, making there a full display of his unrivaled ferocity. Timur's invasion left no permanent impress on the history of India, but its memory fired the imagination of another Turkish chieftain, Baber, a remote descendant of Timur. In 1525 he invaded India and speedily made himself master of the northern part of the country. The empire which Baber established in India is known as that of the Moguls, an Arabic form of the word Mongol. The Empire of Moguls, however, were Turkish in blood and the Moguls Mohammedans in reUgion. The Mogul emperors reigned in great splendor from their capitals at Delhi and Agra, until the decline of their power in the eighteenth century opened the way for the British conquest of India. 76. The Mongols in Eastern Europe The location of Russia on the border of Asia exposed that country to the full force of the Mongol attack. Jenghiz Khan's successors, entering Europe north of the Caspian, conquest of swept resistlessly over the Russian plain. Mos- Russia, 1237- ^.q^ g^j^^ Kiev fell in quick succession, and before 1240 long the greater part of Russia was in the hands of the Mongols. Wholesale massacres marked their progress. **No eye remained open to weep for the dead." Still the invaders pressed on. They devastated Hungary, driving the Magyar king in panic flight from his realm. They overran Poland and defeated the knighthood of Germany in a great battle. The European peoples, taken completely by 1 See page 310. The Mongols in Eastern Europe 185 surprise, could offer no effective resistance to these Asiatics who combined superiority in numbers with surpassing general- ship. Since the Arab attack in the eighth century invasion of L^nnstendom had never been in graver peril. But ^o^a^d and the wave of Mongol invasion, which threatened to Se Mongol! engulf Europe in barbarism, receded as quickly 1241 as it came. The Mongols soon abandoned Poland and Hungary and retired to their possessions in Russia. The ruler of the ^'Golden Horde," as the western section of the Mongol Empire was called, continued to be the lord of Russia for about two hundred and fifty years Russia, throughout this period, was little more "Golden than a dependency of Asia. The conquered people ^^''^^" were obliged to pay a heavy tribute and to furnish soldiers for the Mongol armies. Their princes, also, became vassals of the Great Khan. ^ The Mongols, or ^'Tartars," 1 are usually said to have Oriental- ized Russia. It seems clear, however, that they did not inter- fere with the language, religion, and laws of their ^, subjects. The chief result of the Mongol suprem- inZfce acy was to cut off Russia from western Europe '''' ^"^^^* just at the time when England, France, Germany, and Italy were emerging from the darkness of the early Middle Ages The invasion of the Mongols proved to be, indirectly the making of the Russian state. Before they came the coiintry was a patchwork of rival, and often warring, prin- Rise of cipahties. The need of union against the common Muscovy enemy welded them together. The principaHty of Muscovy so named from the capital city of Moscow, conquered its neigh- bors, annexed the important city of Novgorod, whose vast possessions stretched from Lapland to the Urals, and finally became powerful enough to shake off the Mongol yoke The final dehverance of Russia from the Mongols was accom- plished by Ivan III, surnamed the Great. He is generally and T.^l^w l^^'Tu ^""''^ '''''''^^' ^^'^'^ ^"^ °"^^^^">^ ^PP^i-d to both Mongol 1 86 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks Black Sea I,ongitude East 50° from Russia at the end of the Middle Ages regarded as the founder of Russian autocracy, that is, of a per- sonal, absolute, and arbitrary government. With a view to . strengthening his claim to be the political heir of Ivan III, the eastern emperors, Ivan married a niece of the last ruler at Constantinople, who had fallen in the defense of his capital against the Ottoman Turks. Henceforth the Russian monarch described himself as "the new Tsar ^ Constantine in the new city of Constan tine,, Moscow." 1 The title Tsar, or Czar, is supposed to be a contraction of the word Caesar. the Great, 1462-1505 The Ottoman Turks and their Conquests 187 77. The Ottoman Turks and their Conquests, 1227-1453 The first appearance of the Ottoman Turks in history dates from 1227, the year of Jenghiz Khan's death. In that year a small Turkish horde, driven westward from their Rise of the central Asian homes by the Mongol advance, settled Ottomans in Asia Mijior. There they enjoyed the protection of their kinsmen, the Seljuk Turks, and from them accepted Islam. As the Seljuk power declined, that of the Ottomans rose in its stead. Their chieftain, Othman,^ declared his independence about 1300 and became the founder of a new empire. The growth of the Ottoman power was almost as rapid as that of the Arabs or of the Mongols. During the first half of the fourteenth century they firmly established them- ottoman selves in northwestern Asia Minor, along the expansion beautiful shores washed by the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles. The second half of the same century found them in Europe, wresting province after province from the feeble hands of the eastern emperors. First came the seizure of Gallipoli on the Dardanelles, which long remained the prin- cipal Turkish naval station. Then followed the capture of Adrianople, where in earlier centuries the Visigoths had de- stroyed a Roman army. By 1400 all that remained of the Roman Empire in the East was Constantinople and a small district in the vicinity of that city. The Turks owed much of their success to the famous body of troops known as Janizaries.^ These were recruited for the most part from Christian children surrendered by The their parents as tribute. The Janizaries were edu- Janizaries cated in the Moslem faith and received careful instruction in the use of arms. Their discipline and fanatic zeal made them irresistible on the field of battle. Constantinople had never recovered from the blow inflicted upon it by the freebooters of the Fourth Crusade. Constantinople It was isolated from western Europe by the ad- besieged vance of the Turks. Frantic appeals for help brought only ^ Whence the name Ottoman applied to this branch of the Turks. 2 A name derived from the Turkish yeni cheri, "new troops." i88 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks a few ships and soldiers from Genoa and Venice. When in 1453 the sultan Mohammed II, commanding a large army amply supplied with artillery, appeared before the walls, all men knew that Constantinople was doomed. The defense of the city forms one of the most stirring episodes in history. The Christians, not more than eight thousand in ^ ^ ^ number, were a mere handful compared to the Constanti- ' i 1 1 V 1 nople Ottoman hordes. Yet they held out for nearly captured ^^^^ months against every assault. When at length the end drew near, the Roman emperor, Constantine Palaeologus, a hero Worthy of the name he bore, went with his fol- lowers at midnight to Sancta Sophia and there in that solemn fane re- ceived a last com- munion. Before sunrise on the following day the Turks were within the walls. The emperor, re- fusing to survive the city which he could not save, fell in the onrush of the Janizaries. Constanti-" nople endured a sack of three days, during which many works of art, previously spared by the crusaders, were destroyed. Mohammed II then made a triumphal entry into the city and in Sancta Sophia, now stripped of its crosses, images, and other Christian emblems, proclaimed the faith of the prophet. And so the "Turkish night," as Slavic poets named it, descended on this ancient home of civilization. The capture of Constantinople is rightly regarded as an An epoch- epoch-making event. It meant the end, once for making event ^\i^ ^f ^j-^g empire which had served so long as the rearguard of Christian civilization, as the bulwark of the IMOHAMMED II A medal showing the strong face of the conqueror of Constantinople. The Ottoman Turks and their Conquests i, I go The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks West against the East. Europe stood aghast at a calamity which she had done so Httle to prevent. The Christian powers of the West have been paying dearly, even to our own age, for their failure to save New Rome from Moslem hands. 78. The Ottoman Turks in Southeastern Europe The Turks form a small minority among the inhabitants of the Balkans. At the present time there are said to be less than Nature of one million Turks in southeastern Europe. Even Turkish rule about Constantinople the Greeks far outnumber them. The Turks from the outset have been, not a nation in the proper sense of the word, but rather an army of occupation, holding down by force their Christian subjects. The people who thus acquired dominion in southeastern Europe had become, even at the middle of the fifteenth century. The Turks a greatly mixed in blood. Their ancestors were mixed people natives of central Asia, but in Europe they inter- married freely with their Christian captives and with converts from Christianity to Islam. The modern Turks are almost entirely European in physique. The Bulgarians, who came out of Asia to devastate Europe, at length turned Christian, adopted a Slavic speech, and entered Isolation of the family of European nations. The Magyars, the Turks ^}^q followed them, also made their way into the fellowship of Christendom. Quite the opposite was the casQ with the Turks. Preserving their Asiatic language and Mos- lem faith, they remained in Europe, not a transitory scourge, but an abiding oppressor of Christian lands. The isolation of the Turks prevented them from assimilat- ing the higher culture of the peoples whom they conquered. Turkish They have never created anything in science, art, ^^^astera literature, commerce, or industry. Conquest has Europe been the Turks' one business in the world, and when they ceased conquering their decline set in. But it was not till the end of the seventeenth century that the Turkish Empire entered on that downward road which has now led to its extinction as a European power. The Ottoman Turks in Southeastern Europe 191 Studies I. On an outline map indicate the extent of the Ottoman Empire in 1453. 2. Locate these cities: Bokhara; Samarkand; Merv; Herat; Bagdad; Peking; Delhi; Kiev; Moscow; and Adrianople. 3. Who were Baber, Kublai Khan, Othman, Mohammed II, Constantine Palaeologus, and Ivan the Great? 4. Why should the steppes of central and northern Asia have been a nursery of warlike peoples? 5. What parts of Asia were not included in the Mongol Empire at its greatest extent? 6. Trace on the map (page 182) the further expansion of the Mongol Empire after the death of Jenghiz Khan. 7. On the same map indi- cate approximately the Christian and Moslem territories overrun by the Mon- gols. 8. "Scratch a Russian and you will find a Tartar." What does this mean? 9. Why did the Mongol conquest of Russia tend to strengthen the sentiment of nationality in the Russian people? 10. How did the tsars come to regard themselves as the successors of the eastern emperors? 11. Compare the Janizaries with the Christian military-religious orders. 12. How was "the victory of the Crescent secured by the children of the Cross"? 13. Why were the invasions of the Mongols and Ottoman Turks more destructive to civilization than those of the Germans, the Arabs, and the Northmen? 14. Enumerate the more important services of the Roman Empire in the East to civilization. CHAPTER X EUROPEAN NATIONS DURING THE LATER MIDDLE AGES^ 79. Growth of the Nations The map of western Europe, that is, of Europe west of the great Russian plain and the Balkan peninsula, showed this part The new of the continent at the beginning of the twentieth nationaUsm century divided among no less than thirteen sepa- rate and independent nations. Most of them arose during the latter part of the Middle Ages. They have existed so long that we now think of the national state as the highest type of * human association, forgetting that it has been pre- ceded by other forms of pohtical organization, such as the Greek republic, the Roman Empire, and the feudal state, and that it may be followed some day by an international or universal state composed of all civilized peoples. These national states succeeded feudahsm. The complete establishment of feudahsm in any country meant, as has been The national ^^^^' ^^^ division into numerous small communi- state and ties, each with a law court, treasury, and army, feudahsm g^^j^ ^^ arrangement helped to keep order in an age of confusion, but it did not meet the needs of a progressive society. In most parts of Europe the feudal states gradually gave way to centralized governments ruled by despotic kings. A feudal king was often little more than a figurehead, equaled, or perhaps surpassed, in power by some of his own vassals. But The new in England, France, Spain, and other countries a monarchies series of astute and energetic sovereigns were able to strengthen their authority at the expense of the nobles. 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xiv, "St. Louis"; chapter xv, "Episodes of the Hundred Years' War"; chapter xvi, "Memoirs of a French Courtier." 192 England under William the Conqueror 193 They formed permanent armies by insisting that all miHtary service should be rendered to themselves and not to the feudal lords. They got into their own hands the administration of justice. They developed a revenue system, with the taxes collected by royal officers and deposited in the royal treasury. The kings thus succeeded in creating in each country one power which all the inhabitants feared, respected, and obeyed. A national state in modern times is keenly conscious of its separate existence. All its people usually speak the same language and have for their "fatherland" the ^j^^ ^enti- warmest feelings of patriotic devotion. In the ment of Middle Ages, however, patriotism was commonly "^*^°^* ^^ confounded with loyalty to the sovereign, while the differences between nations were obscured by the existence of an inter- national Church and by the use of Latin as the common language of all cultivated persons. The sentiment of nationality arose earlier in England than on the Continent, partly owing to the insular position of that country, but nowhere did it become a very strong influence before the end of the fifteenth century. 80. England under William the Conqueror, 1066-1087; the Norman Kingship William the Conqueror had won England by force of arms. He ruled it as a despot. Those who resisted him he treated as rebels, confiscating their land and presenting it to wiUiam's Norman followers. To prevent uprisings he built despotic rule a castle in every important town, with garrisons of his own soldiers. The Tower of London still stands as an impressive memorial of the days of the Conquest. But William did not rely on force alone. He sought with success to attach the Enghsh to himself by retaining most of their old customs and by giving them an enlightened administration of the law. "Good peace he made in this land," said the old Anglo-Saxon chronicler, "so that a man might travel over the kingdom with his bosom full of gold without molestation, and no man durst kill another, however great the injury he might have received from him." 194 Europe During the Later Middle Ages The feudal system on the Continent permitted a powerful noble to gather his vassals and make war on the king, whenever WiiUam and he chose to do SO. William had been familiar feudaUsm ^j^]^ |-]^jg gyjj gide of feudaHsm, both in France and in his own duchy of Normandy, and he determined to pre- vent its introduction into England. William estabhshed the principle that a vassal owed his first duty to the king and not to his immediate lord. If a noble rebelled and his men followed him, they were to be treated as traitors. Rebellion proved to be an especially diffi- cult matter in Eng- land, since the estates which a great lord possessed were not all in any one place, but were scattered about the kingdom. A noble who planned to revolt could be put down before he was able to collect his retainers from the more distant parts of the country. The extent of William's authority is illustrated by the survey which he had made of the taxable property of the kingdom. Domesday Royal commissioners went throughout the length and breadth of England to find out how much farm land there was in every county, how many land- owners there were, and what each man possessed, to the last ox or cow or pig. The reports were set down in the famous Domesday Book, perhaps so called because one could no more appeal from it than from the Last Judgment. A similar census The "White Tower" Forms part of the Tower of London. Built by William the Conqueror. Book 1085 Royal Justice and the Common Law 195 of population and property had never before been taken in the Middle Ages. Almost at the close of his reign William is said to have sum- moned all the landowning men in England to a great meeting on Salisbury Plain. They assembled there to ^j^^ SaUsburv the number, as it is reported, of sixty thousand Oath, and promised "that they would be faithful to him against all other men." The Salisbury Oath was a national act of homage and allegiance to the king. Tcox adem^AKXSf7 V;Jevair* metttf. iomtah ^Icpw fl/tuitio rex iUyx'm wpeit^cne: \>iitvi(cnf4'y>^. ita^T A Passage from Domesday Book Beginning of the entry for Oxford. The handwriting is the beautiful Carolingian minuscule which the Norman Conquest introduced into England. The two volumes of Domesday Book and the chest in which they were formerly preserved may be seen in the Public Record Office, London. 81. England under Henry II, 1154-1189; Royal Justice and the Common Law A grandson of WilKam the Conqueror, Henry II, was the first of the Plantagenet^ family. Henry spent more than half of his reign abroad, looking after his extensive Henry ii, possessions in France, but this fact did not prevent Plaiitagenet him from giving England good government. Three things in which all Englishmen take special pride — the courts, the jury system, and the Common law — began to take shape during Henry's reign. Henry, first of all, developed the royal court of justice. This had been, at first, simply the court of the king's chief 1 The name comes from that of the broom plant (Latin planta genesia), a sprig of which Henry's father used to wear in his hat. The family is also called Angevin, because Henry on his father's side descended from the counts of Anjou in France. 196 Europe During the Later Middle Ages 6 Longitude 4 West from 2 Greenwich Longitude 2 East from 4 Greenwich 6 Dominions of the Plantagenets in England and France Royal Justice and the Common Law 197 vassals, corresponding to the local feudal courts. Henry trans- formed it from an occasional assembly of warlike nobles into a regular body of trained lawyers, and at the same The king's time opened its doors to all except serfs. In the *^°"^* king's court any freeman could find a justice that was cheaper and speedier than that dispensed by the feudal lords. The higher courts of England have sprung from this institution. Henry also took measures to bring the king's justice directly to the people. He sent members of the royal court on circuit throughout the kingdom. At least once a year a circuit judge was to hold an assembly in each county and Judges try such cases as were brought before him. This system of cir- cuit judges helped to make the law uniform in all parts of England. The king's court owed much of its popularity to the fact that it employed a better form of trying cases than the old ordeal, oath-swearing, or judicial duel. Henry introduced Trial by a method of jury trial which had long been in use " P®**y j"^y " in Normandy. When a case came before the king's judges on circuit, they were to select twelve knights, usually neighbors of the parties engaged in the dispute, to make an investigation and give a ''verdict" ^ as to which side was in the right. These selected men bore the name of "jurors," ^ because they swore to tell the truth. This method of securing justice applied at first only to civil cases, that is, to cases affecting land and other forms of property, but later it was extended to persons charged with criminal offenses. Thus arose the ''petty jury," an institution which nearly all European peoples have borrowed from England. Another of Henry's innovations developed into the "grand jury." Before his time many offenders went unpunished, especially if they were so powerful that no private Accusation individual dared accuse them. Henry provided by the that when the king's justices came to a county ^^^ -""^^ court a number of selected men should be put upon their oath and required to give the names of any persons whom they knew * Latin verum dictum, "a true statement." ^ Latin i«ro, "I take an oath." 198 Europe During the Later Middle Ages or believed to be guilty of crimes. Such persons were then to be arrested and tried. The "grand jury," as it came to be called, thus had the public duty of making accusations, whether its members felt any private interest in the matter or not. The decisions handed down by the legal experts who com- posed the royal court formed the basis of the English system of The jurisprudence. It received the name Common Common law ig^^ because it grew out of such customs as were common to the realm, as distinguished from those which were merely local. This law, from Henry II's reign, became so widespread and so firmly established that it could not be sup- planted by the Roman law followed on the Continent. Carried by English colonists across the seas, it has now come to prevail throughout a great part of the world. 82. The Great Charter The great Henry, from whose legal reforms EngHsh-speaking peoples receive benefit even to-day, was followed by his son Richard I Richard, the Lion-hearted crusader. After a and John, short reign Richard was succeeded by his brother 1189-1216 John, a man so cruel, tyrannical, and wicked that he is usually regarded as the worst of EngHsh kings. In a war with the French ruler, Philip Augustus, John lost Normandy and some of the other English possessions on the Continent.^ In a dispute with Innocent HI he ended by making an abject submission to the Papacy .^ Finally, John's oppressive govern- ment provoked a revolt of his Enghsh subjects, and he was compelled to grant the famous charter of privileges known as Magna Carta. The Norman Conquest had made the king so strong that his Winning of authority could be resisted only by a union of all Magna classes of the people. The feudal lords were Carta. 1215 obUged to unite, with the clergy and the com- mons,^ in order to save their honor, their estates, and their 1 See page 209. 2 gee page 158. 3 A term which refers to all freemen in town and comitry below the rank of nobles. The Great Charter 199 heads. Matters came to a crisis in 121 5, when the nobles, supported by the archbishop of Canterbury, placed their de- mands for reform in writing before the king. John refused to make any concessions. The nobles at once formed the "army of God and the Holy Church," as it was called, and occupied London, thus ranging the townspeople on their side. Deserted by all except the hired troops which he had brought from the Continent, John was compelled to yield. At Run- Extract from the Great Charter Fascimile of the opening lines. Four copies of Magna Carta, sealed with the great seal of King John, as well as several unsealed copies, are in existence. The British Museum possesses two of the sealed copies; the other two belong to the cathedrals of Lincoln and Salisbury, respectively. nimede on the Thames, not far from Windsor, he set his seal to the Great Charter. Magna Carta does not profess to be a charter of liberties for all Englishmen. Most of its sixty-three clauses merely guaran- tee to each member of the coalition against John character — nobles, clergy, and commons — those special of Magna privileges which the Norman rulers had tried to take away. Very little is said in this long document about the serfs, who composed probably five-sixths of the population of England in the thirteenth century. But there are three clauses of Magna Carta which came to have a most important part in the history of EngUsh freedom. 200 Europe During the Later Middle Ages The first declared that no taxes were to be levied on the nobles — besides the three recognized feudal "aids" — except Sienificance ^^ consent of the Great Council of the realm, of Magna By this clause the nobles compelled the king to ^*^* secure their approval of any proposed taxation. The second set forth that no one was to be arrested, imprisoned, or punished in any way, except after a trial by his equals and in accordance with the law of the land. The third said simply that to no one should justice be sold, denied, or delayed. These last two clauses contained the germ of legal principles on which the Enghsh people reUed for protection against despotic kings. They form a part of our American inheritance from England and have passed into the laws of all our states. 83. Parliament in the Thirteenth Century The thirteenth century, which opened so auspiciously with the winning of the Great Charter, is also memorable as the Henry HI, time when England developed her Parliament ^ 1216-1272 into something Hke its present form. The first steps in parliamentary government were taken during the reign of John's son, Henry III. It had long been the custom in England in all important matters for the ruler to act only with the advice and con- sent of his leading men. The Anglo-Saxon kings The Wite- , , , . i r i • ttt- nagemot and sought the advice and consent of their Witenage- the Gre'at mot,^ a body of nobles, royal officers, bishops. Council and abbots. It approved laws, served as a court of final appeal, elected a new monarch, and at times deposed him. The Witenagemot did not disappear after the Norman Conquest. Under the name of the Great Council it continued to meet from time to time for consultation with the king. This assembly was now to be transformed from a feudal body into a parHament representing the entire nation. 1 The word "parliament," from French parler, "to speak," originally meant a talk or conference. Later, the word came to be applied to the body of persons assembled for conference. 2 See page io6 and note i. 3 5 2. .W-. - ;\ 3 3 •n o- W 3 3 a. 5 11 ^ 3 i 1 - I. a » 3- 3" r - 3 <^ 4^ >-l r^ Q. 3 - ^ 2: ^ f 3" ^ ^ q S S 3 • J« 3 f " 3 • ii !^ i? fTg g- 5" f5 3 t3- r* P R C !fl 3 S B >" -. ro ffi^ ^^m:.^'A ^» 202 Europe During the Later Middle Ages The Great Council, which by one of the provisions of Magna Carta had been required to give its consent to the levying of Simon de taxes, met quite frequently during Henry Ill's ParUament reign. On one occasion, when Henry was in 1265 urgent need of money and the bishops and lords refused to grant it, the king took the significant step of calling to the council two knights from each county to declare what money they would give him. These knights, so ran Henry's summons, were to come "in the stead of each and all," in other words, they were to act as representa- tives of the coun- ties. Then in 1265, when the nobles were at war with the king, a second and even more sig- nificant step was taken. Their leader, Simon de Montfort, sum- moned to the coun- cil not only two knights from each A Queen Eleanor Cross After the death of his wife Eleanor, Edward I caused a memorial cross to be set up at each place where her funeral cOUntV but procession had stopped on its way to London. There were originally seven crosses. Of the three that still exist, the Geddington cross is the best preserved. It consists of three stories and stands on a platform of eight steps. also two citizens from each of the more important towns. The custom of selecting certain men to act in the name and on the behalf of the community had existed during Anglo- Saxon times in local government. Representatives of the counties had been employed by the Norman kings to assess Parliament in the Thirteenth Century 203 and collect taxes on land and personal property. As we have just learned, the "juries" of Henry II also con- ^j^^ jepj-e- sisted of such representatives. The EngHsh people, sentative in fact, were quite familiar with the idea of repre- ^^^ ^^ sentation long before it was applied on a larger scale to Parlia- ment. Simon de Montfort's Parliament included only his own sup- porters, and hence was not a truly national body. But it made a precedent for the future. Thirty years later ,, T- 1 1 T n 1 1 TTT . Model Edward I called together at Westmmster, now a ParUament" part of London, a Parliament which included all ®^ Edward I, 1295 classes of the people. Here were present earls and barons as representatives from the nobility; bishops, abbots, and other representatives of the clergy; two knights from every county; and two townsmen to represent each town in that county. After this time all these classes were regularly sum- moned to meet in assembly at Westminster. The separation of Parliament into two chambers came in the fourteenth century. The House of Lords contained the nobles and higher clergy, the House of Commons, Lords and the representatives from counties and towns. Commons This bicameral arrangement, as it is called, has been followed in the parliaments of most modern countries. The early English Parhament was not a law-making but a tax-voting body. The king would call the two houses in session only when he needed their sanction for raising Powers of money. Parliament in its turn would refuse to Parliament grant supplies until the king had corrected abuses in admin- istration or had removed unpopular officials. This control of the public purse in time enabled Parliament to grasp other powers. It became generally recognized that royal officials were responsible to Parliament for their actions, that the king himself might be deposed for good cause, and that bills, when passed by Parliament and signed by the king, were henceforth the law of the land. England thus worked out in the Middle Ages a system of parliamentary government which nearly all civiHzed nations have held worthy of imitation. 204 Europe During the Later Middle Ages 84. Expansion of England under Edward I, 1272-1307 Our narrative has been confined until now to England, which forms, together with Wales" and Scotland, the island known as The Great Britain. Ireland is the only other important British Isles division of the United Kingdom. It was almost inevitable that in process of time the British Isles should have come under a single govern- ment, but political unity has not yet fused English, Welsh, Scotch, and Irish into a single people. The conquest of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons drove many of the Welsh, as Wales . the invaders called the Britons, into the western part of the island. This district, henceforth known as Wales, was one of the last strongholds of the Celts. Even to-day a variety of the old Celtic lan- guage, called Cymric, is still spoken by the Welsh people. The Welsh long resisted all attempts to subjugate them. Conquest Harold exerted some of Wales authority over Wales; William the Conqueror entered part of it; and Henry II induced the local rulers to acknowl- edge him as overlord; but it was Edward I who first brought all the country under English sway. Edward fostered the building of towns in his new possession, divided it into coun- ties or shires, after the system that prevailed in England, and introduced the Common law. He called his son, Ed- ward II, who was born in the country, the "Prince of Wales," and this title has ever since been borne by the heir apparent to Coronation Chair, West- minster Abbey Every English ruler since Edward I has been crowned in this oak chair. Under the seat is the " Stone of Scone," said to have been once used by the patriarch Jacob. Edward I brought it to London in 1291, as a token of the subjection of Scotland. Expansion of England under Edward I 205 the English throne. The work of uniting Wales to England went on slowly, and two centuries elapsed before Wales re- ceived representation in the House of Commons. SCOTLAND In the 13th Century DfEDglish Miles n r II Longitude VTest 4 from Greenwic Scotland derives its name from the Scots, who came over from Ireland early in the fifth century. The northern High- lands, a nest of rugged mountains washed by cold „ , ^ 1 11 i_ • J • Scotland and stormy seas, have always been occupied m historic times by a Celtic-speaking people, whose language, called Gaelic, is not yet extinct there. This part of Scotland, like Wales, was a home of freedom. The Romans did not 2o6 Europe During the Later Middle Ages attempt to annex the Highlands, and the Anglo-Saxons and Danes never penetrated their fastnesses. On the other hand, the southern Lowlands, which include only about one-third of Scotland, were subdued by the Teutonic invaders, and so this district became thoroughly Enghsh in language and culture.^ One might suppose that the Lowlands, geographically only an extension of northern England and inhabited by an EngUsh- The Scottish speaking people, would have early united with the kingdom southern kingdom. But matters turned out other- wise. The Lowlands and the Highlands came together under a line of Celtic kings, who fixed their residence at Edinburgh and long maintained their independence. Edward I, having conquered Wales, took advantage of the disturbed conditions which prevailed in Scotland to interfere Scotland ^^ ^^^ affairs of that country. The Scotch offered annexed by a brave but futile resistance under Wilham Wallace. Edward I rpj^-^ j^^^qJ^, leader, who held out after most of his countrymen submitted, was finally captured and executed. His head, according to the barbarous practice of the time, was set upon a pole on London Bridge. The Enghsh king now annexed Scotland without further opposition. The Scotch soon found another champion in the person of Robert Bruce. Edward I, now old and broken, marched against him, but died before reaching the border. Robert Bruce _° ' ^ , . _ , , ° .^. and Ban- The weakness of his son, Edward II, permitted nockbum, ^]^g Scotch, ably led by Bruce, to win the signal victory of Bannockburn, near Stirhng Castle. Here the Scottish spearmen drove the Enghsh knights into ignominious flight and freed their country from its foreign overlords. The battle of Bannockburn made a nation. A few years afterwards the Enghsh formally recognized the independence Independence of the northern kingdom. The great design of of Scotland Edward I to unite all the peoples of Britain under one government had to be postponed for centuries.- 1 See the map, page 28. * In 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended the throne of England as James I. Unification of France 207 No one kingdom ever arose in Ireland out of the numerous tribes into which the Celtic-speaking inhabitants were divided. The island was not troubled, however, by foreign , , , , Ireland invaders till the coming of the Northmen in the ninth century. The English, who first entered Ireland during the reign of Henry II, for a long time held only a small district about Dublin known as the Pale.^ Ireland because of its situ- ation could scarcely fail to become an appanage of Great Britain, but the dividing sea has combined with differences in race, language, and religion, and with English misgovernment, to prevent anything like a genuine union of the conquerors and the conquered. 85. Unification of France, 987-1328 Nature seems to have intended that France should play a leading part in European affairs. The geographical unity of the country is obvious. Mountains and seas Physical form its permanent boundaries, except on the north- France east, where the frontier is not well defined. The western coast of France opens on the Atlantic, now the greatest highway of the world's commerce, while on the southeast France touches the Mediterranean, the home of classical civilization. This intermediate position between two seas helps us to understand why French history should form, as it were, a connecting link between ancient and modern times. But the greatness of France has been due, also, to the qualities of the French people. Many racial elements have contributed to the population. The blood of prehistoric Racial men, whose monuments and grave mounds are ^^^^^ce scattered over the land, still flows in the veins of Frenchmen. At the opening of historic times France was chiefly occupied by the Gauls, whom Juhus Caesar found there and subdued. The Gauls, or Celtic people, formed in later ages the main stock of the French nation, but their language gave place to Latin after the Roman conquest. In the course of five hundred years the Gauls were so thoroughly Romanized that they may best be ^ See the map on page 388. 2o8 Europe During the Later Middle Ages described as Gallo-Romans. The Burgundians, Franks, and Northmen afterwards added a Teutonic element to the pop- ulation, as well as some infusion of Teutonic laws and customs. Unification of France during the Middle Ages France, again, became a great nation because of the greatness of its rulers. Hugh Capet, who assumed the French crown in TheCapetian 987, was fortunate in his descendants. The dynasty Capetian dynasty was long lived, and for more than three centuries son followed father on the throne without Unification of France 209 a break in the succession. During this time the French sov- ereigns worked steadily to exalt the royal power and to unite the feudal states of medieval France into a real nation under a common government. Their success in this task made them, at the close of the Middle Ages, the strongest monarchs in Europe. Hugh Capet's duchy — the original France — included only a small stretch of inland country centering about Paris on the Seine and Orleans on the Loire. His election to France and the kingship did not increase his power over the ^*^ ^®^^ great lords who ruled in Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, and other parts of the country. They did homage to the king for their fiefs and performed the usual feudal services, but other- wise regarded themselves as independent. The most considerable additions to the royal domains, or territories under the king's control, were effected by Philip II, called Augustus. Reference has already been pj^j. jj made to his contest with Pope Innocent III and Augustus, to his participation in the Third Crusade.^ The ^^^^^223 English king, John, was Philip's vassal for Normandy and other provinces in France. A quarrel between the two rulers gave Philip an opportunity to declare John's fiefs forfeited by feudal law. Philip then seized all the English possessions north of the river Loire. The loss of these possessions abroad had the result of separating England almost completely from Con- tinental interests; for France it meant a great increase in territory and population. Philip made Paris his chief residence, and that city was henceforth the capital of France. During the long reign of Philip's grandson, Louis IX, rich districts to the west of the Rhone became a part of the royal domains. This king, whose Christian vir- louJs ix the tues led to his canonization, distinguished himself Saint, 122&- 1270 as an administrator. His work in unifying France may be compared with that of Henry II in England. He decreed that only the king's money was to circulate in the provinces ruled directly by himself, thus limiting the right of 1 See pages 157 and 171. 2IO Europe During the Later Middle Ages coinage enjoyed by feudal lords. He restricted very greatly the right of private war and forbade the use of judicial duels. Louis also provided that important cases could be appealed from feudal courts to the king's judges, who sat in Paris and followed in their decisions the principles of Roman law. In these and other ways he laid the foundations of absolute mon- archy in France. The grandson of St. Louis, Philip IV, did much to organize a financial system for France. Now that the kingdom had Philio IV the become so large and powerful, the old feudal dues Fair, 1285- were insufl&cient to pay the salaries of the royal ^^^* officials and support a standing army. Philip resorted to new methods of raising revenue, by imposing various taxes and by requiring the feudal lords to substitute payments in money for the military service due from them. Philip also called into existence the Estates-General, an assembly in which the clergy, the nobles, and representatives The Estates- from the commons (the Third Estate) met as separ- General ^^q bodies and voted grants of money. The Estates- General arose almost at the same time as the English Parliament, to which it corresponded, but it never secured the extensive authority of that body. After a time the kings of France became so powerful that they managed to reign without once summoning the nation in council. The French did not suc- ceed, as the English had done, in founding political liberty upon the vote and control of taxation. 86. The Hundred Years* War between France and England, 1337-1453 The task of unifying France was interrupted by a deplorable war between that country Imd England. It continued, in- Pretext for eluding periods of truce, for over a century. The the war pretext for the war was found in a disputed suc- cession. In 1328 the last of the three sons of Philip IV passed away, and the direct hne of the house of Capet, which had reigned over France for more than three hundred years, came to an end. The EngUsh ruler, Edward III, whose mother was The Hundred Years' War 211 the daughter of PhiHp IV, considered himself the next Hneal heir. The French nobles were naturally unwilling to receive a foreigner as king, and gave the throne, instead, to a nephew of Philip IV. This decision was afterwards justified on the ground that, by the old law of the Salian Franks, women could neither inherit estates nor transmit them to a son.^ Edward III at first accepted situation. But Philip VI, the king, irritated Edward by Reasons for constant encroachments on *^® ^^ the territories which the English still kept in France. Philip also allied himself with the Scotch and interfered with English trade interests in the county of Flanders. This attitude of hostility provoked retaliation, now reasserted his claim to the crown the new Royal Arms of Edward III Edward III, having in 1340 Edward set up a claim to the throne of France, proceeded to add the French lihes (fleurs-de-lis) to his of France and prepared by force of coat of arms. He also took as arms to make it good. his motto Dieu et mon Droit ("God and my Right"). The Edward led his troops across the Hlies of France remained in the y-,1 1 J i. /^ ' • J ■ royal arms till 1801; the motto Channel and at Crecy gamed a com- i3 ^tiii retained. plete victory over the knighthood of France. Ten years later the English at Poitiers almost anni- hilated another French force much superior in numbers. These two battles were mainly won by foot soldiers armed with the longbow, in the use of which the English excelled. Ordinary iron mail could not resist the heavy, yard-long arrows, which fell with murderous effect upon the bodies of men and horses alike. Henceforth infantry, when properly armed and led, were to prove themselves on many a bloody field more than a match for feudal cavalry. Edward's son, the Prince of Wales, when only sixteen years 1 Hence the name "Salic law" applied to the rule excluding women from suc- cession to the French throne. Battles of Crecy, 1346, and Poitiers, 1356 212 Europe During the Later Middle Ages of age won his spurs by distinguished conduct at Crecy. It was the "Black Prince,"^ also, who gained the day at The " Black Poitiers, where he took prisoner the French king, Prince " John. Toward his royal captive he behaved in chivalrous fashion. At supper, on the evening of the battle, he stood behind John's chair and waited on him, praising the Battle of Crecy From a manuscript in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. king's brave deeds. But this "flower of knighthood," who regarded warfare as only a tournament on a larger scale, could be ruthless in his treatment of the common people. On one occasion he caused three thousand inhabitants of a captured town — men, women and children — to be butchered before his eyes. The incident shows how far apart in the Middle Ages were chivalry and humanity. 1 Probably so called from the black armor which he wore. It may still be seen above his tomb in Canterbury CathedraL 3 S.S re a. i ^ ° o ore re 3 fo I §' 2. O rt- 3 (n o re o 2 <^ "1 o o- K- i^ c 3 re " S. 2. On p orq 8 O The Hundred Years' War 213 The English, in spite of their victories, could not conquer France. The French refused to fight more pitched battles and retired to their castles and fortified towns. The Renewal of war almost ceased for many years after the death *^® ^^ of Edward III. It began again early in the fifteenth century, and the English this time met with more success. They gained possession of almost all France north of the Loire, except the important city of Orleans. Had the Enghsh taken it, French resistance must have collapsed. That they did not take it was due to one of the most remarkable women in history — Joan of Arc.^ Joan was a peasant girl, a native of the little village of Dom- remy. Always a devout and imaginative child, she early began to see visions of saints and angels and to hear ^j^^ "Maid mysterious voices. At the time of the siege of of Orleans," Orleans the archangel Michael appeared to her, so she declared, and bade her go forth and save France. Joan obeyed, and though barely seventeen years of age, made her way to the court of the French king. There her piety, simplic- ity, and evident faith in her mission overcame all doubts. Clad in armor, girt with an ancient sword, and with a white banner borne before her, Joan was allowed to accompany an army for the relief of Orleans. She inspired the French with such enthu- siasm that they quickly compelled the English to raise the siege. Then Joan led her king to Reims and stood beside him at his coronation in the cathedral. Though Joan was soon afterwards captured by the English, who burned her as a witch, her example nerved the French to further resistance. The EngUsh, gradually End of lost ground and in 1453, the year of the fall of *^® ^^^ Constantinople, abandoned the effort to conquer a land much larger than their own. They retained of the French territories only the port of Calais and the Channel Islands.^ Few wars have had less to justify them, either in their causes 1 In French, Jeanne d'Arc. 2 Calais went back to the French in 1558. ' The Channel Islands are still English possessions. 214 Europe During the Later Middle Ages or in their consequences, than this long contest between Eng- land and France. It was a calamity to both lands. For Effects of England it meant the dissipation abroad of the the war energies which would have been better employed at home. For France it resulted in great destruction of property, untold suffering, famines, and much loss of life. The war, how- ever, did help to arouse national self-consciousness in both coun- tries. The awakening of a sentiment of patriotism was especially marked in France, which had fought so long for independence. Shortly after the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War the two branches of the English royal family became involved in a England after desperate struggle for the crown. This was known the Hundred as the War of the Roses, because the house of ears ar York took as its badge a white rose and the house of Lancaster, a red rose. The contest lasted until 1485, when the Lancastrians conquered, and their leader, Henry Tudor, ascended the throne as Henry VII. He married a Yorkist wife, thus uniting the two factions, and founded the Tudor dynasty. The War of the Roses arrested the progress of English freedom. It created a demand for a strong monarchy which could keep order and prevent civil strife between the nobles. The Tudors met that demand and ruled as absolute sovereigns. France also issued from the Hundred Years' War with an absolute government. Strengthened by victory over the France after English, the French kings were able to reduce the Hundred both the nobility and the commons to impotence. ears War ^^ ^j^^ same time they steadily enlarged the royal domains, until by the end of the fifteenth century the unification of France was almost complete. 87. Unification of Spain to (1492) The Spanish peninsula, known to the Romans as Hispania, is sharply separated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees The Spanish Mountains. The proximity of Spain to Africa peninsula j^g^g always brought it into intimate relations with that continent. Just as Russia has formed a link between Unification of Spain 215 Asia and Europe, so Spain has served as a natural highway from Africa to Europe. The first settlers in Spain, of whom we know anything, were the Iberians. They may have emigrated from northern Africa. After them came the Celts, who overran a large The Spanish part of the peninsula and appear to have mingled People with the Iberians, thus forming the mixed people known as Celtiberians. In historic times Spain was conquered by the Territory added At beginning of to the end of liit' I'.'tb Century Century (1402) Castile 111 ESSJ.P Aragon ^^^ Navarre THE M.-N. WORKS The dates are those of Christian Portuo-al f \ H^ oConquest of Moorish Territory ^„ ^ \.>. . ..^^\ L_^ Unification of Spain during the Middle Ages Carthaginians, who left few traces of their occupation; by the Romans, who thoroughly Romanized the country; by the Visigoths, who founded a Teutonic kingdom; and lastly by the Moors,^ who introduced Arabian culture and the faith of Islam. These invaders were not numerous enough greatly to affect the population, in which the Celtiberian strain is still predominant. ^ The name Moor (derived from the Roman province of Mauretania) is applied to the Arab and Berber peoples who occupied North Africa and Spain. 2i6 Europe During the Later Middle Ages The Moors never wholly conquered a fringe of mountain territory in the extreme north of Spain. Here a number of Christian small Christian states, including Leon, Castile, states of Navarre, and Aragon, came into being. In the ^^^ west there also arose the Christian state of Por- tugal. Geographically, Portugal belongs to Spain, from which it is separated only by artificial frontiers, but the country has usually managed to maintain its independence. Acting sometimes alone and sometimes in concert, the Christian states fought steadily to enlarge their boundaries at Recovery of ^^^ expense of their Moslem neighbors. The Spain from contest was blessed by the pope and supported ®®^^ by the chivalry of Europe. Periods of victory al- ternated with periods of defeat, but by the close of the thirteenth century Mohammedan Spain had been reduced to the king- dom of Granada at the southern extremity of the peninsula. The long struggle with the Moors made the Spanish a patri- otic people, keenly conscious of their national unity. The achievements of Christian warriors were recited The Cid in countless ballads, and especially in the fine Poem of the Cid. It deals with the exploits of Rodrigo Diaz, better known by the title of the Cid (lord) given to him by the Moors. The Cid of romance was the embodiment of every knightly virtue; the real Cid was a bandit, who fought some- times for the Christians, sometimes against them, but always in his own interests. The Cid's evil deeds were forgotten after his death, and he became the national hero of Spain. Meanwhile, the separate Spanish kingdoms were coming together to form a nation. Leon and Castile in 1230 com- bined into the one kingdom of Castile, so named Union of , . r . 1 • 1 1 • 1 1 Castile and because its frontiers bristled with castles against Aragon, ^j^g Moors. The most important step in the making of Spain was the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile, leading in 1479 to the union of these two kingdoms. About the same time the Castihan language began to crowd out the other Spanish dialects and to become the national speech. Austria and the Swiss Confederation 217 The king and queen of Spain aimed to continue the unifica- tion of the peninsula by the conquest of Granada. Nothing was done by the Ottoman Turks, who shortly conquest before had captured Constantinople, to defend of Granada, this last stronghold of Islam in the West. The ^*^^ Moors, though thrown upon their own resources, made a gallant resistance. At least once Ferdinand wearied of the struggle, but Isabella's determination never wavered. Granada sur- rendered in 1492, and the silver cross of the crusading army was raised on the highest tower of the city. Moslem rule in Spain, after an existence of almost eight centuries, now came to an end. Ferdinand and Isabella belong in the front rank of European sovereigns. They labored with success to build up an abso- lute monarchy. Spain had found, as England j^^g ^^ and France had found, that feudalism spelled Ferdinand disorder, and that only a strong central govern- ^ isabeUa ment could keep the peace, repress crime, and foster trade and commerce. Ferdinand and Isabella firmly estabhshed the supremacy of the crown. By the end of the fifteenth century Spain had become a leading European power. Its importance in the councils of Europe was soon to be increased by the marriage of a daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella to the heir of the Austrian house of Hapsburg. 88. Austria and the Swiss Confederation, 1273-1499 The name Austria — in German Oesterreich — means simply the eastern part of any kingdom. It came to be apphed par- ticularly to the territory on the Danube east of Rise of Bavaria, which Otto the Great had formed into Austria a mark or border province for defense against the Magyars. This mark, soon to be known as Austria, gained an important place among German states. The frontiers were pushed down the Danube valley, and the capital was finally located at Vienna, once a Roman city. Frederick Barbarossa raised Austria to the rank of a duchy. Rudolf of Hapsburg, who became emperor in 1273, made it a Hapsburg possession. 2i8 Europe During the Later Middle Ages The Hapsburgs had great success in building up the Austrian state. At the end of the fourteenth century their do- minions included a large part of eastern Germany,^ reaching from beyond the Danube southward to the Adriatic. Early in the sixteenth century they secured Bohemia, a Slavic land thrust like a wedge into German territory, as well as part of the Magyar land of Growth of Austria under the Hapsburgs Hapsburg Possessions, 1273-1526 a.d. Hungary. The possession of these two kingdoms gave Austria its special character of a state formed by the union under one ruler of several wholly distinct nations. Meanwhile the right of election as Holy Roman Emperor became hereditary in the Hapsburg family .^ 1 The duchies of Upper and Lower Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and the county of Tyrol. 2 The seven German princes who chose the emperor were the archbishops of Mayence (or Mainz), Treves (or Trier), and Cologne, the margrave of Branden- burg, the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony, and the king of Bohemia. This electoral college continued to exist until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Austria and the Swiss Confederation 219 Switzerland Switzerland, during the earlier period of the Middle Ages, formed a part of the German duchy of Swabia and belonged to the Holy Roman Empire.^ About two thirds of the population of Switzerland remain German in speech and feeling, though now the country includes districts in which French or Italian are spoken. All Swiss laws are still proclaimed in the three languages. The Original Three "Forest Cantofc The Ten Cantons added, 1291-1513\ Lake of tance Scale of Miles i\ 10 20 30 40 ) THE M.-M. WORKS The Swiss Confederation, 1291-1513 a.d. Swiss history is closely bound up with that of Austria. The little mountain communities of Schwyz,^ Uri, and Unterwalden, on the shores of beautiful Lake Lucerne, were Switzerland possessions of the counts of Hapsburg. In 1291, *^^ Austria the year when Rudolf of Hapsburg died, these three "Forest Cantons" formed a confederation for resistance to their Haps- burg overlords. Additional cantons joined the league, which now entered upon a long struggle, dear to all lovers of liberty, against Austrian rule. Nowhere did the old methods of feudal warfare break down more conspicuously than in the battles gained by Swiss pikemen over the knights of Austria. The 1 See the map facing page 158. 2 From Schwyz comes the name Switzerland. 220 Europe During the Later Middle Ages struggle closed in 1499, when Switzerland became practically a free state.^ Switzerland has two heroes of her war for independence. William Tell is a wholly mythical character, for the story of a skillful marksman who succeeds in striking off Tell and some small object placed on a child's head is found Arnold yon jj^ England, Norway, Denmark, and other coun- tries. The Swiss have localized it in Uri. Another popular hero has a better claim to historical existence. It is said that at a critical moment in the battle of Sempach, when the Swiss with their short weapons failed to break the Austrian ranks, Arnold von Winkelried, a man of Unterwalden, came to the rescue. Rushing single-handed upon the enemy, he seized all the spears within reach and turned them upon his own body. He thus opened a gap in the line, through which the Swiss pressed on to victory. " Winkelried's deed might well have been per- formed, though the evidence for it is very scanty. Little Switzerland, lying in the heart of the Alps and sur- rounded by powerful neighbors, is one of the most interesting The Swiss States in Europe. The twenty-two communities, Confedera- or cantons, which make up the Swiss Confedera- tion, differ among themselves in language, religion (Roman Catholic or Protestant), and customs, according to their nearness to Germany, France, or Italy. Nevertheless the Swiss form a patriotic and united nation. It is remarkable that a people whose chief bond of union was common hostility to the Austrian Hapsburgs, should have established a federal government so strong and enduring. 89. Expansion of Germany An examination of the map shows how deficient Germany is in good natural boundaries. The valley of the Danube affords Lines of • ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ southeast, a road which the German early rulers of Austria followed as far as Vienna expansion ^^^ ^j^^ Hungarian frontier. Eastward along the Baltic no break occurs in the great plain stretching from 1 The independence of the country was not formally recognized till 1648. Expansion of Germany 221 the North Sea to the Ural Mountains. It was in this direction that German conquests and colonization during medieval times laid the foundation of modern Prussia. The Germans, when descending upon the Roman Empire, had abandoned much of their former territories to the Slavs. In the reign of Charlemagne nearly all the region The German between the Elbe and the Vistula belonged to and the Slav Slavic tribes. To win it back for Germany required several centuries of hard fighting. The Slavs were heathen and bar- barous, so that warfare with them seemed to be a kind of crusade. In the main, however, German expansion east- ward was a business venture, due to the need for free land. The hope of gain thus combined with religious zeal and the spirit of adventure to ' stihiulate emigration into the ''Great East" of the Middle Ages. German expansion began early in the tenth century, when Henry the Fowler invaded Brandenburg between the Elbe and the Oder. Subsequently much of the terri- Brandenburg tory between the Oder and the Vistula, including and Pomerania on the southern coast of the Baltic, o^^^^ama came under German control. The Slavic inhabitants were exterminated or reduced to slavery. Their place was taken by thousands of German colonists, who introduced Christianity, built churches and monasteries, cleared the woods, drained the marshes, and founded many cities destined to become centers of German trade and culture. Beyond the Vistula lay the lands of the Prussians, a non- Teutonic people closely related to the Slavs. The conquest and conversion of the Prussians was accom- pj^gsia and plished by the famous order of Teutonic Knights, the Teutonic It had been founded in Palestine as a military- religious order, at the time of the Third Crusade. The de- cline of the crusading movement left the knights with no duties to perform, and so they transferred their activities to the Prussian frontier, where there was still a chance to engage in a holy war. The Teutonic Order flourished throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, until its grand-master 222 Europe During the Later Middle Ages ruled over the entire Baltic coast from the Vistula to the Gulf of Finland. The knights later had to relinquish much of this region to the Slavs, but they sowed there the seeds of I I Germans Slavs THE M.-nT'WORKS Long itude 15f East from 20° Greenwich German Expansion Eastward during the Middle Ages civilization. The Baltic countries — Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia — rank to-day among the richest and most advanced parts of eastern Europe. Germany at the close of the Middle Ages was not a united, intensely national state, such as had been formed in England, Expansion of Germany 223 France, and Spain. It had split into hundreds of principalities, none large, some extremely small, and all practically indepen- dent of the feeble German kings. This weakness Political of the central power condemned the country to Germany a minor part in the affairs of Europe as late as the nineteenth century. Yet Germany found some compensation for political backwardness in the splendid city life which it developed during the later Middle Ages. The German cities, together with those of Italy and other European lands, now call for our attention. Studies I. On an outline map indicate (a) William the Conqueror's French dominions and (b) additional dominions of the Plantagenet kings in France. 2. Prepare a chart showing the leading rulers mentioned in this chapter. Arrange yom material in parallel columns with dates, one column for England, one for France, and one for the other European countries. 3. Locate the following places: Crecy; Calais; Poitiers; Stirling; Edinburgh; Orleans; and Granada. 4. What happened in 987? in 1066? in 1215? in 1295? in 1346? in 1453? in 1485? and in 1492? 5. Dis- tinguish between a nation, a government, and a state. 6. Are unity of race, a common language, a common religion, and geographical unity of themselves suffi- cient to make a nation? May a nation arise where these bonds are lacking? 7. "The thirteenth century gave Europe the nations as we now know them." Comment on this statement. 8. Account for the rise of national feeling in France, Spain, Scotland, and Switzerland. 9. "Good government in the Middle Ages was only another name for a public-spirited and powerful monarchy." Comment on this statement. 10. What advantages has trial by jury over the older forms of trial, such as oaths, ordeals, and the judicial duel? 11. Explain the difference between a grand jury and a trial, or petty jury. 12. Compare the extent of terri- tory in which Roman law now prevails with that which follows the Common law. 13. Why was the Parliament of 1295 named the "Model Parliament"? 14. Dis- tinguish between England and Great Britain. Between Great Britain and the United Kingdom. 15. What were the Roman names of England, Scotland, and Ireland? 16. "Islands seem dedicated by nature to freedom." How does the history of Ireland illustrate this statement? 17. Trace on the map the main water routes in France between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. 18. Show that Paris occupies an exceptionally good location for a capital city. 19. What French kings did most to form the French nation? 20. Why have queens never ruled in France? 21. How did the methods of fighting at Crecy contrast with those at Hastings? 22. Why has Joan of Arc become "the embodiment of the soul of France for all time"? 23. "Beyond the Pyrenees begins Africa." What does this statement mean? 24. Why was Spain inconspicuous in European politics before the opening of the sixteenth century? 25. Look up in an ency- clopedia the story of William Tell and prepare an oral report upon it. 26. Why was the German system of elective rulers politically less advantageous than the settled hereditary succession which prevailed in England and France? CHAPTER XI EUROPEAN CITIES DURING THE LATER MIDDLE AGES 90. Growth of tlie Cities Civilization has always had its home in the city. The state- ment appHes as well to medieval times as to the present day. The civic Nothing marks more strongly the backwardness revival ^f ^^j^g early Middle Ages than the absence of large and flourishing cities throughout western Europe. The growth of trade in the later Middle Ages led, however, to a civic revival beginning in the eleventh century. This change from rural to urban life was scarcely less significant for European history than the change from the feudal to the national state. A number of medieval cities stood on the sites, and even within the walls, of Roman municipalities. Particularly in Italy, Cities of southern France, and Spain, and also in the Rhine Roman and Danube regions, it seems that some ancient ongin miinicipia had never been entirely destroyed dur- ing the German invasions. They preserved their Roman names, their streets, aqueducts, amphitheaters, and churches, and pos- sibly vestiges of their Roman institutions. Among them were such important centers as Milan, Florence, Venice, Lyons, Marseilles, Paris, Vienna, Cologne, London, and York. Many medieval cities were new foundations. Some began as small communities which increased in size because of ex- Origin of ceptional advantages of situation. A place where other cities g^ river could be forded, where two roads met, or where a good harbor existed, would naturally become the re- sort of traders. Some, again, started as fortresses, behind whose ramparts the peasants took refuge when danger threat- ened. A third group of cities developed from villages on the manors. A thriving settlement was pretty sure to spring up 224 Growth of the Cities 225 near a monastery or castle, which offered both protection and employment to the common people. The city at first formed part of the feudal system. It arose upon the territory of a feudal lord and naturally owed obedience to him. The citizens ranked not much higher The city and than serfs, though they were traders and artisans feudalism instead of farmers. They enjoyed no political rights, for their Walls of Carcassonne The fortifications of Carcassonne, an ancient city of southern France., are probably unique in Europe for completeness and strength. They consist of a double line of ramparts, pro- tected by towers and pierced by only two gates. A part of the fortifications is attributed to the Visigoths in the skth century; the remainder, including the castle, was raised during the Middle Ages (eleventh to thirteenth centuries). lord collected the taxes, appointed officials, kept order, and punished offenders. In short, the city was not free. But the city from the first was the decided enemy of feudal- ism. As its inhabitants became more numerous and wealthy, they refused to submit to oppression. Sometimes The civic they won their freedom by hard fighting; more ^^^o^t often they purchased it, perhaps from some noble who needed money to go on a crusade. In France, England, and Spain, where the royal power was strong, the cities obtained exemp- tion from their feudal burdens, but did not become entirely self-governing. In Germany and Italy, on the other hand, 226 European Cities During the Middle Ages the weakness of the central government permitted many cities to secure complete independence. They became true repubhcs, like the old Greek city-states. The contract which the citizens extorted from their lord was known as a charter. It specified what taxes they should be required to pay and usually granted to them various privileges, such as those of holding assem- blies, electing magistrates, and raising miUtia for local defense. Charters f^-^^ A Scene in Rothenburg Rothenburg ob-der-Tauber in Bavaria has preserved its old ramparts, narrow streets, town hall, and picturesque wooden houses of the Middle Ages. Nuremberg, another German town, and Chester in England are also very medieval in appearance. The revolt of the cities gradually extended over all western Europe, so that at the end of the fourteenth century very few of them lacked a charter. The free city had no room for either slaves or serfs. All servile conditions ceased inside its walls. The rule prevailed Civic that any one who had lived in a city for the term freedom q£ ^ ygg^j. ^^^ ^ ^^y could no longer be claimed by a lord as his serf. This rule found expression in the famous saying, "Town air renders free." City Life 227 The freedom of the cities naturally attracted many immi- grants to them. There came into existence a middle class of city people, between the clergy and nobles on the j^jg^ ^^ one side and the peasants on the other side — the Third what the French call the bourgeoisie.^ As we have learned,^ the kings of England and France soon began to sum- mon representatives of this middle class to sit in assemblies by the side of the clergy and the nobles. Henceforth the mid- dle class, or bourgeoisie, distinguished as it was for wealth, intelligence, and enterprise, exerted an ever-greater influence on European affairs. 91. City Life The visitor approaching a medieval city through miles of open fields saw it clear in the sunlight, unobscured by coal smoke. From without it looked like a fortress, a city from with walls, towers, gateways, drawbridges, and without moat. Beyond the fortifications he would see, huddled together against the sky, the spires of the churches and the cathedral, the roofs of the larger houses, and the dark, frowning mass of the castle. The general impression was one of wealth and strength and beauty.^ Once within the walls the visitor would not find things so attractive. The streets were narrow, crooked, and ill-paved, dark during the day because of the overhanging a city from houses, and without illumination at night. There within were no open spaces or parks except a small market place. The whole city was cramped by its walls, which shut out light, air, and view, and prevented expansion into the neighboring coun- try. Medieval London, for instance, covered an area of less than one square mile. A city in the Middle Ages lacked all sanitary arrangements. The only water supply came from polluted streams and wells. Sewers and sidewalks were quite unknown. People unsanitary piled up their refuse in the backyard or flung it into conditions the street, to be devoured by the dogs and pigs which served ^ From French bourg, "town." 3 gee frontispiece. 2 See pages 203 and 210. 228 European Cities During the Middle Ages as scavengers. The holes in the pavement collected all manner of filth, and the unpaved lanes, in wet weather, became quag- mires. We can understand why the townspeople wore over- shoes when they went out, and why even the saints in the pic- tures were represented wearing them. The living were crowded together in many- storied houses, airless and gloomy; the dead were buried close at hand in crowded churchyards. Such unsanitary conditions must have been re- sponsible for much of the sickness that was prevalent. The high death rate could only be offset by a birth rate correspondingly high, and by the con- stant influx of country people. The inhabitants of the city took a just pride in their public buildings. The Public market place, where traders assembled, often con- buUdings tained a beautiful cross and sometimes a market hall to shelter goods from the weather. Not far away rose the city hall,^ for the transaction of public business and the holding of civic feasts. The hall might be crowned by a high belfry with an alarm bell to summon the citizens to mass meeting. There were also a number of churches and abbeys and, if the city was the capital of a bishop's diocese, an imposing cathedral. The small size of medieval cities — few included as many as ten thousand inhabitants — simplified the problem of governing them. The leading merchants usually formed a council pre- A London Bellman Title-page of a tract published in 1616. It was part of the duties of a bellman, or night-watchman, to call out the hours, the state of the weather, and other information as he passed by. 1 In French hotel de ville; in German Ralhhaus. Civic Industry: The Guilds 229 sided over by a head magistrate, the burgomaster ^ or mayor,^ who was assisted by aldermen. ^ In some places Municipal the guilds chose the officials and managed civic government affairs. These associations had many functions and held a most important place in city life. 92. Civic Industry: The Guilds The Anglo-Saxon word ''guild," which means "to pay," came to be applied to a club or society whose members made contributions for some common purpose. This Formation form of association is very old. Some of the ®^ ^"^^^^ guilds in imperial Rome had been established in the age of the kings, while not a few of those which flourish to-day in China and India were founded before the Christian era. Guilds ex- isted in Continental Europe as early as the time of Charle- magne, but they did not become prominent till after the crusades. A guild of merchants grew up when those who bought and sold goods in any place united to protect their own interests. The membership included many artisans, as well Merchant as professional traders, for in medieval times a guilds man often sold in the front room of his shop the goods which he made in the back rooms. He was often both shopkeeper and workman in one. The chief duty of a merchant guild was to preserve to its own members the monopoly of trade within a town. Strangers and non-guildsmen could not buy or sell there Commercial except under the conditions imposed by the guild, monopoly They must pay the town tolls, confine their dealings to guilds- men, and as a rule sell only at wholesale. They were forbidden to purchase wares which the townspeople wanted for them- selves or to set up shops for retail trade. They enjoyed more freedom at fairs, which were intended to attract outsiders. After a time the traders and artisans engaged in a particular occupation began to form an association of their own. Thus 1 German bilr germeister, from burg, "castle." 2 French maire, from Latin major, "greater." 3 Anglo-Saxon ealdorman {eald means "old"). 230 European Cities During the Middle Ages Craft guilds arose the craft guilds, composed of weavers, shoemakers, bakers, tailors, carpenters, and so on, until almost every form of industry had its separate organization. The names of the various occupations came to be used as the surnames of those engaged in them, so that to-day we have such common family names as Smith, Cooper, Fuller, Potter, Chandler, and many others. The number of craft guilds in an important city might be very large. London and Paris at one time each had more than one hundred, and Cologne in Ger- many had as many as eighty. The members of a particular guild usually lived in the same street or quarter of the city, not only for companionship but also for better supervision of their labor.^ Just as the merchant guild regulated town trade, so the Industrial craft guilds had monopoly charge of town industry. No one could engage in any craft without becoming a member of the guild which controlled it and submitting to the guild regulations. A man's hours of labor and the prices at which he sold his goods were fixed for him by the guild. He might not work elsewhere than in his shop, because of the difficulty of supervising him, nor might he work by artificial light, lest he turn out badly finished goods. Everything made by him was carefully inspected to see if it contained shoddy materials or showed poor workmanship. Failure to meet the test meant a heavy fine or perhaps expulsion from the guild. ^ A map of London still shows such names as Shoe Lane, Distaff Lane^ Cornhill, and many other similar designations of streets. House of the Butchers' Guild, HiLDESHEiM, Germany Hildesheim, near Hanover, is perhaps the richest of all German towns in fine wooden- framed houses. The house of the Butchers' Guild has been recently restored, with all its original coloring carefully reproduced. Civic Industry: The Guilds 231 The industrial monopoly possessed by the craft guild thus gave some protection to both producer and consumer. Full membership in a guild was reached only by degrees. A boy started as an apprentice, that is, a learner. He paid a sum of money to his master and agreed to serve Organization him for a fixed period, usually seven years. The °^ ^^^^^ guUds master, in turn, promised to provide the apprentice with food, lodging, and clothing, and to teach him all the secrets of the craft. At the end of the seven years the apprentice had to pass an examination by the guild. If he was found fit, he then became a journeyman and worked for daily wages. As soon as he had saved enough money, he might set up as a master in his own shop. A master was at once workman and employer, laborer and capitalist. Like the old Roman guilds, those of the Middle Ages had their charitable and religious aspects. Each guild raised large benefit funds for the relief of members or their Activities widows and orphans. Each guild had its private of craft altar in the cathedral, or often its own chapel, ^^^^^ ^ where masses were said for the repose of the souls of deceased members, and where on the day of its patron saint religious services were held. The guild was also a social organization, with frequent meetings for a feast in its hall or in some inn. The guilds in some cities entertained the people with an annual play or procession.^ It is clear that the members of a craft guild had common interests and shared a common life. As the craft guilds prospered and increased in wealth, they tended to become exclusive organizations. Membership fees were raised so high that few could afford to pay Dissolution them, while the number of apprentices that a of craft master might take was strictly limited. It also ^^^^^ ^ became increasingly difficult for journeymen to rise to the station of masters; they often remained wage-earners for life. The mass of workmen could no longer participate in the bene- fits of the guild system. In the eighteenth century most of ^ See page 274. The civic procession in London on Lord Mayor's Day is the last survival in England of these yearly shows. 232 European Cities During the Middle Ages the guilds lost their monopoly of industry, and in the nineteenth century they gave way to trade unions. 93. Trade and Commerce Nearly every town of any consequence had a weekly or semiweekly market, which was held in the market place or in the churchyard. Marketing often occurred on Sunday, in spite of many laws against this desecra- tion of the day. Outsiders who brought cattle and farm produce for sale in the market were required to pay tolls, either to the town authorities or sometimes to a neighboring nobleman. These market dues still survive in the ''octroi" collected at the gates of some European cities. People in the Middle Ages did not believe in unrestricted competition. It was thought wrong for any one to purchase goods outside of the regular market (''forestalling") " Just price" ^ 1 , • , •.• 1 or to purchase them m larger quantities than nec- essary ("engrossing"). A man ought not to charge for a thing more than it was worth, or to buy a thing cheap and sell it dear. The idea prevailed that goods should be sold at their "just price," which was not determined by supply and demand, but by an estimate of the cost of the materials and the labor that went into their manufacture. Laws w^ere often passed fixing this "just price," but it was as difficult then as now to prevent the "cornering of the market" by shrewd and unscrupulous traders. Besides markets at frequent intervals, many towns held fairs once or twice a year. The fairs often lasted for a month or more. They were especially necessary in medieval Europe, because merchants did not keep large quantities or many kinds of goods on their shelves, nor could intending purchasers afford to travel far in search of what they wanted. The more important English fairs included those at Stourbridge near Cambridge, Winchester, St. Ives, and Boston. Fairs were numerous on the Continent, and in some places, such as Leipzig in Germany and Nijni-Novgorod in Russia, they are still kept up. Trade and Commerce ^2>2> Land Routes. . . j — Hanse Water Routes Principal Hanseatic Cities are underlined ^'i^9- ^/ R^ga 1^ \ I Basle Munich -vnnc )&^i ^^ ^ > \^Verona^ \j^fC^ Ly>o Marseilles I MEDITERRANEAN SEA sarcelona the m.-n. works'^ / lo A> ^Bolpgnaxi) Pisa\o^^^^\ \ V Trade Routes between Northern and Southern Europe IN the 13TH and 14TH Centuries A fair gave opportunity for the sale of commodities brought from the most distant regions. Stourbridge Fair, for instance, attracted Venetians and Genoese with silk, pepper, Fairs and and spices of the East, Flemings with fine cloths commerce and linens, Spaniards with irpn and wine, Norwegians with tar and pitch from their forests, and Baltic merchants with 234 European Cities During the Middle Ages furs, amber, and salted fish. The fairs, by fostering commerce, helped to make the various European peoples better acquainted with one another. Commerce in western Europe had almost disappeared as a result of the Teutonic invasions and the establishment of feu- ^ ,. ^ dahsm. What little commercial intercourse there Decline of commerce was encountered many obstacles. A merchant who M'dd! A went by land from country to country might expect to find bad roads, few bridges, and poor inns. Goods were transported on pack-horses instead of in wagons Highway robbery was so common that travelers always carried arms and usually united in bands for better protection. The feudal lords, often themselves not much more than highway- men, demanded tolls at every bridge and ford and on every road. If the merchant proceeded by water, he must face, in addition to the ordinary hazards of wind and wave, the danger from the ill-Hghted coasts and from attacks by pirates. No wonder commerce languished in the early Middle Ages and for a long time lay chiefly in the hands of Byzantines ^ and Arabs.2 Even during the dark centuries that followed the end of the Roman Empire, some trade with the Orient had been carried Commercial ^^ ^X ^^^ cities of Italy and southern France. The revival after crusades, which brought East and West face to e crusa es f^^^^^ greatly increased this trade.^ The Mediter- ranean lands first felt the stimulating effects of intercourse with the Orient, but before long the commercial revival extended to the rest of Europe. Before the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope the spices, drugs, incense, carpets, tapestries, porcelains, and gems of Asiatic trade India, China, and the East Indies reached the routes West by three main routes. All had been used in ancient times. The central and most important route led up the Persian Gulf and Tigris River to Bagdad, from which city goods went by caravan to Antioch or Damascus. The southern route reached Cairo and Alexandria by way of the Red Sea 1 See page 39. ^ See page 83. ^ See page 177. 40° Longitude 50° Money and Banking 235 and the Nile. By taking advantage of the monsoons, a mer- chant ship could make the voyage from India to Egypt in about three months. The northern route, entirely overland, led to ports on the Black Sea and thence to Constantinople. It tra- versed high mountain passes and long stretches of desert, and hence was profitably used only for the transport of valuable articles small in bulk. The conquests of the Ottoman Turks greatly interfered with the use of this route by Christians after the middle of the fifteenth century. Oriental goods, upon reaching the Mediterranean, could be transported by water to northern Europe. Every year the Venetians sent a fleet loaded with eastern products European to Bruges in Flanders, a city which was the most *^*^® routes important depot of trade with Germany, England, and Scandi- navia. Bruges also formed the terminus of the main overland route leading from Venice over the Alps and down the Rhine. Many other commercial highways also linked the Mediterranean with the North Sea and the Baltic. 94. Money and Banking We have seen that business in the Middle Ages was chiefly of a retail character and was conducted in markets and fairs. One reason for the small scale of business enter- Lack of prise is found in the inadequate supply of money. ™oney From the beginning of the Christian era to the twelfth century there seems to have been a steady decrease in the amount of specie in circulation, partly because so much moved to the Orient in payment for luxuries, and partly because the few mines in western Europe were not worked during the period of the invasions. The scarcity of money helped directly to build up the feudal system, since salaries, wages, and rents could be paid only in personal services or in produce. The money supply increased during the latter part of the Middle Ages, but it did not become sufficient for the needs of business till the discovery of the New World enabled the Spaniards to tap the wealth of the silver mines in Mexico and Peru. 236 European Cities During the Middle Ages Medieval currency was not only small in amount but also faulty in character. Many great nobles enjoyed the privilege Faults of ^^ keeping a mint and issuing coins. Since this medieval feudal money passed at its full value only in the currency locality where it was minted, a merchant had to be constantly changing his money, as he went from one district to another. Kings and nobles for their own profit would often debase the currency by putting silver into the gold coins and copper into the silver coins. Every debasement, as it left the coins with less pure metal, lowered their purchasing power and so raised prices unexpectedly. Even in countries like England, where debasement was exceptional, much counterfeit money circulated, to the constant impediment of trade. The prejudice against ''usury," as any lending of money at interest was called, was another reason for the small scale of "Usury" business enterprise. It seemed wrong for a laws person to receive interest, since he lost nothing by the loan of his money. Numerous Church laws condemned the receipt of interest as unchristian. If, however, the lender could show that he had suffered any loss, or had been prevented from making any gain, through not having his money, he might charge something for its use. Ultimately, people began to dis- tinguish between interest moderate in amount and an excessive charge for the use of money. The latter alone was henceforth prohibited as usurious. Most modern states still have usury laws which fix the legal rate of interest. The business of money lending, denied to Christians, fell into the hands of the Jews. In nearly all European countries popu- The Tews ^^^ prejudice forbade the Jews to engage in agricul- as money ture, while the guild regulations barred them from lenders industry. They turned to trade and finance for a livelihood and became the chief capitahsts of medieval times. But the law gave the Jews no protection, and kings and nobles constantly extorted large sums from them. The persecutions of the Jews date from the era of the crusades, when it was as easy to excite fanatical hatred against them as against the Moslems. Edward I drove the Jews from England, and Fer- Money and Banking 237 dinand and Isabella expelled them from Spain, from which they are still excluded; and in some other countries they are not granted all the privileges which Christians enjoy. The Jews were least persecuted in the commercial cities of northern Italy. Florence, Genoa, and Venice in the thirteenth century were the financial centers of Europe. The Italian banking companies in these cities received deposits banking and then loaned the money to foreign governments and great nobles. It was the Florentine bankers, for instance, who Baptistery, Cathedral, and "Leaning Tower" of Pisa These three buildings in the piazza of Pisa form one of the most interesting architectural groups in Italy. The baptistery, completed in 1278, is a circular structure, 100 feet in diameter and covered with a high dome. The cathedral was consecrated in 11 18 .A..D. The finest part of the building is the west front with its four open arcades. The campanile, or bell tower, reaches a height of 179 feet. Owing to the sinking of the foundations, it leans from the per- pendicular to a striking extent (now about 165 feet). provided the English king, Edward III, with the funds to carry on his wars against France. The Italian banking houses had branches in the principal cities of Europe.^ It became possible, therefore, to introduce the use of bills of exchange as a means of balancing debts between countries, without ^Lombard Street in London, the financial center of England, received its name from the Italian bankers who established themselves in this part of the city. 238 European Cities During the Middle Ages the necessity of sending the actual money. This system of international credit was doubly important at a time when so many risks attended the transportation of the precious metals. Another Florentine invention was bookkeeping by double-entry.^ 95. Italian Cities The cities of northern Italy owed their prosperity, as we have learned, to the commerce with the Orient. It was this which The city gave them the means and the strength to keep up repubUcs ^i j^j^^g struggle for freedom against the German emperors. The end of the struggle, at the middle of the thir- teenth century, saw all North Italy divided into the dominions of various independent cities. Among them were Milan, Pisa, Florence, Genoa, and Venice. Milan, a city of Roman origin, lay in the fertile valley of the Po, at a point where the trade routes through several Alpine passes converged. Milan early rose to importance, and it still remains the commercial metropolis of Italy. Manufacturing also flourished there. Milanese armor was once celebrated throughout Europe. The city is rich in works of art, the best known being the cathedral, which, after St. Peter's at Rome and the cathedral of Seville, is the largest church in Europe. Though the Milanese were able to throw off the imperial authority, their government fell into the hands of the local nobles, who ruled as despots. Almost all the Italian cities, except Venice, lost their freedom in this manner. Pisa, like Milan, was an old Roman city which profited by the disorders of the barbarian invasions to assert its inde- pendence. The situation of Pisa on the Arno PisA River, seven miles from the sea, made it a mari- time state, and the Pisan navy gained distinction in warfare against the Moslems in the Mediterranean. The Pisans joined in the First Crusade and showed their valor at the capture of Jerusalem. They profited greatly by the crusading movement 1 Among Italian words having to do with commerce and banking which have come into general use are conto, disconto, risico, netto, deposito, folio, and bilanza. Italian Cities 239 and soon possessed banks, warehouses, and trading privileges in every eastern port. But Pisa had bitter rivals in Florence and Genoa, and the conflicts with these two cities finally brought about the destruction of its power. Florence, Pisa's neighbor on the Arno, was renowned for manufactures. The fine wool, silk cloths, golden brocades, DuoMo AND Campanile of Florence The cathedral (Duomo) of Florence, though begun in i2g8, was not completed until the fifteenth century, when the famous architect Brunelleschi added the huge dome, 300 feet high. Close by the Duomo is the campanile or bell tower, adorned with bas-reliefs and colored marbles. jewelry, and metal work of Florence were imported into all European countries. The craft guilds were very strong there and even the neighboring nobles, who wished to become citizens, had first to enroll themselves in some guild. It was from banking, however, that Florence gained most wealth. In the fifteenth century the city con- tained eighty great banking houses, in addition to numerous branches outside of Italy. The Florentines combined with their commercial spirit a remarkable taste for art and literature. Florence 240 European Cities During the Middle Ages Their city, whose population never exceeded seventy thousand, gave birth to some of the most illustrious poets, prose writers, architects, sculptors, and painters of medieval times. It was the Athens of Italy.^ Genoa, located on the gulf of the same name, possesses a safe and spacious harbor. During the era of the crusades the city carried on a flourishing trade in both the Mediter- ranean and the Atlantic. After the fall of the Latin Empire of Constantinople - the Genoese almost monop- olized Oriental commerce along the Black Sea route. The closing of this route by the Ottom.an Turks was a heavy blow to their prosperity, which also suffered from the active com- petition of Venice. Almost alone among Italian cities Venice was not of Roman origin. Her beginning is traced back to the period of barbarian Situation of inroads, when fugitives from the mainland sought Venice ^ ^^^ home on the islands at the head of the Adriatic. These islands, which lie about five miles from the coast, are protected from the outer sea by a long sand bar. They are little more than mud-banks, barely rising above the shallow water of the lagoons. The oozy soil afforded no sup- port for buildings, except when strengthened by piles; there was scarcely any land fit for farming or cattle-raising; and the only drinking water had to be stored from the rainfall. Yet on this unpromising site arose one of the most splendid of European cities. The early inhabitants of Venice gained their living from the sale of sea salt and fish, two commodities for which a constant Venetian demand existed in the Middle Ages. Large quan- commerce titles of salt were needed for preserving meat in the winter months, while fish was eaten by all Christians on the numerous fast days and in Lent. The Venetians exchanged these commodities for the productions of the mainland and so built up a thriving trade. From fishermen they became mer- chants, with commercial relations which gradually extended to the Orient. The crusades vastly increased the wealth of 1 See page 280. " See page 188. Italian Cities 241 Venice, for she provided the ships in which troops and suppHes went to the Holy Land, and she secured the largest share of the new eastern trade. Venice became the great emporium of the Mediterranean. Venice also used the crusading movement for her poHtical advantage. The capture of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade extended Venetian control over the Pelo- Venetian ponnesus,^ Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus, and many possessions smaller islands in the eastern Mediterranean. Even before this time Venice had begun to gain possessions upon the Italian mainland and along the eastern side of the Adriatic. Event- ually, she ruled a real empire.^ The commerce and possessions of Venice made it necessary for her to maintain a powerful fleet. She is said to have once had over three thousand merchant vessels, in Venetian addition to forty-five war galleys. Her ships went sea-power out in squadrons, with men-of-war acting as a convoy against pirates. One fleet traded with the ports of western Europe, another proceeded to the Black Sea, while others visited Syria and Egypt to meet the caravans from the Far East. Venetian sea-power humbled Genoa and for a long time held the Mediter- ranean against the Ottoman Turks. The visitor to modern Venice can still gain a good impression of what the city n;iust have looked like in the fourteenth century, when ships of every nation crowded its quays and Venice strangers of every country thronged its squares or described sped in light gondolas over the canals which take the place of streets. The main highway is the Grand Canal, nearly two miles long and lined with palaces and churches. The Grand Canal leads to St. Mark's Cathedral, brilliant with mosaic pic- tures, the Campanfle, or bell tower, and the Doge's Palace. The ''Bridge of Sighs" connects the ducal palace with the state prison. The Rialto in the business heart of Venice is another famous bridge. But these are only a few oif the historic and beautiful buildings of the island city. V ^ Known in the Middle Ages as the Morea. * For the Venetian possessions in 1453, see the map, page 189. 242 European Cities During the Middle Ages 96. German Cities: the Hanseatic League The important trade routes from Venice and Genoa through the Alpine passes into the valleys of the Rhine and Danube were responsible for the prosperity of many fine cities in southern and southern and central Germany. Among them were central Augsburg, which rivaled Florence as a financial Germany & o' ... center, Nuremberg, famous for artistic metal work, Ulm, Strassburg, and Cologne. The feeble rule of the German kings compelled the cities to form several confederacies, for the purpose of resisting the extortionate tolls and downright robberies of feudal lords. It was the Baltic commerce which brought the cities of northern Germany into a firm union. The Baltic region fur- Cities of nished large quantities of dried and salted fish, northern especially herring, wax candles for church services, ermany skins, tallow, and lumber. Furs were also in great demand. Every one wore them during the winter, on account of the poorly heated houses. The German cities which shared in this commerce early formed the celebrated Hanse- atic ^ League for protection against pirates and feudal lords. The league seems to have begun with an alliance of Ham- burg and Liibeck to safeguard the traffic on the Elbe. The growth of the league was rapid. At the period Membership ^ ^ ^ of the of its greatest power, about 1400, there were up- Hanseatic wards of eighty Hanseatic cities along the Baltic and in the inland districts of northern Germany. The commercial importance of the league extended far beyond the borders of Germany. Its trading posts, or "factories," Hanseatic at Bergen in Norway and Novgorod in Russia, con- " factories " trolled the export trade of those two countries. Similar establishments existed at London, on the Thames just above London Bridge, and at Bruges in Flanders. Each factory served as a fortress where merchants could be safe from attack, as a storehouse for goods, and as a general market. The Hanseatic Lesigj^ ruled over the Baltic Sea very much 1 From the old German hansa, a "confederacy." See the map on page 235. The Cities of Flanders 243 as Venice ruled over the Adriatic. In spite of its monopolistic tendencies, so opposed to the spirit of free intercourse be- tween nations, the league did much useful work by ^ ^ . , , . , . Influence suppressmg piracy and by encouragmg the art of of the navigation. The Hanseatic merchants were also Hanseatic League pioneers in the half-barbarous lands of northern and eastern Europe, where they founded towns, fostered in- dustry, and introduced comforts and luxuries previously unknown. Such services in advancing civilization were com- parable to those performed by the Teutonic Knights. After several centuries of usefulness the league lost its mon- opoly of the Baltic trade and began to decline. Moreover the Baltic, like the Mediterranean, sank to minor ^ ,. . , , , Decline importance as a commercial center, when the of the Portuguese had discovered the sea route to India Hanseatic League and the Spaniards had opened up the New World. City after city gradually withdrew from the league, until only Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bremen remained. They are still called free and independent cities, though in the nineteenth century they entered the German Empire. 97. The Cities of Flanders In the Middle Ages the Netherlands, or "Low Countries," now divided between Holland and Belgium, consisted of a num- ber of feudal states, nominally under the control County of of German and French rulers, but really quite Glanders independent. Among them was the county of Flanders. It included the coast region from Calais to the mouth of the Scheldt, as well as a considerable district in what is now north- western France. The inhabitants of Flanders were partly of Teutonic extraction (the Flemings) and partly akin to the French (the Walloons). Flanders enjoyed a good situation for commerce. • The coun- try formed a convenient stopping place for mer- pianders chants who went by sea between the Mediterranean commercial and the Baltic, while important land routes led ^""^ industrial there from all parts of western Europe. Flanders was also an 244 European Cities During the Middle Ages industrial center. Its middle classes early discovered the fact that by devotion to manufacturing even a small, sterile region may become rich and populous. The leading indus- try of Flanders was Flemish weaving, wool trade England in the Middle Ages raised great flocks of sheep, but lacking skilled workmen to manufacture the wool into fine cloth, sent it across the Channel to Flanders. A medi- eval writer declared that the whole world was clothed in EngUsh wool manufactured by the Flemings. The wool trade made Flan- ders the ally of Eng- land in the Hundred Years' War, thus be- ginning that historic friendship between the two countries which still endures. Among the thriving communities of Flanders three held an exceptional position. Bruges was the mart where the trade of southern Europe, in the hands of the Venetians, and the trade of northern Europe, in the hands of the Hanseatic merchants, came together. Ghent, with forty thousand workshops, and Bruges Ypres, which counted two hundred thousand work- men within its walls and suburbs, were scarcely less prosperous. When these cities declined in wealth, Antwerp became the commercial metropohs of the Netherlands. Belfry of Bruges Bruges, the capital of West Flanders, contains many fine monuments of the Middle Ages. Among these is the belfry, which rises in the center of the facade of the market hall. It dates from the end of the thirteenth century. Its height is 352 feet. The belfry consists of three stories, the two lower ones square, and the upper one, octagonal. Ghent, and Ypres The Cities of Flanders 245 Town Hall of Louvain, Belgium One of the richest and most ornate examples of Gothic architecture. Erected in the fifteenth century. The building consists of three stories above which rises the lofty roof crowned with graceful towers. The interior decorations and arrangements are commonplace. Flanders during the fourteenth century was annexed by France. The Flemish cities resisted bravely, and on more than one occasion their citizen levies, who could handle Flanders the sword and axe, as well as the loom, defeated the ^^ ^^^^ce French armies, thus demonstrating again that foot soldiers were a match for mailed cavalry. Had the cities been able to form 246 European Cities During the Middle Ages a lasting league, they might have estabUshed an independent Flanders, "but the bitter rivalry of Ghent and Bruges led to for- eign domination, lasting into the nineteenth century.^ The great cities of Flanders, Germany, and Italy, not to speak of those in France, Spain, and England, were much The cities niore than centers of trade, industry, and finance, and Within their walls learning and art flourished to ci za on ^^ extent which had never been possible in earlier times, when rural life prevailed throughout western Europe. We shall now see what the cities of the Middle Ages contrib- uted to civilization. Studies I. Indicate on the map (page 235) the Italian, German, and Flemish cities mentioned in this chapter. 2. Look up the derivation of the words "city," "town," and "village." 3. Why does an American city have a charter? Where is it obtained? What privileges does it confer? 4. Who comprised the Third Estate in Middle Ages? What class corresponds to it at the present time? 5. Why has the medieval city been called the "birthplace of modem democracy"? 6. Com- pare the merchant guild with the modern chamber of commerce, and craft guilds with modern trade unions. 7. Look up the origin of the words "apprentice," "journeyman," and "master." 8. Why was there no antagonism between labor and capital under the guild system? 9. Compare the medieval abhorrence of "engrossing" with the modem idea that "combinations in restraint of trade" are wrong. 10. Why were fairs a necessity in the Middle Ages? Why are they not so useful now? Where are they still found? 10. Compare a medieval fair with a modern exposition. 12. What would be the effect on trade within an American state if tolls were levied on the border of every county? 13. What is meant by a "robber baron"? 14. How did the names "damask" linen, "chinaware," "japanned" ware, and "cashmere" shawls originate? 15. Why was the purchas- ing power of money much greater in the Middle Ages than it is now? 16. Why are modern coins always made perfectly round and with "milled" edges? 17. Are modern coins "debased" to any considerable extent? What is the use of alloys? 18. Why was the money-changer so necessary a figure in medieval business? 19. How is it easy to evade laws forbidding usury? 20. Look up in an encyclo- pedia the legend of the "Wandering Jew." How does it illustrate the medieval attitude toward Jews? 2 1 . Write out the English equivalents of the Italiari words mentioned in the footnote on page 238. 22. Compare the Italian despots with the Greek tyrants. 23. Show that Venice in medieval times was the seaport nearest the heart of commercial Europe. 24. Why was Venice called the " bride of the sea"? 1 In 1 83 1 the two provinces of East Flanders and West Flanders became part of the kingdom of Belgium. CHAPTER XII MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION 1 98. Formation of National Languages Throughout the Middle Ages Latin continued to be an inter- national language. The Roman Church used it for papal bulls and other documents. Prayers were recited, , , * -' ' Latin as hymns were sung, and sometimes sermons were an inter- preached in Latin. It was also the language of Ji^tionai men of culture everywhere in western Christendom. University professors lectured in Latin, students spoke Latin, lawyers addressed judges in Latin, and the merchants in different countries wrote Latin letters to one another. All learned books were composed in Latin until the close of the sixteenth century. This practice has not yet been entirely abandoned by scholars. Each European country during the Middle Ages had also its own national tongue. The so-called Romance languages, including modern French, Italian, Spanish, Por- ^j^^ tuguese, and Rumanian, were derived from Romance the Latin spoken by the Romanized inhabitants *^suages of the lands now known as France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Rumania. Their colloquial Latin naturally lacked the ele- gance of the literary Latin used by Caesar, Cicero, Vergil, and other ancient authors. The difference between the written and spoken forms of the language became more marked from the fifth century onward, in consequence of the barbarian invasions. Gradually in each country new and vigorous tongues arose, related to, yet different from, the old classical Latin in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. The popular Latin of the Gallo-Romans gave rise to two groups of languages in medieval France. The first was used 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xvii, "Medieval Tales"; chapter xviii, "Three Medieval Epics." 247 248 Medieval Civilization in the southern part of the country; it was called Provencal (from Provence). The second was spoken in the French • i i • , • north, particularly in the region about Pans. The unification of the French kingdom under Hugh Capet and his successors gradually extended the speech of northern France over the entire country. Modern French contains less than a thousand words introduced by the German invaders of Gaul, while the words of Celtic origin are even fewer in number. Nearly all the rest are derived from Latin. The Teutonic peoples who remained outside what had been the limits of the Roman world continued to use their native tongues The Teutonic during the Middle Ages. From them have come languages modern German, Dutch, Flemish, and the various Scandinavian languages (Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, and Icelandic ^). All these languages in their earliest known forms show unmistakable traces of a common origin. Britain was the only Roman province in the west of Europe where a Teutonic language took root and maintained itseK. Here the rough, guttural speech of the Anglo- Saxons completely drove out the popular Latin. In course of time Anglo-Saxon underwent various changes. Christian missionaries, from the seventh century onward, introduced many new Latin terms for church offices, services, and observances. The Danes, besides contributing some place- names, gave us that most useful word are, and also the habit of using to before an infinitive. The coming of the Normans deeply affected Anglo-Saxon. Norman-French influence helped to make the language simpler, by ridding it of the cumbersome declensions and conjugations which it had in common with all Teutonic tongues. Many new Norman-French words also crept in, as the hostility of the English people toward their conquerors disappeared. Anglo-Saxon, by the middle of the thirteenth century, had so far developed that it may now be called English. In the poems of Chaucer (about 1340-1400), especially his Canterbury ^ Icelandic is the oldest and purest form of Scandinavian. Danish and Nor- wegian are practically the same, in fact, their literary or book-language is one. Development of National Literatures 249 Tales,^ English wears quite a modern look, though the reader is sometimes troubled by the old speUing and „ by certam words not now m use. The changes m the grammar of the language have been so extremely shght since 1485 — the beginning of the reign of Henry VII ^ — that any EngHshman of ordinary education can read without dif- ficulty a book written more than four hundred years ago. What in medieval times was the speech of a few millions of Englishmen on a single small island is now spoken by at least one hundred and sixty millions of people all over English as the world. English is well fitted for the role of a a universal universal language, because of its absence of ^^^uage inflections and its simple sentence-order. The great number of one-syllabled words in the language also makes for ease in understanding it. Furthermore, English has been, and still is, extremely hospitable to new words, so that its vocabulary has grown very fast by the adoption of terms from Latin, French, and other tongues. These have immensely increased the ex- pressiveness of English, while giving it a position midway between the very different Romance and Teutonic languages. 99. Development of National Literatures Medieval literature, though inferior in quahty to that of Greece and Rome, nevertheless includes many notable produc- tions. In the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries ^ . ^ Lann n3mins Latin hymns reached their perfection. The sub- lime Dies IrcB ("Day of Wrath") presents a picture of the final judgment of the wicked. The pathetic Stahat Mater, which describes the sorrows of Mary at the foot of the Cross, has been often translated and set to music. St. Bernard's Jesu Dulcis Memoria ("Jesus, the Very Thought of Thee") forms part of a beautiful hymn nearly two hundred lines in length. Part of another hymn, composed by a monk of Cluny, has been rendered into English as "Jerusalem the Golden." Latin hymns made use of rhyme, then something of a novelty, and thus helped to popularize this poetic device. 1 See page 293. 2 gge page 214. 250 Medieval Civilization A pleasant glimpse of secular society is afforded by the songs of the troubadours. These professional poets flourished in the The French south of France, but many of them traveled from ^^ court to court in other countries. Their verses, composed in the Provencal language, were always sung to the accompaniment of some musical instrument, generally the lute. Romantic love and deeds of chivalry were the two themes which most inspired the troubadours. They, too, took up the use of rhyme, using it so skillfully as to become the teachers of Europe in lyric poetry. Northern France gave birth to epic or narrative poems, describing the exploits of mythical heroes and historic kings. The French For a long time the poems were recited by minstrels, ®P^^ who did not hesitate to modify and enlarge them at will. It was not until late in the eleventh century that any of these epics were written down. They enjoyed high esteem in aristocratic circles and penetrated all countries where feudahsm prevailed. Many of the French epics dealt with Charlemagne and the twelve peers of France. The oldest, and at the same time Song of the finest, of these Roland productions is called the Song of Roland, after its principal hero. When leading the rearguard of Char- lemagne's army out of Spain, Roland is suddenly attacked in the pass of Roncesvalles by the treacherous Moors.^ He slays the enemy in heaps with his good sword, Durendal, and only after nearly all the Franks have perished sounds his magic horn to summon aid. Charle- magne, fifteen leagues distant, hears its notes and returns quickly. 1 See page 13, note i. Roland at Roncesvalles From a thirteenth -century window of stained glass in Chartres Cathedral. At the right Roland sounding his horn; at the left Roland endeavoring to break his sword Durendal. Development of National Literatures 251 But before help arrives, Roland has fallen. He dies on the field of battle, with his face to the foe, and k prayer on his lips that ''sweet France" may never be dishonored. This stirring poem appealed strongly to the martial Normans. A medieval chroni- cler relates that just before the battle of Hastings a Norman minstrel rode out between the lines, tossing his sword in air and catching it again, as he chanted the song "of Roland and of Charlemagne, of Oliver and many a brave vassal who lost his life at Roncesvalles." King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table were also important figures in medieval legend. Arthur was said to have reigned in Britain early in the sixth century and to j^^ have fought against the Anglo-Saxons. Whether Arthurian he ever lived or not we do not know. In the Arthu- ^°°^*^^®^ rian romances this Celtic king stands forth as the model knight, the ideal of noble chivalry. The Norman conquerors of England carried the romances to France, and here, where feudalism was so deeply rooted, they found a hearty welcome. Sir Thomas Malory's Morte d' Arthur, one of the first books to be printed in England, contains many of the narratives from which Tennyson, in his Idylls of the King, and other modern poets have drawn their inspiration. The greatest epic composed in Germany during the Middle Ages is the Nihelungenlied. The poem begins in Burgundy, where three kings hold court at Worms, on the The Nibe- Rhine. Thither comes the hero, Siegfried, ruler of lungenlied the Netherlands. He had slain the mysterious Nibelungs and seized their treasure, together with the magic cloud-cloak which rendered its wearer invisible to human eyes. He had also killed a dragon and by bathing in its blood had become invulnerable, except in one place where a hnden leaf touched his body. Sieg- fried marries Kriemhild, a beautiful Burgundian princess, and with her lives most happily. But a curse was attached to the Nibelung treasure, and Siegfried's enemy, the ''grim Hagen," treacherously slays him by a spear thrust into the one spot where he could be hurt. Many years afterwards Kriemhild marries Attila, king of the Huns, on condition that he help her to ven- 252 Medieval Civilization geance. Hagen and his Burgundians are invited to Hunland, where Kriemhild causes them all to be put to death. The name of the poet who compiled and probably wrote much of the Nibelungenlied remains unknown, but his work has a place among the classics of German hterature. No account of medieval hterature ought to omit a reference to Reynard the Fox. This is a long poem, first written in Latin, Reynard and then turned into the chief languages of Europe, the Fox 'pjie characters are animals: Reynard, cunning and audacious, who outwits all his foes; Chanticleer the Cock; Bruin the Bear; Isengrim the Wolf; and many others. But they are animals in name only. We see them worship like Christians, go to mass, ride on horseback, debate in councils, and amuse themselves with hawking and hunting. Satire often creeps in, as when the villainous Fox confesses his sins to the Badger or vows that he will go to the Holy Land on a pil- grimage. The special interest of this work lies in the fact that it expressed the feelings of the common people, groaning under the oppression of feudal lords. The same democratic spirit breathes in the old English bal- lads of the outlaw Robin Hood. According to some accounts The Robin he flourished in the second half of the twelfth cen- Hood ballads ^-^j-y^ when Henry II and Richard the Lion- hearted reigned over England. Robin Hood, with his merry men, leads an adventurous Ufe in Sherwood Forest, engaging in feats of strength and hunting the king's tall deer. Bishops, sheriffs, and gamekeepers are his only enemies. For the com- mon people he has the greatest pity, and robs the rich to endow the poor. Courtesy, generosity, and love of fair play are some of the characteristics which made him a popular hero. If King Arthur was the ideal knight, Robin Hood was the ideal yeoman. The ballads about him were sung or recited by country folk for centuries. 100. Romanesque and Gothic Architecture; the Cathedrals The genius of the Middle Ages found its highest expression, not in books, but in buildings. For several hundred years after Romanesque and Gothic Architecture 253 the barbarian invasions architecture had made little progress in western Europe, outside of Italy, which was j^^ g^^^d- subject to Byzantine influence,^ and Spain, which tecturai 1 stylss was a center of Moslem culture.^ Beginning about 800 came a revival, and the adoption of an architectural Plan of Salisbury Cathedral, England I Principal west doorway; 2, 3 aisles of nave; 4 north porch; 5 tower; 6, 6 pulpits; 7 throne; 8 altar; 9 font; 10, 11 choir aisles; 12, 13 east or choir transept; 14 sacristy; 15 cloister; 16 chapter house. Style called Romanesque, because it went back to Roman prin- ciples of construction. Romanesque architecture arose in northern Italy and southern France and gradually spread to other European countries. It was followed about iioo by the 1 See page 39. * See page 86. 254 Medieval Civilization Gothic style of architecture, which prevailed during the next four centuries. The church of the early Christians seems to have been mod- eled upon the Roman basilica, with its arrangement of nave The Roman- and aisles, its circular arched recess (apse) at one esque style q^^^^^ g^^d its flat, wooden ceiling supported by columns. The Romanesque church departed from the basih- can plan by the introduction of transepts, thus giving the build- ing the form of a Latin cross. A dome, which might be covered by a pointed roof, was generally raised over the junction of the nave and transepts. At the same time the apse was enlarged so as to form the choir, a place reserved for the clergy. The Romanesque church also differed from a basihca in the use of vaulting to take the place of a fiat ceiling. The old Vaulting Romans had constructed their vaulted roofs and and the domes of concrete, which forms a rigid mass and roun arc rests securely upon the walls like the lid of a box. Medieval architects, however, built of. stone, which in a vaulted roof exerts an outward thrust and tends to force the walls apart. Consequently, they found it necessary to make the walls very thick and to strengthen them by piers, or but- tresses, on the outside of the edifice. It was also necessary to reduce the width of the vaulted spaces. The vaulting, windows, and doorways had the form of the round arch, that is, a semicircle, as in the ancient Roman monuments.^ Gothic architecture arose in France in the country around Paris, at a time when the French kingdom was taking the lead The Gothic in European affairs. Later it spread to England, ^*y^® Germany, the Netherlands, and even to southern Europe. As an old chronicler wrote, ''It was as if the whole world had thrown off the rags of its ancient time, and had arrayed itself in the white robes of the churches." The term Gothic was apphed to this architectural style by writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, who regarded every- thing non-classical as barbarous. They believed it to be an invention of the barbarian Goths, and so they called it Gothic. 1 See the illustrations, pages 156 and 237. REIMS CATHEDRAL The cathedral of Notre Dame at Reims in northwestern France stands on the site where Clovis was baptized by St. Remi. Here most of the French kings were consecrated with holy oil by the archbishops of Reims. Except the west front, which was built in the fourteenth century, the cathedral was completed by the end of the thirteenth century. The towers, 267 feet high, were originally designed to reach 394 feet. The facade, with its three arched portals, exquisite rose window, and "gallery of the kings," is justly celebrated. The cathedral — walls, roof, statues, and windows — has been terribly damaged by the German bombardment during the late war. Romanesque and Gothic Architecture 255 , The Gothic style formed a natural development of the Ro- manesque style. The architects of a Gothic church wished to retain the vaulted ceiling, but at the same time to do away with thick, soHd walls, which had so vaulting and Uttle window space as to leave the interior of the *^® ^^^s building dark and gloomy. They solved this problem, in the first place, by using a great number of stone ribs, which rested on pillars and gathered up the weight of the ceiling. Ribbed vaulting made possible higher ceilings, spanning wider areas, than in Romanesque churches.^ In the second place, the pillars supporting the ribs were themselves connected by means of flying buttresses with stout piers of masonry outside the walls of the church. ^ These walls, relieved from the pressure of the ceiling, now became a mere screen to keep out the weather. They could be built of light materials and opened up with high, wide windows. Ribbed vaulting and tlie flying buttress are the distinctive features of Gothic The pointed architecture. A third ^^'^^ feature, noteworthy but not so important, is the use of the pointed arch. It was not Christian in origin, for it had long been known to the Arabs in the East and the Moslem conquerors of Sicily. The semi- Cross Section of Amiens Cathedral A, vaulting; B, ribs; C, flying but- tresses; D, buttresses; E, low windows; F, clerestory. 1 The interior of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, shows the ribs and the beautiful tracery of the ceiling of a Gothic building. See the plate facing page 260. 2 The flying buttress is shown in the view of Cologne Cathedral, facing page 253. See the plate 256 Medieval Civilization circular or round arch can be only half as high as it is wide, but the pointed arch may vary greatly in its proportions. The use of this device enabled the Gothic builder to bridge over different widths at any required height. It is also lighter and more graceful than the round arch. The labors of the Gothic architect were admirably seconded by those of other artists. The sculptor cut figures of men, .. . ^ Gothic animals, and f ''- ' ~~^ ornament plants in the utmost profusion. The painter covered vacant wall spaces with brilliant frescoes. The w o o d- carver made exquisite choir stalls, pulpits, altars, and screens. Master workmen filled the stone tracery of the windows with stained glass unequaled in color- ing by the finest modern work. Some rigorous churchmen like St. Ber- nard condemned the ex- pense of these magnificent cathedrals, but most men found in their beauty an additional reason to praise God. Gothic architecture, though at first confined to churches, came to be used for other buildings. Among the monuments of The secular the secular Gothic are beautiful town halls, guild Gothic halls, markets, and charming private houses.^ But the cathedral remained the best expression of the Gothic style. Gargoyles on the Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris Strange, grotesque figures and faces of stone, used as ornaments of Gothic buildings and as spouts to carry ofiE rainwater. They represent beasts, demons, and other creations of medieval fancy. 101. Education; the Universities The universities developed from the monastic and cathedral schools where boys were trained to become monks or priests. ^ See the illustrations, pages 244 and 245 . Education; The Universities 257 Such schools had been created or restored by Charlemagne. The teaching, which lay entirely in the hands of Common the clergy, was elementary in character. Pupils schools learned enough Latin grammar to read religious books, if not always to understand them, and enough music to follow the services of the Church. They also studied arithmetic by means of the awkward Roman notation and geometry in Euclid's propositions without the demonstrations, received a smattering of astronomy, and sometimes gained a little knowledge of such subjects as geography, law, and philosophy. Besides these monastic and cathedral schools, others were maintained by the guilds and also by private benefactors. Boys who had no reg- ular schooling often received instruction from the parish priest. Illiteracy was. common enough in medieval times, but the mass of the people were by no means entirely uneducated. Between 11 50 and 1500 at least eighty universities were estabhshed in western Europe. Some speedily became extinct, but there are still about fifty European institutions Rise of of learning which date from the Middle Ages, universities They arose, as it were, spontaneously. Western Europe in the eleventh and twelfth centuries felt the thrill of a great in- tellectual revival. It was stimulated by intercourse with the highly cultivated Arabs in Spain, Sicily, and the East, and with the Greek scholars of Constantinople during the crusades. The desire for instruction became so general that the church schools could not satisfy it. Other schools were then opened in the cities, and to them flocked eager learners from every quarter. How easily a university might grow up about the personality of some eminent teacher is shown by the career of Abelard. The eldest son of a noble family in Brittany, Abelard would naturally have entered upon a military ^®*®^ career, but he chose instead the life of a scholar 1079-1142 and the contests of debate. When still a young man he went to Paris and attended the lectures given by a master of the cathedral school of Notre Dame. At the early age of twenty-two Abelard himself set up as a lecturer. Few teachers have ever attracted so large and so devoted a following. His 258 Medieval Civilization classroom under the shadow of the great cathedral was filled with a crowd of youths and men drawn from all countries. The fame of Abelard led to an increase of masters and students at Paris and so paved the way for the establishment of the uni- University versity there, later in the twelfth century. Paris of Paris gQQj^ became such a center of learning, particularly in theology and philosophy, that a medieval writer referred to it View of New College, Oxford New College, despite its name, is one of the oldest of the Oxford collegiate foundations It was established in 1379 by William of Wykeham. The illustration shows the chapel, the cloisters, consecrated in 1400, and the detached tower, a tall, massive structure on the line of the city wall. as "the mill where the world's corn is ground, and the hearth where its bread is baked." The university of Paris, in the time of its greatest prosperity, had over five thousand students. It furnished the model for the English university of Oxford, as well as for the learned institutions of Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, and Germany. The institutions of learning in southern Europe were modeled, more or less, upon the university of Bologna. At this ItaHan University city, in the middle of the twelfth century, a cele- of Bologna brated teacher named Irnerius gathered about him thousands of pupils for the study of the Justinian code. The Education; The Universities 259 university developed out of his law school. Bologna was the center from which the Roman system of jurisprudence made its way into France, Germany, and other Continental countries. From Bologna, also, came the monk Gratian, who drew up the accepted text-book of canon law, as followed in all Church courts.^ What Roman law was to the Empire canon law was to the Papacy. The word ''university" ^ meant at first simply a union or association. In the Middle Ages all artisans were organized in guilds,^ and when masters and pupils associated University themselves for teaching and study they naturally organization copied the guild form. This was the more necessary since the student body included many foreigners, who found protection against annoyances only as members of a guild. A university consisted of masters (the professors), who had the right to teach, and students, both elementary and advanced, who corresponded to apprentices and journeymen. After passing part of his examination, a student became a ''bachelor of arts" and might teach certain elementary subjects to those beneath him. Upon the completion of the full course — usually six years in length — the bachelor took his final examinations and, if successful, received the coveted de- gree of "master of arts." Many students, of course, never took a degree at all. A university of the Middle Ages did not need an expensive collection of libraries, laboratories, and museums. Its only necessary equipment consisted of lecture rooms ^, , r ■.. T 1 , . The teachers for the professors. Not even benches or chairs were required, for students often sat on the straw-strewn floors. The high price of manuscripts compelled professors to give all instruction by lectures. This method of teaching has been retained in modern universities, because even the printed book is a poor substitute for a scholar's inspiring words. Since the universities were under the protection of the Church, it was natural that those who attended them should possess some of the privileges of clergymen. Students did, not pay ^ Seepage 141. 2 Latin universitas. 3 See page 231. 26o Medieval Civilization The students taxes or serve as soldiers. They also enjoyed the right of trial in their own courts. This was an especially valu- able privilege, for medieval scholars were constantly getting into trouble with the city authorities. The sober annals of many a university are relieved by tales of truly Homeric conflicts between Town and Gown. When the students were dissatisfied with their treatment in one place, it was always easy for them to go to another university. Sometimes masters and scholars made off in a body. Oxford appears to have owed its existence to a large migration of EngUsh students from Paris; Cambridge arose as the result of a migration from Oxford; and the German university of Leipzig sprang from that of Prague in Bohemia. The members of a university usually lived in a number of colleges. These seem to have been at first little more than lodging- houses, where poor students were cared for at the expense of some benefactor. In time, however, as the colleges increased in wealth, through the gifts made to them, they became centers of instruction under the direction of masters. At Oxford and Cambridge, where the collegiate system has been retained to the present time, each college possesses its separate build- ings and enjoys the privilege of self- government. The studies in a medieval university were grouped under the four faculties of arts, theology, law, and medicine. The first-named faculty taught the "seven hberal ?rts," that is, grammar, rhet- oric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Tower of Magdalen College, Oxford Magdalen (pronounced Maudlin) is perhaps the most beautiful college in Oxford. The bell tower stands on High Street, the principal thoroughfare of Oxford, and adjoins Mag- dalen Bridge, built across the Cherwell. Begun in 1492; completed in 1505. From its summit a Latin hymn is sung every year on the morning of May Day. This graceful tower has been several times imitated in American collegiate struct- ures. Facilities Colleges INTERIOR OF KING'S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE The chief architectural ornament of King's College, founded by King Henry VI, is the chapel in the Gothic perpendicular style. This building was begun in 1446 a.d., but was not completed until nearly seventy years later. The finest features of the interior are the fan-vaulting which extends throughout the chapel, the stained-glass windows, and the wooden organ screen. Scholasticism 261 These subjects were a legacy from Roman education. Theol- ogy, law, and medicine then, as now, were professional studies, taken up after the completion of the Arts course. Owing to the constant movement of students from one university to another, each institution tended to specialize in one or more fields of learning. Thus, Paris came to be noted for theology, Montpelher, Padua, and Salerno for medicine, and Orleans, Bologna, and Salamanca for law. 102. Scholasticism Theology formed the chief subject of instruction in most medieval universities. Nearly all the celebrated scholars of the age were theologians. They sought to arrange Theological the doctrines of the Church in systematic and ^^^^ reasonable form, in order to answer those great questions con- cerning the nature of God and of the soul which have always occupied the human mind. For this purpose it was necessary to call in the aid of philosophy. The union of theology and philosophy produced what is known as scholasticism.^ The philosophy on which the scholastics relied was chiefly that of Aristotle. Christian Europe read him at first in Latin translations from the Arabic, but versions were study of later made from Greek copies found in Constant!- Aristotle nople and elsewhere in the East. This revival of Aristotle, though it broadened men's minds by acquainting them with the ideas of the greatest of Greek thinkers, had serious drawbacks. It discouraged rather than favored the search for fresh truth. Many scholastics were satisfied to appeal to Aristotle's author- ity, rather than take the trouble of finding out things for them- selves. The story is told of a medieval student who, having detected spots in the sun, announced his discovery to a learned man. "My son," said the latter, "I have read Aristotle many times, and I assure you there is nothing of the kind mentioned by him. Be certain that the spots which you have seen are in your eyes and not in the sun." ^ The method of the school (Latin schola). 262 Medieval Civilization There were many famous scholastics, or "schoolmen," but easily the foremost among them was the Italian monk, Thomas Aquinas. He taught at Paris, Cologne, Rome, and St. Thomas Bologna, and became so celebrated for learning 1227^1274 as to be known as the "Angelic Doctor." Though Aquinas died at an early age, he left behind him no less than eighteen folio volumes. His Summa TheologicB ("Compendium of Theology"), as the name indicates, gathered up all that the Middle Ages beheved of the relations between God and man. The Roman Church has placed him among her saints and still recommends the study of his writings as the foundation of all sound theology. Enough has been said to show that the method of study in medieval Universities was not that which generally obtains ry, to-day. There was ahnost no original research, scholastic Law students memorized the Justinian code, method Medical students learned anatomy and physiol- ogy from old Greek books, instead of in the dissecting room. Theologians and philosophers went to the Bible, the Church Fathers, or Aristotle for the solution of all problems. They often debated the most subtle questions, for instance, "Can God ever know more than He knows that He knows? " Mental gymnastics of this sort furnished a good training in logic, but added nothing to the sum of human knowledge. Scholasticism, accordingly, fell into disrepute, in proportion as men began to substitute scientific observation and experiment for speculation. 103. Science and Magic Not all medieval learning took the form of scholasticism. The twelfth and thirteenth centuries were marked by a healthy Scientific interest in science. Long encyclopedias, written inventions jj^ Latin, collected all available information about the natural world. The study of physics made conspicuous progress, partly as a result of Arab influence. Various scientific inventions, including magnifying lenses (for eyeglasses) and clocks, were worked out. The mariner's compass, perhaps derived from the Arabs, also came into general use. Science and Magic 263 We may take the Englishman, Roger Bacon, as a representa- tive of this scientific interest. He studied at Paris, where his attainments secured for him the title of the " Won- t> Roger Bacon, derful Doctor, and lectured at Oxford. At a about 1214- period when Aristotle's influence was unbounded, ^^^* Bacon turned away from scholastic philosophy to mathematics and the sciences. No great discoveries were made by him, but it is interesting to read a passage in one of his works where some modern inventions are distinctly foreseen. In time, he wrote, ships will be moved without rowers, and carriages will be propelled without animals to draw them. Machines for flying will also be constructed, "wherein a man sits revolving some engine by which artificial wings are made to beat the air like a flying bird." Even in Bacon's day it would appear that men were trying to make steam- boats, automobiles, and airplanes. The discovery of gunpowder, a compound of saltpeter, char- coal, and sulphur, has often been attributed to Bacon, probably incorrectly. Bacon and other men of his time seem to have been familiar with the composition of gunpowder, but they regarded it as merely a sort of firework, producing a sudden and briUiant flame. They httle suspected that in a confined space the expansive power of its gases could be used to hurl projectiles. Gunpowder was occasionally manu- factured during the fourteenth century, but for a long time it made more noise than it did harm. Small brass cannon, throw- ing stone balls, began at length to displace the medieval siege weapons, and stifl later muskets took the place of the longbow, the cross-bow, and the pike. The revolution in the art of war- fare introduced by gunpowder had vast importance. It de- stroyed the usefulness of the castle and enabled the peasant to fight the mailed knight on equal terms. Gunpowder, accord- Roger Bacon From the original picture in the possession of Lord Sack- ville, at Knole, England. Gunpowder 264 Medieval Civilization ingly, must be included among the forces which brought about the downfall of feudalism. The study of chemistry also engaged the attention of medieval investigators. It was, however, much mixed up with alchemy. Chemistry a false science which the Middle Ages had received and alchemy fj-Qj^ the Arabs and they in turn from the Greeks. The alchemists believed that minerals possessed a real life of their own and that they were continually developing in the ground toward the state of gold, the perfect metal. It was necessary, therefore, to discover the "philosopher's stone," which would turn all metals into gold. The alchemists never found it, but they learned a good deal about the various metals and discovered a number of compounds and colors. In this way alchemy contributed to the advance of chemistry. Astronomy in the Middle Ages was the most advanced of any natural science, though the telescope and the Copernican theory Astronomy were as yet in the future. Astronomy, the wise and astrology mother, had a foohsh daughter, astrology, the origin of which can be traced back to Babylonia. Medieval students no longer regarded the stars as divine, but they be- lieved that the natural world and the lives of men were controlled by celestial influences. Hence astrologers professed to predict the fate of a person from the position of the planets at the time of his birth. Astrological rules were also drawn from the signs of the zodiac. A child born under the sign of the Lion will be courageous; one born under the Crab will not go forward well in life; one born under the Waterman will probably be drowned, and so forth. Such fancies seem absurd enough, but in the Middle Ages educated people entertained them. Alchemy and astrology were not the only instances of medie- val credulity. The most improbable stories found ready ac- Medieval ceptance. Roger Bacon, for instance, thought credulity |-j^a,t "flying dragons" still existed in Europe and that eating their flesh lengthened human life. Works on natural history soberly described the lizard-hke salamander, which dwelt in fire, and the phoenix, a bird which, after living for five hundred years, burned itself to death and then rose Popular Superstitions 265 Magicians again full grown from the ashes. Various plants and minerals were credited with marvelous powers. Thus, the nasturtium, used as a liniment, would keep one's hair from faUing out, and the sapphire, when powdered and mixed with milk, would heal ulcers and cure headache. Such quaint beliefs linger to-day among uneducated people, even in civilized lands. Magicians of every sort flourished in the Middle Ages. Onei- romancers ^ took omens from dreams. Palmists read fortunes in the lines and irregularities of the hand. Necromancers ^ professed to reveal the future by pretended communica- tions with departed spirits. Other magicians made talismans or lucky objects to be worn on the person, mirrors in which the images of the dead or the absent were reflected, and various powders which, when mixed with food or drink, would inspire hatred or affection in the one consuming them. Indeed, it would be easy to draw up a long hst of the devices by which practi- tioners of magic made a Hving at the expense of ignorant and superstitious people. Magician Rescued from the Devil Miniature in a thirteenth-century manuscript in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. The Devil, at- tempting to seize a magician who had formed a pact with him, is prevented by a lay brother. Folk tales 104. Popular Superstitions Many medieval superstitions are preserved in folk tales, or ''fairy stories." Every child now reads these tales in books, but until the nineteenth century very few of them had been collected and written down.^ They lived on the lips of the people, being told by mothers and nurses 1 Greek oneiros, "dream." 2 Greek nekros, "corpse." ' Charles Perrault's Tales of Passed Times appeared at Paris in 1697. It in- cluded the now-familiar stories of "Bluebeard," "Cinderella," "Sleeping Beauty," and "Little Red Riding Hood." In 1812 the brothers Grimm pubUshed their Household Tales, a collection of stories current in Germany. 266 Medieval Civilization to children and by young and old about the firesides during the long winter evenings. Story-telling formed one of the chief amusements of the Middle Ages. The fairies who appear so commonly in folk tales are known by such different names as bogies, brownies, goblins, pixies, kobolds (in Germany), and trolls (in Denmark). The Celts, especially, had a lively faith in fairies, and it was from Wales, Scotland, and Ireland that many stories about them became current in Europe after the tenth century. Some students have explained the behef in fairies as due to memories of an ancient pygmy people dwelling in underground homes. But most of these supernatural beings seem to be the descendants of the spirits which in savage fancy haunt the world. A comparison of European folk tales shows that fairies have certain characteristics in common. They hve in palaces under- Character- neath the ground, from which they emerge at twi- istics light to dance in mystic circles. They are ruled by kings and queens and are possessed of great wealth. Though usually invisible, they may sometimes be seen, especially by people who have the faculty of perceiving spirits. To mortals the fairies are generally hostile, leading wanderers astray, often blighting crops and cattle, and shooting arrows which carry disease and death. They are constantly on the watch to carry off human beings to their realm. A prisoner must be released at the end of a certain time, unless he tastes fairy food, in which event he can never return. Children in cradles are frequently snatched away by the fairies, who leave, instead, imps of their own called "changehngs." A changeling may always be recognized by its peevishness and backwardness in learning to walk and speak. If well treated, the fairies will sometimes show their gratitude by bestowing on their favorites health, wealth, and long life. Lucky the child who can count on a ''fairy god-mother." Stories of giants are common in folk tales. Giants are often represented as not only big but also stupid, and as easily over- come by keen-witted human foes like "Jack the Giant-killer." Popular Superstitions 267 It may be that traditions of prehistoric peoples have sometimes given birth to accounts of giants. Another source Giants of stories concerning them has been the dis- *^^ os^^s covery of huge fossil bones, such as those of the mammoth or mastodon, which were formerly supposed to be bones of gigantic men. The ogres, who sometimes figure in folk tales, are giants with a taste for human flesh. They recall the cannibals of the savage world. The Witches' Sabbath Werewolves Werewolves were persons who, by natural gift or magic art, were thought to have the power of turning themselves for a time into wild beasts (generally wolves or bears). In this animal shape they ravaged flocks and de- voured young children. A werewolf was said to sleep only two nights in the month and to spend the rest of the time roam- ing the woods and fields. Trials of persons accused of being werewolves were held in France as late as the end of the six- teenth century. Even now the belief is found in backward parts of Europe. 268 Medieval Civilization The medieval superstition of the evil eye endowed certain persons with the power of bewitching,, injuring, or kilHng others ^, ., by a sinsfle dance. Children and domestic ani- The evil eye -^ ^ , i i - ^ ^ mals were thought to be particularly susceptible to the effects of "fascination." In order to guard against it, charms of various sorts, including texts from the Bible, were carried about. The belief in the evil eye came into Europe from pagan antiquity. It survived the Middle Ages and lingers yet among uneducated people. The behef in witchcraft, which prevailed in ancient times, was also strongly held during the Middle Ages. Witches were „,. , , supposed to have sold themselves to the Devil, Witchcraft . . . , , . ^ ' receiving m return the power to work magic. They could change themselves or others into animals, they had charms against the hurt of weapons, they could raise storms and destroy crops, and they could convey thorns, pins, and other objects into their victims' bodies, thus causing sickness and death. At night they rode through the air on broomsticks and assembled in some lonely place for feasts, dances, and wild revels. The Devil himself attended these "Witches' Sabbaths" and taught his followers their diabolic arts. There were various tests for the discovery of witches, the most usual being the ordeal by water.^ The numerous trials and executions for witchcraft form a dark page in history. Thousands of harmless old men and women Witchcraft were put to death on the charge of being leagued persecutions ^.^^h the Devil. Even the most intelligent and humane people believed in the realit}^ of witchcraft and found a justification for its punishment in the Scriptural command, "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." ^ The witch epidemic which broke out in America during the seventeenth century, reaching its height at Salem, Massachusetts, was simply a reflection of the European fear and hatred of witches. The Middle Ages inherited from antiquity the observance of unlucky days. These v/ent under the name of "Egyptian days," so called because it was held that on one of them the 1 See page iig. ^ Exodus, xxii, i8. Popular Amusements and Festivals 269 plagues had been sent to devastate the land of Egypt and on another Pharaoh and his host had been swallowed Unlucky days up in the Red Sea. At least twenty-four days in the year were regarded as very unlucky. At such times one ought not to buy or sell, to build a house, to plant a field, to travel or, in fact, to undertake anything at all important. After the sixteenth century the belief in unlucky days declined, but there still exists a prejudice against fishermen starting out to fish, or seamen to take a voyage, or landsmen a journey, or do- mestic servants to enter a new place, on a Friday. Indoor games 105. Popular Amusements and Festivals It is pleasant to turn from the superstitions of the Middle Ages to the games, sports, and festivals which helped to make life agreeable alike for rich and poor, for nobles and peasants. Some indoor games are of eastern origin. Chess, for instance, arose in India as a war game. On each side a king and his general, with chariots, cavalry, elephants, and in- fantry, met in battle array. These survive in the rooks, knights, bishops, and pawns of the modern game. Checkers is a sort of simplified chess, in which the pieces are all pawns, till they get across the board and become kings.. Playing cards are another Oriental invention. They were introduced into Europe in the fourteenth century, either by the Arabs or the gypsies. Their first use seems to have been for telling fortunes. Many outdoor games are derived from those played in medie- val times. How one kind of game may become the parent of Chess Pieces of Charlemagne Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. The figures are carved in ivory. 270 Medieval Civilization many others is seen in the case of the ball-play. The ancients tossed and caught balls as children do now. They also had a Outdoor game in which each side tried to secure the ball and games throw it Over the adversary's goal line. This game lasted on into the Middle Ages, and from it football has de- scended. The ancients seem never to have used a stick or bat in their ball-play. The Persians, however, began to play ball on horseback, using a long mallet for the purpose, and intro- duced their new sport throughout Asia. Under the Tibetan name of pulu (''ball") it found its way into Europe. When once the mallet had been invented for use on horseback, it could be easily used on foot, and so polo gave rise to the various games in which balls are hit with bats, including tennis, hockey, golf, cricket, and croquet. The difference between our ideas of what constitutes "sport" Baiting bears, and those of our ancestors is shown by the popu- larity of baiting. In the twelfth century bulls, and even horses were baited. Cock-fighting formed another common amusement. It was not till the nineteenth cen- tury that an Eng- lish society for the prevention of cruelty to animals succeeded in get- ting a law passed which forbade these cruel sports. Most other European countries have now followed England's example. No account of life in the Middle Ages can well omit some reference to the celebration of festivals. For the peasant and artisan they provided relief from physical exertion, and for all classes of society the pageants, pro- cessions, sports, feasts, and merry-makings which accompanied them furnished welcome diversion. Medieval festivals included Bear Baiting From the Luttrell Psalter. Festivals Popular Amusements and Festivals 271 not only those of the Christian Year/ but also others which had come down from pre-Christian times. Many festivals not of Christian origin were derived from the ceremonies with which the heathen peoples of Europe had been accustomed to mark the changes of the seasons. Seasonal Thus, April Fool's Day formed a relic of festivities festivities held at the vernal equinox. May Day, another festival of spring, honored the spirits of trees and of all budding vegetation. The persons who acted as May kings and May queens repre- sented these spirits. According to the original custom a new May tree was cut down in the forest every year, but later a permanent May pole was set up on the village common. On Midsummer Eve (June 23), which marked the summer solstice, came the fire festival, when people built bonfires and leaped over them, walked in procession with torches round the. fields, and rolled burning wheels down the hillsides. These curious rites may have been once connected with sun worship. Hallow Eve, so called from being the eve of All Saints' Day (No- vember i), also seems to have been a survival of a heathen celebra- tion. On this night witches and fairies were sup- posed to assemble. Hallow Eve does not appear to have been a season for pranks and jokes, as in its present degenerate form. Even the festival of Christmas, coming at the winter solstice, kept some 1 See page 48. Mummers From a manuscript now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. It was written and illuminated in the reign of Edward IH. 272 Medieval Civilization heathen features, such as the use of mistletoe with which Celtic priests once decked the altars of their gods. The Christmas tree, however, is not a relic of heathenism. A Miracle Play at Coventry, England The rude platform on wheels, which served as a stage, was drawn by apprentices to the market place. Each guild had its own stage. Young and old took part in the dances which accompanied village festivals. Very popular in medieval England was the The Morris Morris dance. The name, a corruption of Moor- dance jgj^^ refers to its origin in Spain. The Morris dance was especially associated with May Day and was danced round a May pole to a lively and capering step. The performers represented Robin Hood, Maid Marian, his wife, Tom the Piper, and other traditional characters. On their garments they wore bells tuned to different notes, so as to sound in harmony. Manners and Customs 273 Mumming had a particular association with Christmas. Mummers were bands of men and women who disguised them- selves in masks and skins of animals and then „ Mumming serenaded people outside their houses. Often the mummers performed little dramas, in which Father Christ- mas, Old King Cole, and St. George were familiar figures. Besides these village amusements, many plays of a religious character came into vogue during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The earliest were the miracle plays. ,,. , , ^, 1 . 1 . r r 1 Miracle plays They presented in dramatic form scenes from the Bible and stories of the saints or martyrs. The actors at first were priests, and the stage was the church itself or the church- yard. This religious setting did not prevent the introduction of clowns and buffoons. After a time the miracle play passed from the clergy to the guilds. All the guilds of a town usually gave an exhibition once a year. Each guild presented a single scene in the story. An exhibition might last for several days and have as many as fifty scenes, beginning at Creation and ending with Doomsday.^ The miracle plays were followed by the "moralities." They dealt with the struggle between good and evil, rather than with religious history. Characters such as Charity, Morality Faith, Prudence, Riches, Confession, and Death p^^^^ appeared and enacted a story int-ended to teach moral lessons. Out of the rude "morality" and its predecessor, the miracle play, has grown the drama of modern times. 106. Manners and Customs A previous chapter ^ described some features of domestic life in castle and village during the age of feudalism. In Eng- land, where the Norman kings discouraged castle ^ „. , . '. , , r T 1 ,. Dwellmgs building, the manor house formed the ordinary residence of the nobility. Even in Continental Europe many castles were gradually made over into manor houses after the 1 The Passion Play at Ober-Ammergau in Germany is the modern representa- tive of this medieval religious drama. ^ Chapter vi. 274 Medieval Civilization cessation of feudal warfare. A manor house, however, was only less bare and inconvenient than a castle. It was still poorly lighted, ill-ventilated, and in winter scarcely warmed by the open wood fires. Among the improvements of the four- teenth century were the building of a fireplace at one or both ends of the manor hall, instead of in the center, and the substi- tution of glass windows for wooden shutters or oiled paper. SuLGRAVE Manor Sulgrave, in Northhamptonshire, was the ancestral home of the Washington family. The manor house, built by Lawrence V/ashington about the middle of the sixteenth century, bears the family coat-of-arms on the porch. This historic dwelling has been purchased by an English committee for- preservation as a memorial of the friendship and blood-relationship between England and the United States. People in the Middle Ages, even the well-to-do, got along with little furniture. The great hall of a manor house contained a long dining table, with benches used at meals, and a few stools. The family beds often occupied curtained recesses in the walls, but guests might have to sleep on the floor of the manor hall. Servants often slept in the stables. Few persons could afford rugs to cover the floor; the poor had to put up with rushes. - Utensils were not numerous, and articles of glass and silver were practically unknown, except in the houses of the rich. The pictures in old manuscripts give us a good idea of medieval dress. Naturally it varied with time and place, according Fximiture Manners and Customs 275 to the social position of the wearer. Sometimes laws were passed, without much result, to regulate the quahty, shape, and cost of the costumes to be worn by dif- ^'*^*"°'® ferent orders of society. The moralists of the age were shocked when tightly fitting garments, which showed the outhnes of the body, became fashionable. The inconvenience of putting them Interior of AxN English Manor House Shows the great hall of a manor house at Penshurst, Kent. The screen with the minstrels gal ery over it is seen at the end of the hall, and in the center, the brazier for fire. Built about 1340. on led to the use of buttons and buttonholes. Women's head- dresses were often of extraordinary height and shape. Not less remarkable were the pointed shoes worn by men. The points finally got so long that they hindered walking, unless tied to the knees by a ribbon. The medieval noble of the twelfth century as a rule went clean shaven. To wear a beard was regarded as a sign of effeminacy m a man. The Bayeux Tapestry,i for instance, shows the Normans mostly clean-shaven, while the ^^^"^^ Enghsh wear only moustaches. The introduction of long beards * See the illustration, page 107. 276 Medieval Civilization seems to have been due to contact with the East during the crusading period. Regular bathing was not by any means neglected during the later Middle Ages. In the country districts river, lake, or pool Baths and met the needs of people used to outdoor Hfe. The bathing j^q^- g^jj. g^j^^j vapor baths of the Byzantines were adopted by the Moslems and later, through the Moors and cru- saders, were made known to western Europe. After the begin- ning of the thirteenth century .few large cities lacked public bathing places. Costumes of Ladies during the Later Middle Ages Food Medieval cookbooks show that people of means had all sorts of elaborate and expensive dishes. Dinner at a nobleman's house might include as many as ten or twelve courses, mostly meats and game. Such things as hedgehogs, peacocks, sparrows, and porpoises, which would hardly tempt the modern palate, were relished. Much use was made of spices in preparing meats and gravies, and also for flavoring wines. Over-eating was a common vice in the Middle Ages, but their open-air life and constant exercise en- abled men and women to digest the huge quantities of food they consumed. Manners and Customs 277 People in medieval times had no knives or forks and conse- quently ate with their fingers. Daggers also were employed to convey food to the mouth. Forks date from the Table end of the thirteenth century, but were adopted etiquette only slowly. As late, as the sixteenth century German preach- ers condemned their use, for, said they, the Lord would not have given us fingers if he had wanted us to rely on forks. Napkins are another table convenience unknown in the Mid- dle Ages. Anglo-Saxon Drinking Horn Horn of Ulphus (Wulf) in the cathedral of York. In the absence of tea and coffee, ale and beer formed the drink of the common people. The upper classes regaled them- selves on costly wines. Drunkenness was as com- ^ , , . Drinking mon and as little reprobated as gluttony. The monotony of hfe in medieval Europe, when the nobles had little to do but hunt and fight, may partly account for the prevailing inebriety. But doubtless in large measure it was a Teutonic characteristic. The Northmen were hard drinkers, and of the ancient Germans a Roman writer states that ''to pass an entire day and night in drinking disgraces no one." ^ This habit of intoxication survived in medieval Germany, and the Anglo- Saxons and Danes introduced it into England. Studies I. Look up on the map between pages 62-63 the following places where Gothic cathedrals are found: Canterbury, York, Salisbury, Reims, Amiens, Char- tres, Cologne, Strassburg, Burgos, Toledo, and Milan. 2. Look up on the map facing page 342 the location of the following medieval universities: Oxford, Mont- ^ Tacitus, Germania, 22. 278 Medieval Civilization pellier, Paris, Orleans, Cologne, Leipzig, Prague, Naples, and Salamanca. 3. Explain the following terms: scholasticism; canon law; alchemy; troubadours; Provenjal language; transept; choir; flying buttress; werewolf; and mumming. 4. Who were St. Thomas Aquinas, Abelard, Gratian, Irnerius, and Roger Bacon? 5. Show how Latin served as an international language in the Middle Ages. Name two artificial languages which have been invented as a substitute for Latin. 6. What is meant by saying that "French is a mere patois of Latin"? 7. In what parts of the world is English now the prevailing speech? 8. Why has Siegfried, the hero of the Nibelungenlied, been called the "Achilles of Teutonic legend "? 9. What productions of medieval literature reflect aristocratic and democratic ideals, re- spectively? 10. Distinguish between the Romanesque and Gothic styles of archi- tecture. What is the origin of each term? 11. Contrast a Gothic cathedral with a Greek temple, particularly in regard to size, height, support of the roof, windows, and decorative features. 12. Why is there some excuse for describing a Gothic building as "a wall of glass with a roof of stone"? 13. Do you see any resemblance in structural features between a Gothic cathedral and a modern "sky-scraper"? 14. Mention some likenesses between medieval and modern universities. 15. Men- tion some important subjects of instruction in modem universities which were not treated in those of the Middle Ages. 16. Why has scholasticism been called "a sort of Aristotelian Christianity"? 17. Look up the original meaning of the words "jovial," "saturnine," "mercurial," "disastrous," "contemplate," and "consider." 18. Show the indebtedness of chemistry to alchemy and of astronomy to astrology. 19. Mention some common folk tales which illustrate medieval superstitions. 20. Why was Friday regarded as a specially unlucky day? 21. Enu- merate the most important contributions to civilization made during the Middle Ages. CHAPTER XIII THE RENMSSANCEi 107. Meaning of the Renaissance The French word Renaissance means Rebirth or Revival. It is a convenient term for all the changes in society, law, and government, in science, philosophy, and religion, i^i^^ and in hterature and art which gradually trans- of the formed medieval civilization into that of modern enaissance times. The Renaissance, just because of its transitional character, cannot be exactly dated. In general, it covers the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Some Renaissance move- ments, however, started before 1300. For instance, the study of Roman law, as a substitute for Germanic custom, was well advanced in the twelfth century. The commercial develop- ment of the crusading era began during the same period. Other Renaissance movements, again, extended beyond 1500. Among these were the expansion of geographical knowledge, resulting from the discovery of the New World, and the revolt against the Papacy, known as the Protestant Reformation. The Middle Ages, in fact, came to an end at different times in dif- ferent fields of human activity. The name Renaissance applied, at first, only to tne rebirth or revival of men's interest in the literature and art of classical antiquity. Italy was the original home of this original Renaissance. There it first appeared, there it home of the found widest acceptance, and there it reached its ^^^^^^sance highest development. From Italy the Renaissance gradually spread beyond the Alps, until it had made the round of western Europe. Italy was a land particularly favorable to the growth of ^ Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xix, "A Scholar of the Renaissance"; chapter xx, "Renaissance Artists." 279 28o The Renaissance learning and the arts. In northern Italy the great cities of Italian cities Milan, Pisa, Genoa, Florence, Venice, and many of the others had early succeeded in throwing off their Renaissance fg^^jai burdens and had become independent, self-governing communities. Democracy flourished in them, as in the old Greek city-states. Noble birth counted for little; a man of ability and ambition might rise to any place. The fierce party confhcts within their walls stimulated mental activity and helped to make life full, varied, and intense. Their widespread trade and thriving manufactures made them pros- perous. Wealth brought leisure, bred a taste for luxury ^nd the refinements of life, and gave means for the gratification of that taste. People wanted to have about them beautiful pictures, statuary, furniture, palaces, and churches; and they rewarded richly the artists who could produce such things. It is not without significance that the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance was democratic, industrial, and wealthy Florence.^ Italy enjoyed another advantage over the other European countries in its nearness to Rome. Admiration for the ancient Influence of Roman civilization, as expressed in literature, art, the classic and law, was felt by all Italians. Wherever they tra ition looked, they were reminded of the great past which once had been theirs. Nor was the inheritance of Greece wholly lost. Greek traders and the descendants of Greek colonists in Italy still used their ancient language; all through the medieval centul-ies there were Italians who studied Greek. The classic tradition survived in Italy and defied oblivion. In the Middle Ages Italy formed a meeting place of several civilizations. Byzantine influence was felt both in the north „ . and in the south. The conquest of Sicily by the Byzantine, . ... Arabic, and Arabs made the Italians familiar with the science, Norman ^^^ ^^^ poetry of this cultivated people. After influence 7 r- ^ x- r- the Normans had established themselves in south- ern Italy and Sicfly, they in turn developed a briUiant civi- lization. From all these sources flowed streams of cultural influence which united in the Renaissance. ^ See pages 239-240. Revival of Learning in Italy 281 108. Revival of Learning in Italy The literature of Greece and Rome did not entirely disappear in western Europe after the Teutonic invasions. The monas- tery and cathedral schools of the Middle Ages had jj^^ classics nourished devoted students of ancient books. The in the Benedictine monks labored zealously in copying ^ ^ ^^^ the works of pagan as well as Christian authors. The rise of universities made it possible for the student to pursue a fairly extended course in Latin literature at more than one institu- tion of learning. Greek literature, however, was little known in the West. The poems of Homer were read only in a Latin summary, and even Aristotle's writings were studied in Latin translations. Reverence for the classics finds constant expression in the writings of the Italian poet Dante Dante. He was a Alighieri, native of Florence, but passed many years of his life in exile. Dante's most famous work, the Divine Comedy, describes an imaginary visit to the other world. Vergil guides him through the realms of Hell and Purgatory until he meets his lady Beatrice, who conducts him through Paradise. The Divine Comedy gives in artistic verse an epitome of all that medieval men knew and hoped and felt: it is a mirror of the Middle Ages. At the same time it drew much of its inspiration from Graeco-Roman sources. Homer, for Dante, is the "loftiest of poets"; and Aristotle is the ''master of those who know." Dante exerted a noteworthy influence on the Italian language. He wrote the Divine Comedy, not in Latin, but in the vernacular Italian as spoken in Florence. The popularity pante and of this work helped to give currency to the Floren- tine dialect, and. in time it became the • literary language of Italy. Mask of Dante the Italian language 2«2 The Renaissance Petrarch, a younger contemporary of Dante, and like him a native of Florence, has been called the £rst modern scholar and Petrarch, man of letters. He devoted himseK with tireless 1304-1374 energy to classical studies. Writing to a friend, Petrarch declares that he has read Vergil, Horace, Livy, and Cicero, ''not once, but a thousand times, not cursorily, but studiously and intently, bringing to them the best powers of my mind. I tasted in the morning and digested at night. I quaffed as a boy, to ruminate as an old man. These works have become so familiar to me that they cling not to my mem- ory merely, but to the very marrow of my bones." Petrarch himself composed many Latin works and did much to spread a Petrarch knowledge of Latin au- as a Latin thors. He traveled widely revivalist • Xi. i -r^ j m Italy, France, and other countries, searching everywhere for ancient manuscripts. When he found in one place two lost orations of Cicero and in another place a col- lection of Cicero's letters, he was transported with dehght. He kept copyists in his house, at times as many as four, busily making transcripts of the manuscripts that he had discovered or borrowed. Petrarch knew almost no Greek. His copy of Homer, it is said, he often kissed, though he could not read it. Petrarch's friend and disciple, Boccaccio, was the first to bring to Itah^ manuscripts of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Having Boccaccio, learned some Greek, he wrote out a translation 1313-1375 Qf those epic poems. But Boccaccio's fame to-day rests on the Decameron. It is a collection of one hundred stories written in Italian. They are supposed to be told by a merry company of men and women, who, during a plague at Florence, have retired to a villa in the country. The Decameron is one of the first important works in Italian prose. Many Petrarch From a miniature in the Lau- rentian Library, Florence. Revival of Learning in Italy 283 English writers, notably Chaucer in his Canterbury Tales, have gone to it for ideas and plots. The modern short story may be said to date from Boccaccio. The renewed interest in Latin hterature, due to Petrarch, Boccaccio, and others, was followed in the fifteenth century by the revival of Greek literature. In 1396 Chrys- study of oloras, a scholar from Constantinople, began to Greek in lecture on Greek in the university of Florence. *^ He afterwards taught in other Italian cities and further aided the growth of Hellenic studies by preparing a Greek grammar — the first book of its kind. From this time, and especially after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, many learned Greeks came to Italy, transplanting in the West the culture of the East. "Greece had not perished, but had emigrated to Italy." The classics opened up a new world of thought and fancy to the scholars of the fifteenth century. They were delighted by the fresh, original, and human ideas which „ ^ > & 5 Humanism they discovered in the pages of Homer, Plato, Cicero, Horace, and Tacitus. Their enthusiasm for the classics came to be known as humanism, ^ or culture. • The Greek and Latin languages and literatures were henceforth the "humani- ties," as distinguished from scholastic philosophy and theology. From Florence, as from a second Athens, humanism spread throughout Italy. At Milan and Venice, at Rome and Naples, men fell to poring over the classics. A special spread of feature of the age was the recovery of ancient humanism manuscripts from monasteries and cathedrals, "* ^ where they had often lain neglected and blackened with the dust of centuries. Libraries were established for their safe-keep- ing, professorships of the ancient languages were endowed, and scholars were given opportunities to pursue researches. Even the popes shared in this zeal for humanism. One of them founded the Vatican Library at Rome, which has the most valuable collection of manuscripts in the world. At Florence the wealthy family of the Medici vied with the popes in the patronage of classical literature. 1 Latin humanitas, from homo, "man." 284 The Renaissance 109. Paper and Printing The revival of learning was greatly hastened when books printed on paper took the place of manuscripts laboriously Introduction Copied by hand. The Chinese at a remote period of paper made paper from some fibrous material, but the Arabs seem to have been the first to make it out of flax and rags. The manufacture of paper in Europe was estabhshed by the Moors in Spain. The Arab occupation of Sicily introduced the art into Italy. Paper found a ready sale in Europe, be- cause papyrus and parch- ment, which the ancients had used as writing materi- als, were both expensive and bulky. Men now had a material moderate in price, durable, and one that would easily receive the impression of movable type. The first step in the de- velopment of printing was the use of engraved blocks. Single letters, separate words, and sometimes entire pages of text were cut in hard wood or metal. When inked and appUed to Development paper, they left a clear impression. The second of movable step was to cast the letters in separate pieces of ^^® metal, all of the same height and thickness. These could then be arranged in any desired way for printing. Movable type had been used for centuries by the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans in the East, and in Europe several printers have been credited with their invention. A German, An Early Printing Press Enlarged from the printer's mark of I. B. Ascensius. Used on the title pages of books printed by him between 1507-1535. Paper and Printing 285 Johaim Gutenberg of Mainz, set up the first printing press with movable type about 1450, and from it issued the first printed book. This was a Latin transla- tion of the Bible. Printing met an especially warm welcome in Italy, where people felt so keen a desire for reading and instruction. By the end of the fifteenth century Venice alone had Aldus and more than two hundred printing presses. Here C^*o^ Aldus Manutius maintained a famous establishment for print- ing Greek and Latin classics. In 1476 the English printer, ^tm fmtM mmt^ 9at»t^ of e^ m Fftc \A^.Mw^t QDOM ft#ims.Ameridnauigatioiiibus quf ieqaS turliquideintelligLdadit. The Name "America" Facsimile of the passage in the Cosmographies Introductio (1507). by Martin Waldseemiiller, in which the name "America" is proposed for the New Worid. The Spanish ruler, Charles V, grandson of the Isabella who had supported Columbus, looked with favor upon Magellan's ideas and provided a fleet of five vessels for the Circixmnavi- , , . » ^ 1 • 1 r gation of undertakmg. After explormg the east coast oi *^i ^1522 South America, Magellan came at length to the strait which now bears his name. He sailed boldly through this strait into an ocean called by him the Pacific, because of its peaceful aspect. Magellan's sailors begged him to return, for food was getting scarce, but the navigator rephed that he would go on, ''if he had to eat the leather off the -rigging." He did" go on, for ninety-eight days, until he reached the Ladrone Islands.^ By a curious chance, in all this long voyage across the Pacific, Magellan came upon 1 Also known as the Mariannes. Magellan called them the Ladrones (Spanish ladrdn, a robber), because of the thievish habits of the natives. The Indians 317 only two islands, both of them uninhabited. He then proceeded to the Philippines, where he was killed in a fight with the natives. His men, however, managed to reach the Spice Islands, the goal of the journey, "Afterwards a single ship, the Victoria, carried back to Spain the few sailors who had survived the hardships of a journey lasting nearly three years. Magellan's voyage forms a landmark in the history of geog- raphy. It proved Importance that America, at of Magellan's least on the south, ^^^^^^ had no connection with Asia; it showed the enormous extent of the Pacific Ocean; and it led to the discovery of many large islands in the East Indies. Henceforth men knew of a certainty that the earth was round and in the distance covered by Magellan they had a rough estimate of its size. The circumnavigation of the globe ranks with the discovery of America among the most significant events in history. Magellan stands beside Da Gama and Columbus in the company of great explorers. Ferdinand Magellan From a portrait formerly in the Versailles Gallery, Paris. 121. The Indians The natives of America, whom Columbus called Indians, resemble Asiatics in some physical features, such as the reddish- brown complexion, the hair, uniformly black and jj^^ lank, the high cheek-bones, and the short stature American of many tribes. On the other hand, the large, * o"gi°es aquiline nose, the straight eyes, never oblique, and the tall stature of some tribes are European traits. It seems safe to conclude that the American aborigines, whatever their origin, became thoroughly fused into a composite race during long centuries of isolation from the rest of mankind. 3i8 Geographical Discovery and Colonization The Indians, because of their isolation, had to work out by themselves many arts, inventions, and discoveries. They Indian spoke over a thousand languages and dialects; culture ^^^ jjqI- Qj^g j^g^g yg|- i,QQY\ traced outside of America. Their implements consisted of polished stone, occasionally of unsmelted copper, and in Mexico and Peru, of bronze. They cultivated Indian corn, or maize, but lacked the other great cereals. They domesticated the Aztec Sacrificial Knife j j ^i dog and the British Museum, London ■, ■, r ^ •, llama or the Length, twelve inches. The blade is of yellow, opalescent a j t^u chalcedony, beautifully chipped and polished. The handle is AnCleS. iiiey of light-colored wood carved in the form of a man masked with lived in clanS and a bird skin. Brilliant mosaic settings of turquoise, malachite, ^ -i^ 1 ^ K and shell embellish the figure. triDCS, rUled by headmen or chiefs. Their religion probably did not involve a belief in a single ''Great Spirit," as is so often said, but rather recognized in all nature the abode of spiritual powers, mysterious and wonderful, whom man ought to conciliate by prayers and sacrifices. In short, most of the American Indians were not savages but barbarians. Indian culture attained its highest development in Mexico and Central America, especially among the Mayas of Yucatan, The Guatemala, and Honduras. The remains of their Mayas cities — the Ninevehs and Babylons of the New World — he buried in the tropical jungle, where Europeans first saw them four hundred years ago. The temples, shrines, altars, and statues in these ancient cities show that the Mayas had made much progress in the fine arts. They knew enough astronomy to frame a solar calendar of 365 days, and enough mathematics to employ numbers exceeding a million. The writing of the Mayas had reached the rebus stage and prom- ised to become alphabetic. When their hieroglyphics have been fully deciphered, we shall learn more about this gifted people. The Indians 319 Several centuries before the arrival of Europeans in America, the so-called Aztecs came down from the north and established themselves on the Mexican plateau. Here they The formed a confederacy of many tribes, ruled over Aztecs by a sort of king, whose capital was Tenochtitlan, on the site of the present city of Mexico. The Aztecs appear to have borrowed much of their art, science, and knowledge of writing from their Maya neighbors. They built houses and temples of stone or sun-dried brick, constructed aqueducts, roads. SI,.._I_L Aztec Sacrificial Stone Now in the National Museum in the City of Mexico. bridges, and irrigation ditches, excelled in the dyeing, weaving, and spinning of cotton, and made most beautiful ornaments of silver and gold. They worshiped numerous gods, to which the priests offered prisoners of war as human sacrifices. In spite of these bloody rites, the Aztecs were a kind-hearted, honest people, respectful of the rights of property, brave in battle, and obedient to their native rulers. The lofty table-lands of the Andes were also the seat of an advanced Indian culture. At the time of the Spanish con- quest the greater part of what is now Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile had come under the sway of the Incas, the "people of the sun." The Inca power centered in the Peruvian city of Cuzco and on the shores 320 Geographical Discovery and Colonization of Lake Titicaca, which lies twelve thousand feet above sea- level. In this region of magnificent scenery the traveler views with astonishment the ruins of vast edifices, apparently never completed, which were raised either by the Incas or the Indians whom they conquered and displaced. The Incas displayed great skill in the manual arts; they were expert goldsmiths, silversmiths, and potters; while as cultivators and engineers they surpassed their European conquerors. 122. Spanish Explorations and Conquests in America The discoverers of the New World were naturally the pioneers in its exploration. The first object of the Spaniards had been Objects of trade with the Indies, and for a number of years, the Spaniards ^J^|-jl Magellan's voyage, they sought vainly for a passage through the mainland to the Spice Islands. When, however, the Spaniards learned that America was rich in de- posits of gold and silver, these metals formed the principal object of their explorations. The Spaniards at first had confined their settlements to the Greater Antilles in the West Indies,^ but after the gold of these Ponce de islands was exhausted, they began to penetrate the Leon and mainland. In 15 13 Ponce de Leon, who had Balboa, 1513 i^^^^ ^-^j^ Columbus on his second voyage, dis- covered the country which he named Florida. It became the first Spanish possession in North America. In the same year Vasco Nunez de Balboa, from the isthmus of Panama, sighted the Pacific. He entered its waters, sword in hand, and took formal possession in the name of the king of Spain. The overthrow of the Aztec power was accomplished by Hernando Cortes, with the aid of Indian alhes. Many large Conquest towns and half a thousand villages, together of Mexico, ^j^j^ immense quantities of treasure, fell into the 1519-1521, , , , , ^ Tx i- , TiT • and Peru, hands of the conquerors. Henceforth Mexico, or 1531-1537 '^New Spain," became the most important Spanish possession in America. Francisco Pizarro, who invaded Peru 1 Cuba, Hispaniola (now divided between the republics of Haiti and Santo Do- mingo), Porto Rico, and Jamaica. Spanish Explorations and Conquests in America 321 with a handful of soldiers, succeeded in overthrowing the Incas. Pizarro founded in Peru the city of Lima. It replaced Cuzco as the capital of the country and formed the seat of the Spanish government in South America. The Spaniards, during the earlier part of the sixteenth cen- tury, heard much of a fabled king whom they called El Dorado. ^ This kinff, it was said, used to smear himself with ^, _ ^' ' . , El Dorado gold dust at an annual religious ceremony. In . time the idea arose that somewhere in South America existed a fabled country marvelously rich in precious metals and gems. These stories stirred the imagination of the Spaniards, who fitted out many expeditions to find the gilded man and his gilded realm. The quest for El Dorado opened up the valleys of the Amazon and Orinoco and the extensive forest region east of the Andes. Spanish explorers also tried to find El Dorado in North America. De Soto's expedition led to the discovery of the Mississippi in 1541, and Coronado's search for the ''Seven Cities of Cibola" not only added greatly to geographical knowledge of the Southwest, but also resulted in the extension of Spanish dominion over this part of the American ^ Spanish for the "gilded one." 322 Geographical Discovery and Colonization continent. About 1605 the Spaniards founded Santa Fe and made it the capital of their government in New Mexico. 123. The Spanish Colonial Empire The wonderful exploits of the conquistadores (conquerors) laid the foundations of the Spanish colonial empire. This in- Spain in cluded Florida, New Mexico, California, Mexico, the New Central America, the West Indies, and all South °^ America except Brazil.^ The rule of Spain over these dominions lasted nearly three hundred years. During this time she gave her language, her government, and her religion to hah the New World. The Spaniards brought few women with them and hence had to find their wives among the Indians. Intermarriage Intermar- of the two peoples early became common. The riage of result was the mixed race which one still finds Spaniards and throughout the greater part of Spanish America. Indians jj^ ^j^js race the Indian strain predominates, be- cause almost everywhere the aborigines were far more numer- ous than the white settlers. The Spaniards treated the Indians of the West Indies most harshly and forced them to work in gold mines and on sugar Treatment plantations. The hard labor, to which the In- of the dians were unaccustomed, broke down their health, *^^ and almost the entire native population disap- peared within a few years after the coming of the whites. This terrible tragedy was not repeated on the mainland, for the Spanish government stepped in to preserve the aborigines from destruction. It prohibited their enslavement and gave them the protection of humane laws. Though these laws were not always well enforced, the Indians of Mexico and Peru prospered under Spanish rule and often engaged in agri- culture, trade, and industry. The Spaniards succeeded in winning many of the Indians to ^ The Philippines, discovered by Magellan in 1521, also belonged to Spain, though by the demarcation line these islands lay within the Portuguese sphere of influence. The Spanish Colonial Empire 323 Christianity. Devoted monks penetrated deep into the wilder- ness and brought to the aborigines, not only the conversion Christian religion, but also European civilization, of the In many places the natives were gathered into permanent villages, or ''missions," each one with its church and ^^yX^f^. llJEW FRANCE k-^ ^^^^^^^^-^^-^ Sffi -U(^^^^^yr^l.yZ<^=^^^>i^J^^'^ WORLD ^^^^^^g: g^/;^^e/W^i^^,^,^^^^^^^^^^; An Early Map of the New World (1540 a.d.) school. Converts who learned to read and write sometimes became priests or entered the monastic orders. The monks also took much interest in the material welfare of the Indians and taught them how to farm, how to build houses, and how to spin and weave and cook by better methods than their own. The most familiar examples of the Spanish missions are those in the state of CaKfornia. During the last quarter of the eighteenth century Franciscan friars erected many ^j^^ Qg^i- mission stations along the Pacific coast from San fornia Diego to San Francisco. The stations were con- "^^^^^^^ nected by the "King's Road," ^ which still remains the principal 1 In Spanish El Camino Real. 324 Geographical Discovery and Colonization highway of the state. Some of the mission buildings now He in ruins and others have entirely disappeared. But such a well- preserved structure as the mission of Santa Barbara recalls a Benedictine monastery, with its • shady cloisters, secluded courtyard, and timbered roof covered with red tiles. It is a bit of the Old World transplanted to the New. The civihzing work of Spain in the New World is sometimes forgotten. Here were the earUest American hospitals and s • h- asylums, for the use of Indians and negroes as American well as of Spaniards. Here were the earUest civiUzation American schools and colleges. Twelve institu- tions of higher learning, all modeled upon the university of Salamanca, arose in Spanish America during the colonial period. Eight of these came into existence before the foundation of Harvard University, the oldest in the United States. The pioneer printing press in the Western Hemisphere was set up at Mexico City in 1535; no printing press reached the English colonies till more than one hundred years later. To the valu- able books by Spanish scholars we owe much of our knowledge of the Mayas, Aztecs, and other Indian tribes. The first Ameri- can newspaper was published at Mexico City in 1693. The fine arts also flourished in the Spanish colonies, and architects of the United States have now begun to copy the beautiful churches and public buildings of Mexico and Peru. The government of Spain administered its colonial dominions in the spirit of monopoly. As far as possible it excluded French, S anish English, and other foreigners from trading with colonial Spanish America. It also discouraged ship-build- poUcy -^g^ manufacturing, and even the cultivation of the vine and the olive, lest the colonists should compete with home industries. The colonies were regarded only as a work- shop for the production of the precious metals and raw materials. This unwise policy partly accounts for the economic back- wardness of Mexico, Peru, and other Spanish- American countries. Frequent revolutions during the past century also retarded their progress. It is only within recent times that their rich natural resources have begun to be utilized. English and French Explorations in America 325 124. English and French Explorations in America The English based their claim to the right to colonize North America on the discoveries of John Cabot, an Italian mariner in the service of the Tudor king, Henry VII. In 1497 ^he Cabot Cabot sailed from Bristol voyages, across the northern Atlan- ^^^'^~^^^^ tic and made land somewhere between Labrador and Nova Scotia. The fol- lowing year he seems to have under- taken a second voyage and to have explored the coast of North America nearly as far as Florida. Cabot, like Columbus, beheved that he had reached Cathay and the dominions of the Great Khan. Because Cabot found neither gold nor opportunities for profitable trade, his expeditions were considered a failure, and for a long time the English took no further interest in exploring the New World. The discovery by Magellan of a strait leading into the Pacific aroused Cabot Memorial Tower hope that a similar pas- cartier's sage, beyond the regions voyages, controlled by Spain, might exist in North America. In 1534 the French king, Francis I, sent Jacques Cartier to look for it. Cartier found the gulf and river which he named after St. Lawrence, and also tried to establish a settlement near where Quebec now stands. The venture was not successful, and the French did not undertake the colonization of Canada until the first decade of the seventeenth century. English sailors also sought a road to India by the so-called Northwest Passage. It was soon found to be an impracticable Erected at Bristol, England, in memory of John Cabot and his sons. The foundation stone was laid on June 24, iSgy, the four- hundredth anniversary of John Cabot's first sight of the continent of North America. 326 Geographical Discovery and Colonization route, for during half the year the seas were frozen and during ^, the other half they were filled with icebergs. Northwest However, the search for the Northwest Passage Passage added much to geographical knowledge. The names Frobisher Bay, Davis Strait, and Baffin Land still pre- serve the memory of the navigators who first explored the channels leading into the Arctic Ocean. When the Enghsh reahzed how little profit was to be gained by voyages to the cold and desolate north, they turned southward to warmer waters. Here, of course, they came upon the Spaniards, who had no dis- position to share The English with " sea dogs" for- eigners the profit- able trade of the New World. Though England and Spain were not at war, the English "sea dogs," as they English Battleship of the Sixteenth Century The Great Harry, built by Henry Mil. After an old print. called themselves, did not scruple to ravage the Spanish colonies and to capture the huge, clumsy treasure-ships carrying gold and silver to Spain. The most famous of the ''sea dogs,'* Sir Francis Drake, was the first EngUshman to sail round the world (1577-1580). Four years after Drake had completed his voyage, another The Raleigh EngHsh seaman, Sir Walter Raleigh, sent out an expedition to find a good site for a settlement in North America. The explorers reached the coast colonies. 1584-1590 The Old World and the New 327 of North Carolina and returned with glowing accounts of the country, which was named Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen." But Raleigh's colonies in Virginia failed miserably, and the EngUsh made no further attempt to settle there until the reign of James I, early in the seventeenth centurv. 125. The Old World and the New The New World contained two virgin continents, very rich in natural resources and capable of extensive colonization. The native peoples, comparatively few in number Expansion and barbarian in culture, could not offer much ®^ Europe resistance to the explorers, missionaries, traders, and colo- nists from the Old World. The Spanish and Portuguese in the sixteenth century, followed by the French, English, and Dutch in the seventeenth century, repeopled America and brought to it European civilization. Europe expanded into a Greater Europe beyond the ocean. In the Middle Ages the Mediterranean and the Baltic had been the principal highways of commerce. The discovery of America, followed immediately by the opening of shifting of the Cape route to the Indies, shifted commercial *^*^® routes activity from these inclosed seas to the Atlantic Ocean. Venice, Genoa, Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bruges gradually gave way, as trading centers, to Lisbon and Cadiz, Bordeaux and Cherbourg, Antwerp and Amsterdam, London and Liverpool. One may say, therefore, that the year 1492 inaugurated the Atlantic period of European history. The time may come, perhaps even now it is dawning, when the Pacific will assume almost as much importance as the Atlantic in the commerce of the world. The discovery of America revealed to Europeans a new source of the precious metals. The Spaniards soon secured large quantities of gold by plundering the Indians increased of Mexico and Peru of their stored-up wealth, production of the The output of silver much exceeded that of gold precious as soon as the Spaniards began to work the ^^^^^ wonderfully rich silver mines of Potosi in Bolivia. It is esti- mated that, by the end of the sixteenth century, the American 328 Geographical Discovery and Colonization mines had produced at least three times as much gold and silver as had been current in Europe at the beginning of the century. The Spaniards could not keep this new treasure. Having few industries themselves, they were obliged to send it out, as fast as they received it, in payment for their quences of imports of European goods. Spain acted as a the enlarged Yi^ge sieve through which the gold and silver of America entered all the countries of Europe. Money, now more plentiful, purchased far less than in former times; in other words, the prices of all commodities rose, wages advanced, and manufacturers and traders had additional capital to use in their undertakings. The Middle Ages had suffered from the lack of sufficient money with which to do business; ^ from the beginning of modern times the world has been better supplied with the indispensable medium of exchange. But America was much more than a treasury of the precious metals. Many commodities, hitherto unknown, soon found j^g^ their way from the New World to the Old. Among commodities these were maize, the potato, which, when culti- importe vated in Europe, became the "bread of the poor," chocolate and cocoa made from the seeds of the cacao tree, Peruvian bark, or quinine, so useful in malarial fevers, cochineal, the dye-woods of Brazil, and the mahogany of the West Indies. America also sent large supplies of cane-sugar, molasses, fish, whale-oil, and furs. The use of tobacco, which Columbus first observed among the Indians, spread rapidly over Europe and thence extended to Africa and Asia. These new American products became common articles of consumption and so raised the standard of living in European countries. To the economic effects of the discoveries must be added their effects on politics. The Atlantic Ocean now formed, not only the commercial, but also the political center of the effects of world. The Atlantic-facing countries, first Portu- the dis- gal and Spain, then Holland, France, and England, COVeneS f , r t- rr^l • ^ j became the great powers of Europe. Their trade * See page 235. The Old World and the New 329 rivalries and contests for colonial possessions have been potent causes of European wars for the last four hundred years. The sixteenth century in Europe was the age of that revolt against the Roman Church called the Protestant Reformation. During this period, however, the Church won her victories over the American aborigines. What she the discov- lost of territory, wealth, and influence in Europe was ®"f ^ "P®° more than offset by what she gained in America. ^°^ Furthermore, the region now occupied by the United States furnished in the seventeenth century an asylum from religious persecution, as was proved when Puritans settled in New England, Roman Catholics in Maryland, and Quakers in Penn- sylvania. The vacant spaces of America offered plenty of room for all who would worship God in their own way. The New World became a refuge from the intolerance of the Old. Studies I. On an outline map indicate those parts of the world known in the time of Columbus (before 1492). 2. On an outline map indicate the voyages of discovery of Vasco da Gama, Columbus (first voyage), John Cabot, and Magellan. 3. What particular discoveries were made by Cartier, Drake, Balboa, De Soto, Ponce de Leon, and Coronado? 4. Why has Marco Polo been called the "Columbus of the East Indies"? 5. On the map between pages 234-235 trace Marco Polo's route. 6. " Cape Verde not only juts out into the Atlantic, but stands forth as a promon- tory in human history." Comment on this statement. 7. How did Vasco da Gama complete the work of Prince Henry the Navigator? 8. Show that Lisbon in the sixteenth century was the commercial successor of Venice. 9. "Had Colum- bus perished in mid-ocean, it is doubtful whether America would have remained long undiscovered." Comment on this statement. 10. Why did no one suggest that the New World be called after Columbus? 11. Show that Magellan achieved what Columbus planned. 12. Why did Balboa call the Pacific the "South Sea"? 13. Why is Roman law followed in all Spanish- American countries? 14. In what parts of the world is Spanish still the common language? 15. Why did the Ger- mans fail to take part in the work of discovery and colonization? 16. Show that the three words "gospel, glory, and gold" sum up the principal motives of Euro- pean colonization in the sixteenth century. 17. Compare the motives which led to the colonization of the New World with those which led to Greek colonization. 18. "The struggle for the Spice Islands of the East is the key that unlocks the mysteries of the European political contests of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries." Comment on this statement. 19. "The opening of the Atlantic to continuous exploration is the most momentous step in the history of man's occu- pation of the earth." Does this statement seem to be justified? CHAPTER XV THE REFORMATION AND THE RELIGIOUS WARS, 1517-1648 1 126. Decline of the Papacy The Papacy, victorious in the long struggle with the Holy Roman Empire, reached during the thirteenth century the height of its temporal power. The popes at this The Papacy . ^ . . . • • tt t-u in the time were the greatest sovereigns in Europe, iney thirteenth ruled a large part of Italy, had great influence ry .^ ^^^ affairs of France, England, Spain, and other countries, and in Germany named and deposed em- perors. From their capital at Rome they sent forth legates to every European court and issued laws binding on western Christendom. The universal dominion of the Church proved useful and even necessary in feudal times, when kings were weak and nobles were strong. The Church of the early between Middle Ages served as the chief unifying force in Chtirch and Europe. When, however, the kings had repressed feudalism, they took steps to extend their author- ity over the Church as well. They tried, therefore, to restrict the privileges of ecclesiastical courts, to impose taxes on the clergy as on their own subjects, and to dictate the appoint- ment of bishops and abbots to office. This policy naturally led to much friction between popes and kings, between Church and State. The Papacy put forth its most extensive claims under Boniface VIII. The character of these claims is shown by two bulls 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxiii, "Martin Luther and the Beginning of the Reformation"; chapter xxiv, "England in the Age of Elizabeth." 330 Decline of the Papacy 331 which he issued. The first forbade all laymen, under penalty of excommunication, to collect taxes on Church _ _ 11,, 1 rr^, , Pontificate lands, and all clergymen to pay them. The second of Boniface announced in unmistakable terms both the spiritual ^^^^' 1294- ^ 1303 and the temporal supremacy of the popes. "Submission to the Roman pontiff," declared Boniface, "is altogether necessary to salvation for every human creature." Boniface had employed the exalted language of Gregory VII in dealing with Henry IV, but he found an opponent in a mon- arch m'ore resolute and resourceful than any Holy Boniface Roman Emperor. This was Philip the Fair,^ and Philip king of France. Philip answered the first bull by refusing to allow any gold and silver to be exported from France to Italy. The pope, thus deprived of valuable revenues, gave way and acknowledged that the French ruler had a Umited right to tax the clergy. Another dispute soon arose, however, as the result of Philip's imprisonment and trial of an obnoxious papal legate. Angered by this action, Boniface prepared to excommunicate the king and depose him from the throne. Philip retaliated by calling together the Estates-General and asking their support for the preservation of the "ancient liberty of France." The nobles, the clergy, and the Third Estate rallied around Philip, accused the pope of heresy and tyranny, and declared that the French king was subject to God alone. The last act of the drama was soon played. Philip sent his emissaries into Italy to arrest the pope and bring him to trial before a general council in France. At Anagni, Anagni, near Rome, a band of hireling soldiers stormed the ^^^^ papal palace and made Boniface a prisoner. The citizens of Anagni soon freed him, but the shock of the humihation broke the old man's spirit and he died soon afterwards. The poet Dante, in the Divine Comedy, speaks with awe of the outrage: "Christ had been again crucified among robbers; and the vinegar and gall had been again pressed to his lips." ^ The historian sees in this event the end of the temporal power of the Papacy. 1 See page 210. * Purgatorio, xx, 88-90. 332 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars Soon after the death of Boniface, Philip succeeded in having the archbishop of Bordeaux chosen as head of the Church. The new pope removed the papal court to Avignon, "Babylonian a town just outside the French frontier of those Captivity," days. The popes Uved in Avignon for nearly seventy years. This period is usually described as the ''Babylonian Captivity" of the Church, a name which recalls the exile of the Jews from their native land. The The Great Schism, 1378-1417 a.d. long absence of the popes from Rome lessened their power, and the suspicion that they were the mere vassals of the French crown seriously impaired the respect in which they had been held. Following the ''Babylonian Captivity" came the "Great Schism." Shortly after the return of the papal court to Rome, Decline of the Papacy 333 an Italian was elected pope as Urban VI. The cardinals in the French interest refused to accept him, de- clared his election void, and named Clement VII as V^f^. " ^f®** pope. Clement withdrew to Avignon, while Urban 1378-1417 remained in Rome. Western Christendom could not decide which one to obey. Some countries declared for Urban, while other countries accepted Clement. The spectacle of two rival popes, each holding himself out as the only true successor of St. Peter, continued for nearly forty years and injured the Papacy more than anything else that had happened to it. The schism in western Christendom was finally healed at the Council of Constance. There were three ''phantom popes" at this time, but they were all deposed in favor of council of a new pontiff, Martin V. The CathoHc world now Constance, had a single head, but it was not easy to revive i^-^^i^ the former loyalty to him as God's vicar on earth. The Papacy became henceforth more and more an Italian power. The popes no longer strove to be the leaders in European pohtics and gave their chief attention ^.^^ to the States of the Church. A number of the Renaissance popes took much interest in the Renaissance p^^®® movement and became its enthusiastic patrons. They kept up splendid courts, collected manuscripts, paintings, and statues, and erected magnificent palaces and churches in Rome. Some European peoples, especially in Germany, looked askance at such luxury and begrudged the heavy taxes which were neces- sary to support it. This feeling against the papacy also helped to provoke the Reformation. The worldHness of some of the popes was too often reflected in the lives of the lesser clergy. Throughout the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries the Church complaints encountered much criticism from reformers. Thus against the the famous humanist, Erasmus, wrote his Praise ^^^^^ of Folly to expose the vices and temporal ambitions of bishops and monks, the foolish speculations of theologians, and the ex- cessive reliance which common people had on pilgrimages, 334 The Reformation and the Religious Wars festivals, relics, and other aids to devotion. So great was the demand for this work that it went through twenty-seven large editions during the author's lifetime. Erasmus and others like him were loyal sons of the Church, but they believed that they could best serve her interests by effecting her reform. Some men went further, however, and demanded wholesale changes in Catholic belief and worship. These men were the heretics. 127. Heresies and Heretics During the first centuries of our era, when the Christians had formed a forbidden sect, they claimed toleration on the Persecution ground that religious behef is voluntary and not of heretics something which can be enforced by law. This view changed after Christianity triumphed in the Roman Empire and enjoyed the support, instead of the opposition, of the government. The Church, backed by the State, no longer advocated freedom of conscience, but began to persecute people who held heretical beliefs.^ It is difficult for those who live in an age of religious tolera- tion to understand the horror which heresy inspired in the Middle Ages. A heretic was a traitor to the Medieval . attitude Church, for he denied the doctrines believed to be toward essential to salvation. It seemed a Christian duty to compel the heretic to recant, lest he imperil his eternal welfare. If he persisted in his impious course, then the earth ought to be rid of one who was a source of danger to the faithful and an enemy of the Almighty. Although executions for heresy had occurred as early as the fourth century, for a long time milder penalites were usually Punishment inflicted. The heretic might be exiled, or im- of heresy prisoned, or deprived of his property and his rights as a citizen. The death penalty was seldom invoked by the Church before the thirteenth century. Since ecclesiastical law forbade the Church to shed blood, the State stepped in to seize the heretic and put him to death, most often by fire. ■ We must remember that in medieval times cruel punishments were 1 See page 47. Heresies and Heretics 335 imposed for even slight offenses, and hence men saw nothing wrong in inflicting the worst of punishments for what was re- garded as the worst of crimes. In spite of all measures of repression, heretics were not un- common during the later Middle Ages. Some heretical move- ments spread over entire communities. The most The important was that of the Albigenses, so called Aibigenses from the town of Albi in southern France, where many of them lived. Their doctrines are not well known, but they seem to have believed in the existence of two gods — one good (whose son was Christ), the other evil (whose son was Satan). The Albigenses even set up a rival church, with its priests, bishops, and councils. The failure of attempts to convert the Albigenses by peaceful means led the pope, Innocent III,^ to preach a crusade against them. Those who entered upon it were promised the usual privileges of crusaders.^ A series of against the bloody wars now followed, in the course of which ^^^^20^* thousands of men, women, and children perished. But the Albigensian sect did not entirely disappear for more than a century, and then only after numberless trials and executions for heresy. The followers of Peter Waldo, who lived in the twelfth cen- tury, made no effort to set up a new religion in Europe. They objected, however, to certain practices of the The Church, such as masses for the dead and the Waidenses invocation of saints. They also condemned the luxury of the clergy and urged that Christians should live like the Apostles, charitable and poor. For the Waidenses the Bible was a suffi- cient guide to the reHgious life, and so they translated parts of the Scriptures and allowed every one to preach, without distinc- tion of age, or rank, or sex. The Waidenses spread through many European countries, but being poor and lowly men they did not exert much influence as reformers. The sect survived severe persecution and now forms a branch of the Protestant Church in Italy. 1 See page 157. =^ See page 164. 336 Heresies and Heretics John Wycliffe, 1320-1384 Beliefs very similar to those of the Waldenses were enter- tained by John Wycliffe/ master of an Oxford college and a popular preacher. He, too, appealed from the authority of the Church to the authority of the Bible. With the assistance of two friends Wycliffe produced the first Enghsh translation of the Scriptures. Man- uscript copies of the work had a large circulation, until the government sup- pressed it. Wycliffe was not molested in life, but the Council of Constance denounced his teaching and ordered that his bones should be dug up, burned, and cast into a stream. Wycliffe had organized bands of "poor priests" The to spread the LoUards simple truths of the Bible through all England. They went out, staff in hand and clad in long, russet gowns, and preached to the common people in the English language, wherever an audience could be found. The Lollards, as Wycliffe's followers were known, not only attacked many behefs and practices of the Church, but also demanded social reforms. For instance, they declared that all wars were sinful and were but plundering and murdering the poor to win glory for kings. The Lollards had to endure much persecution for heresy. Nevertheless their work lived on and sowed in England and Scotland the seeds of the Reformation. John Wycliffe A small woodcut from a book published in 1548. The oldest known picture of Wycliffe and possibly reproduced from a contemporary sketch of him. He is represented preaching or lecturing from a pulpit. Or Wyclif . Martin Luther and the Reformation 337 The doctrines of Wycliffe found favor with Anne of Bohemia, wife of King Richard 11/ and through her they reached that country. Here they attracted the attention of John Huss, John Huss,^ a distinguished scholar in the uni- ^^"^^ (?)-i4i5 versity of Prague. WycHife's writings confirmed Huss in his criticism of many doctrines of the Church. He attacked the clergy in sermons and pamphlets and also objected to the supremacy of the pope. The sentence of excommunication pronounced against him did not shake his reforming zeal. Huss was finally cited to appear before the Council of Con- stance, then in session. Relying on the safe conduct given hun by the German emperor, he appeared before the council, only to be declared guilty of teaching ''many things evil, scandalous, seditious, and dangerously heretical." The em- peror then violated the safe conduct — no promise made to a heretic was considered binding — and allowed Huss to be burnt outside the walls of Constance. The flames which burned Huss set all Bohemia afire. The Bohemians, a Slavic people, regarded him as a national hero and made his martyrdom an excuse for rebelling The Hussite against the Holy Roman Empire. The Hussite ^^^ wars, which followed, thus formed a political rather than a religious struggle. The Bohemians did not gain freedom, and their country until recently remained a Hapsburg possession. But the sense of nationalism continued to exist there, and Bohemia in our time has become an independent state. m 128. Martin Luther and the Beginning of the Reformation in Germany, 1517-1522 Though there were many reformers before the Reformation, the beginning of that movement is "rightly associated with the name of Martin Luther. He was the son of a Martin German peasant, who, by industry and frugality, Luther, had won a small competence. Thanks to his father's self-sacrifice, Luther enjoyed a good education in scholastic philosophy at the university of Erfurt. Having ^ See page 300. * Or Hus. 338 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars taken the degrees of bachelor and master of arts, Luther began to study law, but an acute sense of his sinfulness and a desire to save his soul soon drove him into a monastery. There he read the Bible and the writings of the Church Fathers and found at last the peace of mind he sought. A few years later Luther paid a visit to Rome, which opened his eyes to the worldliness and general laxity of life in the capital of the Papacy. He returned to Germany and became a professor of theology in the university of Witten- berg, newly founded by Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony. Luther's ser- mons and lectures at- tracted large audiences; students began to flock to Wittenberg; and the elec- tor grew proud of the rising young teacher who Martin Luther was making his university A portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder of Luther lamOUS. in 1526. Now in the possession of Richard voa g^t Luther WaS SOOn tO Kaufmann, Berlin. - , . , . emerge from his academic retirement and to become, quite unintentionally, a reformer. Tetzel and In 1517 there came into the neighborhood of indulgences Wittenberg a Dominican friar named Tetzel, granting indulgences for the erection of the new St. Peter's at Rome.i An indulgence, according to the teaching of the Church, formed a remission of the, temporal punishment, or penance,^ due to sin, if the sinner had expressed his repentance and had promised to atone for his misdeeds. Indulgences were granted for participation in crusades, pilgrimages, and other good works. Later on they were granted for money, which was expected to be applied to some pious purpose. Many of the German 1 See page 151. ^ See page 139. Martin Luther and the Reformation 339 princes opposed this method of raising funds for the Church, because it took so much money out of their dominions. Huss and Erasmus had also condemned them on reUgious grounds. Luther began his reforming career by an attack upon indul- gences. He did not deny their usefulness altogether, but pointed out that they lent themselves to grave abuses. Common people, who could not under- the ninety- stand the Latin in which they were written, often five theses, thought that they wiped away the penalties of sin, even without true repentance. Luther set forth his criticisms in ninety-five theses or propositions, which he offered to de- fend against all opponents. In accordance with the custom of medieval scholars, Luther posted the theses on the door of the church at Wittenberg, where all might see them. They were composed in Latin, but were at once translated into German, printed, and spread broadcast over Germany. Their effect was so great that before long the granting of indulgences in that country almost ceased. The scholarly critic of indulgences soon passed into an open foe of the Papacy. Luther found that his theological views bore a close resemblance to those of Wycliffe Buying of and Huss, yet he refused to give them up as the papal heretical. Instead, he wrote three bold pam- phlets, in one of which he appealed to the "Christian nobility of the German nation" to rally together against Rome. The pope, at first, had paid little attention to the controversy about indulgences, declaring it ''a mere squabble of monks," but he now issued a bull against Luther, ordering him to recant within sixty days or be excommunicated. The papal bull did not frighten Luther or withdraw fron^ him popular support. He burnt it in the market square of Wittenberg, in the presence of a concourse of students and townsfolk. This dramatic answer to the pope deeply stirred all Germany. The next scene of the Reformation was staged at Worms, at an important assembly, or Diet, of the Holy Roman Empire. The Diet summoned Luther to appear before it for examina- tion, and the emperor, Charles V, gave him a safe conduct. 340 The Reformation and the Religious Wars Luther's friends, remembering the treatment of Huss, advised Diet of ^^^ ^^^ ^^ accept the summons, but he declared Worms, that he would enter Worms "in the face of the gates of hell and the powers of the air." In the great hall of the Diet Luther bravely faced the princes, nobles, and clergy of Germany. He refused to retract anything he had written, unless his statements could be shown to con- tradict the Bible. "It is neither right nor safe to act against conscience," Luther said. "God help me. Amen." Only one thing remained to do with Luther. He was ordered to return to Wittenberg and there await the imperial edict declaring him a heretic and outlaw. But the the Wart- elector of Saxony, who feared for Luther's safety, burg, 1521- 1^0^^ j^jj^ carried off secretly to the castle of the 1522 Wartburg. Luther remained here for nearly a year, engaged upon a German translation of the New Testa- ment. There had been many earlier translations into German, but Luther's was the first from the Greek original. His version, simple, forcible, and easy to understand, enjoyed wide popu- larity and helped to fix for Germans the form of their Hterary language. Luther afterwards completed a translation of the entire Bible, which the printing press multiplied in thousands of copies throughout Germany. Though still under the ban of the empire, Luther left the Wartburg in 1522 and returned to Wittenberg. He lived Luther's there, unmolested, until his death, twenty-four leadership years later. During this time he flooded the country with pamphlets, wrote innumerable letters, composed many fine hymns,^ and prepared a catechism, "a right Bible," said he, "for the laity." Lu then- in this way became the guide and patron of the reformatory movement which he had started. ^ His hymn Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott ("A mighty fortress is our God") has been called "the Marseillaise of the Reformation." Charles V and the German Reformation 341 129. Charles V and the Spread of the German Reformation, 1519-1556 The young man who as Holy Roman Emperor presided at the Diet of Worms had assumed the imperial crown only two years previously. A namesake of Charlemagne, ru 1 x, /^u 1 17- 1- ij 1 • . Charles V, Lnarles V held sway over dommions even more emperor, extensive than those which had belonged to the ^^^^"^556 Prankish king. Through his mother, a daughter of Ferdmand and Isabella,^ he inherited Spain, Naples, Sicily, Sar- dinia, and the Spanish possessions in the New World. Through his father, a son of the em- peror Maximilian I, he received the Netherlands and the extensive posses- sions of the Hapsburgs in central Europe. Charles was thus the most power- ful monarch of his time. Charles, as a devout Roman Catholic, had no sympathy for charles V the Reforma- and the tion. At ^""^^'^^ Worms, on the day fol- lowing Luther's refusal to recant, the emperor had expressed his determina- tion to stake "all his dominions, his friends, his body and blood, his life and soul" upon the extinction of the Lutheran heresy. This might have been an easy task, had Charles undertaken it at once. But a revolt in Spain, wars with the French king, Francis I, and conflicts with the Ottoman Turks * See page 217. Charles V Pinakothek, Munich A portrait of the emperor at the age of forty- eight, by the Venetian painter, Titian 342 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars led to his long absence from Germany and kept him from pro- ceeding effectively against the Lutherans, until it was too late. The Reformation in Germany made a wide appeal. To patriotic Germans it seemed a revolt against a foreign power — Tjjg the Italian Papacy. To men of pious mind it "Reformed offered the attractions of a simple faith which gion ^^^j^ ^j^^ Bible as the rule of life. Worldly-minded princes saw in it an opportunity to despoil the Church of lands and revenues. Luther's teachings, accordingly, found ac- ceptance among many people. Priests married, Luther him- self setting the example, monks left their monasteries, and the "Reformed Religion" took the place of Roman Catholicism in most parts of northern and central Germany. South Germany, however, did not fall away from the pope and has remained Roman Catholic to the present time. Though Germany had now divided into two religious parties, the legal position of Lutheranism remained for a long time in Tijg doubt. One Diet tried to shelve the question by Protestants, allowing each German state to conduct its re- ligious affairs as it saw fit. But at another Diet, held in 1529, a majority of the assembled princes decided that the Edict of Worms against Luther and his followers should be enforced. The Lutheran princes at once issued a vigorous protest against such action. Because of this protest those who separated from the Roman Church came to be called Protestants. It was not until the year of Luther's death that Charles V felt his hands free to suppress the rising tide of Protestantism. Peace of ^^^ Lutheran princes by this time had formed a Augsburg, league for mutual protection. Charles brought Spanish troops into Germany and tried to break up the league by force. Civil war raged till 1555, when both sides agreed to the Peace of Augsburg. It was a compromise. The ruler of each state — Germany then contained over three hundred states — was to decide whether his subjects should be Lutherans or Catholics. The peace thus failed to establish religious toleration, since all Germans had to beUeve as their princes believed. However, it recognized Lutheranism as a The Reform in Switzerland 343 legal religion and ended the attempts to crush the German Reformation. Meanwhile, Luther's doctrines spread into Scandinavian lands. The rulers of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden closed the monasteries and compelled the Roman CathoHc Lutheranism bishops to surrender ecclesiastical property to the in Scandi- crown. Lutheranism became henceforth the of- °*^* ficial rehgion of these three countries.^ 130. The Reformation in Switzerland; Zwingli and Calvin The Reformation in Switzerland began with the work of Zwingli. He was the contemporary, but not the disciple of Luther. From his pulpit in the cathedral of Huldreich Zurich, Zwingli proclaimed the Scriptures as the ZwingU, sole guide of faith and denied the supremacy of the pope. Many of the Swiss cantons accepted his teaching and broke away from obedience to Rome. Civil war soon fol- lowed between Protestants and Roman Catholics, and Zwingli fell in the struggle. After his death the two parties made a peace which allowed each canton to determine its own rehgion. Switzerland has continued to this day to be part Roman Catholic and part Protestant. The Protestants in Switzer- land soon found another leader in John Calvin, a john Calvin, Frenchman who 1509-1564 settled in Geneva. His most important work was the Institutes of the Christian Religion, which set forth in an orderly, logical manner the main prin- ciples of Protestant theology. Calvin also translated the Bible John Calvin After an old print 1 In Finland, which formerly belonged to Sweden (see page loo), nearly all the inhabitants are Lutherans. 344 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars into French and wrote valuable commentaries on nearly all the Scriptural books. Calvin at Geneva was sometimes called the Protestant pope. During his long residence there he governed the people with a Calvin at rod of iron. There were no more festivals, no Geneva j^ore theaters, no more dancing, music, and mas- querades. All the citizens had to attend two sermons on Sun- day and to yield at least a lip-assent to the reformer's doc- trines. On a few occasions Calvin pro- ceeded to terrible ex- tremities, as when he caused the Spanish physician, Michael Servetus, to be burned to death, be- cause of heretical views concerning the Trinity. Never- theless, Geneva pros- pered under Calvin's rule and became a Christian common- wealth, sober and industrious. That city still reveres the memory of the man who founded her university and made her, as it were, the sanctuary of the Reformation. Calvin's influence was not confined to Geneva or even to Switzerland. The men whom he trained and on whom he set Diffusion of the Stamp of his stern, earnest, God-fearing char- Calvinism a^(>^gj. spread Calvinism over a great part of Europe. In Holland and Scotland it became the prevailing type of Henry VIII After a portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger The English Reformation 345 Protestantism, and in France and England it deeply affected the national life. During the seventeenth century the Puritans carried Calvinism across the sea to New England, where it formed the dominant faith in colonial times. 131. The EngUsh Reformation, 1533-1558 The Reformation in Germany and Switzerland started as a national and popular movement; in England it began as the act of a despotic sovereign, Henry VIII. This ^^^^ yj^ second Tudor ^ was handsome, athletic, finely king, 1509- educated, and very able; but he was also selfish, ^^^^ sensual, and cruel. His father had created a strong monarchy in England by humbling both Parliament and the nobles. When Henry VIII came to the throne, the only serious obstacle in the way of royal absolutism was the Church of Rome. Henry showed himself at first a devoted Roman Catholic. He took an amateur's interest in theology and wrote with his own royal pen a book attacking Luther. The pope rewarded him with the title of "Defender of the f^^^'^ Faith," a title which English sovereigns still bear. Royalty to Henry at this time did not question the authority * ^^^^^ of the Papacy. He even chose as his chief adviser, Cardinal Wolsey, the most conspicuous ecclesiastic in the kingdom. The Church, at the beginning of Henry's reign, was still strong in England. Probably most of the people were sincerely attached to it. Still, the labors of WycHffe and the Lollards had weakened the hold of the Church fov^th?^'''' upon the masses, while Erasmus and the Oxford English scholars who worked with him, by their criticism of ^ o"^*^®^ ecclesiastical abuses, had done much to undermine its influence with the intellectual classes. In England, as on the Continent, the worldliness of the Church prepared the way for the Reformation. The actual separation from Rome arose out of Henry's matrimonial difficulties. He had married a Spanish princess, Catherine of Aragon, the aunt of the emperor Charles V ^ See page 214. 346 The Reformation and the ReUgious Wars and widow of Henry's older brother. The marriage required a Henry an dispensation ^ from the pope, because canon law Catherine forbade a man to wed his brother's widow. After of Aragon living happily with Catherine for eighteen years, Henry suddenly announced his conviction that the union was sinful. This, of course, formed simply a pretext for the divorce which Henry desired. Of his children by Catherine only a daughter survived, but Henry wished to have a son succeed him on the throne. Moreover, he had grown tired of Catherine and had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, a pretty maid-in- waiting at the court. Henry first tried to secure the pope's consent to the divorce. The pope did not hke to set aside the dispensation granted by The divorce, his predecessor, nor did he wish to offend the 1533 mighty emperor Charles V. Failing to get the papal sanction, Henry obtained his divorce from an Enghsh court presided over by Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of Canter- bury. Anne Boleyn was then proclaimed queen, in defiance of the papal bull of excommunication. Henry's next step was to procure from his subservient Parlia- ment a series of laws abolishing the pope's authority in England. Act of ^^ these, the most important was the Act of Su- Supremacy, premacy. It declared the English king to be 1534 u^i^g Qj^jy supreme head on earth of the Church of England." At the same time a new treason act imposed the death penalty on any one who called the king a "heretic, schismatic, tyrant, infidel, or usurper." The great majority of the EngUsh people seem to have accepted this new legislation without much objection; those who refused to do so perished on the scaffold. The suppression of the monasteries soon followed the separa- tion from Rome. Henry declared to Parliament that they ^jjg deserved to be abolished, because of the ''slothful monasteries and ungodly lives" led by the inmates. In some suppresse instances this accusation may have been true, but the real reason for Henry's action was his desire to crush the 1 See page 149. The English Reformation 347 monastic orders, which supported the pope, and to seize their extensive possessions. The beautiful monasteries were torn down, and the lands attached to them were sold for the benefit of the Crown or granted to Henry's favorites. The nobles who accepted this monastic wealth naturally became zealous advo- cates of Henry's anti-papal policy. Ruins of Melrose Abbey The little town of Melrose in Scotland contains the ruins of a very beautiful monastery church built about the middle of the fifteenth century. The princi- pal part of the present structure is the choir, with slender shafts, richly carved capitals, and windows of exquisite stone-tracery. The beautiful sculptures throughout the church were defaced at the time of the Reformation. The heart of Robert Bruce is interred near the site of the high altar. Though Henry VIII had broken with the Papacy, he re- mained Roman Catholic in doctrine to the day of his death. Under his successor, Edward VI, the Reformation progress made rapid progress in England. The young king's guardian allowed reformers from the Con- tinent to come to England, and the doctrines of Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin were freely preached there. All paintings, statuary, wood carvings, and stained glass were removed at this time from church edifices. The use of tapers, incense, and holy water was also discontinued. In order that religious services might be conducted in the language of the people. Archbishop Cranmer and his co-workers prepared of the Reformation under Edward VI, 1547-1553 34^ The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars the Book of Common Prayer. It consisted of translations into noble English of various parts of the old Latin service books. With some changes, it is still used in the Church of England and the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States. The short reign of Mary Tudor, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, was marked by a temporary setback to the Protestant The Catholic cause. The queen prevailed on Parliament to reaction secure a reconciliation with Rome. She also under Mary Tudor, married her Roman Catholic cousin, Philip of 1553-1558 Spain, the son of Charles V. Mary now began a severe persecution of the Protestants. It gained for her the epithet of "Bloody," but it did not succeed in stamping out heresy. Many eminent reformers perished, among them Cranmer, the former archbishop. Mary died childless, after ruling about five years, and the crown passed to Anne Boleyn's daughter, Elizabeth. Under Elizabeth Anglicanism again re- placed Roman Catholicism as the religion of England. 132. The Protestant Sects The Reformation was practically completed before the close of the sixteenth century. In 1500 the Roman Church em- Extent of braced all Europe west of Russia and the Balkan Protestantism peninsula. By 157s nearly half of its former subjects had renounced their allegiance. The greater part of Germany and Switzerland and all of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Holland, England, and Scotland became independent of the Papacy. The. unity of western Christendom, which had been preserved throughout the Middle Ages, thus disappeared and has not since been revived. The reformers agreed in substituting for the authority of popes and church councils the authority of the Bible. They Common ^ent back fifteen hundred years to the time of the features of Apostles and tried to restore what they believed to be apostolic Christianity. Hence they rejected such doctrines and practices as were supposed to have devel- oped during the Middle Ages. These included belief in purga- tory, veneration of relics, invocation of saints, devotion to the The Protestant Sects 349 Virgin, indulgences, pilgrimages, and the greater number of the sacraments. The Reformation also abolished the monastic system and priestly celibacy. The sharp distinction between clergy and laity disappeared; for priests married, lived among the people, and no longer formed a separate class. In general, Extent of the Reformation, i 524-1 572 a.d. Protestantism affirmed the ability of every man to find salvation without the aid of ecclesiastics. The Church was no longer the only "gate of heaven." But the Protestant idea of authority led inevitably to dif- ferences of opinion among the reformers. There divisions were various ways of interpreting that Bible to among which they appealed as the rule of faith and conduct. Consequently, Protestantism split up into many sects Protestants 350 The Reformation and the Religious Wars or denominations, and these have gone on muhiplying to the present day. Nearly all, however, are offshoots from the three main varieties of Protestantism which appeared in the sixteenth century. Lutheranism and Anglicanism presented some features in common. Both were state churches, supported by the govern- Lutheranism "^^nt; both had and Anglicanism a book of com- mon prayer; and both recognized the sacra- ments of baptism, the Eu- charist, and confirmation. The Church of England also kept the sacrament of ordina- tion. The Lutheran churches in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, as well as the Church of England, likewise retained the episcopate. Calvinism departed much more widely from Roman Catholicism. It did away with the episcopate and had only one order of clergy — the presbyters.! It provided for a very simple form of wor- ship. In a Calvinistic church the service consisted of Bible reading, a sermon, extemporaneous prayers, and hymns sung by the congregation. The Calvinists kept only two sacra- ments, baptism and the Eucharist. They regarded the first, however, as a simple undertaking to bring up the child in a Christian manner, and the second as merely a commemoration of the Last Supper. 1 Churches governed by assemblies of presbyters were called Presbyterian; those which allowed each congregation to rule itself were called Congregational. Calvinism Chained Bible In the Church of St. Crux, York The Catholic Counter Revolution 351 The break with Rome did not introduce religious liberty into Europe. Nothing was further from the minds of Luther, Calvin, and other reformers than the toleration of beliefs unlike their own. The early Protestant Reformation sects punished dissenters as zealously as the and freedom Roman Church punished heretics. Lutherans ^ burned the followers of Zwingli in Germany, Calvin put Serve- tus to death, and the EngKsh government, in the time of Henry VIII and Elizabeth, executed many Roman Catholics. Com- plete freedom of conscience and the right of private judgment in religion have been secured in most countries of Europe only within the last hundred years. The Reformation, however, did deepen the moral Hfe of European peoples. The faithful Protestant or Roman Catholic vied with his neighbor in trying to show that his ^^^ particular belief made for better hving than any Reformation other. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, *^ ^^^ ^ in consequence, were more earnest and serious, if also more bigoted, than the centuries of the Renaissance. 133. The Catholic Counter Reformation The rapid spread of Protestantism soon brought about a ^Catholic-Conn ter Rpfnrraa^on in those parts of Europe which remained faithful to Rome. The popes now ^^^ turned from the cultivation of Renaissance art reforming and literature to the defense of their threatened ^^P®^ faith. They made needed changes in the papal court and appointed to ecclesiastical offices men distinguished for virtue and learning. This reform of the Papacy dates from the time of Paul III, who became pope in 1534. He opened the col- lege of cardinals to Roman Cathohc reformers, even offering a seat in it to Erasmus. Still more important was his support of the famous Society of Jesus, which had been established in the year of his accession to the papal throne. The founder of the new society was a Spanish nobleman, Ignatius Loyola. He had seen a good deal of service in the wars of Charles V against the French. While in a hospital 352 The Reformation and the Religious Wars recovering from a wound, Loyola read devotional books, and St Ignatius these produced a profound change within him. He Loyola, now donned a beggar's robe, practiced all the kinds of asceticism which his books described, and went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. ^ Still later he became a student of theology at Paris, where he met the six devout and talented men who became the first members of his society. They intended to work as fnissionaries among the Moslems, but, when this plan fell through, they visited Rome and placed their energy and enthusiasm at the disposal of the pope. Loyola's mihtary training deeply affected the character of the new The Society order. The Jesuits, of Jesus as their Protestant opponents styled them, were to form an army of spiritual soldiers, living under the strictest obedience to their head, or general. Like soldiers, again, they were to re- St. Ignatius Loyola After the painting by Sanchez de Coello in the House of the Society of Jesus at Madrid. No authentic portrait main in the world and there fight manfully for the Church and of Loyola has been preserved. Coello's picture was made with the aid of a wax cast of the saint's features taken after agaiust hcreticS. The SOCicty grCW '*^*^- rapidly; before Loyola's death it included over a thousand members; and in the seventeenth century if became the most influential of all the religious orders.^ The activity of the Jesuits as preachers, confessors, teachers, and missionaries did much to roll back the rising tide of Protestantism in Europe. The Jesuits gave special attention to education, for they realized the importance of winning over the young people to 1 The pope suppressed the society in 1773, on the ground that it had outgrown its usefulness. It was revived in many European countries during the nineteenth century. The Catholic Counter Revolution 353 the Church. Their schools were so good that even Protestant children often attended them. The popularity Jesuit of Jesuit teachers arose partly from the fact schools that they ajways tried to lead, not drive their pupils. Light punishments, short lessons, many holidays, and a liberal use of prizes and other distinctions formed some of the attrac- tive features of their system of training. It is not surprising that the Jesuits became the instructors of the Roman CathoHc world. They called their colleges the "fortresses of the faith." The missions of the Jesuits were not less important than their schools. The Jesuits worked in Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, and other countries where Protestantism threat- Jesuit ened to become dominant. Then they invaded °^ssions all the lands which the great maritime discoveries of the preced- ing age had laid open to European enterprise. In India, China, the East Indies, Japan, the Philippines, Africa, and the two Americas their converts from heathenism were numbered by hundreds of thousands. The most eminent of all Jesuit missionaries, St. Francis Xavier, had belonged to Loyola's original band. He was a little, blue-eyed man, an engaging preacher, an g^ Francis excellent organizer, and possessed of so attractive Xavier, a personality that even the ruffians and pirates ^^^^^^^^ with whom he had to associate on his voyages became his friends. Xavier labored with such devotion and success in the Portuguese colonies of the Far East as to gain the title of "Apostle to the Indies." He also introduced Christianity in Japan, where it flourished until a persecuting emperor extinguished it with fire and sword. Another agency in the Counter Reformation was the great Church Council summoned by Pope Paul III. The council met at Trent, on the borders of Germany and council of Italy. It continued, with intermissions, for nearly Trent, 1545- twenty years. The Protestants, though invited ^^^^ to participate, did not attend, and hence nothing could be done to bring them back within the Roman Catholic fold. This was the last general council of the Church for over three centuries. 354 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars The Council of Trent made no essential changes in Roman Catholic doctrines, which remained as St. Thomas Aquinas ^ Work of and other theologians had set them forth in the councU ^i^q Middle Ages. It declared that ^he tradition of the Church possessed equal authority with the Bible and reaffirmed the supremacy of the pope over Christen- dom. The council also passed decrees forbidding the sale of ecclesiastical offices and requiring bishops and other prelates to attend strictly to their duties. Since the Council of Trent the Roman Church has been distuictly a religious organization, instead of both a secular and a religious body, as was the Church in the Middle Ages. The council, before adjourning, authorized the pope to draw up a Ust, or Index, of works which Roman CathoHcs might not read. This action did not form an innovation. The Index The Church from an early day had condemned heretical writings. However, the invention of printing, by giving greater currency to new and dangerous ideas, seemed to increase the necessity for the regulation of thought. The "Index of Prohibited Books" still exists, and additions to the fist are made from time to time. It was matched by the strict censorship of printing long maintained in Protestant countries. Still another agency of the Counter Reformation consisted of the Inquisition. This was a system of church courts for the Xhe discovery and punishment of heretics. Such Inquisition courts had been set up in the Middle Ages, for instance, to suppress the Albigensian heresy. After the Council of Trent they redoubled their activity, especially in Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain. The Inquisition probably contributed to the disappearance of Protestantism in Italy. In the Netherlands, where it worked I fl ence ^^^^ great severity, it only aroused exasperation of the and hatred and helped to provoke a successful Inquisition ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ j^^^^^ people. The Spaniards, on the other hand, approved of the methods of the Inquisition and 1 See page 262. Spain under Philip II 355 welcomed its extermination of heretics. The Spanish In- quisition was not aboUshed until the nineteenth century. 134. Spain under PhiUp II, 1556-1598 In 1555, the year of the Peace of Augsburg, Charles V de- termined to abdicate his many crowns and seek the repose of a monastery. The plan was duly carried into effect. His brother, Ferdinand I, succeeded to the of Charles title of Holy Roman Emperor and the Austrian ^' ^^^^~ territories, while his son, Philip II, received the Spanish possessions in Italy, Sicily, the Netherlands, and America. There were now two branches of the Hapsburg family — one in Austria and one in Spain. The new king of Spain was a man of unflagging energy, strong will, and deep attachment to the Roman Church. As a ruler he had two great ideals: to make Spain the foremost state in the world and to secure the triumph of Roman CathoHcism over Protestantism. His efforts to realize these ideals largely determined European history during the second half of the sixteenth century. The Spanish monarch won renown by becoming the champion of Christendom against the Ottoman Turks. The Turks at this time had a strong navy, by means of which g^^^ ^^ they captured Cyprus from the Venetians and Lepanto, ravaged Sicily and southern Italy. Grave danger existed that they would soon control all the Mediterranean. To stay their further progress one of the popes preached what was really the last crusade. The fleets of Genoa and Venice united with those of Spain, and under Don John of Austria, Philip's half-brother, totally defeated the Turkish squadron in the Gulf of Lepanto, off the western coast of Greece. The battle gave a blow to the sea-power of the Turks from which they never recovered and ended their aggressive warfare in the Mediter- ranean. Lepanto is one of the proud names in the history of Spain. PhiHp had inherited an extensive realm. He further widened it by the annexation of Portugal, thus completing the unification 356 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars Philip II Prado Museum, Madrid A portrait of Philip at the age of twenty-four, by the Venetian painter, Titian. of the Spanish peninsula. The Portuguese colonies in Africa, ^ Asia, and America also passed into Spanish hands. Annexation ' '■ of Portugal, The union of Spain and Portugal under one crown ^^^^ never commanded any affection among the Portuguese, who were proud of their nationahty and of their Revolt of the Netherlands 357 achievements as explorers and empire-builders. Portugal separated from Spain in 1640 and has since remained an in- dependent state. t^ The Escorial This remarkable edifice, at once a convent, a church, a palace, and a royal mausoleum, is situated in a sterile and gloomy wilderness about twenty-seven miles from Madrid. It was begun by Philip II in 1563 and was completed twenty -one years later. The Escorial is dedicated to St. Lawrence, that saint's day (August 10, 1557) being the day when the Spanish king won a great victory over the French at the battle of St. Quentin. The huge dimensions of the Escorial may be inferred from the fact that it includes eighty- six staircases, eighty-nine fountains, fifteen cloisters, 1,200 doors, 2,600 windows, and miles of corridors. The building material is a granite-like stone obtained in the neighborhood. The Escorial contains a library of rare books and manuscripts and a collection of valuable paintings. In the royal mausoleum under the altar of the church lie the remains of Charles V, Philip II, and many of their successors. But the successes of Philip were more than offset by his failures. Though he had vast possessions, enormous revenues, mighty fleets, and armies reputed the best of the Philip's age, he could not dominate western Europe. His failures attempt to conquer England, a stronghold of Protestantism under EHzabeth, resulted in disaster. Not less disastrous was his hfe-long struggle with the Netherlands. 135. Revolt of the Netherlands The seventeen provinces of the Netherlands occupied the flat, low country along the North Sea — the Holland, Belgium, 358 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars and northern France of the present day. They became Haps- The burg possessions during the fifteenth century and Netherlands ^j^ug formed a part of the Holy Roman Empire. As we have learned, Charles V received them as his in- heritance, and he, in turn, transmitted them to Philip II. The inhabitants of the Netherlands were not racially united. Celtic blood and Romance speech prevailed in the southern- Condition most provinces, while farther north dwelt peoples of the of Teutonic extraction, who spoke Flemish and e eran s j^^^^-^h^ Each province likewise kept its own government and customs. The prosperity which had marked the Flemish cities during the Middle Ages extended in the sixteenth century to the Dutch cities also. Rotterdam, Leyden, Utrecht, and Amsterdam profited by the geographical discov- eries and became centers of extensive commerce with Asia and America. The rise of the Dutch power, in a country so exposed to destructive inundations of both sea and rivers, is a striking instance of what can be accomplished by a frugal, industrious population. The Netherlands were too near Germany not to be affected by the Reformation. Lutheranism soon appeared there, only Protestantism ^° encounter the hostiUty of Charles V, who in- in the troduced the terrors of the Inquisition. Many ether ands jiej-g^ics ^ere burned at the stake, or beheaded, or buried alive. But there is no seed like martyrs' blood. The number of Protestants swelled, rather than lessened, especially after Calvinism entered the Netherlands. In spite of the cruel treatment of heretics by Charles V, both Flemings and Dutch remained loyal to the emperor, be- PoUcy of cause he had been born and reared among them Phihp II ^j^(j always considered their country as his own. Philip II, a Spaniard by birth and sympathies, seemed to them, however, only a foreign master. The new ruler did nothing to conciliate the people, but governed them despotically through Spanish officials supported by Spanish garrisons. Arbitrary taxes were levied, cities and nobles were deprived of their cherished privileges, and the activity of the Inquisition was Revolt of the Netherlands 359 redoubled. Philip intended to exercise in the Netherlands the same absolute power enjoyed by him in Spain. The religious persecution which by Philip's orders raged through the Netherlands everywhere aroused intense indigna- tion. The result was rioting by mobs of Protes- . a1v£L S6Xlt tants, who wrecked churches and monasteries and to the carried off the treasure they found in them. Philip Netherlands, replied to these acts by sending his best army, under the duke of Alva, his best general, to reduce the turbulent provinces to submission. Alva carried out with thoroughness the policy of his royal master. A tribunal, popularly known as the " Coun- Outbreak of cil of Blood," was set ^^^ ^^^o^* up for the punishment of treason and heresy. Hundreds, and prob- ably thousands, perished; tens of thousands fled to Germany and England. Alva, as governor- general, also raised enormous taxes, which threatened to destroy the trade and manufactures of the Netherlands. Under these circumstances Roman Catholics and Protestants, nobles and townsfolk, united against their Spanish oppressors. A revolt began which Spain could never quell. The Netherlands found a leader in William, Prince of Orange, later known as William the Silent, because of his customary discreetness. He was of German birth, a convert William the to Protestantism, and the owner of large estates Silent, 1533- in the Netherlands. William had fair ability as a general, a statesmanlike grasp of the situation, and above all a stout, courageous heart which never wavered in moments of danger and defeat. To rescue the Netherlands from Spain he sacrificed his high position, his wealth, and eventually his life. William the Silent After a painting at Delft 360 The Reformation and the Religious Wars The United Netherlands The ten southern provinces of the Netherlands, mainly Roman Catholic in population, soon, effected a reconciliation The Spanish with Philip and returned to their allegiance. They Netherlands remained in Hapsburg hands for over two centuries. Modern Belgium has grown out of them. The seven northern provinces, where Dutch was the language and Protestantism the re- ligion, came together in 1579 in the Union of Utrecht. Two years later they de- clared their inde- pendence of Spain. In this way the Dutch Republic, or sunply ''Holland," took its place among European nations. The struggle of the Dutch for Course of freedom the revolt forms one of the most notable episodes in history. At fi r s t they were no match for the disciplined Spanish soldiery, but they fought bravely behind the walls of their cities and on more than one occasion repelled the enemy by cutting the dikes and letting in the sea. Though William the Silent perished in a dark hour by an assassin's bullet, the contest continued. England now came to the aid of the hard-pressed republic with money and a small army. Philip turned upon his new antagonist and sent against England the great fleet called the "Invincible Ar- mada." Its destruction interfered with further attempts FRANCE The Netherlands at the Truce of 1609 England under Elizabeth 361 to subjugate the Dutch, but the Spanish monarch, stubborn to the last, refused to acknowledge their independence. His successor, in 1609, consented to a twelve years' truce with the revolted provinces, but their freedom was not recognized officially by Spain until many years later. The long struggle bound the Dutch together and made them one nation. During the seventeenth century they took a prominent part in European affairs. The re- The Dutch public which they founded ought to be of special R^pubUc interest to Americans. Holland had the earliest system of common schools supported by taxation, early adopted the principles of religious toleration and freedom of the press, and in the Union of Utrecht gave to the world the first written constitution of a modern state. In these and other matters the Dutch were pioneers of modern democracy. 136. England under Elizabeth, 1558-1603 Queen Elizabeth, who reigned over England during the period of the Dutch Revolt, came to the throne when about twenty-five years old. She was tall and com- ^,. ^ , ,. . ^ ^ ^ • ^ Ehzabeth mandmg m presence and endowed with great physical vigor and endurance. After hunting all day or dancing all night she could still attend unremittingly to public business. Elizabeth had received an excellent education; she spoke Latin and several modern languages; knew a little Greek; and displayed some skill in music. To her father, Henry VIII, she doubtless owed her tactfulness and charm of manner, as well as her imperious will; she resembled her mother, Anne Boleyn, in her vanity and love of display. As a ruler Elizabeth was shrewd, far-sighted, a good judge of character, and willing to be guided by the able counselors who surrounded her. Above all, Elizabeth was an ardent patriot. She understood and loved her people, and they, in turn, felt a chivalrous devotion to the "Virgin Queen," to "Good Queen Bess." The daughter of Anne Boleyn had been born under the ban of the pope, so that opposition to Rome was the natural course for her to pursue. Two acts of Parliament now separated 362 The Reformation and the Religious Wars England once more from the Papacy and gave the Anghcan Protestantism Church practically the form and doctrines which it in England retains to-day. The church was intended to include every one in England, and hence all persons were required to attend religious exercises on Sundays and holy days. Refusal to do so exposed the offender to a fine. The great body of the people soon conformed Treatment ^O the state of Roman church, but Roman Cath- olics could not con- scientiously attend its services. The laws against them do not seem to have been strictly enforced at first, but in the later years of EHza- beth's reign real or sus- pected plots by Roman CathoHcs against her throne led to a poHcy of repression. Those who said or heard mass were heavily fined and imprisoned; those who brought papal bulls into England or converted Protestants to Roman Catholicism were executed as traitors. Several hundred priests, mostly Jesuits, suffered death, and many more languished in jail. This persecution, however necessary it may have seemed to Elizabeth and her advisers, is a blot on her reign. The Reformation made little progress in Ireland. Henry Protestantism VIII, who had extended EngUsh sway over most in Ireland ^f ^^j^g island, suppressed the monasteries, de- molished shrines, relics, and images, and placed English-speaking Elizabeth Windsor Castle A portrait of Elizabeth as a princess, about i547. England under Elizabeth 3^2, priests in charge of the churches. The Irish people, neverthe- less, remained loyal to Rome and regarded these measures as the tyrannical acts of a foreign government. During Eliza- beth's reign there were several dangerous revolts, which her generals put down with great cruelty. The result was to widen the breach between England and Ireland. Many of the plots against Elizabeth centered about Mary Stuart, the ill-starred Queen of Scots. She was a grand- daughter of Henry VII, and extreme Roman Catholics claimed that she had a better right to anTiviary the Enghsh throne than EHzabeth, because the Q"®®° o* Scots pope had declared the marriage of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn null and void. Mary, a fervent Roman CathoUc, did not please her Scotch subjects, who had adopted Calvinistic doc- trines. She also discredited herself by marrying the man who had murdered her former husband. An uprising of the Scottish nobles compelled Mary to abdicate the throne in favor of her infant son ^ and to take refuge in England. Elizabeth kept her rival in captivity for nearly twenty year^ and finally had her put to death. Philip II, the king of Spain, also threatened Elizabeth's security. At the outset of her reign Philip had made her an offer of marriage, but she refused to give herself, Elizabeth and or England, a Spanish master. As time went on, ^^^^P ^^ he turned into an open enemy of the Protestant queen and did his best to stir up sedition among her Roman CathoHc subjects. It must be admitted that Philip could plead strong justifica- tion for his attitude. Elizabeth allowed the English " sea dogs " ^ 1 James VI of Scotland. On Elizabeth's death he became king of England as James I. See page 206, note i. . 2 See page 325. Silver Crown of Elizabeth's Reign 364 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars to plunder Spanish colonies and seize Spanish vessels laden with the treasures of the New World. Moreover, she aided the re- bellious Dutch, at first secretly and at length openly, in their struggle against Spain. Philip put up with these aggressions for many years, but finally came to the conclusion that he could never subdue the Nether- lands or end the piracy and smuggling in Spanish America without first con- quering England. The execution of Mary Stuart removed his last doubts, for Mary had left him her claims to the English throne. He at once made ready to invade England. Philip seems to have be- Heved that, as soon as a Spanish army landed in the island, the Roman Catholics would rally to his cause. But the Spanish king never had a chance to verify his belief; the decisive battle took place on the sea. Philip had no t completed his preparations before Sir Francis Drake sailed into Cadiz harbor and destroyed a vast amount of naval stores and shipping. This exploit, "Invincible which Drake called "singeing the king of Spain's Armada," beard," delayed the expedition for a year. The " Invincible Armada" ^ set out at last in 1588. The Spanish vessels, though somewhat larger than those of the English, were inferior in number, speed, and gunnery to their adversaries, while the Spanish officers, mostly unused to the 1 Armada was a Spanish name for any armed fleet. Mary Stuart After a portrait in the possession of the Earl of Norton. England under Elizabeth 365 sea, were no match for men like Drake, Frobisher, and Raleigh, the best rnariners of the age. The Armada suffered severely in a nine-days' fight in the Channel, and many vessels which escaped the Enghsh guns met shipwreck off the Scotch and Irish coasts. Less than half of the Armada returned in safety to Spain. England in the later Middle Ages had been an important The Spanish Armada in the English .Channel After an engraving by the Society of Antiquarians following a tapestry in the House of Lords. naval power, as her ability to carry on the Hundred Years' War in France amply proved. During the six- English teenth century she was over-matched by Spain, sea-power especially after the annexation of Portugal added the naval forces of that country to the Spanish fleets. The defeat of the Armada showed that a new people had arisen to claim the supremacy of the ocean. Henceforth the English began to build up what was to be a sea-power greater than any other known to history. 366 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars 137. The Huguenot Wars in France France, by the close of the fifteenth century, had become a centraUzed state under a strong monarchy.^ Francis I, who France under reigned in the first half of the sixteenth century, Francis I, still further exalted the royal power. He had 1515-1547 many wars with Charles V, whose extensive dominions nearly surrounded the French kingdom. These wars prevented the emperor from making France a mere de- pendency of Spain. As we have learned,^ they also interfered with the efforts of Charles V to crush the Protestants in Germany. Protestantism in France dates from the time of Francis I. The Huguenots,^ as the French Protestants were called, naturally The accepted the doctrines of Calvin, who was himself Huguenots ^l Frenchman and whose books were written in the French language. Though bitterly persecuted, the Huguenots gained a large following, especially among the prosperous middle class of the towns. Many nobles also became Hugue- nots, sometimes because of rehgious conviction, but often be- cause the new movement offered them an opportunity to recover their feudal independence and to plunder the estates of the Church. In France, as well as in Germany, the Reformation had its worldly side. During most of the second half of the sixteenth century, fierce conflicts raged in France between the Roman Catholics Civil war and the Huguenots. Philip II aided the former, in France g^j^^j Queen Elizabeth gave some assistance to the latter. France suffered terribly in the struggle, not only from the constant fighting, but also from the pillage, burnings, and other barbarities in which both sides indulged. The wealth and prosperity of the country visibly declined, and all patriotic feeling disappeared in the hatreds engendered by a civil war. The episode known as the massacre of St. Bartholomew's ^ See page 214. ^ See page 341. 3 The origin of the name is not known with certainty. The Huguenot Wars in France 367 Day illustrates the extremes to which political ambition and religious bigotry could lead. The massacre was Massacre an attempt to extirpate the Huguenots, root and ^ ^*- branch, at a time when peace prevailed between mew's Day, them and their opponents. The person primarily ^^"^^ responsible for it was Catherine de' Medici, an Italian by birth and mother of the youthful king of France. The king had begun to cast off the sway of his mother and to come under the influence of Admiral de Coligny, the most eminent of the Huguenots. To regain her power Catherine first tried to have Coligny murdered. When the plot failed, she in- vented the story of a great Huguenot upris- ing and induced her weak-minded son to authorize a wholesale butchery of Hugue- nots. It began in Paris in the early morning of St. Bartholomew's Day (August 24) and ex- tended to the provinces, where it continued for several weeks. At least ten thousand Huguenots were slain, in- cluding Coligny himself. The deed was a blunder as well as a crime. The Huguenots took up arms to defend them- selves, and France again experienced all the horrors of in- ternecine strife. The death of Coligny transferred the leadership of the Hugue- Henry IV After an old engraving. The king wears a hat with plumes and an aigrette, a ruff, and an embroid- ered cloak. On his breast is the order of Saint Esprit. 368 The Reformation and the ReUgious Wars Henry IV nots to Henry Bourbon, king of Navarre.^ Seventeen years after the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, he inherited the French crown as Henry IV, the first of the Bourbon kings. The Roman Cathohcs would not ac- cept a Protestant ruler and continued the conflict. Henry soon realized that only his conversion to the faith of the majority of his subjects would bring a lasting peace. Religious opinions had always sat Hghtly upon him, and he found no great difficulty in becoming a Roman Catholic. ''Paris," said Henry, "was well worth a mass." Opposition to the king soon collapsed, and the Huguenot wars came to an end. Though now a Roman Catholic, Henry did not break with the Huguenots. He now issued in their in- terest the celebrated Edict of Nantes. The Huguenots henceforth were to enjoy freedom of private worship everywhere in France, and freedom to wor- ship publicly in a large number of villages and towns. Only Roman Catholic services, how- ever, might be held in Paris and at the royal court. Though the edict did not grant complete rehgious liberty, it marked an important step in that direction. A great European state had recognized for the first time the principle that two rival faiths might exist peaceably side by side within its borders. Having settled the rehgious difficulties, Henry could take up the work of restoring prosperity to distracted France. His interest in the welfare of his subjects gained for him the name Edict of Nantes, 1598 Cardinal Richelieu Louvre, Paris After the portrait of the Belgian artist Philippe de Champaigne. 1 Navarre originally formed a small kingdom on both sides of the Pyrenees The part south of these mountains was acquired by Spain in 15 13. See the map on page 215. The Thirty Years' War 369 of ^'Good King Henry." With the help of Sully, his chief minister, the king reformed the finances and France under extinguished the public debt. He opened roads, Henry iv, , -iT-i jj 1TTI A 1589-1610 built bridges, and dug canals. He also encouraged commerce by royal bounties for shipbuilding. The French at this time began to have a navy and to compete with the Dutch and English for trade on the high seas. Henry's work of renovation was cut short by an assassin's dagger. Under his son, Louis XIII (1610-1643), a long period of disorder fol- lowed, until an able minister, Cardinal RicheUeu, assumed the guidance of public affairs. Richelieu for many years was the real ruler of France. His foreign policy led to the interven- tion of that country in the international conflict known as the Thirty Years' War. 138. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648 The Peace of Augsburg ^ gave repose to Germany for more than sixty years, but it did not form a complete settlement of the religious question in that country. There Religious was still room for bitter disputes, especially over antagonisms the ownership of Church property which had been secularized in the course of the Reformation. Furthermore, the peace recognized only Roman Catholics and Lutherans and allowed no rights whatever to the large body of Calvinists. The failure of Lutherans and Calvinists to cooperate weakened German Protestantism just at the period when the Counter Reformation inspired Roman Cathohcism with fresh energy and enthusiasm. Pohtics, as well as religion, also helped to bring about the great conflagration. The Roman Catholic party relied for support on the Hapsburg emperors, who wished PoUtical to unite the German states under their control, ^"ction thus restoring the Holy Roman Empire to its former proud position in the affairs of Europe. The Protestant princes, on the other hand, wanted to become independent sovereigns. Hence they resented aU efforts to extend the imperial authority over them. 1 See page 342. 370 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars The Thirty Years' War was not so much a single conflict as a series of conflicts, which uhimately involved nearly all western j^^ Europe. It began in Bohemia, where Protestant- Bohemian ism had not been extinguished by the Hussite '®^°" wars.^ The Bohemian nobles, many of whom were Calvinists, revolted against Hapsburg rule and proclaimed the independence of Bohemia. The German Lutherans gave them no aid, however, and the emperor, Ferdinand II, easily put down the insurrection. Many thousands of Protestants were now driven into exile. Those who remained in Bohemia were obliged to accept Roman Catholicism. Thus one more country was lost to Protestantism. The failure of the Bohemian revolt aroused the greatest alarm in Germany. Ferdinand threatened to follow in the footsteps Danish of Charles V and to crush Protestantism in the land intervention ^f j^s birth. When, therefore, the king of Den- mark, who as duke of Holstein had a great interest in German affairs, decided to intervene, both Lutherans and Calvinists supported him. Wallenstein, the emperor's able general, proved more than a match for the Danish king, who at length withdrew from the contest. So far the Roman Catholic and imperial party had triumphed. Ferdinand's success led him to issue the Edict of Restitution, Edict of which compelled the Protestants to restore all the Restitution, Church property which they had taken since the 1629 Peace of Augsburg. The enforcement of the edict brought about renewed resistance on the part of the Protestants. There now appeared the single heroic figure on the stage of the Thirty Years' War. This was Gustavus Adolphus, king of Gustavus Sweden, and a man of military genius. He had Adolphus ^j^g deepest sympathy with his fellow-Protestants intervention in Germany and regarded himself as their divinely of Sweden appointed deliverer. Gustavus also hoped to conquer the coast of northern Germany. The Baltic would then be a Swedish lake, for Sweden already possessed Finland and what later became the Russian provinces on the Baltic.^ 1 See page 337. ^ See page 222. The Thirty Years' War 371 Gustavus entered Germany with a strong force of disciplined soldiers and tried to form alliances with the Protestant princes. They received him coolly at first, for the Swedish king seemed to them only a foreign invader. Just Adoiphus in at this time the imperialists captured Magdeburg, Germany, the largest and most prosperous city in northern Germany. At least twenty thousand of the inhabitants perished miserably amid the smok- ing ruins of their homes. This massacre turned Protestant senti- ment toward Gustavus as the "Lion of the North" who had come to pre- serve Germany from destruction. With the help of his allies Gus- tavus reconquered most of Germany for the Protestants, but he fell at the battle of Liitzen in the moment of victory. His work, however, was done. The Swedish king had saved the cause of Protestantism in Ger- many. After the death of Gustavus the war assumed more and more a poli- tical character. The German Pro- testants found an ally, strangely enough, in Cardinal Richelieu, the all-powerful minister of the French king. Richelieu entered the struggle in order to humble and the" the Austrian Hapsburgs and extend the bound- intervention aries of France toward the Rhine, at the expense of the Holy Roman Empire. Since the Spanish Hapsburgs were aiding their Austrian kinsmen, Richelieu naturally fought against Spain also. The Holy Roman Emperor had to yield at last and consented to the treaties of peace signed at two cities in the province of Westphalia. The Peace of Westphalia ended the long series of wars which followed the Reformation. It practically settled the religious question, for it allowed Calvinists in Germany to enjoy the Gustavus Adolphus Munich Gallery After the portrait by the Flemish artist, Sir Anthony Van Dyck. 372 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars same privileges as Lutherans and also withdrew the Edict of Peace of Restitution. Nothing was said in the treaties WestphaUa, about liberty of conscience, but from this time ^^^ the idea that religious differences should be settled by force gradually passed away from the minds of men. The territorial readjustments made by the Peace of West- phaUa have deeply affected the subsequent history of Europe. Territorial France received from the Holy Roman Empire a readjust- large part of Alsace, in this way obtaining a foot- ments j^^^ ^^ ^^iq upper Rhine. She also secured the recognition of her old claims to the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun in Lorraine.^ Sweden gained the western half of Pomerania and the bishopric of Bremen. These posses- sions enabled her to control the mouths of the rivers Oder, Elbe, and Weser, which were important arteries of German commerce. Brandenburg — the future kingdom of Prussia — acquired eastern Pomerania and several bishoprics, thus be- coming the leading state in North Germany. The independ- ence of Switzerland 2 and of the United Netherlands ^ was also recognized. The Peace of Westphalia left Germany more divided than ever. Each one of the larger states was free to coin money. Disruption of raise armies, make war, and negotiate treaties Germany without consulting the emperor. The Holy Roman Empire, in fact, had become a mere phantom. The Haps- burgs from now on devoted themselves to their Austrian do- minions, which included more Magyars and Slavs than Germans. The failure of the Hapsburgs in the Thirty Years' War long postponed the unification of Germany. During the Thirty Years' War Germany had seen most of the fighting. She suffered from it to the point of exhaustion. Exhaustion The population dwindled from about sixteen of Germany miUions to one-half, or, as some beheve, to one- third that number. The loss of life was partly due to fearful epidemics, such as typhus fever and the bubonic plague, which spread over the land in the wake of the invading armies. A 1 See the map on page 402. 2 See page 220. ^ See page 361. The Thirty Years' War 373 great many villages were destroyed or were abandoned by their inhabitants. Much of the soil went out of cultivation, while trade and manufacturing nearly disappeared. Added to all this was the decline of education, hterature, and art, and the brutalizing of the people in mind and morals. It took Germany at least one hundred years to recover from the injury inflicted by the Thirty Years' War; complete recovery, indeed, came only in the nineteenth century. The savagery displayed by all participants in this long struggle could not but impress thinking men with the necessity of formulating rules to protect non- ^^^^ ^^ combatants, to care for prisoners, and to do away international with pillage and massacre. The worst horrors of *^ the war had not taken place, before a Dutch jurist, named Hugo Grotius, pubhshed at Paris in 1625 a work On the Laws of War and Peace. It may be said to have founded inter- national law. The success of the book was remarkable. Gustavus Adolphus carried a copy about with him during his campaigns, and its leading doctrines were recognized and acted upon in the Peace of Westphalia. The great principle on which Grotius based his recommenda- tions was the independence of sovereign states. He gave up the medieval conception of a temporal and spiritual ^j^^ ^^^^_ head of Christendom. The nations now recog- pean state , ^1 system nized no common superior, whether emperor or pope, but all were equal in the sight of international law. The book of Grotius thus marked the profound change which had come over Europe since the Middle Ages. studies I. On an outline map indicate the European countries ruled by Charles V. 2. On an outline map indicate the principal territorial changes made by the Peace of Westphalia. 3. Identify the following dates: 1648; 15 19; 1517; 1588; 1598; and 1555. 4. For what were the following persons noted: Cardinal Wolsey; Admiral de Coligny; duke of Alva; RicheUeu; St. Ignatius Loyola; Boniface VIII; Frederick the Wise; Gustavus Adolphus; and Mary Queen of Scots? 5. Compare the scene at Anagni with the scene at Canossa. 6. On the map, page 332, trace the geographical extent of the "Great Schism." 7. Name three important reasons for the lessened influence of the Roman Church at the opening 374 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars of the sixteenth century. 8. Explain the difference between heresy and schism. Q. Why has Wycliffe been called 'the "morning star of the Reformation '? lo. Com- pare Luther's work in fixing the form of the German language with Dante's service to Italian through the Divine Comedy, ii. What is the origin of the name "Prot- estant"? 12. Why was Mary Tudor naturally a Catholic and Elizabeth naturally a Protestant? 13. On the map, page 349, trace the geographical extent of the Ref- ormation in the sixteenth century. 14. Why did the reformers in each country take special pains to translate the Bible into the vernacular? 15. What is the chief difference in mode of government between Presbyterian and Congregational churches? 16. "The heroes of the Reformation, judged by modem standards, were reactionaries." What does this statement mean? 17. Why is the Council of Trent generally considered the most important church council since that of Nicaea? 18. Mention some differences between the Society of Jesus and earlier monastic orders. 19. Compare the Edict of Nantes with the Peace of Augsburg. 20. Show how political, as well as religious, motives affected the revolt of the Neth- erlands, the Huguenot wars, and the Thirty Years' War. 21. Compare the effects of the Thirty Years' War on Germany with the effects of the Hundred Years' War on France. 22. What would you say of Holbein's success as a portrait painter (illustrations on pages 290 and 344)? Of Titian's success in the same art (illus- trations on pages 341 and 356)? CHAPTER XVI ABSOLUTISM IN ENGLAND AND FRANCE, 1603-17151 139. The Divine Right of Kings Most European nations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries accepted the principle of absolutism in government. Absolutism was as common then as democracy is to-day. The rulers of Europe, having triumphed over the feudal nobles, proceeded to revive the autocratic traditions of imperial Rome. Like the later Roman emperors, they posed as absolute sovereigns, who held their power, not from the choice or consent of their subjects, but from God. Royal absolutism formed a natural development of the old belief in the divinity of kings. Many primitive peoples regard their chiefs as holy and give to them the control Divinity of of peace and war, of Hfe and death. Oriental ^^^s rulers in antiquity bore a sacred character. Even in the life- time of an Egyptian Pharaoh temples were erected to him and offerings were made to his sacred majesty. The Hebrew mon- arch was the Lord's anointed. The Hellenistic kings of the East and the Roman emperors received divine honors from their subjects. An element of sanctity also attached to medieval sovereigns, who, at their coronation, were anointed with a magic oil, girt with a sacred sword, and given a supernatural banner. Even Shakespeare could speak of the divinity which *'doth hedge a king." 2 The Reformation in Germany tended to emphasize the 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxv, " Characters and Episodes of the Great RebeUion"; chapter xxvi, "Oliver Cromwell"; chap- ter xxvii, "English Life and Manners under the Restoration"; chapter xxviii, "Louis XIV and his Court." 2 Hamlet, IV, v, 123. Compare King Richard the Second, III, ii, 54-57. 375 376 Absolutism in England and France sacred character of royalty. Luther and his followers set up Lutheranism ^^^ authority of the State against the authority and divine of the Church, which they condemned and re- "^^* jected. Providence, they argued, had never sanc- tioned the Papacy, but Providence had really ordained the State and had placed over it a ruler whom it was a rehgious duty to obey. The Lutherans, therefore, defended the divine right of kings. A very different principle' found acceptance in those parts of Europe where Calvinism prevailed. In his Institutes^ one Calvinism ^^ ^^^ most widely read books of the age, Calvin and popular declares that magistrates and parliaments are the sovereignty guardians of popular hberty ''by the ordinance of God." ^ Calvin's adherents, developing this statement, argued that rulers derive their authority from the people and that those who abuse it may be deposed by the will of the people. The Christian duty of resistance to royal tyranny became a cardinal principle of Calvinism among the French Huguenots, the Dutch, the Scotch, and most of the American colonists of the seventeenth century. We shall now see how influential it was in seven- teenth-century England. 140. Absolutism of the Stuarts, 1603-1642 Absolutism in England dated from the time of the Tudors. Henry VII humbled the nobles, while Henry VIII and Elizabeth Tudor ab- brought the Church into dependence on the Crown, soiutism These three sovereigns, though despotic, were ex- cellent rulers and were popular with the influential middle class in town and country. The Tudors gave England order and prosperity, if not political liberty. The English Parliament in the thirteenth century had be- come a body representative of the different estates of the realm, Parliament ^^^ ^^ ^^^ fourteenth century it had separated into under the the two houses of Lords and Commons. Parlia- Tuaors ment enjoyed considerable authority at this time. The kings, who were in continual need of money, often sum- 1 Institutes, IV, xx, 31. Absolutism of the Stuarts 377 moned it, sought its advice upon important questions, and readily listened to its requests. The despotic Tudors, on the other hand, made Parliament their servant. Henry VII called it together on only five occasions during his reign; Henry VIII persuaded or frightened it into doing anything he pleased; and Elizabeth consulted it as infrequently as possible. Parliament under the Tudors did not abandon its old claims to a share in the government, but it had little chance to exercise them. The death of Elizabeth in 1603 ended the Tudor dynasty and placed the Stuarts on the English throne in the person of James I.^ England and Scotland were now james I joined in a personal union, though each country king, 1603- retained its own Parliament, laws, and state Church.^ The new king was well described by a contemporary as the ''wisest fool in Christendom." He had a good mind and abundant learning, but throughout his reign he showed an utter inability to win either the esteem or the affection of his subjects. This was a misfortune, for the Eng- lish had now grown weary of despotism and wanted freedom. They were not prepared to tolerate in James, an alien, many things which they Had overlooked in ''Good Queen Bess." One of the most fruitful sources of discord between James and the English people was his exalted conception of monarchy. The Tudors, indeed, claimed to rule by divine james I on right, but James went further and argued for divine divine right hereditary right. Providence, he declared, had chosen the principle of heredity in order to fix the succession to the throne. Gold Coin of James I The first coin to bear the legend " Great Britain. 1 See pages 206, note i, and 363, note i. 2 The Act of Union (1707) gave to England and Scotland a common Parliament. After this date it is proper to speak of the kingdom of Great Britain, and of the English, Welsh, and Scotch as forming the British people. 378 Absolutism in England and France This principle, being divine, lay beyond the power of man to alter. Whether the king was fit or unfit to rule. Parliament might not change the succession, depose a sovereign, or Hmit his authority in any way. James rather neatly summarized his views in a Latin epigram, a deo rex, a rege lex — "the king is from God, and law is from the king." The extreme pretensions of James encountered much op- position from Parhament. That body felt httle sympathy for ParUament a ruler who proclaimed himself the source of all and James I \^^ When James, always extravagant and a poor financier, came before it for money. Parliament insisted on its right to withhold supplies until grievances were redressed. James would not yield, and got along as best he could by levy- ing customs duties, seUing titles of nobil- ity, and imposing ex- cessive fines, in spite of the protests of Par- Uament. This situa- tion continued to the end of the king's reign. A reUgious contro- versy helped to em- bitter the dispute between James and Parliament. The king, who was a devout Anglican, made himself very unpopular with the Puritans, as the reformers within the Church of England were called. The Puritans had at first no intention of separating from the national or established Church, but they wished to "purify" it of certain customs which they described as "Romish." Among these were the use of the surplice, of the ring in the marriage ser- vice, and of the sign of the cross in baptism. Some Puritans wanted to get rid of the Book of Com?non Prayer altogether. Since the Puritans had a large majority in the House of A Puritan Family Illustration in an edition of the Psalms published in 1563. - Puritanism Absolutism of the Stuarts 379 Charles I A painting by Daniel My tens, in the National Portrait Gallery, London. Commons, it was inevitable that the parliamentary struggle against Stuart absolutism should assume in part a religious character. The political and rehgious difficulties which marked the reign of James I did not disappear when his son, Charles I, came to the throne. Charles was a true Stuart in his devotion 380 Absolutism in England and France to absolutism and divine right. Almost immediately he began Charles I ^^ quarrel with Parliament. When that body king, 1625- withheld supplies, Charles resorted to forced loans ^^*^ from the wealthy and even imprisoned a number of persons who refused to contribute. Such arbitrary acts showed plainly that Charles would play the tyrant if he could. The king's attitude at last led Parliament to a bold assertion of its authority. It now presented to Charles the celebrated Petition of Petition of Right. One of the most important Right, 1628 clauses provided that loans without parliamentary sanction should be considered illegal. Another clause de- clared that no one should be arrested or imprisoned except according to the law of the land. The Petition thus repeated and reinforced two of the leading principles of Magna Carta.^ The people of England, speaking this time through their elected representatives, asserted once more their right to limit the power of kings. Charles signed the Petition, as the only means of securing parhamentary consent to taxation; but he had no intention of Personal rule observing it. For the next eleven years he man- of Charles I, aged to govern without calling Parliament in session. The conduct of affairs during this period lay largely in the hands of Sir Thomas Wentworth, afterwards earl of Strafford, and Wilham Laud, who later became arch- bishop of Canterbury. The king made these two men his principal advisers and through them carried on his despotic rule. Arbitrary courts, which tried cases without a jury, punished those who resisted the royal will. A rigid censorship of the press prevented any expression of popular discontent. PubHc meetings were suppressed as seditious riots. Even private gatherings were dangerous, for the king had swarms of spies to report disloyal acts or utterances. TohnHamp- Since Charles ruled without a Parliament, he den and had to adopt all sorts of devices to fill his treas- s p-money ^^^ q^^ ^£ these was the levying of "ship- money." According to an old custom, seaboard towns and 1 See page 200. Absolutism of the Stuarts 381 counties had been required to provide ships or money for the royal navy. Charles revived this custom and extended it to towns and counties lying inland. It seemed clear that the king meant to impose a permanent tax on all England without the assent of Parliament. The demand for ''ship-money" aroused much opposition, and John Hampden, a wealthy squire of Buckinghamshire, refused to pay the twenty shiUings Execution of the Earl of Strafford After a contemporary print. The Tower of London is seen in the background. levied on his estate. Hampden was tried before a court of the royal judges and was convicted by a bare majority. He be- came, however, a popular hero. Archbishop Laud, the king's chief agent in ecclesiastical matters, detested Puritanism and aimed to root it out from the Anghcan Church. He put no Puritans to death, baud's ec- but he sanctioned cruel punishments of those who clesiastical would not conform to the estabHshed reHgion. ^°^'^^ While the restrictions on Puritans were increased, those af- fecting Roman Cathohcs were relaxed. Many people thought 382 Absolutism in England and France that Charles, through Laud and the bishops, was preparing to lead the Church of England back to Rome. They therefore opposed the king on religious grounds, as well as for political reasons. But the personal rule of Charles was now drawing to an end. In 1637 the king, supported by Archbishop Laud, tried to in- The Long troduce a modified form of the English prayer Parliament, book into Scotland. The Scotch, Calvinistic to the core, drew up a national oath, or Covenant, by which they bound themselves to resist any attempt to change their rehgion. Rebellion quickly passed into open war, and the Covenanters invaded northern England. 'Charles was then obliged to summon Parliament in session. It met in 1640 and did not formally dissolve until twenty years later. The Long Parliament no sooner assembled than it assumed the conduct of government. The leaders, including John Reforms of Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, the Long openly declared that the House of Commons, and ar ament ^^^ ^-^^ king, possessed supreme authority in the state. Parliament began by sending Strafford and subse- quently Laud to the scaffold and by abolishing the arbitrary courts. It forbade the imposition of "ship-money" and other irregular taxes. It also took away the king's right of dissolv- ing Parliament at his pleasure and ordered that at least one parhamentary session should be held every three years. These measures ^tripped the Crown of the despotic powers acquired by the Tudors and the Stuarts. 141. OUver CromweU and the Civil War, 1642-1649 The Long Parliament thus far had acted along the line of reformation rather than revolution. Had Charles been content to accept the new arrangements, there would have Outbreak of , ,.^, . ^ ^ \ 1 1 • the Great been little more trouble. But the proud and im- Rebellion, perious king was only watching his chance to strike a blow at Parliament. Taking advantage of some differences of opinion among its members, Charles summoned his soldiers, marched to Westminster, and demanded the sur- Olver Cromwell and the Civil War 383 render of five leaders, including Pym and Hampden. Warned in time, they made their escape, and Charles did not find them in the chamber of the Commons. "Well, I see all the birds are flown," he exclaimed, and walked out baffled. The king's attempt to intimidate the Commons was a grave blunder. It showed beyond doubt that he would resort to force, rather than bend his neck to Parliament. Both Charles and Parlia- ment now began to gather troops and prepare for the inevitable conflict. The opposing parties seemed to be very evenly matched. Around the king rallied nearly all the nobles, « cavaliers" the Anglican clergy, the Roman CathoHcs, a and " Round- majority of the ''squires," or country gentry, and ^^ the members of the universities. The royahsts received the name of "Cavaliers." The parliamen- tarians, or "Roundheads," ^ were mostly recruited from the trading classes in the towns and the small landowners in the country. The working people remained as a rule indifferent and took little part in the struggle. Both Pym and Hampden died in the second year of the war, and henceforth the Oliver leadership of the Cromwell, parliamentarians fell to Oliver Cromwell. He was a Oliver Cromwell country gentleman from the east of England, and Hampden's cousin. Cromwell represented the university of Cambridge in the Long Parliament and displayed there great audacity in opposing the government. An unfriendly critic at this time describes "his countenance swollen and reddish, his voice sharp and untuneable, and his eloquence full of fervor." Though ^ So called, because some of them wore closely cropped hair, in contrast to the flowing locks of the "Cavaliers." A painting by Robert Walker, in the National Portrait Gallery, London. 384 Absolutism in England and France 3 /j ISLE OF / J MAf* ENGLAND AND W ALES THE ClVlL WARS OF THE 17th century Scale of English Miles L^6*0 10 20 30 60 j^t^ftW'' EXPLANATION .^'"'^ Parts held by Charles I. pr^snii^ at the end •f 1043 KSaKiid Pans held by Parliament j Portland Bill ^'^""^ > ■ ^_ \ '--vTartsbrook Castle n ^ 4 Longitude Vp'est from Greenwich Longitude Ea Oliver Cromwell and the Civil War 385 a zealous Puritan, who believed himself in all sincerity to be the chosen agent of the Lord, Cromwell was not an ascetic. He hunted, hawked, played bowls and other games, had an ear for music, and valued art and learning. In pubHc life he showed himself a statesman of much insight and a military genius. Fortune favored the royalists, until Cromwell assumed com- mand of the parliamentary forces. To him was due the for- mation of a- cavalry regiment of "honest, sober ^, . . „ , , , ' The " Iron- Lnristians, whose watchwords were texts from sides " and Scripture and who charged in battle singing psalms. *^® ",^,®^ These "Ironsides," as Cromwell said, "had the fear of God before them and made some conscience of what they did." They were so successful that Parhament permitted Cromwell to reorganize a large part of the army into the " New Model," (a body of professional, highly disciplined soldiers. The "New Model" defeated Charles decisively at the battle of Naseby, near the center of England (1645). Charles then sur- rendered to the Scotch, who soon turned him over to Parha- ment. The surrender of the king ended the Great Rebellion, but left the political situation in doubt. The Puritans by this time had divided into two rival parties. The Presby- Presbyterians terians wished to make the Church of England, and like that of Scotland, Presbyterian 1 in faith and independents worship. Through their control of Parliament, they were able to pass acts doing away with bishops, forbidding the use of the Book of Common Prayer, and requiring every one to accept Presbyterian doctrines. The other Puritan party, known as the Independents,^ felt that rehgious beliefs should not be a matter of compulsion. They rejected both Anghcanism and Presbyterianism and desired to set up churches of their o\vn, where they might worship as seemed to them right. The In- dependents had the powerful backing of Cromwell and the "New Model," so that the stage was set for a quarrel between Parhament and the army. ^ See page 350, note i. * Also called Separatists, and later known as Congregationalists. 386 Absolutism in England and France King Charles, though a prisoner in the hands of his enemies, hoped to profit by their divisions. The Presbyterian majority "Pride's ^^ ^^^ House of Commons was wiUing to restore Purge," the king, provided he would give his assent to ^^^^ the estabhshment of Presbyterianism in England. But the army wanted no reconciliation with the captive monarch and at length took matters into its own hand. A party of Interior of Westminster Hall Next to the Tower and the Abbey, Westminster Hall, adjoining the Houses of Parliament, is the most historic building in London. The hall was begun by \\'illiam Rufus in logj, and was enlarged by his successors. Richard II in 1397 added the great oak roof, which has lasted to this day. Here were held the trials of Strafford and Charles I. soldiers, under the command of a. Colonel Pride, excluded the Presbyterian members from the floor of the House, leaving the Independents alone to conduct the government. This action is known as "Pride's Purge." Cromwell approved of it, and from this time he became the real ruler of England. The Rump Parliament, as the remnant of the House of Commons was called, immediately brought the king before a High Court of Justice composed of his bitterest enemies. He refused to acknowledge Execution of Charles I, 1649 The Commonwealth and the Protectorate 387 the right of the court to try him and made no defense what- ever. Charles was speedily convicted and sentenced to be be- headed, ''as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good of the people." He met death with quiet dignity and courage on a scaffold erected in front of Whitehall Palace in London. The king's execution went far beyond the wishes of most Englishmen; "cruel necessity" formed its only justifica- tion ; but it established once for all in England the principle that rulers are responsible to their subjects. 142. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate, 1649-1660 The Rump Parliament aboHshed the House of Lords and the office of king. It named a Council of State, most of whose members were chosen from the House of Commons, England a to carry on the government. England now be- ^epubUc came a commonwealth, or national republic. It is clear that this republic was the creation of a minority. Anglicans, Pres- byterians, and Roman Catholics were ready to restore the monarchy, but as long as the power lay with the army, the small sect of Independents could impose its will on the great majority of the English people. Cromwell had to deal with a serious uprising in Ireland, where Prince Charles, the oldest son of the dead sovereign, had been proclaimed king. Invading the country with Subjection his trained soldiers, Cromwell captured town after °^ Ireland town, slaughtered many royalists, and shipped many more to the West Indies as slaves. This time Ireland was completely subdued. Cromwell confiscated the estates of those who had supported the royaUst cause and planted colonies of English Protestants in Ulster, Leinster, and Munster. The Roman CathoHc gentry were compelled to remove beyond the Shannon River to unfruitful Connaught. Even there the public exer- cise of their reHgion was forbidden them. Cromwell's harsh measures brought peace to Ireland, but only intensified the hatred felt by Irish Roman Catholics for Protestant England.^ ^ See pages 207 and 363. 388 Absolutism in England and France 8 AVeet from 7 Greenwich While Cromwell was still in Ireland, Prince Charles came to Scotland and by promising to be a Presbyterian king secured Scotland the support of the whole nation. Cromwell, how- subdued ever, destroyed the Scotch armies in two pitched battles. Prince Charles escaped capture and after thrilHng adventures as a fugitive took refuge in France. Meanwhile, the Rump Parliament had become more and The Commonwealth and the Protectorate 389 more unpopular. The army, which had saved England from Stuart despotism, did not relish the spectacle of a Dissolution small group of men, many of them selfish and ^ *^® corrupt, presuming to govern the country. Crom- Parliament, well found them ''horribly arbitrary," and at last ^^^^ resolved to have done with them. He entered the House of Commons with a band of musketeers and ordered the members Great Seal of England under the Commonwealth (Reduced) The reverse represents the House of Commons in session. home. "Come, come," he cried, 'T will put an end to your prating. You are no Parliament. I say you are no Parlia- ment. I will put an end to your sitting." Another Parliament proved equally incapable. After a few months it resigned its authority into the hands of Cromwell. Cromwell, by force of circumstances, had become a virtual 390 Absolutism in England and France dictator, but he had no love of absolute power. He therefore The instru- accepted a so-called Instrument of Government, ment of drawn up by some of his officers. It provided Government • ^^^^ Cromwell should be Lord Protector for hfe, with the assistance of a Council and a Parliament. The In- strument is notable as the only written constitution which England has ever had. The Lord Protector governed England for five years. His successful conduct of foreign affairs gave to that country an importance in the councils of Europe which it Cromwell as , . , . , . ^ ^,. , Lord Pro- had not enjoyed since the time of Ehzabeth. tector, 1653- jje died in 1658. Two years later the nation, 1658 weary of military rule, recalled Prince Charles, who mounted the throne as Charles IL It seemed, indeed, as if the Puritan Revolution had been a complete failure. But this was hardly true. The revolution The Puritan arrested the growth of absolutism in England. Revolution j^- created among Englishmen a lasting hostility to despotic rule, whether exercised by King, Parliament, Pro- tector, or army. Furthermore, it sent forth into the world ideas of popular sovereignty, which, during the eighteenth century, helped to produce the American and Fjench revolutions. 143. The Restoration and the ** Glorious Revolution," 1660-1689 Charles II pledged himself to maintain Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and other statutes limiting the royal power. Reign of ^^^ people of England wished to have a king, but Charles II, they also wished their king to govern by the advice 1660— IfiS*! <-! r^ tt << ,, Silver Crown of Charles II dents Merry Monarch. The Restoration brought back the Church of England, together with the Stuarts. Parliament, more intolerant than the king, passed an Act of Uniformity, which made The Dis- the use of the Book of Common Prayer compulsory centers and required ministers to express their consent to everything contained in it. Nearly two thousand clergymen resigned their positions rather than obey the act. Among them were found Presbyterians, Independents (or CongregationaHsts) , Baptists, and Quakers. The members of these sects, since they did not accept the national church, -were henceforth classed as Dis- senters.^ They might not hold meetings for worship, or teach in schools, or accept any public office. The Dissenters for many years had to endure harsh persecution. One of the most important events belonging to the reign of Charles II was the passage by Parliament of the Habeas Habeas Corpus Act. The writ of habeas corpus ^ Corpus Act, is an order, issued by a judge, requiring a person held in custody to be brought before the court. If upon 1 Or Noncomformists. This name is still applied to English Protestants not members of the Anglican Church. 2 A Latin phrase meaning "You may have the body." 392 Absolutism in England and France examination good reason is shown for keeping the prisoner, he is to be remanded for trial; otherwise he must either be freed or released orTbail. t This writ had been long used in England, and one of the clauses of Magna Carta expressly provided against arbitrary imprisonment. It had always been possible, however, for the king or his ministers to order the arrest of a person con- sidered dangerous to the state, without making any formal charge against him. The Habeas Corpus Act estabhshed the principle that every man, not charged with or convicted of a known crime, is entitled to his liberty. Most of the British possessions where the Common law prevails have accepted the act, and it has been adopted by the federal and state legislatures of the United States. The reign of Charles II also saw the beginning of the modern party system in Parliament. Two opposing parties took shape, Whigs and very largely out of a religious controversy. The Tones king, from his long life in France, was partial to Roman Catholicism, though he did not formally embrace that faith until at the moment of death. His brother James, the heir to the throne, became an avowed Roman Catholic, much to the disgust of many members of Parliament. . A bill was now brought forward to exclude Prince James from the succession, because of his conversion. Its supporters received the nick- name of Whigs, while those who opposed it were called Tories.^ The bill did not pass the House of Lords, but the two parties in Parliament continued to divide on other questions. They survive to-day as the Liberals and the Conservatives, and still dispute the government of England between them. James II lacked the attractive personality which had made his brother a popular ruler; moreover, he was an avowed Roman Reign of Catholic and a staunch believer in the divine right James II, of kings. During his three years' reign, James managed to make enemies of most of his Protestant subjects. He "suspended" the laws against Roman Catholics and appointed them to positions of authority and influence. 1 Whig had originally been applied to rebelUous Presbyterians in Scotland; Tory had designated Roman CathoUc outlaws in Ireland, The Restoration and the ''Glorious Revolution" 393 He also dismissed Parliament and supported himself with sub- sidies from the French king. FAt last a number of Whig and Tory leaders, representing both parties in Parliament, invited Wilham of Orange, stadholder or governor-general of Holland, to rescue England from Stuart absolutism.^ William landed in England with a smalTarmy and marched unopposed to London. The wretched king, deserted by his retainers and his soldiers, soon found himself . Accession of alone. He fled to France, where he Hved the re- William m mainder of his days as a pensioner at the French f?£j^^^' court. Parliament granted the throne conjointly to WilHam and Mary, Wilham to rule during his lifetime and Mary to have the succession, should she survive him. At the same time Parliament took care to safeguard its own authority and the Protestant religion by enacting the Bill of Rights, which has a place by the side of Magna The Bill of Carta and the Petition of Right among the great ^s^*s documents of EngHsh constitutional history. This act decreed that the sovereign must henceforth be a member of the Anglican Church. It forbade him to '' suspend " the operation of the laws, or to levy money or maintain a standing army except by con- sent of Parliament. It also declared that election of members of Parliament should be free; that they should enjoy freedom of speech and action within the two Houses; and that ex- cessive bail should not be required, or excessive fines imposed, or cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Finally, it affirmed the right of subjects to petition the sovereign and ordered the holding of frequent Parhaments. These were not new prin- ciples of political liberty, but now the English people were strong enough to give them the binding form of laws. They reappear in the first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States. Parliament also passed a Toleration Act, conceding to Dis- senters the right of pubUc worship, though not The Toiera- the right of holding any civil or mihtary ofl&ce. ^^^ ^^^ The Dissenters might now worship as they pleased, with- ^ William, who was a Protestant, had married James's eldest daughter, Mary. 394 Absolutism in England and France out fear of persecution. Unitarians and Roman Catholics, as well as Jews, were expressly excluded from the benefits of the act. The passage of this measure did much to remove religion from English politics as a vital issue. The Revolution of 1 688-1689 thus struck a final blow at ab- solutism and divine right in England. An English king be- The " Glori- Came henceforth the servant of Parhament, holding ous Revolu- office only on good behavior. An act of Parlia- ^°° ment had made him and an act of Parliament might depose him. It is well to remember, however, that the revolution did not form a popular movement. It was a suc- cessful struggle for parHamentary supremacy on the part of the upper classes. England henceforth had a ''limited" or "con- stitutional" monarchy controlled by the aristocracy. 144. England in the Seventeenth Century The population of England at the close of the seventeenth century exceeded five millions, of whom at least two-thirds Social lived in the country. Except for London, there England ^gj-g Q^ly four towns of more than ten thousand inhabitants. London counted half a million people within its Coach and Sedan Chair Title-page of a tract published in 1636. limits and had become the largest city in Europe. Town life still wore a medieval look, but the increase of wealth gradually introduced many new comforts and luxuries. Coal came into use instead of charcoal; tea, coffee, and chocolate competed England in the Seventeenth Century 395 with wiiie, ale, and beer as beverages; the first newspapers ap- peared, generally in weekly editions; amusements multiplied; and passenger coaches began to ply between London and the provincial centers. The highways, however, were wretched and infested with robbers. The traveler found some recompense for the hardships of a journey in the country inns, famous for their plenty and good cheer. The transport of goods was chiefly by means of pack horses, because of the poor roads and the absence of canals. Postal arrangements also remained very primitive, and in remote districts letters were not delivered more than once a week. The difficulties of travel and communi- cation naturally made for isolation ; and country people, except the wealthy, rarely visited the metropolis. As the population of England increased, old industries de- veloped and new ones sprang up. The chief manufacture was that of wool, while that of silk flourished after Economic the influx of Huguenots which followed the revo- England cation of the Edict of Nantes.^ The absence of large textile mills made it necessary to carry on spinning and weaving in the homes of the operatives. Coal mines and iron mines, which in later times became so important a source of England's prosperity, were then little worked. Farming and the raising of sheep and cattle still remained the principal occupations. Agriculture, however, was retarded by the old system of com- mon tillage and open fields, just as manufacturing was fettered by the craft guilds. These survivals of the Middle Ages had not yet disappeared. Seventeenth-century England produced no very eminent painters or sculptors, though foreign artists, such as Rubens and Van Dyck, were welcomed there. Among archi- tects the most famous was Sir Christopher Wren, who did much to popularize the Renaissance style of building.^ A great fire which destroyed most of old London during the reign of Charles II gave Wren an opportunity to rebuild about fifty parish churches, as well as St. Paul's Cathedral. English literature in the seventeenth century covered many 1 See page 408. 2 ggg p^ge 286. 396 fields. Absolutism in England and France Literatxire Shakespeare and Bacon, the two chief hterary orna- ments of EUzabeth's reign, did some of their best work during the reign of James I. In 1611 ap- peared the Authorized Version of the Bible, sometimes called the King James Version because it was dedicated to that mon- arch. The simphcity, dignity, and eloquence of this translation have never been surpassed, and it still remains in ordinary use among Protestants throughout the Eng- hsh-speaking world. ^ The Puritan poet, John Milton, composed his epic of Paradise Lost during the reign of Charles II. About the same time another Puritan, John Bunyan, wrote the immortal Pil- grim's Progress, a book which gives an equal though different pleasure to children and adults, to the But these are only a few of the John Milton A portrait of the poet at the age of twenty-one. ignorant and the learned. eminent poets and prose writers of the age. 145. Absolutism of Louis XIV, 1661-1715 France in the seventeenth century furnished the best ex- ample of an absolute monarchy supported by pretensions to Cardinal divine right. French absolutism owed most of RicheUeu ^\\ to Cardinal Richeheu, the chief minister of Louis XIII. Though a man of poor physique and in weak health, he possessed such strength of will, together with so thorough an understanding of pohtics, that he was able to dominate the king and through the king to govern France for eighteen years (1624-1642). Policies of Richelieu's foreign policy — to aggrandize France Richelieu ^t the expense of the Hapsburgs — led to his in- tervention on the side of the Protestants at a decisive 1 Many important corrections were embodied in the Revised Version, pubUshed in 1 881-1885 by a committee of EngUsh scholars. Absolutism of Louis XIV 397 Cardinal Mazarin moment in the Thirty Years' War.^ His domestic poHcy — to make the French king supreme — was equally successful. Though the nobles were still rich and influential, Richelieu beat down their opposition by forbidding the practice of dueling, that last remnant of private warfare, by ordering many castles to be blown up with gun- powder, and by bringing rebellious dukes and counts to the scaffold. The nobles henceforth were no longer feudal lords but only courtiers. Richelieu died in 1642, and the next year Louis XIII, the mas- ter whom he had served so faithfully, also passed away. The new ruler, Louis XIV, was only a child, and the man- agement of affairs for a second period of eighteen years passed into the hands of Cardinal Mazarin. He was an Italian by birth, but he became a naturalized French- man and carried out Richelieu's policies. Mazarin continued the war against the Hapsburgs, upon which Richelieu had en- tered, and brought it to a satisfactory conclusion. The Peace of Westphalia 2 was Mazarin's greatest triumph. He also crushed a formidable uprising against the Crown, on the part of discon- tented nobles. Having achieved all this, the cardinal could truly say that "if his language was not French, his heart was." His death in 1661 found the royal authority more firmly es- tablished than ever before. Louis XIV, who now in his twenty-third year Louis XIV, took up the reins of government, ranks among the **^® ™*° ablest of French monarchs. He was a man of handsome Cardinal Mazarin A miniature by Petitot, in the South Kensington Museum, London. ^ See pages 369 and 371. 2 See page 372. 398 Absolutism in England and France Louis XIV A portrait by J. Gale, in the Sutherland Collection, London. presence, slightly below the middle height, with a prominent nose and abundant hair, which he allowed to fall over his shoulders. In manner he was dignified, reserved, courteous, and as majestic, it is said, in his dressing-gown as in his robes of state. A con- temporary wrote that he would have been every inch a king, ''even if he had been born under the roof of a beggar." Louis Absolutism of Louis XIV 399 possessed much natural intelligence, a retentive memory, and gr-eat capacity for work. It must be added, however, that his general education had been neglected, and that throughout his life he remained ignorant and superstitious. Vanity formed a striking trait in the character of Louis. He accepted the most fulsome compliments and delighted to be known as the "Grand Monarch" and the "Sun-king." Louis gathered around him a magnificent court at Versailles, near Paris. Here a whole royal city, with palaces, parks, groves, and fountains, sprang into being at his qq^^^ ^f order. Many French nobles now spent little time Louis XIV on their country estates; they preferred to remain ^ ^^^^^ ®^ at Versailles in attendance on the king, to whose favor they owed offices, pensions, and honors. The king's countenance, it was said, is the courtier's supreme felicity; "he passes his life look- ing on it and within sight of it." The famous saying, "I am the State," ^ though not uttered by Louis, accurately expressed his conviction that in him were embodied the power and greatness of France. Louis XIV, Few monarchs have tried harder to justify their *^® ^^s despotic rule. He was fond of gayety and sport, but he never permitted himself to be turned away from the punctual dis- charge of his royal duties. Until the close of his reign — one of the longest in the annals of Europe — Louis devoted from five to nine hours a day to what he called the " trade of a king." Conditions in France made possible the absolutism of Louis. Richelieu and Mazarin had labored with great success to strengthen the Crown at the expense of the nobles Absolutism and the commons. The nation had no Parliament ^^ France to represent it and voice its demands, for the Estates-General had not been summoned since 16 14. It did not meet again till 1789, just before the outbreak of the French Revolution. In France there was no Magna Carta to protect the liberties of the people by limiting the right of a ruler to impose taxes at will. The French, furthermore, lacked independent law courts which could interfere with the king's power of exiling, imprisoning, 1 "L'Etai, c'est moi." 400 Absolutism in England and France 1 The view shows the rear of the palace, a part of the gardens, and the grand stairway leading to the Fountain of Latona. The palace now forms a magnificent picture gallery of French historical scenes and personages, while the park, with its many fine fountains, is a place of holiday resort for Parisians. It is estimated that Louis XIV spent one hundred million dollars on the buildings and grounds of Versailles. The Wars of Louis XIV 401 or executing his subjects. Absolute monarchy thus became so firmly rooted in France that a revolution was necessary to overthrow it. 146. The Wars of Louis XIV How unwise it may be to concentrate all authority in the hands of one man is shown by the melancholy record of the wars of Louis XIV. To make France powerful and crain . . . Ambitious fame for himself, Louis plunged his country into designs a series of struggles from which it emerged com- y,^°"^^ pletely exhausted. He dreamed of dominating all western Europe, but his aggressions provoked against him a constantly increasing number of allies, who in the end proved to be too strong even for the king's able generals and fine armies. Louis himself lacked military talent and did not take a prom- inent part in any campaign. He was served, however, by excel- lent commanders. Vauban, an accomplished engi- French neer, especially developed siege-craft. It was said militarism of Vauban that he never besieged a fortress without taking it and never lost one which he defended. Louvois, the war min- ister of the king, recruited, equipped, and provisioned larger bodies of troops than ever before had appeared on European battle-fields. It was Louvois who introduced the use of distinc- tive uniforms for soldiers and the custom of marching in step. He also established field hospitals and ambulances and placed camp life on a sanitary basis. The labors of these men gave Louis the best standing army of the age. Of the four great wars which filled a large part of Louis's reign, all but the last were designed to extend the dominions of France on the east and northeast as far as the The Rhine Rhine. That river in ancient times had separated boundary Gaul and Germany, and Louis, as well as Richelieu and Mazarin before him, regarded it as a "natural boundary" of France. Some expansion in this direction had already been made by the Peace of Westphalia, when France gained much of Alsace, as well as certain bishoprics in Lorraine.^ A treaty which 1 See page 372. 402 Absolutism in England and France Amsterdam 4—^ ^ Acquisitions of Louis XIV Acquisitions of Louis XV Scale of Miles 100 150 THE M.-N. WORKS Acquisitions of Louis XIV and Louis XV Mazarin negotiated with Spain in 1659 also gave to France possessions in Artois and Flanders. Louis thus had a good basis for further advance toward the Rhine. The French king began his aggressions by an effort to annex the Belgian or Spanish Netherlands, which then belonged to Three wars Spain. A triple alliance of Holland, England, and Sweden forced him to relinquish all his con- quests, except some territory in Flanders (1668). Louis blamed the Dutch for his setback and determined to punish them. Moreover, the Dutch represented everything to which he was opposed, for Holland was a republic,- the keen rival for the Rhine The Wars of Louis XIV 403 of France in trade, and Protestant in religion. By skillful diplomacy he persuaded England and Sweden to stand aloof, while his armies entered Holland and drew near to Amsterdam. At this critical moment William, prince of Orange,^ became the Dutch leader. He was a descendant of that William the Silent, who, a century before, had saved the Dutch out of the hands of Spain. By William's orders the Dutch cut the dikes and interposed a watery barrier to further advance by the French. William then formed another Continental coalition, which carried on the war till Louis signified his desire for peace. The Dutch did not lose a foot of territory, but Spain was obliged to cede to France the important province of Franche Comte (1678). A few years later Louis sought additional territory in the Rhinelands, but again an alliance of Spain, Holland, England, and the Holy Roman Empire compelled him to sue for terms (1697).^ The treaty of peace concluding the third war for the Rhine confirmed the French king in the possession of Strassburg, to- gether with other cities and districts of Alsace Alsace and which he had previously annexed. Alsace was Lorraine now completely joined to France, except for some territories of small extent which were acquired about a century later. The Alsatians, though mainly of Teutonic extraction, in process of time considered themselves French and lost all desire for union with any of the German states. The greater part of Lorraine was not added to France until 1766, during the reign of Louis's successor. The Lorrainers, likewise, became thor- oughly French in feeling. The European balance of power had thus far been preserved, but it was now threatened in another direction. The king of Spain lay dying, and as he was without children The Spanish or brothers to succeed him, all Europe wondered succession what would be the fate of his vast possessions in Europe and America. Louis had married one of his sisters, and the Holy Roman Emperor another, so both the Bourbons and the Aus- ^ Subsequently William III of England. See page 393. 2 In America this third war was known as "King William's War." 404 Absolutism in England and France trian Hapsburgs could put forth claims to the Spanish throne. When the king died, it was found that he had left his entire dominions to one of Louis's grandsons, in the hope that the French might be strong enough to keep them undivided. Though Louis knew that acceptance of the inheritance would involve a war with Austria and probably with England, whose ruler, William III, was Louis's old foe, ambition triumphed over fear and the desire for glory over consideration for the welfare of France. Louis proudly pre- sented his grandson to the court at Versailles, saying, "Gentle- men, behold the king of Spain." In the War of the Spanish Suc- cession France and Spain faced , , the Grand Alliance, War of the ,.,.,,, ^ ' Spanish which mcluded Eng- ?l'«%^'?i'' land, Holland, Aus- 1702-1713 ' ' tria, several of the German states, and Portugal. Europe had never known a war that concerned so many coun- tries and peoples. William III died shortly after the outbreak of hostihties, leaving the con- tinuance of the contest as a 'legacy to his sister-in-law. Queen Anne.^ England supplied the coalition with funds, a fleet, and also with the ablest com- mander of the age, the duke of Marlborough. In Eugene, prince of Savoy, the Allies had another skillful and daring general. Their great victory at Blenheim ^ in 1 704 was the first of a series of successes which finally drove the French out of Germany and Italy and opened the road to Paris. But dissensions among the Allies and the heroic resistance of 1 In America the war was known as "Queen Anne's War." * See Southey's poem After Blenheim. Marlborough A miniature in the possession of the Duke of Buccleugh. 5' o- »^ CL "-» cr p o f^ o ►^ o- > O p ;:^ ? (D re jTj P p O 4o6 Absolutism in England and France France and Spain enabled Louis to hold the enemy at bay, until the exhaustion of both sides led to the conclusion of the Peace of Utrecht. This peace ranks with that of WestphaHa among the most important diplomatic arrangements of .modern times. First, Peace of Louis's grandson was recognized as king of Spain Utrecht, and her colonies, on condition that the Spanish 1713 and French crowns should never be united. Since this time Bourbon sovereigns have continued to rule in Spain. Next, the Austrian Hapsburgs gained most of the Spanish dominions in Italy, as well as the Belgian or Spanish Netherlands (henceforth for a century called the Austrian Netherlands). Finally, England obtained from France certain possessions in North America,^ and from Spain the island of Minorca and the rock of Gibraltar, commanding the narrow entrance to the Mediterranean. Two of the smaller members of the Grand Alliance likewise profited by the Peace of Utrecht. The right of the elector of Brandenburg- Brandenburg to enjoy the title of king of Prussia Prussia and was acknowledged. This formed an important *^°^ step in the fortunes of the Hohenzollern dynasty. The duchy of Savoy also became a kingdom and received the island of Sicily (shortly afterwards exchanged for Sardinia). The house of Savoy in the nineteenth century provided Italy with its present reigning family. France lost far less by the war than at one time seemed prob- able. Louis gave up his dream of dominating Europe, but he Position of kept all the Continental acquisitions made earlier in France j^jg ^eign. And yet the price of the king's warlike policy had been a heavy one. France paid it in the shape of famine and pestilence, excessive taxes, heavy debts, and the impoverishment of the people. Louis, now a very old man, survived the PeacQ of Utrecht only two years. As he lay dying, he turned to his httle heir ^ and said, "Try to keep peace with ^ See page 468. ^ His great-grandson, then a child of five years. The reign of Louis XV covered the period 171 5-1 774. France under the ''Grand Monarch" 407 your neighbors. I have been too fond of war; do not imitate me in that, nor in my too great expenditure." These words showed an appreciation of the errors which robbed his long •reign of much of its glory. 147. France under the ** Grand Monarch " No absolute ruler, however conscientious and painstaking, can shoulder the entire burden of government. Louis XIV- necessarily had to rely very much on his ministers, _ ,, Colbert of whom Colbert was the most eminent. Colbert gave France the best administration it had ever known. His reforming hand was especially felt in the finances. He made many improvements in the methods of tax-collection and turned the annual deficit in the revenues into a surplus. One of his innovations, now adopted by all European states, was the budget system. Expenditures had previously been made at random, whether the treasury was full or empty. Colbert drew up careful estimates, one year in advance, of the probable re- ceipts and expenses, so that outlay should never exceed income. Colbert realized that the chief object of a minister of finance should be the increase of the national wealth. Hence he tried in every way to foster manufactures and com- Econoinic merce. Among other measures, Colbert placed measures of hea\y duties on the importation of foreign products, ° ^^* as a means of protecting the ''infant industries" of France. This was the beginning of the protective system, since followed by many European countries and from Europe introduced into America. Colbert regarded protectionism as only a temporary device, however, and spoke of tariffs as crutches by the help of which manufacturers might learn to walk and then throw them away. Colbert shared the erroneous Views of many economists of his age in supposing that the wealth of a country is measured by the amount of gold and silver which it possesses, colbert and He wished, therefore, to provide the French with colonial ex- colonies, where they could obtain the products p^^*^^ which they had previously been obliged to purchase from the 4o8 Absolutism in England and P>ance Spaniards, Dutch, and English. At this time many islands in the West Indies were acquired, Canada was developed, and Louisiana, the vast territory drained by the Mississippi, was opened up to settlement. France thus became one of the lead-- ing colonial powers of Europe. As long as Colbert lived, he kept on good terms with the Huguenots, who formed such useful and industrious subjects. _ . Louis, however, had no love for the Huguenots, Revocation , ' 11, • 1 , V^ , of the Edict whom he regarded as heretics, and whose Calvm- ?L'^^^*^^* istic principles, he knew, endowed them with 1685 scant respect for absolute monarchy. Accordingly, the king revoked the Edict of Nantes,^ after the French for almost a cen- tury had en- joyed rehgious toleration. The Huguenots were denied freedom of worship and were also de- prived of their rights as citi- zens. They con- tinued to be an outlawed and persecuted sect until shortly before the French Revolution. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes resulted in a con- siderable emigration of Huguenots from France. What was a Emigration ^°^^ ^^ ^^^^ country was a gain to England and Holland, where they introduced their arts and trades. Prussia, also, profited by the emigration of the Huguenots. Many of them went to Berlin, and that capital owed the beginning of its importance to its Huguenot population. Louis by his bigotry thus strengthened the chief Protestant foes of France. Louis was a generous patron of art. One of his architects, ^ See page 368. Medal of Louis XIV Commemorates the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The obverse bears a representation of " Louis the Great, the Most Chris- tian King," the reverse contains a legend meaning " Heresy Ex- tinguished." of the Huguenots France under the "Grand Monarch" 409 Louis XIV Mansard, invented the mansard roof, which has been largely used in France and other European countries. Art under This architectural device makes it possible to ^°^^ ^^V provide extra rooms at a small expense, without adding an additional story to the building. Among the monuments of Louis's reign are the Hotel des Invalides,^ now the tomb of Napoleon, additions to the Louvre,^ and the huge palace of Versailles. Louis also founded the Gobelins manu- factory, so celebrated for fine carpets, furniture, and metal work. The long list of French au- thors who flourished at this time includes Moliere, Literature the greatest of under French dramatists, La Fontaine, whose fables are still popular, Perrault, now remembered for his fairy tales, and Madame de Sevigne, whose letters are regarded as models of French prose. Probably the most tamous work composed at this time is the Memoirs of Saint-Simon. It presents an intimate and not very flattering picture of the king and his court. Louis and his ministers believed that the government should encourage research and the diffusion of knowledge. Richelieu' founded and Colbert fostered the French Academy. Learning Its forty members, sometimes called the ''Im- mortals," are chosen for their eminent contribu- tions to language and literature. The great dictionary of the French language, on which they have labored for more than two centuries, is still unfinished. The academy now forms a ^ See page 286, note i. 2 See page 290. MOLIERE A bust by J. A. Houdon in the Theatre Franfaise, Paris. under Louis XIV 4IO Absolutism in England and France section of the Institute of France. The patronage of Colbert also did much to enrich the National Library at Paris, which contains the largest collection of books in the world. The brilUant reign of Louis XIV cast its spell upon the rest of Europe. Other sovereigns looked to him as the model of The age of what a king should be, and set themselves to Louis XIV imitate the splendor of his court. During this period the French language, manners, dress, art, hterature, and science became the accepted standards of good society in all civilized lands. France still retains in large measure the preeminent position which she secured under the ''Grand Monarch." Studies I. Give dates for (a) Peace of Utrecht, (b) execution of Charles I, (c) the " Glorious Revolution," and (d) revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 2. For what were the following men notable: Pym; Duke of Marlborough; Louvois; Hampden; Mazarin; William III; and Colbert? 3. Explain and illustrate the following terms: (a) budget system; {b) absolutism; (c) writ of habeas corpus; {d) mili- tarism; and (e) "ship-money." 4. Compare the theory of the divine right of kings with the medieval theory of the papal supremacy. 5. Do any European monarchs still claim to rule by divine right? 6. What is the essential distinction between a "limited" or "constitutional" monarchy and an "absolute" or "auto- cratic" monarchy? 7. Explain: "Rump Parliament"; "Pride's Purge"; the "New Model"; the "Ironsides"; "Cavalier"; and "Roundhead." 8. What circumstances gave rise to (a) the Petition of Right; (b) the Instrument of Govern- ment; (c) the Habeas Corpus Act; and (J) the Bill of Rights? 9. Why were the reformers within the Church of England called "Puritans"? 10. Contrast the Commonwealth as a national republic with the medieval Italian cities, the Swiss Confederation, and the United Netherlands. 11. Under what circumstances does the Constitution of the United States provide for the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus? 12. Why has the Bill of Rights been called the "third great charter of English liberty"? 13. Show that the Revolution of i688-8g was a "preserv- ing" and not a "destroying" revolution. 14. By reference to the map on page 402 show how far the "natural boundaries" of France were attained during the reign of Louis XIV. 15. How did the condition of Germany after the Thirty Years' War facilitate the efforts of Louis XIV to extend the French frontiers to the Rhine? 16. Read Southey's poem After Blenheim. Does it rightly appreciate the sig- nificance of this battle in European history? 17. Show that in the Peace of Utrecht nearly all the contestants profited at the expense of Spain. 18. "The age of Louis XIV in France is worthy to stand by the side of the age of Pericles in Greece and of Augustus in Italy." Does this statement appear to be justified? CHAPTER $£yil THE EUROPEAN BALANCE OF POWER, 1715-1789 148. The Eighteenth Century in Politics The death of Louis XIV, shortly after the Peace of Utrecht, brought one historical epoch to a close and began another. Seventy-four years were to intervene before the Limits of meeting of the Estates-General ushered in the *^® century French Revolution, which has so profoundly affected all modern Europe to the present day. These seventy-four years from 1 71 5 to 1789 really constitute the eighteenth century, a period preparatory to the revolutionary period by which it was suc- ceeded. A cardinal principle of eighteenth-century diplomacy was that of the balance of power. After the Peace of Westphalia states- men generally agreed that the various European ^j^^ ^^_ nations, so unlike in size, population, and resources, ance of ought to form a sort of federal community in P°^®^ which the security of all was ensured. If any nation became so strong as to overshadow the others, then they must combine against it and treat it as a common enemy. Louis XIV, who ignored this principle, had repeatedly to face the coaHtions of his weaker neighbors. But the balance of power too often remained only an ideal, in an age when diplomacy was corrupt and international im- morality was universal. Rulers schemed and xerritorial plotted and fought bloody wars solely to enlarge aggrandize- their dominions. From now on territorial ag- ^^^ grandizement replaced religious dissension as the main cause of European strife. The interests of dynasties, rather than those of peoples, were chiefly considered in the diplomacy of the eighteenth century. 412 The European Balance of Power Monarchs paid little heed to racial limits or national bound- Dynastic aries, but cut and pared countries "as if they interests ^^^e Dutch cheeses." The idea — now so preva- lent — that each people should determine its own destiny was then unrecognized. The special interest of this age in political history lies in the emergence of new European states. Three great nations of jjg^ the seventeenth century, namely, Spain, Sweden, European and Holland, retired to the background and in their place arose the empire of Russia and the kingdom of Prussia. Together with France, Great Britain, and Austria, they formed the leading powers. 149. Rise of Russia The influence of geographical conditions is clearly seen in Russian history. European Russia forms an immense, un- Geography broken plain, threaded by numerous rivers which in Russian facilitate movement into every part of the country. ^ °^ While western Europe, with its mountain ranges and deep inlets of the sea, tended to divide into many separate states, Russia just as naturally became a single state. In historic times Goths, Huns, Avars, Finns, Bulgarians, Northmen, and Mongols occupied Russian territory, but the The Russian bulk of the population at the end of the medieval people period belonged to the Slavic branch of the Indo- European race. The Russians, therefore, were closely related in both language and blood to the Bohemians and Poles of central Europe and to the Serbians of the Balkan peninsula.^ Yet the Russians at the opening of modern times seemed to be rather an Asiatic than a European people. Three hundred Backward- years of Mongol rule had isolated them from their ness of the Slavic neighbors and had interrupted the stream ussians ^£ civilizing influences which in earlier days flowed into Russia from Scandinavia and from the Byzantine Empire. After the expulsion of the Mongols, Russia continued to be ^ For Russian history in the Middle Ages see pages loo and 185. Rise of Russia 413 shut out from the Baltic by the Swedes and Poles and from the Black Sea by the Turks. The lack of seaports discouraged foreign commerce, through which European ideas and customs GROWTH OF BUS^ to the end of the EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Scale of Miles The Grand Principality of I I Moscow, or Muscovy, ' ' inH62A.D. I I Acquisitions 1462-1C89 -^~lk~-J j 1 Acquisitions under Peter/' I 1 the Great, 1G89-1725 A.Di— □Acquisitions under Peter's Successors, 1720-1790 A.D. ^. o might have entered Russia, while at the same time the nature of the country made agriculture rather than industry the prin- cipal occupation. Most of the Russians were ignorant, super- stitious peasants, who led secluded lives in small farming villages scattered over the plains and throughout the forests. Even the inhabitants of the towns lacked the education and en- Ughtened manners of the western peoples, whose ways they 414 The European Balance of Power disliked and whose religion, whether Protestantism or Catholi- cism, they condemned as heretical. Russia, in short, needed to be restored to Europe and Europe needed to be introduced to Russia. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Russians began to spread southward over the region watered by the The Dnieper, the Don, and the Volga. Many emigrants Ukraine settled in the border country called the Ukraine,^ which lay on both sides of the lower Dnieper. The Ukrainians (Little Russians) speak a Slavic dialect unlike that of the northern or Great Russians and nourish an independent spirit. The vanguard of the Ukrainian colonists was led by the mounted warriors known as Cossacks.^ Like the frontiersmen The of the American West, the Cossacks lived a wild and Cossacks independent hfe, now as herdsmen and farmers, now as hunters and fighters. They became in time subjects of the tsar, but still preserve a warlike organization, the tenure of land by military service (a form of feudalism), and the privilege of electing their own hetman, or supreme leader. The Russian plain, between the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea, merges insensibly into the steppes of northern . Asia. A steady stream of emigrants passed along this route into Siberia, much of which the Mongols had earlier subdued. Their power declined, however, and the Cossacks had little difficulty in capturing Sibir, the Mongol capital from which the whole region takes its name. Before the middle of the seventeenth century the Russians had pene- trated to the Arctic Ocean and the Sea of Okhotsk. By the close of the century they occupied Kamchatka and faced the Pacific. The foundations of Russian supremacy were thus laid throughout northern Asia, a vast wilderness previously inhab- ited only by half-savage, heathen tribes. Over these dominions in Europe and Asia reigned the monarch who called himself the tsar and autocrat of all Russia. The family of tsars, descended from the Northman Ruric, became 1 From the Russian krai, a frontier. 2 From the Turkish word, kazak, an adventurer or freebooter. Russia under Peter the Great 415 extinct at the close of the sixteenth century, and disputes over the succession led to civil wars and foreign in- Accession vasions. The Russians then proceeded to select °^ *^® Romanov a new tsar, and for this purpose a general assem- dynasty, bly of nobles and delegates from the towns met ^®^^ at Moscow. Their choice fell upon one of their own number, Michael Romanov by name, whose family was related to the old royal line. He proved to be an excellent ruler in troublous times. His grandson was the celebrated Peter the Great. 150i Russia under Peter the Great, 1689-1725 Peter became sole ruler of Russia when only seventeen years of age. His character almost defies analysis. An English contemporary, who knew him well, described him as "a man of a very hot temper, soon inflamed, and very brutal in his passion." Deeds of fiendish cruelty were congenial to him. After a mutiny of his bodyguard he edified the court by himself slicing off the heads of the culprits. In order to quell opposition in his family, he had his wife whipped by the knout and ordered his own son to be tortured and ex- ecuted. He was coarse, gluttonous, and utterly without personal dignity. The companions of his youth were profligates; his banquets were orgies of dissipation. Yet Peter could be often frank and good-humored, and to his friends he was as loyal as he was treacherous to his foes. At heart, too, he was deeply religious, for he believed himself to be an instrument for good in the hands of God. Whatever his weaknesses, few men have done more than Peter to change the course of history, and few have better deserved the appellation of "the Great." Peter grew up wild and undisciplined, and he had to educate himself. The practical bent of his mind disclosed itself in the interest he took in mechanics, ship-building, Peter's siege-craft, and military drill. Association with education foreigners at Moscow gave him some knowledge of European arts and sciences and first suggested to him the need of" intro- ducing western culture into Russia. 4i6 The European Balance of Power Soon after becoming tsar Peter sent fifty young Russians of the best families to England, Holland, and Venice to absorb Peter in ^^^ ^^^^ could of European ideas. Afterwards he western came himself, traveling incognito as "Peter Mi- ^°^® khailov." He spent two years abroad, particularly in Holland and England, where he studied ship-building and navigation. He also collected miners, mechanics, engineers, architects, and experts of every sort for the roads and bridges, the ships and palaces, the schools and hospitals which were to arise in Russia. Many of Peter's re- forms were intended to Europeaniza- introduce the tion of customs of Russia , T-' western Eu- rope into Russia. The long Asiatic robes of Rus- sian nobles had to give way to short German jackets and hose. Long Painted bcards, which the people considered sacred, had to be shaved, or else a tax paid for the privilege of wearing one. Women, previously kept in seclusion, were permitted to appear in public without veils and to mingle at dances and entertain- ments with men. A Russian order of chivalry — that of St. Andrew — was founded. The Bible was translated into the ver- nacular and sold at popular prices. Peter adopted the "Julian calendar," in place of the old Russian calendar, which began the year on the first of September, supposed to be the date of the creation. He also improved the Russian alphabet by omit- ting some of its cumbersome letters and by simplifying others. Such innovations were accepted only by the upper classes. The peasants clung tenaciously to their old ways and remained Peter The Great A portrait of the tsar in Russian dress, in England in 1698. Russia under Peter the Great 417 little affected by the sudden inrush of European ideas and manners. Peter found in Russia no regular army; he organized one after the German fashion. The soldiers (except the Cossacks) were uniformed and armed like European troops. Rgcon- He found no fleet; he built one, modeled upon stmction of that of Holland. He opened mines, cut qanals, "^^^* laid out roads, introduced sheep breeding, and fostered by protective tariffs the growth of silk and woolen manufactures. He instituted a police system and a postal service. He estab- Hshed schools of medicine, engineering, and navigation, as well as those of lower grade. He also framed a code of laws based upon the legal systems of western Europe. The tsar's reforming measures encountered much opposition on the part of the clergy. He endeavored, therefore, to render them harmless by making the Russian Church Peter an entirely a state institution. All ecclesiastical autocrat authority was vested in the Holy Synod, whose members were chosen by himself. The head of the Russian state thus became, in effect, the head of the Russian Church as well. Like the clergy, the old nobility had opposed Peter's innovations. He consequently transformed it into an aristocracy of office- holders whose rank depended, not upon their birth or wealth, but upon their service to the tsar. Any family which for two generations had not taken part in the government ceased to be noble. In place of an ancient assembly (Duma) of nobles, Peter instituted a Council of State, directly responsible to him- self. Peter in these ways established an absolutism as un- limited as that of his contemporary Louis XIV. Very different views have been expressed as to the value of Peter's work. It is said, on the one side, that Russia could only be made over by such measures as he used; value of that the Russian people had to be dragged from Peter's their old paths and pushed on the broad road of ^°' progress. On the other side, it is argued that Peter's reforms were too sudden, too radical, and too httle suited to the Slavic national character. The upper classes acquired only a veneer 41 8 The European Balance of Power of western civilization, and with it many vices. The nobles continued to be indolent, corrupt, and indifferent to the public welfare. The clergy became merely the tools of the tsar. The common people remained as ignorant and oppressed as ever and without any opportunity of self-government. What- ever may be the truth as to these two views, no one disputes the fact that in a single reign, by the action of one man, Russia began to pass from semi-barbarism to civilization. As the ancient capital, Moscow, formed a stronghold of con- servatism, Peter determined to build a new capital, less Asiatic St. Peters- in character and more susceptible to European burg, 1703 influence. The site chosen was an unhealthy swamp on the river Neva, not far from the Gulf of Finland. The laborers perished by thousands, but Peter cared little for human life and with resistless energy urged forward the work of draining the marshes and digging canals to carry away the stagnant waters. Russian traders were forced to settle in the city and all the great landowners were required to build mansions there. To this northern Venice Peter gave the German name of (St.) Petersburg.^ The remaking of Russia according to European models formed only a half of Peter's program. His foreign poHcy was Peter's equally ambitious. He realized that Russia needed foreign readier access to the sea than could be found ^° ^^ through the Arctic port of Archangel. Peter made little headway against the Turks, who controlled the Black Sea, but twenty years of intermittent warfare with the Swedes enabled him to carry the western frontier of Russia to the Baltic. Russian history at this point connects closely with the history of Sweden. 151. Sweden and the Career of Charles XII The Baltic has som'etimes been called a secondary Mediter- ranean. It resembles that sea in its narrow entrance, numerous ^ In 1914, at the outset of the World War, the name was changed to the Slavic equivalent, Petrograd. In 191 8 the Bolsheviki government of Russia removed the capital back to Moscow. Sweden and the Career of Charles XII 419 Scandinavia in the Seventeenth Century islands, and deeply indented shores. But the lands adjoining the Baltic are less fertile than those which surround „. ^ . xlistonc the Mediterranean; it is of much smaller size; and importance many of its harbors are icebound during half the ^ ^^^ year. For these reasons the historic importance of the Baltic cannot compare with that of the Mediterranean, except in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when Sweden became a great power. The inhabitants of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, though one in blood and almost one in speech, have never coalesced into a single nation. The Union of Calmar, which ^^e three thev formed in i^gv, gave them a common ruler, Scandinavian ^ • J 11- J.I ■. kingdoms but permitted each kmgdom to keep its own con- stitution and laws. Even this feeble confederation broke down 420 The European Balance of Power Greatness of Sweden during the storms of the Reformation. It was finally dis- solved in 1524, and Sweden again became independent. The kings of Sweden were both patriotic and able, and under them the country, though thinly populated and poor in natural resources, rose to a leading place among European states. Finland had been a Swedish dependency since the twelfth century. Esthonia, on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland, was conquered in the sixteenth century. Three other provinces, namely, Karelia, Ingria, and Livonia, were ac- quired by Gustavus Adolphus. His participation in the Thirty Years' War also secured for Sweden, at the Peace of West- phalia, western Pomerania and other possessions in the north of Germany. Sweden at this time controlled all the islands and nearly all the coast of the Baltic. The mouths of the Neva, Dlina, Oder, Elbe, and Weser were under the Swedish flag. The greatness of Sweden cul- minated and then declined during the spectacular reign of Charles Charles XII Reign of Charles XII, 1697-1718 ^ XII. His youth was prophetic of his career. Indoors he read the exploits of Alexander the Great; out of doors he devoted himself to hunting and warhke exercises. He came to the throne a lad of only fifteen, but already daring, ambitious, and eager for military glory. Events soon thrust into his hand the sword he was never to relinquish. Sweden could not be mistress of the Baltic without provoking the jealousy of various neighboring states, in particular, Russia, Exploits of Poland, and Denmark. Shortly after the ac- Charies cession of Charles XII they formed a coahtion to seize and dismember the Swedish possessions. The boy-king, Sweden and the Career of Charles XII 421 far from being dismayed by the odds against him, turned fiercely upon his enemies before they could unite. He invaded Denmark, appeared before the walls of Copenhagen, and com- pelled the terrified Danes to conclude a separate peace. He won almost fabulous victories in Russia and Poland, at one time overthrowing a Russian army five times as large as his own. The Poles, also badly beaten, were required to depose their ruler and accept the nominee of the Swedish king. But Charles was like a meteor which flashed across the European sky to disappear as quickly as it came. Rejecting all overtures for peace, he determined to march Battle of on Moscow and dictate terms to Peter the Great. Poltava, The Russian resistance stiffened as the Swedes ^^^^ approached the capital along much the same route which the French under Napoleon followed one hundred years later. Charles had to turn south to the Ukraine, where he hoped to raise the Cossacks against the tsar. Here, however, he was defeated by Peter in the decisive battle of Poltava. Charles afterwards returned to his kingdom, but soon perished in an obscure conflict in Norway. Exhausted Sweden had now no choice but to make terms with her foes. She lost nearly all her foreign possessions except Finland.^ The greater part of western Pomerania partition of went to Prussia, which thus secured valuable Swedish territory at the mouth of the Oder. Russia profited ^^"'^"""^''^^ even more, for she took the four Swedish provinces on the eastern shores of the Baltic. Much of this region had been colonized in the Middle Ages by the knights of the Teutonic Order.^ It was now to become a Slavic land. Here Peter the Great founded his new capital, thus realizing a long-cherished dream of opening a ''window" through which the Russian people might look into Europe. 1 A small part of Finland, lying along the gulf of that name, was ceded to Russia. The rest of the country did not enter the Russian Empire until 1809. 2 See page 222. 422 The European Balance of Power 152. Russia under Catheriae II, 1762-1796; the Decline of Turkey Shortly after the death of Peter the Great, at the early age of fifty- three, the male line of the Romanov dynasty became ex- Tsarina tinct. The succession now passed to women, who Catherine intermarried with German princes and thus in- creased enormously the German influence in Russia. It was a German princess, Catherine II, who completed Peter's work of remaking Russia into a European state. She, also, has been called "the Great," a title possibly merited by her achieve- ments, though not by her character. Catherine came to Russia as the wife of the heir-apparent. Once in her adopted country, she proceeded to make herself in all ways a Russian, learning the language and even con- forming, at least out- wardly, to the Orthodox Church. Her husband was a weakling, and Catherine managed to get rid of him after he had reigned only six months. She then mounted the throne and for thirty - four years ruled Russia with a firm hand. The overthrow of Sweden left Poland and Turkey as the two coun- tries which still blocked the path of Russia toward the sea. Catherine's Catherine warred against them throughout her foreign reign. She took the lion's share of Poland, when ^° ^^ that unfortunate kingdom, as we shall shortly learn, was divided among Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Cath- Catherine II A painting by Van Wilk. Russia under Catherine II 423 erine also secured from the Turks an outlet for Russia on the Black Sea, though she never realized her dream of expelling them from European soil. When Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453, their Eu- ropean dominions already included a considerable part of the Balkan peninsula. The two centuries following witnessed the steady advance of the Ottoman of the arms. What are now Bulgaria, Rumania, Serbia, Ottoman Bosnia, Albania, and Greece were incorporated within the Turkish Empire. Only tiny Montenegro, protected by mountain ramparts and a heroic soldiery, preserved its independence. Pressing northward, the Turks conquered part of Hungary and made the rest of that country a depend- ency. They overran the Crimea and bestowed it upon a Mongol khan as a tributary province. They annexed Egypt, Syria, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and the coast of northern Africa. The Black Sea and the eastern Mediterranean became Turkish lakes. Two dramatic events showed that the Christian peoples of Europe could still oppose a successful resistance to the war- riors of the Crescent. The first was the battle of Lepanto (15 71), which checked the further ad- of the vance of Turkey in Mediterranean waters.^ The ottoman oowcr second was the defeat suffered by the Turks under the walls of Vienna (1683). They marched on the Austrian capital, two hundred thousand strong, laid siege to it, and would have taken it but for the timely appearance of a relieving army under the Polish king, John Sobieski. Poland at that time saved Austria from destruction and earned the praise of Christian Europe. A few years later all Hungary shook off the Turkish yoke. Catherine's two wars with the Turks mark a further stage in the decline of the Ottoman power. Russia secured Russian the Crimea, as well as the northern coast of the acquisitions Black Sea. Russian merchant ships were also ^^°°^ Turkey granted free access through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles 1 See page 355- 424 The European Balance of Power to the Mediterranean. Catherine in this way opened another ''window" on Europe. Turkey lost more than territory. The Sultan gave to Russia the right to control a new Russian church in Constantinople, rpjjg thus recognizing the claim of the tsars to be the ** Eastern natural protectors of Orthodox Christians through- on ^^^ j^.^ dominions. Russia from this time in- terfered constantly in Turkish affairs. The Sultan became the "sick man" of Europe, the disposition of whose possessions among his envious neighbors would henceforth form one of the thorny problems of European diplomacy. In a word, what is called the "Eastern Question" began., 153. The Partitions of Poland, 1772-1795 Our first glimpse of the Poles reveals them as a Slavic people, still wild and heathen, who occupied the region between the Poland in upper waters of the Oder and the Vistula. They the Middle began to adopt Roman Christianity toward the ^^^ close of the tenth century, thus coming into con- tact with the more civilized nations of the West. Poland suffered terribly from the Mongol invasions, but, unlike Russia, never bowed to the yoke of the Great Khan. The Poles in the fourteenth century united with the Lithuanians, under a com- mon king. After the union the ancient Polish capital of Cracow gave way to Warsaw, novr one of the largest and finest cities of eastern Europe. Poland was geographically badly made. It formed an im- mense, monotonous plain, reaching from the Baltic almost to Geography the Black Sea. No natural barriers of rivers or of Poland mountains separated the country from Russia on the east and Austria and Prussia on the west. Poland was not racially compact. Besides Poles and Lithu- anians, the inhabitants included many Russians, a considerable Inhabitants number of Germans and Swedes, and a large of Poland Jewish population in the towns. The differences between them in race and language were accentuated by The Partitions of Poland 425 The Partition of Poland A contemporary cartoon which represents Catherine II, Joseph II, and Frederick II pointing out on the map the boundaries of Poland as divided between them. Stanislaus II, the Polish king, is trying to keep his crown from falling off his head. religious dissensions. The Poles and most of the Lithuanians belonged to the Roman Catholic Church, the Germans and Swedes adhered to Lutheranism, while the Russians accepted the Greek Orthodox faith. Feudahsm, though almost extinct in western Europe, flour- ished in Poland. There were more than a million PoUsh 426 The European Balance of Power nobles, mostly very poor, but each one owning a share of S cial ^^^ land. No large and wealthy middle class conditions existed. The peasants were miserable serfs over in Poland ^hom their lords had the power of life and death. The Polish monarchy was elective, not hereditary, an ar- rangement which converted the kings into mere puppets of P litical ^^^ noble electors. A Polish sovereign could conditions neither make war or peace, nor pass laws, nor in Poland ^^^^ ^^^^^ without the consent of the Polish national assembly. In this body, which was composed of representatives of the nobility, any member by his single adverse vote — '*I object" — could block proposed legisla- tion. The result was that the nobles seldom passed any measures except those which increased their own power and privileges. The wonder is, not that Poland collapsed, but that it survived so long under such a system of government. Russia, Austria, and Prussia had long interfered in the choice of Pohsh rulers. Now they began to annex PoHsh territory. First ^^ ^^^ ^^^ necessary to conquer the country, but partition, only to divide it up like a thing ownerless and dead. ^^^^ In 1772 Catherine II joined with the Austrian empress, Maria Theresa, and the Prussian king, Frederick the Great, in the first partition of Poland. Russia took a strip east of the Diina and Dnieper rivers inhabited entirely by Russians. Austria took Galicia and neighboring lands occu- pied by Poles and Russians. Prussia received the coveted West Prussia, whose inhabitants were mainly Germans. Alto- gether Poland lost about one-third of its territory. The first partition opened the eyes of the Polish nobles to the ruin which threatened their country. Something like a patriotic spirit now developed, and efforts began to remove Second and f n . , ,. . -. i if third the glarmg absurdities of the old government. partitions, jj^g reform movement encountered the opposition of the neighboring sovereigns, who wished to keep Poland as weak as possible in order to have an excuse for further spoliation. The second partition (1793), in which only Russia and Prussia shared, cut deeply into Poland. Two years later The Partitions of Poland 427 came the final dismemberment of the country among its three neighbors. The brave though futile resistance of the Polish patriots, led by Kosciuszko, who had fought under Washington THE M-N. WORKS/ Partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795 a.d. in the Revolutionary War, threw a gleam of glory upon the last days of the expiring kingdom. The suggestion for the dismemberment of Poland came from Frederick the Great, who with his usual frankness admitted that it was an act of brigands. In Catherine II ResponsibU- he found an ally as unprincipled as himself. Maria ity for the 1 • i_ 1. i_ partitions Theresa expressed horror at the crime, but her scruples were easily overcome. Indeed, her chief complaint 428 The European Balance of Power was that the other two monarchs had taken the best shares of the plunder. This shameful violation of international law produced a ''Polish Question." From the eighteenth century to the twen- The " Polish tieth century the Poles never ceased to be rest- Question" less ^^(^ unhappy under foreign overlords. They developed a new national consciousness after the loss of their freedom, and the severest measures of repression failed to break their spirit. One happy result of the World War has been the restoration of Poland as an independent country. 154. Rise of Prussia Germany, at the end of the Thirty Years' War, was merely a geographical name for a collection of more than three hundred Prussia in States owing only a nominal allegiance to the German Holy Roman Empire. Yet the German people, ^^ °^^ who had once formed such efficient organizations as the Teutonic Order and the Hanseatic League, were mani- festly destined for union under a single government. They could not always remain weak and defenseless, with their country the battle-ground of Europe. It was to be the work of Prussia to achieve the unification of the Fatherland. Prussia, the creator of modern Germany, was the creation of the HohenzoUerns.i Excepting Frederick the Great, no The Hohen- HohenzoUern deserves to be ranked as a genius; zoUerns ^^^ j^ would be hard to name another dynasty with so many able, ambitious, and unscrupulous rulers. The Hohenzollerns prided themselves on the fact that almost every member of the family enlarged the possessions received from his ancestors. They did this by purchase, by inheritance, by shrewd diplomacy, and, most of all, by hard fighting. Margraviate ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ obscurity hanging over the early of Brand en- history of the Hohenzollerns lifts early in the "'^' fifteenth century, when one of them received the mark of Brandenburg from the Holy Roman Emperor, as 1 The name is derived from that of their castle on the heights of ZoUern in medie- val Swabia. Emperor WiUiam II was the twenty-fourth ruler of the line. Rise of Prussia 429 compensation for various sums of money advanced to him. Brandenburg in earlier days had formed a German colony planted among the Slavs beyond the Elbe.^ With the mar- graviate went the electoral dignity, that is to say, the ruler of Brandenburg was one of the seven German princes who enjoyed the privilege of choosing the emperor.^ The Hohenzollerns as yet had no connection with Prussia. That country received its name from the Borussi, a heathen people who once occupied the Baltic coast east of jjuchy of the Vistula. Prussia was conquered in the thir- Prussia, teenth century by the knights of the Teutonic Order, who exterminated many of the original inhabitants and kept the rest in subjection by force and terrorism.^ The domi- nant class of Prussian nobles {Junkers) largely descended from these hard-riding, hard-fighting, fierce, cruel knights. They made Prussia a thoroughly German land in speech, customs, and religion. The decline of their order in the fifteenth century enabled the king of Poland to annex West Prussia. During the Reformation the Teutonic grand master, who was a near relative of the Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg, dissolved the order and changed East Prussia into a secular duchy. His family became extinct early in the seventeenth century, and the duchy then passed to the elector of Brandenburg. The period between the close of the Thirty Years' War and the accession of Frederick the Great saw many additions to the HohenzoUern domains. The most impor- Kingdom of tant were eastern Pomerania, the acquisition of Prussia, which extended Brandenburg to the Baltic (1648); ^^^^ . certain districts along the lower Rhine (1666); and most of western Pomerania, which was secured after the defeat of Sweden (1720). The Hohenzollerns were now powerful enough to aspire to royal dignity. At the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession, the emperor, who was anxious to receive the elector's support, allowed him to assume the title of ''king." Prussia, rather than Brandenburg, gave its name to the new kingdom, because the former was an independent ■^ Seepage 19. ^ See page 218, note 2. ^ See pages 221-222, 430 The European Balance of Power state, while the latter was a member of the Holy Roman Empire. Only a strong government could hold together the scattered possessions of the Hohenzollerns. Such a government they Prussian supplied. No rulers of the age exercised a more absolutism unlimited authority. They exacted passive obe- dience from their subjects; nicht raisonniren — "no reasoning here" — was their motto. According to the Hohenzollern principle a monarchy could not be too absolute, provided it was efficient. The king, working through his ministers, who were merely his clerks, must foster agriculture, industry, and commerce, promote education, and act as the guide of his people in matters of religion and morals. This type of Prussian ruler was well exemplified in the person of Frederick William, commonly called the Great Elector. The Great Unattractive in character, cunning and deceitful. Elector, he showed, nevertheless, a single-hearted de- votion to the interests of the state and spared neither himself nor others in its service. His long reign of forty-eight years marked out the paths which Prussia hence- forth followed. He suppressed such representative assemblies as existed in his dominions, replacing them by a central council of his ministers and provincial governors. A Hohenzollern could not tolerate free institutions; the will of the ruler must be supreme. In religious matters the Great Elector adopted a wise policy of toleration. Though Brandenburg was staunchly Protestant, he opened it to Jews from Austria and Huguenots from France and thus added many useful citizens to the popu- lation. His domestic measures were equally wise. By build- ing roads, draining marshes, cutting canals, and encouraging scientific farming, he did much to develop the resources of a country little favored by nature. Finally, he managed to form a standing army, supported by taxation and entirely dependent on himself. Prussian The Hohenzollerns, from the time of the Great militarism Elector, devoted themselves consistently to the upbuilding of their military forces. Prussia was to have Prussia under Frederick the Great 431 an army sufficiently strong to defend a kingdom without natural boundaries and stretching in detached provinces all the way from the Rhine to the Niemen. The soldiers at first were volunteers, recruited in different parts of Germany, but it became necessary to fill up the gaps in the ranks by com- pulsory levies among the peasants. This marked the begin- ning of universal military service in Prussia. Carefully trained officers, appointed from the nobility and advanced only on merit, enforced an iron discipline. The soldiers, it was said, feared their commanders more than they did the enemy. The Great Elector's grandson, Frederick William I, may stand as the representative of Prussian militarism. His brother monarchs were greatly amused when he Frederick formed a company of giant grenadiers, whom he William I, treated as his pets and for whom he ransacked Europe. It was the king's sole indulgence; otherwise he lived with the utmost frugality and saved every possible penny for his army and his war chest. At the end of Frederick Wil- liam's reign, Prussia, with a population of only two and a half millions, could put eighty thousand men in the field, half as many as France and nearly as many as Austria. The king himself did almost no fighting. He was too fond of his well- drilled regiments, his ''blue children," as he called them, to risk them in battle. What could be done with them was shown by his son and successor, Frederick the Great. 155. Prussia under Frederick the Great, 1740-1786 As crown prince of Prussia Frederick had led a hard life. His stern and crabbed father wished to make him only a soldier and discouraged every pursuit which did not con- ^j^^ tribute to this end. But the young man developed youthful other tastes. He learned to play the flute, re- ^^®^®"*=^ ceived secret lessons in Latin, read French plays, and filled his mind with the speculations of French philosophers. WiUiam, seeing his son apparently absorbed in frivolity^ treated him 432 The European Balance of Power with such harshness that he even tried to run away. The attempt failed, and the crown prince lay for a time under sentence of death as a deserter. His punishment took the form of an arduous, slavehke training for the duties of future kingship. "If he kicks or rears again," said his father, ''he shall forfeit the suc- cession to the crown, and even Hfe itself." But Frederick did not kick or rear again. Hence- forth he labored so dili- gently as to win back the esteem of his father, who no longer feared to leave the throne to one unworthy of occupying it. ^ ^ . , , Frederick Fredenck's personality became kmg »^^ at the age character ^ of twenty- eight. He was rather be- low the average height and inclined to stoutness, good look- ing, with the fair hair of North Germans and blue-gray eyes of extraordinary brilliancy. His character had been shaped by the stern experiences of his youth, which left him selfish and unsympathetic, cynical and crafty. He was not a man to inspire affection among his intimates, but with the mass of his subjects he was undeniably popular. Innumerable stories circulated in Prussia about the simpHcity, good humor, and devotion to duty of old "Father Fritz." In the same year, 1740, in which Frederick became king of Maria Prussia, the Hapsburg emperor died, leaving no Theresa g^j^ qj. brother to succeed him. The emperor, however, had secured the solemn promise of Prussia and the Frederick the Great A painting by H. Pataky. Prussia under Frederick the Great 433 other European powers to recognize his daughter, Maria Theresa, as the sole heir of his undivided dominions. She was a strikingly handsome woman, deeply religious, and unusually able; in every respect a worthy antagonist to Frederick, who became her almost lifelong foe. The Hapsburg possessions, scattered over a great part of pT^ Hapsburg Lands 1526 A.D. |^:,iCM Acquisitions 1526-1789 A.D. Territory lost 1526-1789 A.D. is shown by heavy black outline Hapsburg Possessions, 1526-1789 a.d. Europe and inhabited by Hungarians, Bohemians, Nether- landers, Italians, and Germans, seemed ready Acquisition to break up when Maria Theresa assumed the ®^ Silesia crown. Frederick chose as his share of the spoils the large and rich province of Silesia, whose population was mainly German. He suddenly led his army into Silesia and overran the country without much difficulty. It was sheer robbery, without a shadow of justification. As the king afterwards confessed in his Memoirs, "Ambition, interest, and the desire of making people talk about me carried the day; and I de- cided for war." Frederick's action precipitated a general European conflict. 434 The European Balance of Power Outbreak of the Seven Years' War 1756 France, Spain, and Bavaria allied themselves with Prussia, in order to dismember the Hapsburg possessions, Austrian while Great Britain and Holland, anxious to pre- Succession, serve the balance of power, took the side of Austria. Things might have gone hard with Maria Theresa but for the courage and energy which she displayed and the support of her Hungarian subjects. She had to cede Silesia to Frederick, but lost no other territory. In 1748 all the warring countries agreed to a mutual restoration of conquests (with the exception of Silesia) and signed the Peace of ALx-la-Chapelle.^ Maria Theresa still hoped to recover her lost province. As most of the European sover- eigns were either afraid or jealous of Frederick, she found no great difficulty in forming a coalition against him. Russia, France, Sweden, and Saxony all entered it. Most of Europe thus united in arms to dis- member the small Prussian state. It happened, however, that at the head of this small state was a man of military genius, capable of infusing into others his own undaunted spirit and Course supported by subjects disciplined, patient, and of the war loyal. Furthermore, Great Britain in the Seven Years' War was an ally of Prussia. British gold subsidized the Prussian armies, and British troops, by fighting the French in Germany, India, and America, weakened Prussia's most dangerous enemy. Frederick conducted a purely defensive warfare, thrusting now here and now there against his slower- ^ For the War of the Austrian Succession outside of Europe, see pages 447 and 469. Maria Theresa % \j .-" 1 (n (:' ^o A n II ^ - ( ii Constitutional Monarchy in Great Britain 435 •moving adversaries, who never learned to act in concert and exert their full force simultaneously. Even so, the struggle was desperately unequal. The Russians occupied East Prussia, penetrated Brandenburg, and even captured Berlin. Faced by the gradual wearing-down of his armies, an empty treasury, and an impoverished country, Frederick more than once meditated suicide. What saved him was the accession of a new tsar. This ruler happened to be a warm admirer of the Prussian king and at once withdrew from the war. Maria Theresa, deprived of her eastern ally, now had to come to terms and leave Frederick in secure possession of Silesia. Soon afterwards the Peace of Paris between France and Great Britain brought the Seven Years' War to an end (1763).^ This most bloody contest, which cost the lives of nearly a million men, seemed to settle little or nothing in Europe except the Silesian question. Yet the Seven Years' issue of War really marks an epoch in European history. *^® ^" The young Prussian kingdom appeared henceforth as one of the great powers of the Continent and as the only rival in Ger- many of the old Hapsburg monarchy. From this time it was inevitable that Prussia and Austria would struggle for pre- dominance, and that the smaller German states would group themselves around one or the other. Frederick, of course, like all the Hohenzollerns, fought simply for the aggrandize- ment of Prussia, but the results of his work became manifest a century later when the German Empire came into being, 156. Constitutional Monarchy in Great Britain At a time when absolute monarchs held sway in Prussia, Russia, Austria, France, and other Continental countries, the people of Great Britain had a constitutional ^^^ ^^ monarchy, limited by Parliament and the courts. Settlement, The concessions which they had wrung from their reluctant sovereigns were embodied in various state papers, such ^ For the Seven Years' War outside of Europe, see pages 448 and 469. 436 The European Balance of Power as the Great Charter, the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act, and the Bill of Rights. To these documents of pohtical Hberty there was now added the Act of Settlement. It pro- vided that in case William III or his sister-in-law Anne died without heirs, the crown should pass to Sophia, electress of Hanover, and her descendants. She was the granddaughter of James I and a Protestant. This arrangement deliberately excluded a number of nearer representatives of the Stuart house from the succession, because they were Roman Catholics. Parliament thus asserted in the strongest way the right of the British people to choose their o\vn rulers. Queen Anne died in 17 14, and in accordance with the Act of Settlement the son of Sophia of Hanover, George I, ascended Accession the throne. He was the first member of the Han- of the overian dynasty, which has continued to reign in Hanoverian ^ ^ . . , , ^ . ^ t dynasty, Great Britam to the present tmie. George I 1714 could not speak English and preferred Hanover to his adopted country. His son, George II, was also much more a German than an Englishman. Both these kings took little interest in British affairs and gave to their ministers a free hand in the conduct of the government. During the reigns of the first two Georges the cabinet system assumed very much its present form. The cabinet consists of Development ^ small number of ministers, who sit in Parliament of the and form what is really a parliamentary committee. cabinet rj.^^^ ^^^^ received its name because it met, not in the larger council chamber, but in a ''cabinet," or smaller room, apart. The rise of political parties made it desirable for the king to select all his cabinet ministers from that party — either Whigs or Tories — which commanded a majority in the House of Commons, for otherwise the royal measures would be pretty sure to be frustrated. Until the accession of George I the king always attended cabinet meetings; George did not do so because he could not either understand or be understood in the deliberations. Since his time the British sovereign has not been a member of the cabinet. The first two Hanoverians naturally favored the Whigs, Constitutional Monarchy in Great Britain 437 The Whig ascendancy The Tories who had brought about the "Glorious Revolution" and passed the Act of Settlement. The Whig party included the great lords, most of the bishops and town clergy, the Nonconformists, and the merchants, shop- keepers, and other members of the middle class, at this time were very unpopular, being supposed to desire a second restoration of the Stuarts. England now came under the rule of the Whigs, who had a large majority in the House of Com- mons. The most eminent of the Whig leaders was Wil- Ministry of Ham Pitt William Pitt, the Elder, """"" a fiery orator, an ardent patriot, and an incorruptible states- man. He became the real, though not the nominal, head of the cabinet shortly after the opening of the Seven Years' War. It was a dark hour for the British. Fred- erick the Great, their ally on the Continent, had met severe reverses, and the French under Montcalm threatened to over- run the American colonies. But Pitt had confidence in his ability. "I am sure," he said, "that I can save the country, and that no one else can." Save it he did. The "Great Commoner" infused new vigor into the conduct of the war; aroused the martial spirit of the nation; and selected the commanders who gained victory after victory over the French William Pitt, Earl of Qhatham A painting by Richard Brompton in the possession of Earl Stanhope at Chevening, England. 438 The European Balance of Power on the sea, in India, and in America. Great Britain, as Frederick the Great said, had at length "borne a man." Thanks to Pitt's memorable ministry, that country emerged from the Seven Years' War a world-power and great imperial state. The accession in 1760 of George III marked a notable at- tempt to revive in Great Britain the ideas of personal rule Personal associated with the Stuarts. "George, be a king," rule of his German mother had told him, and this advice ^^^^® he tried his best to follow. Taking advantage of a House of Commons then utterly unrepresentative of the people and packed with his supporters (the "king's friends"), George III set about the restoration of absolutism. His money, patronage, and influence were liberally used to bribe and reward the men who would do the royal bidding. After ten years of unremitting effort the triumph of George III appeared to be complete. The Whigs retired to the back- Lord North's ground, and a Tory ministry, headed by Lord ministry, North, came into office. North was a mere figure- head; behind the scenes and moving them as he willed stood the sinister figure of the king. To this would-be despot, therefore, belongs the chief responsibility for the meas- ures of oppression which provoked the resistance of the Thirteen Colonies and resulted in their separation from the mother country. The American Revolution was to a large extent the work of George III. The failure of George III and his subservient Parliament to subdue the colonists led to a political upheaval. Lord North's ministry resigned, and the discredited king be- Restoration i 1 r • % of constitu- came the most unpopular 01 sovereigns. Great tional Britain now returned to the principles of constitu- monarchy . ^ ,. . , ^ ^ • ^ ^ tional or limited monarchy, which have smce been adopted by so many countries in the Old World. In the New World, as we shall shortly learn, the American Revolution gave birth to a nation dedicated to the principles of republican government. Constitutional Monarchy in Great Britain 439 Studies I. On an outline map indicate the territorial gains made by Russia in Europe under Peter the Great. 2. On an outline map indicate the additions to the Hohen- zoUern dominions made by Frederick the Great. 3. What illustrations of inter- national immoraUty are found in this chapter? 4. Who were Charles XII, Maria Theresa, William Pitt the Elder, and the Great Elector? 5. How was Russia until the time of Peter the Great rather an "annex of Asia" than a part of Europe? 6. What did Peter the Great mean by saying, "It is not land I want, but water"? 7. "The Dnieper made Russia Byzantine, the Volga made it Asiatic. It was for the Neva to make it European." Can you explain this statement? 8. Why has Charles XII been called the "last of the Vikings"? 9. Why has the defeat of Charles XII at Poltava been included among the world's decisive battles? 10. Com- pare the respective boundaries of the Arabian and Ottoman empires (maps facing pages 78 and 424). 11. How did Russia's share of Poland compare in size with the shares of Austria and Prussia (map on page 427)? 12. Show that the geo- graphical situation of West Prussia made it an extremely important addition to the Hohenzollern possessions. 13. Account for the development of both absolut- ism and militarism in Prussia. 14. How did Frederick II win the designation of "the Great"? 15. In what respects does the President's cabinet in the United States differ from the British cabinet? 16. What are some of the accusations against George III as set forth in the Declaration of Independence? CHAPTER XVIII COMMERCE AND COLONIES IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES ^ 157. Mercantilism and Trading Companies Until 1600 Spain and Portugal had chiefly profited by the geographical discoveries and colonizing movements of the „ . , preceding century. The decline of these two for colonial countries enabled other European nations to step empire -^^^ ^^^-j, p^^^^g g^g rivals for colonial empire and the sovereignty of the seas. The Dutch were the first in the field, followed later by the French and the English. Many motives inspired the colonizing movement of the seventeenth century. Political aims had considerable weight. Both France and England, for instance, desired Motives fo^ colonial dependencies in order to restrict the overweening power of Spain in America. The religious impulse also played a part, as when Jesuit mis- sionaries penetrated the American wilderness to convert the Indians to Christianity and when the Pilgrim Fathers sought in the New World a refuge from persecution. But the main motive for colonization was economic in character. Colonies were planted in order to furnish the home land with raw mate- rials for its manufactures, new markets, and favorable oppor- tunities for the investment of capital in commerce and industry. Most European statesmen in the seventeenth century ac- ^jjg • cepted the principles of the mercantile system, mercantile Mercantilism ^ is the name given to an economic system doctrine which emphasized the importance of manufactures and foreign trade, rather than agriculture and 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxix, "The Ab- origines of the Pacific." ^ Latin mercans, "merchant." 440 Mercantilism and Trading Companies 441 domestic trade, as sources of national wealth. Some Mercantilists even argued that the prosperity of a nation is in exact proportion to the amount of money in circulation within its borders. They urged, therefore, that each country should so conduct its deal- ings with other countries as to attract to itself the largest pos- sible share of the precious metals. This could be most easily done by fostering exports of manufactures, through bounties and special privileges, and by discouraging imports, except of raw materials. If the country sold more to foreigners than it bought of them, then there would be a "favorable balance of trade," and this balance the foreigners would have to make up in coin or bullion. Large and flourishing colonies seemed essential to the success of the mercantile system. Colonies were viewed simply as estates to be worked for the advantage of the Mercantilism country fortunate enough to possess them. The and colonial home government did its best to prevent other ^°^^^ governments from trading with its dependencies. At the same time it either prohibited or placed serious restrictions on colonial manufactures which might compete with those of the mother country. Portugal and Spain in the sixteenth century, and now Holland, France, and England in the seventeenth century, pursued this colonial policy. The home government did not itself engage in colonial commerce. It ceded this privilege to private companies organ- ized for the purpose. A company, in return for the monopoly of trade with the inhabitants of a compares colony, was expected to govern and protect them. The first form of association was the regulated company. Each member, after paying the entrance fee, traded with his own capital at his own risk and kept his profits „ 1 . ir w . , . 1 • . Regulated to himself. After a time this loose association and joint- gave way to the joint-stock company. The ^*°^^ . , ., * , r 1 1 . companies members contributed to a common fund and, in- stead of trading themselves, intrusted the management of the business to a board of directors. Any one who invested his capital would then receive a "dividend" on his "shares" of the 442 Commerce and Colonies joint stock, provided the enterprise was successful. The joint-stock companies of the seventeenth century thus formed a connecting link with modern corporations. Trading companies were very numerous. For instance, Hol- land, France, England, Sweden, and Denmark, as well as Scot- Examoies of ^^^^ ^^^ Prussia, each chartered its own ''East trading India Company." There were English companies companies organized for trade with Russia, the Baltic lands, Turkey, India, China, Morocco, Guiana, the Bermudas, the Canaries, and Hudson Bay. Still other companies colonized North America. 158. The Dutch Colonial Empire Holland hes at the mouths of the largest rivers of western Europe, the Scheldt, Meuse, and Rhine, thus securing easy communication with the interior. It is not far HoUand as distant from Denmark and Norway and is only a commer- ^ fg^ hours' sail from the French and English ^° coasts. These advantages of position, combined with a small, infertile territory, never capable of supporting more than a fraction of the inhabitants by agriculture, naturally turned the Dutch to the sea. They began their maritime career as fishermen, "exchanging tons of herring for tons of gold," and gradually built up an extensive carrying trade between the Mediterranean and Baltic lands. After the discovery of the Cape route to the Indies, Dutch traders met Portuguese mer- chants at Lisbon and there obtained spices and other eastern wares for distribution throughout Europe. But the Dutch were soon to become seamen on a much more extensive scale. The union of Portugal with Spain in 1580 ^ enabled Philip II to close the port of Lisbon to Srjeditions the Netherlanders, who had already begun their to the East revolt against the Spanish monarch. Philip also seized a large number of Dutch ships lying in Spanish and Portuguese harbors, thus disclosing his purpose 1 See page 355. 'The Dutch Colonial Empire 443 to destroy, if possible, the profitable commerce of his enemies. The Dutch now began to make expeditions directly to the East Indies, whose trade had been monopolized by Portugal for almost a century. They captured many Portuguese and Span- ish ships, obtained ports on the coasts of Africa and India, and soon established themselves securely in the Far East. East Indies In 1602 the Dutch government chartered the East India Company and gave to it the monopoly of trade and rule from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Strait Dut^h of Magellan. The company operated chiefly East India in the rich islands of the Malay Archipelago. o^^P^^y Here much bitter fighting took place with the Portuguese, who were finally driven from nearly all of their eastern posses- sions. Ceylon, Malacca, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, and the Mo- luccas, or Spice Islands, passed into the hands of the Dutch. The headquarters of the Dutch East India Company were located at Batavia in Java. This city still remains one of the leading commercial centers of the East Indies. 444 Commerce and Colonies • The Dutch possessions included the Cape of Good Hope, which they took from the enfeebled Portuguese in 1652. At The Dutch ^^^^ there was no intention of founding a colony, in South for the Cape region seemed valuable only as a ^"*^* way-station on the route to the Indies. Before long, however, Dutch emigrants began to arrive in increasing numbers, together with Huguenots from France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. These farmer-settlers, or Boers, passed slowly into the interior and laid there the foun- dation of Dutch sway in South Africa. The Cape of Good Hope became a British possession at the end of the eighteenth century, but the Boer republics retained their independence until our own day. Fired by their success and enriched by their gains in the East, the Dutch started out to form another colonial empire jj^g in the West. It was an agent of the Dutch East Dutch in India Company, Henry Hudson, who, seeking a ™®"*^* northwest passage to the East Indies, discovered in 1609 the river which bears his name. The Dutch sent out ships to trade with the natives and built a fort on Manhattan Island. In 162 1 the Dutch West India Company received a charter for commerce and colonization between the west coast of Africa and the east coast of the Americas. The company's little station on Manhattan Island became the flourishing port of New Amsterdam, from which the Dutch settlement of New Netherland spread up the Hudson River. The company also secured a large part of Guiana, as well as some of the West Indies. New Netherland before long passed into the hands of the English, but Holland has still a foothold in America in the island of Curasao and the rich province of Surinam or Dutch Guiana. The Dutch in the seventeenth century were the leaders of commercial Europe. They owned more merchant ships than Commercial ^^^ Other people and almost monopoHzed the decUne of carrying trade from the East Indies and between HoUand ^^^ Mediterranean and the Baltic. Yet with the advent of the eighteenth century the Dutch had clearly begun Rivalry of France and England in India 445 to fall behind their French and English rivals in the race for commerce and colonies. Their possessions were trading posts for merchants rather than real colonies. They also suffered from trade warfare with England during the Commonwealth and the reign of Charles II. The War of the Spanish Suc- cession,^ in which Holland was a member of the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV, struck a further blow at Dutch prosperity. Though Holland fell from the first rank of commercial states, it has kept most of its dominions overseas to the present time. 159. Rivalry of France and England in India (to 1763) The Indian Ocean forms a vast gulf of crescent shape, having on the western side Africa and Madagascar and on the eastern side Australia and the Malay Islands, while directly The Indian opposite its northern extremity lies Asia. The Ocean Red Sea and Persian Gulf, which form the two most important offshoots of the Indian Ocean, approach within a short distance of the Mediterranean. These maritime thoroughfares furnished the Mediterranean peoples with the shortest and most con- venient routes to India, until the discovery of the Cape route by the Portuguese. The Portuguese and Dutch enjoyed a profitable trade with India, which supplied them with cotton, indigo, spices, dyes, drugs, precious stones, and other articles of luxury India and in European demand. In the seventeenth century, Europe however, the French and English became the principal competi- tors for Indian trade, and in the eighteenth century the rivalry between them led to the defeat of the French and the secure establishment of England's rule over India. A region half as large as Europe, with a population of about two hundred millions, began to pass under the control of a single European power. The conquest of India was made possible by the decline of the Mogul Empire, founded by the Turkish chieftain India under Baber.2 That empire, though renowned for its the Moguls luxury and magnificence, never achieved a real unification 1 See page 404. ^ See page 184. 446 Commerce and Colonies Rivalry of France and England in India 447 of India. The country continued to be a collection of separate provinces whose inhabitants were isolated from one another by differences of race, language, and religion. The Indian peoples had no feeling of nationality, no spirit of resistance to foreign rule, and when the Mogul Empire broke up they were ready, with perfect indifference, to accept any other government able to keep order among them. Neither France nor England began by making annexations in India. Each country merely established an East India company, giving to it a monopoly of trade between j^^ ^^g^ India and the home land. The French com- India pany, chartered during the reign of Louis XIV, ^°°^P^"^®^ had its headquarters at Pondicherry, on the southeastern coast of India. The English company, which received its first charter from Elizabeth in 1600, possessed three widely separated settlements at Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. The French were the first to attempt the task of empire- making in India, under the leadership of Dupleix, the able governor-general of Pondicherry. Dupleix saw clearly that the dissolution of the Mogul Empire and the defenseless condition of the native states opened the way to the European conquest of India. In order that the French should profit by this unique opportunity, he entered into alliance with some of the Indian princes, fortified Pondi- cherry, and managed to form an army by enlisting native sol- diers ("sepoys"), who were drilled by French officers. The English afterwards did the same thing, and to this day ''se- poys" comprise the bulk of the Indian forces of Great Britain. Upon the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession the French captured Madras, but it was restored to the Enghsh by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Dupleix continued, however, to extend French influence in the south and east of India. The English could not look unconcernedly upon the progress of their French rivals, and it was a young Englishman, Robert Clive, whose genius checkmated Dupleix's am- bitious schemes. To Clive, more than any other man, Great Britain owes the beginning of her present Indian 448 Commerce and Colonies Empire. Clive had been a clerk in the employ of the East India Company at Madras, but he soon exchanged his office stool for an ensign's commission and entered upon a miUtary career. His first success was gained in southeastern India. Here he managed to overthrow an upstart prince whom Du- pleix supported and to restore Enghsh influence in that part of the peninsula. Dupleix was recalled in disgrace to France, where he died a disappointed man. Clive soon found an opportunity for even greater service. The native ruler of Bengal, a man ferocious in temper and con- Battle of sumed with hatred of the English, suddenly Piassey, captured Calcutta. He allowed one hundred and ^^^^ forty-six prisoners to be confined in a tiny room, where they passed the sultry night without water. Next morn- ing only twenty-three came forth alive from the ''Black Hole." This atrocity was sufficiently avenged by the wonderful victory of Pias- sey, in which Clive with a handful of soldiers over- threw an Indian army of fifty thousand men. Piassey showed conclusively that native troops were no match for Europeans and made the English masters of Bengal, with its rich delta, mighty rivers, and teeming population. Meanwhile, the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe renewed the contest between France and England on The Seven Indian soil. The EngHsh were completely successful, Years' War for their control of the sea prevented the French ^ ^* government from sending reinforcements to India. France recovered her territorial possessions b}^ the Peace of Robert, Lord Clive A painting by Nathaniel Dance. In the Council Chamber of Government House, Calcutta. I r Settlement of Virginia and Massachusetts 449 Paris in 1763, but agreed not to fortify them. This meant that she gave up her dream of an empire in India. England hence- forth enjoyed a free hand in shaping the destinies of that vast region. 160. The English Settlement of Virginia and Massachusetts Enghshmen, under the Tudors, had done very Httle as colo- nists of the New World. Henry VII, indeed, encouraged John Cabot to make the discoveries of 1497-98, on Lateness of which the English claims to North America were English based. During Elizabeth's reign Sir Martin Frob- ^^^l^^^^^tion isher explored the coasts of Greenland and Labrador, and another "sea-dog," Sir Humphrey Gilbert, sought without success to colonize Newfoundland. Gilbert's half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, planned a settlement in the region then called Virginia, but lack of support from home caused it to perish miserably.^ The truth was that sixteenth-century Englishmen had first to break the power of Spain in Europe before they could give much attention to America. The destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588 ^ at length enabled them to establish American colonies without interference from Spain. Having found the task of private colonization too great for his energies and purse, Raleigh assigned his interests in Virginia to a group of merchants and adventurers. Noth- The London ing was done for several years, but at last in 1606 ^^^ .1 1 • J r XX 1 r . Plymouth they obtamed from James I a charter for the companies, incorporation of two joint-stock companies, one ^®®^ centering in London and the other in Plymouth. The charter claimed for England all the North American continent from the thirty-fourth to the forty-fifth degree, north latitude. The London Company had the exclusive right to colonize the territory between Cape Fear and the Potomac River, and the Plymouth Company had a similar right in the area between the Hudson River and the Bay of Fundy. Both companies 1 See page 327. 2 See page 365. 450 Commerce and Colonies might occupy the intervening region, but neither was to estab- lish a colony within one hundred miles of a settlement made by the other. The London Company promptly took steps to colonize its share of Virginia. A party of one hundred and twenty men left the shores of Jamestown England on New settlement. Year's Day, 1 607, 1607 and after four wearisome months on the ocean reached the capes of Chesapeake Bay.^ They en- tered the bay, and on a peninsula in the broad river which they named after the king who gave them their charter founded Jamestown, the first permanent settle- ment of Englishmen in the New World. Colonization in the seven- teenth century formed a death-struggle with nature; and the privations endured by the settlers of Virginia are a famiUar story in American history. Of more than six thousand people who arrived between 1607 and 1624, four-fifths died of hunger and disease or at the hands of the Indians. The future of Virginia was not assured until the colonists turned to tobacco raising, for which the yellow soil is unsurpassed. "The weed," as King James called it in derision, brought a high price abroad, and its cultivation quickly became the principal industry of Virginia. It was the only staple product which the colony exported to England. The London Company did not long enjoy the favor of James I. He had no liking for the Puritans who controlled it and turned the meetings of the stockholders into poUtical gath- ^ Named Cape Henry and Cape Charles, for the two sons of James I. Virginia Virginia Settlement of Virginia and Massachusetts 451 erings for resistance to the king's measures. James finally brought suit against the company in the courts and had its charter annulled. Virginia now be- royal came a royal province and so remained throughout province, the colonial period, except for a few years of Puritan supremacy in England. The English king appointed Ruins of the Brick Church at Jamestown Jamestown is now an island, for the sandy beach which once connected it with the mainland has disappeared. Only the ruins of the brick church erected in 1639 and some of the tombs in the churchyard remain. the governor, but as a rule allowed the settlers to manage their own affairs. The colonization of New England was begun by the Pil- grims, who belonged to the sect of Independents or Separatists.^ Persecuted by Elizabeth and James I, many ^, . TT 11 T T i-i r The Pilgrims Separatists went to Holland, where liberty of conscience was allowed. The prospect of losing their English speech and customs among the Dutch did not please them, and presently the exiles began to long for another home, where "they might more glorify God, do more good to their country, better provide for their posterity, and live to be more refreshed 1 See page 385 and note 2. 452 Commerce and Colonies by their labors, than ever they could do in Holland." One congregation, dwelling at Leyden, decided to emigrate to America. Having obtained from the London Company a patent to colonize within the Umits of Virginia, a party of one hundred and two men, women, and children set sail in the Mayflower. They intended to settle somewhere south of the fc^-.ge Captain John Smith's Map of New England In 1614 Captain John Smith explored the American coast from Maine to Cape Cod and called the country New England. On the map which he drew, the young son of James I, afterward Charles I, gave English and Scottish names to more than thirty places. Of these, Charles River, Cape Ann, and Plymouth still remain as originally designated. Hudson River, but when they sighted land it was the peninsula of Cape Cod. After exploring the coast, the emigrants came to the sheltered harbor which John Smith had already named Plymouth on his map, and here they landed. The Pilgrims found themselves outside the territory granted Settlement of Virginia and Massachusetts 453 to the London Company and hence could not use their patent for colonization. Before leaving the Mayflower, ^j^^ therefore, they took steps to provide for the Mayflower orderly rule of their little community. The ^^^^^ leaders of the party signed their names to an agreement estab- lishing a "civil body poHtic," and they promised to obey all laws necessary for the ''general good." The Mayflower Compact reveals the Pilgrim in- stinct for self-govern- ment. To settle on the New England coast in mid-winter ^. The w^as a grim Plymouth business. J^^i^"'^^*' 1620 More than half of the Pilgrims died before spring came, and after ten years they had in- creased to little more than three hundred. Yet the Pilgrims did not despair, for they were determined to found a religious asylum in the American wilderness. "Let it not be grievous to you," said their friends in England, " that you have been instruments to break the ice for others; the honor shall be yours to the world's end." Instruments they were. The Pilgrim settle- ment at Plymouth formed the forerunner of that great Puritan exodus which in the third decade of the seventeenth century colonized Massachusetts. The colony of Massachusetts ^ had its origin in the desire of the Puritans to found a self-governing community far re- moved from Stuart absolutism in poHtics and religion. Some Puritan leaders purchased a large tract of land from the 1 An Algonkin Indian word meaning "Great Hills." The " Mayflower From the model in the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. 454 Commerce and Colonies Plymouth Company and obtained from Charles I a charter Massa- incorporating them as the Company of Massa- chusetts, chusetts Bay. The ''great emigration" began in 1630 under the guidance of John Winthrop, who served as the first governor. The settlers established them- selves at Salem, Boston, Charlestown, and other places on Massachusetts Bay. More than twenty thousand Puritans ^/^na^t'^iJ^^y^nCTi. JfTvAofi^a^ts are -^^^ct-^^./c^ J^y -f^tfc ^t^cje-rt-ff Sofc-m*t.(y (s_'i*<^-f^cc^ -^JV^^fi-^cc 0/ /{oif^etn^ ^cv-ocnce-, offcnis ff^^cc<(Jl:; ^>cnJ(: ^y Vcrfvut /^^*^of A t^ai^t.. The Mayflower Compact Facsimile from History of Plimoth Plantation by Governor Bradford; State House, Boston. left England for America during the next ten years. This was the period when Charles I ruled without a Parhament, and when Archbishop Laud harried so cruelly all who did not conform to the Anglican Church. After the opening of the Long Parliament in 1640 the Puritans found enough to do at home, and Massachusetts received few more immigrants during the colonial period. The charter which Charles I gave to the Puritans did not require that the seat of government should be in England, The Thirteen Colonies 455 as had been the case with previous grants. Accordingly, the company decided to take its charter to Massa- „ , . , , . , Massachu- chusetts and to found there an almost mdependent setts a royal state. King Charles was too busy with domestic 5*^°^^^^®' problems to interfere with these bold Puritans overseas, and their friend, Cromwell, after his rise to power, did not molest them. Charles II, however, took away their cherished charter, and James II treated the liberties of English- men in America with the same contempt with which he treated their liberties at home. Soon after his accession William III granted them a new charter. It allowed the people to have a representative assembly, but required them to accept a governor appointed by the king. Massachusetts henceforth formed a royal province. 161. The Thirteen Colonies Massachusetts was the foremost of the Puritan settlements. Before the end of the seventeenth century it had absorbed Plymouth and had thrown out the offshoots which ^^^ j^^^ presently became Rhode Island, Connecticut, and England New Hampshire.i These four New England ^'"^"'^^^ colonies formed a distinct geographical group, while the cir- cumstances of their foundation also gave them a political and religious character unlike that of the other colonies. Another group of colonies grew up around Virginia as their center. To the north of Virginia arose the colony of Maryland, which Charles I granted to George Calvert, Lord Baltimore. He died before the charter was actually issued, and it was given to his son, Cecil, who estab- hshed the first settlement. Maryland, so called in honor of the queen of England, became a refuge for persecuted Roman Catholics, as well as a great family estute of the barons of Baltimore. The charter conferred upon them the rights and privileges of feudal lords. They owned the land, appointed ^ The territory now included within Vermont was claimed by both New York and New Hampshire in colonial times. Maine continued to be a part of Massa- chusetts until 1820. 456 Commerce and Colonies The Exploration of North America by the Middle of the Seventeenth Century The Thirteen Colonies 457 officers, and made the laws with the assistance of the free settlers. Maryland, therefore, stands as the type of a pro- prietary colony. To the south of Virginia arose the colony of Carolina, out of a grant by Charles II to a number of nobles whose property had been confiscated in the Great Rebellion. The The charter created a proprietary form of govern- Carolinas ment similar to that of Maryland. It proved to be very un- popular, however, and in the eighteenth century the two Carolinas — for they had now divided — voluntarily put them- selves under the king's protection as royal colonies. The most important colonial achievement of the reign of Charles II was the filling up of the gap between the northern and southern colonies. English settlement in j^^^ york this central region began as the result of conquest and New from another European power. New York was ^^^^^^ originally New Netherland, a Dutch colony planted by the Dutch West India Company. In 1664 the colony passed into the hands of the English. Charles II granted it to his brother James, duke of York and Albany, who afterwards became king of England. James, in turn, bestowed the region between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to two court favorites, and it received the name of New Jersey. The EngUsh possessions now stretched without a break along the whole Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to Florida. The colony of Pennsylvania likewise dated from the time of Charles II, who granted it to William Penn, the Quaker, as an asylum for his sect. Penn was made proprietor, Pennsylvania with much the same rights which Lord Baltimore and possessed in Maryland. The small Swedish settle- ® *^"® ment on the Delaware had been established by the South Com- pany of Sweden, under the auspices of Gustavus Adolphus, who hoped that it would become the ''jewel of his kingdom." The Dutch soon annexed New Sweden, only to relinquish it, together with their own colony, to the English. William Penn secured a grant of the Delaware country, but at the opening of the eight- eenth century it became a separate colony. 458 Commerce and Colonies The southernmost of the Thirteen Colonies was also the last to be settled. James Oglethorpe, a gallant Enghsh soldier, founded Georgia in 1733, partly as a miHtary outpost against the Spaniards, but chiefly as a resort for poor debtors. The colony received its name in honor of the reigning king, A brief Account of the George 11. Lately Cranccd by the KING. Under the GREAT . Seal of England, WILLIAM PENN Both New England and the southern colo- Anglo-Saxon nies were expansion chiefly English in blood. Under the GREAT . Many immigrants also came from other parts of the British Isles, X o especially the so-called Scotch -Irish — really Englishmen who had y^ND HIS settled in the Low- H\ \ rr lands of Scotland and eirS and Alllgns. afterwards in north- Since (by the good Providence ol C,J. and ihe Favour of the K.u^) « CaStem irelanCl. i UC Country in jlntncs is fallen to my Lot, 1 thought it not kf$ any • j. r /~» Duty, then my Honeft Intf reft, to give fomc poblick notice of )c to emigrants irOm L^On- ibc World, that ihofe of our own or other Niliuns, that are inclin'd . . toTranrport Thetnrelves or Families beyond the Seas, may find ano- tlueUtal EurODe lU- ther Country added to their Choice ; that if they fhall happen to like ^ the Place, Conditions, and Government, (fo far as the prcfent Infancy of ihirgt rl 1 1 H pH Ti'rpn r Vi T-Tl 1 frn P- will allow us My profpe«; they tnay, if they pleafe. fix with me in the Pro- ^^UUCU ± iClH.ll XXU^UC Vince. hereafter dc.cr.bcd. ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^_ I The KlUC^ Title to thu Country before he granted ii. -T'J' ... £ It IS the Jm Ctnt'ium. or Law of Nations, that what ever Wafte. or uncut- CatlOU Ol tlie xL ^^A LCb, ctllU VJCl lllctllS t^Sr'"^' '"" """ "** "' '* *"'• "'" ''"' "" '" '"'"' '"* from the Rhenish Pal- II. William ^. ^ ^, , atmate. The popula- FiRST Page of Penn's "Account of .. r ., • , i, Pennsylvania" ^lon of the middle Reduced facsimile. colonies was f ar more mixed. Besides Eng- lish and a sprinkling of Celtic Scotch and Irish, it comprised Dutch in New York, Swedes in Delaware, and Germans in Penn- sylvania. But neither France, Holland, Sweden, nor Germany contributed largely to the settlement of the Thirteen Colonies. Transit of Civilization from England to America 459 162. Transit of Civilization from England to America The English language prevailed almost everywhere in the colonies, not, however, without quaint modifications of spelling and. pronun- Language and folk- literature Poor Richard y 173^, A N Almanack FortheYearofChrift 7241 5742 ye Creation Ye«rs By the Account of the Eaftcrn Cretks By the Latin Church, when O cm. y By Hie Computation of ff^'ly By the Roman CKronology By the Jeivllb Rabbies PVhereiti is contained The Lunations, EcHpfes, Judgment cf the Weather, Spring Tides, Planets Motions & mutual Afpefts, Sun and Nloon's Ri(7ng and Set- ting, Length of Days, Time of High Water, Fairs, CourtJ, and obfcrvable Days Fitted tothc Latitude of Forty Degrees^ and a Meridian of Five Hours Weft from Lmden^ but may without fcnfihic Error, fervc all the ad- jacent Placcs» even from NewfoimdjAnd to Soatb' Canlhia. Jtfy RICHJRD SJUNDERS,?hilom, PHILADELPHIA; Printed and fold by B. FR^NKUN, at the New Prin ting Office near tl»e Market. Tbc Third Impicflion. A Title-page of Poor Richard's Almanac Reduced facsimile. 460 Commerce and Colonies days, demons, and magic, crossed the Atlantic to the New World. The belief in witchcraft was likewise very common, and at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692, twenty persons suffered death for this supposed crime. Witchcraft persecutions also occurred in several other colonies. Almost every variety of Protestantism was represented in the colonies. The Church of England from the start had its strong- . holds in Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas, and later in New York. After the Revolutionary War it took the name of the Protestant Episcopal Church, but retained nearly all the Anglican doctrines and ceremonies. Puritanism flourished in New England, especially in Massa- chusetts and Connecticut. The Puritan churches usually had the Congregational form. Baptists were numerous in Rhode Island, and Quakers in Pennsylvania. Wherever the Scotch- Irish settled, they established Presbyterian churches. The Toleration Act of 1689 ^ commended itself to the colonists, many of whom were Dissenters or Nonconformists. ^ It was Religious generally reenacted by the colonial assemblies, toleration including those of Massachusetts, New York, and Virginia. Religious toleration, however, did not extend to Roman Catholics, who encountered much suspicion. Rhode Island, which Roger Williams had founded as ''a shelter for persons distressed for conscience," disfranchised Roman Catho- lics in the eighteenth century. Maryland began with a broad measure of toleration, for Lord Baltimore had opened the colony to Anglicans and Puritans, as well as to members of his own faith. Later, when the Protestants became a majority in Maryland, severe anti-Catholic laws were passed. Outside of these two colonies, Roman Catholics were under riiany disabilities until after the Revolution. Jews were never numer- ous in colonial America. They enjoyed freedom of worship, but did not possess poHtical rights. The Puritan clergy were generally well educated; and some of them were very learned. They introduced into the New World the English tradition in favor of higher education. 1 See pages 393-394- ^ See page 391. Transit of Civilization from England to America 461 Harvard College was founded as early as 1636, and Yale, in 1 701. Before the Revolution colleges or universi- Higher ties also existed in Rhode Island (Brown), New education Hampshire (Dartmouth), New York (King's, later Columbia), New Jersey (Rutgers and Princeton), Pennsylvania (University of Pennsylvania), and Virginia (Wil- liam and Mary ^). These institutions devoted themselves chiefly to the train- ing of ministers. New England led the other colonies in popular educa- tion. A Massa- chuse t ts law, enacted as early as 1647, required every town of fifty families to estabhsh an elementary school where chil- dren could learn to read and write. The teachers were to be paid either by Time euts down all Boch great andfmai). tTf/iiVibeauteoiftWirc M«dc David feck Ills Life. WhaUr in the Sea God*s Voice obey^ Xtrxts the great did die, And {0 mult you & L Touib forward flips Death fooneit tiipv Zacbeus he Did climb tht Tret Hrt Lord to fee, A Page from the "New England Primer" the parents of the children or by public taxation. Every town of one hundred families was further required- to set Common up a grammar school, in which students might schools be prepared for college. This law became the model for similar legislation throughout the United States. The middle and southern colonies did not have a system of popular education. A Virginia governor could even thank God that there were no free schools or printing presses in the colony. Learning, he believed, bred heresies, and books spread them. ^ Named after King William III and his queen. 462 Commerce and Colonies All the colonists possessed the private rights which English- men had won during centuries of struggle against despotic The private kings. Free speech, freedom from arbitrary im- rights of prisonment as secured by the writ of habeas corpus, EngUshmen ^^^ ^^.^^ 1^^ j^^.^ formed part of our legal inheri- tance from England. These and other private rights were embodied in the Common law,^ as introduced into colonial America. At the time of the Revolution the Common law was adopted by the several states, thus becoming the foun- dation of our own system of jurisprudence. The English principle of representation was also carried to the New World. Each colony had a representative assembly Repre- modeled after the House of Commons. Virginia sentative early led the way. The Puritans, who had gained assem es control of the London Company, permitted the Virginia colonists to form an assembly consisting of two depu- ties freely elected by the inhabitants of each settlement. The House of Burgesses, as it soon came to be called, met for the first time in 161 9, in the chancel of the Httle church at James- town. A few years later (1634) the freemen of each Massa- chusetts town were allowed to send two deputies to act for them at the General Court of the colony. New York, which had been a Dutch possession, was the last of the colonies to receive representative self-government (1684). The separation of Parliament into two houses, which had prevailed in England since the fourteenth century,^ accustomed The bi- ^^^ colonists to the bicameral system. In all camerai but two of the colonies the legislature consisted of sys em ^ representative assembly, forming a lower house, and a small council, forming an upper house.^ The council assisted the governor and had some power of amending the acts of the assembly. The governor served as the link between the colonists and England. In Rhode Island and Connecticut he was elected 1 See page 198. ^ See page 203. ' Pennsylvania and Georgia did not adopt the two-house arrangement until after the Revolution. Transit of Civilization from England to America 463 by the people; in Maryland and Pennsylvania he was ap- pointed by the hereditary proprietor; and m the The other (royal) colonies he was named by the king, governor The governor might veto the bills passed by a colonial legis- lature. Just as quarrels between king and Parliament were frequent in England, so in colonial America there was constant wrangling between governor and assembly, especially over money matters. The assembly held the purse-strings, however, and usually triumphed by refusing to grant supplies until the governor came to its terms. The unit of representation in the assemblies of the southern colonies was the county, corresponding to the English shire. The county also formed a judicial area. Justices county and of the peace, chosen from the more important town landowners of the county, met regularly as a sovernmen court to try cases and assess taxes. The citizens of a New England town, or township, governed themselves directly and sent their own representatives to the colonial assemblies. In fre- quent town meetings they dis- cussed all local affairs, made appropriations for all local expen- ses, and chose the town officials. The titles of these officials, as well as their functions, were often borrowed from the mother-land, showing that the colonists repro- duced on American soil the char- acteristic features of old English local government.^ The middle colonies adopted a mixture of the New England and southern systems. Here both town and county were found, each with its elective officers. This mixed system now prevails in per- haps most of the American states. No close political ties united the colonies. The differences between them in industries, rehgion, manners, and customs 1 See page 132. Join or Die A device printed in Franklin's news- paper, the " Pennsylvania Gazette." Shows a wriggling rattlesnake cut into pieces, with the initial letter of a colony on each piece. 464 Commerce and Colonies prevented their effective cooperation. Yet preparations for union there had been, and signs of its coming. As early as Disunion of 1643 Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Haven (then the colonists g^ separate colony), and Plymouth entered into a league "for mutual help and strength in all our future concern- ments." This league, known as the United Colonies of New England, held together for forty years. Delegates from seven colonies met in the Albany Congress of 1754 and discussed Benjamin Frankhn's plan for forming a defensive union of all the colonies. The plan fell through, but it set men to thinking about the advantages of federation. After the close of the "French and Indian War" the colonists, who had learned the value of concerted action against a common foe, began to unite in defense of their rights against king and Parliament. 163. French Settlements in Canada and Louisiana The French at the opening of the seventeenth century had gained no foothold in the New World. For more than fifty Lateness of Y^ars after the failure of Cartier's settlement,^ French they were so occupied with the Huguenot wars that coomzation ^^^^ ^^^^ j.^^^^ thought to colonial expansion. The single exception was the ill-starred colony which Admiral de Coligny^ attempted to establish in Florida (1564). The Spaniards quickly destroyed it, not only because the settlers were Protestants, but also because a French settlement in Florida directly threatened their West Indian possessions. The grow- ing weakness of Spain, together with the cessation of the reli- gious struggle, made possible a renewal of the colonizing movement. The French again turned to the north, attracted by the fur trade and the fisheries, and founded Canada during the same decade that the English were founding Virginia. The first great name in Canadian history is that of Samuel Champiain de Champlain, who enjoyed the patronage of and Canada Henry IV. Champlain explored the coast of Maine and Massachusetts as far south as Plymouth, discovered the 1 See page 325. 2 See page 367. French Settlements in Canada and Louisiana 465 beautiful lake now called after him, traced the course of the St. Lawrence River, and also came upon lakes Ontario and Huron. He set up a permanent French post at Quebec in 1608 and three years later founded Montreal. Champlain served as the first governor of Canada. The seventeenth century was an era of missionary zeal in the Roman CathoHc Church, and Canada became the favorite mission field. Champlain brought in the Francis- j^^^^ cans, who were followed in greater numbers by the missions in Jesuits. The story of the Jesuits in North ^^^^^ America is an inspiring record of self-sacrifice and devotion. Many of them suffered martyrdom at the hands of the Indians. The journeys made by the Jesuits in the wilderness of the Northwest added much to geographical knowledge, while their mission stations often grew into flourishing towns. After Cardinal Richelieu had forbidden the Protestants to settle in Canada, the Jesuit influence became dominant there. It has not yet entirely disappeared, in spite of a century and a half of English rule. When Colbert, the able minister of Louis XIV, came to power, the exploration of Canada went on with renewed energy. The French, hitherto, had been spurred by the ^^ g^^ hope of finding in the Great Lakes a western pas- and sage to Cathay. Joliet, the fur trader, and Mar- ^^^^^^^^ quette, the Jesuit missionary, believed they had actually found the highway uniting the Atlantic and the Pacific when their birchbark canoes first glided into the upper Mississippi. It was reserved for the most illustrious of French explorers, Robert de La Salle, to discover the true character of the "Father of Waters" and to perform the feat of descending it to the sea (1682). He took possession of all the territory drained by the Mississippi for Louis XIV, naming it Louisiana. Where La Salle had shown the way, missionaries, fur traders, hunters, and adventurers quickly followed. The French now began to realize the importance of the Missis- .,,-,, 1 • 1 . 1 New France sippi Valley, which time was to prove the most extensive fertile area in the world. Efforts were made to occupy 466 Commerce and Colonies .^v^^^-tf-NEW ORLEANS S15t, ST. LOUIS "^ -^ G U L F^^O^F^.^ MEXICO '■^^^^'^ ^'^S^Ui'L^J^U'km^ -t-Route of LaSalle's great voyage of discovery. La Salle's Explorations it and to connect it with Canada by a chain of forts reaching from Quebec and Montreal on the St. Lawrence to New Or- leans ^ at the mouth of the Mississippi. All of the continent west of the AUeghenies was to become a New France, a Roman Cathohc and despotic empire after the pattern of the mother country. 1 Founded in 1718 and named after the Due de Orleans, who was regent of France during the minority of Louis XV. See page 406, note 2. Rivalry of France and England in America 467 However audacious this design, it seemed not impossible of fulfillment. New France, a single royal province under one military governor, offered a united front to the strength and divided EngHsh colonies. The population, though weakness^f small compared with the number of the EngHsh ^®^ France colonists, consisted mostly of men of miHtary age, good fighters, and aided by numerous Indian allies. Lack of home support offset these real advantages. While the French were contend- ing for colonial supremacy, they were constantly at war in Europe. They wasted on European battle-fields the resources which might otherwise have been expended in America. The failure of France at this time to become a world-power must be ascribed, therefore, chiefly to the mistaken policies and bad government of Louis XIV and Louis XV. 164. Rivalry of France and England in North America (to 1763) The struggle between France and England began, both in the Old World and the New, in 1689, when the ''Glorious Revo- lution" drove out . A new James II and placed Hundred William of Orange on ^^^^' ^" the English throne as William III. The Dutch and English, who had previously been enemies, now be- came friends and united in resist- ance to Louis XIV. The French king not only threatened the Dutch, but also incensed the English by receiving the fugitive James and aiding him to win back his crown. England at once joined a coaHtion of the states of Europe against France. This was the beginning of a new Hundred Years' War between the Montcalm After the portrait in possession of the^ present Marquis of Montcalm, Chateau d'Aveze, France. 468 Commerce and Colonies /\» "^ 75° LoDgitude North America after The Peace of Utrecht, 1713 a.d. two countries.^ The struggle extended beyond the Continent, for each of the rivals tried to destroy the commerce and annex the colonies of the other. The first period of conflict closed in 17 13, with the Peace of Provisions of Utrecht, which was as important in the history the Peace of of colonial America as in the history of Europe. ' England secured Newfoundland, Acadia (rechris- tened Nova Scotia), and the extensive region drained ^ War of the League of Augsburg, 1 689-1 697 ("King William's War"). War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-17 13 ("Queen Anne's War"). War of the Austrian Succession,! 740-1 748 ("King George's War"). Seven Year's War, 1 756-1 763 ("French and Indian War"). War of the American Revolution, 1776-1783. by Rivalry of France and England in America 469 the rivers flowing into Hudson Bay. France, however, kept the best part of her American territories and retained control of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. The possession of these two waterways gave her a strong strategic position in the interior of the continent. The two great European wars which came between 1740 and 1763 were naturally reflected in the New World. The War of the Austrian Succession, known in American history u^ing as '' King George's George's War," proved to be ^"rprench indecisive. The Seven and Indian Wax " Years' War, similarly known as the ** French and Indian War," resulted in the expulsion of the French from North America. It began as a contest for the Ohio Valley. The French wanted it, in order to join Canada and Louisiana; the English also wanted it, in order not to be shut out from the fertile region imme- diately west of the AUeghenies. France had no resources to cope with those of England in America, and the EngHsh command of the sea proved decisive. One French post after another was captured: Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, commanding the Gulf of St. Lawrence; Fort Duquesne,^ at the junction of the Allegheny and Ohio rivers; Fort Niagara, which guarded the route between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie; and Fort Ticonderoga between Lake George and Lake Champlain. In 1759 Wolfe defeated the gallant Montcalm under the walls of Quebec, and the fall of that stronghold quickly followed. A year later what remained of the French army surrendered at Montreal. The British flag was now raised over Canada, where it has flown ever since. The second period of conflict closed in 1763, with the Peace James Wolfe After the portrait by Schaak in the National Portrait Gallery, London. ^ Renamed Fort Pitt after William Pitt, whence the modern Pittsburg. Commerce and Colonies NORTH AMERICA after the PEACE OF PARIS, 1763 A. D. 'ikiuf \ iFt.N iStroit Fojt- Buquesnej4 PEtJN Oswego-) ,-j^-JPc.C'J'J ■f I'^W -\*4t>l«moutn ^Or/e Hay HAYT IBBEAN SEA JJ,:^%) GRENADA,,- GRENADA- 90 Longitude West 80 from Greenwich 70 of Paris. France ceded to England all her North American possessions east of the Mississippi, except two Provisions „ . , , , - ^ , . n- i of the small islands kept for iishmg purposes on the coast of Newfoundland. Spain, which had also been involved in the war, gave up Florida to England, receiving as compensation the French territories west of the Peace of Paris, 1763 Revolt of the Thirteen Colonies 471 Mississippi. New France was now only a memory. But modern Canada has two millions of Frenchmen, who still hold aloof from the British in language and religion, while Louisiana, though shrunk to the dimensions of an American state, still retains in its laws and in many customs of its people the French tradition. The Peace of Paris marked a turning point in the history of the Thirteen Colonies. Relieved of pressure from without and free to expand toward the west and south, England and they now felt less keenly their dependence on the Thirteen England. Close ties, the ties of common interests, ° °^®^ common ideals, and a common origin, still attached them to the mother country; but these were soon to be rudely severed during the period of disturbance, disorder, and violence which culminated in the American Revolution. 165. Revolt of the Thirteen Colonies, 1776-1783 Englishmen in the New World for a long time had been drawing apart from Englishmen in the Old World. The politi- cal training received by the colonists in their local preoaration meetings and provincial assemblies fitted them for for inde- self-government, while the hard conditions of life p®°^®°<^® in America fostered their energy, self-reliance, and impatience of restraint. The important part which they played in the con- quest of Canada gave them confidence in their military abilities and showed them the value of cooperation. Renewed interference of Great Britain in what they deemed their private concerns before long called forth their united resistance. Some of the grievances of which the colonists complained were the outcome of the British colonial policy. The home government discouraged the manufacture in the Restrictions colonies of goods that could be made in England, on colonial ParHament, for instance, prohibited the export ™*°"^actures of woolens, not only to the British Isles and the Continent, but also from one colony to another, and forbade the colonists to set up mills for making wrought iron or its finished products. 472 Commerce and Colonies Such regulations aimed to give British manufacturers a monop- oly of the colonial markets. The home government also interfered with the commerce of the colonies. As early as 1660 Parliament passed a "Navi- Restrictions g^tion Act" providing that sugar, tobacco, cotton, on colonial and indigo might not be exported direct from the commerce colonies to foreign countries, but must be first brought to England, where duties were paid on them. A subsequent act required all imports to the colonies from Con- tinental Europe to have been actually shipped from an English port, thus compelling the colonists to go to England for their supplies. These acts, however, were so poorly enforced for many years that smuggling became a lucrative occupation. All this legislation was not so repressive as one would suppose, partly because it was so constantly evaded and partly because Alleviations Great Britain formed the natural market for most and com- colonial products. Moreover, the home govern- pensations ^lent gave some special favors in the shape of "bounties," or sums of money to encourage the production of food and raw materials needed in Great Britain. Twenty- four colonial industries were subsidized in this manner. Colo- nial shipping was also fostered, for ships built in the colonies enjoyed the same exclusive privileges in the carrying trade as British-built ships. In fact, the regulations which the American colonists had to endure were light compared with the shackles laid by Spain and France upon their colonial possessions. It must always be remembered, finally, that Great Britain de- fended the colonists in return for trade privileges. As long as her help was needed against the French, they did not protest seriously against the legislation of Parliament. After the close of the Seven Years' War George III and his ministers determined to keep British troops in America as a protection against outbreaks by the French or The Stamp ^ ° , . ^ r Act and Indians. The colonists, to whose safety an army the Town- would add, were expected to pay for its partial shend Acts ' ,. [ j. 1 . i / support. Parliament, accordingly, took steps to enforce the laws regulating colonial commerce and also passed Capt. Cook's Voyages " Endeavour," 1768- 1771 A.D. "Resolution," 1772- 1775 A.D. "Resolution," 1776 -1780 A.D. __l I I IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Portuguese I I Spanis h I I Dutch I— — ErenchL ] British H 140 120 Longitude 100 Note: On the map the conditions are shown as they existed before the change in 1763 A.D. Scale of Miles along Equator 1000 2000 3000 4000 THE M.-N. WORKS 80 from 60 Greenwich 40 Longitude 20 East 40 from 20 Greenwich I Revolt of the Thirteen Colonies 473 the Stamp Act (1765). The protests of the colonists led to the repeal of this obnoxious measure, but it was soon replaced by the Townshend Acts (1767), levying duties on certain commodi- ties imported into America. These acts, in turn, were repealed three years later. Parhament, however, kept a small duty on t--^ ,— ^ ^..wr^-wv. V ^ ^ " ^^ ' "^' ' ' ' ^^^^ ^- xJKicM. c^nv^Vfet nUn\.'to Hv iMt yi ^^wi/wl;^^;^. Opening Lines of the Declaration of Independence A reduced facsimile of the first lines of Jefferson's original draft. tea, in order that the colonists might not think that it had abandoned its assumed right to tax them. The Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts thus brought up the whole question as to the extent of parliamentary control over the colonists. They argued that taxes could ^^ be rightfully voted only by their own representative ation assemblies. It was a natural attitude for them without rep- . . . , resentation" to take, smce Parliament, sittmg three thousand miles away, had little insight into American affairs. The English view was that Parliament "virtually'* represented all Englishmen and hence might tax them where v^er they lived. This view can also be understood, for the " Glorious Revolution" had definitely estabHshed the supremacy of Parliament in England.^ In any case, however, taxation of the colonies 1 See page 394. 474 Commerce and Colonies was clearly contrary to custom and very impolitic in the face of the popular feeHng which it aroused in America. Some British statesmen themselves espoused the cause of the colonists. Edmund Burke, the great Irish orator, declared Attitude ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ virtual representation of of British America in Parliament was " the most contemptible statesmen .^^^ ^-^^^ ^^^^^ entered the head of a man." Even William Pitt (then earl of Chatham), while maintaining the right of Parlia- ment to legislate for America, ap- plauded the "manly wisdom and calm resolu- tion" displayed by the colonists in their resistance to arbitrary power. But these were the voices of a minority, of a helpless minor- ity. Parliament, then under the thumb of George III and the A medal designed and engraved by C. C. Wright. The reverse, ^mg S irienClS, here figured, is copied from Trumbull's picture of the signing of nreciDitatcd al- the Declaration of Independence. most light-heart- edly, the catastrophe which severed the two chief branches of English-speaking peoples. No colony at first contained a large majority in favor of separation, and even after the Declaration of Independence The numerous loyalists, or "Tories," continued to ••Tories" espouse the British cause. Some of them even fought against their native land, while others did everything 1 See page 438. Medal Commemorating the Declaration OF Independence Revolt of the Thirteen Colonies 475 they could to prevent the success of the Revolution by sowing sedition, spreading false news, concealing spies, and seUing goods to the enemy. It was necessary to adopt the sternest measures in dealing with men whom Washington called "execrable parricides," and many were imprisoned or confined in con- centration camps. After the conclusion of peace the "Tories" emigrated in great numbers to Canada, where they formed the first English settlers. They prospered in their new home, and their descendants, who form a considerable part of the Canadian population, are to-day among the most devoted members of the British Empire. Even had the colonists been unanimous in resistance to Great Britain, they stood httle chance of winning against a wealthy country with a population nearly three -pj^^ French times their own, trained armies supported by alliance, German mercenaries, and a powerful navy. When, ^'^'^^ however, the resources of France were thrown into the scale, the issue became less doubtful. France, still smarting from the losses incurred in the Seven Years' War, desired to recover as much as possible of her colonial possessions and secretly aided the Americans with money and supplies for some time before the victory at Saratoga led her to enter into a formal alliance with them. It must never be forgotten, also, that many Frenchmen felt a genuine sympathy for the colonists in their struggle for liberty. The Marquis de Lafayette was only the most illustrious of the French nobles who crossed the Atlantic to fight side by side with American soldiers. The war now merged into a European conflict in which France was joined by Spain and Holland. Great Britain needed all her reserve power to prevent rebellion in Ireland, defend Gibraltar, and keep her pos- Se^Revo- sessions in the West Indies and India. The strug- lutionary gle in America practically closed in 1781, when Cornwallis, blockaded at Yorktown by a French fleet and closely invested by the combined French and American armies, surrendered the largest British force still in the colonies. Nearly two years passed, however, before the contestants made peace. 476 Commerce and Colonies The Treaty of Paris between Great Britain and the United States recognized the independence of the former Thirteen Colonies and fixed their boundaries at Canada Paris and and the Great Lakes, the Atlantic Ocean, Florida, VersaiUes, ^nd the Mississippi River. The Treaty of Ver- sailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain restored to France a few colonial possessions and gave to Spain the island of Minorca and the Florida territory. Holland, which concluded a separate peace with Great Britain, was obliged to cede to that country some stations in India and to throw open to British merchants the valuable trade of the East Indies. The successful revolt of the Thirteen Colonies dealt a stagger- ing blow at the old colonial policy. The Americans con- Eff ts of tinued to trade with the mother country from American self -interest, although they were no longer com- independence ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ j^^^ ^j^^ ^.^^^j^ ^^^ ^^^^ British commerce with the United States doubled within fifteen years after the close of the Revolutionary War. This formed an object-lesson in the futility of commercial restrictions. The American War of Independence reacted almost at once on Europe. The Declaration of Independence, setting America forth the ''unalienable rights of man" as against teaching feudal privilege and oppression, provided ardent by examp e spirits in France with a formula of liberty which they were not slow in applying to their own country. The French Revolution of 1789 was the child of the American Revolution. Early in the nineteenth century still another revolutionary movement stripped Spain and Portugal of all their continental possessions in the New World. America was, indeed, teaching by example. 166. Progress of Geographical Discovery Great Britain soon found at least partial compensation for the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in the occupation of Australia and the islands of the Pacific. That vast ocean, covering Progress of Geographical Discovery 477 more than one-third of the globe, remained Httle known to Europeans until the latter part of the eighteenth century. Soon after Magellan's voyao^e in i ^20 the Spaniards 1 T 1 , 1 • , , Early ex- estabnsned a regular commercial route between pioration Mexico and the Philippines and gradually dis- °^ ^^ covered some of the innumerable archipelagoes which stud the intervening seas. Sir Francis Drake's circum- navigation of the world (i 577-1 580) first drew the attention of Englishmen to the Pj^cific Ocean, but a long time passed before they began, its 'systematic exploration. The unveiling of the Pacific was closely connected with the Antarctic problem. Geographers from the time of the Greeks had a vague idea that a region of continental ^j^^ „ Great proportions lay to the southeast of the Indian South Ocean. The idea found expression in Ptolemy's *° map of the world, and Marco Polo during his stay in China heard about it. After the Dutch became established in the East Indies, they made renewed search for the ''Great South Land" and carefully explored the western coast of Australia or "New Holland." In 1642 the Dutch East India Company sent Abel Tasman from Batavia to investigate the real extent of Australia. Tas- man's voyage — one of the most notable on record jasman's — led to the discovery of Van Diemen's Land voyage, (Tasmania) and New Zealand, and proved con- ^^^ clusively that Australia had no connection with the supposed Antarctic continent. The Dutch, however, manifested Httle interest in the regions which they had found, and more than one hundred years elapsed before Tasman's work was continued by Captain James Cook. This famous navigator, the son of a farm laborer, entered the British navy at an early age and by his unaided efforts rose to high command. Cook's first voy- yo^^lls age in the Pacific resulted in the exploration of in the the coast of New Zealand and the eastern shore 1768-1779 of Australia. The second voyage finally settled the question as to the existence of a southern continent, 478 Commerce and Colonies for Cook sailed three times across the Pacific Ocean without finding it. At the instance of George III, Cook undertook a third voyage to locate, if possible, an opening on the coast of Alaska which would lead into Hudson Bay. He followed the American coast through Bering Strait until an unbroken ice- field barred further progress. On the return from the Arctic region Cook visited the Hawaiian Islands, where he was murdered by the natives. Thus closed the career of one who, more than any other explorer, re- vealed to European gaze the island world of the Pacific. Captain Cook on his third voyage was the first British navigator to sight Alaska. Here, however, he had been preceded by the Russians, who reached the Pacific by way of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean. It still re- mained uncertain whether Siberia did not join on to the „ . . northern part of the New World. Peter the Bering's ^ voyages, Great, who showed a keen interest in geographi- iTdi"^"^^^' ^^^ discovery, commissioned Vitus Bering, a Dane in the Russian service, to solve the problem. Bering explored the strait and sea named after him and made clear the relation between North America and Asia. The eighteenth century thus added greatly to man's knowl- edge of the world, especially in the Pacific area. Cook's voy- Scientific ages, in particular, left the main outlines of the exploration southern part of the globe substantially as they are known to-day. From this time systematic exploration for scientific purposes more and more took the place of voyages by private adventurers for the sake of warfare or plunder. Captain James Cook A painting by Nathaniel Dance ; now in Greenwich Hospital, England. Progress of Geographical Discovery 479 Geographical discovery must be included, therefore, among the influences which made the eighteenth century so conspicuously an age of enlightenment. Studies I . On outline maps represent the division of North America (a) after the Peace of Utrecht and {b) after the Peace of Paris. 2. Locate these places: Calcutta; Batavia; Sidney; Madras; Sitka; Bombay; and Pondicherry. 3. Identify these dates in American colonial history: 1607; 1620; 1664; 1713; and 1763. 4. Ac- cording to the mercantile theory, what constituted a " favorable" and what an "un- favorable" balance of trade? 5. How was the colonial policy based on mercantilism opposed to modern ideas of commercial freedom? 6. What was meant by the saying that colonies were "like so many farms of the mother country"? 7. Why was the joint stock company a more successful method of fostering colonial trade than the regulated company? 8. Show that the seventeenth century belonged commercially to the Dutch, as the sixteenth century had belonged to the Portuguese and Spaniards. 9. On the map (page 443) indicate what East Indian islands still rerriain Dutch possessions. 10. Why was it possible for European powers to secure dominions in India? 11. State the basis of the claims of England, France, Spain, Hol- land, and Sweden to territory in North America during the seventeenth century. 12. "The breaking of Spain's naval power is an incident of the first importance in the history of the English colonies." Comment on this statement. 13. Why was the acquisition of New Netherland an important step in the building up of colonial America? 14. Show how the Stuart kings fostered England's expansion in North America. 15. "The expansion of England in the New World and in Asia is the formula which sums up for England the history of the eighteenth century." Comment on this statement. 16. Set forth the importance of the Seven Years* War in the history of India and of colonial America. 17. Show that "no taxation without representation" was a slogan which could hardly have arisen in any but an EngUsh country. 18. "The Declaration of Independence was the formal announce- ment of democratic ideas that had their tap-root in English soil." Comment on this statement. 19. How did the American Revolution become a world war? 20. In what sense was the American Revolution "a civil war within the British Empire"? 21. From what Dutch source were the names Tasmania, Van Die- men's Land, and New Zealand derived? 22. Trace on the map (between pages 472-473) the three voyages of Captain Cook. CHAPTER XIX THE OLD REGIME IN EUROPE 167. The Eighteenth Century in Culture Previous chapters have set forth some of the more significant transformations of European society between 1300 and 1700. . f The revival of classical literature, art, and learning, enUghten- the progress of geographical discovery, and the ™®^* Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter Reformation were all movements which helped to complete the transition from the medieval to the modern world.. To these three movements we may now add the extraordinary awaken- ing of the European mind in the eighteenth century. It was an age of reason, an age of enhghtenment. The thinkers of the eighteenth century pursued knowledge not so much for its own sake as for its social usefulness. They The reform- felt that the time had come when mankind might ing spirit ^q\\ discard many ideas and customs, once serv- iceable, perhaps, but now outworn. To them the chief obstacle in the way of progress was found in human ignorance, prejudice, and unreasoning veneration for the past. Systematic and ac- curate knowledge, they beheved, would destroy this attachment to ''the good old days" and would make it possible to create more reasonable and enhghtened institutions. In other words, thinkers were animated by the reforming spirit. Reform was sorely needed. Absolute monarchies claiming to rule by the will of God, aristocracies in the possession of The Old special rights, privileges, and honors, the masses Regime Qf the people excluded from any part in the govern- ment and burdened with taxes and feudal dues — such were some of the survivals of medievalism which formed the Old Regime.^ The eighteenth century aboHshed it in France; 1 In French, ancien regime. 480 The Privileged Classes 481 the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have done much to abolish it in other European countries. Let us examine it more closely. 168. The Privileged Classes Where absolutism prevailed, everything depended upon the personal character of the sovereign. A Peter the Great might set his country upon the road to civilization; The a Louis XIV, on the contrary, might plunge his monarchy people into indescribable misery as the result of needless wars and extravagant expenditures. As time went on, it began to appear more and more unreasonable that a single person should have the power to make the laws, levy the taxes, spend the revenues, declare war, and conclude peace according to his own inclination. England in the seventeenth century had shown that a divine-right monarchy might be replaced by a constitu- tional monarchy and parliamentary control of legislation. The reformers wished to secure for France and other Conti- nental countries at least an equal measure of political liberty. Not less insistent was their demand for social equality. The feudal system had bequeathed as part of its heritage to modern Europe a system of class distinctions which -^j^^ -p-^^^^ honeycombed society. The highest place was and Second occupied by the clergy and the nobility, who con- stituted the First and Second Estates, respectively. These two privileged classes formed a very small minority of the population in any European country. Of twenty-five million Frenchmen, for instance, less than half a million were clerics or nobles. The clergy, especially in Roman Catholic lands, retained much of the power that they had exercised throughout the Middle Ages. Reverence felt by kings and lords for mother Church had dowered her representatives with rich and broad domains. In France, Spain, Italy, and those parts of Germany where Church property had not been confiscated by Protestants, the archbishops, bishops, abbots, and cardinals ruled as veritable princes and paid few or no 482 The Old Regime in Europe taxes to the government. ' These members of the higher clergy- were recruited mainly from the noble famiUes and naturally took the side of the absolute monarchs. The lower clergy, the thousands of parish priests, who came from the common people, just as naturally espoused the popular cause. They saw the abuses of the existing system and supported the de- mands for its reform. The nobiUty consisted, in part, of the descendants of feudal lords. By the eighteenth century, however, the old military The nobility had largely disappeared from Europe, nobility except in Germany. A new aristocracy arose, con- sisting of those who had been ennobled by the king for various services or who had held certain offices which conferred noble rank. The nobles, like the higher clergy, were great landed proprietors, though without the military obligations which rested on feudal lords during the Middle Ages. England is almost the only modern state where the nobility still keeps an important place in the national life. There are English several reasons for this fact. In the first place, nobles British nobles are few in number in consequence of the rule of primogeniture.^ Only the eldest son of a peer inherits his father's title and estate; the younger sons are commoners. Even the eldest son during his father's Hfetime is styled "Lord" simply by courtesy. In the second place, the social distinction of the nobihty arouses Httle antagonism, because a peer is not bound to marry into another noble family but may take his wife from the ranks of commoners. Finally, nobles in Great Britain are taxed as are other citizens and are equally amenable to the laws. Very different was the situation in eighteenth-century France. Here there were as many as one hundred thousand nobles, for French the French did not observe the rule of primogeni- nobles ^ure. Their "gentle birth" enabled them to monopolize the important offices in the government, the army, and the Church. They claimed, and largely secured, exemption from taxation. The result was that most of the expense of the * See page 116, note i. The Unprivileged Classes 483 wars, the magnificent palaces, and gorgeous ceremonial of Louis XIV and Louis XV was borne by the middle and lower classes of France. The provincial nobles, who lived on their country estates, usually took more or less part in local affairs and felt an interest in the welfare of the peasantry. But many members of the nobility were absentee landlords, leading a fashionable existence at the court and dancing attend- ance on the king. Nobles of this type were ornamental rather than useful. Their luxury and idleness made them objects of odium in the minds of all who wished to renovate society. As one reformer declared, "Through all the vocabulary of Adam, there is not such an animal as a duke or a count." 169. The Unprivileged Classes Such were the two privileged orders, or estates. Beneath them came the unprivileged order known as the The Third Third Estate in France. It consisted of three Estate main divisions. The middle class, or bourgeoisie,^ included all those who were not manual laborers. Professional men, such as magis- trates, lawyers, physicians, and teachers, together The with bankers, manufacturers, wholesale merchants, bourgeoisie and shopkeepers, were bourgeois. The British middle class enjoyed representation in Parliament and frequently entered the nobility. The French bourgeoisie, on the contrary, could not hold the positions of greatest honor in the government. Though well educated and often wealthy, they were made to feel in every way their inferiority to the arrogant nobles. They added their voices, therefore, to those who demanded political liberty and social equality. The next division of the Third Estate comprised the artisans living in the towns and cities. They were not very numerous, except in Great Britain, France, western Germany, The and northern Italy, where industrial life had artisans reached a much higher development than elsewhere in Europe. 1 See page 227 and note i. 484 The Old Regime in Europe The craft guilds, which formed so useful a feature of urban Hfe in the Middle Ages, had not disappeared in the eighteenth century. In many places, however, the masters, Survivals , 1,1 ■, - 1, of the who owned the shops, machmes, or tools, alone S"^^ belonged to the guilds. Even where journeymen and apprentices became members, they were not admitted to all the privileges of the craft. This exclusive policy of the masters provoked much opposition on the part of the poorer workmen and led to a demand for the abolition of their monopoly of industry. The last and by far the largest division of the Third Estate was that of the peasants. In Prussia, Austria, Hungary, The Poland, Russia, and Spain they were still serfs. peasants They might not leave their villages or marry with- out their lord's consent; their children must serve in his family for several years at a nominal wage; and they themselves had to work for a number of days each week on their lord's land. It is said that this forced labor sometimes took so much of the peasant's time that he could only cultivate his own holding by moonlight. Conditions were better in Italy and western Ger- many, though it was a Hessian prince who sold his subjects to Great Britain to fight as mercenaries in the American War of Independence. In France, serfdom still existed only in Alsace, Lorraine, and Franche Comte,^ three provinces which had been acquired by Louis XIV and Louis XV. The great majority of the French peasants enjoyed complete freedom, and many of them owned their own farms. But even the free peasants of France carried a heavy burden. The king taxed their lands and dwellings, and the taxes were increased arbitrarily upon any sign of the owner's Survivals . ^, ,111., , • , of the prosperity. Ihe clergy aemandea tithes, which manorial amounted to perhaps a thirteenth of the produce. The nobles exacted various feudal dues for the use of oven, mill, and wine press, and tolls for the use of roads and bridges. The game laws were especially vexatious, for farmers were obliged to allow the game of neighboring lords to ^ See the map on page 402. Liberal Ideas of Industry and Commerce 485 invade their fields and destroy the crops. SUght wonder that the peasants also formed a discontented class, anxious for any reforms which would better their hard lot. 170. Liberal Ideas of Industry and Commerce; the Economists We have mentioned some of the abuses of the Old Regime. They were not greater in the eighteenth century than for hundreds of years before, but now they were to political be seriously attacked by thinkers who applied economy, or the test of reasonableness to every institution. ®^o^°°"<^s It was at this time that pohtical economy, or economics, came into being. Economic science, which investigates such sub- jects as the production of wealth and its distribution as rent, interest, profits, and wages, the functions of money and credit, and the methods of taxation, had been studied in earlier times by those, whose chief motive was to increase the riches of mer- chants and fill the treasuries of kings. Students in the eigh- teenth century took a wider view and began to search for the true causes of national well-being. The economists who flourished in France received the name of Physiocrats,^ because they believed that natural laws ruled in the economic world. In opposition to the The Mercantilists, who held that the wealth of a nation Physiocrats comes from industry and commerce, some of the Physiocrats declared that it comes from agriculture. Manufacturers, said they, merely give a new form to materials extracted from the earth, while traders do nothing more than transfer com- modities from one person to another. Farmers are the only productive members of society. It was a striking doctrine to enunciate at a time when the peasantry formed, as has been said, the ''beast of burden" of the Old Regime. This group of Physiocrats did a ■ real service in insisting upon the importance of agriculture, even though they erred in assuming that it is the sole source of wealth. ^ A term derived from two Greek words meaning " nature " and " to rule." 486 The Old Regime in Europe Another group of Physiocrats protested against the burden- some restraints imposed upon industry by the guilds and upon Laissez- commerce by the governments. They advocated faire economic freedom. Any one should be allowed to make what things he hkes ; all occupations should be open to everybody; trade between different parts of the country should not be impeded by tolls and taxes; customs duties should not be levied on the impor- tation of foreign goods. The Physiocratic teaching was summed up in the famous phrase laissez-faire — ''let alone." A Scotch professor of phi- losophy, Adam Smith, who had Adam Smith, visited France and 1732-1790 knew th^ Physi- ocrats, carried their ideas across the Channel. His famous work on the Wealth of Nations appeared in 1776, the year of American independence. It formed a new decla- ration of independence for industry and commerce. Smith set forth the doctrine of laissez-faire so clearly and persuasively as to make a profound impression upon business men and states- men. His arguments against monopohes, bounties, and pro- tective tariffs did much to secure the subsequent adoption of free trade by Great Britain and even affected Continental legislation. Thus the Wealth of Nations, judged by its results, is one of the most important books which has ever been written. 171. The Scientists Arithmetic, geometry, and algebra (elementary mathematics) had been studied in the schools and universities of the later Middle Ages. It remained to create the higher mathematics, including analytic geometry, loga- Adam Smith A medallion by James Tassie. Mathematics The Scientists 487 rithms, the theory of probabihties, and the infinitesimal cal- culus. Knowledge of the calculus, which deals with quantities infinitely small, has been of immense service in engineering and other applied sciences. Credit for its discovery is divided between the German Leibniz (1646-17 16) and his English con- temporary, Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). The profound mind of Newton formulated the so-called law of gravitation. He showed by mathematical calculation that the motion of the 1 11 1 r 1 Astronomy planets about the sun, and of the moon about the earth, can be explained as due to the same mysterious force of gravity which makes the apple fall to the ground. This dis- covery that all the movements of the heav- enly bodies obey one simple physical law forms perhaps the greatest achievement in the his- tory of science. Scarcely less important was the nebular hypothesis of the French astron- omer Laplace (1749-1827). He conjectured that our own and other solar systems had been produced by the condensation of nebulous mat- ter once diffused through space; in other words, that the nebulae were stages in the formation of stars. The further achievements of eigh- teenth-century astronomy include the discovery beyond Saturn of a new planet, Uranus, the computation of the distance between the earth and the moon, and the proof that our solar system as a whole is moving toward a point in the constellation Hercules. Various investigators at this time laid the foundation of modern physics, particularly in the departments of electricity and magnetism. Benjamin Franklin, by his kite , . • 1 11 ,. '. . „ Physics experiment, demonstrated that lightnmg is really an electrical phenomenon. The memory of the Italian Volta is perpetuated whenever an electrician refers to a "voltaic cell" or uses the term "volt." French scientists invented the Death Mask OF Sir Isaac Newton In the possession of the Royal Society of London. 488 The Old Regime in Europe Chemistry balloon, thus beginning the conquest of the air. The first successful ascents in balloons took place at Paris in 1783. Chemical research made rapid progress. Greek philosophers had taught that earth, air, water, and fire comprise the original "elements" out of which everything else was made. The chemists now disproved this idea by decom- posing water into the two gases, hydrogen and oxygen. The Frenchman Lavoisier (i 743-1 794) also showed that fire is really a union of oxygen with earthy car- bon. Until his time it had been supposed that objects burn be- cause they contain a combustible substance known as "phlogiston." We further owe to Lavoisier the modern doctrine of the indestruc- tibihty of matter. Eighteenth - century explorers brought back to Europe from ^ , America and the Pa- Biology . - cmc many new species of animals and plants, thus greatly encouraging biological study. Here the most eminent name is that of the Swede Linnaeus (1707-1778), whose careful description and classification of plants established botany as a science. In medicine the introduction of vaccination as a preventive of smallpox marked the first step toward securing immunity by inoculation against certain dread diseases. The invention of the compound microscope, following soon after the discovery of the telescope, revealed the existence of" a hitherto unsuspected realm of minute life in earth and air and water. Scientific investigations, in previous times pursued by lonely Learned thinkers, now began to be carried on systemati- societies ^ally by the members of learned societies. Italy led the way with the foundation at Naples and Rome of the LlNN^US A painting by Roslin. Liberal Ideas of Religion and Politics 489 first academies of science, and her example was followed at Paris, Berlin, and other European capitals. Shortly after the "Glorious Revolution" a group of English investigators ob- tained a charter forming them into the Royal Society of London. It still exists and enrolls the most distinguished scientists of Great Britain. Never before had there been so much interest in science and so many opportunities to uncover the secrets of nature. 172. Liberal Ideas of Religion and Politics; the English Philosophers The advance of science, which immensely broadened men's conceptions of the universe, could not fail to affect their atti- tude toward religion. The idea of the reign of Rationalism natural law in the physical world was now extended "^ religion to the spiritual world. Thinking men began to argue that the doctrines 9f Christianity should not be accepted on the author- ity either of the Chuirch or of the Bible, but must be submitted to free inquiry. These champions of reason — the rationalists — especially flourished in England, where thought was less fettered than on the Continent. They were not all of one mind. Some of them, such as John Locke (1632-1704), de- fended Christianity as being the most reasonable of all religions. Other rationalists questioned the special claims of Christi- anity. They declared that the questions over which Christian sects had disputed for centuries were really of , . , , . -^ , The Deists mmor importance; the essential thing was the doctrine common to all mankind. Thus they arrived at the conception of "natural religion," which included simply the be- Hdf in a personal God and in man's immortal soul. These thinkers received the name of Deists.^ By casting doubt on the efficacy of particular religions, the Deists gave an impetus to the demand for influence of toleration of all. Their speculations found a warm *^® Deists welcome in France, where they helped to undermine reverence ^ Latin Deus, "God." 490 The Old Regime in Europe for the Church among the more intelUgent classes. Deism in this way acted as a revolutionary ferment. Rationahsm also invaded politics. EngHsh thinkers, of whom Locke formed the most prominent representative, de- Rationalism veloped a theory of government which, like the in poUtics Calvinistic theory,^ was utterly opposed to the old doctrine of the divine right of kings. According to Locke, all men possess certain natural rights to life, liberty, and the ownership of property. To preserve these rights they have entered into a contract with one another, agreeing that the majority shall have power to make and execute all necessary laws. If the government, thus created, breaks the contract by violating man's natural rights, it has no longer any claim to the allegiance of its subjects and may be legitimately over- thrown. To say that all government exists, or should exist, by the consent of the governed is to set up the doctrine ©f popular Popular sovereignty. How influential it was may be seen sovereignty fj-Q^i passages in the Declaration of Independence which reproduce the very words of Locke and other English writers. But their ideas found the heartiest reception in France. Enlightened members of the nobihty and bour- geoisie, weary of royal despotism, took them up, expounded them, and spread them among the people. 173. The French Philosophers France during the eighteenth century had not been able to maintain the high position among European states to which she Intellectual ^^^ ^^^^ raised by Louis XIV, and in the struggle leadership for colonial empire she had been defeated by Grqat of France Britain. Her intellectual leadership compensated for all that she had lost. Throughout this century France gave birth to a succession of philosophers whose ideas fell like ferti- Hzing rain upon the arid soil of the Old Regime. Some of them had lived for a time in England as refugees from the persecution 1 See page 376. The French Philosophers 491 which too bold thinking involved at home. Their life there made them acquainted with the British system of constitutional monarchy — so unlike the absolutism of French kings — with the political theories of Locke, and with the ideas of the Deists, from whom they learned to submit time-honored beliefs to searching examination. A nobleman, lawyer, and judge, Montesquieu, spent twenty years in composing a single book on the Spirit of Laws. It is a classic in political science. There was nothing Montesquieu, revolutionary in Montesquieu's conclusions. He 1689-1755 examined each form of government in order to determine its excellencies and defects. The British constitution seemed to him most admirable, as combining the virtues of monarchy, aristocrac)^, and democ- racy. Montesquieu es- pecially insisted upon the necessity of sepa- rating the executive, leg- islative, and judicial functions of govern- ment, instead of com- bining them in the person of a single ruler. This idea influenced the French revolutionists and also had great weight with the framers of the Constitution of the United States. The foremost figure among the philosophers was Voltaire, who sprang from the bourgeoisie. He was not a deep thinker like Montesquieu, but was rather a brilliant and Voltaire, somewhat superficial man of letters. For more 1694-1778 than half a century he poured forth a succession of poems, dramas, essays, biographies, histories, and other works, so Voltaire A statue by J. A. Houdon in the Comedie Frangaise, Paris. 492 The Old Regime in Europe clearly written, so witty, and so satirical as to win the applause of his contemporaries. Voltaire devoted a long life to the preaching of enlighten- ment. He was in no sense a revolutionist, and favored reform V itaire ^^ royal decree as being the simplest and most and the expeditious method. He made it his particular Church work to bring discredit on ecclesiastical authority. The Church he regarded as an invention of self-seeking priests. A typical Deist, Voltaire in- sisted on the need of toleration. " Since we are all steeped in error and folly," he said, ''we must forgive each other our follies." His exposure of bigotry and fanaticism was needed in the eighteenth century. It has helped to create the freer atmos- phere in which religious thought moves to-day. If Voltaire was the destroyer of the old, Rousseau was the jrophet of the new. This son of a Geneva watchmaker, who wandered from one European capital to another, made a fail- ure of everything he undertook and died poverty-stricken and demented. The discouragements and miseries of his career Rousseau, found expression in what he wrote. Rousseau felt 1712-1778 Qj^iy contempt for the boasted civilization of the age. He loved to picture what he supposed was once the "state of nature," before governments had arisen, before the strong had begun to oppress the weak, when nobody owned the land, and when there were no taxes and no wars. ''Back to nature" was Rousseau's cry. Such fancies Rousseau applied to politics in what was his most important book, the Social Contract. Starting with the Jean Jacques Rousseau A portrait by Ramsay made in 1766. The Enlightened Despots . 493 assertion that "man was born free and is everywhere in chains," he went on to describe a purely ideal ^j^^ „ g^^.^j state of society in which the citizens are ruled Contract," neither by kings nor parliaments, but themselves make the laws directly. The only way to reform the world, according to Rousseau, was to restore the sovereignty of the people, with "Liberty, Equahty, Fraternity" for all. As we have just learned, the idea that governments and laws arise by voluntary agreements among men, who may overthrow them for just cause, was not new; but Rousseau first gave it wide currency. Frenchmen of every class read the Social Contract with avidity, and during the Revolution they pro- ceeded to put its democratic teachings into effect. Jlousseau, Voltaire, and Montesquieu were among the con- tributors to the famous Encyclopedia, a work in seventeen volumes which appeared after the middle of the The En- eighteenth century. As the name indicates, it cydopedists formed a repository of all the scientific and historical knowl- edge of the age. But it was more than a monument of learning. The Encyclopedists, as its editors are known, were radical thinkers who combined in a great effort to throw the light of reason on the dark places of the social order. They set in motion a current of revolt which did much to undermine both Church and State in France. 174. The Enlightened Despots The ideas of the philosophers spread throughout those parts of Europe where French models were followed. Even kings and statesmen began to be affected by the spirit _ -r. 1 T 1 . f Paternalism of reform. European rulers did not mtend to surrender the least fraction of absolute power; they were still autocrats who believed in government by one strong man rather than by the democratic many; but with their despotism they combined a paternal solicitude for the welfare of their subjects. They took measures to secure religious toleration, to relieve poverty, to codify the laws, to provide elementary 494 The Old Regime in Europe education, and to encourage scientific research. These activities have won for them the name of the "enhghtened despots." In Russia Catherine the Great posed as an enhghtened despot. Catherine was a learned woman, at least for an empress. She Catherine wrote flattering letters to Voltaire and the Ency- the Great clopedists and conferred on them gifts and pen- sions. Montesquieu she especially admired, saying that were she the pope she would canonize him. But Catherine paid little more than lip-service to the ideas of the French philosophers. If she aboHshed torture, she did not do away with the knout; for capital punishment she only substituted the living death of exile in Siberia. Her toleration of dis- senters from the Orthodox Church stopped short of allowing them to build chapels for public worship, and her passion for legislative reform grew cold when she found that she must begin by freeing the serfs. Catherine's real attitude is exhibited in a letter to the governor of Moscow: "My dear prince, do not complain that the Russians have no desire for instruction; if I institute schools it is not for us, it is for Europe, where we must keep our position in public opinion. But the day when our peasants shall wish to become educated both you and I will lose our places." Catherine's contemporary, Frederick the Great, was a despot more sincere and more enlightened. He worked harder and had Frederick fewer pleasures than any other king of his day. the Great "Monarchs," he once wrote, "are not invested with authority that they may riot in voluptuousness." Al- though Frederick's resources had been so completely drained by the Seven Years' War that it was necessary for him to melt the silver in the royal palaces and debase the currency, his vigorous measures soon restored the national prosperity. He labored in a hundred ways to make Prussia the best-governed state in Europe. Thus, he founded elementary schools so that his subjects could learn at least to read and write, and reformed the courts so that everybody from high to low might be assured of impartial justice. A Deist in religion, the correspondent and friend of Voltaire, Frederick declared that every one should The Enlightened Despots 495 be allowed to get to heaven in his own way, and backed up his declaration by putting Roman Catholics on an equality with Protestants throughout the Prussian dominions. No less than thirty volumes, all in French, contain the poems, letters, and treatises on history, poHtics, and military matters which Fred- erick managed to compose in the spare moments of a busy life. This philosopher on the throne held the attention of his gen- eration in the world of ideas as well as in that of diplomacy and war. In Austria, Joseph 11,^ the eldest son of Maria Theresa, presented a less successful type of the enlightened despot. Joseph regarded Frederick the Great as the ideal r 1 1 Tx . t 1 r , Joseph II of a modern ruler. He wished to transform the various peoples in the Hapsburg realm, with all their differences of race, speech, reUgion, and aspirations, into a single unified nation. German officials sent out from Vienna were to ad- minister the affairs of each province. The army was to be built up by compulsory service after the Prussian model. German was to be used everywhere as the official language. Most unwisely, however, Joseph tried to accomplish in a short lifetime what all the Hapsburg rulers have not succeeded in doing to this day. The result was that his measures to German- ize Hungarians, Bohemians, ItaHans, and Netherlanders only aroused hostility and did not survive his death. The sentence that the king himself proposed as his epitaph was a truthful summary of his reign: "Here lies the man who, with the best intentions, never succeeded in anything." Paternal government had two serious weaknesses. First, the despots could not determine the policy of their successors. An able and liberal-minded ruler might be fol- Failure of lowed by a ruler who was indolent, extravagant, paternalism and unprogressive. In Prussia, for instance, the weak reign of Frederick the Great's successor undid much of his work. The same thing happened in Spain and Portugal. Second, the despots, however enlightened, treated their subjects as ^ Holy Roman Emperor, 1765-1790, and sole ruler of the Austrian realm, 1780- 1790. 49^ The Old Regime in Europe children and enacted reforms without first discovering whether reformation was popularly desired. Because of these weak- nesses, the eighteenth-century conception of absolute monarchs ruling for their people's good was certain to be superseded by the modern idea of the people ruling themselves. But to bring this about, a revolution was necessary. Studies I. Do monarchy and autocracy necessarily mean the same thing? 2. Compare the European estates or privileged classes with the castes of ancient and modern India. 3. Contrast the leading ideas of mercantilism and physiocracy. 4. Look up in an encyclopedia some account of the life and writings of Adam Smith. 5. What do you understand by laws of nature? Give some examples of such laws. 6. Mention some instances of the international character of science in the eighteenth century. 7. Distinguish between deism (or theism) and atheism. 8. How did Locke's theory of the social contract provide the intellectual justification for the "Glorious Revolution"? 9. Is there any reason to suppose that Rousseau's "state of nature" ever existed anywhere? 10. WTiy has Rousseau's Social Contract been called "the Bible of the French Revolution" and "the gospel of modern democracy"? 11. Show that Rousseau's ideas of government were far more radical than the ideas of Montesquieu. 12. Why did not the reforms of the en- lightened despots make a revolution unnecessary? 13. "No reform can produce real good unless it is the work of public opinion, and unless the people themselves take the initiative." Discuss the justice of this statement. 14. Describe those features of the Old Regime which led to the demand for "Liberty, Equality, Frater- nity." 15. How do the facts presented ip this chapter support the statement that "Great thinkers control the affairs of men, and by their discoveries regulate the march of nations"? i, CHAPTER XX THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC ERA, 1789-18151 175. Preparation for the French Revolution What we call the French Revolution refers to a series of events in France, between 1789 and 1799, by which divine- right monarchy gave way to a repubUc and class Rey^iu. distinctions and privileges disappeared in favor tionary of social equahty. This revolution started in France, not because the misery of the people had become more intolerable there than in other parts of the Continent, but precisely because France was then the most advanced of Con- tinental countries. French peasants and artisans were free enough and intelligent enough to be critical of their govern- ment. Next to Great Britain, France contained the most numerous, prosperous, and influential bourgeoisie. Members of this class furnished the Revolution with its principal leaders. Even the nobility and clergy included many men who realized the abuses of the Old Regime and wished to aboHsh them. In short, the revolutionary impulse stirred all ranks of French society. That impulse came in part from across the Channel. The spectacle of the Puritan Revolution and the "Glorious Revo- lution" in the seventeenth century affected England Frenchmen in the eighteenth century. The Eng- and the lish had put one king to death and had expelled another; they had estabhshed the supremacy of Parliament in the state. It was the example of parliamentary England 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxx, "France on the Eve of the Revolution"; chapter xxxi, "Scenes of the French Revolu- tion"; chapter xxxii, "Letters and Proclamations of Napoleon"; chapter xxxiii, "Napoleon." 497 498 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era which Montesquieu held up to the emulation of his country- men. And it was the political philosophy of the Enghshman, John Locke, upon which Rousseau founded his doctrine of the sovereignty of the people. A second impulse came from across the Atlantic. After the close of the War of American Independence, the French America common soldiers, together with Lafayette and and the other ofhcers, returned home to spread republican Revolution doctrines. It is significant that in 1783 a French nobleman translated and pubhshed all thirteen of the consti- tutions of the American states. Very important was the work of Benjamin Franklin, who for nearly a decade represented the American government in Paris. His engaging manners, practi- cal wisdom, and high principles won general admiration. The portrait of the Philadelphia printer hung in every house, and at republican festivals his bust figured side by side with that of Rousseau. '' Homage to Franklin," cried an enthusiastic Frenchman, ''he gave us our first lessons in liberty." To understand the outbreak of the French Revolution it is necessary to go back to the long reign of Louis XV. France Louis XV ^^^ never had so unkingly a sovereign as this king, successor of the "Grand Monarch." All his life 1715-1774 -^^ ^^g ^^ idler. He hunted, he gambled, he sank deep in the frivolities and immoralities of Versailles, he did everything but rule. The government fell more and more into the hands of courtiers and adventurers, whose main concern was to line their own pockets at the expense of the public treasury. The foolish alliances and fatal wars upon which Louis XV was persuaded to enter reduced France to the position of a Decline of second-rate power. In the Seven Years' War France French armies were repeatedly vanquished on Continental battle-fields, and French fleets were swept from the high seas. When the Peace of Paris was signed in 1763, the French flag ceased to fly in North America, -and it flew in India only by permission of England. The annexation of Lorraine (3/766) and Corsica (1768) did not compensate for the loss of Preparation for the French Revolution 499 a colonial empire. ^ The military failures of the king's reign humiliated his subjects and undermined their loyalty to him. The wars and extravagance of Louis XV added to the legacy of debt with which his predecessor on the throne had saddled France. The treasury every year faced a chronic Financial deficit. It could only be met by the dangerous ex- distress pedient of fresh loans, involving still larger outlays for interest charges. As long as the government refused to take proper measures of economy and continued to exempt the clergy and nobihty from their share of taxation, it was impossible to put the finances of France in a satisfactory condition. A country in natural resources the richest in Europe, with a population greater than that of any rival state, became virtually bankrupt. The French monarchy, so despised abroad, had to face a growing volume of complaints at home. Louis XV did his best to stifle them. A rigid censorship muzzled complaints the press. Postofhce officials opened letters pass- against the ing through the mails and revealed their contents "^°°"*^ ^ to the king. Books and pamphlets, obnoxious to the govern- ment, were, burned by the common hangman, and their authors were imprisoned. No man's personal liberty was safe, for the police, if provided with an order of arrest signed by the king i^lettrede cachet), could send any one to jail. Suspected per- sons sometimes remained prisoners for years without trial. Yet in spite of all measures of repression, opposition to the monarchy steadily increased. Louis XV was able to read the signs of the times. He knew that the Old Regime could not last much longer; "After me, but he felt sure that it would last his lifetime, the deluge" "After me, the deluge," he said. The deluge soon came. 176. Eve of the French Revolution Louis XVI, the grandson of Louis XV, mounted the throne when only twenty years old. Virtuous, pious, and well- meaning, he was the sort of ruler who in quiet times might ^ See the map on page 402. 500 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Marie Antoinette have won the esteem of the French people. He was, however, Louis XVI, weak, indolent, slow of thought, and very slow of king, 1774-1792 (decision. It has been well said that Louis XVI ** could love, forgive, suffer, and die," but that he did not know how to reign. At his side, presiding over the gay court of Versailles, stood Marie Antoinette of Austria, daughter of Maria Theresa. This beautiful and lovable, though friv- olous and light-mind- ed, woman exerted a most unfortunate in- fluence on Louis XVI, whom she surpassed in ability. She con- stantly interfered in matters of state to support some mis- taken policy or an in- competent minister. The queen had many enemies in France because of her nation- ality, and she in- creased them by lav- ish expenditures on herself and on her Marie Antoinette . . ^, , . - favorites. The chief After a painting by Mme. Vigee le Brun, at Versailles. i . ^ i charge later to be hurled against " Madame Deficit" was that she had wasted the resources of France. The youthful king began his reign auspiciously by appoint- ing a new ministry, in which Turgot held the most responsible position. He was a friend of Voltaire, a contributor to the Eve of the French Revolution 501 Encyclopedia, an economist of the Physiocratic school, and a successful administrator. Turgot drew up a Turgot's comprehensive program of reforms. He would ^^e^fofm, allow complete freedom of the press, establish a 1774-1776 national system of education, recall the Huguenots, and admit the bourgeoisie to all public offices. Turgot summed up his financial policy in the three maxims, ''No bankruptcy, no increase of taxation, no loans." Expenses were to be reduced by cutting off the pensions to Financial those whose only merit was, in the words of a policy of contemporary writer, "to have taken the trouble ^^°* to be born." The taxes bearing most heavily on the Third Estate were to be replaced by a general tax on all landowners. Peasants were to be no longer forced to work without pay on public highways and bridges. The old guilds, which hampered industry, were to be abolished. The vexatious tolls and duties on the passage of grain from one province to another were to be swept away. Could such reforms have been carried out, France would have had a bloodless and orderly revolution. But they were not carried out. The privileged classes would not surrender their privileges, nor favorites their pensions, nor monopolists their unjust gains, without a struggle. Fall of The weak king, who once declared that "the only Turgot persons who truly love the people are Monsieur Turgot and myself," failed to support him against the intrigues of Marie Antoinette and the court party. Turgot's dismissal from office after two years of power removed the one man who could have saved absolutism in France. The finances of the government went from bad to worse after the fall of Turgot. His successors in the ministry relied mainly on fresh loans to cover the deficits of the Financial treasury and avert bankruptcy. From the stand- ^^^^^ point of French interests Louis XVI committed a fatal error in allowing himself to be persuaded to intervene in the War of American Independence. America was freed; Great Britain was humbled; but the war forced up the public debt by leaps and bounds. When at last it became impossible to borrow more 502 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era money, the king yielded reluctantly to the popular demand for the convocation of the Estates-General. He appealed to the nation for aid, thereby confessing the failure of absolutism. 177. The Estates-General, 1789 The Estates-General, the old feudal assembly of France, had not met for one hundred and seventy-five years.^ Suddenly awakened from their long slumber, the represen- The Estates- . , , , , ,i i .i rr^i • i General tatives of the clergy, the nobles, and the Third convenes, Estate appeared at Versailles to take counsel with May 5, 1789 , , . ^i the kmg. The written instructions drawn up in every part of the country for the guidance of each represen- tative, though not revolutionary in wording, set forth a long Hst of abuses to be removed. While Louis XVI would have been satisfied with measures to increase the revenues, most Frenchmen wanted thoroughgoing reforms. Not quite half of the twelve hundred odd members of the Estates- General belonged to the two privileged orders. About Membership two-thirds of the delegates of the Third Estate Estates- ^^^^ members of the legal profession. A few General were liberal nobles. Less than a dozen came from the lower classes. As a whole, the Estates-General represented the most prosperous and the most intelligent people of France. The Third Estate possessed two very competent leaders, in Count Mirabeau and the Abbe Sieyes. The former belonged Mirabeau by birth and the latter by office to^ the privileged and Sieyes classes, but both gladly accepted election as representatives of the Third Estate. Mirabeau, a born s-tates- man and orator, had a sincere belief in constitutional govern- ment. He wished to set up in France a strong monarchy, limited by a constitution after the English model. Sieyes, a cleric more devoted to poUtics than to theology, had recently stirred all Frenchmen by a remarkable pamphlet entitled What is the Third Estate? He answered, " Everything." " What 1 See pages 210 and 399. The Estates- General 503 Organization would of the Estates- General one for the has it been hitherto?" "Nothing." "What does it desire?" "To be something." The three estates in former days sat as separate chambers and voted by orders. If this usage were now followed, the clergy and the nobihty have two votes to Third Estate. The com- moners insisted, however, that the new Estates-Gen- eral no longer represented feudal France, but the united nation. They wished, there- fore, that it should organize as a single body, in which the members voted as in- dividuals. Since the Third Estate had been permitted to send twice as many del- egates as either the clergy or the nobility, this arrangement would enable it to outvote the privileged orders and carry any reforming measures desired. The debate over the organization of the Estates- General continued for several weeks and resulted in a deadlock. At last, on the motion of Sieyes, the Third Estate The National cut the Gordian knot by boldly declaring itself Assembly the National Assembly. Then and there it as- june 17,' serted its right to act for the nation as a whole. ^'^^^ Representatives of the clergy and nobility might come in if they pleased, but the National Assembly could do without them. Louis XVI, left to himself, might have been too inert for resistance, but his wife, his two brothers, and the ,, ^ 111- 1 1 Tennis- court party persuaded him to make a stand, court Oath," Troops were now posted before the doors of the J"^® ^0, hall which had been set apart in the palace of Ver- sailles for the Third Estate. Finding their entrance barred, the MiRABEAU After a miniature (1791) by J Lemoine in the possession of M. F. Flameng. 504 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era The National Assembly recognized, June 27, 1789 undaunted commoners adjourned to a building nearby, which had been used as a tennis court. Here they took a solemn oath never to separate, but to continue to meet, under all circumstances, until they had drawn up a constitution for France. This resolute action brought to their side the repre- sentatives of the lower clergy {cures), who were inclined to the popular cause. But the king persisted in his opposition. Sunlmoning the three estates be- fore him, he made known the royal will that they should deliberate apart. The higher clergy and nobility immediately withdrew to their separate chambers. The Third Estate, with its clerical supporters, did not stir. When the master of ceremo- nies repeated the king's com- mand, Mirabeau retorted, "We are assembled by the national will; force alone shall disperse us." Louis XVI did not dare to use force, especially after many of the nobles, headed by the Marquis de Lafayette, joined the commoners. The king now gave way and requested the rest of the clerical and noble representatives to unite with the Third Estate in the National Assembly. Lafayette A portrait by Court, at Versailles. 178. Outbreak of the French Revolution Thus far we have been following a constitutional movement confined to the upper and middle classes of French society. Now, however, the lower classes began to make their influence felt upon the course of events, first in Paris and later in the provinces. Paris was a manufacturing center, with a large population of artisans, very Revo- lutionary Paris Outbreak of the French Revolution 505 poor, often idle, and inclined to be turbulent. Their ranks were swelled at this time by crowds of peasants, whom the bad harvests and severe winter of the preceding year had driven into the city. Here, in fact, were all the elements of a dangerous The Storming of the Bastille A picture by a contemporary artist. Lafayette sent the key of the Bastille to Washington at Mount Vernon, with these words: " It is a tribute which I owe as a son to my adopted father, as an aide-de-camp to my general, as a missionary of liberty to its patriarch." mob, on whose ignorance and passion reformers, agitators, and demagogues could play what tunes they willed. Soon came ominous news. Louis XVI had hardly accepted the National Assembly before he changed his Fall of the mind and determined to dissolve that body. A j^jy ^^ large number of troops, mainly German and Swiss 1789 regiments in the service of France, were massed near Paris, 5o6 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era • obviously with intent of awing, perhaps seizing, the repre- sentatives of the people. It was then that the Parisians made the cause of the National Assembly their own. Rioting broke out in the capital, and for several days anarchy prevailed. Reinforced by deserters from the army, the mob attacked and captured the Bastille, a fortress where poHtical offenders had been often confined on lettres de cachet. The Bastille at this time contained only seven prisoners, all there for just cause, but it symbolized the tyranny of the Old Regime and its fall created an immense sensation throughout France and in other countries, Louis XVI, on hearing the news, exclaimed, "Why this is a revolt!" ''No, Sire," replied a courtier, ''this is a revolution." Now that Paris was practically independent of royal control, the more prominent and well-to-do citizens took steps to secure The 3,n orderly government. They formed a municipal Commune council, or Commune, made up of representatives National elected from the different wards of the city. A Guard miUtia force, called the National Guard, was also organized, and the popular Lafayette was selected as com- mander. Meanwhile, Louis XVI had seen the necessity of submission. He withdrew the troops, got rid of his reactionary ministers, and paid a visit of reconciliation to the Parisians. In token of his good intentions, the king put on a red, white and blue cockade, red and blue being the colors of Paris and white that of the Bourbons. This was to be the new tricolor of France. The example set by Paris was quickly copied by the prov- inces. Many cities and towns set up communes and formed Revolution national guards. In the country districts the in the peasants sacked and burned those local bastilles, provinces ^^^ chdteaux, taking particular pains to destroy the legal documents by which the nobles exercised their manorial rights. Monasteries, also, were often pillaged. The government showed itself unable to maintain order or to pro- tect life and property. Troops in the garrison towns refused to obey their officers and fraternized with the populace. Royal Outbreak of the French Revolution 507 officials quitted their posts. Courts of justice ceased to act. Public works stopped, and the collection of taxes became almost impossible. From end to end of France the Old Regime collapsed amid universal confusion. The revolution in the provinces led directly to one of the The Destruction of Feudalism A contemporary cartoon representing the French people hammering to pieces with their flails all the emblems of the feudal system, including the knight's armor and sword and the bishop's crosier and miter. most striking scenes of French history. On the night of Au- gust 4-5, while the National Assembly had under consideration measures for stilling the unrest in France, one August 4-5, of the nobles — a relative of Lafayette — urged ^"^^^ that it remove the feudal burdens still resting on the peasantry. Then, amid hysterical enthusiasm, noble after noble and cleric after cleric arose in his place to propose equality of taxation, the repeal of the game laws, the freeing of such serfs as were still to be found in France, the abolition of tithes, tolls, and pensions, and the extinction of all other ancient privileges. A decree "abolishing the feudal system" was passed by the National Assembly within the next few days and was signed by 5o8 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era the king. The reforming measures which Turgot labored in vain to secure thus became accompHshed facts. It is well to remember, however, that the Old Regime had already fallen in France; the decree of the National Assembly did Httle more than formally outlaw it. Times were hard in Paris. Employment was scarce, and food was dear. The discontent grew in proportion, especially October 5-6, among the women, who had to stand in line many 1789 hours at a time waiting to purchase a few loaves of bread at the bakeries. Rumor accused the court and the aristocrats of deliberately causing famine, nay, of plotting to overturn the revolution by force. A newspaper published the statement — quite unfounded — that during a banquet of army officers at Versailles the national cockade had been insulted and trampled under foot. Here was the spark which caused the explosion. On October 5 a mob of hungry women, armed with every sort of weapon, even scythes and pitchforks, set out for Versailles to demand bread of the king. It was a strange procession that straggled along the twelve miles of highway from Paris to Versailles; an eyewitness declares that it reminded him of an army of crusaders. Early in the morning of October 6, some of the women made their way into the palace, killed the sentinels, and entered the apartments of Marie Antoinette, who escaped with difficulty. Only the arrival of Lafayette at the head of the National Guard prevented further rioting and bloodshed. The women were finally quieted by the king's promise to remove to Paris with his wife and children. That afternoon the royal family set out on their sorrowful journey to the capital, accompanied by a mob which yelled, "We are bringing the baker, the baker's wife, and the baker's little boy." Henceforth Louis XVI lodged in the palace of the Tuileries, where he found himself, in effect, a prisoner in the hands of the Parisians. 179. The National Assembly, 1789-1791 The National Assembly declared itself inseparable from the king's person and followed him to Paris. It remained in session The National Assembly 509 there for the next two years. One of its most important un- dertakings was the reform of local government. During the eight centuries between Hugh Capet and Louis The depart- XVI, France had been built up by the gradual weld- nients ing together of a number of provinces varying greatly in size, and each with its own customs and laws. The old provincial distinctions now gave way to a division of the country into eighty-three departments, approximately uniform in size and population and named after some river, mountain, or other natural feature. A map of contemporary France still shows these departments. The National Assembly next undertook a reorganization of the Church. It ordered that all Church lands should be declared national property, broken up into small Ecclesiastical lots, and sold to the peasants at a low price, legislation By way of partial indemnity, the government agreed to pay fixed salaries to the clergy. All appointments to ecclesiasti- cal positions were m ll<>i}iainc&Miad(mcwac. Assig^nat pa^ablevatuporteur. Serie 6329'"^ taken from the @ hands of king and pope and placed in the hands of the people. The elec- tors of a depart- ment chose their bishop, and those of a district their cure. The National Assembly also sup- pressed the monasteries, but undertook to pension the monks and nuns. The desperate condition of the finances led to the adoption of a desperate remedy. The National Assembly passed a decree authorizing the issue of notes to the value The of four hundred milHon francs on the security of assignats the former Church lands. To emphasize this security the title of as signals was given to the notes. If the issue of as signals An Assignat 5IO The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era could have been restricted, as Mirabeau desired, to less than the value of the property pledged to pay for them, they might have been a safe means of raising a revenue; but the continued needs of the treasury led to their multiplication in enormous quantities. Then followed the inevitable consequences of paper money inflation. Gold and silver disappeared from circulation, while prices rose so high that the time came when it needed a basket of assignats to buy a pair of boots. The assignats in the end became practically worthless. The finances of the government, instead of being bettered by this resort to paper money, were left in a worse state than before. The National Assembly gave to France in 1791 the written constitution which had been promised in the ''Tennis-Court The Con- Oath."^ The constitution established a legis- stitution of lative assembly of a single chamber with wide powers over every branch of the government. The hereditary monarchy was retained, but it was a monarchy in little more than name. The king could not dissolve the legislature, and he had only a "suspensive veto" of its measures. A bill passed by three successive legislatures became a law even without his consent. Mirabeau wished to accord the king greater authority, but the National Assembly distrusted Louis XVI as a possible traitor to the Revolution and took every precaution to render him harmless. The distrust which the bourgeois framers of the constitution felt toward the lower classes was shown by the clause limiting the privilege of voting to those who paid taxes equivalent to at least three days' wages. About a fourth of the citizens, some of them peasants but most of them artisans, were thus excluded from the franchise. The National Assembly prefixed to the constitution a Decla- ration of the Rights of Man, rights which for the Declaration , , , • i • 1 i ^ i of the most part had been ignored or violated under the Rights of Old Regime. No person, so ran the Declaration, shall be arrested or imprisoned except according to law. Any 'one accused of wrongdoing shall be presumed 1 Hence the National Assembly is also called the Constituent Assembly. The First French RepubHc 511 innocent until he is adjudged guilty. Every citizen may freely speak, write, and ^print his opinions, subject only to responsibility for the abuse of this freedom. All the citizens have the right to decide what taxes shall be paid and how they are to be used. No one shall be deprived of his property, except for public purposes, and then only after indemnification. These and other clauses of the Declaration of Rights followed the precedents set in some of the constitutions of the American states. The document, as a whole, formed a working pro- gram of revolution in France. 180. The First French Republic, 1792 The first phase of the French Revolution was now ended. Up to this point it has appeared rather as a reformation, which abolished the Old Regime and substituted phases of a limited monarchy for absolutism and divine the revo- right. Many men believed that under the new "*^°" constitution France would henceforth enjoy the blessings of peace and prosperity. They were quickly undeceived. The French people, unfortunately, lacked all training in the difficult art of self-government. Between their political incapacity and the opposition of the reactionaries and the radicals, the revolutionary movement drifted into its second and more violent phase, which was marked by the estabhshment of a republic. The reactionaries consisted, in part, of nobles who had hastily quitted the country upon the outbreak of the Revo- lution. Their emigration continued for several The years, until thousands of voluntary exiles (emi- emigres gres) had gathered along the northern and eastern frontier of France. Headed by the king's two brothers, the count of Provence 1 and the count of Artois,^ they kept up an un- ceasing intrigue against the Revolution and even organized a little army to recover by force their titles, privileges, and property. 1 Afterwards Louis XVIII (1814-1824). 2 Afterwards Charles X (1824-1830). 512 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Had the reactionaries included only the emigres beyond the borders, they might not have proved very troublesome. The non- "^^^ ^^^^ found support in France. The Consti- juring tution of 1 79 1 had made the clergy state officials, c ergy elected by the people and paid by the government. Such an arrangement could not be acceptable to sincere Roman CathoUcs, because it separated the Church from papal control. The pope, who had already protested against the confiscation of Church property and the dissolution of the monasteries, forbade the clergy to take the oath of fidehty to the new con- stitution. Nearly all the bishops and perhaps two-thirds of the cures obeyed him; these were called the non-juring clergy. Until this time the parish priests had generally supported the revolutionary movement. They now turned against it, carry- ing with them their peasant flocks. The Roman CathoUc Church, with all its spiritual influence, was henceforth arrayed against the French Revolution. To Louis XVI, practically a prisoner in the Tuileries, the new order of things could not but be most distasteful. The Opposi- constitution, soon to be put into effect, seemed tionof to him a violation of his rights as a monarch, Louis XVI 1 ., , r 1 1 1 1 /v 1 1 and Marie while the treatment of the clergy deeply offended Antoinette j^j^i as a Christian. As long as Mirabeau lived, that statesman had always been able to dissuade the king from seeking foreign help, but Mirabeau's premature death deprived him of his only wise adviser. Louis's opposition to the revolu- tionists was strengthened by Marie Antoinette, who keenly felt the degradation of her position. The king and queen finally resolved to escape by flight. Disguising themselves, Marie Antoinette as a Russian lady Flight of and Louis as her valet, they drove away in the the king evening from the Tuileries and made straight for and queen, . . . June 20-21, the eastern frontier. But Louis exposed himself ^"^^^ needlessly on the way; recognition followed; and at Varennes, near the border, excited crowds stopped the royal fugitives and turned them back to Paris. This ill-starred adventure greatly weakened the loyalty of the French people The First French RepubHc 513 The Radicals for Louis XVI, while Marie Antoinette, the ''Austrian woman," became more detested than ever. Besides the reactionaries who opposed the Revolution, there were the radicals who thought that it had not gone far enough. The radicals secured their chief following among the poverty-stricken workingmen of the cities, those without property and with no steady employment. Of all classes in France, the urban proletariat,^ as they may henceforth be called, seemed to have gained the least by the Revolution. No chance of future betterment lay before them, for the bour- geois Constitution of 1791 expressly provided that only tax-payers could vote or hold public office. The proletariat might well believe that, in spite of all high-sounding phrases .about the "rights of man," they had merely ex- changed one set of masters for another, the rule of the priv- ileged classes for that of the bourgeoisie. The radical movement naturally centered in Paris, the brain and nerve center of France. It was fostered by inflammatory newspapers and pamphlets, by the bitter speeches Radical of popular orators, and especially by numerous propaganda political clubs. The control of these clubs lay largely in the hands of young lawyers, who embraced the cause of the masses and soon became as hostile to the bourgeoisie as to the aristoc- racy. The famous Jacobin Club, so named from a former monastery of the Jacobin monks where its meetings were held, Danton Presumably a portrait by J. L. David, painted either in 1792 or 1793. Id the possession of Dr. Robinet. ^ From Latin proles, "oflfspring," wealth is in their children. progeny" — referring to those whose only 514 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era had hundreds of branches throughout France, all engaged in radical propaganda. The leaders of the Jacobin Club included two men who were destined to influence profoundly the subsequent course of the Danton and Revolution. One was Danton, who sprang from Robespierre ^j^g middle class. Highly cultivated, a successful advocate at the bar, Danton with his loud voice and forcible gestures could arouse his audience to wild enthusiasm. The WM9:^ The Lion of Lucerne This celebrated work at Lucerne in Switzerland was designed by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thonvaldsen and was dedicated in 1821. It represents a dying lion, which, pierced by a lance, still guards with its paw the Bourbon lilies. The figure is hewn out of the natural sandstone. The monument commemorates the ofi&cers and men of the Swiss Guard who were slain in 1792, while defending the Tuileries against the Parisian mob. other was Robespierre, also a middle-class lawyer with demo- cratic sympathies. This austere, precise httle man, whose youth had been passed in poverty, early became a disciple of Rousseau and the oracle of the Jacobins. Mirabeau once prophesied of Robespierre that he would "go far; he believes all that he says." We shall soon see how far he went. A new influence began at this point to affect the course of the French Revolution. Continental monarchs, however The First French Republic 515 "enlightened," felt no sympathy with a popular movement which threatened the stability of their own „^ , , . . . , War with thrones. If absolutism and divme right were Austria overthrown in France, they might before long be ^"Jy^^gg* overthrown in Austria and Prussia. The Austrian emperor, a brother of Marie Antoinette, now joined with the Prussian king in a state- ment to the effect that the restoration of the old mon- archy in France formed an object of "common inter- est to all sovereigns of Europe." The two rulers also agreed to prepare their armies for active ser- vice abroad. Their an- nounced intention to sup- press the Revolution by force provoked the French people into a declaration of war. Though directed only at the Austrian emperor, it also brought his Prussian ally into the field against France. The French began the contest with immense enthusiasm. They regarded themselves as armed apostles to spread the gospel of freedom throughout Europe. But their troops, poorly organized and disciplined, suffered rising of severe reverses, one result of which was further j2i^^* ^^' to exasperate pubUc opinion against the monarchy. Suspicion pointed to Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette as the traitors who were secretly revealing the French plan of cam- paign to the enemies of France. Suspicion passed into hatred, when the alhed commander-in-chief, as he led his army across the frontier, issued a proclamation threatening Paris with destruction if the slightest harm befell the royal family. At this juncture the Jacobins under Danton organized an uprising of the Parisian proletariat. The mob stormed the Tuileries, Seal of the French Republic, I 792 -I 804 5i6 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era massacred the Swiss Guard, and compelled the National As- sembly to suspend the king from office. A new assembly, to be called the National Convention, was summoned to pre- pare another constitution for France. Then followed the next scene in the bloody drama. The Commune of Paris, now controlled by the Jacobins, emptied Proclamation the prisons of suspected royahsts and butchered of the them without mercy. More than one thousand republic, September. persons perished in the ''September massacres." 22, 1792 Shortly afterwards the National Convention held its first meetings and by a unanimous vote decreed the abolition of the monarchy. All pubhc documents were henceforth to be dated from September 22, 1792, the beginning of "the first year of the French Republic." 181. The National Convention, 1792-1795 The National Convention contained nearly eight hundred members, all republicans, but republicans of diverse shades of opinion. One group was that of the Girondists, in the so-called because its leaders came from the de- National partment of the Gironde. The Girondists repre- sented largely the bourgeoisie; they desired a speedy return to law and order. Opposite them sat the far more radical and far more resolute group of Jacobins, who leaned for support upon the turbulent populace of Paris. The majority of the delegates belonged to neither party and voted now on one side and now on the other. Eventually, however, they fell under Jacobin domination. The feud between the two parties broke out in the first days of the National Convention. The Jacobins clamored for the death of Louis XVI as a traitor; most of the execution Girondists, less convinced of the king's guilt, would of Louis iiave spared his hfe. Mob influence carried through XVI 1793 the assembly, by a small majority, the vote which sent "Citizen Louis Capet" to the guillotine. The king's accusers did not have the evidence, which we now The National Convention 517 possess, proving that he had been in constant communication with the foreign invaders. His execution was a poHtical measure. ''Louis must die," urged Robespierre, "that the country may Uve." Dan ton, raihng against the enemies of France, could now declare, ''We have thrown them as gage of battle the head of a king." Meanwhile, the tide of foreign invasion receded rapidly. France, 1793 Execution of Louis XVI After a contemporary print. Two days before the inauguration of the repubhc the French stayed the advance of the allies in the important battle of Valmy. The revolutionary troops then took the coalition offensive and invaded the Austrian Netherlands, against Fired by these successes, the National Conven- tion offered the aid of France to all nations which were striving after freedom ; in other words, it proposed to propagate the Revolution by force of arms throughout Europe. This was a blow in the face to autocratic rulers and privileged classes everywhere. After the execution of Louis XVI Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Holland, and Spain leagued together to overthrow republican France. 5i8 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era The repubUc at the same time was threatened by domestic insurrection. The peasants of La Vendee, a district to the Domestic south of the lower Loire, were royalists in feeling insurrection ^nd deeply devoted to Roman Cathohcism. When an attempt was made to draft them as soldiers, they refused to serve and broke out in open rebellion. The important naval station of Toulon, a royalist center, surrendered to the British. A tremor of revolt also ran through the great cities of Lyons, Marseilles, and Bordeaux, whose bourgeoisie resented the radi- calism of the Parisian proletariat. The peril to the republic, without and within, showed the need of a strong central government. The National Con- C "ttee vention met this need by selecting twelve of its of PubUc members to serve as a Committee of Public ^^^^^ Safety, in which at first Danton, and later Robes- pierre, was the leading figure. The committee received almost unlimited authority over the life and property of every one in France. It proceeded to enforce a general levy or conscription, which raised three-quarters of a million men for the national defense. Carnot, another member of the committee, the ''organizer of victory" as he came to be called, drilled and dis- ciphned them and sent them forth, singing the Marseillaise,^ to battle. The mercenary troops of old Europe could not resist the French citizen soldiers, who soon carried the war into enemy territory. The grand coalition dissolved under the coali- the shock, and France enlarged her boundaries tion, 1794- ^q include the Austrian Netherlands and that 1795 part of Germany lying on the left, or west, bank of the Rhine. Holland was also overrun by the revolutionary armies. The country now became a republic, nominally independent but really subject to French influence. The Committee of Pubhc Safety likewise dealt effectively with domestic insurrection. It resorted to a policy of terrorism as a means of suppressing the anti-revolutionary elements. 1 A patriotic song, the words and music of which were composed in 1792 by Rouget de Lisle. The National Convention 519 A law was passed which declared "suspect" every noble, every office-holder before the Revolution, every person who had had any dealings with an emigre, and every 1 11 1 -n . . . Terrorism person who could not produce a certificate of citi- zenship. No one could feel safe under this law. As a wit afterward remarked, all France in those days went about conjugating, ''I am suspect, thou art suspect, he is suspect," etc. Special courts were set up in Paris and the provincial cities to try the "suspects" and usually to order them to the guillotine. France endured the Reign of Terror for over a year. During this time seventeen thousand persons, it has been estimated, were executed under form of law, while many Rgjgjj ^f more were massacred without the pretense of a Terror, 1793—1794 trial. The carnage spread beyond the non-juring clergy and the aristocracy to include the bourgeoisie and even many artisans and peasants. Among the distinguished victims at Paris were Marie Antoinette, the sister of Louis XVI, and the principal Girondist leaders. Then the Terror began to consume its own authors. Danton, who had wearied of the bloodshed and counseled moderation, suffered death. ''Show my head to the people," he said to the executioner, "they do not see the like every day." The fanatical Robespierre now became the virtual dictator of France. He continued the slaughter for a few months until his enemies in the National Convention secured the upper hand and hurried him without trial to the death to which he had sent so many of his fellow- citizens. Robespierre's execution ended the Reign of Terror. The policy of terrorism, however effective in crushing the enemies of the republic, had long since been perverted to ^j^g q^^_ party and personal ends. The inevitable reaction stitution of against Jacobin tyranny followed. The bourgeoisie gained control of the National Convention, which now resumed its task of preparing a constitution for republican France. The new instrument of government provided for a legislature of two chambers and vested the executive authority in a 520 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Directory of five members, with most of the powers of the former Committee of Pubhc Safety. Before the constitution went into effect, Paris became the scene of another mob outburst. Royalists and radicals joined „ , forces and advanced to the attack of the Tuileries, Napoleon , tvt • i ^ • • • and the where the JNationai Convention was sittmg. National Here the rioters met such a cannonade of grape Convention .. ,,. r shot that they fled precipitately, leaving many of their number dead in the streets. The man who most dis- tinguished himself as the defender of law and order was the young artillery general. Napoleon Bonaparte. 182. The Directory and Napoleon, 1795-1799 Napoleon Bonaparte was born at Ajaccio, Corsica, in 1769, only a year after that island became a French possession. He was the second son of an Italian lawyer of noble birth but Early life decayed fortunes. of Napoleon Napoleon attended a preparatory school in France and went through the ordinary curriculum with credit, showed proficiency in mathematics, and devoted much of his leisure to reading history. After a brief military training in Paris, he entered an artillery regiment, thus realizing his boyish desire to be a soldier. He was then a youth of sixteen years, poor, friendless, and without family influence. Napoleon took a keen interest in the reform movement then stirring France. A devoted admirer of Rousseau's philosophy, Rise of he hated aU privfleges, all aristocracy, and for a Napoleon ^jj^ie, at least, he became a Jacobin. The Revolu- tion gave him his first opportunities. He commanded the Napoleon After a painting made in 1803 by B. Greathead. It was considered by Na- poleon's mother the best likeness of her son. In the possession of Sir Edward Durand. The Directory and Napoleon 521 artillery which compelled the British to evacuate Toulon in 1794 and two years later he helped defend the National Convention against the Parisian mob. Shortly afterwards Carnot, who divined Napoleon's genius, persuaded his col- leagues- on the Directory to intrust the young man with the command of the French army in Italy. When the Directory assumed office, France still numbered Great Britain and Austria among her foes. Great Britain could not be attacked, because of the weakness «„ , ' riapoleon of the French navy, but Austria offered a front in Italy, vulnerable to an advance both through Germany ^'^^^^'^^^ and Italy. It was Napoleon's task, with a small and shabbily equipped army, to drive the Austrians from their strong posi- tions in Lombardy. He accomplished this task in a campaign of spectacular brilliancy, which only ended when the French were within a hundred miles of Vienna. The Hapsburg em- peror, unprepared 'to withstand a siege of his own capital, then stooped to make terms with the republican general. Austria ceded to France the Austrian Netherlands, which had already been occupied by the republican armies, agreed to the annexation by France of the Germanic lands west of the Rhine, and recognized the es- Campo tablishment of a sphere of French influence in Formio, 1797 northern Italy. In return for these concessions, Austria received most of the Venetian territories conquered by Napoleon. Thus passed away the republic of Venice, which had managed through nearly a thousand years to pre- serve its independence. Great Britain now remained the only country to contest French supremacy in Europe. Napoleon determined to strike at her through her Oriental possessions. It was Napoleon necessary, first of all, to wrest Egypt from the in Egypt, Ottoman Turks, for, as Napoleon never tired of asserting, ''the power that is master of Egypt is master of India." Napoleon easily persuaded the Directory to give him the command of a strong expedition, which set sail from Toulon and reached Alexandria in safety. The Egyptian campaign 522 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Directory, 1799 had hardly begun before Lord Nelson, the British admiral, destroyed most of the French fleet at the battle of the Nile, thus severing the communications of the army with France. Napoleon soon overran Egypt, but met a severe check when he carried the war into Syria. Faced by the collapse of his Oriental dreams, he secretly returned to France. Here his highly colored reports of French victories caused him to be greeted as the conqueror of the East. Affairs had gone badly for France during Napoleon's ab- ^ , sence in Eg\T3t. Overthrow ^ . ^ . of the Great Britain, Austria, and Russia formed another coalition against the republic, put large armies in the field, and drove the French This misfortune sapped the authority of the Directory and turned the eyes of most Frenchmen to Napoleon as the one man who could guarantee victory abroad and order at home. He took advantage of the situation to plan with Sieyes and other politicians a coup d'etat} Three of the five directors were induced to resign; the other two were placed under miHtary guard; and the bayonets of Napoleon's devoted soldiers forced the assemblies to dissolve. Napoleon now became virtually master of France. 'T found the crown of France lying on the ground," he once remarked, *'and I picked it up with the sword." Thus, within little more than ten years from the meeting of the Estates-General at Versailles, popular government gave way to the rule of one man. MiUtarism supplanted democracy. 1 French for a "stroke of state." Horatio, Lord Nelson National Portrait Gallery, London A painting by L. F. Abbott of Nelson in . . 1797. He wears on his breast the Order of the IfOm Italy. Bath and round his neck suspended by a rib- bon the gold medal for the battle of St.Vincent, The Consulate 523 183. The Consulate, 1799-1804 After the coup d'etat Napoleon proceeded to frame a consti- tution. It placed the executive power in the hands of three consuls, appointed for ten years. The First ^j^^ p Consul (Napoleon himself) was really supreme, stitution of To him belonged the command of the army and navy, the right of naming and dismissing all the chief state officials, and the proposal of all new laws. Napoleon then submitted the constitution to the people for ratification. The popular vote, known as a plebiscite, showed an overwhelming majority in favor of the new government. The French accepted Napoleon's rule the more readily because of the threatening war-clouds in Italy and on the Rhine. Though Russia soon withdrew from the second coalition, Austria and Great Britain Marengo remained in arms against France. Napoleon unden, I800 now led his troops across the Alps by the pass of the Great St. Bernard, a feat rivaling Hannibal's performance, descended unexpectedly into Italy in the rear of the Austrian forces, and won a new triumph at Marengo. A few months later the French general, Moreau, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Austrians at Hohenlinden in Bavaria.^ These reverses brought the Hapsburg emperor to his knees, and he agreed to a peace which reaffirmed the provisions of the Treaty of Campo Formio; Great Britain and France now took steps to end the long war between them. The one country was all-powerful on the sea, the other on the land; but neither could strike pe^ce of a vital blow at the other. The Peace of Amiens, Amiens, which they concluded, proved to be a truce rather than a peace. However, it enabled the First Consul to drop the sword for a time and take up the less spectacular but more enduring work of administration. He soon showed himself " as great in^tatecraft as in war. 1 Read Campbell's poem, Hohenlinden. 524 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era One of Napoleon's most important measures put the local government of all France directly under his control. He France placed a prefect over every department and a centralized subprefect Over every subdivision of a depart- ment. Even the mayors of the larger towns and cities owed their positions to the First Consul. This arrangement enabled Napoleon to make his will felt promptly throughout the length and breadth of France. It has surxdved in that country to the present time. The same desire for unity and precision led Napoleon to undertake the codification of French law. Voltaire had once The law remarked that a traveler through France changed codified j^jg laws as often as he changed his post-horses. This multiplicity of laws — Frankish, Roman, feudal, royal, and revolutionary — was now replaced by a single uniform code to which Napoleon gave his name. The Code Napoleon pre- vails to-day, not only in France, but also in Belgium, Holland, Italy, and western Germany. Napoleon also healed the religious schism which had divided France since the Revolution. Though not himself an ad- The Church herent of any form of Christianity, he felt the restored necessity of conciliating the many French Catho- lics who remained faithful to Rome. An agreement, called the Concordat, was now drawn up, providing for the restoration of Catholicism as the state religion. Napoleon reserved to himself the appointment of bishops and archbishops, and the pope gave up all claims to the confiscated property of the Church. The Concordat formed a singularly politic measure, for by confirming the peasantry in their possession of the ecclesiastical lands it bound up their interests with those of Napoleon. It continued to regulate the relations between France and the Papacy for more than a century .^ Nor did Napoleon forget the emigres. A law was soon The emigres passed extending amnesty to the nobles who had repatriated flg^j fj-om France. More than forty thousand families now returned to their native land. ^ From 1802 to 1905. The First French Empire 525 A long list might be drawn up of the other measures which exhibit Napoleon's quahties as a statesman. Thus, he founded the Bank of France, still one of the leading « , , financial institutions of the world. He established other a system of higher education to take the place ™®^^^®s of the colleges and universities which had been aboHshed by a decree of the National Convention. Like the Roman emperors, he constructed a system of military highways radi- ating from the capital city to the remotest departments, in addition to two wonderful Alpine roads connecting France with Italy. Like the Romans, also, he had a taste for build- ing, and many of the monuments which make Paris so splendid a city belong to the Napoleonic era. 184. The First French Empire, 1804 Napoleon's victories in war and his policies in peace gained for him the support of all Frenchmen except the Jacobins, who would not admit that the Revolution had w , rJapoleon, ended, and the royahsts, who wished to restore emperor of the Bourbon monarchy. When in 1802 the people *^® French were asked to vote on the question, ^' Shall Napoleon Bona- parte be consul for life?" the answering ''ayes" numbered over three and a half millions, the ''noes" only a few thousands. Another plebiscite in 1804 decided, by an equally large majority, that the First Consul should become emperor. Before the high altar of Notre Dame Cathedral at Paris and in the presence of the pope, the modern Charlemagne placed a golden laurel wreath upon his own head and assumed the title of Napoleon I, emperor of the French. Napoleon also proceeded to erect a monarchy on Italian soil. At Milan he crowned himself king, as Charle- -^ , magne had done, with the "Iron Crown" of the king of Lombards. North Italy thus became practically ^^ an annex of France. The emperor-king set up again at the Tuileries the etiquette and ceremonial of the Old Regime. Already he had estab- 526 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era The imperial glory lished the Legion of Honor to reward those who most indus- triously served him. Now he created an imperial nobility. His relatives and ministers became princes, dukes, and counts; his ablest generals became marshals of France. ''My titles," Napoleon declared, "are a sort of civic crown; one can win them through one's own efforts." France, intoxicated with the im- perial glory, forgot that she had ^jjg come under the rule of imperial one man. What hostile despotism ... • -r-^ 1 criticism rrenchmen might have leveled against Napoleon was stifled by the secret police, who arrested and imprisoned hundreds of persons obnoxious to the emperor. The censorship of books and news- papers prevented any expression of public opinion. Many journals were suppressed; the remainder were allowed to publish only articles ap- proved by the government. Even the schools and churches were made pillars of the new order, and Napo- to prepare a catechism setting forth the duty of love, respect, and obey their emperor. In all these ways he established a despotism as unqualified as that of Louis XIV. 185. Napoleon at War with Europe, 1805-1807 The wars of the French Revolution, beginning in a conflict between democracy and monarchy, gradually became a means ^jjg of gratifying the French lust for territorial ex- Napoleonic pansion. With" the advent of Napoleon they ^"^ appeared still more clearly as wars of conquest. The "successor of Charlemagne," who carried the Roman Cross of the Legion OF Honor Instituted by Napoleon in 1802; given to both soldiers and civilians for distinguished sen-ices to the state. In leOU WCUt SO far aS the present order of the French Repub lie the symbolical head of the repub lie appears in the center and a laurel gOOd Christians tO wreath replaces the imperial crown Napoleon at War with Europe 527 Hostility of Great Britain to Napoleon eagles on his military standards, dreamed of universal sov- ereignty. Supreme in France, he would also be supreme in Europe. No lasting peace was possible with such a man, unless the European nations submitted tamely to his will. They would not submit, and as a result the Continent for ten years was drenched with blood. Austria in the revolutionary wars had been the chief opponent of France; in the wars of Napoleon Great Britain became his most persistent and relentless enemy. That island- kingdom, which had defeated the grandiose schemes of Philip II and Louis XIV, could never consent to the creation of a French empire domi- nating western Europe. .To preserve the European balance of power Great Britain formed coalition after coalition, using her money, her ships, and her soldiers unspar- ingly, and at length success- fully, in the effort. The Peace of Amiens lasted little over a year. The war between Great Britain and France being then renewed. Napoleon made every preparation to overthrow "perfidious Al- Trafalgar, bion." He collected an army and a flotilla of ^^®^ flat-bottomed boats near Boulogne, apparently intending to "jump the ditch," as he called the Channel, and lead his soldiers to London. If this was ever his intention, it became impossible of accomplishment after Lord Nelson's victory off Cape Trafalgar, over the combined French and Spanish fleets. Nelson received a mortal wound in the action, but he died with the knowledge that his country would henceforth remain in undisputed control of the seas. A Napoleonic Medal A medal prepared by Napoleon to be issued at London in honor of his expected triumph. It represents Hercules overthrowing a merman and bears the legend Frappee a Londres — "Struck in London" — 1804. After a cast in the British Museum. 528 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Meanwhile, the British prime minister, Wilham Pitt (son of the earl of Chatham), had succeeded in forming still another ui nd coalition. Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and AusterUtz, Sweden came together with the declared purpose ^^^^ of forcing France back to her old territorial limits. Before they could strike a blow, Napoleon suddenly broke up his camp at Boulogne, moved swiftly into Germany, captured The "Victory" Nelson's flagship at the battle of Trafalgar. Now moored in Portsmouth Harbor, England. an entire Austrian army at Ulm, and entered Vienna. These successes were followed by .the celebrated battle of Austerlitz, a masterpiece of strategy, at which Napoleon with inferior numbers shattered the Austro-Russian forces. With his capital lost, his territory occupied, his armies destroyed, the Hapsburg emperor once more consented to an ignominious peace. The Venetian lands which Austria acquired by the Peace of Campo Formio, were now added to Napoleon's kingdom of Italy. Prussia was next to feel the mailed fist of Napoleon. Rely- Tena 1806 ^^§ upon the help of Saxony and Russia, she at- and Fried- tempted to stay his victorious progress, only to *° ' suffer the loss of two armies in the double battle of Jena. Napoleon soon entered Berlin in triumph. Russia still Eg- ;Li > n> &-- I j3 p fO f iz: a. ii, 5- 3 ^ 1 5 -• 1^ The Napoleonic Reorganization of Europe 529 remained formidable, until a bad defeat at Friedland induced the tsar, Alexander I, to make overtures for peace. The two emperors met on a raft in the middle of the river Niemen at Tilsit and concluded a bargain for the partition of Europe. The tsar agreed to throw over his allies Peace of and allow Napoleon a free hand in the West, ^^^^t* ^^^ Napoleon permitted the tsar to seize Finland from Sweden and promised French aid in expelling the Turks from Europe. When, however, the tsar asked for the Turkish capital, Napo- leon exclaimed, "Constantinople! Never! That would be the mastery of the world." No sovereign in modem times was ever so powerful as Napo- leon after TiLsit. If he had failed on the sea, he had won complete success on the land, and the triumphs of ^-^^ Ulm, of Austerlitz, of Jena, and of Friedland hid Napoleonic from view the disaster of Trafalgar. Napoleon's ^^"^^^^ victories are explained only in part by his mastery of the art of war. The emperor inherited the splendid citizen-soldiery of the revolutionary era, a whole nation under arms and filled with the idea of carrying "Liberty, EquaHty, Fraternity" throughout Europe. The hired troops of the absolute mon- archies, on the contrary, had little enthusiasm for their cause. Slight wonder that in conflict with them Napoleon's legions always gained the day. 186. The Napoleonic Reorganization of Europe Napoleon at the zenith of his power ruled directly over an empire that was much more extensive than the former French kingdom. During the years which followed the imperial Peace of Tilsit, he annexed Holland, all the Ger- ^^^^^e man coast as far as Denmark, what remained of the States of the Church, including Rome, and the Illyrian provinces east of Italy. Imperial France touched the Baltic on the north, and on the south she faced the Adriatic. Beyond the empire stood a belt of dependent states. North- ern Italy, including Lombardy and the ancient possessions of Venice, formed a separate kingdom, held by Napoleon himself, 530 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era Confedera- tion of the Rhine. This Rhine. 1806 and administered by his stepson, Eugene Beauharnais.^ His Dependent brother Joseph governed in central and southern states Italy (the kingdom of Naples). Switzerland was a vassal republic ruled by Napoleon with the title of Medi- ator. The sections of Pohsh territory which Prussia and Austria had seized in the second and third partitions went to form the Grand Duchy of Warsaw; not, however, under a Polish ruler, but under Napoleon's new ally, the king of Saxony. "Roll up the map of Europe," William Pitt had cried, when he heard the news of Austerlitz, "it will not be needed these ten years." Napoleon's power in central Europe rested upon the Con- federation of the or- ganization included Bavaria, Baden, and Wlirtem- berg, and in its final form all the German states except Aus- tria and Prussia. As sovereign of the league, under the title of Protector, Napoleon disposed of its military forces and conducted its foreign relations. The formation of the Confederation of the Rhine gave the death-blow to the Holy Roman Empire. That venerable institution, which went back to Otto the Great and Charlemagne, had by this time become little more than a name, an empty form, a shadow without substance. When Napoleon declared that he would recognize it no longer, the Hapsburg ruler laid down the crown and contented himself with the title of emperor of Austria. Almost all the European states not actually dependent on ^ Son of Napoleon's wife, Josephine, by her first husband. William Pitt, the Younger After a painting by John Hoppncr in the possession of Lord Rosebery. Extinction of the Holy Roman Empire, 1806 The Continental System 531 Napoleon were allied with him. They included Spain, which subsequently became a dependency, Denmark, Norway, the kingdom of Prussia, now reduced to about a half of its former size, and the weakened Austrian Empire. But Great Britain, mistress of the seas, still held out against the master of the Continent. Longitude East 10 from Greenwich First French Empire, 1812 a.d. 187. The Continental System The failure of Napoleon's Egyptian expedition, as a result of the battle of the Nile, prevented him from striking at Great Britain through her possessions in the East. His Economic hope of invading her vanished at Trafalgar. His warfare efforts to destroy her commerce by sending out innumerable privateers to prey upon it were foiled when British merchant- men sailed in convoys under the protection of ships of war. One alternative remained. If British manufacturers could be deprived of their Continental markets and British ship-owners 532 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era and sailors of their carrying trade, it might be possible to compel the "nation of shopkeepers"^ to makepeace with him on his own terms. Napoleon's extraordinary successes on land enabled him to. devise a scheme for the strangulation of Great Britain. By two decrees issued at Berlin and Milan he Berlin and MUan placed that country under a commercial interdict. decrees, British ships and goods were to be excluded from loOo — Xww • France and her dependencies, while neutral ves- sels sailing from any British port were to be seized by French warships or privateers. Napoleon endeavored to enforce these decrees in the French Empire, the Italian kingdom, the Confederation of the Rhine, and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Russia and Extent _, . of the Prussia agreed to enforce them by the terms of the Continental Peace of Tilsit. At one time or another all the System states of Europe, except Great Britain and Turkey, came into the Continental System. The British government replied to the Berlin and Milan decrees by various Orders in Council, which forbade neutral The Orders ships from trading with France, her dependencies, in CouncU qj- j^gj. allies under penalty of capture. As Napo- leon sought to exclude Great Britain from Continental markets, so that country sought to shut out Napoleon from maritime commerce. The sea-power of Great Britain made it possible for her to blockade the Continent with some degree of effec- tiveness. Napoleon, on the other hand, could not make the Continental System really effective. British merchants always managed to smuggle large quantities of goods into the Euro- of the pean countries. Some goods which the French Continental absolutely required, such as woolens, had to be System .^ n ' ? admitted into France under special license. Napo- leon clad his own armies in British cloth, and his soldiers marched in British shoes. Though Great Britain suffered acutely from the emperor's interference with her trade, the Continental 1 A Napoleonic phrase. Revolt of the Nations 533 nations, deprived of needed manufactures and colonial wares, suffered still more. The result was to excite great bitterness against Napoleon. Nevertheless, he persisted in the attempt to humble his only rival by this economic warfare; as we shall now see, he staked his empire on the success of the Continental System. 188. Revolt of the Nations, 1808-1814 Napoleon hitherto had been fighting kings, not nations; and he had been uniformly victorious. A change came after Tilsit. His extortions from the conquered coun- National tries, his despotic government, and the hardships resistance imposed by the Continental System all tended to ° *^° ®°° produce the utmost hatred of the French emperor. Hence- forth our chief interest is with the various nations which one after another rose up against their common oppressor. France in arms made Napoleon; Europe in arms overthrew him. The little kingdom of Portugal had been linked to Great Britain by close commercial ties for more than a century. When the Portuguese refused to close their ports Napoleon's to British ships, as Napoleon demanded, he sent ^^^^^^^^^^ an army into the country, seized Lisbon, and and Spain, drove the royal family to Brazil. Napoleon then I807-I8O8 proceeded to deprive his friend and ally, Ferdinand VII, of the Spanish crown and gave it to his brother Joseph. These high-handed acts enabled the emperor to extend the Con- tinental System over the Iberian peninsula. 'What he gained there was more than offset elsewhere. As soon as the Portu- guese government removed to Brazil, it opened that country to British trade, and after the Spanish monarchy fell, its colonies, revolted from the mother country and admitted British goods. Napoleon thus unwittingly created lucrative markets in Latin America for his rival. Furthermore, Napoleon found that he had stirred up a veri- table hornet's nest in the peninsula. The Portu- Revolt of guese and Spanish decHned to accept their French Portugal overlords and everywhere rose in revolt. Great ^ ^^° Britain took a lively interest in the situation and sent an 534 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era army commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley, better known by his subsequent title of duke of WelHngton, to help the insurgents. The French were soon driven out of Portugal, nor could they maintain themselves securely in Spain. The Peninsular War, as it is called, dragged on for years, consuming men and money which Napoleon might have employed much more profitably elsewhere. Encouraged by the Spanish resist- ance, Austria tried to throw off the ^j^g Napoleonic yoke. The Austrian effort proved to be pre- revoit, 1809 ^^^ture, though Austria fighting this time alone gave Napoleon far more trouble than when previously she had the help of aUies. The French again occupied Vienna and won the hard battle of Wagram. The peace which followed cost the Hapsburg ruler additional territory Josephine ^^^^ ^ heavy indemnity. It also cost After a pencil drawing retouched y^^ J^^g daughter Maria Louisa, in water color. Made in 1798 by ° i i • J. B. isabey. In the possession of whosc hand Napolcou demanded m E. Taigny. marriage after divorcing Josephine. When Maria Louisa presented the emperor with a son and heir,^ it must have seemed to him that his dynasty was at length firmly fixed on the French throne. Europe, except in Spain and on the seas, now enjoyed peace for two years. It was a brief breathing-spell, while Napoleon made ready for a new and much more terrible contest. Until now he had induced tsar Alexan- der to adhere to the Continental System, which pressed with special severity upon Russia, an agricultural country needing large imports of British manufactures. The tsar at length decided to break his shackles and renew trade relations between Russia and Great Britain. This decision War with Russia, 1812 The so-called "king of Rome" or "Napoleon II," who died in Vienna in 1832. Revolt of the Nations 535 left Napoleon no choice but go to war with him, if the Continen- tal System was to be preserved. Rather than give up the hope of humbUng Great Britain, the emperor, against the advice of his wisest counselors, threw down the gage of battle. More than half a million men formed the Grand Army with which Napoleon began the invasion of Russia. About one- third of the soldiers were French; the rest were Ger- -pjjg mans, Italians, Poles, and other subjects of the advance empire. All western Europe had banded together under the leadership of one man to overthrow the only great state remaining unconquered on the Continent. The Russians Napoleon's Russian Campaign offered at first little resistance, and the Grand Army reached the river Borodino before they turned at bay. A murderous conflict followed; the French won; and eight days later Napo- leon entered the ancient capital of Moscow. But to occupy Moscow was not to conquer Russia. The French did not dare to follow their enemy farther into the wilderness, nor could they remain for the winter The retreat in Moscow, owing to the scarcity of food for men ^^^^ Moscow and horses. Moreover, a great fire, perhaps kindled by the Russians themselves, had destroyed much of the city just as the French entered it. Napoleon lingered for a month among the ruins of Moscow in the belief that Alexander would open negotiations for peace. But no message came from the tsar, 536 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era and at last the emperor gave orders for the retreat. A southerly route, which the army attempted to follow, was blocked, and the troops had to return by the way they had come, through a country eaten bare of supplies. Famine, cold, desertions, and the incessant raids of the Cossacks thinned their ranks; and at last only twenty thou- sand broken fugitives recrossed the Niemen to safety. The Grand Army had ceased to exist. This disaster, unparalleled in military annals, thrilled Prussia jjjg with hopes of Prussian freedom. Thanks revolt. 1813 ^^ ^^^^ ,^^^j.^ ^j Baron vom Stein and other states- men, it was a new Prussia which confronted Napoleon. Serfdom had been declared illegal, all occupations and professions had been opened to noble, commoner, Baron vom Stein and peasant alike, and the army had been reorganized on the basis of military service for all classes. These reforms gave to Prussia many of the advantages of the French Revolution and aroused a patriotic spirit which united the entire nation in a common love of country. Prussia now joined forces with Russia and began the War of Liberation. Yet so vast were Napoleon's resources that he was soon able to recruit a new army and take the offensive in Germany. Battle of -^^ gained fresh victories, but could not follow Leipzig, them up, because of the lack of cavalry. Austria 1813 then threw in her lot with the allies. Outnum- bered and outmaneuvered, Napoleon fell back on Leipzig, and there in a three days' '^Battle of the Nations" suffered a san- guinary defeat. All Germany now turned against him, and he withdrew his shattered troops across the Rhine. The aUies would have made peace with Napoleon, had he Downfall of Napoleon 537 « been willing to give up his claims to the overlordship of Europe. They ofifered him the "natural boundaries" of Abdication France — the Rhine, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and of Napoleon, the Atlantic — but he refused to accept the terri- torial limits that would have satisfied the ambitions of Louis XIV. Napoleon's campaigns during the early months of 1814 against three armies, each one larger than his own, are justly celebrated; they postponed but did not prevent his overthrow. After Paris surrendered, the emperor gave up the useless struggle and signed an act of abdication renouncing for himself and for his heirs the thrones of France and Italy. 189. Downfall of Napoleon, 1814-1815 The AUies treated Napoleon with marked consideration. They allowed him to retain the title of emperor and assigned him the island of Elba as a possession. He spent Napoleon ten months in this tiny principality and ruled ** ^^^* it with all his accustomed energy, meanwhile keeping a watchful eye upon the course of events in France. Suddenly Europe heard with amazement that Napoleon had returned to France and that Louis XVIII,^ his Bourbon suc- cessor on the throne, was once more an exile. The The enthusiastic welcome which greeted the emperor, "Hundred as he advanced to Paris with only a small body- March- June, guard, bore witness at once to the magnetism of ^^^^ his personality and to the unpopularity of the Bourbons. The Allies refused to accept the restoration of one whom they very properly described as the "enemy and destroyer of the world's peace." The four great powers, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, declared Napoleon an outlaw and set their armies in motion toward France. Napoleon had only a gambler's chance, but he made the most of it. Before the alHes could concentrate their overwhelming masses, he moved rapidly into Belgium, between the Prussians under Bllicher and a mixed force of British, Belgians, Dutch, ^ See page 511 and note lo. The young son of Louis XVI ("Louis XVII") is supposed to have died in a revolutionary prison in 1795. 538 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era and Germans under the Duke of Wellington. Bliicher's defeat compelled Wellington to fall back on a strong Waferioo, defensive position near Waterloo, twelve miles June 18, south of Brussels. Here, all through a hot Sun- 1815 day in June, Napoleon hurled his infantry and cavalry in fierce but ineffectual attacks against the "Iron Duke's" lines. The timely arrival of the Prussians, late in the afternoon, compelled the French to fight a double battle; their situation soon became desperate; and even a last charge Plan of the Battle of Waterloo of the Old Guard failed to restore the day. Repulse soon turned into a rout, and Napoleon's splendid army broke up into a mob of fugitives. The emperor himself escaped with difficulty to Paris. ^ Napoleon abdicated a second time and to avoid the Prussians (who had orders to take him dead or alive) threw himself upon the generosity of the British government. Then followed exile to the desolate rock of St. Helena, where the fallen emperor lived for six years, without 1 Victor Hugo has a famous though inaccurate description of the battle in Les Misirables (part ii, book i). See also Byron's lines, "The Eve of Waterloo," in Childe Harold (canto iii, stanzas 21-28). The Napoleonic legend "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" 539 wife or child but surrounded by a few intimate friends to whom he dictated his memoirs. After his death, at the early age of fifty- two, France forgot the sufferings he had caused her and remembered only his glory. Poets, painters, and singers created out of the ''Little Corporal" a purely legendary figure. The world-despot appeared as the heir of the Revolution, a cru- sader for liberty, the foe of tyrants; and in this guise he found his way irresistibly to the hearts of the French people. It must be admitted that Napoleon, who depended solely on his own genius Napoleon's for advancement, ^^^^ climbed dizzier heights of fame than the heroes of any other age. Alexander, Caesar, Char- lemagne, Frederick the Great — he outstrips them all. "I have fought fifty pitched battles," he once said, "almost all of which I have won. I have framed and carried into effect a code of laws that will bear my name to the most distant posterity. I raised myself from nothing to be the most power- ful monarch in the world." The Duke of Wellington After a painting by Goya in the possession of the duke of Leeds. 190. "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" The French Revolution differed sharply from previous revolu- tionary movements. The Puritan Revolution and the "Glori- ous Revolution" in England were carried out by Principles men of the upper and middle classes, who wished °^ ^"^^^ to limit the royal power and establish the supremacy of Parlia- ment. Even the American Revolution was guided by con- servative statesmen, at least as solicitous for the rights of property as for the rights of man. The French Revolution 540 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era *' Liberty " also began as mainly a middle-class movement, but it soon reached the lower classes. Their principles found expression in the famous' motto, "Liberty, EquaHty, Fraternity." "Liberty" meant the recognition of popular sovereignty. Government was to be no longer the privilege of a divine-right ruler, however benevolent or "en- lightened"; henceforth, it was to be conducted constitutionally in accordance with the will of the people. Since the first constitution (that of 1 791) the French have often changed their form of government, but they have always had a written con- stitution. Napo- leon's plebiscites show that he paid at least lip homage to the principle of popular sover- eignty, and it is certain that during both the consulate and the empire he enjoyed the sup- port of the great majority of French- men. On the other hand, he did not respect all the "rights of man" which the revolu- tionists had proclaimed with such enthusiasm. Freedom of thought and freedom of worship prevailed under Napoleon, The Tomb of Napoleon In 1840 Napoleon's body was removed from St. Helena, taken with great pomp to Paris, and deposited in a sarco- phagus of red Finland granite under the gilded dome of the Hotel des Invalides. Twelve colossal statues, representing the chief victories of Napoleon, surround the tomb, and between the figures are battleflags captured at Austerlitz. Two of the emperor's brothers are buried in adjoining chapels. ''Liberty, Equality, Fraternity'' 541 but the emperor allowed neither free speech nor a free press. ''What the French people want," he declared, "is equality, not liberty." "Equality" meant the abolition of privilege. The Revo- lution made all citizens equal before the law. It opened to every one the positions in the civil service, the ^ ,, Church, and the army. It aboUshed serfdom and manorial rights, thus destroying the last vestiges of feudalism. It suppressed the guilds, thus releasing industry from medie- val shackles. It canceled all exemptions from taxation and substituted for the unfair and burdensome arrangements of the Old Regime a new fiscal system which taxed men according to their means. Most Frenchmen were content to accept Napoleon's rule largely because he retained and extended these achievements of the Revolution. "Fraternity" meant a new consciousness of human brother- hood. The revolutionists set out to make France a better place for every one to live in. This fraternal feel- ,,„ . .. ^ •' "Fraternity" ing inspired all ranks and classes of the people. It led to a great outburst of patriotic and national senti- ment which enabled the French, singlehanded, to withstand Europe in arms. The principles of 1789 were not confined to France. The revolutionary and Napoleonic soldiers passed from land to land bringing in their train the overthrow of serfdom The spirit and privilege. The effect was profound in the °^ ^"^^^ Netherlands, in western Germany, and in northern Italy, countries where the masses of the people had grievances and aspirations like those of the French. During the nineteenth century the revolutionary spirit permeated other European countries, resulting everywhere in a demand for the abolition of the established privileges of wealth, birth, and social position. Such has been the service of France as a liberator. Studies I. On an outline map indicate the Napoleonic Empire at its height, showing also the states dependent on Napoleon and those allied with him. 2. Locate on 542 The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era the map all the Napoleonic battle-fields mentioned in this chapter. 3. Identify the following dates: 1789; 1792; 1799; 1804; 1807; 1812; and 1815. 4. Ex- plain the following expressions: "Tennis Court Oath"; Reign of Terror; Con- tinental System; the "Hundred Days"; plebiscite, and coup d'etat. 5. Write a character sketch (400 words) of Napoleon Bonaparte, based partly on the state- ments in the text and partly on your outside reading. 6. "The principal cause of the ruin of royalty in France was the lack of a King." What does this statement mean? 7. Why is July 14th observed by the French as the "birthday of the nation"? 8. Compare the assignals with the paper, money issued by the Confederacy during the Civil War. 9. Read a translation of the Marseillaise and compare the senti- ments expressed in it with those of Hail Columbia and The Star Spangled Banner. 10. In your opinion was there greater or less justification for the execution of Louis XVI than for that of Charles I? 11. In what sense is the word Jacobin now frequently used? 12. What excuse can be offered for the poUcy of terrorism adopted by the Jacobins in 1793? 13. Prepare a class-room report dealing with the story of Charlotte Corday. 14. Mention four conspicuous instances of mob action during the French Revolution. WTiy are mobs so often cruel and blood- thirsty? 15. How did the First Consul, to use his own words, "close" the French Revolution and "consoUdate" its results? 16. WTiy was Napoleon styled by the lawyers a new Justinian and by the clergy a new Constantine? 17. Is it correct to call Napoleon an "enlightened" despot? Is it incorrect to call him a "usurper"? 18. Compare as to results the battle of Trafalgar with the destruction of the Spanish Armada. 19. Show that the poUtical weakness of central Europe in Napoleon's day contributed to his success as a conqueror. 20. How did the Continental System help to bring about the downfall of Napoleon? 21. How did the physical features of Spain facilitate the Spanish resistance to Napoleon? 22. Why is Waterloo included among the world's "decisive battles"? Would it have been equally decisive if Napoleon, and not Wellington, had won? 23. It has been said of Napoleon that "he was as great as a man can be without virtue." Does this seem to be a fair judgment? 24. "England is the mother of Uberty, France the mother of equality." Explain this statement. 25. What was meant by describing the French revolutionary armies as "equality on the march"? 26. "The two most striking and important events in the history of the eighteenth century are the estabUshment of the United States of America and the outbreak of the French Revolution." Justify this statement. CHAPTER XXI THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT IN EUROPE, 1815-1871 1 191. Modern Nationalism We have already learned how national states, first England, then Scotland and France, finally Spain, Portugal, and Switzer- land, arose in Europe during the later Middle what makes Ages. From this time, and especially since the * nation? close of the eighteenth century, nationalism has been a potent influence in molding modern history. What makes a nation? Not necessarily unity of race: the English include Celtic Britons and Teutonic Anglo-Saxons, Danes, and Normans. Not necessarily unity of language: the Swiss use three lan- guages. That which makes a nation is above all a common heritage of memories of the past and hopes for the future. Ireland has long been joined to England, but Irish nationality has not disappeared. Bohemia, long subject to the Hapsburgs, never lost her national spirit. The Polish nation still lives, though one may search in vain upon the map for Poland. The Jews have been scattered throughout the world for over eighteen centuries, yet they still look forward to their reunion in the Holy Land. As long as national sentiment endures, a nation cannot perish. The French Revolution did most to develop modern national- ism. The revolutionists created the "fatherland," as we under- stand that term to-day. They substituted the French nation for the French kingdom; for loyalty and**the ^™ to a monarch they substituted love of country. French When an attempt was made to crush the Revolu- tion, they rose as one man, and to the inspiring strains of the Marseillaise drove the invaders from the "sacred soil" of France. ^ Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxxiv, "Bismarck and the Unification of Germany." 543 544 The National Movement in Europe But not satisfied with defending the Revolution at home, the French started to spread it abroad, and in doing so Napoleon became aggressive. They posed as hberators; and very speedily they proved to be subjugators. A nation sm repubhcan general, Napoleon Bonaparte, trans- formed their citizen levies into professional soldiers devoted to his fortunes and led them to victory on a score of battle- fields. Napoleon, himself a man without a country, felt no sympathy for nationahsm. Out of a Europe composed of many independent and often hostile states, he washed to create a unified Europe after the model suppHed by the Carolingian Empire. He even intended, had he been successful in the Rus- sian campaign, to move the capital of his dominions, and by the banks of the Tiber to revive the glories of imperial Rome. Napoleon carried all before him until he came into conflict with nations instead of sovereigns. The sentiment of national- Reaction of ism, which had saved republican France, now nationalism inspired the English in their long contest with the French emperor, spurred the Portuguese and Spaniards to revolt against him, and strengthened the will of Austrians, Prussians, and Russians never to accept a foreign despotism. What the Hapsburgs, Hohenzollerns, and Romanovs failed to do, their subjects accomphshed. The national resistance to Napoleon, aroused throughout the Continent, destroyed his empire. The patriotic feelings so deeply stirred during the revolu- tionary and Napoleonic era put renewed emphasis on the Rights of rights of nationalities. Patriots in one country nationaUties ^fter another boldly declared that no nation, however small or weak, should be governed by foreigners. Every nation, on the contrary, ought to be free to choose its own form of government and manage its own affairs. How little the enlightened despots of the eighteenth century re- spected this principle is shown by the partitions of Poland. A similar contempt for the rights of nationalities was exhib- ited by the crowned heads of Europe at the Congress of Vienna. Congress of Vienna 545 192. Congress of Vienna The close of the revolutionary and Napoleonic era found Europe in confusion. The French Revolution had destroyed the Old Regime in France, and Napoleon Bona- parte had given new boundaries or new rulers to the^^ctmgress every Continental state except Russia and Turkey. While the fallen emperor was still at Elba, a great international congress met at Vienna to restore the old dynasties, remake the European map, and prevent future aggressions on the part of France. The congress formed a brilliant assemblage of em- perors, kings, • Character princes of of the 1 congress every rank, and titled diplomats. A single drawing room some- times held Alexander I, tsar of Russia ; Francis I, emperor of Austria; Frederick Wil- liam III, king of Prussia; the duke of Wellington, the German patriot Stein, the Austrian minister Metter- nich, and the French rep- resentative Talleyrand. The final decision as to all questions obviously lay with the four powers whose alliance had over- thrown Napoleon, until Talleyrand's skillful management secured the admission of France to their councils as a fifth great power. When the wheels of diplomacy had been well oiled by banquets and balls, the monarchs and their advisers proceeded to take the necessary measures for the reconstruction of Europe. First, the congress restored the dynasties overturned by Napoleon. In accordance with the principle which Talleyrand Talleyrand A picture showing Talleyrand in middle age under Napoleon I. 546 The National Movement in Europe dignified under the name of ''legitimacy,'' the Bourbons went back to their thrones in France and Spain. The house of , . . „ Orange recovered Holland. The king of Sardinia regained his possessions in Savoy and Piedmont. Sicily and Naples were again combined to form the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, under a Bourbon ruler. The pope, whom Napoleon had deprived of temporal power, was restored to the States of the Church. Second, the congress redistributed various European terri- tories, in accordance with the principle of "compensations." ♦* Compen- Austria secured Lombardy and Venetia to com- sations " pensate her for the cession of the Austrian Nether- lands to Holland. Sweden, which had ceded Finland to Russia, found compensation in taking Norway from Napoleon's old ally, the kingdom of Denmark.^ Prussia absorbed about half of Saxony, another state formerly allied with Napoleon, and annexed much additional territory on the lower Rhine. Russia took the lion's share of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. For her exertions against Napoleon Great Britain received payment in colonial possessions, including Helgoland in the North Sea, Malta and the Ionian Islands in the Mediterranean, Ceylon, Cape Colony, and most of Guiana. Third, the congress reestabhshed the balance of power in Europe. Though France was not dismembered, she was re- Balance of duced to substantially her old boundaries before power ii^Q Revolution. There now remained, as in the eighteenth century, two great states in the west (France and Great Britain) and three in the east (Russia, Prussia, and Aus- tria). No one of them was strong enough to dominate the others. Together they maintained the peace of Europe for the next forty years. However successful as peacemakers, the rulers and diplo- mats at Vienna left, nevertheless, a heritage of trouble to Europe. They willfully disregarded all national aspirations and treated the European peoples as so many pawns in the 1 The union of Sweden and Norway lasted until 1905. Finland remained joined to Russia until the Russian Revolution of 1917- Congress of Vienna 547 game of diplomacy. The Austrian Netherlands, contrary to the wishes of the inhabitants, were united with Holland, in order to form an effective barrier against French _, The aggression. Norway was joined to Sweden, congress althouerh the Norwegians preferred to be inde- *"^ 1 XT 1 T^ 1 1 • • • 1 nationalism pendent. Unhappy roland was agam partitioned. In Italy and Germany the Viennese mapmakers also failed to recognize the principle of nationality. The settlement of Vienna left Italy a mosaic of nine states.^ Of these, Sardinia formed an independent kingdom. Lom- bardy and Venetia were Austrian provinces. Disunion Modena, Parma, Tuscany, and Lucca were duchies, of Italy all but the last under Hapsburg rulers. Austrian ^^ influence also prevailed in the States of the Church and in the Two Sicilies. Thus Austria, a foreign power, fixed its grip upon the Italian peninsula. Italy, in Metternich's contemp- tuous phrase, was only "a, geographical expression." Germany after the settlement of Vienna included thirty- nine states, of which the most extensive were the Austrian Empire and the five kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, disunion of Saxony, Wurtemberg, and Hanover. Stein and Germany his fellow-patriots wished to bring them all into ^ a strongly knit union. This proposal encountered the opposi- tion of Metternich, who feared that a united Germany would not serve Austrian interests. Metternich found support among the German rulers themselves, not one of whom would surrender any particle of his authority. The outcome was the creation of the Germanic Confederation, a loose association under the presidency of Austria. The rulers and diplomats at Vienna disregarded another sentiment besides that of nationalism. The congress was a congress of aristocrats, conservative, reactionary, and opposed to all the democratic or liberal congress feelings which had been awakened in Europe since ^"^ ^, ^ 1 x^ 1 • 11 democracy 1789. The French Revolution appeared to them as merely a revolt against authority, a revolt which had over- 1 Eleven, if Monaco and San Marino be included. 548 The National Movement in Europe turned the social order, destroyed property, sacrificed countless human lives, and introduced confusion everywhere. Blind to the true significance of the demand for Hberty and equality, they sought to restore the Old Regime of absolutism, privilege, and divine right. Their ideal was Europe before 1789. 193. The Reaction under Metternich, 1815-1830 The Austrian Empire, now the leading Continental state, consisted of more than a score of territories inhabited by un- Reactionary congenial Germans, Magyars, Slavs, and Italians. Austria ^o keep them united under a single scepter, the Hapsburgs deliberately repressed all aspirations for independ- ence or self-government. The Hapsburgs felt it equally neces- sary to discourage every popular movement, which, starting in Italy or Germany, might spread Uke an infection to their own realm. Force of circumstances thus placed Austria at the forefront of the reaction against nationalism and democracy. The spirit of reactionary Austria seemed incarnate in Prince Clemens Metternich. An aristocrat to his finger-tips, poHshed, courtly, tactful, clever, this man for nearly forty Metternich -^ ' ,, 1 1 j r .i. a . • years was the real head 01 the Austrian govern- ment and the most influential diplomat in Europe. To the rule of Napoleon succeeded the rule of Metternich. The German word Metternichismus has been coined to express the ideas which he championed and the measures which he enforced. Metternich regarded absolutism and divine right as the pillars of stable government. Democracy, he declared, could only Metter- '' change daylight into darkest night." All de- nichismus mands for constitutions, parliaments, and repre- sentative institutions must consequently be opposed to the uttermost. In order to stamp out the ''disease of liberalism," let spies and secret police be multiplied, press and pulpit kept under gag-laws, the universities sharply watched for dangerous teachings, and all agitators exiled, imprisoned, or executed. Metternich first established this system in Austria and then The Reaction under Metternich 549 found in the Concert of Europe the means of extending it to other parts of the Continent. The states whose coalitions had overthrown Napoleon took his place in 1815 as arbiters of Europe. Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia renewed their alliance, in Concert' of order to preserve the dynastic and territorial Europe arrangements made by the Congress of Vienna. France under Louis XVIII also be- came a member of the European Concert in 1 818. These five great powers, as long as they worked in harmony, could impose theit will on all the minor states. It was an approach, though only an approach, to the idea of a con- federated Europe, of a commonwealth of na- tions. One of the clauses of the treaty of alliance between the international powers pro- congresses vided that they should hold congresses from time to time, for the discus- sion of matters affecting their common interests. Four such congresses were convoked by Metternich, whose diplomatic genius turned them into agencies of reaction. He even succeeded in inducing the Congress of Troppau (1820) to formally outlaw all revolutions. According to the principle there announced, a state which underwent a revolutionary change of government was to be brought back, peacefully or by force, ''into the bosom of the Great Alliance." Metternich After a painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence in the pos- session of Prince Richard Metternich- Winneburg. 550 The National Movement in Europe The first instance of armed intervention on the part of the European Concert occurred in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Armed in- whose sovereign had been compelled by the tervention liberals to grant a constitution. An Austrian army, sent by Metternich, quickly restored "order" and abso- lutism. The troops of Austria likewise suppressed a liberal uprising in the kingdom of Sardinia. When the Spaniards rose against their Bourbon ruler, French soldiers were dispatched to quell the revolt. The great powers, acting together, thus took it upon themselves to police the whole Continent for the sup- pression of nationalism and democracy. Soon, however, another revolution in France struck a deadly blow at Metternichismus. 194. France and the **July Revolution," 1830 The restoration of Louis XVIII did not mean the restoration of the Old Regime. This cool, cautious Bourbon wished to The enjoy his power in peace; hke Charles II of Eng- Bourbon land, he had no desire to set out on his travels under again. He realized that to most Frenchmen Louis XVIII absolutism had become intolerable and that the main results of the Revolution must be preserved. Accord- ingly, Louis XVIII granted a charter, or constitution, modeled upon that of Great Britain. It established a legislature of two houses, the upper a Chamber of Peers appointed for life, the lower a Chamber of Deputies elected for a term of years. A high property qualification for the suffrage restricted the right of voting for deputies to less than one hundred thousand per- sons out of a population of twenty-nine million. The new government was thus far removed from democracy. As long as Louis XVIII lived, he kept some check upon the royalists, who wished to get back all their old wealth, position, Reaction ^^^ privileges. The accession in 1824 of his under brother, the count of Artois,^ under the title of Charles X Charles X, put the reactionary elements in the saddle. It was well said of Charles X that after long years of exile he had "learned nothing and forgotten nothing." A 1 See page 511 and note 2, The ''July Revolution" in Europe 551 thorough believer in absolutism and divine right, he tried to rule as though the French Revolution had never taken place. His disregard of the constitution soon provoked an uprising. Paris in July, 1830, as in July, 1789, was the storm-center of the revolutionary movement. Workingmen and students, few in numbers but organized and armed, hastily Diyj^g constructed barricades in the narrow streets and right over- defied the government. After three days of ^^^ fighting against none- too-loyal troops, the revolutionists gained control of the capital. Charles X fled to England, and the tricolor once more flew to the breeze in France. Those who carried through the uprising in Paris wanted a repubhc, but they found Uttle support among the liberal bour- geoisie. Men of this class feared that a republi- constitu- can France would soon be at war with monar- tionalism chical Europe. Largely influenced by the aged p^®^®""^® Lafayette, the Republicans agreed to accept another king, in the person of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans. He took the crown now offered to him by the Chamber of Deputies, at the same time promising to respect the constitution and the liberties of Frenchmen. The new sovereign belonged to the younger, or Orleans, branch of the Bourbon family. He had taken an active part in the events of 1789, had joined the Jacobin -j-j^^ Club, had fought in revolutionary battles, and "Citizen during a visit to the United States had become °^ acquainted with democratic ideals and principles. To this "Citizen King," who reigned ''by the grace of God and by the will of the people," France now gave her allegiance. 195. The *• July Revolution " in Europe The events in France created a sensation throughout Europe. The reactionaries were horrified at the sudden outburst of a revolutionary spirit which for fifteen years they Effect of had striven to suppress; the liberals were encour- the " July aged to renewed agitation for nationalism and self-government. Widespread disturbances in the Netherlands, 552 The National Movement in Europe Poland, Italy, and Germany compelled Metternich to abandon all thought of intervening to restore "legitimacy" in France. The union between the former Austrian Netherlands and Holland, made by the Congress of Vienna, proved to be very j^^ unfortunate. Differences of language, religion, Belgian and culture kept the two countries apart. Though situation about one-half of the Belgians were Flemings and hence closely akin to the Dutch in blood and speech, the other half were French-speaking Walloons.^ Both Flemings and Palais de Justice, Brussels This huge building, for the use of the law courts of Brussels, was erected during the years 1866-1883 at a cost of $12,000,000. The architectural style combines Assyrian and Renais- sance features. Walloons felt a religious antipathy to the Protestant Dutch. Both alike had French sympathies and looked toward Paris for inspiration rather than toward The Hague. The antagonism between the two peoples might have lessened in time, had not the government of Holland incensed the Belgian patriots by imposing upon them Dutch law, Dutch as the official language, and Dutch control of the army, the civil service, and the schools. 1 See page 243. The "July Revolution" in Europe 553 Just a month after the uprising in Paris, Brussels responded to the revolutionary signal. The insurrection soon spread to the provinces and led to a demand for complete independent separation from Holland. France favored this and neutral course, and Great Britain, a champion of small ® ^"°^ nationalities, also gave it her approval. The other powers would gladly have intervened to prevent such a breach of the Vienna settlement, but Russia and Austria had disorders of their own to quell and Prussia did not dare, singlehanded, to take action which might lead to a European conflict. Accord- ingly, an international conference was held at London in 1831. It decided that Belgium should be "a state independent and perpetually neutral," with Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as its ruler. The independence and neutrality of Belgium were further guaranteed by a treaty in 1839, to which Great Britain, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia solemnly pledged their faith. Thus a new state, under a new dynasty, was added to the European family of nations. What the Belgians gained so easily the Poles could not secure by a bloody war. Their struggle for independence against Russia, beginning at Warsaw in 1830, The Polish naturally found no support with the Austrian situation and Prussian governments, while Great Britain and France were too far away to lend effective aid. Having crushed the revolt, the tsar ^ determined to uproot all sense of nationahty among the Poles. He revoked their constitution, suppressed their flag, and executed or exiled thousands of Polish patriots. Poland became, as far as force could make her, simply another Russian province. The national and democratic movement in Italy and Ger- many was likewise abortive. The States of the Church rose against the pope, and Parma and Modena against The their Hapsburg sovereigns. Metternich's Aus- fituation trian troops quickly extinguished these insur- and rectionary fires. Popular outbreaks in Saxony, Germany Hanover, and other German states only succeeded in wringing 1 Nicholas I (1825-1855). He was a brother of Alexander I. 554 The National Movement in Europe a few concessions, or the promise of concessions, from their rulers. Germany, in fact, had not acquired the revolutionary habit. The year 1830 saw a marked change in the European Con- cert. Great Britain had already begun to oppose its reac- The " July tionary program, and now the ''July Revolution" Revolution" made France as well an opponent of Metternich- Colcwt of ismus. Together they safeguarded Belgian m- Europe dependence, expressed sympathy for the Poles, and encouraged Italian efforts to achieve freedom. They could be counted upon, henceforth, to uphold oppressed peoples against the forces of reaction. 196. The ** February Revolution " and the Second French Republic, 1848 Louis Philippe posed as a thorough democrat. He liked to be called the "Citizen King," walked the streets of Paris un- attended, sent his sons to the public schools, and Orleans opened the royal palace to all who wished to come monarchy ^^^ ^j^^j^^ ^^^^^ ^j^j^ ^^^ j^^^^ ^f ^^e state. It soon became clear, however, that under an exterior of republican simpUcity Louis Philippe had all the Bourbon ambition for personal power. He did little to give the lower classes a larger share in the government. The property qualification for the suffrage was somewhat lowered, but not sufficiently to disturb the bourgeois monopoly of office and law-making. The great majority of the French people remained excluded from politi- cal life. In spite of the support of the bourgeoisie, Louis Philippe sat on a rickety throne. Both the Legitimists, as the adherents of Charles X were called, and the Bonapartists, to^thr °" who wished to restore the Napoleonic dynasty, Orleans cordially hated him. The Republicans, who had monarc y brought about the "July Revolution" and felt themselves cheated by its outcome, held him in even greater detestation. No less than six attempts to assassinate the "Citizen King" were made in the course of his reign. The "February Revolution" in Europe 555 The growing discontent produced a succession of plots and insurrections, but affairs did not become critical until 1848. In February of that year mobs of Parisian working- a revolution men armed themselves, threw up barricades, and ^egun raised the ominous cry, "Long live the republic!" Louis Philippe, losing heart and fearing to lose head as well, at once abdicated the throne and as plain "Mr. Smith" sought an asy- lum in England. His abdication and departure did not save the Orleans mon- archy. The revolutionists in Paris proclaimed a republic and summoned a national assembly, to be elected by a republic the votes of all Frenchmen above the age of twenty- proclaimed one, to draw up a constitution. Their action found favor in the departments, which as on previous occasions followed the lead of the capital city. The constitution of the second French Republic vested the executive power in a president. The voters elected to this office Louis Napoleon, a nephew of the great 11 ^ ^ . r ■, . LouiS emperor and the eldest representative of his Napoleon, family. During the reactionary rule of the President Bourbons and the dull, middle-class monarchy of Louis Philippe, the legend ^ of a Napoleon who was at once a democrat, a soldier, and revolutionary hero had grown apace. The stories of every peasant's fireside, the pictures on every cottage wall, kept his memory alive. To the mass of the French people the name Napoleon stood for prosperity at home and glory abroad; and their votes now swept his nephew into the presidency. 197. The ** February Revolution " in Europe France had once more lighted the revolutionary torch, and this time eager hands took it up and carried it ^q^^^ ^f ^^ throughout the Continent. Within a few months " February half of the monarchs of Europe were either deposed ^^° "*^°^ or forced to concede liberal reforms. No less than fifteen 1 See page 539- 5S6 The National Movement in Europe separate revolts marked the year 1848. Those in the Aus- trian Empire, Italy, and the German states assumed most importance. Vienna, the headquarters of reaction, was one of the first scenes of a popular uprising. Mobs, which the civic guard FaU of refused to suppress, fired Metternich's palace Mettemich g^j^,^ compelled that white-haired, old minister to resign ofiice and flee the capital. The Hapsburg ruler,^ who so hated the very word "constitution" that he is said to have forbidden its use in his presence, had to grant a constitution, a parliament, and universal suffrage for his entire empire. What had begun as a democratic movement among , , the Germans of Revolts in Hungary Vienna speedily *^? became a na- Bohenua tional move- ment in Hungary and Bohemia. The Magyars re- volted and established a free Hungarian state, with the The Czechs, as the Slavic in- habitants of Bohemia are called, also demanded a large measure of independence. The Austrian Empire was saved from dissolution by the bitter conflicts of its various nationalities among themselves, by the loyalty of the army to the Hapsburg Czechs and crown, and by foreign intervention. The Bo- Magyars . suppressed hemian revolt first collapsed. The Magyars, however, resisted so sternly that Francis Joseph I had to enlist the aid of his brother-monarch and brother- Louis Kossuth patriot Kossuth as president. ^ Ferdinand I. He succeeded Francis I in 1835 and thirteen years later ab- dicated in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph I (1848-1916). The ''February Revolution" in Europe 557 reactionary, the tsar. Nicholas I, fearing lest an independent Hungary should be followed by an independent Poland, joined his troops to those of the Austrians, and together they over- whelmed the Magyar armies. Hungary became again a mere province of Austria. The revolutionary flood also spread over the Italian penin- sula. Milan, the capital of Lombardy, expelled an Austrian garrison. Venice did the same and proclaimed Revolts herself a republic. Charles Albert, king of Sar- "^ ^^^y dinia, believing that the hour of deliverance had arrived, declared war on hated Austria. To his aid came troops from the duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, from the States of the Church, and from the Two Sicilies. The splendid dream of a free, united Italy quickly faded before the realities of war. The patriotic parties would not act together and failed to give the king of Sardinia Sardinia hearty support. The pope, Pius IX, fearing a defeated schism in the Church, decided that he could not afford to attack Catholic Austria. The Bourbon ruler of the Two Sicilies also withdrew his troops. Badly beaten in the battle of Novara (1849), the Sardinian king abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II, who then made peace with Austria. A republic set up in Rome by the revolutionary leader, Joseph Mazzini, likewise came to grief. Pius IX, who had been deprived of his temporal possessions, called ^^j^^ R^man in the assistance of Catholic France. To the RepubUc pope's appeal Louis Napoleon lent a willing ear, ^^^^ °^^ especially since he did not wish to allow all Italy to be subju- gated by the Austrians. A French army soon expelled the republican leaders and restored the pope to the States of the Church. The revolution in Italy thus brought only disappoint- ment to patriotic hearts. Almost all the German states experienced revolutionary disturbances during 1848. The cry rose every- where for constitutions, parliaments, responsible democratic ministries, a free press, and trial by jury. Berlin movement followed the example of Vienna and threw up 558 The National Movement in Europe barricades. Frederick William IV ^ bowed before the storm. He promised a constitutional government for Prussia and even consented to ride in state through the streets of the pacified capital wearing the colors of the triumphant revolution. The German people at this time also took an important step toward unification. A national assembly, chosen by popular vote, with one representative for every fifty national thousand inhabitants, met at Frankfort to estab- movement \[^\^ g^ iorm of government for the united Father- in Germany ^ , land. It was decided to set up an imperial federation, including Prussia, but excluding the non-Germanic territories of Austria. Rights which no German citizen then possessed, such as freedom of speech, of press, of petition, of m^eeting, were expressly guaranteed by the proposed con- stitution. The Frankfort Assembly offered the title and office of em- peror to Frederick William IV. He declined both. That Prussian ruler had no desire to exchange his refusai^^* monarchy by divine right for a sovereignty resting on the votes of the people; he would not accept a ^' crown of shame" from the hands of a popular assembly. Moreover, he knew that the house of Hapsburg would never consent willingly to the assumption of the imperial dignity by a Hohenzollern. Prussia thus made ''the great refusal" which destroyed the hope of creating by peaceful means a democratic German empire. Rebuffed by Prussia and faced with the opposition of Aus- tria, the Frankfort Assembly dwindled out of existence. Noth- Faiiure of ing remained but to restore the weak Germanic nationalism Confederation, completely under Austrian infiu- and democ- ' r \ racy in ence. The collapse of the national movement Germany drove some of the more radical Germans in Saxony, Baden, and the Rhenish Palatinate to attempt to estabhsh a republic by force of arms. Prussian troops bloodily suppressed the uprising. The revolts of 1848 died down, seemingly without advancing 1 A son of Frederick William III (1797- 1840). The Second French Empire 559 the cause of either nationalism or democracy. Bohemia and Hungary continued to be subject to the Haps- significance burgs; Italy and Germany remained disunited. °* *^^ rr.!. A . • • . 1,1 " February The Austrian constitution was revoked when Revolution" Francis Joseph I, an apt pupil of Metternich, ^° Europe came to the throne. The constitution which Frederick William IV granted to Prussia in 1850 turned out to be a very illiberal document. In France, also, the new republic soon drifted on the rocks of reaction. 198. The Second French Empire, 1852-1870 Louis Napoleon, upon becoming president of France, swore to remain faithful to the republic. Events soon showed how well the oath was kept. His uncle had progressed ^^ by rapid strides from the consulate to the empire; ambitious he himself determined to use the presidency as ^^^^^ ®-°* a stepping-stone to the imperial crown. So successfully did he curry favor with all groups of opinion among the French people, so skillfully did he strike all the chords of national memory evoked by the name Napoleon, that it was not long before he attained his goal. The republican constitution had limited the president's term to four years, without the privilege of reelection. Louis Napoleon did not intend to retire to private life and -j-j^^ ^ determined to carry through a coup d'etat. On d'etat, the anniversary of the battle of Austerlitz, loyal troops occupied Paris, dissolved the legislature, and arrested the president's chief opponents. The French people, when called upon by a plebiscite to express an opinion as to these proceedings, ratified them by a large majority. Louis Napoleon then made over the government in such a way as to give him- self well-nigh absolute power. It needed only a change of name to transform the republic into an empire. An almost unanimous popular vote in 1852 authorized the president to accept the emperor, title of Napoleon III,^ hereditary emperor of the ^ *^® French. See page, 534 note i. 560 The National Movement in Europe France under her new sovereign had a constitution, repre- sentative assembhes, universal suffrage, all the machinery of Domestic popular rule. But she was free in appearance poUcy of only. The emperor kept control of law-making, apoeon diplomacy, the army and navy, and the entire administrative system. The prosperity of the French people under his "en- lightened" despotism helped to reconcile them to the loss of liberty. What dis- content existed was quieted by the press censorship- and other agencies of repression. France for eighteen years seemed like a sickroom where no one might speak aloud. "The empire means peace," Napoleon III Napoleon hi and Eugenie u^H on Foreign ^^^ ^^" The French emperor married a Spanish lady, Eugenie policy of UOUnCcd de Montijo. She is still living in England at an advanced Napoleon III i . ■, ige. From a lithograph made in 1855. ^ ^^ r 1 1 y before mounting the throne. Nevertheless, when emperor, he proceeded to make war. Successful warfare would win back for France her primacy in Europe and at the same time would make his own position secure. Napoleon III, like Napoleon I, believed that all the French people wanted to satisfy them was military glory. It was his aggressive foreign policy, particu- larly in respect to Italy and Germany, which first involved him in embarrassments and led to the ruin of his empire. 199. United Italy, 1859-1870 The extreme length of Italy in proportion to its breadth and its division into two unequal parts by the Apennines are United Italy 561 not favorable to national unity. Historical circumstances have been even more unfavorable. In medieval obstacles and modern times Lombards, Franks, Normans, to national Germans, French, Spaniards, and Austrians — to ^^*^ say nothing of Moslems and Byzantines — had estabhshed themselves in the peninsula. It was the settled policy of the popes to keep Italy fragmentary, lest the papal territories should become dependent on secular powers. The Italians, furthermore, preserved from antiquity the tradition of small, separate city-states, ruled, it may be, by despots or else self- governing, but in any case independent. Such were the cities of northern Italy during the Middle Ages. In spite of all obstacles, the Italians in the nineteenth cen- tury had made up their minds to be a free, united people. National ideas reached them through the French Nationaiis revolutionists, who set up republics in the penin- in Italy, sula. Napoleon Bonaparte, himself of Italian ^"^^^^^^^ parentage, by forming a ''kingdom of Italy" and by annexing the States of the Church, also turned their thoughts toward unity and freedom. The reaction which followed the Congress of Vienna gave increased momentum to the national movement. A secret so- ciety, the Carbonari ("charcoal burners"), spread Italian over the peninsula and incited the first unsuccess- nationalism, ful revolutions against Austria. The Carbonari ^^^^^^^^ later made way for ''Young Italy," an organization founded by the ardent patriot, Mazzini. Its motto was "God and the people"; its purpose, the creation of a republic. Many men who did not favor republican principles hoped to form a fed- eration of the Italian states under the presidency of the pope. Many more pinned their faith to a constitutional monarchy under the house of Savoy. All three groups were intensely national; all three were determined to bring about the Re- sorgimento, the "resurrection" of Italy. The events of 1848-49 brought these groups together. The pope had shown himself unwilling to head the national move- ment. Mazzini had failed in his attempt to set up a Roman 562 The National Movement in Europe republic. More and more, the nationaUsts turned to Victor Emmanuel II, king of Sardinia/ as the most pro- manuel n' mising leader in the struggle for independence. Victor Emmanuel was a devoted Churchman. He was also a thorough liberal. His father in 1848 had granted a constitution to the Sardinian kingdom; he maintained it, in spite of Austrian protests, when aU the other Italian princes relapsed into ab- solutism. Patriots of every sort, Cathohcs, re- publicans, and consti- tutionalists, could rally- about such a king. Victor Emmanuel had a great minister in the Piedmontese noble. Count Cavour. He was a man of fine culti- vation, who knew Eng- land well, warmly admired the English system of free government, and felt a corresponding hatred of absolutist principles. Upon becoming premier, he bent every effort to make Sardinia a strong and liberal state; strong enough to cope with the Austrians, liberal enough to' attract to herself all the other states of Italy. Cavour reahzed that Sardinia would need foreign aid in the copiing struggle against Austria and sought the friendship of Cavour and Napoleon III. The emperor seems to have felt Napoleon III ^ genuine sympathy for oppressed Italy; more- over, like his uncle, he thought to win glory on Italian battle- ^ The kingdom of Sardinia included not only the island of that name, but also Savoy and Piedmont on the mainland. See page 546. Camillo di Cavour, 1810-1861 Count Cavour The last portrait of Cavour. United Italy 563 fields. In return for the duchy of Savoy and the port of Nice, he now promised an army to help expel the Austrians from the Alps to the Adriatic. The bargain once struck, Cavour had next to provoke a conflict with Austria. Napoleon III hesi- tated at the last moment, but Cavour insisted. "I will fire the powder," he said, ''and when Italy runs with blood, you will have to march." The war which followed was over in a few months. The allied vie- ^ , , Lombardy tory of Magenta ceded to compelled the ^^f^'""*' Austrians to evacuate Milan; that of Sol- ferino, to abandon Lom- bardy. Every one now expected them to be driven out of Venetia as well. Napoleon III, however, con- sidered that he had done enough. He sought a per- sonal interview with Francis Joseph I and privately ar- ranged terms of peace. The Hapsburg emperor agreed to cede Lombardy to Sardinia, on condition that Venetia remained Austrian. Victor Em- manuel and Cavour, thus left in the lurch, were obliged to accept this treacherous treaty. The people of Central Italy, unaided, took the next step in unification. Already Modena, Parma, Tuscany, and the Romagna ^ had expelled their rulers and itaiy declared for annexation to Sardinia. Napoleon annexed, I860 III, who did not relish a strong national state in the peninsula, at first refused to sanction this arrangement. ^ The northern part of the States of the Church. Giuseppe Garibaldi After a portrait taken at Naples in i860. 564 The National Movement in Europe Cavour secured his consent only by the cession of Savoy and Nice to France. An ironical diplomat described the trans- action as Napoleon's pourboire (waiter's tip). The third step in unification was taken by Garibaldi, a native of Nice, a soldier of liberty, and a picturesque, heroic figure. He had already won renown in the defense of The Two ,, . ., T^ , ,. 1 • 1 Sicilies Mazzini s Roman republic and m the recent annexed, campaign against Austria. When the Sicilians threw off Bourbon rule in i860. Garibaldi went to their aid with one thousand red-shirted volunteers. It seemed a desperate adventure, but his march through Sicily formed a tri- umphal progress. Having conquered the island. Garibaldi crossed to the main- land and soon took possession of Naples. The Two Sicilies voted for annexation to Sardinia. Garibaldi then handed over his conquests to the Sar- dinian king, and the two liberators rode through the streets of Naples side by side, amid the plaudits of the people. The diplomacy of Cavour, the intervention of Napoleon III, Garibaldi's sword, and the popular will thus united the larger part Italy 1861 ^^ Italy within two years. A national parliament met at Turin in 1861 and conferred the Italian crown upon Victor Emmanuel. Cavour passed away soon afterwards. "Let me say a prayer for you, my son," said a "The Right Leg in the Boot at Last' A cartoon which appeared in the English journal Punch for November 17, i860. United Italy 565 priest to the dying statesman. "Yes, father," was the reply, "but let us pray, too, for Italy." The new kingdom was not quite complete. Venice and the 14" 16° -^•— . UNIFICATION OF ITAIT, ( 1815-1870 A.D. ,^(^^S *' ^ The dates are those of annexation ^"^^^ ~GtmV^> to the Kingdom of Sardinia, ,, (Kingdom of Italy in.l861) Scale of Miles 25 50 78 100 125 adjoining region were held by Austria. Rome and a fragment of the States of the Church were held by the pope, winning of Two great European conflicts gave Victor Em- Ven^etia, manuel both of these territories. Venetia fell to Italy in 1866, as her reward for an alUance with Prussia m the Austro-Prussian War.^ A plebiscite of the Venetians, with 1 See page 570. 566 The National Movement in Europe Unre- deemed Italy " only sixty-nine votes registered in the negative, approved this action. Four years later the Franco- German War ^ broke out, com- pelling Napoleon III to withdraw the French garrison from Winning of Rome. An Italian army promptly occupied the Rome, 1870 (>j|-y^ 'pj^g inhabitants by an immense majority voted for annexation to the monarchy. In 1871 the city of the Seven Hills, once the capital of imperial Rome, became the capital of the kingdom of Italy. Even these acquisi- tions did not quite round out the Italian kingdom. There was still an Italia Irredenta, an ''Unredeemed Italy." The district about Trent in the Alps (the Trentino) and the dis- trict about Trieste at the head of the Adriatic, though largely peopled by Italians, remained under Austrian rule. The desire to recover her lost provinces led Italy in 191 5 to espouse the cause of the Allies in the World War. The temporal power of the Papacy, restored in 181 5 by the The Congress of Vienna, disappeared when the States Papacy of \]^q Church entered the Italian kingdom. Pius IX, who was then pope, protested against the annexation of his territories, refused to recognize the ItaHan government as legitimate, and shut himself up in the palace of the Vatican. His successors, Leo XIII, Pius X, and Benedict XV, have followed the same policy. The pope is still an inde- 1 See page 572. Leo XIII Pinakothek, Munich After a portrait by Franz von Lenbach, painted in i{ United Germany 567 pendent sovereign; he has his own court and diplomatic representatives; but he rules only a small district in Rome over which floats the papal flag. 200. United Germany, 1864-1871 The political unification of Germany formed another striking triumph for nationalism, even though it did not involve, as in the case of Italy, the removal of a foreign yoke, ^j^^ Germ The German people had long desired to be one " crazy- nation, but national unity could not be won as ^ long as a motley crowd of kingdoms, principalities, duchies, counties, bishoprics, abbacies, and free cities encumbered Ger- man soil. Most of these states, great and small, were inde- pendent. Each made its own laws, held its own court, conducted its own diplomacy, and had its own army, tariffs, and coinage. It is one of the ironies of history that Germany owes to Napoleon Bonaparte the first measures which make possible her later unification. By the Treaty of Campo Napoleon Formio and subsequent treaties Napoleon secured and uni- for France the Germanic lands west of the Rhine, ^^ °° thus dispossessing nearly a hundred princes of their territories.^ He subsequently reorganized much of Germany east of the Rhine, with the idea of setting up a few large states as a barrier between France on the one side and Austria and Prussia on the other.2 This work survived the emperor's downfall. Ger- many in 181 5 included only thirty-nine independent states, as compared with more than three hundred in 1789. The impulse to German nationalism also came from the outside, through Napoleon's tyranny. A wave of patriotism swept over Prussia and the other states and led Napoleon to the War of Liberation. The people rose in and arms, not to seek foreign conquests, but to free "^ °° ^^ themselves from foreign domination. ''I have only one father- land," wrote Stein in 1812, ''that is called Germany." Arndt's 1 See page 521. ^ See page 530. 568 The National Movement in Europe famous war song, What is the German Fatherland ? expressed the same patriotic spirit. The hopes of German nationahsts were dashed by the Con- gress of Vienna. The Germanic Confederation, which replaced Xhe the Holy Roman Empire, was equally feeble, Germanic equally futile. Each member of it continued to tion, 1815- be independent, except in foreign affairs, which 1866 i\^Q j)iet of the confederation controlled. Metter- nich's influence over the German princes, so successful in preventing a real union of Germany, was also successful in repressing all agitation for popular rights and representative government. The rulers of Germany thus forgot or ignored the sacrifices which their subjects had made in the cause of freedom. The War of Liberation turned out to be a victory, not for liberalism, but for reaction. Germany, while still politically divided, became economically one. The customs duties levied by so many states seriously The interfered with commerce. To meet this diffi- Zollverein culty Prussia formed a Zollverein (Customs Union), which as early as 1^34 included eighteen states. All the others, except Austria, afterwards joined it. Free trade prevailed between the members of the Zollverein, while a common tariff protected them against French and British competition. The Zollverein showed the German people some of the advan- tages of union and encouraged them to look to Prussia for its Prussia and attainment. At the same time, the failure of the German revolution of 1 848-49 revealed the fact that a ^^^ ^ united nation could not be founded by a popular movement, for which the princes had only hostihty. The revolutionists in the Frankfort Assembly wished to eliminate Austria from their proposed union, because Austria was only in part, and that the smaller part, a German state. Austria, however, had no intention of surrendering her high place in Germany. The Prussian kingdom remained as the natural center of unity, but Prussia refused to merge herself in a Ger- man nation. She would rule Germany; she would not serve Germany. Rule it she very soon did. United Germany 569 The death of Frederick William IV in 1861 called to the throne his abler brother, William I. The new king had industry and conscientiousness, as well as all the „^.„. ^ 1 • A r William I HohenzoUern ambition to exalt Prussia. A firm believer in divine right, he did not allow the constitution granted by his predecessor to interfere with his authority. Above everything a soldier, he set out to enlarge and reorganize the Prussian army so that it might again be, as in the days of Frederick the Great, the most formidable weapon in Europe. The king's policies met the opposition of Prussian Liberals, who ^^1^^^^ j wished to and r^ Parliament unite Ger- many, not by the sword, but by the spread of national ideas and the force of public sentiment. They commanded a majority in Parliament and refused to sanction increased expenditures for the army. William I resolved to abdicate rather than yield. At this critical juncture he sum- moned Otto von Bismarck to be prime minister. The man who crippled German liberalism and created mili- taristic, imperial Germany belonged to the Junker class,^ which from the beginning had been the chief Qtto von support of HohenzoUern absolutism. Birth, train- Bismarck, . 1815—1898 ing, and inclination made him an aristocrat, an enemy of democracy, a foe of parhamentary government, a Prussian who would unify Germany by subjecting it to Prus- sia. His intentions as minister were sufficiently indicated in his own famous words: "Not by speeches and resolutions of ^ See page 429. Bismarck After a painting by Franz von Lenbach. 570 The National Movement in Europe majorities are the great questions of the age to be decided, but by blood and iron." Where Charles I and Strafford had failed in England, Wil- liam I and Bismarck succeeded in Prussia. With the king's Bismark consent, his prime minister levied taxes arbi- and Austria trarily and carried through the necessary military reforms. Bismarck then made ready for the overthrow of Austrian predominance in Germany. From his first entry into office he had disclosed an anti-Austrian bias. He refused to admit Austria to the Zollverein and recognized the new- Italian kingdom with unfriendly haste; finally, he opposed Austrian policy in the so-called Schleswig-Holstein question. The duchies of Schleswig and Holstein — the one partly Danish and partly German in population, the other entirely ^jjg German — had been united to Denmark by a Danish War, personal union through its ruler. They remained otherwise independent and stoutly resisted all efforts to incorporate them in the Danish kingdom. At last they broke away altogether, in order to unite with Ger- many. This gave Bismarck an opportunity to propose joint intervention by Austria and Prussia in the duchies. A brief war followed, in which the Danes were overcome by weight of numbers. As Bismarck anticipated, Austria and Prussia could not agree as to what should be done with the conquered duchies. The dispute between them furnished a pretext for the conflict which he had determined to provoke between the house of Hohenzollern and the house of Hapsburg. Before hostihties began, the astute diplomacy of Bismarck isolated Austria from foreign support. Napoleon III engaged Austro- ^^ remain neutral on the strength of Bismarck's Prussian vague promises (never meant to be kept) of War, 1866 territorial compensations from a victorious Prus- sia. Russia also preserved neutrahty. Italy became an active ally of Prussia, in return for the coveted Venetia. Aus- tria, on her side, had the support of Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria, and lesser German states. Thanks to the careful organization of the Prussian army by Roon and to Moltke's brilliant strategy, United Germany 571 the war turned out to be a "Seven Weeks' War." The Prus- sians at once took the offensive and crushed their Austrian adversaries at Sadowa (Koniggratz) in Bohemia. Francis Joseph I then sued for peace. The negotiations which followed revealed Bismarck's states- manship. His royal master wished to enter Vienna in triumph and take a large slice of the Hapsburg realm; Peace with Bismarck counseled moderation in order to secure -^-ustna Austrian friendship in the future. By the Treaty of Prague Austria lost no territory except Venetia. She consented, how- ever, to the dissolution of the Germanic Confederation. Bismarck had now a free hand in Germany. His first step was the annexation to Prussia of the Schleswig-Holstein duchies, together with Hanover and several other allies of Austria north of the river Main. The Prussian German dominions for the first time stretched without Confedera- a break from Poland to the frontier of France. All the independent states north of the Main were then re- quired by Bismarck to enter a North German Confederation, under the presidency of Prussia. The four states south of the Main,^ which had thrown in their lot with Austria, did not enter the new confederation. They secretly agreed, however, to place their armies at the disposal of Prussia in the event of war with France. For Bismarck, a Franco- German War "lay in the logic of history." He believed it inevitable, since France would never willingly consent to the formation of a strong, Bismarck united Germany. He also believed it necessary, ^^ France for joint action by the north German and south German states against a common foe would quicken national sentiment and complete the work of unification under Prussia. Napoleon III, for his part, did not shrink from a contest which would satisfy French opinion and, if victorious, would firmly consolidate his dynasty. After 1867 both sides prepared for war. In 1870 a single spark set the two countries aflame. A revolution had broken out in Spain, and the Liberals there had ^ Bavaria, Baden, Wiirtemberg, and Hesse. 572 The National Movement in Europe offered the crown to a cousin of William I. Napoleon III at The Spanish once informed the Prussian monarch that he incident would regard the accession of a Hohenzollern as a sufficient justification for war. William then gave way and induced his cousin to refuse the crown. Thereupon Napoleon went further and demanded Wilham's pledge never to allow a Hohenzollern to become a candidate in the future. This pledge William declined to make, and from the watering- place of Ems, where he was staying, telegraphed his deci- sion to Bismarck at Berlin. After learning from Roon and Moltke of Prussia's complete readiness for hostilities, Bis- marck sent the king's state- ment to the newspapers, not in its original form, but so abbreviated as to be insulting. Bismarck himself said later that the Ems dispatch was intended to have "the effect of a red flag upon the Galhc bull." Soon after receiving it, France declared war. What followed took away the breath of Europe. Fighting began in mid- July; by mid-August a French army under Bazaine was shut up in Metz; and on September 2 Franco- i]^q other army, commanded by Napoleon person- German War, 1 o 1 -r. • 11 1870-1871 ally, was captured at Sedan. Bazame surrendered Metz in October. Meanwhile, the Germans pressed forward the siege of Paris. It held out for four months and then capitulated (January, 1871) to cold and hunger rather than to the enemy. The war now ended. Bismarck's harsh treatment of France contrasts sharply with his previous moderation toward Austria. By the Treaty of Frankfort France agreed to pay an indemnity of one billion MOLTKE After a painting by Franz von Lenbach. United Germany 573 dollars and ceded to Germany nearly the whole of Alsace, including Strassburg, and part of Lorraine, includ- ing the fortress of Metz. Prussia, as far back as p^^^® ^**^ 181 5, had tried to secure these provinces, in order to provide a better frontier for her Rhenish possesions. Bis- marck took them in 187 1, ostensibly to regain what had once been German territory,^ but really because of their value as a barrier against France. Supposed military necessity thus led to the action, which, more than anything else, unsettled the peace of the world for nearly half a century. Paris had not capitulated, the Treaty of Frankfort had not been signed, before united Germany came into existence. The four south German states yielded to the national sentiment evoked by the war and agreed German with Prussia to enter the North German Con- Empire, 1871 federation, rechristened the German Empire. On January 18, 1871, in the great hall of Versailles, William I took the title of German emperor. Studies I. On an outline map indicate the additions to the kingdom of Sardinia, 1859- 1870. 2. Locate the battle-fields of Novara, Solferino, Magenta, Sadowa (Konig- gratz), and Sedan. 3. For what were the following persons famous: Talleyrand; Kossuth; Mazzini; Garibaldi; and Moltke? 4. "The nineteenth century is precisely the history of the work which the French Revolution left." Comment on this statement. 5. How does the history of the nineteenth century in Europe il- lustrate the statement that "nations are seldom born except on the field of battle"? 6. Why is nationality so hard to suppress by force? Why was so little attention paid to the claims of nationaUty by the Congress of Vienna? 7. Why did Paris and not the provinces play the chief part in the French revolutionary outbreaks from i789toi87i? 8. Why has France been styled the ' ' magnetic pole of Europe ' ' ? 9. Compare the "July Revolution" in France with the "Glorious Revolution" in England, and Charles X with James II. 10. Compare the coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon with that of Napoleon Bonaparte. 11. Compare the advantages re- ceived by France from the revolution of 1848 with those received from the revolutions of 1830 and 1789. 12. Show that the Alps provide a less satisfactory natural frontier for northern Italy than the Pyrenees for northern Spain. 13. Why has the Po valley been called the "cockpit of Europe"? 14. Why should Garibaldi, rather than Cavour, be the national hero of Italy? 15. Where is the repubUc of San Marino? 16. What is Irredentism? 17. Why is the pope called the ^ See pages 372 and 403. 574 The National Movement in Europe " prisoner of the Vatican " ? i8. Can Bismarck's action in altering the text of the Ems dispatch be justified? 19. Why did Germany treat Austria mildly in 1866 and France harshly in 187 1? 20. "The Seven Years' War may be looked upon as the first act of the drama that was played out at Sadowa and Sedan." Explain this statement. 21. What is meant by the saying that "Prussia was hatched from a cannon ball"? 22. Show that the German Empire, as estab- lished in 1 87 1, was in no sense a continuation or restoration of the Holy Roman Empire. 23. Compare William I with Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour with Bismarck. CHAPTER XXII THE DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT IN EUROPE, 1871-1914 201. Modern Democracy The idea of democracy, so emphasized by the French Revo- lution, has been not less potent than that of nationahsm in making modern history. What is democracy? what is The word comes from the Greek and means the democracy? rule of the people. But all the people did not rule, even in the most democratic of Greek cities. Ancient democracy was exclusive. Slaves enjoyed no poHtical rights, while freedmen and foreigners were seldom naturalized and allowed to take part in public affairs. A thoroughly democratic state at the present time does not recognize any slave class, freely admits foreigners to citizenship, and grants the suffrage to all native- born and naturalized men, and in some cases to women as well. Democracy in antiquity was direct, while that of to-day is representative. Every citizen of Athens or Rome had a right to appear and vote in the popular assembly. With the growth of national states this form of represent- government became impossible. The population **^^® IT r democracy was too large, the distances were too great, for all the citizens to meet in public gatherings. Voters now simply choose some one to represent them in a parliament or congress. The representative system, though not unknown to the Greeks and Romans, was little used by them. It developed during the Middle Ages, when such countries as Denmark, ^ , ° Develop- Sweden, the Netherlands, France, and England ment of established legislative bodies representing the representa- three "estates" of clergy, nobility, and commoners. Most of these medieval legislatures afterwards disappeared or sank into insignificance, but the EngHsh Parliament continued S7S 576 The Democratic Movement in Europe to lead a vigorous existence. It thus furnished a model for imitation, first by the American colonies, then by revolutionary France, and during the past hundred years by nearly all Europe. Modern democracy has also a constitutional character. There is generally a written constitution to guarantee the' Constitu- rights of the people. The first document of this tionalism gQj.^ fQj. ^ national state was the Union of Utrecht, drawn up by the revolting Dutch provinces in 1579. The second was the Cromwellian Instrument of Government (1653). The third was the Constitution of the United States (1787). The French constitution which went into effect in 1791 became the parent of the constitutional systems of contemporary Europe. The democratic and national movements have proceeded side by side throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Democracy Between 1848 and 1871 the more conspicuous vic- and national- tories were those won for nationalism in Italy *^°* and Germany. Since 187 1 the advance of democ- racy has been especially marked. Both autocracy, the rule of one, and aristocracy, the rule of a few, seem fated everywhere to disappear. It is a significant fact that nearly all the existing governments of Europe have assumed their present democratic form within the last fifty years. 202. The United Kingdom The constitution of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ^ consists first, of royal charters, second, of parha- mentary statutes, third, of the Common law as Constitu- tion of the expressed in court decisions, and fourth, of inter- United national treaties. Besides such documents, it Kingdom includes a large mass of customs, traditions, and precedents, which, though unwritten, are none the less binding on Crown and Parliament. We shall now see how this very flexible, ever-growing constitution was adapted to democratic needs during the nineteenth century. ^ Ireland in 1801 was joined to Great Britain to form the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom 577 The personal government of George III broke down under the shock of the American Revolution, and Parliament re- covered its supremacy.^ A few years later came Tory the Revolution in France, which promised at first reaction to sweep away privilege and class distinctions in Great Brit- I. England 2. Scotland Great Britain Ireland Great Britain and Ireland The Union Jack The Act of Union with Scotland (1707) required that England and Scotland should have one flag made of the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew combined. After the union with Ireland (1801) the cross of St. Patrick was incorporated in the flag. The name " Jack" comes from the French Jacques, referring to James I, the first sovereign of Great Britain. ain as on the Continent. But the excesses of the French rad- icals filled conservative Englishmen with deep distrust of all innovations in government or society. The long revolutionary and Napoleonic wars also delayed reform movements in Great 1 See page 438. 578 The Democratic Movement in Europe Britain. The Tories had a majority in the House of Commons throughout the period from 1789 to 1815, and Tory statesmen stood rock-Hke against everything that savored of democracy. According to the representative system which had been fixed in medieval times, each of the counties (shires) and most of the towns (boroughs) of Great Britain and reformed Ireland had two members in the House of Com- House of mons. Representation, however, bore no relation Commons , . . , . . . . . to the size of the population m either case: a large county and a small county, a large town and a small town, sent the same number of representatives. Some flourishing places, such as Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, and Sheffield, which had grown up since the Middle Ages, were without representation. Other places — the so-called ''rotten" bor- oughs — continued to enjoy representation long after they had so decayed that nothing remained of them but a single house, a green mound, a park, or a ruined wall. The electoral system was equally antiquated. Only the small class of land- owners could vote in the counties, while in most of the towns a handful of persons possessed the franchise. There were even some ''pocket" boroughs, where a rich man, usually a nobleman, had acquired the right of naming the representatives. As the Younger Pitt truly declared, "This House is not a representa- tion of the people of Great Britain; it is the representation of nominal boroughs, of ruined and exterminated towns, of noble families, of wealthy individuals, of foreign potentates." No improvement in these conditions took place until 1832. The Whigs, who now had returned to power, passed a reform Reform Act measure three times through the House of Com- of 1832 mons. Twice the House of Lords, staunchly Tory, threw it out and accepted it on the third occasion only when riots and other popular demonstrations brought Great Britain to the brink of revolution. The Reform Act abolished many "rotten" and "pocket" boroughs and gave representation to large places which had never possessed that privilege. It also increased the number of voters to include shopkeepers in the towns and renters as well as owners of lands in the country. ^1 2- ^ i o 8 g g o 1 o o ^ ffi S" & 580 The Democratic Movement in Europe Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 The unre- formed House of Lords tocracy. The next forward step came in 1867, when the prime minister, Disraeli, carried through Parliament an act extending the suffrage to workingmen in towns. Disraeli's parliamentary rival, Gladstone, extended it in 1884 to agricultural laborers. While these meas- ures did not establish complete manhood suffrage, they went far toward making the House of Commons a truly representative and democratic body. The House of Lords, composed of nobles and bishops, remains the last ref- uge of aris- In case of a conflict between it and the House of Commons, the latter can require the king to create enough new peers to carry the legislation desired. The threat of such action brought the Lords to terms in 1832. In 191 1 a similar threat induced them to accept the very unpalatable ParHament Act. This measure deprived the upper chamber of all control of money bills. It further provided that every other bill passed by the Commons in three successive sessions (extending over two years at least) and rejected by the Lords at each of the three sessions should become law. The House of Commons thus secured the final word in legislation. Many reformers would like to see the House of Lords made an elective instead of a hereditary body, while others would abolish it altogether. The United Kingdom is a monarchy only in form. The king neither makes nor enforces laws, and he must give his Benjamin Disraeli After a picture taken in 1867. In the possession of Major Coningsby Disraeli. The United Kingdom S8i The cabinet consent to any measure passed by both the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The last royal veto of q^^ ^^^^^ legislation was more than two centuries ago. Nor of Parlia- may the courts set aside an act of Parliament °*®°* as illegal, for every statute is a part of the constitution. All authority thus resides in Parliament, and ParHament represents the people. Parliament works through a committee known as the cabinet. ^ This body exists purely by custom and has no place whatever in the written consti- tution of the United Kingdom. The cabinet usually in- cludes about twenty lords and commoners belonging to the party in power. They are selected by the prime minister, who is the rec- ognized leader of the majority party. Members of the cabinet hold the chief administrative posi- tions and in secret sessions draft the more important legislative measures to be laid before Parlia- ment. Should the cabinet lose the support of a majority of the House of Commons, it must either resign or '' go to the country." In the lat- William E. Gladstone ter case, the king dissolves Parliament and calls a general elec- tion. The return of a majority favorable to the cabinet permits it to remain in office; otherwise the prime minister and his associ- ates give way to a cabinet formed by the opposition party. This system of cabinet government clearly fixes responsibility. In the first place, the cabinet ministers at every step are re- sponsible to the House of Commons. They hold Cabinet office and conduct affairs only as long as their government policies find acceptance with a majority in the popular branch of the legislature. In the second place, members of the House 1 See page 436. 582 The Democratic Movement in Europe of Commons are themselves constantly responsible to the nation. They are not elected for a definite term, and a new general election must be held immediately after the dissolution of ParHament. The two. parties — Whigs and Tories — which arose in the seventeenth century, continued to control Parliament in the PoUtical eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Whigs parties ^fter 1 83 2 took the name of Liberals, and the Tories that of Conservatives.^ The union of Great Britain and Ireland brought in over a hundred Irish members, most of whom now form the Nationalist Party. It stands for Home Rule for Ireland and allies itself with the Liberals. The Labor Party, which in 19 14 had forty seats in the House of Commons, forms another Liberal ally. It now appears possible that Great Britain will develop the many-party system characteristic of Continental governments. 203. The Third French Republic The Third Republic was born in the midst of war. Two days after Sedan, upon the receipt of a dispatch from Napoleon III announcing his army captured and himself lie pnT- " a- prisoner, Paris broke out in rebellion. The claimed, empress Eugenie fled with her son to England, and the revolutionists under Thiers and Gambetta set up a republican Government of National Defense. Gam- betta then escaped from Paris in a balloon, roused the fighting spirit of the French people by his eloquence, and carried on for several months a struggle against the German enemy. The peace treaty with Germany had hardly been signed before France went through a terrible experience. The Com- Xhe mune,2 or municipal council of Paris, fell into the •♦com- ^^ hands of radical repubhcans, socialists, and anar- suppressed, chists, who raised the red flag. They formed is'^i an independent government in the capital and even proposed to break up all France into a loose federation of 1 Since 1886 generally called Unionists because they desire to retain the union of Great Britain and Ireland. 2 See page 506. The Third French Republic 583 self-governing communes. The French people this time did not accept a revolution made in Paris. A civil war, lasting two months, followed. Loyal troops finally entered Paris, fought their way street by street, and suppressed the insurrection amid scenes of blood- shed unparalleled in the annals of even that turbulent city. The " communard " uprising thoroughly dis- cr edited constitu- radicalism tion of J J 1875 and made it certain that the Third Repubhc would be moderate and conserva- tive in character. Four years went by before the new government took final shape. Dur- ing this time a National Assembly met at Ver- L. A. Thiers After a portrait by Leon Bonnat painted in 1876. sailles and passed the series of laws forming the present constitution of France. The constitution established a parliamentary system of government, which resembles that of the United Kingdom. The legislative power is vested in a Chamber of The Deputies, containing (1914) 602 members, who are legislature elected for four years by universal manhood suffrage, and a Senate of 300 members, chosen indirectly for a term of nine years. The Senate has less importance than the Chamber of Deputies, principally because the premier and his associates in the ministry are responsible to the latter body. The minis- try must keep a majority in the Chamber of Deputies or resign. The two chambers, meeting together, may revise the constitution at any time. The executive power is nominally vested in a president, who 584 The Democratic Movement in Europe holds office for seven years. He is chosen, not by a popular vote, The but by the legislature. The president selects president ^^g premier, and with the consent of the Senate may dissolve the Chamber of Deputies before the expiration of its term and order a new election. He has no veto of legislation, but may return a measure to the two chambers for reconsideration. Every presidential act must be counter- signed by some minister, who thereby assumes responsibiUty for it. The president is thus largely a figurehead; the premier is the actual head of the government. There are in France no real parties, but only political groups. These include a few Monarchists, who would like to restore PoUticai the Bourbons; the Socialists, who are steadily groups increasing in number; and many varieties of Republicans, both conservative and radical. No ministry can expect to live long unless it represents a coalition of several groups. In fact, it never does live long. France since 1875 has averaged more than one ministry a year. In spite of what seems an unstable government, the Third Republic has grown stronger with the lapse of time and now enjoys the support of almost every Frenchman. 204. Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Belgium The kingdom of Italy ranks next to the French RepubHc among the Latin states of contemporary Europe. The Italian c ftu- constitution is the liberal document granted by tion of Charles Albert of Sardinia in 1848 and between ^*^y 1859 and 1870 extended by popular vote to the entire peninsula. During these momentous years Italy thus gained both national unity and democratic government. Supreme authority resides in a parliament of two houses, consisting of an elective Chamber of Deputies and an appointive Italian Senate. A ministry conducts the government, parliamen- subject to the will of the lower house. The tary system ^^^^ holds essentially an ornamental position, not unlike that of an English sovereign or a French president. Property and educational qualifications for the suffrage Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Belgium 585 formerly limited the voters to less than two and a half per cent of the population. Laws passed in 1882 and 191 2 Suffrage have introduced almost complete manhood suffrage. "^ ^^^y Only men under thirty years of age, who have neither performed their military service nor learned to read and write, are now denied the right to vote. Spain during the nineteenth century had a checkered history. Ferdinand VII, the Bourbon king who came back after Napo- leon's downfall, ruled so wretchedly as to provoke Kingdom an uprising. This led to intervention by the ^^ ^P^^ Concert of Europe and his second restoration.^ He died in 1833, and for the next four decades Spain suffered from revo- lutions and civil wars. In 1873 the Spanish Liberals proclaimed a repubhc, which lasted barely two years. The old dynasty of the Bourbons then recovered the throne and still occupies it. The present constitution, which dates from 1876, is liberal in character. It provides for representative gov- ^j^ ernment, a parliament (Cortes) of two chambers, Spanish and a responsible ministry. Manhood suffrage ^o^^t^t^tion has prevailed since 1890. The king, as in Italy, enjoys little real authority. The history of Portugal in the nineteenth century duplicates that of Spain. Misgovernment, insurrections, and armed conflicts between rival factions kept the little Republic of country in turmoil and long delayed the march of Portugal democracy there. However, in 1910 the Portuguese overturned their monarchy and set up a republic. The republican con- stitution closely follows that of France. Belgium, after the separation from Holland, became a hmited monarchy of the modern type. "All powers," it is asserted in the constitution of 1831, "emanate from the . Kingdom of people." The constitution was amended in 1893 ^^^^^""^ to provide for manhood suffrage. At the same time, an inter- esting system of plural voting went into effect. A Belgian citizen who is the head of a family with children or who owns a certain amount of property has two votes, and one who satisfies 1 See page 550. 586 The Democratic Movement in Europe certain educational requirements has three votes. The law makes voting obligatory and punishes a citizen for unexcused absence from the polls. 205. The German Empire The German Empire, as established in 187 1, was a federation. It included twenty-five states: four kingdoms, six grand- duchies, five duchies, seven principaHties, and three of the free cities,^ besides the imperial territory of Alsace- German Lorraine. The imperial constitution allowed each state (but not Alsace-Lorraine until 191 1) to manage its local concerns and specified what powers should be exercised by the central government. The king of Prussia was, ex officio, German emperor and presi- dent of the federation. He commanded the army and navy, chose ambassadors, and conducted foreign affairs. The German -^ might also of his own motion declare a defensive emperor o war, but the declaration of an offensive war re- quired the consent of the Bundesrat. The Federal Council {Bundesrat) consisted of sixty-one delegates from the various states. They always voted in The accordance with instructions given to them by their Btmdesrat respective governments. The result was that the Bundesrat formed an aristocratic council of diplomats, repre- senting (except in the case of the free cities) the hereditary German princes. The Bundesrat, in practice, made all the laws. It shaped in secret sessions the bills to be laid before the Reichstag for approval, and it had a veto of any bill passed by the latter body. The Imperial Diet {Reichstag) contained 397 members, elected for a term of five years by all men who had reached the The age of twenty-five. Though democratic in com- Reichstag position, the Reichstag exerted little influence on legislation, as compared with the English House of Commons or the French Chamber of Deputies. It might introduce meas- ures, but few of them were likely to receive the assent of the 1 Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck. See page 243. The German Empire 587 The German National Monument Designed by Johannes Schilling; begun in 1877; completed in 1883. The monument stands on a wooded hillside opposite Bingen and overlooking the Rhine valley. The great base, 82 feet high, supports the impressive figure of Germania, 34 feet high, with the imperial crown and the laurel-wreathed sword. On the side of the pedestal facing the river is a design symbolizing " The Watch on the Rhine." The other sides of the pedestal bear designs repre- senting various scenes in the Franco-German War. Bundesrat. On the other hand, if the Reichstag refused to pass a government measure, the Bundesrat and the emperor, by mutual agreement, could dissolve it and order a new election. 588 The Democratic Movement in Europe The Reichstag was thus little more than a debating society; it discussed, it did not govern. The emperor's representative in dealing with the legislature was the chancellor. This official corresponded only in slight The degree to the prime minister or premier in other chancellor governmental systems. He was responsible solely to the emperor, who appointed him and dismissed him at will. The chancellor presided over the Bundesrat, and in the name of the emperor laid before the Reichstag all measures which the Bundesrat had framed. He also selected the chief federal officers and supervised their activity. It is clear that, while the German Empire was a constitutional state, it was not a democratic state. The constitution, which . , ^j showed Bismarck's hand in every section, failed to cabinet provide for cabinet government. No ministry government ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^.^j ^^ ^^^ Reichstag, and the chancellor, the emperor's agent, held his position as long as he retained the emperor's confidence. It is equally clear that the imperial constitution gave to Prussia a paramount position in Germany. The king of Prussia Paramountcy was German emperor; the chancellor was usually of Prussia ^ Prussian; Prussia generally controlled a majority of votes in the Bundesrat; and Prussia kept a permanent majority of representatives in the Reichstag. That state had its own constitution, but one which did not seriously limit the royal power. The Prussian kingdom formed, in effect, an absolute monarchy. The Prussian king ruled by divine right. Germany, like most Continental countries, had the many- party system. The political groups included Conservatives Political and Liberals of various shades of opinion, Roman groups Catholic Clericals, or Centrists, so designated from the seats which their representatives occupied on the floor of the Reichstag, and the Social Democrats or SociaHsts. In 1914 the Social Democrats were the largest party in Germany. Owing, however, to an unfair and antiquated system of representation, they possessed far fewer seats in the Reichstag than their numbers entitled them to. The Dual Monarchy 589 206. The Dual Monarchy The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary stood next to the German Empire among the Teutonic powers of Europe. It was, of course, only in part Teutonic. Germans formed about a third of the population of Austria nationalities and about a tenth of that of Hungary. The ^^ Austria- Hungary Other nationalities included Magyars, Latin or Romanic peoples (Rumanians and Itahans), and Slavs.^ These diverse nationalities had possessed a constitution since 1867. Taught by bitter experience, Francis Joseph T • .1 . ^.' . , . 7 Constitution I m that year gave his consent to an Ausgletch of the (Compromise), which divided the Hapsburg realm ^^^ into two independent states — the empire of Aus- tria and the kingdom of Hungary. Each had its own parlia- ment, ministry, and capital (Vienna and Buda-Pest). Both had one flag, one army, and one sov- ereign, who wore the joint crown of Aus- trian emperor and Hungarian king. There was also a common administra- tion of foreign affairs. The government of the. Dual Monarchy ^ was somewhat more Francis Joseph I democratic than that of the German Empire. Laws in Austria were made by a majority of the two houses of parliament and were executed by a ministry nominally responsible to ^ Czechs and Slovaks in Bohemia, Moravia, and northern Hvingary, Poles and Ruthenians in Galicia, Serbo-Croats in Croatia-Slavonia, Bosnia, and Dalmatia, and Slovenes in Styria and Camiola. 590 The Democratic Movement in Europe both houses, but practically servants of the Crown. The emperor, moreover, could often play off one parliamentary faction against another and thus secure his own of the way in legislation. Universal manhood suffrage Dual prevailed since 1Q07. The law-making power in Monarchy ^^ ,., . , • , • 1 Hungary was likewise vested in a bicameral par- Hament with a nominally responsible ministry. Very illiberal qualifications for the suffrage reduced the number of voters to less than a fourth of the adult male population, and of these most were Magyars. The principle of nationality, so effective for union in Italy and Germany, in Austria-Hungary worked for disunion. The ^ ^. ^ Germans in Austria and the Magyars in Hungary Conflict of 1 1 • 1 1 • nationalities were not only determined to preserve their own m Austria- language and customs, but also to force them on the Latins and the Slavs. Until 1867 German repressed both Slav and Magyar; after that date he still repressed Czech, Ruthenian, Slovene, and Italian. Magyar, Uberated from German domination in 1867, continued to lord it over Slovak, Rumanian, and Serbo-Croat. The result was great bitterness between the dominant and subject nationalities of the Dual Monarchy. 207. Switzerland, Holland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden The Swiss cantons number twenty- two, of which fifteen are Teutonic in language, five are French-speaking, and two are Swiss Itahan-speaking. A constitution adopted in 1848 Confedera- and revised in 1874 joins them in a federal union somewhat resembling the United States. There is a legislature of two houses, the lower representing the people directly, the upper, each canton. The two houses in joint session name a committee to act as a kind of cabinet. The President of the Confederation is merely the chairman of this committee. He serves for one year. The democratic character of the Swdss is shown by their use of the initiative and referendum. Petitions signed by as many THE PEOPLES OF EUROPE at the Begi nning of the ^^^ Twentieth Century «t^^ The Russian Empire 591 as 30,000 citizens make it obligatory for the legislature to sub- mit a measure passed by it to a popular vote. „ , , . . , ^1 . . . Referendum This IS the referendum. Any 50,000 citizens can and in- compel the government to lay before the people ^t^^^ve in , , , . . ^^f. Switzerland proposed amendments to the constitution, ihis is the initiative. The two devices give to the Swiss constant control of federal law-making. The Dutch constitution dates from 181 5. Successive revi- sions since then, especially in the revolutionary year, 1848, have made it a fairly liberal document. The xingdom Crown is still powerful, but the royal ministers are of the responsible to the States-General, or parliament. ® eran s Property qualifications for voting, though lowered in recent years, exclude a good many Dutchmen from the suffrage. Holland is less democratic than her neighbor, Belgium. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are monarchies, The with written constitutions, bicameral parliaments, ^^^ "^^' and substantially responsible ministries. Man- kingdoms hood suffrage prevails in all three countries. Norway, which the Congress of Vienna took from Denmark and joined with Sweden, became independent in 1905. The year 1914 saw the formation of the Scandivanian League, an informal alHance of the three coun- scandina- tries for defensive purposes. It recalls the earlier ^**^ Union of Calmar,^ and if maintained, promises to give Scandinavia greater weight in the councils of Europe. 208. The Russian Empire The Russian people form three groups, speaking different Slavic dialects. The largest group is that of the Great Rus- sians, who occupy the interior, the north, and the east of the country. They are the true Musco- vites, their historic center being the ancient capital of Moscow. Next come the Little Russians (Ruthenians) of the Ukraine. They center about Kiev. The Cossacks are mainly Ukrainian colonists. The White Russians dwell to the west, in lands ^ See page 419. 592 The Democratic Movement in Europe which once belonged to Lithuania. These three groups com- prise more than half of the population of European Russia. The non-Russians are found principally along the frontier. Most of them entered the Russian Empire in the eighteenth Non- century, during the reigns of Peter the Great and Russians Catherine the Great.^ Early in the nineteenth century Alexander I took Finland from Sweden (1809), wrested Bessarabia from Turkey (181 2), and absorbed most of Poland (181 5). Russia thus reached her territorial limits in Europe. Her subject peoples included Lapps and Finns in Finland, Esths, Letts, and Germans in the Baltic provinces, Poles, and Lithuanians, Rumanians in Bessarabia, Mongols and other Asiatics chiefly in the southeastern part of the empire, and many Jews in the cities. , Alexander I began as a monarch of liberal tendencies and enlightened views. After Napoleon's downfall the tsar's Alexander I, ardor for reform grew cold. He came under 1801-1825 Metternich's influence and faithfully supported the reactionary policy of that minister. Nicholas I never felt any sympathy for either nationalism or democracy. We have already learned how he put down Nicholas I, the Polish insurrection of 1830-31, and how in 1825-1855 jg^g he interfered to suppress the revolution in Hungary .2 To prevent liberal ideas from spreading among the Russians, the tsar relied on a strict censorship of the press, a passport system which made it difficult for any one to enter Russia or leave it, ^nd an army of spies and secret police. During his reign of thirty years. Liberals by tens of thousands languished in prisons or trod the path of exile to Siberia. Nicho- las I was the most brutal autocrat on the Continent. . The reign of Alexander II started with notable reforms, especially those which freed the Russian serfs and created Alexander elective provincial assemblies (zemsivos) for local II, 1855- government. Reaction set in again after a second Polish insurrection in 1863. It was at this time that a revolutionary movement, commonly called Nihilism,^ 1 See the map on page 413. - See pages 553 and 557. 3 Latin nihil, "nothing." 594 The Democratic Movement in Europe began to threaten the existence of Russian autocracy. The Nihihsts worked among both the artisans in the cities and the peasants in the country. Not being able to agitate pubUcly, some of them, together with anarchists, resorted to assas- sination as the only means of ridding the country of reactionary officials. The revolutionists acted on the principle that since the government ruled by terror, it must be fought with terror. Alexander II himself fell a victim to them in 1881. Undeterred by his father's fate, Alexander III continued to be "Autocrat of all the Russias." The tsar's reign is chiefly Alexander significant for the efforts made by the govern- in, 1881- ment to ''Russify" the whole empire, so that its ^®^ non-Russian inhabitants should have one law, one language, and one religion. This policy led to severe treatment of the Poles, Lithuanians, Esths, Letts, and Ger- mans, and especially of the Jews. The persecution of the Jews was followed by their emigration in great numbers to the United States. The Russian government under Nicholas II did not abandon the policy of " Russification " which earned for it the hatred of Poland, Lithuania, and the Baltic provinces. To these was now added the Grand-Duchy of Finland. The Finns for ninety years had enjoyed self-government; Nicholas II by a manifesto swept away their most cherished privileges. Meanwhile, the opposition to autocracy developed rapidly in Russia, not only among the working people and peasants, but also among the middle classes and enlightened members of the nobility. All the liberal and discontented elements combined to demand for Russia the free institutions which were now no longer novelties in western Europe. Revo- lutionary disorders at length compelled the tsar to issue de- crees in 1 905-1 906, granting a wide franchise and providing for a representative assembly (Duma). The Duma met four times and accompHshed some useful legislation. It did not succeed, however, in winning liberty for the Russian people. The corrupt and inefficient autocracy seemed in 19 14 to be as firmly estabUshed as ever. Turkey and the Balkan States 595 209. Turkey and the Balkan States The racial situation in the Balkan peninsula is exceedingly complex. Greeks, Thracians, and Illyrians were the earliest known inhabitants. Goths, Huns, and Avars ^j^^ left few recognizable traces there. The settle- Balkan ments of the Serbo-Croats, beginning in the sixth p®°p®^ century, spread Slavic speech and customs throughout the area south of the Danube and between the Adriatic and the Black Sea. The Bulgarians, a people of Asiatic origin, appeared in the seventh century and in time adopted Slavic culture. Seven hundred years later came the Ottoman Turks. The empire of the Ottoman Turks formed a typical Oriental despotism. The Sultan was not only lord of the Turkish realm, but also the caliph,^ or spiritual head, of all Islam. ^^^ He lived shut up in his seraglio at Constantinople Ottoman and depended on his vizier (prime minister) and divan (council of ministers) to execute his will. Each province had its pasha (ruler), nominally subject to the Sultan, but more often than not practically independent of him. The pashas did little but collect tribute; real government in the interest of the people did not exist. The Ottoman Empire was exclusively Moslem. Only those who accepted Islam were citizens. Many Christians in the Balkan peninsula adopted the faith of their con- Turks and querors, in order to enjoy political rights and Christians escape the heavy taxes laid on unbelievers. Even including these converts, the Turks in southeastern Europe remained a small minority of the population. Impassable barriers, raised by differences of religion, race, language, and customs, separated them from their Christian subjects. After the fateful year, 1683,- the Turks lost ground in Europe. Austria soon secured Hungary. Russia under Catherine II seized the Crimea, with the adjoining territory, Dismember- and under Alexander I took Bessarabia. Then, ment of as the nineteenth century progressed, the Christian ^ ^^ peoples of the Balkans, stirred by the same enthusiasm for ^ See page 82 and note i. ^ See page 423. 596 The Democratic Movement in Europe nationality which moved Itahans, Germans, Poles, and Bo- hemians, threw off the Turkish yoke and declared for freedom. The dismemberment of Turkey began. The warlike Serbo-Croats of Montenegro never fully accepted Turkish rule. A httle corner of the "Black Mountain" coun- try always remained a free Christian state. The Montenegro , / . . . , . , , , Montenegrm prmcipahty, enlarged by conquests from the Turks, became a kingdom in 1910. The Serbo-Croats in Serbia have a memorable history. One of their rulers, Stephen Dushan, built up an empire cover- ing a large part of the Balkan peninsula. He aimed to unite Serbians, Greeks, and Bulgarians, in order to expel the Turks from Europe. The defeat of the Serbian army in the battle of Kossovo (1389) shook the empire to its foundation and paved the way for Ottoman conquests. The Serbians were Turkish subjects for three hundred and fifty years. After two revolts early in the nineteenth century, Serbia received self-government as a principality and later complete independence. It became a constitutional monarchy in 1882. The Greeks had endured Turkish rule since the fifteenth century. The French Revolution awakened their longing for national independence, and in 182 1 they raised the standard of revolt. Volunteers from every European country, as well as a few Americans, came to help them. The governments of Europe for a time stood coldly by, while the Turks massacred or enslaved their Christian subjects. Great Britain, France, and Russia at length decided to inter- vene. The combined fleet of the allied powers destroyed the Turkish navy at Navarino, and a Russian army moved upon Constantinople. When the Russians w^ere almost at his gates, the Sultan yielded and granted independence to central and southern Greece (1829). Large parts of the ancient Greek world, including Thessaly, Epirus, and Crete, remained under Turkish sovereignty. Greek patriots favored a republican government, but the European powers in 1832 set up a monarchy. A Bavarian Turkey and the Balkan States 597 prince occupied the throne for thirty years, until a revolution drove him out with his German soldiers and Kingdom German courtiers. A Danish prince then became °^ Greece king under the title of George I. Greece at this time re- ceived a new and entirely democratic constitution. Some years after the win- ning of Greek freedom, icholas I, who Crimean often spoke of War, 1854- the Sultan as the "sick man" of Europe and of his approaching funeral, reopened the Eastern Question by invading Turkey. The result was the Crimean War.* Great Britain sup- ported the Sultan because of the fear that the downfall of Turkey would be followed by Russian control of the eastern Mediterranean, thus menacing British communi- cations with India. France joined with Great Britain, principally because Napoleon III wished to pay off the grudges against Russia which his imperial uncle had ac- cumulated. Count Cavour added the Sardinian king- dom to the alliance, in order to further his plans for the unification of Italy. The war was mainly confined to the Crimea, where the allied armies finally took the fortress of Sevastopol after a long siege. Russia then withdrew from the unequal contest. ^ Assassinated in 1913 and succeeded by his son, Constantine I. Florence Nightingale Miss Florence Nightingale (1820-igio) did re- markable work during the Crimean War for the relief of sick and wounded British soldiers. To her self-sacrificing labors are also due many im- provements in hospital management, sanitation, and the training of nurses. 598 The Democratic Movement in Europe The peace treaty gave a new lease of life to the Ottoman Empire. The powers guaranteed the integrity of the Sultan's Treaty of possessions, only exacting from him promises of Paris, 1856 freedom of worship and better government for his Christian subjects. The promises were never kept, and the lot of Christians in Turkey became harder than ever. In their anxiety to keep Russia out of Constantinople, Great Britain and France thus attempted what future events clearly proved to be an impossible solution of the Eastern Question. No more short-sighted treaty was ever put on paper. The process of state-making in the Balkans recommenced soon after the Treaty of Paris. The two Danubian princi- palities of Moldavia and Wallachia had been vir- tually independent of Turkey since 1829. They now united under the name of Rumania, taking Charles I,^ a member of the Hohenzollern family, as their prince. Ru- mania secured complete independence in 1878, and three years later Prince Charles assumed a kingly crown. The Rumanians speak a language of Latin origin and claim descent from Roman colonists north of the Danube. During the Middle Ages, however, so many barbarian waves — Goths, Huns, Slavs, Mongols, and others — passed over the country that it is difficult to believe in the survival of the original inhabitants. The Rumanians, more likely, are a mixture of many peoples. The desire of Russia to rescue the Christians of the Balkans from oppression and, incidentally, to take Constantinople from Turkey brought about another war between the Turkish two Countries. Sufficient justification for it ex- War, 1877- is|^g(j in the unspeakable atrocities committed by the Turks in suppressing an insurrection of the Bulgarians. This time western Europe remained neutral and watched the duel. The Turks fought well, and their desperate defense of Plevna is celebrated in military annals. The fall of that stronghold allowed the tsar's troops to advance to San Stefano, within sight of the Golden Horn. Here they paused, 1 Succeeded in 1 914 by his son, Ferdinand I. u Turkey and the Balkan States 599 for both Great Britain and Austria-Hungary threatened hos- tilities in case Russia occupied Constantinople. At this juncture the Sultan sued for peace and agreed to relinquish nearly all his European possessions. The western powers would not assent to so complete a dis- memberment of European Turkey. Lord Beaconsfield,^ the British prime minister, regarded the Treaty of Treaty of San Stefano as far too favorable to Russia, ^e'^"' ^^'^^ Francis Joseph I, the Hapsburg emperor, who saw with dismay the extension of Russian influence in the Balkans, also opposed it. A general European conflict threatened, until the tsar agreed to submit the treaty to revision by an international congress at Berlin. There, under Bismarck's leadership, the diplomats attempted another settlement of the Eastern Question. The Treaty of Berlin recognized Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro as sovereign states. That part of Bulgaria between the Danube and the Balkans became a self-governing principality, but the part south of the Balkans, called Eastern Rumelia, went back to the Sultan. Greece was permitted to annex Turkish terri- tory in Thessaly. Austria-Hungary was allowed to occupy and administer the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herze- govina. In spite of its losses, the Ottoman Empire thus remained in Europe, a decadent empire propped up by Chris- tian arms. Diplomacy did not bring peace to the Balkans. Eastern Rumelia in 1885 revolted against the Turks and united with the northern Bulgarian province. The powers pro- ^^^^^ tested against this infraction of the Berlin treaty, but took no aggressive action. Serbia, jealous of her now powerful neighbor, declared war, only to be roundly beaten. Bulgaria remained tributary to the Sultan until 1908, when its ruler, Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, became an inde- pendent king (tsar). The year 1908 saw also a revolution in the Sultan's dominions. This was the work of the Young Turks, a group of patriotic reformers who aimed to revive and modernize the Ottoman 1 Formerly Benjamin Disraeli. See page 580. 6oo The Democratic Movement in Europe Empire. They won over the army and carried through a Democratic sudden, ahnost bloodless, coup d'etat. The terrified Turkey Sultan had to issue a decree restoring the constitu- tion granted by him some years before but never put in force. His despotism vanished, and the Ottoman Empire, with an elective parliament, a responsible ministry, and a free press, took its place among democratic states. . It soon became evident, however, that the Young Turks were nationalists as well as democrats. They intended to Nationalist weld together all the peoples of the Ottoman Turkey Empire into a single nation, with Turkish as the official language and Islam the only pri\41eged faith. Just as the Russian poHcy was one of ''Russification," so that of the Young Turks was one of ''Ottomanization." Then fol- lowed cruel oppression and massacres of Christians in various parts of the empire, including Macedonia. This Turkish province, the only one which remained in Europe, was peopled by Greeks, Serbians, and Bulgarians. Large numbers of them fled to their respective countries, carrying their grievances with them, and agitated for war against Turkey. The war soon came. Greece, IMontenegro, Serbia, and Bul- garia, forgetting for the moment the jealousies which had First and divided them, came together in the Balkan Second "Alliance," issued to the Sultan an ultimatum Balkan wars, 1912- demanding self-government for Macedonia, and 1913 when this was refused, promptly began hostihties. They were everywhere successful, and Turkey was compelled to give up all her European possessions except Constantinople and the adjacent territory. She likewise ceded Crete to Greece. The allies then proceeded to quarrel over the disposition of Macedonia. The quarrel resulted in a Second Balkan War, with Serbia, IMontenegro, Greece, Rumania, and Turkey ranged against Bulgaria. Tsar Ferdinand could not cope wdth so many foes and sued for peace. The treaty signed at Bucharest completely changed the aspect of the Balkans. Bulgaria surrendered districts south of the Danube to Rumania and allowed Greece, jMontenegro, Turkey and the Balkan States 60 1 and Serbia to annex most of Macedonia. These three states were now nearly doubled in size. The Turkish treaty of province of Albania, half of whose people are Bucharest, Moslems, became an independent principality. Turkey, though ignored at the peace conference, escaped dismemberment and even secured an accession of territory. The Treaty of Bucharest thus left the Turk in Europe, and by sowing seeds of enmity between Bulgaria and her sister states helped further to postpone a satisfactory solution bi^the Easteri Question. Studies I. On an outline map of Austria-Hungary in 1914 indicate th^^gions pre- dominantly German, Slavic, Romanic, and Magyar in populad^ro. 2. jExplain the following: "rotten" and "pocket" boroughs; Augsleickf Duma; ocrtes; Social Democrats; "communards"; Nihilists; and referejraum and initiafiye. 3. Who is the reigning monarch of the house of OrangePyfl the house of Savoi^P of the Hanoverian dynasty? of the Spanish Bourbons? ^'4. Give several examples of essentially democratic monarchies in Europe. 5. Why is it better for a nation to make mistakes in the course of self-government than to be ruled, however wisely, by an irresponsible monarch? 6. Distinguish between England, Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and the British Empire. 7. Why has England been called the "mother of parliaments"? 8. Why is the British government sometimes called a "crowned republic"? 9. Contrast the unlimited powers of the British Parliament with the limited powers of the American Congress. 10. Mention some noteworthy dLBferences between the British cabinet and the American cabinet. 11. Compare the French and Swiss presidents with the American president. 12. Why was the Reichstag described by its own members as merely a "hall of echoes"? 13. Why was the Austrian Empire called a "ramshackle empire"? 14. Comment on the statement, "You Magyars are only an island in an ocean of Slavs." 15. Why did Russia favor nationality in the Balkans and oppose it in other parts of Europe? 16. "The two forces that have constantly undermined the power of Turkey are religion and nationality." How does the history of the nineteenth century illustrate this statement? CHAPTER XXIII COLONIAL EXPANSION AND WORLD POLITICS IN THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES 210. Greater Europe The hundred-odd years since 1815 have witnessed an aston- ishing movement of European peoples into every quarter of Expansion the globe. This movement presents many aspects. of Europe ^OT the mother country it has provided outlets for surplus population, supplies of raw materials or the precious metals, markets for manufactures, and sometimes revenue from taxes and duties. For the daughter country it has meant the introduction of European civilization, particularly as affected by the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Revolution. The languages, literatures, religions, laws, and customs of Europe are thus being extended to almost all mankind. The expansion of Europe is largely explained by the increase of its population, which more than doubled in the nineteenth European century. During this time overcrowding and emigration overcompetition at home induced hundreds of thousands of emigrants yearly to cross the seas to regions where land was cheap, wages were high, and the government was liberal and democratic. A new "wandering of peoples" began on a colossal scale and still continues. Emigrants to an independent country such as the United States renounce their foreign allegiance, give up the use of their European native language, and soon become absorbed in the colonization population of their adopted fatherland. To pre- vent the loss of so many intelligent and energetic citizens, some European nations endeavor to secure colonial dependencies into which their surplus numbers may overflow. The posses- sion of large and flourishing colonies is also thought to increase 602 The Opening-Up of Africa 603 the national prestige and even the national wealth, through the opportunities offered in them for agriculture, mining, and commerce. Great Britain in 181 5 was the leading world power. France had been well-nigh eliminated as a colonial rival by the Seven Years' War, and Holland had lost valuable pos- The British sessions overseas in the revolutionary and Napo- ^n^pire leonic wars. In America, Great Britain held Canada, some of the West India islands, and part of Guiana; in Africa, Cape Colony; in Asia, much of India and Ceylon; and in Australia, the eastern coast. The British Empire continued to grow throughout the nineteenth century, until it embraced in 19 14 approximately a fourth of the habitable area of the earth and a fourth of the earth's population. No such wide dominion had ever been built up before, either in ancient or medieval times. The spectacle of the British Empire, so populous, so rich in natural resources, so far-flung, stirred the imagination and aroused the envy of the witnessing nations. They, too, became eager to secure dependencies in savage or half-civilized lands. Africa, in particular, afforded attractive opportunities for colonial enterprise. 211. The Opening-Up of Africa Speaking broadly, Africa consists of an elevated plateau, with a fringe of unindented coastal plain. Penetration of the interior was long delayed by mountain ranges Physical which approach close to the sea, by rapids and falls Af"ca which hinder river navigation, by the barrier of dense forests and extensive deserts, and by the unhealthiness of the climate in many regions. Though lying almost in sight of Europe, Africa reinained until our own time the ''Dark Continent." As was the country, so were its inhabitants. Europeans knew chiefly the Semitic and Hamitic peoples north and east of the Sahara. The Black race, which occupies ^ . , ., Racifl.! Africa. nearly all Africa south of that desert, dwelt by itself. Some negroes in the course of time blended more or 6o4 Colonial Expansion and World Politics less with Hamites, giving rise to the Bantu-speaking peoples. To these elements of the native population must be added the curious Pygmies in the equatorial districts, together with the Hottentots and Bushmen in the extreme south.^ Little more than the Mediterranean shore of Africa was known in antiquity. Here were Egypt, the first home of civiUzation, and Carthage, Rome's most formi- ^oric^mes dable rival for supremacy. During the earlier Middle Ages all North Africa fell under Arab dommation. The vast extent of the continent was revealed to Europeans by the Por- tuguese discoveries in the fifteenth century, but three hundred years elapsed be- fore anything like syste- matic exploration of the interior began. The penetration of Africa has been mainly accom- plished by fol- lowing the course of its four great rivers. In the last decade of the eighteenth century the African Associa- tion, then recently founded, sent Mungo Park to the Niger. He and his immediate successors explored the basin of that river and revealed the existence of the mysterious city of Timbuktu, an Arab capital never previously visited by Euro- peans. The determination of the sources of the Nile — a prob- lem which had interested, the ancients — met with success shortly after the middle of the nineteenth century. Captain Speke first saw the waters of the lake which he named Victoria Nyanza, in honor of England's queen, and Sir Samuel Baker found the smaller lake called by him Albert Nyanza, 1 See the map, page 637. The Niger and the Nile basins Henry M. Stanley After a photograph taken in 1886. The Partition of Africa 605 in honor of the Prince Consort. The discovery of snow-clad mountains in this part of Africa confirmed what Greek geog- raphers had taught regarding the "Mountains of the Moon." Meanwhile, an intrepid Scotch missionary, David Living- stone, had traced the course of the Zambesi. Starting from the Cape, he worked his way northward, found Basins of the the wonderful Victoria Falls, and crossed the Zambesi and continent from sea to sea. Livingstone's work ^ °^^° was carried further by Henry M. Stanley, a newspaper corre- spondent who became one of the eminent explorers of modern times. He discovered Lake Albert Edward Nyanza, showed that Lake Tangan)dka drained into the Congo, and followed that mighty stream all the way to its mouth. Stanley's fasci- nating narrative of his travels ^ did much to arouse European interest in Africa. 212. The Partition of Africa The division of Africa among European powers followed promptly upon its exploration. Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Germany, Italy, France, and Great Britain all profited by the scramble for African territory, and Portu- The Spanish possessions are small, compared with s^^.^e in those of the other powers, and, except for the northern coast of Morocco, not of great importance. Portugal, however, controls the two valuable regions of Angola and Portuguese East Africa. The possessions of Belgium grew directly out of Stanley's discoveries. He realized what sources of wealth might be tapped in the rubber, ivory, and palm-oil of the The Belgians vast Congo basin and persuaded Leopold II, ^ Africa king of the Belgians, to supply the funds for the establishment of trading stations in that part of Africa. The Congo Free State, which thus came into being, formed practically Leopold's private property. The forced labor demanded of the natives and the cruel punishments inflicted upon them stirred up so ^ Especially How I Found Livingstone (1872), Through the Dark Continent (1878), and In Darkest Africa (1890). 6o6 Colonial Expansion and World Politics much criticism in Europe and America that Leopold finally converted his African holdings into a colony now called the Belgian Congo. Soon after Germany attained national unity, she made her appearance among colonial powers. Treaties with the native The Germans chiefs and arbitrary annexations during the years in Africa 1 884-1 885 resulted in the acquisition of extensive territories in Southwest Africa, East Africa, and the Cameroons. All these possessions, however, were conquered by the Allies during the World War. Italy was another late-comer on the African scene. She secured Eritrea on the Red Sea and Italian Somaliland. An The Italians Italian attempt to annex Abyssinia ended dis- in Afnca astrously, and that ancient Christian ''empire" still keeps its independence. Italy's most important African colony is Libya,^ conquered from Turkey in 1911-1912. The country in Turkish hands was misgoverned and undeveloped, but its fertile coast is well adapted to agriculture, and even the barren interior may become valuable through irrigation. The beginnings of French dominion in Africa reach back to the seventeenth century, when Louis XIV began to acquire The French trading posts along the western coast and in in Africa Madagascar. It was not until the nineteenth century, however, that the French entered seriously upon the work of colonization. The reign of Louis Philippe saw the difficult conquest of Algeria from the warlike Turks, Arabs, and Berbers. In 1881 France annexed Tunis, just east of Algeria, and since 191 2 she has exercised a protectorate over most of Morocco. A glance at the map shows that in area the French possessions exceed those of any other power, but they include the Sahara desert. Great Britain has secured, if not the lion's share, at any rate the most valuable share of Africa. Besides various posses- sions on the west coast, she holds a solid block of Cape Colony territory all the way from the Cape of Good Hope to Lake Tanganyika. Cape Colony was captured from the 1 Made up of the two former Turkish provinces of Tripoli and Cyrenaica. The Partition of Africa 607 Dutch during the Napoleonic wars.^ Though small in extent, it had great importance as a half-way station on the route to both India and Australia and also as a convenient basis for expansion northward into the African continent. The Dutch farmers, or Boers, did not take readily to British rule. Many of them, with their families and flocks, moved from Cape Colony into the unknown . . . Natal, Orange country beyond. This wholesale emigration — Free State, the ''Great Trek " — resulted in the formation and the Transvaal of the Boer republics of Natal, Orange Free State, and the Transvaal. Natal was soon annexed by Great Britain, but the other two repubHcs remained in- dependent. The dis- covery of the world's richest gold mines in the Transvaal led to a large influx of Eng- lishmen, who, since they paid taxes, de- manded a share in the government. The Dutch settlers, under the lead of President Kruger of the Trans- vaal, were just as de- termined to keep the government in their own hands. Disputes between the two peoples culminated in the South African War (1899-1902), in which the Boers were overcome by sheer weight of numbers. The war had a happy outcome. Great Britain showed a wise liberality toward her former foes and granted them self- government. Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Free ^nion of State, and the Transvaal soon came together in South Africa, the Union of South Africa. The Union has a ^^^'^^^^ Governor-General appointed by the British Crown, a common 1 See pages 444 and 546. Paul Kruger 6o8 Colonial Expansion and World Politics parliament, and a responsible ministry. Cape Town and Pretoria are the two capitals, and both EngHsh and Dutch are official languages. The loyalty of the majority of Boers to Great Britain was demonstrated during the World War. The Union will ultimately include the other British pos- sessions in South Africa. Their acquisition was largely due to Bechuanaland Cecil Rhodes, an Oxford student who found riches and Rhodesia [^ t^g Kimberley diamond fields and rose to be prime minister of Cape Colony. Rhodes helped to make Bechuanaland a British pro- tectorate and secured the imperial domain now called after him Rhodesia. One of Cecil Rhodes's cher- ished dreams seems likely to be soon realized. This is the construction of a trans-con- The Cape-to- tinental railway Cairo Railway connecting the British possessions in South Africa with Egypt. The line starts from Cape Town, crosses Bechuanaland and Rhodesia, and now pene- trates the Belgian Congo. Farther north it will link up with the line already in operation between Cairo and Khartum. British East Beyond Rhodesia to the north are British Africa and East Africa and the Uganda Protectorate. Both ^^ * districts contain much fertile land and because of their generally healthy chmate offer a promising field for European colonization. Uganda forms the connecting link with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. All 'this region of the Upper Nile was conquered by The Sudan General Kitchener in the last decade of the nine- and Egypt teenth century. Egypt has been practically a British possession since 1882, though it remained nominally Cecil Rhodes The Opening-Up and Partition of Asia 609 a Turkish province until the outbreak of war between Great Britain and Turkey in 19 14. Great Britain first secured an interest in Egypt through the purchase from its Khedive, or ruler, of a large number of his shares of stock in the Suez Canal. This The Suez famous engineering work had been completed in Canal, 1869 1869 by the French engineer, De Lesseps. The canal puts Egypt on the main oceanic highway to the East and makes the CANAL occupation of that country vital to the security of the British possessions in India. 213. The Opening-Up and Partition of Asia British expansion in India, begun by Clive during the Seven Years' War, has proceeded scarcely without interruption to the present day. The conquest of India was Great Britain almost inevitable. Sometimes the Indian princes "^ ^°^** attacked the British settlements and had to be overcome; sometimes the lawless condition of their dominions led to inter- vention; sometimes, again, the need of finding defensible frontiers resulted in annexations. The entire peninsula, cover- ing an area half as large as the United States, is now under the Union Jack. The East India Company ^ continued to govern India until after the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1857 came the Sepoy mutiny, a sudden uprising of the native Government soldiers in the northern part of the country. °^ ^°^^* Bloodily conducted, it was as bloodily suppressed, some of the 1 See page 447. 6io Colonial Expansion and World Politics ringleaders even being shot from the mouths of cannon as a punishment. The mutiny disclosed the weakness of company rule and brought about the transfer of all governmental func- tions to the Crown. Queen Victoria assumed the title, Em- press of India, in 1877. A viceroy, whose seat is the ancient capital Delhi, and the ofi&cials of the Civil Service administer the affairs of about two-thirds of the country. The remainder is ruled by native princes under British oversight and protection. Their contributions of both men and money during the World War showed their loyalty to Great Britain. The fact that a handful of foreigners has been able to subdue and keep in subjection more than three hundred million Indian Peoples of peoples is sufficiently explained by their disunion. India They' are not one in blood and language. The Hindus, who dwell in the river valleys of the Indus and the The Lion's Vengeance on the Bengal Tiger A cartoon by Sir John Teninel which appeared in the English journal Punch for August 22, 1857. Ganges (Hindustan), comprise no more than a majority of the population. Southern India belongs chiefly to the primitive Dravidians, who speak a non-Aryan tongue, and who probably represent the aboriginal inhabitants of the peninsula. The slopes of the Himalayas are occupied by still other peoples, the descendants of Arab, Afghan, Persian, and Turkish invaders. Rehgion likewise acts as a divisive force. The Hindus The Opening-Up and Partition of Asia '6ii accept Brahmanism, a name derived from Brahma, the Supreme Being or First Cause. In its original form, three ReUgions of thousand years ago, Brahmanism appears to have ^^^** been an elevated faith, but it has now so far declined that its adherents generally worship a multitude of gods, venerate idols, revere the cow as a sacred animal, and indulge in many debasing rites. TheDra- vidians are only nominal Brahmanists; their real worship is that of count- less village deities. The stronghold of Islam lies in the northern fringe of provinces, but Moslem missionaries have pene- trated almost every part of the country. Nor are the Hindus themselves united. The all-pervad- The caste ing caste system system splits them up into several thousand distinct groups, headed by the Brahmans or priests. Members of a given caste may not marry outside it; may not eat with any one who does not belong to it; may not do work of any sort unrecognized by it. Caste, in fact, regulates a man's actions from the cradle to the grave. It has lasted in India for ages. The spread of European civilization in India promises to re- move, or at least to lower, the barriers of race, religion, and caste. Great Britain enforces peace throughout Indian the peninsula, builds railways and canals linking nationalism every part of it together, stamps out the famines and plagues which used to decimate the inhabitants, and has begun their education in schools of many grades. All this work tends to Queen Victoria 6 1 2' Colonial Expansion and World Politics foster a sense of nationality, something hitherto lacking in India. Educated Hindus, familiar with the national and democratic movements of the past century in Europe, now go so far as to demand complete self-government for their own country. This may come in time, but a united Indian nation must necessarily be of slow development. Farther India, or Indo-China, except for the independent T ^mW^^'^"^^ I EXTENSION QF BRITISH RriE IN INDIA AFGHAN mW~\ ^'^^( T:::::i^^^^i°r'''''''^^^T^^r^''''' XSTANc'MT^^^X^^«J- SSlloHl'i^Tb. mProtected States ^ ai Make and other names in itaZica=Etaich state of Siam, is now under British and French control. Great G t B -f • Britain holds Burma, annexed as recently as 1885, and France in and the Straits Settlements at the tip of the Malay As^f ^^^^^"^ Peninsula. France holds Tonkin, Anam, Laos, Cambodia, and Cochin-China. All these pos- sessions have been acquired at the expense of China, which formerly exercised a vague sovereignty over southeastern Asia. The Opening-Up and Partition of Asia 613 The Russians were established in Siberia before the close of the seventeenth century.^ Their advance over this enormous but thinly peopled region was facilitated by its Russia in magnificent rivers, which furnished highways for northern Asia explorers and fur traders. Northern Siberia is a waste of swamp and tundra, where the terrible cHmate blocks the mouths of the streams with ice and even in summer keeps the ground frozen beneath the surface. Farther south comes one of the most extensive areas of virgin forest to be found on the globe, and ■ still farther south extend treeless steppes, adapted in part to agriculture and in part to herding. The country also contains much mineral wealth. In order to secure an outlet for Siberian products, Russia compelled China to cede the lower Amur Valley with the adjoining seacoast. The Russians in their newly acquired territory founded Vladivostok as a naval base. Vladivostok is also the eastern terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The western terminus is Petrograd, three thousand miles distant. The railway was completed in' ^j^^ xrans- 1900 by the imperial government, partly to facih- Siberian tate the movement of troops and mihtary sup- R^way,i900 pUes in Siberia and partly to develop that region as a home for Russian emigrants and a market for Russian manufactures. A branch line extends to Port Arthur in Manchuria and another branch to Tientsin in China. During the past century Russia widened her boundaries in central Asia. She conquered the Caucasus and absorbed what remained of Turkestan east of the Caspian Russia and and south of Lake Balkash and the Aral Sea. Great Britain Alarmed by the advance of the Russian colossus, ^^^^^ ^^^ Great Britain took steps to increase her influence in Afghanistan, through whose passes runs the one road over the mountains to ■ India. In 1907 the two European powers reached a friendly agreement, and Afghanistan became a buffer state between them. Great Britain meanwhile annexed Baluchistan, thus carrying the northwestern frontier of her Indian possessions as far as Persia. ^ See page 414 6 14 Colonial Expansion and World Politics 214. China Between Russian Asia and British and French Asia Hes China, with a larger area than Europe and probably quite as populous. China proper consists of eighteen China proper pj.^^-j^^gg ^ ^^^ fertile valleys of the Yangtse and the Hoangho, or Yellow River. The great length of the country accounts for the variety of its productions, which range from hardy grains in the north to camphor and mulberry trees, tea, and cotton in the south. The mineral wealth in-' eludes deposits of copper, tin, lead, and iron, much oil, and coal fields said to be the most extensive in the world. The traditions of the Chinese throw no light on their origin. They may have come from the west in prehistoric times, but more probably developed out of the Mongolian stock inhabiting China proper. In the course of centuries they have pushed into Manchuria, MongoHa, Chinese Turkestan (*Sinkiang) , and Tibet. Chinese farmers, laborers, and traders are also numerous in Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, and the Malay Islands. The enterprising spirit of the people is further shown by their recent emigration in large numbers to the United States and other distant lands. The Chinese boast a civilization already old when Rome was young. They are famous for artistic work in wood and metal, Chinese the manufacture of silk, and the production of civiUzation porcelain or chinaware. Rudimentary forms of such inventions as the compass, gunpowder, paper, and movable type were early known to them. Though hampered by a cumbrous, nonalphabetic system of writing, the Chinese have managed to produce an extensive hterature. One of their encyclopedias fills over five thousand volumes. The government of China, until recently, has always been a monarchy. The emperor, in theory absolute, was really c . . ^ under the thumb of the office-holding or mandarin Society and ° , religion in class, which took the place of a hereditary nobility. ^^^* Any one, high or low, could enter its ranks by passing a rigid examination in the sacred books. These were China 615 in part collected and edited by Confucius (551-478 B.C.), the reformer who did so much to make reverence for ancestors and imitation of their ways the Chinaman's cardinal virtues. Con- fucianism is a code of morals rather than a religion. It has not supplanted among uneducated people a hvely belief in many spirits, good and bad. Buddhism, an Indian religion now practically extinct in the land of its birth, has spread so widely over China and the adjoining countries that to-day it forms the creed of about one-third of mankind. Christianity and Islam are also making some headway in China. The rugged mountains and trackless deserts which bound three sides of China long shut it off from much intercourse with the western world. The proud disposition isolation of of its people, to whom foreigners were only bar- ^*^* barians ("foreign devils"), likewise tended to keep them isolated. Before the nineteenth century the only Europeans who gained an entrance into the ''Celestial Empire" were a few missionaries and traders.^ The merchants of Portugal estab- lished themselves at Macao, and those of Holland and Great Britain at Canton. There was also some traffic overland between Russia and China. Foreign trade, however, had no attraction for the Chinese, who discouraged it as far as possible. The difficulties experienced by merchants in China led at length to hostiUties between that country and Great Britain. The British, with their modern fleet and army, Foreign had an easy victory and in 1842 compelled the aggression Chinese government to open additional ports and cede the island of Hongkong. Other nations now hastened to secure commercial concessions in China. Many more ports were opened to foreign merchants, Europeans were granted the right to travel in China, and Christian missionaries were to be protected in their work among the inhabitants. But all this made little impression upon perhaps the most conservative people in the world. The Chinese remained absolutely hostile to the western civilization so rudely thrust upon them. Foreign aggression soon took the form of annexations in ^ See pages 185 and 310. 6i6 Colonial Expansion and World Politics oudying portions of Chinese territory. We have seen how Great Britain appropriated Burma; France, Indo- China; and Russia, the Amur district. Mean- while, Japan, just beginning her national expansion, looked enviously across the sea to Korea, a tributary kingdom of China. The Chino-Japanese War (1894-1895) followed. Completely defeated, the Chinese had not only to renounce all claim to Korea, but also to surrender to Japan the island of Formosa and the Liaotung peninsula in Manchuria. Japan's gains aroused the jealousy of Russia, who saw the road to an ice-free port on the Pacific blocked by the Japanese occupation of the Liaotung peninsula. Russia took her grievance to France and Germany, and together the three powers induced the Japanese to give up their acquisitions on the mainland. The coalition then seized several Chinese harbors ^ and divided the country into "spheres of influence." The partition of China seemed at hand. But Europe was not to have its own way in China. A secret society called the ''Boxers," whose members claimed to be The "Boxers," invulnerable, spread rapidly through the provinces 1900 - and urged war to the death against the ''for- eign devils." Encouraged by the government, the "Boxers" murdered many traders and missionaries. The foreigners in Peking took refuge within the legations, where after a des- perate defense they were finally relieved by an international army composed of European, Japanese, and American troops. The allies then made peace with China and promised hence- th to respect her territory. They insisted, however, on the payment of a large indemnity for the outrages committed during the anti-foreign outbreak. Events now moved rapidly. Educated Chinese, many of ^1. ^v whom had studied abroad, saw clearly that their The Chinese -^ Revolution, country must adopt western ideas and methods, ^^^^ if it was to remain a great power. The demand for thorough reforms in the government soon became a revolu- 1 Russia took Port Arthur, Germany, Kiauchau, and France, Kwangchauwan. Great Britain also acquired Weihaiwei. Japan 617 tionary propaganda, directed against the unprogressive Manchu (or Manchurian) dynasty, which had ruled China for nearly three hundred years. The youthful emperor finally abdicated, and the oldest empire in the world became the youngest re- public. This sudden awakening of China from her sleep of centuries is a prodigious event in world history. Already China pos- sesses many thousands of miles of railroads and china and telegraph lines, besides numerous factories, mills, ^^ Occident and mines equipped with machinery. She has begun the cre- ation of a modern army. She has abolished long-established customs, such as the torture of criminals and the foot-binding of women. She has prohibited the consumption of opium, a vice which sapped the vitality of her people. Her temples have been turned into schools teaching the sciences and foreign languages, and her students have been sent in large numbers to foreign universities. Such reforms are rapidly bringing China into the fellowship of Occidental nations. It remains to be seen, however, whether China will allow her ancient culture to be completely extinguished by that of Europe. 215. Japan Nippon (''Rising Sun") is the name which the inhabitants give to the six large islands and about four thousand smaller ones stretching crescent-like ofif the coast of eastern The Japanese Asia. Because of its generally mountainous char- archipelago acter, little more than one-eighth of the archipelago can be cultivated. Rice and tea form the principal crops, but fruit trees of every kind known to temperate climates flourish, and flowers bloom luxuriantly. The deep inlets of the coast pro- vide convenient harbors, and the numerous rivers, though neither large nor long, supply an abundance of water. Below the surface lie considerable deposits of coal and nietals. The modern Japanese are descended chiefly from Koreans and Chinese, who displaced the original inhabitants of the archipelago.^ The immigrants appear to have reached Japan 1 Now probably represented by the "hairy Ainu" of the island of Yezo. 6i8 Colonial Expansion and World Politics in the early centuries of the Christian era. Except for their shorter stature, the Japanese closely resemble the Chinese in The Japanese physique and personal appearance. They are, people however, more quick-witted and receptive to new ideas than their neighbors on the mainland. Other quaHties possessed by the Japanese in a marked degree include obedience, the result of many centuries of autocratic government ; a martial spirit; and an intense patriotism. *'Thou shalt honor the gods and love thy country" is the first commandment of the national faith. The Japanese naturally patterned their civilization upon that of China. They adopted a simplified form of Chinese Japanese writing and took over the literature, learning, civilization ^nd art of the "Celestial Empire." The moral system of Confucius found ready acceptance in Japan, where it strengthened the reverence for parents and the worship of ancestors. Buddhism, introduced from China by way of Korea, brought new ideas of the nature of the soul, of heaven and hell, and of salvation by prayer. It is still the prevailing reUgion in Japan. Like the Chinese, also, the Japanese had an emperor (the mikado). He became in time only a puppet emperor, and another official (the shogun) usurped the chief functions of government. Neither ruler exerted much author- ity over the nobles (daimios), who oppressed their serfs and waged private warfare against one another very much as did their contemporaries, the feudal lords of medieval Europe. The first European visitors to Japan were Portuguese mer- chants and Jesuit missionaries, who came in the sixteenth European Century.^ The Japanese government welcomed intercourse them at first, but the growing unpopularity of wi japan ^^^ foreigners before long resulted in their expul- sion from the country. Japan continued to lead a hermit life until the middle of the nineteenth century. Foreign inter- course began in 1 853-1 854, with the arrival of an American fleet under Commodore Perry. He induced the shogun to sign a treaty which opened two Japanese ports to American 1 See page 310. .lA' ^ Japan 619 620 Colonial Expansion and World Politics ships. The diplomatic ice being thus broken, various European nations soon negotiated commercial treaties with Japan. Thoughtful Japanese, however great their dislike of foreign- ers, could not fail to recognize the superiority of the western The Japanese nations in the arts of war and peace. A group Revolution ^f reformers, including many prominent daimios, now carried through an almost bloodless revolution. As the first step, they compelled the shogun to resign his office, thus making the mikado^ the actual as well as titular sovereign (1867). Most of the daimios then voluntarily surrendered their feudal privileges (1871). This patriotic act made possible the abolition of serfdom and the formation of a national army on the basis of compulsory miUtary service. In 1889 Japan secured a written constitution, with a parliament of two houses and a cabinet responsible to the mikado. He, however, is guided in all important matters by a group of influential nobles — the ''Elder Statesmen" — who thus form the real power behind the throne. The revolutionary movement affected almost every aspect of Japanese society. Codes of civil, commercial, and criminal European- ^^^ ^^^^^ drawn up to accord with those of western ization of Europe. Universities and public schools were Japan estabHshed upon Occidental models. Railroads and steamship lines were multiplied. The abundant water power, good harbors, and cheap labor of Japan facihtated the introduction of European methods of manufacturing; factories sprang up on every side; and machine-made goods began to displace the artistic productions of handworkers. Japan thus became a modern industrial nation. Once in possession of European arts, sciences, and industries, Japan entered upon a career of territorial expansion in eastern Expansion Asia. Her merchants and capitahsts wanted of Japan opportunities for money-making abroad; above all, her rapidly increasing population required new regions suitable for colonization beyond the narrow limits of the archi- pelago. As we have learned, the Chino- Japanese War (1894- 1 The youthful Mutsuhito, who reigned 1867-1912. The Opening-Up and Partition of Oceania 621 1895) brought Korea ^ under Japanese influence and added Formosa to the empire. Just ten years later Japan and Russia clashed over the disposition of Manchuria and the Liaotung peninsula. The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) seemed a conflict between a giant and a pygmy, but the inequahty of the Japanese in numbers and resources was more than made up by their preparedness for the conflict, by their irresistible bravery, and by the strategic genius which their generals displayed. After much bloody fighting by land and sea, both sides accepted the suggestion of President Roosevelt to arrange terms of peace. The treaty, as signed at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, recognized the claims of Japan in Korea, gave to Japan a lease of the Liaotung peninsula, including Port Arthur, and provided for the evacuation of Manchuria by both contest- ants. Russia also ceded to Japan the southern half of the island of Sakhalin. No indemnity was paid by either country. The Russo-Japanese War raised Japan to the position of a world power. Great Britain first recognized this fact and hastened to conclude an offensive and defensive japan as a alliance with the 'Tsland Empire." Each con- world power; tracting party pledged itself to come to the other's assistance, in case the possessions of either in eastern Asia and India were attacked by another state. Both France and Russia also entered into a friendly understanding with Japan for the preser- vation of peace in the Far East. How loyally Japan observed these agreements was soon shown upon the outbreak of the World War. 216. The Opening-Up and Partition of Oceania The term Oceania, or Oceanica, in its widest sense applies to all the Pacific islands. The continental group includes, in addition to the Japanese archipelago and Formosa, the Philippines, the East Indies, New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania. Many of these islands appear to have been connected at a remote period, and still more remotely to have been joined to the Asiatic mainland. The oceanic 1 Known as Chosen since its formal annexation by Japan in igio. 62 2 Colonial Expansion and World Politics group includes, besides New Zealand, a vast number of islands and islets either volcanic or coralline in formation. They fall into the three divisions named Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. The natives of Oceania exhibit a wide variety of culture, ranging from the savage aborigines of Australia to the semi- Oceanic civilized Malays, Filipinos, and Polynesians. The peoples £j.st emigrants to the continental islands doubt- less came from Asia and walked dryshod from one archipelago to another. On the other hand, the oceanic islands could only have been reached by water. Their inhabitants, at the time of European discovery, were remarkable navigators, who sailed up and down the Pacific and even ventured into the icy Antarc- tic. No evidence exists, however, that they even once sighted the coast of America. The occupation of Oceania by European powers, beginning in the sixteenth century, has been completed only in the twen- Europe in tieth century. Portugal was the first in the field, Oceania ]^^^ j^^j. £a,st Indian territories ultimately passed to Holland.^ Spain ruled the Philippines for three hundred and fifty years, relinquishing them to the United States as recently as 1898. The United States has several other oceanic possessions.^ Great Britain, besides colonizing Australia and New Zealand, secured parts of New Guinea and Borneo and many small island groups. France annexed several Poly- nesian and Melanesian archipelagoes. The German possessions in the Pacific ^ were surrendered to the Allies shortly after the opening of the World War. Much of Australia lies in the temperate zone and therefore offers a favorable field for white settlement. Captain Cook, on the first of his celebrated voyages, raised the Australia ^ . . , r, , • 1 i . ^ 1 • British flag over the island continent. Coloni- zation began in 1787, with the foundation of Sidney on the coast of New South Wales. For many years Australia served 1 See page 443. 2 gee page 630. ' The eastern half of New Guinea, some Melanesian and Micronesian islands, and part of Samoa. British North America 623 as a penal station, to which the British transported the con- victs who had been previously sent to America. More sub- stantial colonists followed, especially after the introduction of sheep-farming and the discovery of gold in the nineteenth cen- tury. They settled chiefly on the eastern and southern coasts, where the climate is cool and there is plenty of water and rich pasture land. New South Wales, the original colony, had two daughter colonies, Victoria and Queensland. Two other colonies — South Australia and Western Australia — were a>v . x_ , Austral- founded directly by emigrants from Great Britain, ian Common- All these states, together with Tasmania, have ^^^th, 1900 now united into the Australian Commonwealth. This feder- ation follows American models in its written constitution, its senate and house of representatives, and its high (or supreme) court. A Governor-General, sent from England, represents the British Crown. The Commonwealth, however, is entirely self-governing except in foreign affairs. The two large islands of New Zealand, lying twelve hundred miles southeast of Australia, were annexed by Great Britain in 1839. Their temperate climate, abundant The Dominion rainfall, and luxuriant vegetation soon attracted of New settlers, who now number more than a million. ^®^^°^' ^^^^^ Because of her growing importance. New Zealand in 1907 was raised from the rank of a colony to that of a dominion. It thus takes a place beside South Africa, Australia, and Canada among the great self-governing divisions of the British Empire. 217. British North America The population of Canada in 1763 was almost entirely French. After the American Revolution Canada received a large influx of ''Tories" from the Thirteen Colonies,^ together upper and with many emigrants from Great Britain. The Lower Canada new settlers had so many quarrels with the French Canadians that Parliament in 1791 passed an act dividing the country into Upper Canada for the British and Lower Canada for the 1 See page 475. 624 Colonial Expansion and World Politics French, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland remained separate provinces. When Great Britain, in retaliation for Napoleon's Con- tinental System, issued the Orders in Council,^ the United War of States, as the chief neutral, was also the chief 1812-1814 sufferer. The injury to American trade, coupled with the quarrel over the impressment of seamen, provoked the second war with Great Britain. It seemed to furnish a good opportunity for the conquest of Canada, but British and French Canadians united in defense of their country and drove out the American armies. The treaty of peace left matters as they were before the war, except for a heritage of unfriendly feeling on the part of the contestants. Even this has dis- appeared in the course of a century unbroken by the clash of arms. The unfortified boundary from the Atlantic to the Pacific is an eloquent testimony to the good relations between Canada and the United States. Canada had done her duty to the British Empire during the War of i8 1 2-1 814, but she waited more than thirty years for The Durham her reward in the shape of self-government. Report, 1839 Great Britain, after losing the Thirteen Colonies, did not favor any measures which might result in Canadian independence as well. Finally, Parliament sent over a wise statesman. Lord Durham, to investigate the pohtical discontent in Canada. Lord Durham in his Report urged that the only method of keeping distant colonies is to allow them to rule themselves. If the Canadians received freedom to manage their domestic affairs, they would be more, and not less, loyal, for they would have fewer causes of complaint against the mother country. The Durham Report produced a lasting effect on British colonial policy. Not only did Great Britain grant parliamentary institutions and self-government to the Canadian provinces, but she also bestowed the same privileges upon her Australasian and South African dominions. All these colonies, though virtually independent, continue to enjoy the protection of the British Empire and share in its glory. » See page 532. British North America 625 Canada, the United States, and Mexico With Alaska and its islands laid down on the United States. Another of Lord Durham's recommendations led to the union in 1840 of Upper Canada (Ontario) and Lower Canada (Quebec). In 1867 Ontario and Quebec formed ^j^^ jjonun- with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick the con- ion of federation known as the Dominion of Canada. ^^"^^^' ^^^"^ It has a Governor-General, representing the British sovereign, a senate whose members hold ofhce for life, and an elective house of commons, to which the cabinet of ministers is 626 Colonial Expansion and World Politics responsible. Each Canadian province also maintains a parlia- ment for local legislation. The new Dominion expanded rapidly. It purchased from the Hudson Bay Company the extensive territories out of which Territorial the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and expansion Alberta have been created. British Columbia and Prince Edward Island soon came into the confederation. • All the remainder of British North America, except Newfound- land, which still holds aloof, was annexed in 1878 to the Domin- ion of Canada. One government now holds sway over the whole region from the Great Lakes to the Arctic Circle. Equally rapid has been the development of the Dominion in wealth and population. The western provinces, formerly Economic left to roving Indian tribes and a few white traders, development ^^e attracting a large emigration from the United States and Europe. Two transcontinental railroads — the Canadian Pacific, completed in 1886, and the more recent Grand Trunk Pacific — make accessible the agricultural re- sources of the Dominion, its forests, and its deposits of coal and minerals. Canada now ranks as the largest, richest, and most populous member of the British Empire. 218. Latin America The Spanish colonies in the New World, at the opening of the nineteenth century, were even more extensive than those G • vances of ^^ Great Britain. Spain had ruled them as de- the Spanish pendencies for nearly three hundred years. She provmces crippled trade by requiring the inhabitants to buy only Spanish goods and to sell only to Spaniards. She pro- hibited such manufactures as might compete with those at home. Furthermore, she filled all the offices in Church and State with Spaniards born in the mother country, to the ex- clusion of the Creoles, or those born in the colonies. This restrictive system made the colonists long for freedom, especially after they heard the stirring story of the revolutions which had created the United States and republican France. When Napoleon invaded Spain, forced the abdication of Latin America 627 Ferdinand VII, and gave the crown to his own brother Joseph,^ the colonists set up practically independ- preparation ent states throughout Spanish America. For six for years — 1808-1814 — they enjoyed liberty. independence Ferdinand VII, who returned to his throne after Napoleon's overthrow, was a genuine Bourbon, incapable of learning anything or of forgetting anything. His refusal The revolt to satisfy the demands of the colonists for equal against Spain rights with the mother country precipitated the revolt against Spain. Its greatest hero is Simon Bolivar, who, in addition to freeing his native Ven- ezuela, helped to free the countries now known as Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru. One by one all the colonies in South America, together with Central America and Mexico, threw off the Spanish yoke. Great Britain, anxious to es- tablish trading relations with the colonists and also sentimentally in- terested in their strug- gle for liberty, helped them with money, ships, and munitions of war. She recognized their independence in 1825. A year later the Spanish flag was finally lowered on the American continents. Brazil also took part in the revolutionary movement. The Brazilian people felt that the time had come for ^j^^ ^.^^^j^ their enormous country to sever the ties binding against it to weak httle Portugal. In 1822 they set up ^°^*"S^ an independent empire, with the oldest son of the Portuguese 1 See page 533. Simon Bolivar After a Spanish painting in Lima, Peru. 628 Colonial Expansion and World Politics king as its first ruler. This monarchy gave way to a republican form of government as recently as 1889. At the present time there are eleven republics in South America, including little Panama, which seceded from Colombia South in 1903. AU possess constitutions and the forms America Qf democratic government. Frequent revolutions and civil wars long retarded their development. Recently, however, foreign capitalists have begun to invest heavily in South American railroads, lands, and factories; and a large immigration,- chiefly of Europeans, has set in. Due to this stimulus, such states as Argentina, Brazil, and Chile — the so- called A-B-C powers — are becoming very prosperous. A Central American Federation, which was created in 182 1, Central soon disintegrated into five diminutive republics. America They still maintain a separate existence, often vexed by factional strife and insurrections. Mexico, with some fifty revolutions, has had an even more checkered history. Porfirio Diaz ruled the country as a virtual . dictator for many years, until an uprising in 191 1 compelled him to withdraw to Europe. Civil conflict between rival generals and their followers then ensued. It has now died down, leaving Venustiano Carranza as the recognized president. The problems before him are difficult. Mexico needs not only a stable government, but also land re- forms which will raise the oppressed "peons" — mostly ignorant Indians — from their condition of practical serfdom to that of free men. Whether these problems will be solved or not re- mains to be seen. Many of the smaller West India islands ^ are still held by Great Britain, France, and Holland. Haiti, once a possession The West of France, declared its independence at the time Indies Qf ^^^ French Revolution and successfully resisted Napoleon's efforts at reconquest. It is now divided between the two negro republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo. Cuba, thanks to American intervention during the Spanish-American War, also forms a republic. The United States took Porto 1 See the map on page 321. The United States 629 Rico from Spain in 1898 and in 191 7 purchased three neighbor- ing islands ^ from Denmark. Their acquisition reflects the increased importance of the West Indies to the American people. 219. The United States The expansion of the United States beyond the limits fixed by the Treaty of Paris in 1783 ^ began with the purchase of the Louisiana territory between the Mississippi The Louisiana and the Rocky Mountains. This immense region, purchase, 1803 originally claimed by France in virtue of La Salle's discoveries, had passed to Spain at the close of the Seven Years' War and SCALE OF MILES The Louisiana Purchase had been reacquired for France by Napoleon Bonaparte. The French emperor, about to renew his conflict with Great Britain,^ reaHzed that he could not defend Louisiana against the mistress of the seas. Rather than make a forced present of the country to Great Britain, he sold it to the United States for the paltry sum of $15,000,000. 1 St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix. 2 See page 476. ' See page 527. 630 Colonial Expansion and World Politics The possession of Louisiana gave the United States an out- let upon the Gulf of Mexico. This was greatly extended by Acquisitions, the purchase of Florida from Spain in 18 19 and 1803-1867 ii^Q annexation of Texas in 1845. The settlement of the dispute with Great Britain as to the Oregon country (1846) and the Mexican Cession (1848) brought the United States to the Pacific. Every part of this western territory is now linked by transcontinental railroads with the Mississippi Valley and the Atlantic-facing states. Alaska had been a Russian province since Bering's voyages in the eighteenth century. Russia, however, never realized Purchase of the value of her distant dependency and in 1867 Alaska, 1867 sold it to the United States for $7,200,000. Since then Americans have taken from Alaska in gold alone many times the original cost of the territory. Its resources in coal, lumber, agricultural land, and fisheries are also very great, though as yet little has been done to exploit them. In the last decade of the nineteenth century the United States began to secure possessions overseas. The Hawaiian Acquisitions, Islands, lying about two thousand miles off the 1867-1917 coast of California, were annexed in 1898. The same year saw the acquisition of the Philippines, Guam, and Porto Rico as the result of the war with Spain. Part of the Samoan archipelago and the Danish West Indies have also come into American hands. The United States, though not unwilling to obtain colonies in the New World, denies the right of any European nation to The Monroe acquire additional territory here. This poUcy Doctrine, 1823 ^f ''America for Americans" is known as the Monroe Doctrine. It was first formulated partly to stave off any attempt of the Old World monarchies, led by Metter- nich, to aid Spain in the reconquest of her colonies, and partly to prevent the further extension southward of the Russian province of Alaska. The interests of Great Britain in both these directions coincided with those of the United States. Relying on the support of the British government. President Monroe in 1823 sent his celebrated message to Congress in The United States 631 ATLANTIC OCEAN OCEAN Relief Map of the Panama Canal which he declared that the American continents were hence- forth "not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers." The solemn protest of the United States, backed as it was by Great Britain, removed for a time the danger ^ , •^ ' . ° Enforcement of European interference in America. Durmg the of the Civil War, however, Napoleon III took advan- ^°'^^ tage of our difficulties to send a French army to Mexico. It conquered the country and set up an Austrian 632 Colonial Expansion and World Politics prince ^ as emperor. The American government protested vig- orously against this high-handed proceeding, and after the close of the Civil War required Napoleon III, under threat of hostilities, to withdraw his soldiers. The French empire in Mexico now quickly collapsed. The enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine makes it necessary for the United States not only to defend the Latin- American Pan- republics against foreign aggression, but also to Americanism intervene from time to time in their domestic affairs. Our warships and soldiers have been repeatedly sent to the West Indies, Mexico, and Central America for the purpose of protecting American and European citizens and their prop- erty from rioters or revolutionists. Though grateful to her mighty neighbor for help, Latin America has trembled lest our intervention to restore order might pass into downright con- quest. The benevolent purposes of this country are now being better understood. It has inaugurated a series of Pan-American conferences, composed of delegates from all the independent nations of the New World. With the assistance of the Latin- American republics, it has also established the Pan-American Union "at Washington, which seeks to spread information about the resources and trade of the different countries and also to cultivate friendly relations between them. The coopera- tion of most of the Central American and South American nations with the United States, during the World War, cannot fail to strengthen the bonds between the repubHcs of the New World. The completion of the Panama Canal (1914) is also certain to have a profound effect upon the relations of North and The Panama South America. The canal greatly shortens the Canal, 1914 distance between the Atlantic, the Gulf, and the Pacific coasts of the New World. This means lower freight rates and improvement in the passenger and mail service. Increased commerce, travel, and communication will do much to bring together and keep together the two Americas. 1 Maximilian, the brother of Francis Joseph I. He was captured and shot by the Mexicans in 1867. The United States 633 634 Colonial Expansion and World Politics 220. Close of Geographical Discovery Half the globe was still unmapped in 1800. Canada, Alaska, and the Louisiana territory were so little known that a geog- Unmapped raphy published at this time omits any reference regions, 1800 ^q ^^g Rocky Mountains. South America, though long settled by white men, continued to be largely unexplored. Scant information existed about the Pacific islands and Aus- tralia. Much of Asia remained sealed to Europeans. Accurate knowledge of Africa did not reach beyond the edges of that continent. The larger part of the Arctic realm had not yet been discovered, and the Antarctic realm had barely been touched. Discoveries and explorations during the nineteenth century carried far the geographical conquest of the world. The Filling in great African rivers were traced to their sources the map [^ |-]^g heart of what had once been the "Dark Continent." In Asia, the headwaters of the Indus and the Ganges were reached; the Himalayas measured and shown to be the loftiest of mountains; Tibet, the mysterious, pene- trated; and the veil of darkness shrouding China, Korea, Far- ther India, and other Asiatic countries lifted. Travelers pene- trated the deserts of inner Aus- tralia and finally crossed the entire continent from south to north. The journeys of Alex- ander von Humboldt (1799- 1804) inaugurated the system- atic exploration of South America, while those of Lewis and Clark (1804- 1806) opened up the Louisiana territory. Still later, Alaska, the Northwest Territories of Canada, and Lab- rador began to emerge from their obscurity. Even Greenland Robert E. Peary Close of Geographical Discovery 635 was crossed by Nansen, a Norwegian, and its coast was charted by Danish geographers and the American Peary. Voyages in search of the Northwest Passage ^ had aheady revealed the labyrinth of islands, peninsulas, and ice-bound channels north of the American continent. Many Arctic heroic but fruitless attempts had also been made exploration to reach the North Pole. Nansen in 1 892-1 895 utilized the ice drift to carry his ship, the Fram, across the polar sea. Find- ing that the drift would not take him to the pole, he left the Fram and with a single companion advanced to 86° 14' N., the highest latitude which had been yet attamed. An Italian expedition, a few years later, got still farther north. The honor of actually reaching the pole was carried off by Peary in 1909. He traveled the last stages of the journey by sledge over the ice and reached his goal in company with a colored servant and several Eskimos. Nansen's and Peary's journeys showed that no land exists in the north polar basin, only a sea of great but unknown depth. The south polar region, on the other hand, is a land mass of continental dimensions. First approached by Captain Cook on his second voyage, ^ it has since been visited by Antarctic many explorers. They have traced the course of exploration the great ice barrier, discovered extensive mountain ranges, and even found two volcanoes belching forth lava amidst the snows. Amundsen, who attained the pole in 191 1, was soon followed by Scott, but this gallant EngHshman and his four companions died of cold and starvation on the return journey. The records of polar exploration are, indeed, full of tragedies. Considerable spaces of the earth's surface still await scientific investigation. The Antarctic continent and Greenland offer many problems to geographers. The enormous Regions still basin of the Amazon is still httle known. Practi- "niiiapped cally no knowledge exists of the interior of New Guinea, the largest of islands, if Australia be reckoned as a continent. 1 See page 325. The Northwest Passage was first completely navigated by the Norwegian Amundsen between 1903 and 1906. 2 See pages 477-478. 636 Colonial Expansion and World Politics Australia itself has not been completely explored. In Asia, there is still much information to be gained concerning the great central plateau, the Arctic coast, and inner Arabia. Equatorial Africa affords another promising field for dis- covery. It thus remains for the twentieth century to complete the geographical conquest of the world. 221. Inter-racial Problems The number of people on the earth is estimated to ex- ceed 1,600,000,000. Asia has perhaps 900,000,000; Europe, Population of 400,000,000; America, 150,000,000; Africa, 140,- the world 000,000; and Oceania, 10,000,000. These figures are only approximate, since many countries either do not take a census or take it quite inaccurately. The world's inhabitants are distributed in three great races, each of which occupies, roughly speaking, distinct geographical G a hical ^.reas. The Yellow or Mongolian race holds the distribution north, east, and center of Asia, whence it has of races spread into the Malay Archipelago, over the Pacific, and into the Americas.^ The Black or Negro race holds most of Africa south of the Sahara. The Dravidians of India, the aborigines of AustraHa, and the Papuans of New Guinea and the adjacent islands, are negroid (negro-like) peoples. The White or Caucasian race is found in Europe, northern and eastern Africa, and southwestern Asia. It also forms the bulk of the population of the New World, as well as of South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The wonderful expansion of Europeans during the last four centuries has been largely confined to the temperate and sparsely Limits of settled regions of the globe, where they have the White gone as home-seekers. The few Europeans settling ^^^® in tropical and sub-tropical parts of Africa, Asia, Oceania, and America go as soldiers, officials, clerks, and agents sent out for a term of years. They seek, not new homes, but the profits of trade or rule over subject peoples. Such 1 The so-called Brown race (Malays, Polynesians) and the so-called Red race (American Indians) must be considered branches of the Yellow race. Inter-racial Problems 637 638 Colonial Expansion and World Politics are the seventy-five thousand Enghshmen in India and the still fewer Dutch who control the East India dependencies of Holland. Men of the White race languish in hot, moist cli- mates, nor will they perform hand labor where there are natives to work for them. Europeans may long continue to exploit the tropics and sub-tropics, but it seems unlikely that they can ever live there in large numbers. Even where the climate is favorable, as in China, Japan, and parts of Indo-China and India, the teeming population of those countries precludes their colonization by Europeans. The hmitation of the White man to the temperate zone will make it necessary for him henceforth to associate more and Racial more with the Yellow man and the Black man in prejudice ^j^g common work of civilization. Cooperation between them can only be secured in proportion as each one learns to appreciate the others. In place of the unreasoning antipathy which has kept the races apart so long, must come a recognition of their common humanity. Racial prejudices must give way to a decent regard for the value of human beings everywhere. Studies I. Draw up a list of the chief colonial possessions of Great Britain, France, Italy, and the United States. 2. What parts of the world are to-day occupied or colonized by Anglo-Saxon peoples? By Latin peoples? By Slavic peoples? 3. What is the origin of the names Liberia, Rhodesia, Tasmania, Alberta, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Louisiana? 4. Trace the routes followed by the Cape- to-Cairo, Trans-Siberian, and Canadian Pacific railroads. 5. Show how Africa has become "an annex of Europe." 6. Look up in an encyclopedia an account of the negro republic of Liberia. 7. Where are the Spanish possessions in Africa? Where were the German possessions there? 8. \\That is unplied in calling the Suez Canal the "heel of Achilles" of the British Empire? 9. What possessions in India are still kept by Portugal and France? 10. Look up in an encyclopedia an account of the life and teachings of the Buddha. 11. Do the Chinese form a genuine nation? How is it with the Japanese? 12. Show that the Chino- Japanese and Russo- Japanese wars contributed to the "awakening of China." 13. Compare the Euro- peanization of Japan in the nineteenth century with that of Russia in the eighteenth century. 14. What are the possessions of European powers in the East Indies? 15. Compare the combined area of Australia and Tasmania with that of the United States (excluding Alaska), and the area of New Zealand with that of Great Britain. 16. Why are the Hawaiian Islands called the "crossroads of the Pacific"? 17. Why has Lord Durham's Report been styled the "Magna Carta of the British colonies"? 18. Name and locate the twenty Latin-American republics. 19, What Inter-racial Problems 639 European powers have possessions in South America? 20. Name the prin- cipal transcontinental railroads in the United States. .21. Compare the westward expansion of the United States with Russian expansion eastwards. 22. How was the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine a check to Metier nichismus? 23. On the map, page 633, tract the routes in the polar regions followed by Nansen, Peary, and Amundsen. CHAPTER XXIV THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 222. Modem Industrialism The year 1776, the year of the Declaration of Independence and of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, also marks, approxi- Period of mately, the commencement of the Industrial the Industrial Revolution. No other word except ''revolution" evoution ^^ ^^^i describes those wholesale changes in manufacturing, transportation, agriculture, and other industries which, within a century and a half, have transformed modern life. This revolution originated in Great Britain, spread after 1815 to the Continent and the United States, and now extends throughout the civiUzed world. The rapid expansion of European peoples over Africa, Asia, Australia, and America, as described in the preceding chapter, was itself largely an outcome of the Industrial Colonial ^ , . ? • i- expansion and Revolution, improvements m means 01 trans- the Industrial portation — railroads, canals, steam navigation — Revolution ,,.,.. , . , ^ by facilitatmg travel permitted an extensive emigration from Europe into other continents. Improved communication — the telegraph and the telephone — by anni- hilating distance made easier the occupation and government of remote dependencies. The growth of manufacturing in Europe also gave increased importance co colonies as sources of supply for raw materials and foodstuffs, as markets for finished goods, and as places of investment for the surplus wealth accumulated by the capitahsts whom the Industrial Revolution created. The Industrial Revolution also created a numerous body of wage-earners, who moved from rural districts and villages into the factories, sweatshops, and tenements of the great cities. There, in spite of a crowded, miserable existence they 640 The Great Inventions 641 gradually learned the value' of organization. They formed trade unions in order to secure higher wages and shorter hours. They read newspapers, Ustened to speeches by agi- tators, and began to press for laws which would and the improve their lot. Then they went further and Industrial 1 111-1 1 1 1 rv Revolution demanded the right to vote, to hold oihce, to enjoy all the liberty and equality which the bourgeoisie or middle class had won from monarchs and aristocrats. The Industrial Revolution furnished much of the driving power for the revolutionary outbreaks of 1830 and 1848, and especially for that democratic movement which has been so marked in Europe since 187 1. It thus reinforced the new ideas of de- mocracy introduced into the world by the American and French revolutions. Great Britain took the lead in the Industrial Revolution. Her damp climate proved to be very favorable to the manu- facture of textiles, her swift streams supplied abundant water power for machinery, and beneath trial Revoiu- her soil lay stores of coal and iron ore. There ^^^ ^ Great 1 r • . T 1 • Britain were other lavormg circumstances. Industry m Great Britain was less fettered by guild restrictions than on the Continent. She possessed more surplus capital for investment, more skilled laborers, and a larger merchant marine than any other country. Furthermore, Great Britain had emerged from the Seven Years' War victorious over all her rivals for maritime and commercial supremacy. Her trade in the markets of the world grew by leaps and bounds after 1763. The enormous demand for British goods in its turn stimulated the mechanical genius of British artisans and so produced the era of the great inventions. 223. The Great Inventions Man has advanced from the lowest savagery to the height of civilization chiefly through invention. Beginning in pre- historic times, he slowly discovered how to , Invention supplement hands and feet and teeth and nails by the use of tools. From the tool it was a forward step to the 642 The Industrial Revolution machine, which, when suppHed with muscular energy, only needed to be directed by man to do his work. The highest type of machine is that driven by the stored-up forces of nature — by wind, waterfall, steam, gas, or electricity. Such ma- chines have been well described as non-human slaves, working without wages and without fatigue. A Hst of prehistoric tools and machines would include many kinds of implements, first of stone and then of metal; levers. Development rollers, and wedges; bows-and-arrows, slings, and of invention lassos; oars, sails, and tudders; fishing nets, Hues, and hooks; the plow and the wheeled cart; the needle, bellows, and potter's wheel; the distaff and spindle for spinning; and the hand loom for weaving. Few important additions were made to this hst in antiquity, even by such cultivated peoples as the Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, and Romans. The Middle Ages were also singularly barren of inventions. It was only toward the close of the medieval period that gun- powder, the mariner's compass, paper, and movable type reached Europe from Asia. More progress took place during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which produced the telescope, microscope, thermometer, and barometer, clocks and watches run by weights, sawmills driven by wind or water, an improved form of the windmill, and the useful though humble wheelbarrow. Manufacturing, transportation, and agriculture continued, however, to be carried on in much the same rude way as before the dawn of history. The revolution in manufacturing began with the textile industry. Old-fashioned spinning was a slow, laborious process. Old-fashioned The wool, flax, or cotton, having been fastened to spinning ^ stick called the distaff, was twisted by hand into yarn or thread and wound upon a spindle. The spinning wheel — long known in India and not unknown in Europe as early as the fourteenth century — afterwards came into general use. It enabled the operator by working a treadle to make two threads at once, one in each hand. Weaving was done on the hand loom, a wooden frame to which vertical threads (the "warp") were attached. Hori- The Great Inventions 643 zontal threads (the "wooi'') were then inserted by means of an enlarged needle or shuttle. The invention of the ''flying shuttle" (1733) enabled the operator by pulHng oid-fasiiioned a cord to jerk the shuttle back and forth without weaving the aid of an assistant. This device not only saved labor but also doubled the speed of weaving. The demand for thread and yarn quickly The outran the sup- ply, for the spinners could not keep up with the weavers. Prizes were then offered for a spin- ning jenny," 1770 Hargrea yes's "Spinning Jenny" better machine than the spinning wheel. At length, in 1770 James Hargreaves, a poor workman of Lancashire in north- ern England, patented what he named the "spinning jenny," in compliment to his in- dustrious wife. It was a very simple affair, operated by a hand wheel, but it carried (at first) eight Spindles and thus spun eight threads simultaneously. Meanwhile, Richard Arkwright, a barber, obtained ^, ,, The "water a patent frame " 1769, for a spinning machine run by water power and *^^ *^®, hence called the "water frame." In this machine the cotton was drawn out by rollers to the requisite fineness Arkwright's Spinning Machine 644 The Industrial Revolution and was then twisted into thread by revolving spindles. Samuel Crompton, ten years later, combined the essential features of the Hargreaves and Arkwright machines into what became popularly known as the "mule," because of its hybrid origin. It has been steadily improved; and at present a spinning machine may carry as many as two thousand spindles. These three inventions again upset the balance in the textile industry, for the spinners could produce more thread and yarn The power than the weavers could convert into cloth. The loom, 1785 invention which revolutionized weaving was made by Edward Cartwright, an English clergyman, who had never even seen a weaver at work. He constructed a loom with an automatic shuttle operated by water power. Improvements in this machine now enable a single operator to produce more cloth than two hundred men could weave on the old-fashioned hand loom. Both spinners and weavers needed for the new machinery an abundant supply of raw material. They found it in cotton, The cotton which previously had been much less used than gin, 1794 either wool or flax. Eli Whitney's cotton gin, patented in 1794, separated the seeds from the cotton fibers more rapidly than fifty negro slaves could do it by hand, thus stimulating enormously the production of cotton for the mills of Great Britain. Cotton manufacture soon became and still remains the leading industry of that country. Many inventors working independently in England, France, and the United States produced the sewing machine. Elias The sewing Howe, 6f Cambridge, Massachusetts, patented machine, 1846 t^g ^j-g^ effective lockstitch machine in 1846. Henceforth it was rapidly improved and adapted to every variety of work, from making button-holes to the manufacture of carpets and shoes. The sewing machine run by hand or foot keeps an indispensable place in the home, but in factories steam or electricity provides the motive power. The expansive force of steam, though known in antiquity, had been first put to practical use at the close of the seventeenth century. The earliest steam engine was simply a pump for The Great Inventions 645 ridding mines of water. James Watt, a Scotchman of mechan- ical genius, patented an improved steam pump ^j^^ gteam in 1769, a year also memorable for the birth of engine, 1769, 17R5 Napoleon and WelHngton. Watt subsequently adapted his engine to propel machinery for spinning and weaving, and in 1785 it began to be used in factories. The nineteenth century has been called the age of steam. The steamboat, the steam locomotive, and the steam printing press are some of the children of Watt's epochal The age invention. Toward the close of the century ^^ steam electricity began to compete with steam as a motive force, and in the twentieth century the gas engine, as applied to auto- mobiles, airplanes, tractors, and other machines, continued the Industrial Revolution. The growing use of machinery called for an increased produc- tion of iron. Northern and north-central England contained vast deposits of iron ore, but until the latter part- The age of the eighteenth century they had been Httle ^^ ""^^ worked. Improved methods of smelting with coal and coke, by means of the blast furnace, were then adopted. Steel, a product of iron, whgse toughness and hardness had been prized for ages, was not manufactured on a large scale until after 1850. Better methods of manufacture now enable the poorest iron to be converted into excellent steel, thus opening up extensive fields of low-grade ore in France, Germany, and other countries. Used in every form, from building-girders to watch springs, steel is now the mainstay of modern industry. The manufacture of iron and the operation of the new ma- chinery required an abundant, inexpensive fuel. Coal had long been burned in small quantities for domestic The age purposes; applied to the steam engine and the ^^ ^^^ blast furnace it was to become an almost boundless source of power and heat. Various improvements in mining cheapened its production, one of the most notable being Sir Humphry Davy's 'safety lamp (181 5), which protected miners against the deadly fire damp and thus allowed the most dangerous mines to be worked with comparative safety. Great Britain 646 The Industrial Revolution furnished nearly all the coal for manufacturing until the middle of the nineteenth century; later, much of the world's supply has come from the mines of France, Germany, and the United States. 224. Effects of the Great Inventions The great inventions, besides hastening the transition from hand-labor to machine-labor, also did much to separate labor and capital. No such separation was possible in the Middle Ages. A master who belonged to a craft guild purchased his raw materials at the city market or at a fair, manufactured them in his own house, assisted by the members of his family and usually by a few journeymen and apprentices, and himself sold the finished article to the person who had ordered it. This guild system, as it is called, has not entirely disappeared. One may still have a pair of shoes made by a "custom" shoemaker or a suit of clothes made by a "cus- tom" tailor." The growing exclusiveness of the craft guilds, toward the close of the medieval period,^ prevented many apprentices and Domestic journeymen from ever becoming masters. Con- system sequently, workers often left the cities and settled in the country or in villages where there were no guild re- strictions. The movement gave rise to the domestic system, as found, for example, in the British cotton industry. A middle- man with some capital would purchase a supply of raw cotton and distribute it to the spinners and weavers to convert into cloth on their own spinning wheels and hand looms. They worked at home and usually eked out their wages by cultivating a small garden plot. Something akin to the domestic system still survives in the sweatshops of modern cities where clothing is made on "commission." It is clear that under the domestic system the middleman provided the raw materials, took all the risks, and received all Factory the profits. The workers, on the other hand, had system to accept such wages and labor upon such con- ditions as he was willing to offer. The separation of labor and 1 See pages 231-232 and 484. Effects of the Great Inventions 647 capital which thus began under the domestic system became complete under the factory system. Arkwright's, Crompton's, and Cartwright's machines were too expensive for a single family to own; too large and heavy for use in private houses; and they needed water power or steam power to operate them. The consequence was that the domestic laborer abandoned his household industry and went with hundreds of others to work in a mill or factory. The capitalist employer now not only provided the raw materials and disposed of the finished product, but he also owned the machinery and the workshop. The word "manufacturer"^ no longer applied to the hand- worker, but to the person who employed others to work for him. The factory system introduced a minute division of labor into industry. Thus, there are forty operations involved in the manufacture of ready-made clothing; nearly Division one hundred in the manufacture of shoes; and °^ ^^^^^ over a thousand in the construction of a fine watch. Many men, working together, may turn out in a few minutes an article which one man in former times required weeks or months to produce. The division of labor, besides saving time, also increased output. A single instance will show this. Adam Smith, writing in 1776, contrasted the one pin which an artisan might make in a day, if he did all the work himself, with the five thousand pins which he could produce each day in a factory. Now, however, when pins are made by automatic machinery, the average daily output for each operative totals over a million. Machinery, the factory system, and the division of labor made it possible to manufacture on a large scale and in enormous quantities for world-wide markets. For example, Large-scale the value of British cotton goods rose from one production million dollars in 1760 to six hundred times that amount in 1910. Similar increases were registered in other textile manufactures and in the iron industry of Great Britain. The Industrial Revolution soon changed the face of Great Britain. Instead of farms, hamlets, and an occasional small ^ Latin manu, facere, to make by hand. Manufacture by machinery has been well named machinofacture. 648 The Industrial Revolution INDUSTRIAL. ENGLAND IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Principal Manufacturing Districts are indic- ated by showing Important Industrial Cen- ters having a population of 100,000 or over in 1911 • ,„«g55za. Coal Fields ^^^ Densest Population in 1911 ..... (_ j Densest Population in 1750 . ■ i^'"'''-"li' °{_ \ Scale of Milea \ 25 50 75 100 NORTH ENGL I S H C H A N N E THE M.-N. WORKS, BUFFALO, N.V 4° Longitude West 2° from Greenwich O' Improvements in Transportation 649 town, appeared great cities crowded with workers who had left their rural homes to seek employment in factories. The movement of population was especially toward the northern and northwestern counties, where there were industrial many streams to furnish water power and abundant ^^®** Britain suppHes of coal and iron. Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield, and Birmingham sprang up as centers for the manufacture of tex- tiles and hardware, while Liverpool, little more than a village at the opening of the nineteenth century, became a commercial metropolis. Aside from London, it is northern England and southern Scotland which to-day form the chief seat of British trade and industry. The Industrial Revolution began later on the Continent than in Great Britain, partly because of the opposition of the guilds, which feared that the new machinery primacy of would deprive workers of employment; partly Great Britain because Continental manufacturers showed less "^ ^ "^^^ enterprise than their British rivals; but chiefly because the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars left France and Germany too exhausted to compete in manufacturing. Great Britain thus became by 181 5 the world's workshop and the richest of European nations. It was only toward the close of the nineteenth century that her industrial primacy began to be seriously threatened by Germany and the United States. 225. Improvements in Transportation Civilized man until the Industrial Revolution continued to use the conveyances which had been invented by uncivilized man in prehistoric times. Travel and transport oid-fashioned were still on horseback, or in litters, wheeled carts, conveyances rowboats, and sailboats. Various improvements produced the sedan chair, the stagecoach, and large ocean-going ships, without, however, finding any substitutes for muscles or wind as the motive power. The roads in western Europe scarcely deserved that name; they were little more than track ways, either deep with mud or dusty and full of ruts. Passengers in stagecoaches seldom 650 The Industrial Revolution Roads Canals made more than fifty miles a day, while heavy goods had to be moved on pack horses. Conditions in Great Britain im- proved during the latter part of the eighteenth century, for the enormous quantity of goods produced by the new machinery increased the need for cheap and rapid transport. The turnpike system, allowing tolls to be charged for the use of roads, encouraged the investment of capital by private companies in these undertakings; and it was not long before Telford, Macadam, and other engineers covered the country with well bottomed, well drained, and well surfaced highways. The splendid highways which attract the attention of Americans on the Continent were all built in the nineteenth century, chiefly before the era of railroads. The expense of transportation by road led people in antiquity and the Middle Ages to send their goods by river routes, whenever possible. Canal- building began toward the close of tlie medi- eval period, especially after the invention of locks for controlling the flow and level of the water. The great era of the canal was between 1775 and 1850, not only in Great Brit- ain and on the Con- ROBERT Fulton ^-^^^^^ ^^^ ^1^^ -^ ^^^ After a portrait by Benjamin West painted in 1805. U^[^^^ gtatCS. Cauals relieved the highways of a large part of the growing trafiic, but the usefulness of both decHned after the introduction of railroads. Ship canals, however, have begun to be constructed within recent years, as a result of the general adoption of steam navigation on the ocean. Improvements in Transportation 651 George Stephenson The earliest successful steamboat appears to have been a tug built in Scotland for towing canal boats. Robert Fulton, an American en- The steam- gineer who had ^°** lived in England and France, adapted the steamboat to river navigation. His side-wheeler, the Clermont, equipped with a Watt engine, began in 1807 to make regular trips on the Hudson between New York and Albany. Twelve years later an American vessel, pro- vided with both sails and a steam engine, crossed the Atlantic in twenty-nine days. The first ship to cross without using sails or recoaling on the way was the Great Western, in 1838. The trip took her fifteen days. Various' improvements since the middle of the nineteenth century added greatly to the efficiency of ocean steamers. Iron, and later steel, replaced wood in their construction, with a resulting gain in strength and buoyancy, steam Screw propellers were substituted for clumsy navigation paddle wheels. The size of steamers, also, has so increased that the Great Western, a boat of 1378 tons and 212 feet in length, would appear a pygmy by the side of the fifty-thousand ton ''leviathans" which now cross the Atlantic in less than six days. Wooden or iron rails had long been used in mines and quarries to enable horses to draw heavy loads with ease, and as early as 1803 a horse-car line was opened to The steam general traffic in the suburbs of London. George locomotive Stephenson, who profited by the experiments of other inventors, produced in 18 14 a successful locomotive for hauling coal from the mine to tide-water. He improved his model and eleven 652 The Industrial Revolution years later secured its adoption on the Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first line over which passengers and freight were carried by steam power. Stephenson also built the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which was opened in 1830 and on which his famous engine, the Rocket, made its maiden trip. Many technical improvements — the increased size of loco- motives and cars, air brakes, and the use of steel rails in place Railroad o^ iron rails which supported only light loads and transportation -yyore out rapidly — have extended the usefulness of the railroad far beyond the dreams of its earlier promoters. Railroad construction began on an extensive scale after the middle The "Rocket," 1830 Built by Stephenson to compete in a trial of locomotive engines for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The greatest speed it attained in the trial was ag miles an hour, but some years later it ran at the rate of 53 miles an hour. The total weight of the engine and tender was only about 7i tons. of the nineteenth century. The year 1854 saw the first line over the Alps; 1869, the first transcontinental line in the United States (the Union Pacific and Central Pacific); and 1900, the Trans-Siberian line. Western Europe and the United States are now covered with a network of railroads. On the Continent (Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Austria, and Russia) railroads are mostly state-owned and state-managed. Nearly all the French lines are privately Improvements in Transportation 653 owned, but they will revert to the State upon the expiration of their franchises. Great Britain and the United States took over their railroads for miUtary purposes during Railroads and the World War. Whether this step will be fol- ^^ State lowed by the permanent nationalization of the lines in each country remains to be seen. Modern electric traction dates from the early 'eighties of the last century, when the overhead trolley began to supplant horse cars and cable cars in cities. The develop- Electric ment of the electric locomotive promises to bring ^^^^^^^ and • 1 , . . r o the auto- about a partial substitution of electricity for mobUe steam on railroads through tunnels and over heavy grades. Automobiles have been built for more than a hundred years, but it was the gas or ''internal conbustion" engine (as patented in 1895), which made them a commercial success. The gas engine is likewise responsible for the airplane. Its history illustrates the truth that great inventions do not spring fully developed from the brain of one man, but, on the contrary, represent the long and patient ^ airplane experimentation of many men. An American scientist, S. P. Langley, who himself owed much to the work of others, pro- duced in 1903 a heavier- than-air machine which only needed skillful guidance to be successful. The accidents attending the first trials of the machine caused it to be abandoned. Other inventors followed in Langley 's footsteps, and in 1908 the Wright brothers made the public flights which showed that the problem of aviation had finally been solved. As far back as the Revolutionary War, an American inventor constructed a tiny submarine and tried, without success, to sink a British warship. Robert Fulton, encour- The aged by Napoleon, made several submarines. In ^"^^arine one of them he descended to a depth of twenty-five feet, re- mained below for four hours, and succeeded in blowing up a small vessel with a torpedo. Under- water boats, propelled by steam power, were used by the Confederates in the Civil War. From about this time inventors in several countries worked on the problem of the submarine. One of the most 654 The Industrial Revolution successful was an Irish-American, J. P. Holland, who sold the boat named after him to the United States in 1898. The rapid development of the submarine since then parallels that of the airplane. Thus, in the course of about a century, man has completed the conquest of land and air and sea. 226. Improved Communications The means of communication which we employ daily would have been inconceivable to our ancestors less than a hundred years aero. Scientists in the eighteenth century were The telegraph f ° ;u .^. -a ( • 1 f • v mdeed famihar with the idea of using electricity to communicate at a distance, but it was not until the 'thirties of the nineteenth century that Samuel F. B. Morse, an American, constructed a practicable apparatus for this purpose. He also devised the "Morse alphabet." The telegraph found an immediate application on the railroads and in the transmission of government messages. Later, it made its way into the business world. Hardly any one at first believed that a telegraph line could be carried across the ocean. Experiments soon showed, how- Submarine ever, that wire cords, protected by wrappers of cables guttapercha, would conduct the electric current under water. The first cable was laid from Dover to Calais in 185 1. A group of American promoters, including Cyrus W. Field, then took up the project of an Atlantic cable and after discouraging failures laid it in 1866. No less than fourteen lines now stretch across the Atlantic, while all the other oceans have been electrically bridged. Experimentation with rude forms of the telephone began in the same decade which produced the telegraph. Little progress took place until 1875, when Alexander Graham Bell, a native of Edinburgh but later a resident of Boston, patented his first instrument. Many improvements have since been made in it by Bell himself, Edison, and others. The wonderful invention of wireless telegraphy by William, (Gughelmo) Marconi may be said to date from 1899, when Improved Communications 655 wireless messages were sent between France and England across the Channel. A trans-Atlantic service by "wireless" began eight years later, and since then the range tireless of Marconi's apparatus has been greatly extended, telegraphy The still more recent introduction of wireless ^^ telephony telephony promises to work another revolution in the methods of communication. A regular postal service under government management existed in Europe as early as the seventeenth century, but it was slow, expensive, and little used. Stamps were unknown, prepayment of The postal postage was considered an insult, service and rates increased according to distance. The modern postal service began in Great Britain in 1840, with the adoption of a uniform charge irrespective of distance (penny postage), prepayment, and the use of stamps. These Penny^Pos^tage reforms soon spread to the Continent and the Stamp United States and everywhere led to greatly The design, a con- increased use of the mails. The postal service Zr^i^:\f. is now a necessity of civilized life. used without change Weekly and daily newspapers also began to ^"" "''° '" '''°- appear in the seventeenth century, but they were luxuries reserved for subscribers of the middle and upper classes. The cheap newspaper for the masses is a product of the Industrial Revolution. The London Times installed the first steam printing press in 1814. A paper-making ^^^"p^p^" machine, which produced wide sheets of unlimited length, came into use soon after. To these inventions must now be added the linotype machine. In newspaper offices, where rapid com- position is necessary, it has largely superseded hand-work in setting type. Many inventions in communication — the instantaneous camera, the phonograph, the cinematograph or ^, ,. . , ox- xue new motion picture, the automatic piano — are so new communi- that we have scarcely as yet begun to realize their *^^*'°'' possibiHties. Properly directed, they will furnish the common 656 The Industrial Revolution people in civilized countries with an education in art, music, and the drama which in former days could be secured only by persons of wealth and leisure. Their great service promises to be that of democratizing culture, as cheap newspapers and books have democratized knowledge. 227. Commerce A tremendous expansion of commerce followed the improve- ments in transportation and communication. Macadamized Commercial roads, inland and ship canals, ocean steamships, expansion g^^fj railroads reduced freight rates to a mere fraction of those once charged, while the telegraph, telephone, cheap postage, and newspapers made possible the rapid spread of information relating to crops and markets. It is estimated that the commerce of the world (including even backward countries) increased over twelve hundred per cent in the nine- teenth century. Rapid as was the growth of the world's population during this period, commerce grew much faster; so that the average share of each human being in international trade amounted in 1900 to a sum six times that in 1800. During the first two decades of the twentieth century commercial expansion has been on a still more colossal scale. The organization of commerce shows wonderful changes since the Middle Ages. There is now so steady a flow of com- Commercial modities from producers through wholesalers and organization retailers to consumers that the old system of weekly markets and annual fairs is all but obsolete.^ Dis- tinctively modern are produce exchanges for trade in the great staples (wheat, cotton, wool, sugar, etc.) and stock exchanges for buying and selling the stocks and bonds of corporations. Modern insurance companies also perform a notable service in the organization of commerce. A commercial bank, as distinguished from a savings bank or a trust company, may be defined as an institution which deals in money and credit. It attracts the deposits of many per- sons, thus gaining control of enormous sums available for loans 1 See page 232. Commerce 657 to manufacturers and merchants. Banks do not increase the amount of capital (factory buildings, machinery, raw materials, etc.) in a community, but they help to put it at the disposal of active business men; in other words, banks make capital fluid. Furthermore, bank checks, drafts, and foreign bills of exchange provide a cheap and elastic sub- stitute for money. It is possible through their use to discharge a large volume of indebtedness without the transfer of cash. The earliest medieval banks were the private establishments of moneyed men in Italian cities.^ Venice and Genoa sub- sequently founded public or state banks, and during Development the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries similar °^ banking institutions arose in many European capitals. The Bank of England received its charter from the government as late as 1694. The Bank of France was the creation of Napoleon Bona- parte.2 The Imperial Bank of Germany (Reichsbank) came into existence only in 1876. All these great European banks, as well as the national banks of the United States, have the privi- lege of issuing redeemable notes which circulate in place of gold. In spite of the extensive use of checks and bank notes, the growth of commerce continues to absorb immense quantities of gold, the money metal. The supply has kept The gold pace with the demand. The mines of California, supply AustraHa, South Africa, Alaska, and other countries produced in the second half of the nineteenth century nine times as much gold as had been produced between 1800 and 1850. The supply of silver increased during the nineteenth century far in excess of the demand. Its declining value led the principal commercial states to diminish or suspend silver The gold coinage. Great Britain in 1816 abandoned the standard double or bimetalHc standard and adopted the single gold standard. Her example has since been followed by the Con- tinental nations, the British colonies, Japan, the South American republics, and, in 1900, the United States. China and Mexico are the only important countries which remain on a silver basis. 1 See page 237. 2 ggg page 525. 658 The Industrial Revolution Commercial progress has been frequently interrupted during the past century by periods of depression called crises. They are a product of the Industrial Revolution. Aris- ing in one country, perhaps as a result of bad banking, over-issue of paper money, speculation, unwise in- vestments, or failure of crops, they tend to spread widely until all civilized countries are involved. For instance, the crisis of 1857 started in the United States and that of 1873, in Austria. What happens during a crisis is familiar to every one. Capi- talists refuse to invest in new railroads, factories, and other Phenomena undertakings; bankers will not lend money; of crises merchants, unable to borrow, go into bankruptcy; and manufacturers, receiving fewer orders, either reduce their output or shut down their plants. Then ensues a period of "hard times," with low prices, low wages, much unemploy- ment, and widespread destitution. The wave of prosperity sets in again, eventually, and times again become "good." Crises have occurred at intervals of about ten or eleven years since 1800, but recently with lessening severity. They may cease altogether as modern commerce becomes still more efficient. 228. Commercial Policies Many obstacles which impeded the exchange of goods in the Middle Ages^ disappeared in modern times, especially after Commercial the French Revolution. The burdensome tolls freedom imposed by feudal lords on transport and travel could no longer be exacted when feudalism itself died out. The principle of free navigation was extended to include im- portant international rivers and inland seas which had been more or less monopolized by adjacent countries. A movement also began to reduce the high duties levied by every European nation on imports and exports. One nation went still further in the nineteenth century and adopted free trade. Great Britain, we have learned, enjoyed by 181 5 a virtual monopoly in most lines of industry. Hav- ing no reason to fear the competition of foreign manufacturers, 1 See page 234. Commercial Policies 659 it was to her advantage to lower or abolish the duties on im- ports, especially those on raw materials. The Younger Pitt, influenced by the writings of Adam Smith, began p^.^^ ^^.^^j^ the work of tariff reform; Sir Robert Peel con- in Great tinned it in the 'forties; and Gladstone completed "***^ it. Since i860 Great Britain has been a free- trade nation. She imposes no restrictions whatever on exports and levies import duties only on a few articles, including coffee, tea, tobacco, alcoholic hquors, and sugar. Even these are for revenue, not for protection. They do not encourage the production at home of anything which can be produced more cheaply abroad. The repeal of the Corn Laws formed another feature of the free-trade movement in Great Britain. These laws restricted or entirely prohibited the importation of foreign The Corn wheat, in the interest of British agriculture. ^^^^ They made food dear for the working classes, however, and so aroused the hostility of manufacturers, who had to pay their employees higher wages. After prolonged agitation the laws were repealed in 1846. Great Britain since then has purchased most of her food abroad, paying for it in the products of her mines and factories. The free-trade movement spread to the Continent, where it led at first to a general lowering of tariff walls. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, however. Protection on France, Germany, and other countries returned *^® Continent to the policy of protection. Rightly or wrongly, they saw in protection the means of building up their own '' infant in- dustries," in order to supply the home market and even to compete with Great Britain in the markets of the world. The first American tariff was framed in 1789. It levied a few small protective duties. The United States adopted protection on an extensive scale only in 1816, protection in as a means of keeping alive the industries which the United had sprung up in the country when the second war with England stopped all imports of foreign goods. Later tariffs have generally raised duties, except for a few decades before the Civil War. In following a protective policy, the 66o The Industrial Revolution United States thus ranges itself with the Continental nations rather than with Great Britain. 229. Agriculture and Land Tenure The student will recall the description which has been given of medieval agriculture, with its wasteful system of "open . . ,, . fields " and " fallow " lands, its backward methods, Agriculture in the eighteenth and its scanty yield. ^ Improvement in these con- century ditions took place first in Holland. The Dutch learned to cultivate their narrow territory according to scientific principles, and from them Enghsh farmers borrowed many secrets of tillage. More diligent manuring, the shifting or rotation of crops from field to field, so that the soil would not have to be left uncultivated every third year, and the intro- duction of new crops, such as turnips, clover, and rye, all helped to transform English agriculture by the close of the eighteenth century. The improvements in agriculture since 1800 have extended to every progressive country. Machinery now does the work Agriculture in ^^ ^^^ ancient scythe, sickle, flail, and other im- the nineteenth plements. One machine, of American invention, century ^^^ ^^j^ reaps the grain, but threshes it, winnows it, and delivers it into sacks at a single operation. The use of cheap artificial fertilizers makes profitable the cultivation of poor lands formerly allowed to lie idle. The advance of engineering science leads to the reclamation of marshes and arid wastes. Finally, steam navigation allows a country to draw supphes of wheat, meat, and other foodstuffs from the most distant regions, with the result that the specter of famine, so common in the Middle Ages, has well-nigh disappeared from the modern world. The ''open-field" system of cultivation, whereby the same person tilled many small strips in different parts of the manor, was so wasteful of time and labor that medieval farmers began to surrender their scattered strips for compact holdings which could be inclosed with hedges or 1 See pages 130-132. Agriculture and Land Tenure 66 1 fences and operated independently. This inclosure movement continued in western Europe all through the modern period, until in the nineteenth century the old common cultivation of the soil had been practically abandoned in favor of individual tillage. Inclosures meant better farming everywhere, but in Great Britain they also did much to create the system of large estates so characteristic of that country. The lord of British the manor, not satisfied with inclosing his demesne landlordism lands, often managed to inclose those of the peasants as well, and even the meadows and forests, which had been formerly enjoyed by them in common. At the present time about ten thousand persons own two- thirds of all England and Wales; seventeen hundred persons own nine-tenths of Scotland. The rural population of Great Britain consists of a few landlords; numerous tenant farmers who rent their farms from the lords; and a still larger number of laborers who work for daily wages and have no interest in the soil they till. Better arrangements have long prevailed in France. A con- siderable part of the agricultural land belonged to the peasants even before the French Revolution.^ Their hold- YTench ings were increased in the revolutionary era as peasant pro- the result of legislation confiscating the estates of ^"^ °^^ ^^ the Crown, the Church, and the emigrant nobles.^ France to-day is emphatically a country of small but prosperous and contented farmers. Peasant proprietorships are common in much of Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, and western Germany. Prussia, where serfdom was only abolished in the Napoleonic ^ ^ •^ 111 Land tenure era,^ contams many large estates owned by the in other Jujikerthum, or country gentry. The revolu- Continental ■ . . . . . countries tionary disorders of 1 848-1 849 extmguished serf- dom in Austria and Hungary, without, however, disturbing the landed possessions of the great lords. Peasant proprietor- ships are rare in much of Spain and in southern Italy and Sicily. It now seems probable that among the economic consequences 1 See page 484. 2 gge page 509. * See page 536. 662 The Industrial Revolution of the revolutions following the World War will be the intro- duction of small farms for the people in those countries where the land has been monopolized by the aristocracy. Russia, so backward in many respects, retained serfdom until after the middle of the nineteenth century. It was not AboUtion of ^^^^^ 1858-1861 that Alexander II ^ issued the serfdom in decrees which freed nearly fifty million people ^"^^'* and earned for their author the title of the ''Tsar Liberator.'* Following the grant of personal freedom came measures establishing a new system of land tenure. The nobles were The Russian required to sell a portion of their estates to the °^ peasants. About half of the agricultural area of European Russia thus changed hands. Except in Poland and certain other districts, where individual ownership pre- vailed, the farming land was intrusted to the entire village, or mir, for redistribution at intervals among its inhabitants. All that the peasant really possessed in his own right was a house and a garden plot. This communal arrangement began to break down even before the Russian Revolution and may soon disappear altogether. One of the first acts of the revo- lutionary government was the confiscation of the imperial domains, together with many estates of the nobility, for partition among the peasants. The adoption by Russia of individual ownership of land will mark a significant step in the progress of that country, for about seven-eighths of its people hve wholly or mainly by agriculture. 230. The Labor Movement The craft guilds, which modern Europe inherited from the Middle Ages, gradually became obsolete after the Industrial Disappearance Revolution. They were out of place in a world of the craft of whirling machinery, crowded factories, free ^ competition, and the separation of labor and capital. Few of them in Great Britain survived the eight- eenth century. In France it required a decree of the National ^ See page 592. The Labor Movement 663 Assembly to end their existence. Those in Germany did not completely disappear until late in the nineteenth century. As contrasted with craft guilds, trade unions are combinations of wage-earners to maintain or improve the conditions under which they labor. These associations began to Rise of trade appear in Great Britain between 1700 and 1800, unions especially after the domestic system gave way to the factory system. Under the new conditions of industry, an employer could not know many of his employees personally; their re- lations, henceforth, tended to become cold-blooded and im- personal. At the same time, the workers in any one establish- ment or trade, being thrown more closely together, came to realize their common interests and to appreciate the need for organization. The unions immediately encountered opposition. The Com- mon law treated them as conspiracies in restraint of trade and hence as illegal. Moreover, the employers used Trade unions their influence in Parliament to secure the passage prohibited of a long series of acts designed to prevent what were styled ''unlawful combinations of workmen." The last of these acts, passed in 1800, even provided the penalty of imprisonment at hard labor for persons who combined with others to raise wages, shorten hours, or in any way control the conditions of industry.' Agitation by trade-union leaders induced Parliament in 1825 to repeal all the Combination Acts and to replace them by a new and more liberal statute. Laborers Trade unions might now lawfully meet together for the purpose legalized of agreeing on the rate of wages or the number of hours which they would work, as long as the agreement concerned only those who were present at the meeting. This qualification was removed a number of years later. Finally, the Trade Union Act of 1875 declared that nothing done by a group of laborers should be considered illegal unless it was also illegal when done by a single person. The act thus gave the working classes the full right of combination for which they had long been striving. It has been called the Magna Carta of trade unionism. 664 The Industrial Revolution The trade unions of Great Britain have made much progress within recent years. In 19 14 they enrolled nearly four million British trade iTiembers, including factory operatives, railway unionism workers, coal miners, and agricultural laborers. to- ay They send their representatives to Parliament and exercise great influence on labor legislation. Their officers also frequently serve as factory inspectors. Many unions enjoy a considerable income, which goes to support members who are temporarily out of work, sick, disabled, or infirm. Trade unions exist in France, Germany, Austria, Italy, and other Continental countries. They are modeled upon the Trade union- British organizations, but do not equal them in ism on the numbers, wealth, or influence. Many have a °° ^^ political character, being closely connected with sociahst parties. In general. Continental workingmen rely for improvement in their condition rather upon State action than upon collective bargaining with their employers. The organization of American trade unions began early in the nineteenth century, but their great and rapid growth has Trade union- taken place since the Civil War. Probably about ism in the fifteen per cent of the male wage-earners belong mte tates ^^ them. While this may seem a small proportion, it must be remembered that their membership consists chiefly of skilled laborers. Most of the trade unions are affiliated with the American Federation of Labor, which was founded in 1886. The cooperative movement also started in Great Britain. There are in that country a large number of societies, open to workingmen on the payment of a small fee, and Cooperation „. , / . -111 sellmg goods to members at prices considerably lower than those charged by private concerns. Members share in the profits in accordance with the amount of their purchases. The success of cooperation in retailing has brought about its extension to wholesahng and even to manufacturing and bank- ing. Similar societies are numerous on the Continent. They have made Httle headway in the United States, with such conspicuous exceptions as mutual life insurance companies and building and loan associations. Government Regulation of Industry 665 231. Government Regulation of Industry Improvement in the lot of the working classes has taken place not only through the activities of trade unions, cooperative societies, and other voluntary associations, but ^^j^ ^^ also by legislation. The need for government the factory regulation of industry very soon became apparent, ^y^*®™ The crowded factories were unsanitary. Hours of labor were too long. Wages were on the starvation level. Furthermore, the use of machinery encouraged the employment of women and children, for whose labor there had been previously little demand outside the home. Their excessive toil amid unhealthy surroundings often developed disease and deformity or brought premature death. Much excuse existed for the passionate words of one reformer that the slave trade was "mercy com- pared to the factory system." These evils were naturally most prominent in Great Britain, where the Industrial Revolution began. Little effort was made at first to remedy them. The working classes exercised no political influence; indeed, by the aione*"^* i" Combination Acts they had been prohibited from forming trade unions for their protection. Statesmen, instead of meeting the situation by remedial legislation, adopted the laissez-faire, or ''let alone" poHcy.^ The government, they declared, should keep its hands off industry. The greatest good to the greatest number could only be secured when "eco- nomic laws" of supply and demand were allowed to determine the wages and conditions of employment, just as they determined the prices, quantity, and quality of commodities produced. "Let alone" naturally became the watchword of selfish employers, to whose avarice and cruelty it gave full rein. Yet there were also humane employers who felt that Early labor the State ought to protect those who could not legislation protect themselves. One was Sir Robert Peel, father of the distinguished statesman of the same. name. ^ He succeeded in securing the enactment of the first British factory act (1802). ^ See page 486. 2 ggg p^gg 559. 666 The Industrial Revolution It prohibited the binding-out for labor of pauper children under nine years of age, restricted their working hours to twelve a day, and forbade night work. This measure applied only to cotton factories. Little more was done for thirty-one years. During this time several philanthropists, among whom Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, had the greatest influence, took up the cause of the oppressed workers and on the floor of Parliament, on the platform, in the pulpit, and in the newspapers waged a campaign to arouse the public to the need for additional legislation. ^ The result was the passage in 1833 of an act which applied to all textile factories and provided for their regular inspection by public officials. Government regulation of industry now began to become a reahty. Mines, bakeries, laundries, docks, retail and wholesale B 'ti h labor shops, and many other establishments were grad- legisiation ually brought under control. At the present to-day ^-j^g ^j^g State restricts the employment of children so that they may not be deprived of an education. It limits the hours of labor, not only of children and women, but also of men. It requires employers to install safety appliances in their plants and to take all other precautions necessary for the preservation of the lives, limbs, and health of their employees. Recent legislation has gone so far as to fix a minimum wage for workers in sweatshops and mines and to provide for govern- ment employment bureaus or labor exchanges, in order that the idle may find work. The labor legislation of France, Belgium, Holland, Austria, and the Scandinavian states compares favorably with that of , ^ Great Britain. In no Continental country has Labor legislation on it gone farther than in Germany. Bismarck the Continent ^^^^ -^ j^j^ powerful support, in order to check the spread of socialism. Germany has laws establishing a maximum number of working hours, limiting child and female labor, and providing a system of workingmen's insurance against accidents, sickness, incapacity, and old age. The need for labor legislation has been felt less acutely in ^ Read Mrs. Browning's The Cry of the Children. Rise and Spread of Socialism 667 the United States than in Europe. One reason for this is the fact that American workingmen enjoy higher wages and better conditions of employment than workingmen abroad. Another reason is found in the comparatively late develop- Am • ment of the factory system in the United States, labor Labor laws, when passed, are often declared uncon- ^^sisiation stitutional by state and federal courts, as interfering with free- dom of contract or as being class legislation. In spite of this obstacle, the movement for the legal protection of labor has made much progress within recent years, especially in New England and the states of the Middle West. The youthful commonwealths of Australia and New Zealand, unhampered by tradition, are trying a number of interesting experiments in government regulation of industry. ^ tr l ' Both countries give compensation to workingmen labor legisia- injured by accidents and old age pensions to poor *^°° people. New Zealand, in addition, provides fire and hfe insur- ance, conducts postal savings banks, rents model homes to workingmen, and .makes arbitration of labor disputes com- pulsory, in order to do away with strikes. Such legislation is sometimes described as "socialistic," especially by its opponents. 232. Rise and Spread of Socialism Contemporary socialists unite in making the following de- mands. First, the State shall own and operate the instruments of production, that is, land and capital. Under what so- this arrangement rent, interest and profits, as cialismis sources of personal income, would disappear, and private property would consist simply of one's own clothing, household goods, money, and perhaps a house and a garden plot. Second, the leisure class shall be eliminated by requiring everybody to perform useful labor, either physical or mental. Third, the income of the State shall be distributed as wages and salaries among the workers, according to some fairer principle than obtains at present. Socialism, thus explained, is not identical with public owner- ship of railroads, telegraphs, telephones, the postal service. 668 The Industrial Revolution and other utilities. There is still a leisure class and there are still personal incomes in those countries which have gone What social- furthest in the direction of pubHc ownership, ism is not Similarly, labor legislation is not properly de- scribed as socialistic, since it fails to abolish private property, the factory system, and rent, interest, and profits. SociaHsm is, in part, an outcome of the Industrial Revolution, which completed the separation of capital and labor. The SociaUsm and S^h between the capitalists and the landless, the Industrial property-less, wage-earning proletariat became wider, the contrasts between rich and poor became sharper, than ever before. Vastly more wealth was now produced than in earlier ages, but it was still unequally dis- tributed. The few had too much; the many had too little. Radical reformers, distressed by these inequalities and dis- satisfied with the slow progress of the labor movement and government regulation of industry, began to proclaim the necessity of a wholesale reconstruction of society. In Great Britain the most prominent of these early radicals was Robert Owen, a rich manufacturer and philanthropist, Robert Owen, who met great success in improving the conditions 1771-1858 Qf ijfg fQj. }^is employees. He did pioneer work as an advocate of trade unionism and labor legislation, at a time when neither had many influential friends. Owen's special remedy for social ills was the establishment of small cooperative communities, each one living by itself on a tract of land and producing in common everything needed for its support. He thought that this arrangement would retain the economic advantages of the great inventions without introducing the factory system. Owen's experiments in cooperation all failed, including the one which he estabHshed at New Harmony, Indiana, in 1825. Owen thus belongs in the class of Utopian ^ socialists, men who dreamed of ideal social systems which were never realized. Socialism is also, in part, an outcome of the French Revo- lution. That upheaval destroyed so many time-hallowed ^ A name derived from Sir Thomas Mora's Utopia. See page 301. Rise and Spread of Socialism 669 institutions and created so many new ones that it gave a great impetus to schemes for the regeneration of society. French radical thinkers soon set out to purge the world of socialism and capitalism as their fathers had purged it of feudal- the French ism. Their ideas began to become popular with evoution workingmen after the factory system, with^its attendant evils, gained an entrance into France. The workers found a leader in Louis Blanc, a journalist and author of wide popularity. The revolution of 1789, he declared, had benefited the peasants and the bourgeoisie; Louis Blanc, that of 1830 the capitalists; the next must be for 1813-1882 the benefit of the proletariat. Blanc beheved that every man had an inahenable right to remunerative employment. To provide it, the State should set up national workshops managed by the workers in each particular industry. His ideas triumphed for a time in the revolution of 1848. The Second French Republic expressly recognized "the right to labor" and pro- ceeded to set up the national workshops. They were so badly managed, however, that Blanc himself disapproved of them. Their speedy failure brought such discredit upon him and his followers that socialism became almost extinct in France. "To speak of it," said a writer of the time, "is to deliver its funeral oration." Meanwhile, a new social- ism, more systematic and practical than Karl Marx, the old, began 1818-1883 to be developed by German thinkers. Its chief repre- sentative was Karl Marx, a man of fine education and wide learning. Becoming interested in economic subjects, he founded a socialist newspaper to advocate the cause of the work- Karl Marx 670 The Industrial Revolution ing classes. The government suppressed it, after the failure of the revolutionary movement of 1 848-1 849, and expelled Marx from Germany. He went to London and lived there in exile for the rest of his days, finding time, in the midst of a hard struggle for existence, to write his famous work, Das Kapital. It has a place beside Rousseau's Social Contract and Smith's Wealth of Nations among the books which have profoundly influenced human thought. Marx felt little sympathy with Utopian schemes to make over society and described them sarcastically as ''duodecimo editions of the New Jerusalem." In opposition to Owen, Blanc, and other earlier socialists, he sought to build up a system of socialism based on economic principles. Put in its simplest form, Marxism asserts that, while labor is the source of all value, the laborer receives, in fact, only a fraction of what he produces. All the rest goes to the capitalist, who produces nothing. Capitalism, however, is the inevitable result of the factory system. Like feudalism, it forms a stage, a necessary stage, in the development of man- kind. It is fated to disappear with the progress of democracy, which, by giving the proletariat the vote, will enable them to take production into their own hands and peacefully inaugurate the socialist state. Das Kapital appeared in 1867. A few years later the co- workers of Marx in Germany founded the Social Democratic The Social Party.^ The government, under Bismarck's leader- Democratic ship, tried to repress it by prohibiting meetings ^^*^ of socialists and the circulation of socialist liter- ature. Any effort to propagate socialist doctrine was made punishable by fines and imprisonment. This persecution failed to check the socialist movement, and before the World War the Social Democrats polled a larger vote than any other German party. National The Social Democratic Party provided a model socialist parties fQj. similar organizations of Marxian socialists in France, Great Britain, the United States, Australia, Japan, 1 See page 588. Progress and Poverty 671 and many other countries. Congresses of representatives of the various national parties are held from time to time, in order to bring together the working classes of every land. Not all contemporary socialists rely on orderly and legal means to aboHsh capitalism. A large group of extreme social- ists would confiscate private property and use g ndkalism violence and terrorism in the supposed interest and bolshev- of the proletariat. France has recently had to ^^™ cope with the movement called syndicalism. Its adherents gained control of a number of trade unions (syttdicats), with the idea of bringing on general strikes to coerce employers. The syndicaHsts also introduced '' sabotage," ^ or the practice of injuring machinery and destroying an employer's property. Similar methods have been advocated and adopted in the United States by the 'industrial Workers of the World." Bolshevism in Russia is the latest and most impressive mani- festation of this type of socialism. 233. Progress and Poverty The most important consequence of the Industrial Revolution is the increased population of the leading nations. The num- ber of people who can be supported in a given increase of region now depends less on the food which they population raise, than on their production of raw materials and manu- factured goods to exchange for food. Thus Belgium and Great Britain, with only a limited agriculture, support more inhabit- ants to the square mile than any other countries; while the population of such industrial states as New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts far exceeds that of the agricultural common- wealths of the Middle West. At the opening of the nineteenth century western Europe was still mainly rural, as eastern Europe is to-day. Europe, as a whole, had fourteen cities of more than one Concentration hundred thousand • inhabitants in 1800; in 1900 of population it had one hundred and forty such cities. London, which in 1800 contained under a milHon inhabitants, now counts seven 1 From the French saboi, a wooden shoe. 672 The Industrial Revolution millions within its borders; Paris contains five times as many people as shortly before the French Revolution; and Berlin has grown ten-fold since the reign of Frederick the Great. The development of provincial centers within the past century has been equally remarkable. Turning to the United States, it is enough to contrast the six cities of over eight thousand inhabitants in 1800 with the six hundred cities which, according to the census of 1910, had a population of ten thousand or more. About half of the American people are now city dwellers. The increased wealth of the leading nations is another im- portant consequence of the Industrial Revolution. Statistics Increase of of government revenues and expenditures, imports wealth ^^^ exports, income tax returns, deposits in savings banks, and assets of life insurance companies show how wealth has multiplied, especially within recent years. The enormous public loans, successfully floated during the World War, also reveal the resources now at the command of industrial peoples. Notwithstanding the creation of huge individual fortunes as the result of the Industrial Revolution, the general standard Diffusion of of living has been raised by the addition of in- weaith numerable things — sugar, coffee, linen, cotton goods, glass, chinaware, wall paper, ready-made clothing, books, newspapers, pictures — which were once enjoyed only by a few wealthy persons. If the rich are undoubtedly getting richer, the poor are not getting poorer in western Europe and the United States. As a matter of fact, poverty is most acute in such countries as Russia, India, and China, which modern industrialism has scarcely begun to penetrate. Nevertheless, no one conversant with social conditions in large cities can deny the existence there of very many people below or scarcely above the poverty line. An Poverty ^ ,. , . . r ^ ^ • c English mvestigator lound thirty per cent 01 the inhabitants of London so wretchedly housed, clothed, warmed, and fed that their health and physical efficiency as workers were seriously impaired. The results showed them- selves in the high death rate of young and old and their marked inferiority in height, weight, and physical condition. What is Progress and Poverty 673 true of London is true of other industrial centers in Europe, and, to a less extent, in the United States. Despite all the wonderful inventions and scientific discoveries which have so increased the productive powers of man, there are still millions of human beings in the Christian world who lead lives of grind- ing toil, without an income suiSicient for their barest needs. No single condition — over-population, private property in land, competition, the factory system — explains poverty, for each one has been absent in previous stages of prevention human society. Since there is no single cause of and abolition poverty, there can be no single remedy for it. ^ povery Putting aside anarchism as fantastic and socialism as impracti- cable, one may still look confidently for the prevention of much poverty by trade union activity, by government regulation of industry, including labor insurance and protection against non-employment, by education of the unskilled, by improved housing, and by all the other agencies and methods of social betterment. One may even reasonably anticipate the complete abolition of poverty, at least all suffering from hunger, cold, and nakedness, in those progressive countries which have already abolished slavery and serfdom. The evils of the Industrial Revolution, though real, have been exaggerated. They are and were the evils accompanying the transition from one stage of society to another. Economic Few would wish now to retrace their steps to a democracy time when there were no factories, no railroads, and no great mechanical inventions. Machinery now does much of the roughest and hardest work and, by saving human labor, makes it possible to shorten hours of toil. The world's workers, in consequence, have opportunities for recreation and education previously denied them. After one hundred and fifty years of modern industrialism, we begin to see that, besides helping to produce political democracy, it is also creating economic democracy. It is gradually diffusing the necessaries and com- forts, and even many of the luxuries of life, among all peoples in all lands. 674 The Industrial Revolution Studies I. Using material in encyclopedias, prepare reports for class presentation upon the following inventions and discoveries: (c) the bicycle; (6) the typewriter; (c) lucifer matches; {d) illuminating gas; (e) electric lighting; (/) dynamite; and (g) photography. 2. For what are the following persons famous: Arkwright; Cart- wright; Watt; Stephenson; Whitney; Fulton; Howe; Morse; Bell; Langley; and Marconi? 3. Explain what is meant by the following: (o) capital; (b) capital- ism; (c) domestic system; {d) factory systeni; (e) division of labor; (/) bimetallism; (g) crises; (A) protectionism; (i) peasant proprietorships; 0') minimvmi wage; and (k) socialism. 4. "Since the middle of the eighteenth century changes have come to pass which have made civilized man rather nature's conqueror than its drudge and prey." Comment on this statement. 5. What is the difference be- tween a tool and a machine? 6. Name in order the early inventions in the textile industry and explain the changes which each one produced. 7. Has division of labor any disadvantages from the point of view of the worker? 8. What are Telford blocks? What is a macadamized road? 9. Enumerate some of the social and economic consequences of the wide use of the automobile in the United States. 10, "Of all inventions, the alphabet and the printing press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance have done most for the civilization of our species." Comment on this statement. 11. Mention some of the most important articles of modem commerce and the countries where they are chiefly produced. 12. Why should there be an international or world price for such commodities as wheat and cotton? 13. Show how modern commerce has been facilitated by (o) the sub- marine cable, (b) wireless telegraphy, (c) the postal system, and (i) marine insurance, or underwriting. 14. How has the construction of the Suez and Panama canals affected oceanic trade routes? 15. Why did Great Britain adopt a free- trade policy? Why does she maintain it, when other nations follow the policy of pro- tection? 16. WTiat are the effects of smuggling, or evasion of customs duties, on (a) the public revenue, {b) honest merchants, and (c) consumers? 17. Comment on some of the social effects of peasant proprietorships. 18. Compare the modem trade imion with the medieval craft guild. 19. What criticisms are sometimes leveled at trade unionism? Discuss their justification. 20. Distinguish (a) between socialism and anarchism and (b) between socialism and democracy. 21. Is it tme, as Marx asserted, that labor is the source of all value? 22. Mention some of the probable advantages and some of the probable disadvantages of the socialist state. • 23. "The growth of large cities constitutes perhaps the greatest of all the problems of modern civilization." Comment on this statement. 24. How does the development of electric traction tend to relieve overcrowding in cities? 25. Compare as to purposes and results the charity of the Middle Ages with the organized charity of to-day. CHAPTER XXV MODERN CIVILIZATION 234. Internationalism The world, which seemed so large to our forefathers, to us seems very small and compact. Railroads, steamships, and airplanes bind the nations together, and the ^nity of telegraph, the submarine cable, and the "wireless" modem keep them in constant communication. The "^ nation oceans, no longer barriers, serve as highways uniting East and West, Orient and Occident. National isolation disappears as ideas and ideals tour the globe! Everywhere people build the same houses, use the same furniture, and eat the same food. Everywhere they enjoy the same amusements and distractions: concerts, xjniformitv "moving pictures," the theater, clubs, magazines, of modem automobiles. They also dress ahke. Powder, "^ ^**^®° gold lace, wigs, pigtails, three-cornered hats, silk stockings, and knee breeches passed away with the other follies of the Old Regime, and simplicity and convenience became the character- istics of men's apparel. Women's apparel still changes year by year, but the new fashions, emanating from Paris, London, or New York, are speedily copied in Petrograd, Melbourne, and Tokio. The inconveniences resulting from the diversity of languages were never greater than to-day, when travel is a general habit and when nations read one another's books and Universal profit by one another's discoveries and inventions, languages The internationahsm of modern Hterature, science, philosophy, and art demands an international medium of expression. Latin was the speech of learned men in Europe throughout the Middle Ages, as English, French, and German are to a more limited extent at the present time. What is needed, however, 675 676 Modern Civilization is a universal language, so simple in grammar and vocabulary as to be readily mastered by any one. Crude attempts at such a language have already appeared in Volapiik and Espe- ranto, but a really satisfactory artificial idiom remains to be created. The idea of a universal exposition, to which all countries should send their art treasures or the marvels of their industry, Universal hrst took shape in the Crystal Palace Exhibition expositions (London, 185 1). Since then European expositions have been numerous, each one larger than its predecessor. The Universal Exhibition (Paris, 1900) attracted 51,000,000 visitors. The United States began with the Philadelphia Centennial of 1876. This was followed by the World's Fair at Chicago in 1893 and by the more recent expositions at St. Louis and San Fran- cisco. World congresses are constantly being held to deal with such matters of com- mon interest as the metric system of weights and measures, monetary standards, protection of patents and copyrights, im- provement in the con- dition of the working classes, advancement of social reform, woman's suffrage, and the establishment of universal peace. Some of these gatherings have resulted in "Ridiculous Taste, or the Ladies' Absurdity" One of the many caricatures of the extravagant fashions in headress of both sexes during the eight- eenth century. Social Betterment 677 the formation of permanent organizations, including the Red Cross Society (1864), the Postal Union (1874), ^.^^ "mtei- and the Hague Tribunal (1899). Frequent meet- national ings of distinguished scholars and men of letters °"^^" from the different countries also help to produce what has been well called the "international mind." Increased intercourse between civilized peoples not only broadens their outlook but also widens their sympathies. Feelings of human brotherhood, once limited to t,. ... , Ine mter- the members of one's clan, tribe, city, or state, national expand to include all mankind. There develops *^«°s"ence" an "international conscience," which emphasizes the obli- gations of the strong toward the weak and protests against the oppression of any members of the world community by any others. Let us consider some of its manifestations during the past century. 235. Social Betterment Little more than one hundred years ago the slave trade was generally regarded as a legitimate business. Hardly any one thought it wrong to kidnap or purchase African ^boUtion negroes, pack them on shipboard, where many of the died in the stifling holds, and carry them to the ^^^^® *^*^® West Indies or the American mainland to be sold as slaves. Denmark first aboHshed this shameful traffic. Great Britain and the United States took the same step in 1807-1808, and in subsequent years the Continental nations, one after another, agreed that the slave trade for the supply of their territories should no longer enjoy the protection of their flags. Slavery had all but died out in Christian lands by the close of the Middle Ages. It revived, on a much larger scale, after the era of geographical discovery, which opened Abolition up Africa as a source of slaves and America as a °^ slavery field for their profitable employment. Anti-slavery agitation began in the seventeenth century with the Quakers, who ex- cluded slave-owners from membership in their society. The French revolutionists abolished slavery in the colonies of France, but Napoleon restored it. Great Britain in 1833 freed the slaves 678 Modern Civilization in the British West Indies, pa3dng one hundred milhon dollars to their former masters as compensation. Within the next thirty years slavery peacefully disappeared in the colonial possessions of France, Portugal, and Holland, but in the United States only at the cost of civil war. Brazil, in 1888, was the last Christian state to put an end to slavery. The penal code of eighteenth-century Europe must be de- scribed as barbarous. Torture of an accused person, in order The old to obtain a confession, usually preceded his trial, penal code Only a few nations. Great Britain among them, forbade its use. Prisons were private property, and the in- mates, whether innocent or guilty, had to pay their keeper for food and other necessaries. Men, women, and children were herded together, the hardened criminals with the first offenders. Branding, flogging, and exposure in the pillory formed common punishments. Death was the punishment for murder, arson, burglary, horse-stealing, theft, forgery, counterfeiting, and many other crimes. The British code included nearly two hundred capital offenses, but often permitted transportation to America or Australia to be substituted for the death penalty. Executions took place in public, on the mistaken theory that to see them would deter from crime. The great name in penal reform is that of the Italian Bec- caria, whose Essay on Crimes and Punishments appeared in Reform of '^7^4- ^t bore early fruit in the abohtion of tor- the penal ture and of such ferocious punishments as burning ^° ® alive, breaking on the wheel, and drawing and quartering. Penal reform in France was hastened by the Revolution. Great Britain still later began to reduce the number of capital offenses, until only murder remained. Mean- while, the prisons were placed under state management, and special reformatories were established for first offenders. The idea is now to make confinement less a punishment than a means of developing the convict's ■self-respect and manhood, so that he may return to free life a useful member of society. The modern attitude toward the feeble-minded and the insane likewise shows the increasing humanity of the age. Emancipation of Women and Children 679 Such persons are no longer regarded with amusement or con- tempt, but are rather considered as pitiful victims of heredity and of circumstances for which they were not reponsible. Every civilized country now pro- vides asylums for their proper care under medical supervision. The crusade against alcohoHsm further illustrates humani- tarian progress. The use of wine, beer, and spirits, formerly uncondemned, more and more comes under moral , . . . Til 1 r Abolition reprobation as it is realized that they form one of the of the most potent agencies of man's degeneration. ^^^^^ tr&nic The World War led Russia to abolish the govern- ment monopoly of vodka and other countries to restrict the consumption of intoxicating liquors. Their manufacture, sale, or transportation in the United States is prohibited by a con- stitutional amendment, which was ratified in 1918-1919 by more than three-fourths of the state legislatures. It goes into effect one year after ratification. 236. Emancipation of Women and Children Woman's position in Europe a century ago was what it had been in the Middle Ages — a position of dependence on man. She received little or no education, seldom en- Disabilities gaged in anything but housework, and for support °^ woman relied on husband, father, or brother. After marriage she became subject to her husband. In Great Britain she could neither make a will nor enter into a contract without his con- sent. All her possessions belonged to him. Any money that she earned or inherited was his and might be taken to pay his debts. The law even deprived her of control over her own children. Similar disabilities rested upon Continental women. The humanitarian sentiment evoked by the French Revo- lution began by freeing slave and serf, but presently demanded the emancipation of woman also. The demand Woman's received a powerful impetus from the Industrial "shis Revolution, which opened new employments to woman out- side the home and thus lessened her economic dependence on man. The agitation for woman's rights has so far succeeded 68o Modern Civilization that many countries permit her to obtain an education, own property, and enter business or the professions on her own account. Certain countries also grant her the right to vote and hold public office. Woman suffrage scored its first victories in Scandinavia. During the decade before the World War both Finland and Norway permitted women to vote at general elections. Den- Woman mark extended full voting privileges to women suffrage in shortly after the outbreak of the war, and Sweden Europe -^ about to take the same progressive step. The patriotic work of British women in munition factories, in the hospitals, and on the farms had its reward in 1918, when Parlia- ment passed an equal • franchise bill. This measure ranks in importance with the three Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884.^ It not only confers the franchise for the House of Commons upon substantially every man over twenty-one years of age in Great Britain and Ireland, but also confers it upon every woman over thirty years of age who has hitherto voted in local elec- tions or is the wife of a local elector. As a result, the number of voters in the United Kingdom has been practically doubled. Even more radical concessions to women are promised by the revolutionary governments of Germany and central Europe. AustraUa and New Zealand have established complete political democracy by giving the vote to women without restrictions. The suffrage movement has made suffrage slower progress in the United States. Wyoming, outside of when admitted to statehood in 1892, set the ex- Europe , r . 1 1 n 1 ample of grantmg the ballot to women on the same terms as to men, and fourteen other states now do the same. A constitutional amendment to provide for woman suffrage throughout the Union is pending in Congress. The decline of the husband's power over his wife is accom- panied by a decline of the father's authority over his children. Emancipation Among early peoples, the ancient Romans for of children example, the father's control of his offspring was absolute, and their Uberty was often sacrificed to his despotic 1 See pages 578 and 580. The Separation of Church and State 68i rule. The Roman idea of family obligations survived in Europe through the Middle Ages and still Hngers in Latin countries at the present time. In Anglo-Saxon countries, on the other hand, both law and custom regard the grown-up child as independent of the father. Even his authority over minors is considered mainly in the light of guardianship. This Uberal conception of paternal rights bids fair to prevail among all civilized peoples. 237. Religious Toleration and the Separation of Church and State Few of us realize how gradually the principle of religious toleration has won acceptance in modern times.^ At first only certain Protestant sects, such as the Lutherans Religious in Germany after the Peace of Augsburg and the toleration Huguenots in France after the Edict of Nantes, enjoyed liberty of conscience and worship. Next, the same privileges were granted to all Protestant sects, as in Holland, in England by the Toleration Act, and in the American colonies. Finally, toler- ation was extended to every one, whether Protestant or Roman Catholic, Christian or non-Christian. The First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States provides that Congress shall make no law prohibiting the "free exercise of religion." The French revolutionists in the Declaration of the Rights of Man also announced that no one should be disturbed on account of his religious opinions, provided he did not thereby trouble public order. The Great Elector and Frederick the Great estabHshed toleration in Prussia. It was secured in the rest of Germany and in Austria-Hungary and Italy only during the nineteenth century. Great Britain delayed until the same century before admitting Roman Catholics, Unitarians, and Jews to the full rights of citizenship. Several American states still debar atheists from voting and holding public office. The liberal movement in religion has carried further that multiplication of sects which began with the Reformation.^ Seventeenth-century England produced the Baptists and the Society of Friends, or Quakers, as they are commonly called. 1 See pages 334 and 351. 2 See page 349. 682 Modern Civilization The Methodists arose in the eighteenth century, out of the preaching of John Wesley (i 703-1 791) and his associates. They worked among the common people of England, gained a large following by their fervor, piety, and the strictness of their ways,^ and gradually sep- arated from the An- ghcan Church. Other sects, including the Adventists, Uni- versalists, and Disciples of Christ, and even new religions, such as Mormonism, Spiritualism, and Christian Science, have originated in the United States. Both Freemasonry and Odd- fellowship took their present Secret form in Great Brit- societies g^jj^ about two cen- turies ago. They now have thousands of lodges and several millions of members throughout the world. Their insistence upon religious toleration makes it possible for them to admit votaries of even non-Christian faiths, as in India. The modern principle of "a free Church in a free State" has been slowly and imperfectly attained. In the Middle Separation ^S^s the Church controlled, or tried to control, the State, upon the theory that temporal as well as spiritual authority is derived from the pope. The Reformation, in those countries where it succeeded, merely substituted a number of separate national churches for the one Church of Rome. To Roger Williams and WiUiam Penn in the seventeenth century belongs the honor of having founded the first poUtical communities where religious matters were taken entirely out of the hands of the civil government. Neither Rhode Island nor Pennsylvania in colonial times had an estab- lished church. John Wesley After a painting by George Romney in the possession of W. R. Cassels, London. of Church and State 1 Hence the name "Methodists." Popular Education and the Higher Learning 683 The ideas of Williams and Penn found expression in the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. Congress is forbidden to make any law "respecting an establishment of religion." This means that lishment the federal government cannot appropriate money ^ }^^ for the support of any church. No such re- striction binds the several states, but most of their constitutions repeat the federal prohibition. The example of the United States has been followed in Canada, Australia, South Africa, and other parts of the British Empire. The Liberal Party under Gladstone oisestab- disestablished the Anglican Church in Ireland lishment (1869) and under Lloyd George disestablished it in Wales (1914). The French revolutionists, by the Consti- tution of 1795, separated Church and State, but a few years later Napoleon's Concordat^ with the pope again made Roman Catholicism the official religion. The Concordat was abro- gated as recently as 1905, and both Catholic and Protestant bodies in France now depend entirely upon voluntary contri- butions for support. The Portuguese revolutionists, when founding a republic in 19 10, disestablished the Roman Church, and the Russian revolutionists in 191 7 disestablished the Greek Church. The separation of Church and State prevails in Holland and Belgium and is to prevail in Germany according to the proposed new constitution for that country. 238. Popular Education and the Higher Learning The schools of the Middle Ages were neither secular nor public nor free.^ Clergymen taught them, the Church gener- ally controlled them, and the few pupils who Popular attended them paid fees for their tuition. One education result of the Reformation was the introduction into some of the German states, Holland, Scotland, and the Puritan colonies of New England of elementary schools supported by general taxation, so that every one might be able to read and interpret the Scriptures intelligently. This free pubHc school system, 1 See page 524. 2 See pages 160 and 257. 684 Modern Civilization which it is the glory of the reformers to have estabhshed, spread throughout the United States after the Revolution and became entirely secular in character. The advance of demo- cratic ideas in Europe during the nineteenth century has pro- duced a similar movement there in favor of popular education. British statesmen for a long time looked with disfavor upon projects for public schools. Education, they thought, unfits the people for manual labor and nourishes revolu- Pubhc . ^ ., u^r ^ 1 schools in tionary ideas. It a horse knew as much as a Great man, I should not like to be its rider," declared Britain • ^ ,. , • • a peer m Parhament, when votmg agamst an appropriation for educational purposes. In 1870, after the passage of the second Reform Act, which enfranchised the working classes, the government set up for the first time a national system of instruction. "We must educate our mas- ters," it was said. Elementary education in Great Britain is now free, compulsory, and secular. Many parents, however, prefer to send their children to private institutions under the control of the Established Church. The French revolutionists believed with Danton that "next to bread, education is the first need of the people." They P^^P^^^d an elaborate scheme for pubUc schools, schools More pressing questions compelled its postpone- on the ment, however, and France waited until the Continent , . , . r 1 1 1 r ... eighties of the last century before putting it into operation. Prussia began to reorganize elementary education along modern lines as early as the reign of Frederick the Great and carried the work further after her crushing defeat by Napo- leon. The public school movement has made much progress in other Continental countries during recent years, with a notable decrease in illiteracy as the result. More and more it is recognized that at least the rudiments of an education should be the birthright of every child. What deserves to be called the American system of education The higher reaches from the kindergarten to the graduate and learning professional school. High schools and normal schools for the professional training of teachers are found in Science 685 every state, and state universities in every one south and west of Pennsylvania. Their work is supplemented not only by the private colleges and universities, but also by the splendid benefactions especially associated with the names of Rockefeller and Carnegie. No European country makes it so easy for an ambitious student to obtain the higher learning. 239. Science When the nineteenth century opened, science enjoyed only a Hmited recognition in universities and none at all in secondary and elementary schools. The marvelous achieve- Science in ments of scientific men fixed public attention on °iodern life their work, and courses in science began to displace the older "classical" studies. At the same time science has become an international force which recognizes no national boundaries, no distinctions of race or religion. Scientists in every land follow one another's researches; they carry on their labor in common. Many pages would be needed merely to enumerate the scientific discoveries of our age. The astronomer found a new planet, Neptune; measured the distances of the Pure fLxed stars; and, by means of the spectroscope, science analyzed the constituents of the most distant heavenly bodies. The physicist determined the velocity of light and showed that light, radiant heat, electricity, and magnetism are due to waves or undulations of the ether; are, in fact, interconvertible forms of cosmic energy. The chemist proved that matter exists in a solid, liquid, or gaseous state according to the degree of heat to which it is subjected; that it is composed of one or more of eighty-odd elements; and that these elements combine with one another in fixed proportions by weight, as when one pound of hydrogen unites with eight pounds of oxygen to form nine pounds of water. The biologist discovered that all plants and animals, from the lowest to the highest, are made up of cells containing the transparent jelly or protoplasm which is the basis of Hfe. The practical appUcations of science are innumerable. Ap- 686 Modern Civilization vibrations in the ether. plied physics gave us the storage battery and the dynamo, making possible the telegraph, telephone, electric lighting, and Applied electric motive force. More recently, wireless te- science legraphy and telephony have developed from the discovery in 1887 of the "Hertzian waves," or electro-magnetic In 1895 the German Rontgen found the mysterious X-rays, and in 1898 the French professor Curie, assisted by his PoHsh wife, revealed the existence of the still more mysterious ra- dium. AppUed chemistry gave Marie Curie us illuminating gas, friction matches, such powerful explo- sives as dynamite and nitro- glycerine, which are produced from animal or vegetable fats, artificial fertilizers, beet sugar, aluminum, and various deriv- atives of coal tar, including the anihne dyes, carbolic acid, naphtha, and saccharine. The biological researches of the Frenchman, Louis Pasteur, and others upon microbes or bacteria revolutionized the practice of medicine and led to the speedy elimination in civiUzed countries of hydrophobia, typhus, yellow fever, cholera, the bubonic plague, and other scourges. Meanwhile surgery has been revo- lutionized by the use of anaesthetics and the introduction of antisepsis and asepsis. New conceptions of the earth were set forth by Sir Charles Lyell in his Principles of Geology (i 830-1 833). He explained The uni- ^^^ changes which have produced mountains, fonnitarian valleys, plains, lakes, sea-coasts, and other natural t eory features, not as the result of convulsions or catas- trophes, as had been previously supposed, but as due to erosion by water, the action of frost and snow, and other forces working gradually over immense periods of time. The acceptance of Lyell's uniformitarian theory, coupled with the discovery of Philosophy and Literature 687 fossils in the rocks, made it necessary to reckon the age of the earth by untold millions, instead of a few thousands, of years. The further discovery in western Europe of rude stone imple- ments and human bones associated with the remains of extinct animals, such as the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and cave bear, indicated the existence of man himself at a remote period. Even before Charles Darwin published the Origin of Species (1859), naturalists argued that ex- isting plants and animals, instead of being separately ^^^ created, had evolved evolutionary from a few ancestral ^°^^ types. Darwin was first to show how evolution might have occurred by means of ''natural selection." He pointed out that many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly live to rear their offspring ; that, in consequence, there is a constant '' struggle for existence" between them; and that the fittest who survive are the strongest, the swiftest, the most cunning, the most adaptable, — in Charles Darwin other words, those who possess characteristics that give them a superiority over their competitors. Such characteristics, transmitted by heredity, tend to become more and more marked in succeeding generations, until at length entirely new species arise. Investigators since Darwin have made impor- tant additions to the evolutionary theory. Despite sharp criticism, it still stands as the most plausible explanation yet offered of the development of life on the earth. 240. Philosophy and Literature Since the beginning of the nineteenth century man has become more and more interested in himself; he has resolved to learn what he is, whence he came, and what he shall be. 688 Modern Civilization Philosophy These are the old questions of philosophy. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), the close friend of Darwin, sought to answer them with the aid of evolutionary principles. The ten volumes of his Synthetic Philosophy form an ambitious attempt to explain the development of the universe as a whole, from the atom to the star, from the one-celled organ- ism to man. Spencer was a pioneer in the study of psy- chology, that branch of phi- losophy dealing with the mental processes of both man and the lower animals. Spencer also broke fresh ground in the study of sociol- „ . , osry. He carried Sociology , • . 1 over the prmciple of evolution into human society, with the purpose of showing how lan- guages, laws, religions, customs, and all other institutions naturally arise and develop among mankind. ''So- ciology," as the name for this new subject, had been previously intro- duced by the French philosopher, Auguste Comte. The study of history has been trans- formed imder the influence of the soci- History and ologists. It is no longer anthropology merely a narrative in chronological order of political and miUtary events, but rather an account of the entire culture of a people. The historian wants to learn about their houses, furniture, costumes, and food; how they made their Herbert Spencer After a photograph of the philosopher at the age of seventy-eight. Sir Walter Scott After a painting by Colvin Smith. Philosophy and Literature 689 living; what buildings they raised, what books they read; what schools they supported; what beliefs and superstitions they held; what amusements and festivals they enjoyed. Some his- torical students do not limit inquiry to civilized man, but also investigate the culture of savage and barbarous peoples as found to-day or once found in remote ages. History, so con- sidered, is closely related to anthropology, one of the most fas- cinating of the newer branches of learning. Public schools, pubHc libraries, and cheap books, maga- zines, and newspapers have multiplied readers. ^^^^^^ Literature, in consequence, is now a profession, and the successful novelist or poet may secure a world-wide audience. Sir Walter Scott did much to give the novel popu- larity through his his- torical tales. Dickens, Thackeray, and other English writers made it a presentation of contemporary life. On the Continent al- most all the celebrated authors of the past century have been novelists. It is suffi- cient to mention three only, whose fame has gone out into many lands: the Frenchman Victor Hugo; the Rus- sian Tolstoy; and the Victor Hugo Pole Sienkiewicz After a painting by Leon Bonnat. The drama rivals the novel in popularity among all classes. It presents either a picture of bygone ages or scenes from everyday Hfe. In no country does it assume more importance than in France, where the theater is considered a branch of 690 Modern Civilization public instruction. Much dramatic poetry, however, is written to be read, rather than for acting on the stage, for instance, the Faust of Goethe. Lyric poetry has been pro- duced in all countries, notably in Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and the United States, and has become the favorite style of poetic expression. 241. Music and the Fine Arts Music now takes almost as large a place as Hterature in modern life. Even more than hterature, it ranks as an inter- Music in national force, for the musician, whatever his modern life nationality, uses a language which needs no translation to be intelligible. During medieval times music was chiefly used in the services of the Church. The Renaissance began to secularize music, Sacred and ^^ ^^^^ ^^ might express all human joy, sadness, secular passion, and aspiration. The secular art thus music includes operas, chamber music (for rendition in a small apartment instead of in a theater or concert hall), compositions for soloists, and orchestral symphonies. The Middle Ages knew the pipe-organ, harp, flute, The drum, trum- orchestra p g ^^ and many other instruments. These were often played together, but with no other purpose than to in- crease the volume of sound. There was not the slightest idea of orches- tration. After the Renais- sance new instruments began to appear, includ- ing the violin, viols of all sizes, the slide trombone, and the clarinet. Percussion action, applied to the old-fashioned spinet and harpsichord, produced in the eighteenth century the piano- Mozart's Spinet Stadt Museum, Vienna The spinet had only one string to a note, plucked by means of a quill or a plectrum of leather. Music and the Fine Arts 691 musical drama LuDWiG VAN Beethoven After a painting by A. Kloeber, 1817. forte. The symphony, a tone poem combining all musical sounds into a harmonious whole, now began to assume its present form. The great symphonists — Haydn, Mozart, that supreme genius Beethoven (i 770-1827), and their successors in the nine- teenth century — thus cre- ated a new art to enrich the higher life of mankind. Another master of music, Richard Wag- ^j^^ ner (1813- 1883), created the musical drama, which unites music, poetry, and acting. Wagner believed that the singer should also be an actor and should adapt both song and gesture to the orchestra. He also gave much attention to the scenery and stage- setting in order to heighten the dramatic effect. Wagner's most famous work, The Ring of the Ni- belung, consists of four complete dramas based on old Teutonic legend. Like music, sculpture illustrates the internationalism of art. The three greatest sculp- tors of the nineteenth century were Canova, an Italian, Thorwaldsen, a Dane, and Rodin, a Frenchman. The first two found inspiration mainly in classic statu- ary, which seeks ideal beauty of form; the third expressed in marble the utmost reahsm and Sculpture Richard Wagner After a portrait by Franz von Len- bach painted about 1872. 692 Modern Civilization naturalism. Much fine work has also been done in bronze, for instance, the Chicago statue of Abraham Lincoln by St. Gaudens, who is rightly considered the most eminent sculptor produced by America. No century has witnessed more activity in the construction of churches, town halls, court houses, theaters, schools, and other public edifices than the nineteenth, but AiTcliitfictiirB these have usually been reproductions of earlier buildings. Architects either went to Greece and Rome for models or imitated the Romanesque and Gothic styles. The extensive use of structural steel has now begun to produce an entirely new architectural style, more appropriate to modern needs, in the "skyscraper" of American cities. It is sometimes criticized as being ''not architecture, but engineering with a stone veneer." The criticism seems hardly just in all cases. Such a structure as the Woolworth Building in New York has a beauty of its own and truly expresses the spirit of our indus- trial age. Modern painters, no longer restricted to religious pictures, often choose their subjects from history or contemporary hfe. They excel in portraiture, and their landscape Painting . ^ . • 1 , 11 , . , pamtmgs unquestionably surpass the best which even the ''old masters" of the Renaissance could produce. Painting flourishes especially in France, where the leading artists receive their training and exhibit their pictures at an annual exposition, the Salon at Paris. 242. Historic and Artistic Paris The capitals of France and Great Britain represent much that is best in modern civilization. Paris and London are the Paris and largest cities in the Old World. Their civic hfe London reaches back without a break to Roman times. They contain more monuments and edifices of historic or artistic interest than any other places in Europe, except Athens, Rome, and possibly Venice. To visit either of them is a liberal edu- cation. Paris, the ancient Lutetia, first appears in history as a small Historic and Artistic Paris 693 settlement of the Gallic tribe of the Parish on an island in the Seine (lie de la Cite) . This was for centuries the entire site. , Conquered by the Romans under Juhus Caesar, oaUic and Paris formed a place of some importance in the Ro°ian Paris Roman Empire and after the introduction of Christianity became the see of a bishopric. It repelled the assaults of Attila the Hun in the fifth century, but surrendered to Clovis, who made it the official residence of the Merovingian kings. Charlemagne and the later Carolingians seldom visited Paris, which did not again become the seat of government until the accession of Hugh Capet. The great Capetian Medieval rulers of the Middle Ages showed their affection ^*"^ for the city by extending its walls and paving its streets, found- ing its university, the most famous in Christendom, and build- ing numerous abbeys and churches in the Gothic style. The French monarchs of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, above all, Louis XIV, continued the embeUishment of Paris. Here the first Napoleon Modem erected his principal monuments. Still more ^^^ noteworthy was the transforming work of the third Napoleon, who cleared away the maze of narrow winding streets and sub- stituted for them broad avenues and noble squares. Paris suffered terribly at the hands of the "communards" of 1871. The city soon recovered from their depredations, however, and during the last half century completed the great public works which make it the most spacious and imposing of modern capitals. The Seine runs through Paris from east to west in a broad curve for nearly eight miles. Rising from the river are the two islands — lie de la Cite and lie St. Louis — Bridges and both covered with buildings. Thirty-one hand- ^^^y^ some bridges span the Seine, and wide embankments, or quays, line its sides. The principal shops, cafes, and theaters are found on the north or right bank of the Seine, while many pubhc buildings, schools, and museums occupy the south or left bank of the stream. No uniformity marks the street plan of Paris. A few of the 694 Modern Civilization W n fa Q^ fa £> 15 '^ be 3 2-- o o a) o.ii 3 13 c Q 0) JW-O Historic and Artistic Paris 695 ^iMiininiiiiDMiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiuiiiiiiiiiii/iKniiiiiHii/iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii/iiiiiK COLONNE VeNDOME Streets Squares four thousand-odd thoroughfares are shown on the map. Of these, a number are the exceptionally wide avenues and boulevards which Napoleon III con- structed, as much to put an end to barricade fighting as to beautify the city. The squares {places) of Paris form one of its chief attractions. The finest is the Place de la Concorde, laid out under Louis XV and noted as the scene of the ex- ecution of Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and many other victims of the Terror. An Egyptian obehsk occupies the center of the square. The Place de la Concorde connects by the splendid Avenue des Champs Elysees C'Elysian Fields") with the Place de I'Etoile ("Square of the Star"), containing the Arc de Triomphe. The Place Vendome has a column surmounted by a statue of Napoleon I. . The Place de la Bas- tille, on the former site of that prison, is marked by a memorial column in honor of those who fell in the "July Revolution" oi 1830. Not less attractive are the prom- enades and parks of Paris. The Jardin des Tuileries, now wholly given over to trees, flowers, foun- Set up by Napoleon in the Place Vendome. It is 142 feet in height and 13 feet in diameter. Like Trajan's column, of which it is an imitation, the monument is encircled with a spiral band of bronze bas-reliefs commemorating the campaign of 1805. The summit is surmounted by a statue of the emperor. During the rule of the " commu- nards " in 187 1 the column was overthrown, but it was subsequently reerected and restored. 696 Modern Civilization tains, and statues, formerly contained the Tuileries palace, which was burned by the ''communards." Across the Seine Promenades lies the Jardin du Luxembourg, with a palace used and parks by the French Senate. The Champ de Mars (''Field of Mars") is a parade ground. Here stands the Tour Eiffel, a graceful structure of iron lattice-work nearly a thou- sand feet high. The tower was built for the Paris Exposition of 1889. Notre Dame Cathedral,^ the most important of Parisian churches and one of the finest examples of Gothic architecture ^^ ^ in Europe, occupies part of the island called La Churcnes Cite. The present building has had several predecessors, for already in the fourth century a church stood on this site. The French revolutionists converted Notre Dame into a Temple of Reason, but under Napoleon I it went back to rehgious use. The same emperor built the exquisite Made- leine as a hall of fame to commemorate his victories. It has the lines of a Roman temple with a colonnade of Corinthian pillars. The structure is now a church. The Louvre, impressive both for extent and noble archi- tecture, was the chief royal palace until Louis XIV built Ver- Civil sailles. It is now a wonderful museum of the buildings f^^ g^rts, ancient, medieval, and modern. Among the priceless treasures to be seen here are the "Aphrodite of Melos," the "Winged Victory of Samothrace," and Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa." The Palais de Justice (law courts) forms a huge assemblage of buildings on the site of the palace of Merovingian and Capetian kings. The Hotel des InvaHdes, on the left bank of the Seine, dates from the reign of Louis XIV, who founded it as a home for infirm or disabled soldiers. But no one thinks of the "Grand Monarch" in the InvaHdes; it is dedicated rather to Napoleon, whose reHcs crowd its rooms and who himself lies in a huge sarcophagus under the gilded dome.2 The Pantheon, another imposing domed building, served originally as a church, but the revolutionists in 1791 1 Read Victor Hugo's tragic romance, Notre-Dame de Paris, especially book iii, chap. i. 2 Sgg t^ijg illustration, page 540. 5' o §1 698 Modern Civilization secularized it as a sepulcher for great Frenchmen. Voltaire, Rousseau, and Victor Hugo are entombed here. Besides the Louvre, Paris has many other museums. The most interesting, historically, is the Musee de Cluny, installed Museums in a Gothic mansion built by the abbot of Cluny end hbranes during the fifteenth century. It stands on the site of a Roman palace, the ruins of whose baths still remain. Among the libraries of Paris the BibUotheque Nationale, which occupies Cardinal Mazarin's residence, has first place. This immense collection of manuscripts, books, prints, and maps originated in the Middle Ages as a royal hbrary, but since the Revolution it has been a state institution. Paris is naturally a leading educational center. The fame of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts as an art school attracts students of architecture, sculpture, and painting from all countries. In the Latin Quarter, where many of them live and maintain their studios; stands the Sorbonne, founded in the thirteenth century and until the Revolution celebrated as a theological seminary. The French revolution- ists suppressed the institution, together with all other colleges and universities throughout France. Napoleon renewed it, however, and in its magnificent new building the Sorbonne has become the chief seat of learning in France. Not far away is the Palais de ITnstitut, a seventeenth-century structure which houses the Institut de France, an association of the five French academies of letters and science. The drama has a large part in Parisian life, and several of the important theaters receive annual subsidies from the government. The Opera is the largest and most splendid playhouse in the world. The Theatre Frangais, the home of the best French drama, was founded by MoUere in the seventeenth century, and here his comedies are still played. The tourist in Paris seldom omits a visit to the cemetery Pere-la- named after Pere la Chaise, the confessor of Chaise Louis XIV. It covers over a hundred acres and Cemetery contains the tombs of many famous Frenchmen. Notre Dame The present structure, begun in 1163 and completed about 1240, suffered severely during the French Revolution, when it was converted into a Temple of Reason. Extensive renova- tions and alterations were made during the nineteenth century. Two massive square towers, originally intended to support spires, crown the principal or western facade. Its three doors are surrounded by elaborate sculptures and surmounted by a row of figures representing twenty -eight kings of Israel and Judah. Above the central door is a rose window of stained glass and above this a graceful gallery of painted arches supported on slender columns. 700 Modern Civilization Paris has always been a fortress. The present waU, replacing earlier ramparts, completely surrounds the city. Through its Walls and gates run the main highways into the charming suburbs of suburbs. One may visit Fontainebleau, Napo- *"^ leon's favorite residence, where he abdicated in 1 8 14, and the chateau of Malmaison, which he presented to Josephine after the divorce. Then there are St.-Denis, with its abbey-church, the burial place of the French kings; Sevres, with its manufactory of exquisite porcelain; and St.-Germain, once the dweUing of royalty and now a national museum. Above all there is Versailles, twelve miles distant from Paris.^ Here the Estates-General met in 1789 and began the Revolution; here WilHam I of Prussia was proclaimed German emperor in 187 1 ; and here in 1 919 were signed the treaties -which brought peace to a warring world. 243. Historic and Artistic London London, the ancient Londinium, seems to have been a British settlement before the Roman occupation of Britain in the British and ^^^^ century A.D. Under the Romans it was a Roman place of some importance, to judge from the ^ °^ abundant remains which we possess. Ruins of the waUs, of villas, and of a basilica are stiU to be seen, while thousands of coins have been found in the bed of the Thames. After the departure of the Romans from Britain, London came under the rule of the Anglo-Saxons and subsequently Medieval of the Danes. It had grown to be the metropolis London Qf England by the time of the Norman Conquest. Both Norman and Plantagenet kings recognized the importance of London by granting charters of Hberty to its inhabitants, and Magna Carta expressly stipulated that the city should continue to enjoy all its old privileges. The chief event in the history of London under the Tudors was the suppression of the monasteries and -nunneries by Henry VIII. More than half the area of the city had been occupied by these establishments, which were now adapted to secular 1 See the illustration, page 400. M 5 r^ u It 1 ■^ >, fff 3 § "^ n -a r j: c .£f T. K H >> Of* Historic and Artistic London 701 702 Modern Civilization uses. The Great Fire of 1666, early in the reign of Charles II, continued three days and licked up thirteen thousand houses Modem — practically all that remained of the medieval London ^ity. Since the middle of the nineteenth century London has been much improved by rebuilding, the laying out of new streets and parks, and the erection of monuments. It still lacks the spaciousness, the elegance and charm, of Paris, but in historic interest, at least for Enghsh-speaking peoples, even surpasses the French capital. There are really three Londons. First comes the City proper, the commercial and financial heart of the metropoHs. Extent of It Stretches for about a mile along the north bank London Qf ^j^g Thames and occupies the site of the Roman town. Beyond the City spreads Metropolitan London, which is a circle with a radius of approximately twelve miles from its center at Charing Cross. Lastly, comes "Greater London," reaching out into several English counties and containing, with the City and the metropolitan boroughs, more than seven miUion inhabitants. The streets of London are innumerable. Straightened out and laid end to end, they would reach across the United Topography States. The principal continuous thoroughfares, of London though each bears a succession of names, coincide with the main roads converging upon the capital from all parts of England. The Thames follows a devious course through London. Its sides are fined with embankments used as prome- nades. Fourteen road bridges cross the river, including famous London Bridge, which replaces a thirteenth-century structure. The parks are a notable feature in the topography of London. St. James's Park was laid out by Charles II. At its western end rises Buckingham Palace, the London resi- Parks dence of royalty. Green Park extends between the MaU and Piccadilly. Hyde Park, which Henry VIII took over on the dissolution of the monasteries, forms a resort of fashionable society and often also the scene of popular demon- strations. Kensington Gardens and Regent's Park are other open spaces. 704 Modern Civilization The principal places of interest to the tourist lie along the Thames from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey. The Tower Among secular buildings none is more venerable •of London ^j^^n the Tower, which stands at the eastern boundary of the City. William the Conqueror raised the great central keep or White Tower, so called because it was once whitewashed.^ The inner wall, with its thir- teen turrets, was added by William Rufus, the Conqueror's son, the moat by Richard I, and the outer wall by Henry III. The Tower has been a fortress, a palace, and a prison ; it now serves as a government arsenal, historical mu- seum, and repository for the crown jewels. London's most promi- nent building, St. Paul's St. Paul's Cathedral, Cathedral stands in the center of the City, upon a site dedicated to The Nelson Monument, religion since Anglo- Trafalgar Square Saxon times. The present A granite Corinthian column, 145 feet high, sur- g^Jj^^-e replacing the mounted by a statue of Nelson, 16 feet high. On i j' 1 j j u the pedestal are bronze sculptures, cast with the cathedral destroyed by metal of captured French cannon and representing ^j^^ Great Fire is the scenes from Nelson's naval victories. Four colossal r-l, '* 4- V, lions, modeled by Sir Edwin Landseer, crouch at WOrk 01 Oir Lhristopher the base of the monument. Wren, who HCS in the crypt, together with the duke of Wellington, Lord Nelson, and 1 See the illustration, page 194. Historic and Artistic London 705 7o6 Modern Civilization other famous Englishmen. In general appearance St. Paul's resembles St. Peter's at Rome, but it is much smaller. The style of architecture unites Gothic and classical features. The great dome, both from within and without, forms the most imposing feature of the cathedral. From St. Paul's one may proceed along Fleet Street with its newspaper offices, and the Strand, with its hotels, shops, and Trafalgar theaters, to Trafalgar Square. The lofty monu- Square ment in the center commemorates Nelson's vic- tory over the combined fleets of France and Spain. The National Gallery, containing magnificent art collections, is on the north side of Trafalgar Square. Some distance away is the British Museum, the most celebrated in- National . . -.,.,. , 1 , A • 1 Gallery and stitution of its kmd m the world. A smgle great British building houses the collections of books, manu- Museum . ° . , ... , . , , scripts, coins, and antiquities which have accumu- lated since the museum was founded in the eighteenth century. The short street called Whitehall, containing the Admiralty, Treasury, and other government offices, leads from Trafalgar Houses of Square to the Houses of Parliament. These Parliament buildings, as beautiful and impressive outside as they are luxurious inside, were erected during the nineteenth century in the richest style of Tudor Gothic. They cover eight acres and include eleven hundred rooms. The east front opens directly upon the Thames. Historic Westminster Hall,^ belonging to the former royal palace on the site, is in- corporated in the Parliament, buildings. There are three towers: the Clock Tower, with the famous bell Big Ben, whose resonant note may be heard over the greater part of London; the Central Tower, used as a ventilating shaft; and the Vic- toria Tower. When Parliament is in "session a light is shown in the Clock Tower by night and a flag flies from the Victoria Tower by day. The church formerly attached to the Benedictine abbey of St. Peter in Westminster was built in the thirteenth century upon the site of an earUer church raised by Edward the Con- 1 See the illustration, page 386. Historic and Artistic London 707 fessor. Since the Norman Conquest all but one of the English sovereigns have been crowned here, and until the time of George III it served as their last resting place. Westminster The abbey is now England's Hall of Fame, where Abbey many of her distinguished statesmen, warriors, poets, artists, and scientists are buried. Monuments, tombs, busts, and memorials crowd every part of a building that epitomizes English history. Westminster Abbey Studies I. Name and locate twelve of the leading cities of modern Europe and give reasons for their importance. 2. What is the "international mind'? The "inter- national conscience"? 3. Look up in an encyclopedia accounts of (a) Volapuk and Esperanto; (b) the kindergarten movement; and (c) the Rhodes Scholarships. 4. Present some of the arguments commonly advanced for and against woman suffrage. 5. Show that religious toleration and an established church may exist side by side. 6. What is meant by "a free Church in a free State"? 7. What is the work of the Rockefeller Foundation? Of the Carnegie Institution? 8. How many of the great European universities can you enumerate? 9. Explain the "germ theory" of disease. 10. How are the X-rays and radium used in surgery and medicine? 11. Distinguish between antisepsis and asepsis. 12. Why has Darwin been often called "the Newton of biology"? 13. Mention some of the most famous novels by Scott, Dickens and Thackeray. 14. Have you read any novels by Victor Hugo, Tolstoy, or Sienkiewicz? 15. Name six great lyric poets of Great Britain during the nineteenth century. Can you name any of France, Germany, and Italy? 16. Mention some of the great composers of the nineteenth century. 17. On the maps (pages 694 and 701) locate the principal monuments and public buildings of Paris and London. CHAPTER XXVI THE WORLD WAR, 1914-19181 244. National Rivalries and Antipathies Modern civilization, which on the one side creates an inter- national current drawing the world's, peoples together in art, - , ^ literature, science, and industry, on the other side Internation- ' ' •' \ aiism and creates a national current tending to keep them nationalism apart. Internationalism or cosmopolitanism lays stress on our common humanity, on the brotherhood of man. Nationalism or patriotism emphasizes love of country and devotion to the ''fatherland." National rivalries and an- tipathies were never stronger than in the nineteenth century, and in the twentieth century they brought forth the calamitous World War. The national movement in Europe, we have learned^ arose during the revolutionary and Napoleonic era, helped to pro- duce the popular revolts between 1815 and 1830, Germany on and assumed special importance between 1848 and the Con- 1871, when both Italy and Germany won by the sword their long-desired unification. The creation of a united Italy, and especially of a united Germany, quite upset the delicate equilibrium of European politics as es- tablished at the Congress of Vienna. The old balance of power disappeared, for the German Empire from the hour of its birth took the first place on the Continent. Bismarck's former policy of ''blood and iron" had brought on the wars with Denmark, Austria, and France. Now that Germany Germany was "satiated," as he declared, he and France became a man of peace. His policy, henceforth, hinged upon France. The catastrophe of 1870-1871 seemed to 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxxv, "Diplomacy of the Great War." 708 National Rivalries and Antipathies 709 remove that country from the ranks of the great powers, but she recovered rapidly under a republican government and soon paid off the indemnity imposed upon her by the Treaty of Frankfort. For Bismarck a France which would not be reconciled to the loss of Alsace-Lorraine was a potential enemy. The French in 1870-1871 had fought alone; should they secure the support of Austria-Hungary, Italy, or Russia, the issue of a second Franco-German War might be quite unlike that of the first. Accordingly, Bismarck did all he could to keep France friendless among the nations. The "Iron Chancellor" turned first to Austria-Hungary. He had prepared the way for good relations by his moderation in arranging terms of peace with Francis Joseph I ^^ at the close of the "Seven Weeks' War." After German 1 87 1 the Hapsburgs began to seek compensation ^^^^^^^^ in the Balkans for the territory they had lost in Germany and Italy. Bismarck supported their pretensions at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Here the "honest broker," as he called him- self, successfully opposed the extension of Russian influence in the Balkan peninsula and agreed to an Austrian occupation of the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.^ A year later Germany and Austria-Hungary made a secret alliance binding themselves to aid each other if either should be at- tacked by Russia or by another power which had the help of Russia. Bismarck scored a further triumph in 1882, when he induced Italy to throw in her lot with Germany and Austria-Hungary, thus forming the Triple Alliance. Italy joined the ^j^^ ^^ j^ Central Powers, chiefly because of resentment AiUancef^ against France, which had just established a pro- ^^^^ tectorate over Tunis.^ This Turkish province, the region of ancient Carthage, contained a large Italian population, and Italy had hoped herself to snatch it from the Sultan's feeble hands. The Triple Alliance continued unbroken until after the opening of the World War. Bismarck also did his best to convince Russia of Germany's 1 See page 599. 2 3gg p^g^ ^^^ National Rivalries and Antipathies 711 giving offence to Great Britain Bismarck scrupulously observed Belgian neutrality during the war of 1870-1871, and for the same reason he long opposed the acquisition of colonies by Germany. After Bismarck's retirement the two countries began to draw apart, especially when the kaiser declared that the future of Germany lay upon the sea and that she must have a great navy as well as a great army. The sympathetic attitude of the emperor and his associates toward the Boers during the South African War also disturbed the serenity of Anglo-German relations. The early years of the twentieth century saw Great Britain emerge from her ''splendid isolation" and seek new friendships on the Continent. The first step was reconcilia- tion with France. The two nations found it pos- entente sible to adjust their conflicting claims to African cordiale, territory and to arrive at a "cordial understand- ing," or entente cordiale. This was not a formal alliance, but it paved the way for joint action in the future. Three years later Great Britain and Russia, who for half a century had jealously watched each other's expansion in Asia, settled their differences. The entente cordiale Vv n. • , ii 1 r 1 • ^"® Tnple thus became transformed mto a Triple Entente, Entente, for Russia was already an ally of France. Japan, ^^^^ a British ally since 1902,^ also reached an agreement with Russia respecting their spheres of influence in the Far East.^ Such, in outline, was the tangled skein of European diplomacy for nearly forty years following the Franco- German War. The Triple Alliance under Bismarck's guidance had Balance of dominated Europe without a competitor, until power the creation of the Dual Alliance. Something like a balance of power then replaced the earlier primacy of Germany. The old coaUtion, however, continued to be far stronger than the new, until Great Britain aligned herself with France and Russia. Germany, resentful at what she described as the ''encirclement policy" of her enemies, at the "iron ring" which she professed to see being forged around her, now bent every effort to break 1 See page 621. 2 g^g p^g^ 5j^ 712 The World War up the Triple Entente by diplomatic action and by military threats. At the same time she tried to create a " Middle Europe " which, with its annexes in Asia, would effectually separate Great Britain and France from their Russian ally. These Ger- man projects raised new colonial problems and reopened the Eastern Question. < 245. Colonial Problems and the Eastern Question Something has been said in a previous chapter about the Greater Europe which arose during the nineteenth and twentieth National- centuries. European expansion went on most ism and rapidly after 187 1, when one country after another unpen sm endeavored to form an empire overseas. This new imperialism was especially fostered by the revival of national sentiment in Europe. Both Italy and Germany, having be- come powerful nations, wished to obtain colonial dependencies where their people could settle and maintain the language, customs, and traditions of the home land. France sought compensation for her "lost provinces" by acquiring African possessions. Russia, Japan, the United States, Spain, even little Portugal and Belgium, annexed additional territories. Great Britain, the leading colonial power in the world for more than a century, took renewed pride in her far-flung dominions and prepared to extend them as occasion offered. European peoples could not compete for markets, trading-posts, "spheres of influence," "protectorates," and colonies in every part of the world without becoming as bitter rivals abroad as they were at home. Imperialism, as well as nationalism, thus sowed the seeds of future conflict between them. A late-comer in the family of nations, Germany found that the best regions for colonization in the temperate zone already Germany's belonged to other powers. The colonies which ♦♦ place in she acquired in Africa and Oceania did not attract ® ^"° settlers, provided no important markets, and imposed a heavy burden on the imperial treasury for mainte- nance. If Germany was to secure "a place in the sun," ^ it • The kaiser's phrase (igoi). Colonial Problems and the Eastern Question 713 could only be at the expense of other countries and by reliance upon ''the good German sword." ^ William II made prepara- tions for the partition of China, but the uprising of the Chinese under the "Boxers" led to the abandonment of this enterprise. He tried to get a foothold in South America by sending his fleet to demand from Venezuela the payment of German debts, only to be pulled up sharply by President Roosevelt, who invoked the Monroe Doctrine. Not more successful was the kaiser's policy in Morocco. Morocco at the beginning of the twentieth century was a Moslem state inhabited by half-civilized and very unruly tribes. The rich natural resources of the country and its proximity to Algeria made it an inviting Moroccan field for French expansion. Germany also had ^^^^^' some economic interests there. William II pre- cipitated the first Moroccan crisis, at a time when Russia, the ally of France, was involved in war with Japan. He paid a visit to the native ruler, openly flouted the French claims, and asserted in vigorous language the independence of Morocco. France could not afford to accept the challenge thus flung in her face and agreed to submit the Moroccan question to an international conference, which met at Algeciras, Spain, in 1906. The assembled powers prohibited the annexation of Morocco, but left France free to continue her pohcy of "peace- ful penetration." The outcome of the conference thus proved disappointing to the kaiser. Germany soon found another occasion to test the strength of the Anglo-French entente. Owing to the anarchy in Morocco, a French army had occupied the capital (Fez), ge^ond The kaiser at once dispatched a warship to Agadir Moroccan on the Moroccan coast as a notice to France to *^"^*^' ^^^^ withdraw her troops. Feeling mounted high in both countries, and Europe for the moment seemed to be on the verge of the long-dreaded war. Great Britain, however, made common cause with France, for Agadir in German hands and converted into a naval base would have formed a palpable threat to ^ The crown prince's phrase (1913). 714 The World War British trade routes in the Atlantic. Germany now decided to yield. She agreed to the estabhshment of a French protectorate over Morocco, accepting as compensation some territory in the French Congo. This "Agadir incident" further embittered international relations. The French regarded their Congo cession as so much blackmail levied by Germany; the Germans looked upon Great Britain's support of France as an unwar- ranted interference which had inflicted upon them a diplomatic defeat. Bismarck had treated the whole Eastern Question mth con- tempt, declaring it "not worth the bones of a single Pomeranian Germany grenadier." Under William II, however, Germany and Turkey managed to supplant Great Britain as the pro- tector of the Ottoman Empire against Russia. The kaiser twice visited the sultan,^ a bloodthirsty despot whose massacres of Bulgarians and Armenians had aroused the horror of Chris- tian Europe, and ostentatiously proclaimed himself the cham- pion of all Moslems, the ally of Allah. Germany now began the ''peaceful penetration" of Asiatic Turkey. The fertile regions of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia, The Bagdad sparsely settled and undeveloped, offered many Railway opportunities for the investment of German cap- ital, markets for German goods, and homes for the superfluous population of Germany. Economic exploitation was to be followed by military and political control of the Ottoman Empire, with Germany in command of the Turkish armies and supreme throughout the wide area from the Black Sea to the Indian Ocean. All these dazzling possibilities were fore- shadowed in the scheme for a railway intended to unite Con- stantinople with Bagdad and the head of the Persian Gulf. Nearly all the line as far as Bagdad had been completed by the opening of the World War. German capitalists also began to construct a branch line running from Aleppo in Syria to Medina and Mecca in Arabia. It is obvious that the Bagdad Railway, with its connections, menaced the position of Great Britain in India and British control of Egypt and the Suez Canal. ^ Abdul Hamid II ("Abdul the Damned"), 1876-1909. Colonial Problems and the Eastern Question 715 '® Petrograd THE BERLIN TO BAGDAD RAILWAY 100 200 300 400 50 Scale of Miles The Berlin to Bagdad Railway The practical annexation of Asiatic Turkey formed only a part of the kaiser's ambitious policy. European Turkey, the Balkan states, and Austria-Hungary were to unite «« Middle with Germany into a huge combination for pur- Europe" poses of offense and defense. ''Middle Europe" might ulti- mately draw within its embrace Holland, the Scandinavian states, and a projected Polish kingdom to include almost the entire manufacturing area of Russia. German commerce, would exploit and German mihtarism would dominate every one of these countries. 7i6 The World War The success of the "Middle Europe" project depended upon the attitude of the independent Christian states of the Balkans. It was essential that they should be and the amenable to German, or at least to Austro- Balkan Hungarian, influence and that the influence of states Russia should be entirely eliminated from their councils. Dynastic relationships seemed to make this pos- sible. Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria was a German; King Charles of Rumania was the kaiser's kinsman; and the wife of the future King Constantine of Greece was the kaiser's sister. Even Serbia had a pro-Austrian ruler until 1903, when a revolution at Belgrade brought to the throne King Peter, who leaned toward Jlussia. The Balkan policy of the Central Powers consequently received a setback, for Serbia lay on the line of the railway from BerUn to Constantinople. Events now moved rapidly in the Balkans. Taking advan- tage of the Young Turk Revolution,^ Austria-Hungary in 1908 proceeded to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. Balkan These two provinces had been freed from the crisis, direct control of the Turks by Serbia and Russia, 1908 but the Congress of Berlin had handed them over to Austria-Hungary to occupy and administer. Their annexation, violating the Berlin settlement, raised a storm of protest in Serbia. The people of Bosnia and Herzegovina are Slavs, and Serbia expected some day to incorporate them and the Montenegrins in a south Slavic state to stretch from the Danube to the Adriatic. Russia also seethed with indigna- tion at what she considered an affront to the Slavic race by a Teutonic power. Russian troops now began to move toward the Austrian border. At this moment Germany ranged herself by the side of Austria-Hungary ''in shining armor," as the kaiser afterwards expressed it, and dared Russia to attack her ally. Both France and Great Britain refused to join Russia in a general European war, and that country, not yet recovered from the struggle with Japan, thereupon gave way, withdrew her sup- port from Serbia, and looked on in deep humiliation while the 1 See page 599. Militarism 717 Central Powers proceeded to reap the fruits of their diplomatic triumph. The Balkan wars of 1912-1913 produced another inter- national crisis. The Treaty of Bucharest ^ could not but be extremely distasteful to the Central Powers. It left Germany's vassal, Turkey, with only a foot- Balkan ing in Europe; it humiliated Bulgaria, the friend ^"^^^' of Austria-Hungary; and it planted a hostile Serbia squarely in Macedonia, where she blocked the "Middle Europe" scheme. Even before the treaty had been signed, Austria-Hungary made ready to attack Serbia, but held her hand when Italy refused to cooperate, on the ground that the terms of the Triple Alliance required its members to aid each other only in the case of a defensive war. Germany also seems to have dissuaded Austria-Hungary from undertaking her perilous adventure in 1913. The hour had not yet struck to precipitate a European conflict. Meanwhile, the Central Powers feverishly hastened military preparations, and the other countries, seeing the war clouds on the horizon, likewise took steps to increase their arms and armies. 246. Militarism Between 1871 and 1914 there were wars in the Balkans, in Asia, and in Africa. The nations of western Europe, however, did not draw the sword against one another for "Armed more than forty years. Yet at no other period peace" had there been such enormous expenditures for armaments, such huge standing armies, and such colossal navies. Western Europe enjoyed peace, but it was an ''armed peace" based upon fear. The improvements in weapons after 1871 made warfare a branch of appHed science requiring expert technical knowledge both on the battle-field and in the munition fac- „ new means tory. One needs only refer to the breech-loading of des- rifle, machine gun, and smokeless powder, together *™^*^°^ with the continuous enlargement of cannon and the use of long- ^ See page 6oi . 7i8 The World War range, high-explosive projectiles. In death-dealing efficiency these new means of destruction threw all previous inventions into the shade. Having created modern civiHzation, scieilce seemed ready to destroy it. The changed methods of fighting demanded the "nation in arms," rather than the old-fashioned armies composed of Standing volunteers and mercenaries. As early as the armies eighteenth century, European monarchs began to draft soldiers from among their subjects, but at first only artisans and peasants. During the revolutionary era France The Peace Palace at the Hague A gift of Andrew Carnegie for the use of the Hague Tribunal and for international conferences. resorted to forced levies, allowing, however, many exemptions. Prussia went further during the Napoleonic era and adopted universal miUtary service, as well in time of peace as in time of war. All able-bodied men were to receive several years' training in the army and then pass into the reserve, whence they could be called to the colors upon the outbreak of hos- tiUties. This Prussian system, having proved its worth in the Militarism 719 War of Liberation against Napoleon/ was extended by Wil- liam I soon after his accession to the throne. ^ The speedy triumphs of Prussia in 1866 and 1870 led all the principal nations, except Great Britain, to adopt universal military service. Europe thus became an "armed camp," with five million men constantly under arms. Great Britain found sufficient protection in her fleet, which it has long been the British policy to maintain at a strength at least equal to that of any two other powers. Her widespread empire depends upon control of the seas, and being no longer self-supporting, she would face starva- tion in time of war were she blockaded by an enemy. Germany, however, would not acquiesce in British maritime supremacy, and under the inspiration of the kaiser, who declared that the "trident must be in our hands," started in 1898 to build a mighty navy. Helgoland,^ off the mouth of the Elbe, was converted into a naval base, a second Gibraltar. The Kiel Canal, originally completed in 1896, was enlarged in 1914 to allow the passage of the largest warships between the Baltic and the North Sea. Great Britain watched these preparations with unconcealed dismay. Her answer was the complete re- organization of the British fleet, the scrapping of nearly two hundred vessels as obsolete, and the laying-down of dread- noughts and super-dreadnoughts. The naval rivalry threatened to become so enormously expensive that British statesmen twice proposed a "naval holiday," that is, an agreement to keep down the rate of increase. But Germany refused to enter into an arrangement which would have left Great Britain still mistress of the seas. The crushing burden of standing armies and navies produced a popular agitation in many countries to abolish warfare. The movement against militarism took practical shape Peace in 1899, when twenty-six sovereign states, upon coiiferences invitation of the tsar, Nicholas II, met at The Hague, Holland, in the First Peace Conference. A Second Peace Conference of 1 See page 536. 2 See page 569. ' Acquired by Great Britain in 181 5 (see page 546) and ceded to Germany in 1890. 720 The World War forty-four sovereign states assembled in 1907. Attempts were made at these gatherings to mitigate the horrors of future wars, but every proposal to reduce armaments encountered the strenuous opposition of Germany. The German government would not abandon those deep-laid schemes for conquest, first in Europe and ultimately throughout the world, which are summed up in one word — Pan- Germanism. 247. Pan-Germanism The material development of Germany between 1871 and 19 14 was perhaps unparalleled in European history. Her popula- Kultur and tion increased from forty-one to sixty-five millions; nationalism j^gj- foreign trade more than trebled; and she be- came an industrial state second in Europe only to Great Britain. Proud of their army, navy, and pohce, of their handsome, well- ordered cities, of their technical schools and universities, of their science, literature, music, and art, the Germans came to believe that they enjoyed a higher culture (Kultur) than any other people. They were ''the salt of the earth," so their kaiser told them. The Russians, by comparison, were bar- barians; the French and Italians, decadent; and the British and Americans, mere money-grabbers. Such ideas found a fertile soil in the exaggerated nationalism which had been fos- tered by the creation of the German Empire. The ardent belief in the superiority of German Kultur seemed to impose the duty of extending it to alien and therefore in- Kultur and ferior peoples. This was Germany's divine mis- imperialism sJQj^^ according to her philosophers, historians, clergymen, and government officials. Even the kaiser could say in all seriousness that "God has called us to civihze the world; we are the missionaries of human progress." Before the world could be remade upon the German model, it had to be first conquered. Both backward and ''decadent" Kultur and nations possessed their own standards of civiliza- miiitarism ^[^^^ which they would not willingly abandon even for Germany's so-called beneficent Kultur. World- power, in fact, meant war. Accordingly the leaders of German Pan- Germanism 721 society labored in press and school and pulpit to prove that war is a holy and righteous thing; that it corresponds in the hfe of nations to the ''struggle for existence" ^ in animal life; and that by war the weaker, incompetent states are weeded out and room is made for those stronger, more efficient states which alone deserve to inherit the earth. At the same time the people were led to consider war inevitable because of the hostile at- titude of Russia, the "Slavic peril"; because France wanted revenge for her "Lost Provinces"; and because Great Britain only waited a favorable opportunity to take the German navy and stifle German commerce. It was taught that Germany ought not to delay until her enemies were ready for a combined attack; she should attack first and reap the advantage of her military preparedness. This idea of an offensive-defensive war particularly appealed to a people who owed their national greatness to successful conflicts de- liberately incurred by unscrupulous rulers. The autocratic nature of the German government, vesting the control of foreign affairs so largely with the em- peror,2 made the kaiser's person- ality a very important factor in the* international situation. In this last of the HohenzoUerns culminated all their absolutism, their contempt of popular government, their demand for implicit obedience, their glorifica- tion of conquest, and their essential cruelty. The kaiser inherited the warlike traditions of the Great Elector, Frederick the Great, and William II, and even the' shadowy claims to world-dominion put forth during the Middle Ages by the Holy Roman Emperors. One of his first utter- ances after mounting the throne had an ominous sound: "I solemnly vow always to be mindful of the fact that the eyes of 1 See page 687. • ^ See page 588. The kaiser William II 722 The. World War . my ancestors are looking down upon me from the other world, and that one day I shall have to render to them an account both of the glory and the honor of the army." During the earlier years of his reign the kaiser semed to find sufficient outlet for his restless energy in the development of The Pan- Germany. The task lost its novelty and interest German after a time, and he turned his uneasy gaze outside eague ^j^^ empire to the aggrandizement of Germany abroad. More and more he came to be in sympathy with the aggressive policies advocated by the German militaristic class. It included the army and navy officers, both active and re- tired; the large landowners {Junkers)] the merchant princes, bankers, and manufacturers; the university professors, dip- lomats, and higher government officials — all, in short, who ex- pected to profit from a greater and enormously more wealthy Germany. These men organized in 1890 the Pan-German League, which soon became the most powerful political organiza- tion in the empire. The Pan-Germanists thought that they could conquer Europe, nation by nation. They expected to overwhelm France by a The Pan- sudden blow, capture Paris, seize the former German Franche Comte and what remained of French ^° Lorraine,^ together with the Channel ports, take the French colonies, and 'levy an indemnity large enough to pay the expenses of the war. Then they intended to turn against Russia and annex her Polish and Baltic provinces. Their Austrian ally, meanwhile, would overrun Serbia and open the German ''corridor" to the Orient. Once mistress of the Continent, Germany might look forward confidently to the issue of a future struggle with Great Britain and the British Empire for the dominion of the world. Every preparation was made, every precaution was taken, to ensure a prompt, decisive victory. By the summer of 1914 a special war tax, to be expended on fortifications and equip- ment, had been collected. The army had been much in- creased. Enormous stocks of munitions had been accumulated. 1 Once part of the Holy Roman Empire. See page 403. Beginning of the War 723 The Kiel Canal had been reconstructed. Strategic railways leading to the Belgian, French, and Russian fron- <« The tiers had been laid down. All things were ready ^*y " for "The Day." Germany required only a pretext to launch the World War. 248. Beginning of the War The pretext was soon supplied. On June 28, 1914, the Aus- trian crown prince Francis Ferdinand and his wife were as- sassinated at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. . . The Sara- The murderer, a Bosnian, belonged to a Serbian jevo secret society which aimed to separate Bosnia assassina- and Herzegovina from the Dual Monarchy and add them to Serbia. Austria-Hungary, after conducting a se- cret investigation, alleged that he had been aided by Serbian officials with the connivance of the government of Serbia. This accusation has never been proved. Nearly a month passed. Then on July 23 Austria-Hungary sent a note to Serbia, harsh, peremptory, and, except in name, an ultimatum. It demanded that Serbia suppress ultimatum anti-Austrian publications and organizations, dis- *° Serbia miss from the army or the civil service all those implicated in the anti-Austrian propaganda, and eliminate anti-Austrian teachers from the public schools. Serbia was further to allow the ''collaboration" of Austrian officials in carrying out these measures. Forty-eight hours only were granted for the un- conditional acceptance or rejection of the ultimatum. Serbia replied on July 25. She agreed to all the Austrian demands except those which required the presence on Serbian soil of representatives of the Dual Monarchy. Serbia's Such an arrangement, Serbia pointed out, would ^^^^^ violate her rights as a sovereign state — would make her, in fact, an Austrian vassal. She concluded by offering to submit the entire dispute to arbitration by an international tribunal or to the mediation of the great powers. Austria-Hungary rejected the Serbian reply as insincere and on July 28 declared war against her little neighbor. 724 The World War Russia, the protector of the Slavs of the Balkans, could not look on without concern while a great Teutonic power destroyed I ff ti ^^^ independence of a weak Slav state. But if peace Russia intervened to aid Serbia, by making war proposals ^^ Austria-Hungary, then Germany, as the latter's ally, would surely attack Russia; and France, bound to Russia in firm alliance, would be obliged to attack Germany. Efforts to preserve the peace of Europe began at once. The Triple Entente first asked Austria-Hungary to extend the time limit for the answer from Serbia. Austria-Hungary promptly de- clined to do so. Then Great Britain and France urged Serbia to make her answer to the ultimatum as conciliatory as possi- ble. After the Serbian reply had been dehvered. Great Britain, through Sir Edward Grey, her Minister for Foreign Affairs, suggested that the four powers not directly involved should hold a conference in London to adjust the Austro-Serbian difficulty. France, Italy, and Russia accepted the suggestion. Germany rejected it. Finally, Great Britain invited Germany herself to propose some method of mediation, but the German government declared that the whole dispute concerned only Aus- tria-Hungary and Serbia and that Russia should not interfere in it. If Russia did interfere, Germany would back her ally. We know now why these and other peace proposals during that last fateful week of July, 19 14, were ineffective. Germany The Pots- ^^^ Austria-Hungary had already decided to dam Con- force the issue. On July 5 a conference took ference ^^^^^ -^ Potsdam. It was attended by German and Austrian diplomats, army and navy officers, and great bankers, railroad directors, and manufacturers. The kaiser, who presided, announced his unqualified approval of the Aus- trian designs on Serbia and asked each man if he was ready for war. All repUed affirmatively, except the bankers, who in- sisted upon a delay of two weeks in order to sell foreign se- curities and arrange their loans. Germany subsequently denied all knowledge of the terms of the ultimatum until it was too late to influence them. Her denial is nothing short of preposterous, in the fight of the Potsdam Conference. Beginning of the War 725 Russia in 1908 had yielded to Austria-Hungary and Germany without fighting; ^ in 19 14 she accepted their challenge. Russian troops began to mobilize against Austria-Hungary Qgrjuany on July 29 and against Germany on July 30. The at war with German government sent an ultimatum to Russia "^^^* ordering that country to begin demobihzation within twelve hours or accept the consequences (July 31). Russia did not reply. The kaiser, exercising his right to make "defensive war- fare, " ^ immediately signed the document declaring that a state of hostilities existed between Germany and Russia (August i). Asked by Germany what was to be her attitude in the coming struggle, France replied that she "would do that which her in- terests dictated," and began to mobilize. Ger- Germany many then declared war on France (August 3). at war with It is now known that had France refused to sup- ^^^^^ port Russia, Germany intended to demand the fortresses of Toul and Verdun as a pledge of French neutraUty until the close of the war. Germany also tried to learn the attitude of Great Britain. The German Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg, promised that if Great Britain would stand aloof, Germany would Attitude agree not to take any European territory from of Great France, but he refused to give assurances as to "*^"^ the French colonies. Sir Edward Grey retorted that Great Britain could never conclude such a disgraceful bargain with Germany at the expense of France. The British Foreign Minister, however, made it clear that Great Britain would not be drawn into a Franco- German War unless France and Russia rejected "any reasonable proposal" for peace put forward by the Central Powers. After the German declaration of war on Russia and the German invasion of Luxemburg,^ Great Britain promised France the help of the British fleet in case the German fleet operated against the unprotected western 1 See page 716. 2 See page 586. 3 Luxemburg originally formed part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Congress of Vienna made it a grand-duchy under the king of the Netherlands. In 1890 it became independent. The perpetual neutraUty of Luxemburg was guaranteed by the European powers, including Prussia, in 1867. 726 The World War coast of France. The British government could not honorably do less, for, in accordance with the Anglo-French entente, France since 191 2 had concentrated her fleet in the Mediter- ranean so that the British fleet might be concentrated in the North Sea against the possibly hostile German navy. The neutrality of Belgium was guaranteed by the European powers, including Prussia, both in 1831 and 1839;^ further- Violation of niore the Second Peace Conference in 1907, with Belgian Germany consenting, expressly declared the ter- neutr ty ritory of neutral states to be inviolable. Never- theless, Germany on August 2 addressed a note to Belgium demanding permission to move troops across the country into France and threatening, in case of a refusal, to leave Belgium's fate to the '^ decision of arms." The Bel- gian government, under King Albert, declined to "sacrifice the honor of the nation and betray its duty toward Europe." On August 4 the German army invaded Belgium. Bethmann- Hollweg frankly admitted before the Reichstag, the same day, that the invasion was "a breach of inter- national law," and the kaiser, in a cable message to President Wilson,^ acknowledged that Belgian neu- trality ''had to be violated by Germany on strategical grounds." There is no reason to doubt the accuracy of their statements. Belgium in her hour of need appealed for help to Great Britain, nor did Great Britain fail her. When news came that German troops had entered Belgium, the British government sent an ultimatum to Germany, re- quiring assurances by midnight, August 4, that Belgian neutrality would be respected. German refused, and Bethmann-HoUweg, in his final interview with 1 See page 553. 2 Sent August 10, 1Q14. King Albert I Great Britain at war with Germany The War in Europe, 1914-1917 727 the British ambassador at Berlin, complained that Great Britain was about to fight a kindred nation just for "a, scrap of paper." About midnight Great Britain declared war on Germany. 249. The War in Europe, 1914-1917 The war quickly converted the Triple Entente into a Triple Alliance. Great Britain, France, and Russia engaged not to make peace separately and to accept a general ^j^^ peace only on terms agreeable to all of them. The AUies, instinct of self-preservation, which had united ^^^* Europe against France under Louis XIV and Napoleon, was now aroused against the military domination of Germany under the kaiser. As on previous occasions. Great Britain, with her fleet, her money, and eventually her army, formed the keystone of the coalition. Germany and Austria-Hungary, though less populous and wealthy than their antagonists, held a better geographical position, and at the outset they possessed a su- periority both in the number of trained soldiers Central and in munitions and equipment. Above all, Powers, they were prepared. Austria-Hungary had al- ready massed part of her army against Serbia, while Germany, by means of her strategic railroads, could move and concentrate troops on her eastern or western frontier with greater speed than either Russia or France. Should it prove to be a short war, the Central Powers seemed likely to win an overwhelming victory. Hostilities commenced in the West with the advance of the Germans through Luxemburg and Belgium. The Belgian re- sistance — heroic, unexpected ^ — delayed by ten full days their arrival on the frontier of France. the*Mame, The French gained time to complete mobilization September and the British to send an expeditionary force. After the first clash at Mons, the Anglo-French armies retired before the enormous masses of the enemy. Back and back they went, fighting grimly, until they reached the Marne and 1 Fortisshni sunt Belgce (Caesar, Gallic War, i, i). 728 The World War their flanks rested upon Paris and Verdun. General Joffre now stayed the retreat. Having quietly collected a fresh army in reserve, he launched an attack against the over-extended German line, first on the right wing, then in the center, and drove it back in confusion across the Aisne. The Germans had been out-gen- eraled and out-fought; German plans for a speedy triumph had been upset; and Paris had been saved. Both sides now bent every effort to extend their lines northward to the sea. The Germans hoped to seize Dunkirk and Calais, two important Channel ports, but the Allies reached the Channel first at Nieu- port. The trench system was soon extended southward to Switzerland, a distance of six hundred miles. Attempts to break the deadlock between the The western opposing armies by means of concentrated shellfire front jind the use of poison gas — the latter a German innovation — resulted only in slight gains of territory. During the first half of 191 6 the Germans under the crown prince made a determined effort to capture Verdun, guarding the road to Paris from the east. The effort failed, with murderous losses to both attackers and defenders. In July of the same year the British army, now greatly enlarged and commanded by Sir Douglas Haig, relieved the pressure of Verdun by the long battle of the Somme. The British were unable to break through, if such was their intention. To forestall another attack, the Germans in March, 191 7, retired on a wide front to the shorter .and more defensible ''Hindenburg Line." There was no deadlock on the eastern front. The Russians mobilized more rapidly than had been expected and started Marshal Joffre 730 The World War The eastern front the invasion of East Prussia and Galicia. They were soon driven out of East Prussia by Hindenburg, who, however, had to call for reinforcements from the -West, thus weakening the German resistance at the battle of the Marne. In Galicia the Russians crushed the Austrian resistance and by the spring of 191 5 threatened to penetrate the Carpathian passes into Hungary. The summer of that year witnessed a terrific counter-offensive of the combined German and Austrian armies led by Hindenburg and Mackensen. The Russians had to abandon their Galician conquests and lost Poland and Courland as well. The new battle lines on the eastern front now extended from Riga to the Rumanian frontier. ''Middle Europe" began to be an accom- phshed fact. Turkey, largely controlled by Germany and fearful of Russia's designs on Constantinople, soon espoused the cause of the Central Powers. Her entrance did not at first appreciably affect the situation, for she was still cut off from her associates by a neutral Bulgaria and a hostile Serbia. The sultan proclaimed a holy war ^ of extermination against the ''enemies of Islam." Contrary to German hopes, the Mos- lems of North Africa, Egypt, and India, instead of revolting, loyally supported France and Great Britain. An attempt in 191 5 by an Anglo- French fleet and army to force the Dardanelles and take Con^ stantinople proved disastrous, however, and the peninsula of Gallipoli became a graveyard of Allied hopes. After long hesitation Bulgaria threw in her lot with the Central Powers. Bulgaria's reason was less love for Aus- 1 Or jihad. See page 75. Hindenburg Turkey joins the Central Powers, October, 1914 The War in ETirope, 1914-1917 731 tria-Hungary and Germany than hatred of Serbia, her bitterest and most successful foe in the Second Balkan War.^ The situ- ation in the Balkans now changed overnight, g , . Brave Httle Serbia, who earlier in the war had joins the twice expelled the Austrians, quickly collapsed ^®°*^^^ under the double attack of Austro-Germans from October, ,the north and Bulgarians from the east. Mon- ^^^^ tenegro, Serbia's ally, was also conquered, together with northern Albania. "Middle Europe" had come nearer realization than ever. Mihtary operations in the Balkans were not yet over. In- fluenced by the apparent recovery of Russia and the momentary success of a great Russian ''drive" during the The Balkan summer of 19 16, Rumania joined the Allies ^^o°* (August , 1 9 1 6 ) . She promptly invaded the Hungarian province of Transylvania, which she had long claimed as properly hers. A German-Austrian-Bulgarian counter-stroke resulted in the speedy conquest of about two-thirds of the Rumanian territory. "Middle Europe" approached completion. One obstacle only remained. A large Anglo-French army had been gathered be- hind the defenses of Salonika in Greece, partly as a threat to Turkey and Bulgaria, partly to prevent Constantine, the pro- German king of Greece, from bringing his country into the war on the side of the Central Powers. Constantine was finally deposed, and Greece then took the side of the Allies (June, 1917). The Balkan front henceforth stretched west- ward from Salonika to the Adriatic. Italy declared neutrahty in 19 14, giving the same reason which she had given in 1913,2. namely, that the terms of her al- liance with the Central Powers did not bind her to t. , • • Italy joins assist them m an offensive war. But Italy was the Allies, unable to remain neutral. Union with the Allies ^^^' ^^^^ meant an opportunity to secure Italia Irredenta,^ those ter- ritories in the north and east of the peninsula still unredeemed .from the grasp of Austria-Hungary, her traditional foe. Though the pressure of national interests helped to range Italy with 1 See pages 600-601. 2 gee page 717. 3 gg^ p^ee 566. 732 The World War the Allies, even more compelling, perhaps, was the conviction on the part of the ItaHan people that the Allies were fighting in a just cause for everything that mankind holds dear. Italy, an ancient home of civilization, would aid her Latin sister France in defending civilization against what seemed a fresh inroad of the Germanic barbarians. The entrance of Italy ^ added another front and almost com-, pleted the encirclement of the Central Powers. Italian armies _.. marched against Trieste and the Trentino, but Italian made slow progress on account of the mountainous * nature of the country. They had nearly reached their goals when an Austro-German attack, late in 191 7, undid the work of more than two years' hard fighting and forced them back behind the Italian frontier as far as the Piave River. There, with some aid from French and British troops, they held the enemy. The military situation in Europe at the end of 191 7 clearly favored the Central Powers. On the western front they held The Allies nearly all of Belgium and a broad strip of north- and the eastern France containing valuable coal and iron Powers, mines. On the eastern front they held the richest 1^^*^ industrial districts of Russia. They had overrun Serbia, Montenegro, and a large part of Rumania. They had taken most of Venetia from the Italians. Their only territorial losses to the Allies were in southern Alsace and eastern Galicia. A different picture, however, was presented outside of Europe and on the sea. 250. The War outside of Europe and on the Sea, 1914-1917 The sea-power of the Allies enabled them to capture Germany's colonial possessions. The British and French seized Togoland and the Cameroons in West Africa. Troops from of the the Union of South Africa, assisted by loyal Boers, German ^qq^ German Southwest Africa, and in cooperation- colonies .,_,. , ,x-, -r^ a r • With Belgian forces took German East Africa. 1 San Marino also has a place in the Allied honor roll. The War outside of Europe, 1914-1917 733 The native population of all these colonies welcomed their release from the cruel, oppressive rule of German officials. The islands in the Pacific belonging to Germany ^ were conquered by the Australians and the Japanese. Faithful to her treaty obligations, Japan promptly entered the war on the side of the Allies. Japan's special contribution to the Allied cause was the capture of Kiau- capture chau, the German naval base and stronghold in ^^ Kiauchau the Far East.^ Germany's ally, Turkey, suffered the loss of her outlying possessions. Great Britain declared Egypt altogether in- dependent of the sultan and established a pro- Freeing of tectorate over the country. The British also Egypt and encouraged a revolt of the Arabs against Turkey. Arab troops secured Mecca and Medina, the sacred places of Arabia, and set up the kingdom of the Hejaz, which extends along the eastern coast of the Red Sea. Its first ruler is a descendant of the prophet Mohammed. Two other countries, long under the heel of the Turk, owed their liberation to Great Britain. An expeditionary Freeing of Mesopotamia and Palestine force, largely composed of Indian contingents, invaded Mesopotamia by way of the Tigris River and entered Bagdad in tri- umph (March, 191 7). Another British army, starting from Egypt, invaded Pales- tine and took possession of Jerusalem (De- cember, 191 7). The Holy City, after nearly seven centuries, was again in Chris- tian hands. ^ The fleets of the Allies quickly swept the merchantmen of the Central Powers from the ocean and com- pelled their warships to keep the shelter of home ports. The few German raiders which remained at large after hostilities 1 See page 622, note 3. 2 gee page 616, note 2. ^ gee pages 174-175. The Victoria Cross Established in 185^ for acts of bravery in battle. It is a bronze Maltese cross with the royal crest (lion and crown) in the center and below it a scroll inscribed " For Valour" 734 The World War began were either captured or sunk. Once only did the Ger- man "High Seas Fleet" slip out of Kiel Harbor, to be met by p^^^ the British battle cruisers off the coast of Jutland control of (May3i, 1916). Both sides suffered heavy losses t e sea -^ ^|^^ engagement which followed. With the ap- proach of darkness, however, the German ships returned to their safe anchorage and did not emerge again during the remainder of the war. Allied control of the sea led to an immediate blockage of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Three results followed. The The Allies were able freely to import food and raw blockade materials from their colonies and neutral states. They kept the ocean lanes safe for the transportation of troops from' Africa, India, Australia, and Canada, meanwhile prevent- ing the return of Austro-German reservists from the United States and other countries. Finally, the Allies extinguished the commerce of the Central Powers, which were henceforth hard pressed to find the necessary sinews of war for their armies and food for their civihan population. The blockade, never relaxed for a moment and growing more rigid every month, promised, sooner or later, to bring the Central Powers to terms. The Central Powers relied on submarines (U-boats) to break the blockade. International law requires that a cargo or U-boat passenger ship shall be warned before being at- warfare tacked and every effort made to safeguard human lives. Germany, however, declared the waters around the British Isles a "war zone," where all enemy merchantmen would be sunk, whether or not passengers and crews could be rescued. Neutral vessels were also warned against trespassing within the zone. Germany's enforcement of her piratical policy brought about the entrance of the United States into the World War. 251. Intervention of the United States President Wilson announced the neutrality of the United States immediately upon the outbreak of hostilities. No other course seemed possible, in view of our traditional policy Intervention of the United States 735 of non-interference in European affairs and our peaceful tem- per. The President also asked for neutrality of sentiment on the part of the American people, so that the United States, as the one great nation at peace, united might in time be able to mediate between the war- States as ° . . a neutral ring countries. While the government did remam neutral, American citizens could not avoid taking sides. The Central Powers had many active sympathizers, especially among those of German birth or parentage. Public opinion, however, favored the AUies; above all, France, to whom we owed our liberty, and Belgium, so innocent and so cruelly wronged. But as yet there was Httle thought of our active participation in the war. The proclamation of a "war zone " led to an acute controversy with Germany. President Wilson protested at once, declaring that the United States would hold the German Submarine government to a '' strict accountabiUty " for Ameri- atrocities can ships destroyed or American citizens killed. Germany disclauned all responsibiUty for "accidents" which might occur. T J> A Submarine U-boats proceeded to torpedo the great British liner Lusitania, with the loss of over one hundred American men, women, and children (May, 191 5)/ and also attacked American ships and those of other neutral nations. A "war of notes" between the United States and Germany finally extorted a German pledge not to sink merchant vessels without warning, unless they at- 1 In all, 1 1 54 persons were drowned. 736 The World War tempted to escape or offered resistance (May, 191 6). Germany never intended to keep her pledge any longer than convenient, as the frank Bethmann-HoUweg afterwards admitted in a public statement. At the end of January, 191 7, she notified the American government of her purpose to sink at sight all ships, both enemy and neutral, found within the waters around the Allied countries. President Wilson then severed diplomatic relations with the German government. This act did not necessarily mean war, but it prepared the way for war. Submarine atrocities combined with Austro-German intrigues and conspiracies* throughout the United States to arouse the Intrigues warlike temper of the American people. From and con- the very start official and non-official representa- spiracies ^-^^^ ^£ ^j^^ Central Powers had done all they could to destroy munition plants and steel factories supplying the Allies. Funds were sent to the German ambassador for use in bribing Congress to declare an embargo on the traffic in munitions. Spies were multiplied throughout the country. Efforts were made to foment ill feeling in the United States against Japan and in Mexico against the United States. When Germany was about to proclaim unrestricted submarine war- fare and believed the intervention of the United States would follow, she even invited Mexico to enter an alliance with her, promising aid in helping that country recover the American Southwest. Such actions convinced our people that Germany and her satellites were running amuck under irresponsible rulers and that national safety, no less than national honor, required us to take the side of the Allies. American intervention soon became an accomplished fact. The President, in an address before a special session of Congress, urged that since Germany had repeatedly com- United mitted hostile acts against the United States, we States as a should formally accept the status of belhgerent belligerent ^ , ^ 111 thus thrust upon us. Congress responded by declaring war on Germany (April 6, 191 7). Similar action was taken as to Austria-Hungary in December of the same Intervention of the United States 737 year. Diplomatic relations with Turkey and Bulgaria were also broken. America, the President said, had no quarrel with the people of the Central Powers, who had been led blindly into the war. America's quarrel was with their autocratic American governments. She asked nothing for herself, war aims neither annexations nor indemnities. She fought to put down divine-right monarchy, secret diplomacy, and militarism, to promote among mankind that ordered liberty under law which she had long enjoyed, and to " make the world safe for de- mocracy." In such a cause American citizens were privil- eged to spend their lives and their fortunes. Several other countries which had remained neutral followed the example of the _ TT . 1 o , The worid United States dur- against the ing 1017. Cuba, Central -r. T^ M Powers Panama, Brazil, Siam, Liberia, and China all flung down the gauntlet to Ger- many.^ Including Portugal, which joined the Allies during 1916, nineteen sovereign states were now ranged against the four Central Powers. 252. The Russian Revolution The Russian Revolution, beginning on the eve of American intervention, revealed the war more clearly than ever as no "Dark mere conflict for the preservation of the balance of power in Europe, but a world-wide struggle between democracy and autocracy. Popular up- risings in Russia between 1905 and 1906 had compelled the 1 Nine American countries also broke oflf diplomatic relations with Germany in 1917. They were: Bolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Peru, and Uruguay. forces * Russia 738 The World War tsar to grant a national legislature (Duma), without, however, seriously weakening the position of the government.^ The war disclosed how inefficient, weak, and even corrupt that govern- ment was. Late in 191 6 the pro-German party at the court, including the tsar's German wife, secretly began negotiations with the Central Powers for a separate peace. Patriotic Rus- sians in the Duma passed a resolution that "dark forces" in high places were betraying the nation's interest. Neverthe- less, the intrigue went on, apparently with the connivance of the tsar, and the demoralization of Russia proceeded apace. A severe shortage of food in Petrograd brought matters to a crisis. Rioting broke out, and the troops were ordered to sup- press it with bullet and bayonet in the usual pitiless fashion. But the old army, so long the prop of autocracy, languished in ., ,. . German prison Abdication ^ of the tsar, camps or lay under- March 15, ground. The new army, mostly re- cruited from peasants and work- ingmen since the war, refused to fire on the people. Autocracy found itself helpless. The Duma then induced the tsar to sign the penciled memorandum which ended the Romanov dynasty after three hundred and four years of absolute power.^ The revolutionists set up a provisional government, headed by the executive committee of the Duma. the Con- Nearly all the members belonged to the party stitutional ^f Constitutional Democrats,^ representing^ the Democrats . . . middle class, or bourgeoisie. Many liberal reforms were announced: liberty of speech and of the press; the right of 1 See page 594. 2 gee page 415. 3 Popularly called "Cadets," from the initial letters of the party name. Nicholas II The Russian Revolution 739 suffrage for both men and women; and a general amnesty for all political offenders and Siberian exiles. A Constituent As- sembly to draw up a constitution was also promised. Socialists did not rest satisfied with these measures. They planned to give the revolution an economic rather than merely a political character. Throughout Russia they ^ . . , . , ., . 1 . Soviets organized Soviets, or councils representing working- men and soldiers. The socialistic propaganda for a general peace on the basis of "no annexations and no indemnities" also made rapid headway with the army at the front. The troops began to elect their own_ officers, to fraternize with the enemy, and to desert in large numbers. Before long the Petrograd soviet, having won the support of the army, abolished the Duma as a stronghold of the bourgeoisie and •replaced the Constitutional Democrats in the provisional government with sociaHsts. The Socialist leader was a young lawyer named Alexander Kerensky. His impassioned oratory gave him great influence, and by July, 191 7, he had become practical Kerensky dictator. But Kerensky turned out to be neither dictator a Cromwell nor a Napoleon, at a time when Russia required a combination of both for her salvation. A moderate socialist, he did not please the Constitutional Democrats, and he pleased the radical socialists still less. In November, 191 7, a second revolution in Petrograd overthrew him and the provisional government which he headed. The two men who now seized the reins of power were Nicholas Lenine and Leon Trotsky, both well known as radical writers and agitators. They belonged to the Bolsheviki ^ Bolsheviki party, an organization of extreme socialists. The "^® Bolsheviki proposed to conclude an immediate "democratic peace," to confiscate the land for the benefit of the peasants, and to transfer all authority to the Soviets. Their flag was the red flag; their ultimate aim, a revolution by the working classes in all countries. Though Bolsheviki rule rests only on the urban proletariat, which comprises a small minority of the ^ A Russian word meaning "majority men." See page 671. 740 The World War Russian people, Lenine and Trotsky, by their audacity and unscrupulousness, have remained in control to the present day. Russia, meanwhile, began to dissolve into its separate na- tionaUties. Finns, Lithuanians, Ukrainians (Little Russians), Break-up Cossacks, and Siberians declared their independence of Russia ^^(^ c,Qt up governments of their own, in defiance of Bolsheviki rule. To economic disorganization and political chaos were added civil wars. It was under these circumstances that Russia made peace with the Central Powers. The Bolsheviki agreed to pay an Treaty of immense indemnity and to recognize the inde- Brest- pendence, under German auspices, of both Finland March 3, and the Ukraine. Poland and Courland, con- 1918 quered by the Germans in 191 5, were surrendered to them, together with Livonia and Esthonia. This humiliat- ing treaty deprived Russia of her richest agricultural lands, her chief industrial centers, and about one third of her territory. It was a formal announcement of the break-up of Russia. 253. End of the War, 1918 The satisfaction with which the western Allies greeted the overthrow of autocracy in Russia turned to dismay when that country, within a year, embraced extreme socialism at the and withdrew from the war. The Treaty of Brest- beginning Litovsk gave the Central Powers a free hand in the West. Great Britain, France, and Italy recognized this fact and prepared to remain on the defensive until the United States should be able to throw the full weight of its resources into the struggle. The Allies, could afford to wait. To the Central Powers a prolongation of the war spelled ruin. ''Frightfulness" on the ocean had not broken the block- ade or starved Great Britain or interrupted the stream of trans- ports carrying American troops in ever larger numbers to Europe. Germany realized that her supreme effort for world dominion must be made in 1918, or never. "If the enemy does not want peace," declared the kaiser, "then we must bring End of the War, 1918 741 peace to the world by battering in with the iron fist and shining sword the doors of those who will not have peace." ^ Having gathered every available man and gun, the Germans on March 21, 1918, started a drive along the line from Arras to La Fere. Their plan was obvious: to split the German Anglo-French forces at the point of juncture on "drives" the Oise River; to roll each army back, the British upon the Channel, the French upon Paris; and then to destroy each army separately. The battle which followed surpassed in intensity every previous engagement on the western front. By terrific massed attacks, the Germans regained in a few days all the ground so painfully won by the Allied offensives in 191 6 and 191 7. The critical condition of affairs led the Allies to establish unity of action by putting their forces under the command of General Foch, an admirable strategist who shared with Joffre the glory of the Marne battle. The wisdom of this plan became manifest when the Germans in April launched another drive to the north against the British guarding the road to the Channel ports. French reinforcements arrived on. the scene in time to check the enemy. A third drive at the end of May brought the Germans back once more to the Marne at Chateau-Thierry, only forty-three miles from Paris, but French reserves again halted the advance. Renewed German efforts in June and July to pierce the Allied line and reach Paris were fruitless. And now the tide turned. General Foch, always an advocate of the offensive in warfare, found himself by midsummer able to put his theories into practice. He now possessed the reinforcements sent by both 1 Address to the Second German^Army in France, December 22, 1917. Ferdinand Foch 742 The World War Great Britain and Italy to help hold the long line from the sea to Switzerland, together with the fresh American troops — ''Pershing's crusaders" — whose mettle had been already The turn tested at Chateau-Thierry. July i8, 1918 is a of the tide memorable date, for on that day the Allies began the series of rapid counter-strokes, perfectly coordinated, which four months later brought the war on the western front to a victorious conclusion. How the French and Americans pinched the Germans out of the Mame sahent; how the Americans, in their first independent operation, swept the enemy from the St. Mihiel salient, south of Verdun, and started an advance into German Lorraine which carried them to Sedan; how the British broke the ''Hindenburg Line," supposedly impregnable; how the Belgians hberated Flanders — these are only the out- standing events of a period unsurpassed in interest and im- portance since the dawn of history. With disaster impending on the western front, Germany could no longer support her confederates in the other theaters Armistice of the war. Bulgaria was the first of the Central ^*^ . Powers to collapse. A vigorous offensive, begun September during September by British, Greek, Serbian, 29, 1918 French, and ItaUan troops in the Balkans, spHt the Bulgarian armies apart, thus opening the way for an im- mediate advance upon Sofia. Bulgaria then surrendered un- conditionally. Shortly afterwards Tsar Ferdinand abdicated. Turkey, now isolated from Germany and Austria-Hungary, was the second of the Central Powers to collapse. The cam- paign against the Turks during September and Armistice t^ ^ , , j ,1 "^ ^ . ,. with Turkey, October formed an unbroken succession or vic- October tories. British forces, keeping close touch with 30, 1918 their Arab allies, advanced northward from the neighborhood of Jerusalem. After initial successes on the plain of Esdraelon, famous as a battle-field in Old Testament times, they took Damascus, the capital of Syria, and soon entered Aleppo, on the railway between Constantinople and Bagdad.^ At the same time, the British in Mesopotamia captured the 1 See the map on page 715. End of the War, 1918 743 Turkish army on the Tigris. Nothing remained for Turkey but to sign an armistice accepting all the AlHed demands. Simultaneously, Austria-Hungary collapsed. What may be called the second battle of the Piave ^ began at the end of October, when General Diaz, the Italian com- Armistice mander, struck a sudden blow at the Austrian with Austria- armies and hurled them back along the whole November front from the Alps to the sea. The battle soon ^» ^^^^ assumed the proportions of a disaster perhaps unequaled in the annals of war. Within a single week the Italians chased the Austrians out of northern Italy, entered Trent and Trieste, and captured three hundred thousand prisoners and five thou- sand guns. Austria-Hungary then signed an armistice which, as in the cases of Bulgaria and Turkey, amounted to an uncon- ditional surrender. The date (November 3) was immediately added to the list of Italian holidays. The military overthrow of the Dual Monarchy quickly led to its disintegration. Separate states arose, representing the various nationalities formerly subject to the Haps- Revolution burgs. Emperor Charles I bowed to the inev- in Austria- itable and laid down the imperial crown which °sary he had assumed in 191 6 upon the death of Francis Joseph I. Such was the end of the Hapsburg dynasty, rulers of Austria for six hundred and forty-five years.^ The Hohenzollerns also disappeared from the scene. As Germany during that fateful summer and autumn of 1918 began to taste the bitterness of defeat, the popular Revolution demand for peace and democratic government "^ Germany became an open summons to the kaiser to abdicate. He long resisted, vainly making one concession after another, until the red flag had been hoisted over the German fleet at Kiel, and Berlin and other cities were in the hands of revolutionists. Then he abdicated, both as emperor and king, and fled to Holland. The other German crowns quickly fell, Uke overripe fruit. Germany soon found itself a socialist republic, controlled by the Social Democrats.^ * See page 731. 2 See page 217. ^ See pages 588 and 670. 744 The World War The armistice, which practically ended the war, was con- cluded by the Alhes and the United States with the new Ger- Armistice man government. It formed a long document of with thirty-five clauses, covering every aspect of the November miUtary situation and making it impossible for 11, 1918 Germany to renew hostilities before the peace settlement. Germany agreed to return all prisoners of war; to surrender her submarines, the best part of her fleet, and immense numbers of cannon, machine guns, and airplanes; to evacuate Belgium, Luxemburg, France, and Alsace-Lorraine; and to allow the joint occupation by Allied and American troops of the Rhinelands, together with the principal crossings of the Rhine (Mainz, Coblenz, and Cologne) and bridgeheads at these points on the right bank of the river. A neutral zone was reserved between the occupied territory and the rest of Ger- many.^ The German government carried out these stringent terms under necessity. The sudden termination of hostihties found the greater part of Europe in confusion. The former empires of the Romanovs, Hapsburgs, and Hohenzollerns promised to break at the up into a large number of independent states, end of Y^ith new governments and a new distribution of population. The problems for solution by the peace conference included, therefore, not only the necessary arrangements for indemnities in money and territory to be paid by the Central Powers and the disposition of Germany's colonial possessions, but also the creation of a dozen or more sovereign countries with boundaries so drawn as to satisfy .all legitimate national aspirations. The World War was to be followed by a World Settlement. Studies I . On an outline map of the world indicate the countries at war by the close of igi7 and their division between the Allies and the Central Powers. Show also the countries which severed diplomatic relations with Germany. 2. Draw up a list of the countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America which remained entirely neutral throughout the World War. 3- Explain the following: the "Iron Chancellor"; the "Lost Provinces"; entente cordiale; "Middle Europe"; "Agadir incident"; ^ See the map, page 729. End of the War^ 1918 745 and "reinsurance compact." 4. Find illustrations in the history of Europe during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries of the principle of the balance of power. 5. Compare the World War, as to its epoch-making character, with (o) the Thirty Years' War, (6) the Seven Years War, and (c) the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. 6. Write a brief character sketch of the kaiser on the basis of the quota- tions from his speeches in this chapter. 7. How would you define (o) militarism and (b) imperialism, as these terms have been used in the present chapter? 8. How was Alsace-Lorraine the "open sore" of European politics during the period 1871- 191 4? 9. Why has the Balkan peninsula been called the " storm center of Europe"? 10. Why has the Suez Canal been called the "spinal cord" of the British Empire? 11. "England's navy is a necessity; Germany's a luxury." Explain this state- ment. 12. What is the strategic value of the Kiel Canal? 13. Why has war been called the "national industry" of Prussia? 14. What were the "strategical grounds" for the German invasion of Belgium? 15. Is it likely that Great Britain would have entered the war if Belgian neutrality had not been violated? 16. The battle of the Marne has been called "one more decisive battle of the world." Com- ment on this statement. 17. Show that the United States, as a neutral, could not properly place an embargo on the export of arms and munitions to the Allies. 18. How did the revolution in Russia lead to the disintegration of the country? Contrast its results in this respect with the French Revolution. Table of Events and Dates 747 o bO bO § I o >% ^ pLJ ■'^ to ir> 10 VIS <: _ — — O M H. Xi ^ rO f>0 1000 ^ tf3 > 8p^w |-^ ^^:S f ^ |> H g"^ S-i!^ ..-«0 rO ^ 1^ Mill ^~^ I II I MfOt^ OO 0 >» .-H O 4) •^ O g CO 10 O MM M ON s Q f>. t^ 1 X5 H g Q ■Z3 iz; ^ d c3 <: ^ m c H W •3 u "o > 3 - ^s. f^ o S Oo OqOOOOOO OS O^O ri ^ 03 5^ rj H O .-H .jH .^ bO rj o£ ^t^ ti ^ TO 2 rj e O .-; -jH .;; 00 r3 OL^ -r-, ra rf Vi cX5rn.^'^Mr:)fcrrv^. w,— 1 ^^, OJ u-)^ a. 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M (^ M H '^ ^ rt '^ Ti- to > O h-1 g* H s o > ^ '•. tn g 1 1 la (2 U^ o o O ^ c s lp 31 o U Si o lU ,£3 I 00 a. CO PO «3 S I 1^ c o bO <;^ t^ ^ .^ ^ M rt ^ ''^ ''^ ^C S fi c 2^ t^ o tn be. ^00 ^ ^ O lo IT) M tn ro U ti-) - • 00 C 00-^ O \0 d d a vo-fc^ ^ ^ T-K kj >-l to o M I y o ^ o -»-! i_r CO '"' M "^ s s > ^ ^ jo^-^bbg >;'^ O (H C C ^ ^ N "2 be » XJ s-d Ov O C 2 03 ^ ol^pq rrj t^ Oq O O 00 Os O O Co (J pq c ^ o u c3 13 > o ^ -v B u c! M CM OJ o U S3 :3 -a »-< cr c; o a, X > o u o a f 1 en "a x o en -^ en C c^ £ o M (N M Tf ij^ i^ ^ "^ ^ ^ "^ vu^ r r r r O 10 t-^ M rj- -;t 10 10 U-) 10 10 10 >% c s 3 X5 and he mon- lands w's Day 1.4 J? __, -rt -^_ ^j H 0) CJ g ^ ^ k3 a, aen ^ a 5 Peace of Augsburg on of Calmar dissolve ia invaded by Baber 8 Reformation in Eng 4 Act of Supremacy 6-1539 Dissolution of steries H e Nethe rtholom to Spaii § *© .2 B ■^ ^ 8 S +j ■olt of th Lepanto of St. Ba Utrecht annexed g 3 (3 9 Rev tie of ssacre on of tugal ; ? 10 t^ IH rO C3 VO H , 10 H 1 :§ fO >* I f3^ K >\ o en u \0 <^ log ^ flH 00 r! On rt M a 1 CO VO 10 754 Appendix a Qi CU B o U c5 X3 s 1— < c en OJ rt ^ w o X f:;* tjD-d M 1 (N o ON o lO o 1!^ T3 s fl « 3 •^ ^ ^^ .^ n ctiuq ci i >■:§ fcjn t/3 s_^ >v o -c =■ U ^ o 11 3 "o hi r;:^ «^ s, -Xi jj S ■-2' 1^ O "»--. n g Tf o -^ "^ g lU t~~ M ^ O fel M 1 r- K. 00 00 O. H o o <) O H ^ o o O VO R rt d tn >. 6 OJ > W) rt - Ch O >-i (U bn -d (U c o c 73 O C/3 >» o o c« O "S tn r »v -M >^ S C b 53 •^ 2 Co '^ 1^ =^ tn c3 ears' Rest Gust West o 2 c S =■ -; lo 3^^ 00 I VO « VO '7' I hOO I ^ « I JOvO lO M 00 t- ^ CO f? O 00 VO M Ifl O ^ ►-< VO i^" M I d .3 ^'— ' '—I I— I »_ t^ M ^-) c^ p, p^, «3 > d I cAJt— »UUi PO o o ?£ Si ^ d ^ ^£ <^^ vO HH v^ P w <*-! M -d X Table of Events and- Dates 755 trt U N a- j3 «^ 3 ^-dl ^ '^^'^ J3 . CO ^ fe.^ -73 d®'^ ►-^ ^ r^S V ^ w ^ ^«r r rr) (^ Tt tJ-vOO 00 O^C^O^ O _ •t OOO 0)^00 MfOOO^ fO U-5O0 O^ O H "" ^ S, in o 00 ° O fl 00 On •-• \0 vO ^~ ^ fi 00 ^2 00 ^^ M H VM h 1 o -t rf VO VO 756 Appendix 'Xi 0) 8 ^ « •<-> ;:? to c j'" c 3 1- ^ tn > s OJ i) -^ rt $ >K 1^0 3 c ^ OJ -^ '3 t) rt Ji^ -n tn en £ ■5.«J=: 3 y: m _^ JaJ •:^ rt .^ S § S'':^ .2 5 '''' en •c § r3 r — ^ en ^S 00 1 1 b. c K2< ^ 1 1 H « 00 •*3 ^ K "o "-H fo Ph ^ -^ W "?3 '^ CQ < 0\ H tv. c^ ^ rt — ^^k c/: -rr 22 ^-•■' fti ^ '^ oo-«— -00 f^t-^ r^ o ^.G r 10 c rf O ^ P o ro r> t£ •* moo 00 « Table of Events and Dates 757 • — « 'S ^ " "o Ir. ;d "5 "o 'Ei 'In s c d •l ~ t- • — .5 = ^' 'c. > 1 1^ ST C -a £ ' X ^ = ■J < > "5 S - t£ ^ ^ ~ ■r. i^ 2^ 00 cc vr, -- 3C "^ ~ 5 '/J s -I I G y r< '^ ^ ^ "" X - - — M ^^ -- I/-, t^ ^ x -^ "^ ^ •~i ~s ^ ___ ? 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PJ^ >.^" ^X) OX) h5 0^ ^ OJ OJ a t, K^-2 .§ 00-0 fin 3 ' 1 •^ V04-J r^ ^ 00 03 00 < 1 ^ 1 to 00 ■J^ 00 o; 10 »H 00 I^ :: i^- M 1 H^ "2. 00 00 5 ce O OJ )-l ^ «*- U CI trt c3 rj 00 00 'Qg ^ o o (S3 O) .iS '^ XJ »-'.S on ^p^ 00 00 rt 2 § ^ t-i tn o cfl i: C 03 3 M TtO 00 00 00 j3 "w "=> 9 3-, 00 00 o c o 00 S 00 ^, O (U C/2 2 ""s -S 3 C Table of Events and Dates 761 I t/3 I t/3 (U C/} 43 'S -^ (U 5^xJ XJ en C5 '-3 riS u u . t-^ t^ 00 00 00 00 00 00 -> -^ Ceo ^ rf s ^^•"^ 2^>. D-Q -d fl.S-:^ 2 o-d a>^ > d -^ OJ O C.2J i •s.s S -d 5 u 5 % 'S c :3 -d d o3 '3 1 onstitution .so-Turkish War s of Berlin; R Montenegro beci pation of formed Act .sed rmed anese War ■M .^.9 a a occu iance form dism ance i no-Ja (72 tn tn 2-2 a, a nish c 8 Rus ngres I, and ndent English Triple Alii Third Re ismarck >ual Alii; 895 Chi: -^ en :3 :3 03 t^O.S 0,00 U rd a c^g PQH ^ vO t^OOC/3 ^«3 :3 t^ r^s oo>^ ,« J;:: Sn^ ^ m " ?n S;;^-3 a -^>^§^M ^ 00 00 00 H r^ 00 00 00 \^ 762 Appendix o u j3 c^ c« c^ JO --3 O " o in C > o o X5 >-i O u c o U 10 o o si o o « '-^-5 T3 o o O M 0\ O^ On P^ 1-^ I 0\ On 00 X! O pq o o o^ C (U C =3 Ci2 o s ^1 o o On 0\ '55 O f^ > •-'22 '^ o ^^ 'i^ C S^ ^ 4i •^ ^ S 2 2 W3-^ -Q O a, "u u < '-' o U Ui ^^ TO O^ O'-Q On 03 On On On 3 pq 'o < M en 0^ 3 CO O On *© ^•? 0) ^t^ 03 2^ y3 -gts •^> I2 §x Pm*j c J.' Table of Events and Dates 763 a o •a o I 10 Xi Oh CX-^ <; (« .22 rt.Su ^ ^ "^ -^ PhP< M M pq a c3 O Xi'a fi Qj tn (L> oj 1; !3 > C.2. .-,»-' bo d 3 .^ Coo c £ C ^ 3 C ^|« pq' > S ^i^L =" ^> f^cg2^g-55(^ 00 g O.y C.-y^ ON (^ OS -Q ^ wS ^1;^ NO M •CO INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Note. — The pronunciation of most proper names is indicated either by a simplified spelling or by their accentuation and division into syllables. The diacritical marks em- ployed are those found in Webster's New International Dictionary and are the following : a as in ale. t " " senate. a " " care. a " " am. a " " account. a " " arm. a " " ask. a " " sofa. e " " eve. e " " event. e " " end. e " " recent. e " " maker. i " " Ice. i " " ill. o 6 6 ' 6 ' o ' b ' u ' ix ' u ' u ' u ' ti ' oo ' o6 ' ou' as in old. " " obey. " " 6rb. " " odd. " " soft. " " connect. " " use. " " unite. " " urn. " " up. " " circws. " " menii. " " food. " " foot, out. oi as in oil. ch " " chair. g " " go. ng " " sing. r) " " ii]k. fh " " {hen. th " " thin, tu " " nature. du " " verdure. K for ch as in Ger. ich, ach. N as in Fr. bon y " " yet. zh for z as in azure. 495, 594. 496. Aachen (ii'K^n). See Aix-la-Chapelle. Ab-bas'ids, 81, 82, and note 1, 18:i. Abbot, 50 and note 1. Abdul Hamld II, 714. Abelard (d-ba-liirO, Peter, 257, 258. Abraham, Hebrew patriarch, 68, 74, Absolutism, royal, 376-38^ 401, 414, 417, 430, 438, 481,' 493, 501, 511, 526, 548, 560, 569, 588, aluo Divine right of kings. Abu Bekr (ii'boo bek'V), 72, 80. Abyssinia (ab-i-sin'i-a), 49, 606. Academy, French, the, 409, 410. Acadia. See Nova Scotia. Acre (a'ker), 172, 175, A-dria-a-no'ple, 187. Adriatic Sea, 1, 240, 241. Af-ghan-i-stan', 613. Africa, Portuguese exploration of, 308, 309; physical features of, 603 ; racial, 603, 604 ; opening-up of, in the nineteenth century, 604, 605 ; partition of, 605-609, Africa, North, Vandal kingdom in, 34; con- quered by the Arabs, 78, 604; conquered by Ottoman Turks, 423 ; Italian and French possessions in, 606. Africa, South, the Dutch in, 444, 606, 607 ; conquered by Great Britain, 607 ; union of, 607, 608 ; in the World War, 732. Airadir, 713, 714. A'gra, 184. Agriculture, Arab improvements in, 83 ; medieval, 130-132 ; modern, 660. " Aids," the feudal, 117, Airplane, the, 653. Aisne (an) Kiver, 728. Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-l&-sha-poK), city, 15, 18, 102 ; Peace of, 434, 447. Ajaccio (ii-yat'cho),' 520. Al-a-man'ni, the, 8, 9. Alaska, 478, 630, 634, 657. Albania, 423, 601, 731. Albany Congress, the, 464. Albert I. king of Belgium, 726. Albert Edward Nyanza, Lake, 605. Albert Nyanza, Lake, 604, Albi, 335. Albigenses (al-bi-jen'sozX the, 148, 335. Albuquerque (al-b()6-ker'k.e), 310. Alchemy, 264. Alcoholic liquors, 75, 277, 679. Aldine press, the, 286. Aldus Manutius (ul'dws m//-nu'ahi-«s), 285, 286. Aleppo, 714. Alexander I, tsar of Russia, 529, 534, 535, 545, 592, 595 ; II, 592, 594, 662 ; III, 594, 710. 765 766 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Alexander III, pope, 1^7 ; YI, 315. Alexandria, 521. Alexius (a-lek'si-«s) I, Koman emperor in the East, 165, 166. Alfred the Great, king of England, 103, 105. Algebra, 85, 486. Algeciras (Span. pron. al-hS-the'ras), con- ference, the, 713. Algeria, 606, 713. Al-ham'bra, the, 79, 87. Ali, fourth caliph, SO. Allah i&Va), 69, 714. Alphabet, Kunic, 91, 92 ; Russian, 416. Alsace (al-sJis'), 8, 18, 372, 401, 403, 573, 586, . 709. See also Lorraine. Alva, duke of, 359. Amazon Eiver, 321, 635. America, the Northmen In, 99, 100 ; discov- ered by Columbus, 314; naming of, 315; the Indians, 317-320; Spanish explorations and conquests in, 320-322 ; Spanish colonial empire in, 322-324 ; English and French explorations in, 32&-S27 ; influence of, on Europe, 327-329; English settlement of Virginia and Massachusetts, 449-455; the Thirteen Colonies, 455-458 ; French settle- ments in, 464-467; rivalry of France and England in, 467-471 ; revolt of the Thirteen Colonies, 471-476 ; British North, 623-626 ; Latin, 626-629 ; the United States, 629-632. American Federation of Labor, the, 664. American Kevolution, the, 471-476, 5:^9. Amiens (A-myuN'), Peace of, 523, 527. Amsterdam, 327, 358. Amundsen, Captain Roald, 635. Amur Valley, 613, 616. Amusement, medieval, 126. 269, 270. Anagni (u-nan'yG), humilatiou of Boniface VIII at, 331. A-nam', 612. Andes Mountains, 319, 321. An'ge-vin dynasty, the, 195, note 1. Angles (an'g'ls). *S>e Anglo-Saxons. Anglicanism, estabUshment of, in England, 345-348 ; organization and doctrines, 850 ; in England, during the seventeenth centurv, 378, 8S1, 382, 385, 391, 392, 393, 394; in the Thirteen Colonies, 460 ; disestablishment of, in Ireland and Wales, 683. An'glo-Sax'ons, the, conquer Britain, 23 ; their kingdoms in Britain, 23-25 ; their cul- ture, 25 ; converted to Koman Christianity, 26-29, 53, 61 ; language of, 110, 248. An-go'la, 605. Animals, baiting of, 270, 391. Anjou (iiN-zhoo'), 195, note 1. Anne, Queen, 404, 436. Anne of Bohemia, 337. Antarctic exploration, 635. Anthropology, 689. An-til'les, the Greater, 320 and note 1. Antioch (an'ti-ok), 76, 167, 234. Antwerp, 327. Apennines, the, 560. Apostles, the, 140, 335. April Fool's Day, 271. Aquinas (d-kwi'nas), St. Thomas, 262, 354. "Arabesques," 86, 87. Arabia, i)hysical features of, 68. Arabian Nights, the. See Thousand and One Nights. Ar'abs, the, as foes of the Roman Empire in the East, 36, 76, 77 ; migratory and sed- entary, 68, 69 ; heathenism of, 69 ; under Mohammed, 71, 72 ; their conquests, 75-80 ; civilization of, 82-87, 112, 280; establish kingdom of the Hejaz, 733. Aragon (a-rii-gon'), 216. Arc de Triomphe (ark de tre-oNf), the, 695, 697. Arch, pointed, 86, 255, 256 ; round, 254, 256. Archangel, 418. Archbishop, church official, 45, 144. Architecture, Byzantine. 39, 42, 43 ; Arab, 86, 87 ; medieval, 252-256 ; Renaissance, 286, 287, 290 ; in England and France dur- ing the seventeenth century, 395, 408, 409 ; modern, 692. Arctic exploration, 826, 635. Argentina, 628. Arian heresy, the, origin of, 47, note 1 ; ac- cepted by the Teutonic invaders, 4, 6, 9, 30, 61. Aristotle (ar'is-tot'l), Greek philosopher, 85, 262, 281, 297, 314. Arithmetic, 85, 257, 486. A'ri-us, 47, note 1. Arkwright, Richard, 643. " Armada (ar-ma'da), Invincible," the, 860, 364 and note 1, 365, 449. Armenia, 49, 183, 423. Armenians, the, 714. Armies, feudal, 121 ; modern, 385, 401, 4;31, 717, 718. Armistice with Germany, the terms of the, 744. Armor, medieval, 121, Arndt, E. M., 567. Arno River, 238. 239. Arras (a-riis'), 739. Arthur, King, mvth of, 251, 312. Art, Byzantine, 39, 40 ; Arab, 86, 87 ; Ren- aissance, 286-28S, 290 ; in England, during the seventeenth centurv, 395 ; French, under Lonis XIV, 408, 409; modern, C91, 692. See also Architecture, Painting, Sculpture. Artisans, medieval, 229-232 ; in eighteenth- century Euroi)e, 483, 484 ; condition of, dui'ing the Indqstrial Revolution, 646, 647, 662-667. Artois (iir-twa'), 402. As'gard, 95. Ashley, Lord, 666. Asia, medieval explorations in, 303, 304; opening up and partition of, 609-613. Asia Minor, 37, 164. Assignats (a-sO-nyaO, the, 509, 510. Assisi (iis-se'ze), 147. Astrolabe, the, 306. Astrology in the Middle Ages, 261. Astronomy, Arab, 86 ; medieval, 264 ; dur- ing the Renaissance, 296, 297 ; modern, 487, 685. Asylums. 678, 6T9. Ath-a-na'si-us, 47, note 1. Atlantic Ocean, 99, 827. At-lan'tis, myth of, 311, 312. Atrocities, German, 735, 736. Attila the Hun, 52, 251, 693. Augsburg (ouks'bdSrK), city, 242 ; Peace of, 342, 34:3, 355,' 369, 681. Au-gus'tine, missionary to the Anglo-Saxons, 26, 61. Ausgleich (ous'gllK), the Austro-IIun- garian, 589. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 767 Austerlitz (ous'ter-lits), battle of, 528, 529, 530, 559. Australia, exploration of, 477, 684, 635, 636 ; settlement of, 622, 623. Australian Commonwealth, the, 623. Austria, rise of, 20, 158, 217 ; growth of, under the Hapsburgs, 218 ; Switzerland and, 219, 220 ; in the War of the Spanish Suc- cession, 404; shares in the partitions of Poland, 426, 427 ; under Maria Theresa, 432, 433, 434, 435 ; wars of, with France, during the revolutionary and Napoleonic era, 515, 517, 518, 521, 522, 523, 528, 530, 531, 534,-537 ; predominance of, in Germany and Italy after 1815, 547 ; under Metternich, 548, 549 ; revolt of Bohemia and Hungary against, 556, 557 ; loss of Lonibardy and Venetia by, 563, 565 ; eliminated from German affairs, 568, 570, 571. See, also Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary, nationalities in, 589 ; gov- ernment of, 589, 590 ; between 1871 and 1914, 709, 710, 716, 717, 722 ; in the World War, 723, 724, 725, 730, 734. Austrian Succession, War of the, 433, 434, 447, 469. Austro-Prussian War, the, 570, 571, 709. Austro-Sardinian War, the, 563. Automobile, the, 653. Av'a-lon, 312. A'vars, the, 13, 18, 38, 412, 595. Avignon (a-ven-yoj;')> residence of the popes at, 333. Azores (r/-z6rz') Islands, 308, 315. Aztec Indians, the, 819, 320. Ba'ber, 184, 445. "Babylonian Captivity" of the Church, the. Bacon, Eoger, 263, 267, 294, note 1, 311 ; Lord, 297 and note 1, 396. Baden (bii'den), 530, 558, 571, note 1. Bagdad (bag-diid'), 82, 83, 183, 234, 714, 733. Ba-ha'ma Islands, 314 and note 1. Baker, Sir Samuel, 604. Balance of power, the, in Europe, 403, 411, 527, 546, 708, 711. Balboa (bal-bo'ii) Vasco Nufiez de, 320. Balder, myth of, 96. Baldwin, king of Jerusalem. 168. Balfour, A. J., 746. Balkan peninsula, 38, 423, 595. Balkan wars (1912-1913), the, 600, 716, 717. Ball, John, 299, 800, 307. Baltic Sea, 1, 90, 242, 243, 827, 330, 413, 418, 419, 420, 421. Baltimore, Lord, 455, 457, 460. Ba-lu-chi-stan', 613. Banking, medieval, 237, 238; modern, 656, 657, Bank of England, the, 657. Bank of France, the, 525, 657. Ban'nock-burn, battle of, 206. Baptists, the, 391, 460, 681. Basel (ba'zel), 289. Basilicas, Koman, 47, 254. Bastille (bas-telO, the, capture of, 505, 506, 695. Batavia, 443, 477. Bavaria, 19, note 1, 20, 217, 434, 523, 530, 547, 570, 571, note 1. Bayeux (ba-yu') Tapestry, the, 107, 275. Bazalne (bS-zen'), General, 572. Beaconsfield, Lord. See Disraeli, Benjamin. Beauharnais (bo-ar-ne'), Eugene de, 530 and note 1. Bec-ca-ri'a, 678. Bech-u-a'na-land, 608. Bed'ou-ins, the, 68, 69. Beethoven (ba'to-v^^n), Ludwig van, 691. Behaim (ba'him), Martin, 812, 318. Belgian Congo, the, 605, 606. Belgium, a part of the Netherlands, 10, 18, 243, 357, 358, 360 ; kingdom of, estabHshed, 246, note 1, 552, 553; government of, 585, 586 ; neutrality of, violated by Germany, in the World War, 726. See also Netherlands. Bel-grade', 716. Bel-i-sa'ri-us, Roman general, 34. Bell, Alexander G., 654. Bellman, a London, 228. Benedict XV, pope, 560. "Benefit of clergy," 141, 160. Ben-gal', 448. Ber'bers, the, 78, 215, note 1, 606. Bergen (ber'gen), 242. Bering, Vitus, 478. Berlin, city, 408, 435, 528, 557 ; Decree, 532 ; Congress of, 599. Berlin-to-Bagdad Railway, the, 714. Bertha, queen of Kent, 25. Bessarabia, 592, 595. Beth'le-hem, 168. Bethmann-HoUwegCbat'miin-hol'vak), Theo- bald von, 725, 726. Biblical translations, 289, 335, 836, 840, 342, 345, 396 and note 1, 416. Bicameral system, the, in England, 208 ; in the Thirteen Colonies, 462 and note 3. Bill of Rights, the, 393, 436. Bills of exchange, 237, 288. Bimetallism, 657. Biology, modern, 488, 685, 686. Bishop, church official, 45, 46, 144. Bishop of Rome, See Pope. Bismarck, Otto von, 569-573, 599, 666, 670, 708-711. "BlackDeath," the, 299. " Black Hole " of Calcutta, 448. "Black Prince," the, 211, 212 and note 1. Black Sea, 88, 39, 235, 413, 418, 4:^;;. Blanc (bliiN), Louis, 669, 670. Blenheim (blen'im), battle of, 404. Bliicher (blu'Ker), 537, 538. Boccaccio (bok-kji'cho), 282, 283. Boers (boOrs), the, 444, 607, 711. Bohemia, medieval kingdom of, 18, 62, 115 ; annexed to Austria, 218; revolts against Austria, 337, 370, 556; secures independ- ence, 748, 746. Bo'he-mond, 167. Bokhara (bo-KJi'ra), 181. Boleyn (bdSl'in), Anne, 846, 348, 361. Bohvar (Span. pron. bo-lG'var), 627. Bolivia, 319, 627. Bologna (bo-lon'ya), university of, 258, 259, 261. Bol-she-vi-ki', the, in Russia, 739. Bolshevism, 671. Bom-bay', 447. Bon'i-face VIII, pope, 330, 331. Bookkeeping by double-entry, 238 and note 1. Book of Common Prayer, the, 347, 348, 378. 885, 891. Bordeaux (bor-do'), 327, 882. Borneo, 622. 768 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Bor-o-di'no. battle of, 53^. Borussi, the, 429. Bosnia. 423, 599, 709. Bos'po-rus, 41: 423. Brazil, a Portuguese colony, 309, 310, note 1, 315, note 2. 533 ; becomes" independent, 62T, 62S ; abolishes slavery, 6TS ; enters "World War, 737. Boston, English city, 232 ; American city, 454. Both'ni-a, Gulf of. 1, 90. 100. Boulogne (boO-lOn'y') 527, 528. Bourbon (boor'bSn), dvnasty, the, in France, 36S, 537, 540, 551, 584; in Spain, 406, 546, 627. Bourgeoisie (boor-zhwa-ze), the, 227 and note 1, 4S3. 491, 497, 501, 513, 516, 51S, 519, 551. 5>4, 641, 7:38. " Boxers." the. 616. 713. Brahma (bra'ui./), 611. Brahmanism. 611. Brandenburg (bran'd/n-b*SrK>. 19, 221, 872, 406, 42S, 429. 43t>. 4^35. See fil^o Prussia. Bremen (bra'm.»"n). 243, 372. 5S6. note 1. Brest-Litovsk (bresl'-lve-tofsk'), Treaty of, 740. •• Bridge of Sighs," the, 241. Bristol, 325. Britain, overrun by the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, 23 ; nature of the Anglo-Saxon conquest, 25. British Columbia. 626. British East Africa. 60S. British Empire, the, 603, 624, 626. See al«o Colonies and dependencies. British Isles, Christianity in the. 25-29, 61 ; unification of. under English kings, 204-207, 377. note 2. 576. note 1. British Museum, the. 706. British North America, 623-626. Brit'ta-nv. 209. Bruce, Kobert, 206. Bruges (Fr. pron. briizh), as a commercial center, 235, 24^3, 244, 245, 246, 327 ; belfry of, 244. Brussels, 538, 553. Bubonic plague, the, 299. 372, 686. Bucharest (buO-kd-r^stO, Treaty of, 600, 601. Buda-Pest, 589. Buddhism (boodlz'm), 180, 615, 618. Budget system, the. 407. Bulgaria, a part of the Ottoman Empire, 423 ; becomes independent, 599 ; in the second Balkan "War, 600, 601 ; in the World War, 716, 731. Bulgarians, the, 33, 62, note 3, 65, 78, 190, 412, 595 598. " Bulls," papal. 149 and note 3. Bundesrat (b<5&n'des-rat), the, 586, 587, 588. Bunyan. John, 396. Bur-'gun'di-ans, the. conquered by the Franks, 8 ; become Catholic Christians, 61. Bur'gun-dy, 2<)9, 251. Burke, Edinund, 474. Burma, 304. 612. 616. Bushmen, the, 604. Buttress, flying, 258 and note 2. " By-zan'tine Empire." the. 32. 33. Byzantium (bi-zan'shi-um), 32. See also Constantinople. Cabinet, the British, 436, 581. Cabot, John, 325, 449. Cadiz (ka'dez), 327, 3&4. Caesar. Julius, 207, 693. Cairo (kl'ro). 40, SI, S.5. 608. Calais (Fr. pron. ka-le'), 213 and note 2, 243, 728. Calculus, infinitesimal, 487. Calcutta, 447, 448. Calendar. Gregorian, 65; Maya, 318; Rus- sian. 416. Cal'i-cut. 309. California. 322. 323, 334, 630. 657. Caliph (ka'lif), the title, 80, 82, note 1. Cal'iph-ate, the, 80-82. Calmar, Union of, 419, 420, 501. Calverts. the, 455. Calvlii. John. 343, 344. 876. Calvinism, diffusion of, 344. 345 ; its organi- zation and doctrines. 350, 376, 49U. Cam'ba-luc. See Peking. Cambodia, 612. Cambridge city, 232 ; university of. 260, 383. Cameroons, the. 606. 732. Camoens (kain'0-ens). 309. Campo Formio. Treaty of, 521, 523, 528. Canada, French explorations in, 325, 408, 464, 465 ; Jesuit missions in, 465 ; con- quered by England, 469-471; "Tories" settle in, 475, 623 ; Upper and Lower, ia'2S, 624; in the War of 1S12-1814, 624; receives self-government, 624; Dominion of, 625, Canals, 609, 631, 632, 723. Canary Islands, 314. Canon law. See Law. Ca-nos'sa, humiliation of Henry IV at, 155, 157, 461. Ca-no'va, Antonio. 691. Canterbury, 25, 26, 27, 144, 158, 199, 293, 846, 380. ' Canterbury Tales, Chaucer's. 248, 249, 283, 292. 293, 301. Can-ton', 615. Canute (ka-nut'\ king of England, 106. Cape Colony, 546, 606, 607. Capet (Fr. pron. ki-pe'), Hugh, king of France, 103, 208. 209, 693. Capetian (k«-pe'sh4n) dvnasty, the, 103, 208, 210. 693, 696. Cape-to-Cairo Railway, the, 608. Cape Town, 60S. Capitalism and the Industrial Revolution, 646. fr47. 668. 670. Car-ho-na'ri, the. 56h Carcassonne (kar-ka-son'), 225. Cai-dinals, college of, 150, 153, 351. Caribbean Sea, 314. Carnegie (kar-nt-g'i). Andrew, 685. Carnot (kar-no'), Lazare, 518, 521. Carolinas. the, 457. 460. Car-o-lin'gi-an dvnasty, the, 11 and note 1, 19, 21. 10:3. 6it3." Carranza (Span. pron. kar-ran'tha), "Venu- stiano. 628. Carthage. 78. 604. Cartier. Jacques (kar-tyQ', zhak'), 325, 464. Cartwright, Edward, 644. Caspian Sea. 13, 613. Castes, Hindu, 611. Castile (kas-tel'). kingdom of. 216. Castles, feudal. 123-126, 263, 273, 274. Ca-thay'. See China. Cathedrals. See Churches. Catherine de' Medici (da maMe-ch^), 367. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 769 Catherine of Aragon, 345, 346, 34S. CatQerine II, tsarina of Russia, 422-424, 426, 427, 494, 592, 595. Catholic Church. See Celtic Church, Greek Church, Roman Church. Catholicism, 45. Caucasian race, the. 636, 638. "Cavaliers," the, 3S3 and note 1. Cavour (ka-voor'), Camillo di, 562, 563, 564, 565, 597. Caxton, William, 285. Celebes (sel'e-bcz), 310, note 1, 443. Cehbacy of the clergy, 46, 349. Celtiberians, the, 215. Celtic Church, the, 26, 27, 29. Celts (selts), the, in "Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, 23, 204, 205, 207 ; in France, 207 ; in Spain, 215. Censorship of the press, 354, 380, 409, 526, 541, 54S, 560, 592. Central America, prehistoric cities of, 318 ; independence of, 627 ; republics of, 628. Cervantes (ser-van'tGz), 291, 292. Ceylon, 304, 311, 443, 546. Chamber of Deputies, French, 583, 584, 586. Champlain (sham-plan'), Samuel de, 464, 465. Champs El5-sees (shax-za-le-za'). Avenue des, 695. Chancellor, German, position of the, 588. Channel Islands, 213 and note 2. Charit}^ the medieval Church and, 159. Charlemagne (shar'le-man), 11, notel, 12-16, 61, 63, 82, 101, 114, 250, 251, 525, 526, 693. Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, 557, 584. Charles the Bald, 17. Charles Martel, 10, 61, 80. Charles I, emperor of Austria, 743. Charles I, king of England, 379-387, 454, 455, 570 ; II, 387, 388, 390-392, 396, 456, 457, 550, 702. Charles I, king of Rumania. 598. Charles V, Uolv Roman Emperor. 315, 339, 341, 342, 345, 346, 348, 355, 358, 366. Charles X, king of France, 550, 551. 554. Charles XII, king of Sweden, 420, 421. Charters, civic. 226. Chateau Gaillard (sha-to'ga-var'), 124, 125. Chateau-Thierrv(sha-t(y-tve-re'). Chaucer, Geoffrey, 248, 293, 301. Checkers, 269. Chemistry, Arab, 85; alchemy and, 264; modern, 4S8, 685, 686. Cherbourg (sher-boor'), 327. Chesapeake Bay, 450. Chess, 126, 269. Children, emancipation of, 680, 681. Children's Crusade, the, 174, 175. Chile, 319, 628. China, Nestorians in. 49, 50 ; conquered by the Mongols, 183, 184 ; visited by the Polos, 804 ; Portuguese trade Avith, 310, 615; geogra- phy and people of. 614 ; civilization of, 614, 615 ; during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 615-617 ; in the World War, 737. Chino-Japanese War. the, 616, 620, 621. Chivalry. See Knighthood. Chosen. See Korea. Christianitv, spread of Catholic, over Europe, 6. 7, 8, 12. 13. 20. 25-29, 38, 60-62, 97, 101, 221, 424 ; Celtic and Roman, in the British Isles, 25-29 ; development of, during the first three centuries, 45-48 ; eastern, 48-50 ; rise and growth Of the Papacy, 50-54 ; early monasticism, 54-60 ; separation of eastern and western, 63-65; the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire^ 137-160 ; the Ref- ormation, 333-376; religious toleration and the separation of Church and State, 681-683. See also Celtic Church, Greek Church, Protestants, Roman Church. Christmas, 48, 134, 271, 272. Chrysoloras (kris-6-lo'rds), 283. Church and State, relations of, in revolution- ary France, 509, 512, 524 ; separation of, 682, 683. Churches: Aix-la-Chapelle, 15; St. Martin's, Canterbury, 26 ; Canterbury Cathedral, 27 ; Worms Cathedral, 156 ; baptistery, cathe- dral, and campanile of Pisa, 237 ; Duomo and cathedral of Florence, 239 ; Notre Dame, 699 ; St. Paul's Cathedral, 705 ; Westminster Abbey, 707. Church of England.' See Anglicanism. Cibola (se'bo-la), the Seven Cities of, 321. Cid (Sp. pron. thetli). Poem oftfie, 216. Ci-pan'go. See Japan. Circuit judges, Ensrlish, 197. Cistercian (sis-tur'shan) order, the, 145, 146. Citeaux (sG-t(V), 146. Cities, decline of, in the early Middle Ages, 129 ; the civic revival, 135, 136, 224 : origin of, in the Middle Ages, 224, 225; feudalism and medieval, 225, 226 ; rise of the " third estate." 227; city life, 227-229; civic trade and industrv, 229-232 ; Italian. 238-242, 280, 561 ; German, 242-243 ; Flemish, 243-246 ; Dutch, 358 ; EngUsh, in the seventeenth century, 394 ; growth of, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 671, 672. Civilization, Byzantine, 38-40; Arabian, 82- 87 ; medieval, 247-277 ; modern, 675-707. Civil War, American, 631, 653, 659, 664. Clairvaux (klar-v6'), 146. Clemenceau (kla-maN-so'), Georges, 746. Clement VII, pope, 333. Clergy, separation of. from the laity, 46 ; sec- ular, 143, 144 ; regular, 144-146 ; influence of, in the Middle Ages, 160 ; in eighteenth- century Europe, 481, 482. See also Mo- nasticism. Cler'mont, Council of. 165, 166. Clive, Robert, 447, 448, 609. Clothing. See Costume. Clo-til'da, 9. Clovis, king of the Franks, 8-10, 698. Cluny (klii-nG'), monastery, 145; museum, 698. Coal in industry, 645, 646. Cochin-China (kd'chin chi'na), 304, 612. Coinage, debasement of, in the Middle Ages, 236. See also Money. Colbert (kol-bar'). policies of. 407. 408, 465. Coligny (ko-len've). Admiral de, 367. 464. Cologne (ko-lon>), 18, 102, 224, 230, 242. Colombia, 627, 628. Colonial poUcy, Portuguese, 310 ; Spanish, 324, 626, 627 ; British, 4ii_4I2r484, ' Colonies and dependencies : Portuguese, 310, 311, 856, 605, 622, 627, 712; Spanish, 322- 324, 605, 622, 626, 627, 630, 712; French, 325, 464--467, 606. 612, 616, 622, 628, 712; English, 326, 327, 449-458, 603, 606-612, 613, 615, 616, 622-626, 628 ; Dutch, 442-445, 622, 628, 638 ; Swedish, 457 ; Belgian, 605, 600 ; German, 606, 616, note 1, 622 and note 3, 770 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 712, 732; Italian, 606, 712 ; Danish, 629 and note 1, 630. Columbus, Christopher, 313-315. Combination Acts, the, 663, 665. Co-me'ni-us, 295, 296. Commerce, Byzantine, 39 ; Arabian, 69, 83, 84, 310 ; Influence of the crusades on, 177, 234 ; medieval, 234, 235 ; Genoese and Vene- tian, 240, 241 ; Hanseatic, 242, 243 ; Portu- guese, 310, 311 ; Spanish, 324, 326 ; effect of the maritime discoveries on, 327; Dutch, 442-445; modern, 641, 656, 658-660, Committee of Public Safety, French, 518. Common law. See Law. Commons, House of, 203, 205, 376, 382, 3S3, 386, 337, 389, 436, 438, 462, 578-582, 586^ 680. Commonwealth, the, England under, 387- 389. "Communards," the, 582, 583, 693, 696. Commune of Paris, the, 506, 582. Companies, trading, 441, 442, 443, 444, 447, 449, 450, 451, 452, 454, 457. Compass, the mariner's, 84, 263, 304, 306, 307. Comte (koNt), Auguste, 688. Concert of Europe^ the, 549, 585. Concordat, French, 524, 683. Concordat of Worms, 155, 156. Confederations. See Federations. Confucius, 615, 618. Congo Free State, 605, 606. Congo Kiver, 308, 605. Congregationalism, 350, note 1, 385, note 1, 391, 460. Congresses, world, 676, 677. Connaught (kon'ot), 387. Connecticut, 455, 460, 462, 464. Conquiatadores (kon-kes-ta-fho'rus), the, 322. Conrad I, 19 ; III, 170. Conscription, military, development of, 718. Conservative Party, British. 582. Constance, Council of, 333, 336, 337. Constantine Palaeologus, Roman emperor in the East, 188. Constantine I, king of Greece, 597, note 1, 731. Constantinople, attacked by the Russians, 38 ; as the center of Byzantine civilization, 38-40; situation of, 40, 41; described, 42, 43 ; besieged by the Arabs, 77, 78 ; captured by the crusaders, 173 ; Latin Empire of, 174 ; siege and capture of, by the Ottoman Turks, 174, 187, 188, 190; Russia's desire for, 529, 596, 598, 599, 730. Constituent Assembly, French, 510, note 1. Constitutional Democratic Party, Russian, 738. Constitutions : English, 390, 576, 581 ; Amer- ican, 393, 491, 576, 681, 683 ; French, ,510, 512, 513, 519, 520, 523, 540, 550, 555, 576, 583, 683; Prussian, 559, 588; Italian, 584; Spanish, 585; Portuguese, 585; Belgian, 585; German, 586, 588, 721; Austro-Hun- garian, 589 ; Swiss, 590 ; Greek, 597 ; Japa- nese, 620. Consulate, Napoleon's, 523-525. Continental System, Napoleon's, 531-533, 534 535 624 Cook, Captain James, 477, 478, 622, 635. Cooperative societies, 664. Copenhagen, 421. Co-per'iii-cus, 296, 297. Cor'do-va, 40, 83 and note 1, 84, 85, 8T. Corn Laws, the, repeal of, 659. Cornwallis, Lord, 475. Coronado (Span. pron. k6-r6-na'Eho), Fran- cisco de, 321. Coronation Chair, the, 204. Cor'pus Ju'ria Civ-dnis, 34, 35, 120, 258, 259, 262. Correggio (kor-rod'jo), 288. Corsica, 34, 498, 520. Cortes (Span. pron. kor-tiis'), Hernando, 320. Cosmas map, the, 305. Cosmology, medieval, 296, 297. Cossacks, the, 414, 417, 421, 536, 591, 738. Costume, clerical, 46 ; in the Middle Ages, 274, 275; old Russian, 416; modern, 675, 676. Cotton gin, the, 644. "Council of Blood," the, 359. Councils, Church : Nicaea, 46, 47 and note 1 ; Constance, 333, 336, 3:37 ; Trent. 353, 354. Counter Reformation, the Catholic, 351-355, 369. County system, the, in the Thirteen Colo- nies, 463" Coup d'etat (k5?>-da-ta0, Napoleon Bona- parte's, 522 ; Louis Napoleon's, 659. Courland, 222, 738. Courts, feudal, 118; royal, in the Middle Ages, 195, 197. 198, 210. Covenanters, Scotch, 382. Cracow (kra'ko), 424. Craft guilds, 229-232, 239, 395. 484, 662, 663. Cranraer, Thomas, 346, 347, 348. Crecy (kra-se'), battle of, 211, 212. Crete, 596, 600. Crimea, the, 423, 597. Crimean War, the, 597, 710. Crises, commercial, 658. Crompton, Samuel, 644. Cromwell, Oliver, 382, 383-390, 455. Crusades, the, causes of, 162-164; First Cru- sade, 164-168; crusaders' states in Syria, 168-170 ; Second and Third, 170-172 ; Fourth Crusade, 173, 174; Children's Crusade, 174, 175 ; results of, 175-177. Cuba, 628, 737. Culture. See Civilization. Curasao (ko5-ra-so'), 444. Cures (kii-ra'). French, 504, 509, 512. Curie (ku-re'), Marie. 686. Cuzco, 319, 321. Cymric (kim'rik), the Welsh language, 204. Cyprus (si'priis), 77, 175, 241, 355. Cyril (sir'il), 62 and note 2. Csar (ziir). See Tsar. Czechs (cheks), the, 556. Damascus, 40, 76, 81, 82, 83 and note 1, 86, 170, 234, 742. Dane'geld, the, 106. Dane'law, the, 103, 105. Danes, converted to Christianity, 97; in England. 103, 105, 106, 248. Danish West Indies, 629 and note 1, 630. Dante Alighieri (diin'ta a-le-gya're), 281, 282, 291, 294, 311,331. Danton (daN-toN'), 513, 514, 515, 517, 518, 519, 684. Dar-da-nelles', the, 41, 187, 423, 730. Darwin. Charles, 687. Das Kapital, Marx's, 670. Davy, Sir Humphry, 645. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 771 De-cam' er-on, Boccaccio's, 2S2, 283. Declaration of Independence, the, 473, 474, 476, 490, 640. Declaration of the Rights of Man, 510, 511, 681. Degrees, university, 259. Deification of kings, 375. Deists, the, 489 and note 1, 492, 494. Delaware, 457, 458. Delhi (del'e), 184, 610. Demarcation, papal line of, 315 and note 2, 316, 322, note 1. Denaocracy, medieval cities and, 135, 136, 226, 281 ; the medieval Church and, 160 ; during the revolutionary and Napoleonic era, 539-541 ; disregard of, by the Congress of Vienna, 547, 548 ; between 1815 and 1871, 550, 551, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 562, 569 ; between 1871 and 1914, 575- 601 ; influence of the Industrial Revolution upon, 640, 641 ; the World War and, 746. Denmark, Viking emigration from, 18 ; Lutheranism in, 343, 348 ; enters the Thirty Years' War, 370 ; in the Union of Calmar, 419 ; at war with Charles XII, 420, 421 ; an ally of Napoleon, 531, 546 ; the Danish War, 570; government of, 591. Departments, French, 509, 524. Despots, Italian, 238. Devil, the, 74, 265, 268. Diaz (de'iits), General Armando, 743. Diaz (dc'iith), Rodrigo, 261 ; Bartholomew, 308, 309 ; Porfirio, 628. Dickens, Charles, 689. Dictatus pnpce, the, 154 and note 1. Directory, French, 520. 521. 522. Disestablishment, religious, 682, 683. "Dispensations," papal, 149, 346. Disraeli (diz-ru'li), Benjamin, 580, 599. Dissenters, the, 391 and note 1, 393, 394, 437,460. '-^ Divination, medieval, 265. Divine Comedy, Dante's, 281, 291, 311, 331. Divine right of kings, the, 375, 876, 377, 378, 380, 392, 394, 490, 497, 511, 540, 548,- 588. See also Absolutism. Division of labor, 647. Dnieper (ne'per) River, 38, 101, 181, 414. Dniester (nes'ter) River, 38. Dome, the, as an architectural feature, 39. 255, 286, 287. Domesday (domz'da) Book, 194, 195. Domestic system, the, 646. Do-min'i-cans, the, 148, 149. Dominion of Canada, the, 625, 626. "Donation of Pepin," the, 11 and note 2. "Do-nothing kings," the, 10, 11. Don Quixote (Span. pron. don ke-ho'ta), Cervantes's, 291, 292. Drake, Sir Francis, 326, 364, 365, 47T. Drama, medieval, 273; Shakespearian, 293, 294 ; modern, 409, 689. 690. Dravidians, the, 610, 611. 636. Drunkenness in the Middle Ages, 277. Dual Alliance, the, 710. Dual Monarchy, the. See Austria-Hungary. Dublin, 98. Duel, the judicial, 120, 197. Duma, the, 417, 594, 788. Dunkirk, 728. Dupleix (du-pleks'), 447, 448. Duquesne (dQ-kan'), Fort, 469 and note 1. Durham Report, the, 624. I Dushan, Stephen, 596. Dwellings : the castle, 123-126, 132 ; the manor house, 273, 274. Dwi'na River, 100. East Anglia, 23. Easter, 27, 48, 134. Eastern Empire. See Roman Empire in the East, " Eastern Question," the, 424, 597, 598, 599, 601, 712, 714. Eastern Rumelia, 599. East Goths. See Ostrogoths. East India Company, Dutch, 443, 444, 477 ; French, 447 ; English, 447, 448, 609, 610. East Mark, 20. See also Austria. Ecole des Beaux-Arts (a-kol' dti bo-zarO, 698. Economic conditions, during the feudal period, 129-135; during the later Middle Ages, 235-238, 298-301 ; in England, during the seventeenth century, 895 ; during the Industrial Revolution, 640, 641, 646-649, 656-658, 661-667, 671-673. Ecuador, 319, 627. . E-des'sa, county of, 169, 170. Edinburgh, 206. Edison, Thomas A., 654. Education, in the early Middle Ages, 14, 105, 160, 256, 257 ; Byzantine, 40 ; Arab, 85 ; medieval universities, 257-261 ; scholas- ticism, 261, 262; Renaissance, 294-296; Spanish-American, 324; Jesuit, 352, 353; in the Thirteen Colonies, 460, 461; modern, 683-685. ^ - E^dwar^he'Confessor, king of England, 106, Edward I, king of England, 203, 204, 206 ; II, 204, 206; III, 210, 211, 213; VI, 347. Egbert, king of Wessex, 24, 25, 103. Egypt, monasticism in, 54 ; conquered by the Arabs, 76, 78 ; the center of Moslem power, 171, 173 ; conquered by the Ottoman Turks, 423 ; Napoleon in, 521, 522, 531 ; controlled by Great Britain, 608, 609. Eiffel (ef-elO Tower, the, 696. Ein'hard, 12. Elba, Napoleon at, 537, 545. Elbe River, 12, 19. 102, 221. Elder Edda, the, 94. El Dorado (^1 do-ra'do), 321. Electoral college, German, 218, note 2. Electric traction, 653. Elizabeth, queen of England, 326. 848, 351, , 357, 361, 366, 376, 377, 447, 449, 451. Emigres (a-me-graO, the, 511, 519, 524. Ems dispatch, the, 572. Encyclopedists, the, 493. ■> Engiarid, conquered by the Danes, 103, 105, 106; Norman conquest of, 106, 107, 109; under William the Conqueror, 109, 193-195 ; under Henry II, 195, 197, 198; under Rich- ard I, John, and Henry III, 198, 199, 200, 202 ; under Edward I, 203, 204, 206 ; the Hundred Years' War between France and, 210-214 ; the War of the Roses, 214 ; the Reformation in, 345-348; under Elizabeth, 361-365 ; under James I and Charles I, 377-387 ; the Commonwealth and the Pro- tectorate, 387-390 ; the Restoration and the "Glorious Revolution," 390-394; in the seventeenth centurv, 394-396 ; at war with Louis XIV, 402, 403, 404, 406; in the War 77' Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary of the Spanish Succession and the Seven Tears' War, 434, 447, 448, 469 ; under the first three Georges, 436-488; rivalry of, with France in India and North America, 447^49, 467-471 ; loss of the Thirteen Colo- nies by, 471-476 ; at war with revolutionary and Napoleonic France, 517, 521, 5'i"2, 523, 527, 528, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 537 ; terri- torial acquisitions of, by the Vienna settle- ment, 546 ; between 18i5 and 1871, 549, 55:3, 554 ; government of, 576-582 ; the Indus- trial Revolution in, 641, 647, 649 ; between 1871 and 1914, 710-712, 714, 719; in the World War, 725-727, 732-734. English, the. radical elements in, 23, 103, 105, 109, 110. "Enlightened despots," the, 493-495. Entente cordiale (iiN-tiiNt' kor-dyaK), the, 711, 713. Epic poetry, medieval, 250, 251, 252. E-piph'a-ny, 48. Epirus, 596. Episcopate, the, 45, 65, 350. E-ras'mus, Des-i-do'ri-us, 289, 290, 301, 333, 334, 339, 351. Er-a-tos'the-nes, 811. Erfurt (erMWrt), university of, 337. Eric the Red. 99. Ericsson, Leif (er'ik-siin, lif), 99. Eritrea (u-re-tre'a), 606. Es-co'ri-al, the, 357. Es-dra-e'lon, 742. Eskimos, the, 99. Esperanto, 676. Essay on Crimes and Punishments, Bec- caria's, 678. Essex, 23. Estates-General, the French, 210, 331, 399, 411, 502-504, 522, 700. Esthonia, 222, 420, 740. Esths, the, 592, 594. Eth'el-bert, king of Kent, 25, 26. Euclid (u'klid). 85, 257. Eugene (u-zhen'). Prince, 404. Eugenie (u-zha-nC), Empress, 560, 582. Evil eye, the, 268. Evolutionary theory, Darwin. 1, 687. Excommunication, 142, 154, 155, 158. Exploration, Atlantic, 99, 100 ; Asiatic, 303, 804, 684, 636; African, 3o8, 309, 604, 605, 634, 636 ; American, 314, 315, 320, 821, 325- 327, 464, 465, 634,635; Pacific, 316, 317, 476-478 ; Arctic and Antarctic, 634, 635. Expositions, universal, 676. Factory Acts, British, 665, 666. Factory system, the, 646, 647, 665, 667, 668, 670. 673. Fairies in European folklore. 266. Fairs in the Middle Ages, 229. 232-284. Falconrv, 126, 127. Faroe (farM) Islands, 93. Farther India. See Indo-China. Faust (foust), Goethe's, 690. Fealty, oath of, 117, 118. "February Revolution," the, 554, 555. Federations : Swiss Confederation, 219, 220, 372, 590; Hanseatic League, 242, 243; the United Netherlands, 860, 361. 372 ; Union of Calmar, 419. 420. 591 ; United Colonies of New England, 464 ; Confedei-ation of the Rhine, 530 ; Germanic Confederation, 547. 558, 568; North German Confederation, 571, 573; German Empire, 586; Scandi- navian League, 591 ; Union of South Africa, 607, 603; Australian Commonwealth, 623; Dominion of Canada, 625, 626; Central American, 628. Fenris, 96. Ferdinand, king of Aragon, 216, 217, 237, 314, 341 ; VII, King of Spain, 533, 585. 627. Ferdinand I, Emperor of Austria, 556 and note 1. Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, 855 ; II, 370, 871. Ferdinand I, King of Rumania, 598, note 1. Ferdinand I, tsar of Bulgaria, 599, 600, 716. Festivals, Christian, 48 ; during the Middle Ages, 270-272 ; in the Thirteen Colonies, 459. Feudalism, rise of, 114, 115; non-European parallels to, 115 ; as a form of local govern- ment, 115-118; as a form of local justice, llS-120; feudal warfare, 120-122; feudal castles, 123-126 ; knighthood and chivalry, 126-129; feudal manors, 129-134 ; serfdom, 134, 135 ; decline of, 135, 136 ; infiuence of the crusades on, 176, 177 ; the national states and, 192, 193; William the Con- queror's policy toward, 194 ; the medieval cities and, 225, 226 ; in Poland, 425, 426 ; remnants of, abolished in revolutionary France, 507, 508 ; in Japan, 618, 620. Fez, 713. Fiction, modern, 689. Fief, the, 116, 117. Field, Cyrus W., 654. Finland," 100, 370, 420, 421 and note 1. 529, 546 and note 1, 592, 594, 680, 746; Gulf of, 418, 420. Finns, the, 62, 100, 179, 412, 592, 594, 740. Flanders, county of, 211, 248, 246, 402. Flemings, the, 243, 552. Florence, in the Middle Ages, 239, 240; dur- ing the Renaissance, 280, 281, 282, 288, 287, 291. Florida. 820, 464, 470, 476, 680. " Flying shuttle," the, 648. Foch (fosh). General, 741. Folk tales, European, 265, 266. Fontainebleau (foN-ten-blo'). "00. Food of medieval peoples, 276. Formosa, 616, 621. France, origin of the name, 8, note 8 ; the Normans in, 102, 108 ; Capetian dynasty established in, 103, 208 ; physical and' racial, 207, 208; territorial growth of, 209, 219; Hundred Years' War between England and, 210-214 ; under Francis I, 366 ; the Hugue- not wars in, 866-36 ; under Henry IV, 868, 369 ; intervention of, in the Thirty Years' War, 869, 371, 872 ; under Richelieu and Mazarin, 896, 397 ; under Louis XIV, 397-410 ; in the War of the Austrian suc- cession and the Seven Years' War, 434, 447, 469 ; rivalry of, with England in India and North America, 447^49, 467-471 ; alliance of, with the Thirteen Colonies, 475, 476, 501 ; under Louis XV, 498, 499; the French Revolution, 499-522 ; the Napoleonic era, 528-541 ; restoration of Louis XVIII, 546, 549, 550 : under Charles X, 550, 551 ; the "July Revolution" in, 551; under Louis Phihppe, 554 ; the " February Revolution " in, 555; under Napoleon III, 559, 560; acquires Savoy and Nice, 564 ; in the Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 773 Franco-German War, 571-573, the Third Republic, 582-584 ; between 1871 and 1914, 710-714, 718 ; in the World War, 725-730 ; 741-742. Tranche Comt6 (fraNsh'-koN-tu'), 403. Franchise, the. See Sutfrage. Francis I, emperor of Austria, 545. Francis I, king of France, 324, 341, 366. Francis Ferdinand, Austrian Crown Prince, assassination of, 723. Francis Joseph I, Emperor of Austria, 556 and note 1, 559, 563, 571, 589, 599, 632, note 1, 709. Fran-cis'cans, order of, 147-149, 183, 303, 323. Franco-German War, the, 566, 572, 573, 708-709. Fran-co'ni-a, 19 and note 1. Frankfort, Assembly, 558, 568 ; Treaty, 572, 573. Franklin, Benjamin, 459, 464, 487, 498. Franks, the, conquests of, under Clovis, 8 ; converted to Catholic Christianity, 8, 9, 61 ; under Merovingians, 10; under Charles Martel, and Pepin the Short, 10, 11 ; under Charlemagne, 12-16. Frederick t, Barbarossa, Holy Roman Em- peror, 156, 157, 171, 172, 217; II, 158, 175; Frederick II, the Great, King of Prussia, 431-485, 437, 438, 494, 495, 569, 6S1, 6S4; III, 710, note 1. Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, 838, 340. Frederick William, the Great Elector, 430, 431, 681, 721. Frederick William I, King of Prussia, 431 ; III, 545, 558, note 1 ; IV, 558, 559, 569. Freemasonry, 682. Free trade, adoption of, by Great Britain, 658, 659. French, the, racial elements in, 207, 20S. " French and Indian War," the, 464. 469. French Revolution, the, 497-522, 539-.j41, 543, 544, 668, 669. Frescoes, Italian, 287-288. Friars, orders of, 146-149. Friday, the Mohammedan Sabbath, 75; an unlucky day, 270. Friedland (frut'lant), battle of, 529. Frigga, 96. Frob'ish-er, Sir Martin, 826, 449. Froissart (frwji-sar'), Jean, 292. Fulton, Robert, 651, 653. Furniture in the Middle Ages, 274. Future life, ideas of the, in Islam, 74, 75, 76. Ga'bri-el. archangel. 71, 74. Gaelic (gal'ik), the Celtic speech of Scotland, 205. Galicia (ga-lish'i-a), 426. Gal'i-lee, Lake of, 171. Galileo (gal-i-lcM), 296, 297. Gal-lip'o-U, 187, 730. Gallo-Romans, the, 208, 248. Gama (gii'ma), Vasco da, 309, 310, 317. Gambetta, Leon, 582. Games, medieval, 126, 269, 270. Ganges River, 184, 610, 634. Gargoyles, 256. Garibaldi (gii-re-balMe), Giuseppe, 563, 564. Garonne (gi-ron') River, 102. Gas engine, the, 653. , Gaul, Franks in, S ; Arabs in, 80. Geneva, Calvin's residence in, 343, 344. Genoa, 7, 237, 239, 240, 313, 327. Geographical conditions in European his- tory, 90, 91, 205, 206, 207, 214, 215, 220, 221. Geography, Arab, 84 ; medieval, 302-804 ; progress of, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 308, 308, 809, 311, 314-317, 820, 821, 325, 826 ; modern, 476-479, 634-636. Geology, 686. Geometry, 85, 257, 486. George I, King of England, 4^36; II, 436, 458 ; III, 438, 472, 474, 478. 577, 707. George I, king of Greece, 597 and note 1. George, David Lloyd, 683. Georgia, 458. German East Africa, 606, 732. German Revolution, the, 000. German Southwest Africa, 606, 732. Germanic Confederation, the, 547, 558, 568. Germans, converted to Christianity in its Arian form, 4. 6, 9, 30, 61 ; fusion of, with Romans, 29, 30 ; missionary labors of St. Boniface among, 61 ; the Slavs and the, 19, 221. Germany, under Saxon kings, 19, 20; con- sequences to, of the restoration of the Ro- man Empire by Otto the Great, 21, 22, 158, 159 ; the Northmen in. 102 ; eastward ex- pansion of, in the Middle Ages, 220-222 ; political condition of, at the close of the Middle Ages, 222, 223 ; the Reformation in, 342, 348 ; the Thirty Years' War, 369-373 ; during the revolutionary and Napoleonic .era, 518, 521, 529, 536, 541; disunion of, after 1815, 547 ; revolutionary move- ments of 1830 and 1848 in, 547, 548, 557, 558 ; unification of, 567-573 ; government of, 586-588; between 1871 and 1914, 708- 728 ; in the World War, 723-734. Ghent (gent), 244, 246. Giants in European folklore, 266, 267. 6i-bral'tar, strait of, 78 and note 2 ; fortress of, 405, 406, 475. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 449. Girondists (ji-ron'dists). the, 516, 519. Gladstone, William E., 580, 581, 659, 683. Globular theory, the, 311. " Glorious Revolution," the, 393, 394, 437, 467, 478, 497, 539. Goa, 310. Gobelins (go-blaN) manufactory, the, 409. Godfrey of Bouillon (boS-yoN'), 167, 168. Gods and goddesses, Scandinavian, 94-97. Goethe (giVte), German poet, 294, 690. "Golden Gate" of Constantinople, the, 42. "Golden Horde." the, 185. Gold standard, the, adoption of, 657. Good Hope, Cape of, 309, 443, 444, 606. Gothic architecture, 254-256. Goths. See Ostrogoths, Visigoths. Government ownership, 652, 653, 667, 668. Governments: Great Britain, 576-582; France, 582-584; Italy, 584, 585; Spain, 585; Portugal, 585; Belgium, 585, 586; Germany, 586-588, 721 ; Austria-Hungary, 589, 590, 748 ; Switzerland, 590, 591 ; Hol- land, 591 ; Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, 591 ; Russia, 594, 739 ; Turkey and the Balkan States, 595-601 ; China, 614, 617 ; Japan, 618, 620 ; Latin American, 628. Governor, the, in the Thirteen Colonies, 462, 774 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Gra-na'da, S3. ST. 216, 21T. Grand Alliance, the, -tM, 406, Grand Canal of Venice, the, 241. Grand Duchy of Warsaw, the, 530, 546. Gratian, 259. Gravitation, law of, 4S7. Great Britain, island of. 204; kingdom of, 3T7, note 2. See alj4, 635. Gregorian Calendar, the, 65. Gregory I, the Great, pope, 53, 54, 76; VII, 154, 155, :i31. Grey, Sir Edward. 724. Grotius (gio'shi-tis), Hugo, 373. Guam (gwam). 630. Guatemala, 313, Guiana, Dutch, 344; British. 546. Guild system, the, 646. Guilds.' See Craft guilds. Merchant guilds. Guinea (gin'i). Gulf of. 30S. 313. Guiscard (ges-kar), Robert, 111, 112, 167; Roger, 112. Gunpowder, discovery of, 263, 264. Gustavus Adolphus. "370, 371, 373, 420, 457. Gutenberg (go4. Henrv I. king of Germany, 19, 20, 62, 221 ; in, 152; IV, 154,155. Henry, Prince, the Navigator, 307, 309, 313. Her-a-cli'us. Roman emperor in the East, 35,36. Herat (her-af), 181, Hereford (her'e-ferd) map, the. 305. Heresies, rise of, 47, 49, 50 ; punishment of, in the Middle Ages, 3^34, 3:i5; the Albi- genses, 14S. 335; the "Waldensos, 335; the Lollards, 336 ; the Hussites, 3:37. Hermits, early Christian, 54, 55, 146. " Hertzian waves." the, 6S6. Herzegovina (her-tse-go-ve'na), 599, 709. Hesse (hes). 61, 571, note 1. Highlands of Scotland, 205. 206. Highways. 114, 234, 395, 525. 649, 650. Hil'de-brand. See Gregory VII. Hi-ma'la-ya Mountains, 610. 634. Hindenbiirg (hin'dun-b06rK), General von, 730. " Hindenburg Line," the, 729, 742. Hindus, the. 610, 611, 612. Hindustan, 610. Hip'po-drome of Constantinople, the, 42. His pa'ni-a, 214. Historians, Renaissance, 291, 292 ; modern, 6SS, 6S9. Hoder (he'der), 99. Hohenlinden, battle of, 523. Hohenzollern (ho'^n-tsol-ern) dvnastv, the, 19 and note 2, 406, 428 and note 1, 429, 544, 55S. 569, 743. Holidays, medieval, 134, 270-272. Holland, a part of the Netherlands, 10, 18, 357 ; the Reformation in, 358 ; revolts against Spain. 359, 360 ; secures independ- ence, 361. 372 ; at war with Louis XIV, 402, 4o:3, 404. 445 ; in the War of the Aus- trian Succession, 434 ; at war with Great Britain, 475, 476 ; during the revolutionary era, 517, 518, 529, 546 ; the Austrian Neth- erlands united with, 547, 552 ; loses the Austrian Netherlands, 553 ; government of, 591. See aho Netherlands. Holland, J. P.. 6.>1. Holstein (hol'shtln), 23. 3<0, 570, 571. See a/so Schleswig. Holy Land, the, 162, 163, 165, 166, 169, 172, 175, 176. Holy Roman Empire, the, 16 and note 1, 21- 23," 151-159, 218 and note 2, 369, 371, 372, 403, 505. Holy Sepulcher, church of the, 168, note 1. Holy Synod, the, in Russia, 417. Homage, ceremony of, 117. Homeric poems, study of, during the Renais- sance, 281, 282. Home Rule, Irish, 582. Honduras, 318. Hong-kong', 615. Hos'pi-tal-ers, order of the, 169 and note 1, 175. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 775 Hotel des Invalides (o-tel'dfi-zaN-va-led'), 286, note 1, 409, 696. Hottentots, the, 604. Howe, Elias, 644. Hudson Bay, 469, 626. Hudson, Henrv, 444. Hudson River,' 444, 449, 452. Hugo, Victor, 6S9, 69S. Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), the, 366 and note •3, 367, 368, 376, 395, 408, 4^30, 444, 458, 501, 681. Huguenot wars, the, 366-368. Humanism, 283, 290, 291, 294. Humboldt, Alexander von, 6:34. Hundred Years' War, the, 210-214. Hungarians. See Magyars. Hungary, medieval kingdom of, 20, 115, 184, 185 ; united with Austria, 21 S ; overrun by the Ottoman Turks, 423, 595 ; revolt of, against Austria, 556, 557 ; becomes inde- pendent, 589 ; government of, 590. See also Austria-Hungarv. Huns, the, 18, 38, 412," 592, 598. Hussite wars, the, 337, 370. Huss (hiis), John, 337, 339. Hymns, Latin, 249 ; Luther's, 340 and note 1. Iberians, the, 215. Ib'lis, 74. Iceland, as a literary center, 93, 94 ; Chris- tianity introduced "into, 97; colonized by the Northmen, 99. Iconoclastic controversy, the, 64. Il'men, Lake, 100. Imperialism, 603, 712, 720. Incas, the, 319, 320, 321. Inclosures in Great Britain, 660, 661. J7i-cti~nab^ii-la, 285. Independents, the, 385 and note 2, 386, 387. 391, 451. " Index of Prohibited Books," the, 354. India, Nestorians in, 50 ; Arab conquests in, 77; the Moguls in, 184, 445,' 447; Portu- guese possessions in, 310, 311, rivalry of France and England in. 445-449 ; a part of the British Empire, 609-612; peoples of, 610, 611 ; religions of, 610, 611 ; the caste svstem of, 611 ; Indian nationalism, 611, 612. Indian Ocean, 310, 445. Indians, American, 317-320, 322, 323. Indies, East, SOS, 309, 310 and note 1, 311, 317, 320, 442, 443, 621, 622 ; West, 315, 320 and note 1, 322, 387, 444, 628, 629 and note 1, 630, 677, 678. Indo-China, 612, 614, 616. Indulgences, 338, 339, 349. Indus River, 77, 184, 610, 634. Industrial Revolution, the, 640-673. "Industrial Workers of the Worid," the, 671. Industry, Bvzantine, 39 ; Arab, S3 ; in medie- val cities, 229-232. 238, 239, 244, ^5 ; the Industrial Revolution, 640-673 ; govern- ment regulation of, 665-667. Ingria, 420. Initiative, the, 590, 591. Innocent HI, Pope, 147, 157, 158, 173, 175, 198, 338. Inquisition, the, 354, 355, 358. Inscriptions, 49, 91, 105. Institute of France, the, 410, 69S. Jnatitutes of the Christian Religion, Cal- vin's, 343, 376. Instrument of Government, the. 390, 576. Interdict, the, 142, 157, 15S. Internationalism, Modern, 675-677, 685, 689, 690, 691, 708. International law, rise of, 373. In-ter-reg'num, the, 158. Inveotion, 641, 642. Investiture, conflict over, 153-156. Ionian Islands, 546. Ireland, Christianity introduced into, 26, 29 ; the Northmen in," 9S ; conquered by Eng- land, 207, 362, 363, 3S7 ; Nationalism in, 543 : joined to Great Britain, 576 and note 1 ; Home Rule Movement in, 582. Ir-ne'ri-us, 25S. '• Ironsides," Cromwell's, 385. " Iron Crown " of Lombardy, 13, 21, 525. Isaac. Hebrew patriarch, 6S. Ish'ma-el, 68. Islam (is'lum), principles and practices of, 73-75; expansion of, 75-SO ; influence of, 87-88; in India, 611. Isles of the Blest, the, 312. Italia Irredenta. 566. 731. Italy, the Ostrogoths in, 3-6 ; the Lombards in, 6-8; Frankish rule over, 13; restoration of the Roman Empire by Otto the Great and its consequences to, 21, 22, 159; Nor- man conquest of southern. 111. 112, 164, 2S0 ; in the Renaissance, 279-2S3. 286-289, 291, 294, 295, 296; during the revolution- ary and Napoleonic period, 521, 522, 523, .52"5, 528, 529, 530, 541 ; the Vienna settle- ment in, 546; disunion of, after 1815, 547; revolutionary movements of 1830 and 1848 in, 553, 557 ; unification of, 560-567 ; gov- ernment of, 5S4, 585; between 1871 and 1914, 709, 712 ; in the World War, 731-732. Ivan (e-vanO III, the Great, tsar, 185, 186. Jacobins (.iak'o-bins), the, 513, 514, 515, 516, 519, 520, 525. Jacquerie (zhak-reO, the, 300 and note 1. James I, king of England, 206, note 1, 363 and note 1, 377-379, 396. 449, 450, 451 ; II, 392, 393 and note 1, 455, 457, 467. Jamestown, settlement of, 450, 451. Jan-i-za'ries, the, 187 and note 2, 18S. Japan, not conquered by the Mongols, 183 ; the medieval Cipango, 304, 313, 314 ; Portu- guese trade with, 310, 61S; geography and people of, 617, 618 ; civilization of, 618 ; during the nineteenth and twentieth cen- turies, 61S-621 ; in the World War, 733. Java, S3. 310, note 1, 443. Jena (ya'na), battle of, 528, 529. Jenghiz Khan (jen'giz KJin'), Mongol con- queror, 181, 182. Jerusalem, during the crusades, 163, 165, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 174, 175. 238 ; regarded as center of the world, 305 ; captured by the British, 733. Jesuits. 5ee Society of Jesus. Jews, the, condition of, in the Middle Ages, 236, 237 ; in England and the Thirteen Colonies, 394, 460 ; reunion of, in the Holy Land, 54^3 ; persecuted in Russia, 594. Jihad (ie-had'), 75. Joan of Arc, 213. Joflfre (zhoflF), General, 72S. John, Don, of Austria, 355. John, king of England, 157, 158, 198, 199, 209, 514. 776 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary John, king of France, 212. John XII, pope, 21. Joint-stock companies, 441, 442. Joliet (Fr. pron. zho-lya'), 465. Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, 495. Joseph Bonaparte, 530, 533, 627. Josephine, 530, note 1, 534, TOO. Jotunheim (j'6'td6n-ham), 95. Joust, the, 128, 129. • "Julian Calendar," the, 416. " July Revolution," the, 550, 551, 695. Junkers (yoT>n'k:(5rs), Prussian, 429, 569, 722. Jury, trial and accusation by, 197, 198. Justices of the peace, 463. Jus-tin'i-an, Roman emperor in the East, 6, 33-35, 78. "just price," medieval idea of the, 232. Jutland, battle of, 734. Kaaba (kaVt-bti), the, 69, 70, 72. Kamchatka, 414. Karelia, 420. Kent, 23, 25, 26, 300. Kepler, 297. Kerensky, Alexander, 739. Khadija (ka-dG'Jd), 71. Khartum (kar-toom'), 608. Khedive (k^-dev'). the. 6(i9. Kianchan (kyon-chon^), 616, note 1, 738. Kiel Canal, the, 719. Kiev (kC-'yi'f), 101, 184. 591. " King George's War," 468, note 1, 469. " King's friends," the, 438, 474. " King's Road," the, 323 and note 1. "King William's War," 403, note 1, 468, note 1. Kitchener, General, 608. Knighthood, 126-129. Koblenz (ko'blents), 744. Koniggratz (ku-niK-grct.s'). battle of, 571. Koran (ko-ran'), the, 73-75. 76. Korea, 183, 616, 618, 621 and note 1. Koreans, the, 284, 617. Koreish (k5-rlsh'). 69, 71. Kosciuszko (Polish pron. k(jsh-chv(5TJsh';<6), 427. Kos'so-vo, battle of, 596. Kossuth (kosh'dSt), Louis, 556. Kremlin, the, 593. Kriem'hild (krem'hilt), 251, 252. Kruger. Paul, 607. Kublai khan (koD'bll kui/), 183, 304. Kultur, 720. Laborers, statutes of, 299. Labor legislation, 665-667. Labor movement, the, 662-664. Labor Party, British, 582. Labrador, 99, 325, 449, 634. La Chaise (la-shez'), P6re, cemetery of, 698. Ladrone (la-dro'nii) Islands, 816 and note 1. Lafayette, Marquis de, 475, 498, 504, 506, 508, 551. La F6re (la far'), 741. La Fontaine (la foN-ten'), 409. Laissez-faire (le'sa-far'), doctrine of, 486, 665. Lancaster (lan'kds-ter), house of, 214. Lau-'ce-lot, Sir, 128. Land tenure, feudal, 116, 129, 130 ; modern, 661, 662. Langley, 8. P., 653. Lan-go-bar'di. See Lombards, Language, English, 25, 110, 248, 249 ; Latin, 138, 193, 247, 248, 290, 291; Norman- French, 110, 248 ; Cymric. 204 ; Gaelic, 205 ; Spanish, 216 ; French, 248 ; Icelandic, 248 and note 1; Greek, 280, 282, 283; Italian, 2S1 ; German, 340. Languages, universal, 675, 676. Laos, 612. Laplace (la-phis'), 487. Lapland, 185. Lapps, the, 179, 592. La Salle (la sSl'), Robert de, 465, 629. Lat'er-an Palace, the, 151, 153. Lritin Empire of Constantinople, the, 174. Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, the, 168, 169, 170, 171. Latin Quarter, the, of Paris, 698. Laud, Archbishop, 380, 381, 382, 454. Lavoisier (la-vwa-zyu'), 488. Law: Common law of England, 25, 34, 195, 198, 392, 462, 576 ; " Laws of the Barbari- ans," 30 ; the Corpus Juris Civilis, 84, 35, 120, 258, 259, 262; feudal, 118-120; canon, 141, 259 ; the rise of international, 373 ; the Code Napoleon, 524, 539. "Laws of the Barbarians," the, 30. Leagues. See Federations. Learned societies, rise of, 4SS, 489. Lech (Ick) River, battle of the, 20. Legates, papal, 150, 183, 831. Legion of Honor, French, 526. Leibniz (ITp'nits), 487. Leinster (len'ster), 387. Leipzig (lip'sik), citv, 232 ; university of, 260 ; battle of, 536. Lenine, Nicholas, 739. Lent, 48, 240, 307. Leo I, the Great, Pope, 52; III, 14; XIII, 566. Leo III, the Isaurian, Roman emperor in the East, 77. Leon (la-on), kingdom of, 216. Leon, Ponce de, 320. Leonardo da Vinci (la-o-narMo da vcn'che), 288. Leopold I, king of Belgium, 558 ; II, 605, 606. Lepanto (la-pan 'to), battle of, 355. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 609. Lettres de cachet (let'r' de k&-shC'), 499, 506. Letts, the. 592, 594. Lewis and f'lark, explorations of, 684. Leyden (li'dcn), 858. 452. Liaotung (le-ou-ttjong'), Peninsula, 616, 621. Liberal Party, British, 5S2. Liberia, 787. "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," 498, 529, 5:39-541. Libva, 606 and note 1. Lidge (le-azh'), 102. Lima (iC-'^na), 321. Lim'er-ick, 98. Lin-nse'us. 488. Liquor traffic, the. abolition of, 679. Lisbon, 809, 310, 818, 327, 442, 533. Literature, Bj'zantine. 40 ; Arabic, 86; medi- eval. 249-252; Renaissance, 290-294; Eng- lish, in the .seventeenth century, 395, 396; French, in the seventeenth and' eighteenth centurins, 409, 491-493; modern, 689, 690. See also Humanism. Lith-u-a'ni-ans, the, 62, 424, 425, 592, 594, 740. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 777 Liverpool, 327, 649. Livingstone, David, 605. Livonia, 222, 420, 740. Locke, John, 489, 490, 498. Loire (Iwiir) River, 8, 102, 213. Lo'ki, 96. Lollards, the, 336, 345. Lombards, the, form a kingdom in Italy, 6- 8, 35, 53 ; defeated and conquered by the Franks, 11, 13; become Catholic Christians, 61. Lombard Street, 237, note 1. Lombardy, 6, 521, 529, 546, 547, 557, 563. London, becomes the capital of England, 109 ; craft guilds of, 230 and note 1 ; as a flnancial and commercial center, 237, note 1, 242, 327 ; population of, in the seventeenth century, 394 ; described, 700-707. London Bridge, 206, 242, 702. London Company, the, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 462. Long bow, the, 211. Lords, House of, 203, 376, 387, 392, 578, 580, 581. Lorraine (16-ranO, 18 and note 1, 19, note 1, 372, 401, 403, 498, 573, 586, 722, 742. See also Alsace. "Lost Provinces," the, 712, 721. Lothair (16-tharO, 17, 18, Lothringen (16t'ring-en), See Lorraine, Louis VII, king of France, 170; IX, the Saint, 209, 210; XIII, 369, 396, 397; XIV, 397-410, 411, 417, 447, 465, 467, 481. 483, 484, 490, 526, 527, 537, 606, 693, 696, 698, 727 ; XV, 406, note 2, 467, 483, 484, 498, 499, 695 ; XVI, 499-517, 695 ; XVII, 537, note 1 ; XVIII, 537, 549, 550. Louis the German, 17, 18 ; the Pious, 16, 97. Louis Napoleon. See Napoleon III. Louis Philippe, king of France, 551, 554, 555, 606, Louisburg, 469. Louisiana. 408, 465, 469, 471, 629, 630, 634. Louvain (loo-vaN'), town hall of, 245. Louvois (loO-vwaO, 401. Louvre (liw'vr'), palace of the, 290, 409, 696, 698. Low Countries. See Netherlands. Lovola (l(5-vo'la), St. Ignatius, 351, 352. Liibeck (lu'bek), 242, 243, 327, 586, note 1. . Lucca, 547. Lu-cerne', Lake, 219 ; the Lion of, 514. Lutsi-ddfi, Camoens's, 309. Ln-tii-ta'ni-a, the, 735. Luther, Martin, 337-340, 376. Lutheranism, legal recognition of, in Ger- many, 342, 345, 681 ; spreads to Scandinavia, 343 ; its doctrines and organization, 350, 376. Lutzen (liit's^n), battle of, 871. Lux'em-burg, 72.5, note 1, 727. • Lyell (li'el), Sir Charles, 686. Ma-ca'o, 310, 615. Macedonia, 600, 601. Machiavelli (ma-kyii-vel'le), 291. Mackensen, General von, 730. Madagascar, 445, 606. Madeira (md-de'r«) Islands, 308. Madeleine (mad-Ian'), the, 696, Madonna. See Virgin Mary. Ma-dras', 447, 448. Magdeburg (mag'de-bd&rK), 871. Ma-gel'lan, Fer'di-nand, 316, 817, 477. Magenta (md-jSn'tA), battle of, 563. Magic in the Middle Ages, 264, 265. Magistrates of a medieval city, 229 and note Mag'na Car'ta, winning of, 198, 199 ; provi- sions of, 199, 200, 380, 700, Magyars (mod'yors), the, inroads of, 18; wars of Henry the Fowler and Otto the Great with, 19, 20, 217 ; their settlement in Europe, 20 and note 1 ; converted to Chris- tianity, 62. Maine, 455, note 1, 464. Main River, 571. Mainz (mints), 285, 744. Ma-lac'ca, 310, 443, Malay Islands, 614, 686. Malay Peninsula, 612, 614. Malmaison (mal-me-z6N'), 700, Malory, Sir Thomas, 251, 285. Malta, 546. Manchuria, 179, 613, 614, 616, 621. Manhattan Island, 444. Man-i-to'ba, 626. Manor, the medieval, 129-134, 298, 299, 484, 485. Mansard (maN-sar'), 409, Man'tu-a, 294. Manufacturing, inventions in, 642-644. Manuscripts, 285, 286. Maps, medieval, 302, 305; the jyottolanL 306. Marconi, William, 654, 655. Marengo, battle of, 523. Margraves, 14. Mariannes. See Ladrone Islands. Maria Louisa, 534 Maria Theresa (te-re-s«), 426, 427, 432, 438, 434, 435, 500. Marie Antoinette (iiN-twa-nct'), 500, 501, 508. 512, 513, 515, 695. Markets, medieval, 232 ; modern, 656. "Marks," 14. Marlborough, Duke of, 404, Mar'mo-ra, Sea of, 40, 41. Marne (miirn), the, battle of, 727-728. Marquette (mar-kef), 465. Marseillaise (mar ee-yaz'), the, 518 and note 1, 543. Marseilles (mar-salz'), 224. Martin V, Pope, 333. Marx, Karl, 669, 670. Mary (wife of William III), 393 and note 1. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, 363. 364. Mary Tudor, queen of England, 348. Maryland, 455, 457, 460, 463. Massachusetts, 453-455, 460, 461, 462, 464. Mathematics, Arab, 85, 86 ; medieval, 257 ; modern, 486, 487. Matilda, Countess, 155. Matrimony, sacrament of, 189, 141. Maximilian, emperor of Mexico, 682 and note 1. Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, 341. Mayas (ma'yas), the, 318, 319, 324. May Day, 134, 271, 272. Mayflower Compact, the, 453, 454. " Mayors of the palace," Frankish. 10. Mazarin (ma-za-raN'), Cardinal, 397, 899, 401, 698. Mazzini (mat-sc'ne), Joseph, 557, 561, 564. Mecca, 69, 70, 71, 72, 733. Medici (med'e-che), the, 288. yyS Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Medicine, Arab, 85 ; modern, 686. Medina (mO-de'na), 72, 81, 738. Mediterranean, the, 418, 419. Mendicant orders. See Friars. Mercantile system, the, 44U, 441. Merchant guilds, 229. Mer'ci-a, kingdom of, 24. Mer-o-vin'gi-an, dynasty, the, 10 and note 1, 693. 696. Mer'son, Treaty of, 17. Merv (merO. 181. Mes-o-po-ta'rai-a, 423, 733. Methodists, the, 6S2 and note 1. Me-thoMi-us, 62 and note 2. Metternich (met'er-niK), 545, 547, 548, 549, 550, 552, 553, 556, 559, 592, 6;30. Metternichismus, 548, 549, 554. Metz, 372, 572, 573. Meuse (miiz) River, 102, 442 Mexico, the Aztec power in, 319 ; conquered by the Spaniards, 320 , becomes indepen- dent, 627 ; in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 628, 631, 632, 736. Mexico City, 319, 324. Michael, archangel, 213. Michael Romanov, 415. Michelangelo (Ital. pron. me-kei-an'jJi-lo), 287, 288. Middle Ages-, the, period covered by, 2, 279. Middle class, the. See Bourgeoisie, Third Estate. " Middle Europe," 715. 717, 731. Midgard serpent, the, 95, 96 Midsummer Eve, 271. Mikado, the Japanese, 618, 620 and note 1. Milan (mil'dn), city, 238, 557, b63 ; Decree, 532 Militarism, 401, 480, 431, 717-720. Military-religious orders, 196, 221. Milton, John, 396 Mi-nor'ca, 406, 476- Minstrels, 93, 126, 250, Mir, the Russian, 662. Mirabeau (me-rd-bo'), 502, 503, 504, 510, 512, 514. Miracle plays, 273. Mis'ai clo-minH-ci, the, 14. Missions in America, 323, 324, 329, 352, 353, 440, 465. Mississippi River, 321, 408, 465, 466, 469, 470, 629. 630. Moawiva (md-a-wC'ya), 81. Modena (m6'da-na),"'547, 553, 557, 563 Mo-guls', rule of the, in India, 1S4, 445, 447. Mo-ham'med, prophet, 69-73, 733. Mohammed II, sultan, 188. Mohammedanism. See Islam. Moldavia, 598. Moliere (mo-lyar'), 409, 698. Moltke, Hellmuth von, 570, 572, Mo-luc'cas. See Spice Islands. Mon'a-co, 547, note 1. Monarchy, use of the medieval, 192, 193, 194, 210, 217. See aho Absolutism. Monasticism, rise of, 54-56 ; the Benedictine Rule, 56, 57 ; life and work of Benedictine monks, 57-60 : the Cluniac revival, 145 ; the Cistercian order, 145, 146 ; suppression of. in Scandinavia and England, 343, 346, 347. Money, scarcity of, in the Middle Ages, 114, 235 ; the Jews as money lenders, 236, 237 ; increased supply of, after the discovery ot America, 327, 328 ; supply of, in the nine- teenth centurj', 657. See also Coinage. Mongolia, 50, 179, 614. Mongolian race, the, 614, 636 and note 1, 63S. Mongols, the, life and culture of, 179, ISO ; conquests of, 180-185, Monroe Doctrine, the, 630-632, 713. Mons (moNs), 727. Montaigne (mon-tan'), 292. Montcalm (moN-k&lm'), 467, 469. Mon'te Cas-si'no, 56. Mon-te-ne'gro, 65, 423, 596. 599, 600, 716, 732, Montesquieu (raoN-tes-ke-uO, 491, 493, 494, 498. Montfort, Simon do, 202, 203, Montpellier (m6N-j)e-lyaO university of, 261. Montreal, 465, 466, 469, Moors, the, 215 and note 1, 216. Morality plays, 273, Mo-ra'vi-a. 62 and note 2. More, Sir Thomas. 301, 668, note 1. Mo-re'a, the, 241, note 1. Moreau (mo-ro'). General, 523. Morocco. 605, 606, 713. Morris dance, the, 272. Morse, Samuel F. B., 6.54. Morte d' Arthur (mort'ddr-tur'), the, 251, 285 Mosaics, 33, 152. Moscow (mos'ko), 40, 184, 185, 186, 415, 418 and note 1,421, 535, 591. " Moslem," meaning of the name, 71, notel. Mosques, 84, 166. Mosul (mo-soOl'), 177. Mozart, 691. Mu-ez>zin, 74. Mumming and mummers' plays, 271, 273. Munster, 387. Mus'co-vy, principality of, 135. Music, religious, 47, 48, 288, 289; modern, 690, 691. Mythology, Scandinavian, 94-97. TSTansen, Fridtjof, 635. N.intes (ntiNt), Edict of, 368, 395, 408, 444, 458, 681. — . ■— , Naples, 7, 112, 546, 564. Napoleon I, Bonaparte, 520-541, 544, 545, 555, 560, 561, 507, 624, 626, 627, 628, 629, 053, 677, 683, 684, 693, 695, 696, 698, 708; II (" king of Rome "), 534 and note 1 ; III, 555, 557, 559, 560, 562. 56:3, 5(>4, 566, 570, 571, 572, 5S2. 597, 631, 632. 693, 695. Nasebv (naz'bi), battle of, 385. Na-tal>, 607. National Assembly, French, 503, 504, 507, 508, 509, 510, 516. National Convention, French, 516, 518, 519, 520, 525, National Guard, French, 506, 508. Nationalism, rise of, in Europe, 192. 193, 206, 214, 216, 220, 222 ; during the revolutionary and Napoleonic era, 543, 544, 561, 567, 568, 708 ; disregard of, by the Congress of Vienna, 546, 547, 568, 708; between 1815 and 1848, 548, 550, 551, 552, 553, 561, 568 ; between 1848 and 1871, 556, 557, 558, 559, 562. 566, 568, 571, 573; in India. 611, 612; internationalism and, 708 ; imperialism and, 712. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 779 Nationalism Party, Irish, 5S2. National Library, the, at Paris, 410, 696. National Monument, German, 587. Nations, League of, 746. Na-va-ri'no, battle of, 596. Navarre (no-viir'). kingdom of, 216, 368 and note 1. Navigation Acts, the, 472. Navy, Venetian, 241 ; English, 365, 719, 734; French, 369 ; German, 719, 734. See also Sea-power. Nebular hypothesis, the, 4S7. Negro race, the, 603, 604, 636, 638. Nelson, Lord, 522, 527, 704. Neptune, planet, 685. Nes-to'ri-ans, the, 49, 50, 303. Nestorius, 50. Netherlands, the condition of, in the Middle Ages, 243. 357, 358 ; Protestantism in, 344, 354, 358 ; revolt of, 357-361 ; efforts of Louis XIV to annex. 402; the Austrian, 406, 517, 518, 521, 546, 547, 552. Neutrality, Belgian, 553, 726. Neva River, 418. New Amsterdam, 444. New Brunswick, 624, 625. New England, colonization of, 451-454 ; John Smith's map of, 452 ; religious conditions in, 460; educational system of, 460, 461 ; rep- resentative institutions in, 462 ; town gov- ernment of, 463 ; Confederation of. 464. Newfoundland, 99, 449, 468, 470, 624, 626. New France, 408, 466, 467, 471. New Guinea, 621, 622 and note 1, 635, 636. New Hampshire, 455 and note 1, 621. New Haven, 464. New Jersey, 457. New Mexico, 322. "New Model," the, 385. New Netherland, 444, 457. New Orleans, 466 and note 1. New South Wales, 622, 623. Newspapers, appearance of, 395, 655. New Sweden, 457. New Testament, the. 289, 290, 340. Newton, Sir Isaac, 487. New York, 455, note 1, 457, 458, 460, 462. New Zealand, 477, 622, 623. Niagara, Fort, 469. Nibelungenlied (no'be-loong-en-lot), the, 251, 252, 294. Nictea (ni-so'shi-fe-ya), 742. Soissons (swa-soN'), battle of, 8. Solferino (sol-fe-re'no), battle of, 563. So-ma'ii-land, Italian. 606. Somme (som), the battle of, 742. Sophia, electress of Hanover, 436. Sorbonne (sor-bon'), the, 698. Soto, Hernando de, 321. South African War, the, 607, 711. South Australia, 623. South Company of Sweden, 457. South Pole, the, discovery of, 635. Soviets, Russian, 739. Spain, the Arabs in, 78, 80 ; physical and racial, 214, 215; Christian states of, 216; recovery of, from the Moors, 216, 217; under Ferdinand and Isabella, 217 ; under Philip II, 355-357 ; cedes territories to France, 402, 403 ; in the War of the Spanish Succession, 403, 404, 406 ; in the War of the Austrian Succession, 434 ; at war with Eng- land, 470, 475, 476 ; during the revolution- ary and Napoleonic era, 517, 531, 533, 534 ; the Bourbon restoration in, 546, 550, 585, 627 ; government of, 585. Spanish-American War, the, 628, 630. Spanish Succession, War of the, 404, 405, 429, 445. Speke, Captain J. H., 604. Spencer, Herbert, 688. Spice Islands, 310, note 1, 317, 320, 443. Spices, use of, in the Middle Ages, 276, 307. Spinet, the, 690. Spinning machines, invention of, 642-644. Spirit of LaxoH, Montesquie\i's, 491. Stagecoach, the, 394, 395, 649. Stained glass, medieval, 47, 251, 256. Stamp Act, the, 472, 473. Stanley, Sir Henrv M., 604, 605. States of the Church, 11 and note 2, 21, 150, 333, 529, 546, 547, 553, 557, 561, 563, note 1, 566. Steamboat, the, 651. Steam engine, the, 644, 645, 651. Steam locomotive, the, 651, 652. Steel, use of, 645. Stein, Baron von, 536, 545, 547, 567. Stem-duchies, German, 19 and note 1. Stephen II, pope, 11. Stephenson, George, 651, 652. Stourbridge Fair, 232, 233. Strafford, Earl of, 380, 381, 382, 570. Straits Settlements, the. 612. Strassburg (shtras'b56rK), 8, 9, 102, 242, 403, 573. Stratford-on-Avon, 293. Stuart dvnasty, the, 377. Submarine boat, the, 653, 654, 734, 735. Submarine cable, the, 654. Sudan, Anglo- Egvptian, 608. Suez Canal, 6U9, 7"46. Suffrage, manhood, 555, 556, 580, 583, 585, 586, 590, 591, 680 ; woman, 680. Suigrave Manor, 274. Sully (sii-le'), 369. Sumatra (soD-mii'trd), 83, 310, note 1, 443. Summa TJieologice, Aquinas's, 262. Sunday, 48. Superstitions of the Middle Ages, 265-269, 459, 460. Supremacv, Act of, 346. Surgery, Arab, 85 ; modern, 686. Su-ri-nam', 444. Sussex, 23. Swa'bi-a, 19, note 1, 219, 428, note 1. Sweden, geographical features of, 90 ; Luth- eranism in, 343, 348 ; in the Thirtv Years' War, 370, 372, 420; an enemy of Louis XIV, 402 ; growth and decline of, 419-421 ; in the Seven Years' War, 434 ; establishes a North American colony, 442, 457 ; an enemy of Napoleon, 528 ; loses Finland to Russia, ^29, 646, 592 ; secures Norway, 546 and note 1, 547 ; government of, 591. Swedes, converted to Christianity, 62, 97 ; in Finland and Russia, 100, 101. Switzerland, rise of, 18, 219 ; struggle of, ^vith Austria, 219, 220, 373 ; the Swiss Con- federation, 220 ; the Reformation in, 343, 344 ; under Napoleon, 530 ; government of, 570-591. Syndicalism. 671. Synthetic PhilosopJiy, Spencer's, 688. Syria, 168, 169, 170, 171, 175, 622. Talleyrand (ta-le-raN'), 546. Tam-er-lane'. See Timur the Lame. Tancred (tarj'kred), 167, 168. Tanganyika (tiin-gan-yG'ka), Lake, 605, 606. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 785 Tarik (tii'i-ik), 78 and note 2. Tartars. See Tatars. Tasinan, Abel, 477. Tasmania, 477, 621, 623. Tartars, the, 185 and note 1. Taxation, royal, in the Middle Asres, 193, 194 200, 202, 203, 210 ; under the Old Regime 484, 501, 541. ^ Telegraph, the, 654. Telephone, the, 654. Telescope, the, 296, 297. Tell, William, legend of, 220. Templars, order of, the, 169. Temple, the, at Jerusalem, 42, 169. Temporal power of the Papacy, 11, 53, 331 546,561,566,567. " Tennis Court Oath," the, 503, 504, 510. Tenochtitlan (ten-och-tet-hin'), 319. Ten Tribes of Israel, the, 303. Tetzel, 338. Teutonic Knights, the, 221, 222, 421. 428 429. » . . , Teutonic languages, 248. Teutonic peoples, 90. Texas, 630. Thackeray. W, M., 689. Thames (temz) Kiver, 103, 242, 700, 702, 706 Thanksgiving Day, 459. Theatre Franpais (ta-a'tr' friis-sC-'), the, 698. The-od'o-ric, king of the Ostrogoths, 3-6. The-o-do'si-us the Great. 33. Theses, Luther's ninety-five, 339. Thessaly, 596, 599. Thiers (tyar), L. A., 582, 583. Third Estate, the, 210, 227, 331, 483. 484 502, 503, 504. Thirteen Colonies, the, established, 449-458 ; civilization of, 459-461 ; political conditions in, 462-464; revolt of, 471^76, 623, 624. Thirty Years' War, the, 369-373, 397. 420. Thor, 95, 96. Thorwaldsen (tor'wold-sen), 691. Thousand and One Nights, the, 82, 86. Thu'nor. See Thor. Tibet (ti-betO. 179, 304, 614, 634. Ticonderoga, Fort, 469. Tientsin, 613. Tilsit, Peace of, 529, 532, 533. Tim-buk'tu, 604. Tinmr (tl-moCr') the Lame, 181, 183. Titian (tishMn), 288. Tlt-i-ca'ca, Lake, 320. Tobacco, 328, 450. Togoland, 732. Toledo (Sp. pron. to-la'tho), 83. Toleration, religious. 329, 334, 335, 342, 343 351, 361. 368, 371, 372, 408, 430, 460, 681, 682! Toleration Act, the, 393, 394, 460, 681. Tolls, 234. Tolstoy (tol-stoiO, Count. 689. Tombs : Theodoric the Ostrogoth, 3 ; Timur the Lame, 181 ; Napoleon, 540. Ton-kin', 612. "Tories," the, 474. 475, 623. Tory Party, the, 392 and note 1, 436, 437, 438, 578, 582. ' Toul (toCl), 372, 725. Toulon (too-loN'), 518, 521. Toulouse (too-lo(5z'), 167. Tournament, the, 128, 129. Tours (toSr), battle of, 10, 80. Tower of London, the, 123, note 2, 193, 194, 881,704. ... Towns. See Cities. Townsheud Acts, the, 473. Township, the, in New England, 463. Trade routes, medieval, 234, 235, 309, 310- discovery of new, 307, 327. ' Trade unions, 663, 664. Trading in medieval cities, 229, 232. Traf-al-gar', Cape, battle of, 527, 529, .531. Trafalgar Square, 704, 706. Transportation, inventions in, 649-654. Trans-Siberian Railway, the, 613. Transubstantiation, 139 and note 2. Transvaal (trans-viil'), the, 607. Transylvania, 731. Treaties : Verdun, 16, IT ; Mersen, 17 ; Augsburg, 342, 343, 369, 370, 681 ; West- phalia, 371, 372, 373; Utrecht, 406, 411, 468, 469 ; Aix-la-Chapelle, 434, 447 ; Paris, (1763), 435, 448, 449, 469-471 (1783), 476; Versailles (1783), 476 ; Campo Formio, 521, 523, 528, 567 ; Amiens, 523, 527 ; Tilsit, 529, 532, 533; Vienna, 545-548; Prague, 571; Frankfort, 572, 573 ; Paris (1856), 598 ; San Stefano, 599 ; Berlin, 599 ; Bucharest, 600, 601, 717 ; Portsmouth, 621 ; Brest-Litovsk, 740 ; Versailles (1919), 746. Trent, Council of, 853, 354. Trentino (tren-te'no), the, 566, 732. Tricolor, the, 506, 551. Trieste (tre-es'ta), 566, 732. Trinity, the, 344. Triple AUiance, the, 709, 710. Triple Entente, the, 711. Trip'o-li (Africa), 606, note 1. TripoU (Asia), 169. Troppan (trop'on), Congress of, 549, Trotsky, Leon, 789. Troubadours (troo'ba-doors), the, 250. "Truce of God," the, 122. True Cross, the, 13, 85. Tsar (tsar), the title, 186, note 1. Tudor dynasty, the, 214, 376, 377. Tuileries (twel-re'), palace of the, 508, 512. 515, 520, 525, 696. Tunis, 606, 709. Turgot (tiir-goO, 500, 501, 508. Turin (tu'rin), 564. Tur-ke-stan', 179, 181, 618, 614. Turks. See Ottoman Turks, Seljuk Turks. Tuscany, 547, 557, 563. "Twilight of the Gods," the, in Norse mythology, 96. Two Sicilies, kingdom of the, 112, 158, 546. 547, 550, 557, 564. Type, movable, 284, 285 ; kinds of, 285, 286. Ukraine (ii'kran), the, 414, 421, 591, 740. Ulm (o5lm), 242, 528. Ulster, 387. Uniformitarian theory, Lyell's, 686, 687. Uniformity, Act of, 891. Union, Act of, 377, note 2. Union Jack, the, 577. LTnionist Party, British, 582, note 1. Unitarians, the, 394, 681. United Colonies of New England, the, 464. United Kingdom, the, 204, 576. United Netherlands, the, formation of, 360 ; independence of, 361, 372. United States, the, expansion of, 476, 622, 623-630 ; in the World War, 734-737. 742. Universities, Arab, 85; medieval, 256-261, 262; modern, 324, 461, 684, 685. 786 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary Unlucky days, observance of, in the Middle Ages, 268, 269. Unterwalden (oSn-ter-val'den), canton of, 219 220 U'ral Mountains, 185, 221. Uranus, planet, 487. Ur'ban 11, pope, 165, 1T3, 477; VI, 333. Uri (oo'ri), canton of, 219, 220. " Usury," medieval prejudice against, 286. Utopia, More's, 301, 668, note 1. Utrecht (u'trekt), city, 358 ; Union of, 360, 576 ; Peace of, 4U6, 411, 468, 469. Yal-hal'la, 96 and note 1, 97, Yal-kyr'ies, the, 96 and note 2. Valmy (vdl-me'), battle of, 517. Vandals, the, conquered by Belisarius, 34, 78; become Catholic Christians, 61. Van Dyck, Sir Anthony, 395. Varennes (vii-ren'), 512. Vassalage, 116-118. Vatican, Palace, 151, 287, 288, 566 ; Library, 283. Vauban (vo-baN'), 401. Vaulting, 254, 255. Vend6e (vaN-da'), La, 518. Vendome (voN-dom'). Column, the, 695. Venetia. 528, 546, 547, 563, 565, 566, 570, 571, 732. Venezuela, 627, 713. Venice, participation of, in the Fourth Crusade, 173, 174, 241; medieval, 240, 241, 307 ; decline of, as a commercial metropolis, 810, 327 ; the Ottoman Turks and, 855 ; in the Napoleonic era, 521, 529 ; united with the Italian kingdom, 565. Verde (vurd), Cape, 808. Verdun (ver-duN'), Treatv of, 16, 17, 18, 19 ; bishopric of, 372 ; battle of, 728. Vergil, Koman poet, 281, 294. Vermont, 455, note 1. Versailles (ver-sa'v), palace of, 399, 400, 409, 502, 508, 508, 573, 696. 700. Versailles, Treaty of (17S8), 476 ; Peace of (1919), 746. Ve-sa'li-us, 297. Vespucci (ves-poDt'chG), Amerigo, 315. Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy, 557, 562, 563, 5&4. Victoria, queen of England, 610, 611. Victoria, colony of, 623, Victoria Nvanza, Lake, 604. Vienna, city, 220, 224, 521, 528, 53 1. 556, 557, 589 ; Congress of, 545-548, 561, 568. Vi'king, the name, 91, note 1. See also Northmen. Viking Ape, the, 92-94. Virginia, the Kaleigh colonies in. 327 ; settle- ment of, 449, 450: one of the Thirteen Colonies, 455, 457, 460, 461, 462, 463. Virgin Mary, the, 140, 348, 349. Yis'i-goths, the. their kingdom in Gaul an- nexed by the Franks, 8 ; become Catholic Christians, 61 ; their kingdom in Spain conquered bv the Arabs, 78, 80. Vis'tu-la lliver, 62, 221, 222, 424. Vittorino da Feltre (vet-to-re'no da fcl'tru), 294, 295. Vlad'i-mir, 101, Vla-di-vos-tok', 613. Volapuk (v6-la-piik0, 676. Yolta, 487. Voltaire (vol-tar'), 491, 492, 493, 494, 500, 524, 698. Vulgate, the, 289. Wagner (viig'ner), Eichard, 691. Wagram (va'gram\ battle of, 534, Wal-den'ses, the, 335, 336. Waldo, Peter, 385. Wales, 204, 205, 683. Wallace, William. 206. Wallachia (w6-la'ki-a), 598. Wallenstein (val'^n-shtln), 370. Walloons, the, 243, 552. Wall paintings. See Frescoes. Warfare, feudal, 120-122, 126, 127, 176; attitude of the Church toward, 122, 127, 159, 164 ; modern, 718, 719, See also Army, Navv. War 'of Liberation, Prussian, 536, 567, 563, 719. War of 1812-1814, 624. Warsaw, citv, 424, 553 ; Grand Duchy of, 530, 546. Warburg (varfbdSrK), Luther at the, 340. Washington, George, 475. Waterloo, battle of, 538 and note 1. Watt, James, &45. Wealth, increase and diflfusion of, 672. Wealth of Nati07is, Smith's, 486, 640, 670. Weaving machines, invention of, 642-644, Wellington, Duke of, 534, 538, 539, 545, 704. Welsh, the name, 23, 204, Wentworth. See StraflFord. Werewolves, 267. Wesley, John, 682. Wessex, kingdom of, 24, 103, 106. Western Australia, 623, West Goths. See Visigoths. West India Companv, Dutch. 444, 457. West'min-ster Abbey, 109, 285, 704. 706, 707 ; Hall, 386, 706. West-pha'li-a, Peace of, 371, 372, 373, 397, 401, 406, 411, 420. Whig Party, the, 892 and note 1, 436, 487, 488, 578, 582. Whitby, Synod of, 27, 29, White Sea, 100. Whitney, Eli, 644. Whit'sun-day, 48. William I, the Conqueror, king of England, 106, 107, 109, 193-195, 204, 704; III, 393 and note 1, 403 and note 1, 404, 436, 455, 467. William I, king of Prussia and German em- peror, 569, 570, 571, 572, 578, 700, 719 ; Wil- liam 1 1, 710. William, Prince of Orange. See William III. WUliam the Silent, 359, 360, 403. Williams, Roger. 460, 682, 683. Wilson, Woodrow, 726, 784, 736. Win'ches-ter, 105, 232. Windsor (win'zer), Castle, 201. Winkelried (viVkfl-rct), Arnold von, 220. Winthrop,'John, 454. Wireless telegraphy and telephony, 654. 655. Witchcraft, European, 268 ; at Salem, Massa- chusetts, 268, 460. '• Witches' Sabbath," the, 267, 268. Witenagemot (wit'^-na-ge-mot), 106 and note 1. 109, 200. Wittenberg (vit'^n-berK) , 338, 839, 340. Woden, 61, 94. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 787 Wolfe, James, 469. "Women, emancipation of, 679, 680. Wool trade, Flemish, 244. Working-men. See Artisans. Workshops, the national, in France, 669. World War, the, 708-744. Worms (vorras). Concordat of, 155, 156 ; Diet of, 339, 340, 341 ; Edict of, 340, 342. Worship, development of Christian, 47, 48. Wren, Sir Christopher, 395, 704. Wright, Orville and Wilbur, 653. Wurtemberg (viir't^m-berK), 530, 547, 571, note 1. Wycliffe (wikMif), John, 836, 337, 339, 345. Wyoming, 680. Xavier (zav'i-er), St. Francis, 353. X-rays, the, 686. York, city, 224 ; house of, 214. Yorktown, 475. Young Turks, the, 599, 600. Ypres (e'pr'), 244, Yu-ca-tan', 318. Zambesi Kiver, 605. Za'ra, 173 ZoUverein (ts51'f,?r-In), the, 568, 570. Zoroastrians, 69, 76. Zurich (z(3D/rik), 343. Zwingli (tsving'le), 843, 847, 351. Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: MAY - 2002 PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724) 779-2111