1613 4 A3 22 py 1 COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 7 ~- C. <^ ~s MANUAL FOR HIGH SCHOOLS Harrisburg, Fa., J. L. L. Kuhn, Printer to the Commonwealth 1922 COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION STATE COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President and Chief Executive Officer Thomas E. Finegan Homer D. Williams, M. S Pittsburgh, Pa July 1, 1927 Morris L. Clothier, LL. D Philadelphia, Pa. July 1, 1926 Mrs. E. S. H. McCauley Si e ?, ve , r ', £*' o t U y i ' JSoS Mrs H. S. Prentiss Nichols Philadelphia, Pa. July 1, 1925 Edgar Fahs Smith, MD., Sc. D., Ph. D., DV ,.j,. „ , . 1 100Q LL. D., L. H. D., Chem. D., Philadelphia, Pa. July 1, 1928 Hon. E. S. Templeton S?* e ? vm t' P t?' ft& i* i q?! Hon. Marcus Aaron Pittsburgh, Pa. July 1, 1924 Ernest Laplace, M. D., LL. D., Philadelphia, Pa. July 1, 1925 EXECUTIVE OFFICERS Thomas E. Finegan, M. A., Ph. D., Litt. D., L H. D., LL. D Superintendent or Public Instruction J George Becht, M. A.; Sc.D., LL.D. Deputy Superintendent, Higher Education William D. Lewis, M.A., Pd.D. Litt.D. Deputy Superintendent, Secondary Education Albert W Johnson, B. A Assistant to Superintendent (School Law) Helen J. Ostrander Secretary to Superintendent DIRECTORS OF BUREAUS Administration, Francis B. Haas, B. S., M. A. Attendance, W. M. Denison, M. A. Health Education \ Charles H. Keene, M. D. Pre-Professional and Professional Credentials, . . CD. Koch, M.A., Pd. D., Litt. D. Rural Education, Lee L. Driver, M. A., LL. D. School Buildings HuBert Clark Eicher, M. S. School Employes* Retirement, H. H. Baish, M. A. Special Education Francis N. Maxfield, Ph. D. Teacher, Albert L. Rowland, M. A., Ph. D. Vocational, L- H. Dennis, B. S. DIRECTORS OF SUBJECTS Art Education, C. Valentine Kirby, M. A. Commercial Education, Vacancy English, Orton Lowe, B. S. Foreign Languages, G. C. L. Riemer, M. A., Ph. D. Geography, Erna Grassmuck, B. S. in Ed. 1 nspection of High Schools, James G. Pentz, B. A., M. A. Junior High Schools, James M. Glass, B. A., M. A. Mathematics, J. A. Foberg, B. S. Music, Hollis Dann, Mus. D. School Libraries, Adeline B. Zachert Science, James N. Rule, B. S., M. S. Social Studies J. Lynn Barnard, B. S., Ph. D. Speech Improvement, Helen M. Peppard, B. A. COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION MANUAL FOR HIGH SCHOOLS Harrishurg, Pa., J. L. L. Kuhn, Printer to the Commonwealth 1922 MANUAL FOR HIGH SCHOOLS "The first aim of education is to teach people to do better the desirable things they are going to do anyway. Another duty is to reveal higher types of activities and to make them both desired and to an extent possible. " THOMAS H. BRIGGS. >tt*wtf> ! JAN 15 1903 j OOCUMCNTs i* v > . CONTENTS I. Introduction 7 IT. Secondary Education in the United St.it; s 9 III. The Legal Status of the High School 11 IV. Administration of the Program of Studies 2.") V. The Junior High School 53 VI. Essentials of Secondary School Opportunities 71 VII. Guidance in the High School 77 VIII. Instruction 85 IX. Student and Faculty Activities 95 X. Relations with Lower and Higher Schools 117 XI. Practical Arts and Vocational Education 125 Bibliography 141 •.. . ■ *. . * . - « MANUAL FOR HIGH SCHOOLS MANUAL FOE HIGH SCHOOLS 1. INTRODUCTION The program of the Department of Public Instruction for second- ary education has been developed from the following set of resolu- tions passed by the first education congress of Pennsylvania in No- vember 19th and endorsed by the high school section of the Pennsyl- vania State Educational Association at its subsequent meeting in Philadelphia. 1. That the junior high school be encouraged as a distinct in- stitution, designed to afford opportunity for try-out of various native abilities, for differentiation of opportunity, and for better educational guidance. 2. That promotion by subject be the only method used in both the junior and senior high schools. 3. That an effort be made to adapt the content of courses and methods of instruction to. the needs of pupils, to the end that the failure in a well-organized school, with properly supervised instruc- tion, should not. under normal conditions, exceed from five to ten per cent. 4. That citizenship be taught through school administration by delegating to the pupils under watchful supervision certain functions of the school government. 5. That instruction in citizenship be required in the junior and senior high school, and that ample time be provided for the require- ment of this course for every pupil in the school. 6. That a definite program for educational and vocational guid- ance be included in the plan of every high school. 7. That courses of study be organized with a view to the largest service to all students, ninety percent of whom do not go to college. That the colleges be urged to cooperate with the high schools by giving an opportunity for higher education to those Whom high school principals recommend as qualified to profit by college courses. 8. That we approve of the report of the sub-committee of the Commission on Re-organization of Secondary Education, known as the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, and urge that princi- pals and superintendents keep in mind the seven fundamental objec- tives outlined in that report in organizing the courses of study. 8 9. That organized provision for regular training of all normal children of the ages of fourteen and upwards, adapting higih school procedure for the reception and retention of such children, and for offering them such profitable instruction as may attract and benefit them, be accepted as an obligation of regular high schools. 10. That such administrative measures be adopted as will stand- ardize grading and promotion of high school students to the end that the promotion of pupils be based upon reasonably uniform at- tainments. .Ait every step in the development of the program representative educators of the State have been consulted. Fundamental principles, administrative measures, and details have been worked out by com- mitees and then submitted by the deputy superintendent in charge of secondary education and by the inspectors and directors working with him to meetings of high school principals and teachers in practi- cally every county of the State. The Department is endeavoring to develop a system of democratic education in a democratic way, and to that end it invites the frank criticism and suggestions of the educators of the State concerning all matters discussed in this hand- book. II. SECONDAKY EDUCATION IN THE UNTTED STATES The growth of public secondary education. The first public secon- dary school of the United States was the English Classical School of Boston, started in 1821. One hundred years from the date of establishment of this school, we find in our country a development of public secondary education entirely unique in the world's history. Approximately 17,000 public high schools with over 2,000,000 pupils taught by 80,000 teachers testify to the interest of the American people in secondary education. This unprecedented development has been largely the product of the last thirty years. During that time, the number of public high schools has increased 452 per cent. In large sections of the country, they are the only facilities for secondary education. In 1890, 68 per cent of all secondary pupils were in the public high schools; in 1918, this percentage had risen to 91.2 per cent. Even more startling is the increase in enrollment when compared with growth in total population. While population increased 68 per cent in these twenty- eight years, the number of high school pupils increased 710 per cent. Costs have increased out of proportion to these striking figures. Enrichment and variety of curriculums, innovations in administra- tion, and improvements in content and methods of instruction have so revolutionized this democratic institution that the founders of that Boston school a century ago would be as bewildered by its com- plexities as they would by the intricacies of a modern electrical plant. Evidently the American people believe in secondary education. Why this development. The reason for this unique and remark- able development is not difficult to find. The culmination of the industrial revolution has brought together here in America as leaders the descendants of that farmer stock that braved unknown dangers in search of religious freedom, individual achievement, and political and economic independence. Followers from among the hardiest and most venturesome of every country of civilized Europe have here sought like opportunities. Unparalleled natural resources exploited by an industrious and resourceful people aided by the increasingly efficient subjection of these natural resources to science and invention have developed the general comfort, the economic independence, and the educational interest of the people. Their improved economic re- sources have made it possible for more of the people to postpone through the secondary school period the necessity of financial con- tributions by their children. Educational advancement has not been hampered by governmental and social-class limitations. The natural 10 ambitions of parents for their children have, therefore, placed the full force of public opinion and sentiment behind the high school movement and made inevitable its remarkable growth. The problem before the American high school. It becomes a pro- blem for those officially responsible for the American high school to see to it that this individual purpose shall serve a social end, and that the school so built upon the consciousness and the affection of our people shall not only continue to provide individual opportunity, but that it shall also provide as a foundation for our democratic government and social order a large group of intelligent leaders and of discriminating followers who will place public welfare above private interest. The high school is ideally suited to this purpose. It has charge of our youth during the years of adolescence — the most impressionable period of their lives — the period When, above all others, they are forming their habits of thought and feeling in all their social relation- ships. It attracts the ambitious youth of the community, from whose number will come practically all of the doctors, lawyers, preachers, teachers, editors, publicists, and leading business men. It includes also representatives of every future vocation and of every future social, economic, and political group. It is an institution which readily arouses the social consciousness and enlists the per- sonal and group loyalty of its members. Its curriculum can include such study of man and of his social nature as will contribute to an intellectual understanding of the social laws that must control in- dividual and group relationships. Its community activities provide for the development of emotional sanity and of practical skill in the process of cooperative activity. In these fateful years of readjustment and reorganization, with the democratic leadership of the world on our shoulders, we must develop a mass wisdom, a mass consciousness, and a mass conscience equal to the task. Here are the leaders and the intelligent followers of tomorrow; here is an institution owned, financed, and directed in the public interest ; ours must be the wisdom to avoid confusion of aim and to give purposeful direction with a clear vision of the civili- zation that we must build. 11 III. LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL The School Code provides that the Department of Public Instruc- tion shall classify the various high schools as junior high schools, senior high schools, and first, second, and third grade high schools. The Department will be glad to assist schools desiring changes in classification to bring the conditions of the school into harmony with the requirements of the classification desired. Minimum requirements for the various grades of schools are as follows: 1. For first grade high school or for senior high school. Three properly qualified teachers giving full time to high school work. Not less than nine months' term. Adequate building, supplies, and equipment. Instruction in a four-year curriculum approved by the Department of Public Instruction, or instruction in a curriculum for grades ten, eleven, ami twelve following an approved junior high school course. 2. For a six-year high school. An organization of grades seven to twelve, which shall meet the require- ments for a junior high school in addition to those for a senior high school. 3. For a second grade high school. Two properly qualified teachers giving full time to high school work. Not less than an eight months' term. Adequate building, supplies, and equipment. Instruction in a three-year curriculum approved by the Department of Public Instruction. 4. For a third grade high school. One properly qualified teacher giving full time to high school work. Not less than an eight months' term. Adequate building, supplies, and equipment. Instruction in a two-year curriculum approved by the Department of Public Instruction. 5. For a junior high school. Four properly qualified teachers giving full time to high school work. One hundred pupils in average daily attendance. Instruction in grades seven, eight, and nine. Grade ten may be added if approved. Adequate building, supplies, and equipment. Approved organization and curriculum. Temporary classification. When it is impossible to meet the re- gular conditions for classification, a school may be approved for temporary classification as a junior high school if conditions are such as to make a junior high school desirable. 6. Junior high school, senior high school, elementary school. Section 1701 of the School Code provides that the term elementary school or elementary course shall apply to all 12 grades not included among those recognized as high school grades in the classihcation of the Department of Public Instruction. A high school is au organization of grades seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, and twelve, in cases where such grades or any of them are organized as a part of a junior high school, a senior high school, or a six-year high school, and are so recognized by the State Council of Educa- tion, but where such grades are not so organized, grades seven and eight shall be classified as elementary grades. A complete high school course is one requiring four years be- yond an elementary course of eight years or six years be- yond an elementary course of six years. The Superintend- ent of Public Instruction shall make such regulations as shall be necessary to insure proper standards for the various grades of the twelve years of the public school course. 7. Determination of the class of a school. In addition to the provisions given above concerning the number of teachers, length of term, etc., the law provides in Section 1701 that the class to which a high school belongs shall be determined by its shortest course for graduation. In order to lie classified by the Department of Public In- struction a school must not only meet the requirements of the statute, but must also provide adequate equipment and satisfactory instruction. 8. Lengthening course in second and third grade schools. The lengthening of the course in a second grade high school to four years and in a third grade high school to three years may be approved if no other educational op- portunities are available for the pupils of such schools. The application for such approval should give details as to the number of pupils in each year of the course, the distances between the school applying and neighboring high schools, conditions of the roads, trolley and railroad facilities, and other details necessary to an intelligent understanding of the needs of the pupils. All such applications must have the approval of the county superintendent. Whenever permission is given to conduct a longer course than the one provided by law, such permission is given on condition that any pupil who has completed a course of statutory length may attend the nearest or most convenient school of higher grade for the remainder of the four-year course, and the local district shall be required to pay the pupil's tuition. 13 It should be noted that extension of the course of a second or third grade school does not change the grade of the school. 9. Establishing high schools in fourth-grade districts. Section 1701 provides that no new high school shall be es- tablished in a school district of the fourth class without the consent of the State Council of Education and of the superintendent of schools of the county in which such dis- trict is located. 10. Program of studies. Except in school districts of the first class, the board of school directors of every school district shall employ for its high school during the entire term a sufficient number of teachers for the teaching of any of the subjects included in the program of studies of the State Council of Education for which there shall be an application by fifteen pupils belonging to the grade in which such subject is specified in the said program of studies: Provided, that no pupil shall be counted among the applicants for such subject unless, in the judgment of the principal of the school, he is both quali- fied and entitled to take such subjects in the curriculum he is pursuing. This provision does not prevent the organiza- tion of any classes that a school sees fit to maintain. Tuition, textbooks, and supplies. 1. General principles. Pupils residing in school districts in which no public schools are maintained may attend, during the en- tire term, the high schools in other districts which are nearest or most convenient to their homes. If any district maintains a high school with a course less than a complete course, pupils who have satisfactorily completed the same in the school of their own district, or have completed the equivalent of said course in some other school or schools, may attend, at the expense of the school board of the district in which they live, during the remaining years of a complete high school course, the nearest or most conveniently located high school of such class as tlhey may desire to attend. 2. Consent of directors. Pupils wishing to attend high school in a district other than the one in which they reside shall obtain the consent of the board of school directors of the district in which such high school is located, before attending the same. If the district in which a pupil lives does not have a high school whose classification authorizes it to give the grade of instruction to which the pupil is entitled, or if its school is three miles or more from the pupil's home the pupil may attend the nearest or most convenient high school 14 without the consent of the directors of his home district, and his home district must pay the cost of tuition, textbooks, and supplies, unless transportation is furnished to the school in his home district. 3. Certificates necessary. Pupils desirous of having the cost of their tuition, textbooks, and supplies paid in a high school in an- other district, on account of having completed in a school or schools in another district the equivalent of a course in their own district, must present to the board of their own district and the board of the district in which they wish to attend, a certificate from the county superintendent who has jurisdiction over the district in which they live, that they have satisfactorily completed the equivalent of said course. 4. Tuition paid only to public schools. Under the provisions of Section 1707, pupils having cost of tuition, textbooks, and supplies paid by their home districts may attend only public schools in Penn- sylvania. Boards are not responsible for tuition in schools of other states nor in private schools. The secondary department of a nor- mal school is considered a public school of the State only when such department is the recognized high school of a school district. 5. Length of term. When a non-resident pupil attends a school, the district of his residence is liable to the district of his attendance for the cost of tuition, textbooks, and supplies for the full term in the district where he attends, even though there is a shorter term in the district of his residence. 6. Dismissal of non-resident pupils. After a pupil has been ad- mitted to a school outside of his own district he is entitled to con- tinue during the entire term for which he was admitted unless ex- cluded for causes stated in the law, such as failure to pass medical inspection because of contagious disease, insubordination, etc. 7. Nearest or most convenient. The terms, nearest or most con- venient, which are used so frequently in the law concerning the pay- ment of tuition have been generally given a liberal interpretation by the courts. Such considerations as the time schedule of trains and conditions of roads have been held to be of vital importance in interpreting the term convenient. 8. Tuition in vocational schools. The responsibility of boards for tuition charges for vocational schools is covered by the same laws as tuition in the regular high schools. 9. How price of tuition is decided. Section 1708 of the School Code provides: "The board of school directors in any district maintaining a high school which is attended by any pupils residing in another district, as herein provided, shall, at the close of the terra, properly certify to the board of school directors of the district in 15 which such pupils reside, the names of all such pupils and the length of time they attended said high school together with the cost of tuition, textbooks, and supplies for such attendance, which shall not exceed the cost of tuition, textbooks, and sup- plies of other pupils in said high school pursuing similar studies for the same length of time, and the cost of such tuition, textbooks, and supplies shall, within thirty days after being so certified, be paid to the district maintaining such high school by the district to which the same was so certified. NOTE :- — The item 'tuition, textbooks and supplies' does not include interest on debt, janitor service, fuel, light, and things which have a permanent value after 1hey are added to the school plant. Tuition includes teachers' salaries, the cost of attendance at institute, and such portion of the superintendent's or supervisor's time as is spent in the supervision of the high school. Supplies, in this section of the code, include pencils, pens, ink, crayon, tablets and things which perish with the using." Section 1711 provides: "The board of school directors of any district in which there is located a high school receiving a share of any appropriation for the salaries of high school teachers shall deduct its share of the last such appropriation received from the total cost of tuition, textbooks, and supplies, before computing the cost per pupil, in order to certify properly the expense for pupils attending the same from other districts." 10. Agreement of boards. Section 1404 of- the School Code pro- vides that the board of school directors of any district in this Com- monwealth may, on account of convenience of access, or other reasons, permit any pupils to attend the schools of another district, on such terms as the two boards of school directors may mutually agree upon. 11. Distance from school. A pupil qualified for high school re- siding three or more miles from the nearest high school in his own district may attend a more convenient high school in another dis- trict, and the district in which he resides shall be liable for his tui- tion. The pupil's home district is not, however, responsible for tui- tion in such a case, provided it furnishes free transportation to its own high school. Transportation 1. Rights and obligations of directors. The board of school direc- ors of any district in this Commonwealth may, out of the funds of the district, provide for the free transportation of any pupil to and from the public schools. They are not legally required to provide transportation unless a high school within the district has been closed since the passage of the School Code in 1911. The decision of the courts has emphasized the responsibility of school directors in conducting public schools and providing adequate and reasonable opportunities for the children of the Commonwealth to attend them. The refusal of a board to transport must be based upon 16 / the exercise of sound discretion where the circumstances are such that it is not reasonably possible to provide transportation. It is also a primary duty of the parents to do their part in securing such transportation. They are equally responsible with the school board. 2. Schools dosed to stony better faeilitie-s. Wlhere any of the public schools of this Commonwealth are closed for any of the pur- poses provided in Section 1400, except for low atendance, pupils resid- ing one and one-half miles or mare from the school to which they are assigned shall be transported at the cost of the district. When schools are closed because there are ten or less than ten pupils regularly enrolled, one-half the cost of such transportation, not to exceed one dollar per diem per pupil, shall be paid by the Common- wealth, provision for which shall be made by separate appropriation in the general appropriation act. 3. Measurement of distance. The distance between the pupil's home to the school shall be measured from the school building to which the pupil has been assigned by the highway to the nearest point where a private way or private road connects 1 the dwelling house of the pupil with said highway. 4. Compulsory attendance. If a pupil between eight and sixteen years of age has completed the work of the elementary schools and has a superintendent's certificate to that effect, he is exempt from the provisions of the Compulsory Attendance Law unless there is a high school within two miles of his home, or unless transportation is provided for him by the district. Any pupil not exempt for the reasons given is subject to the provisions of the Compulsory At- tendance Law the same as a pupil attending the elementary schools. A pupil's home district is responsible for the enforcement of the Compulsory Attendance Law. High School Teachers. 1. Certification. In order to be eligible to teach in a public high school of Pennsylvania a teacher must be the holder of one of the following certificates: Partial Secondary, Standard, College. A partial secondary certificate is issued upon the completion of two years of post-high-school study together with six semester hours of professional training. This certificate is good for one year, and is renewable upon six further semester hours of professional training. Tt entitles the holder to teach such subjects as have been pursued for at least twelve semester hours in the post-high-sdbool period. A standard certificate is issued upon evidence of the completion of a four year high sdhool course or equivalent education and two years (seventy semester hours) or the equivalent of professional training for teaching. Observation, participation and practice teaching of 17 not less than six semester hours or its equivalent must form a part of this requirement. This certificate is valid for two years and is renewable upon a rating of "low" or better. Subsequent renewals* 1 require a rating of "middle" or better. This certificate may become permanent at the end of its first period or of any subsequent renewal period on a rating of "middle'' or better and evidence of four years of successful teaching experience. In art education, commercial education, health education, home economics or music, not less than three years of approved training beyond high school grade in the specified field shall be required for a Standard Permanent Certificate. College certificates are issued to all graduates of approved colleges who have completed not less than eighteen semesters hours of pre- scribed professional study. College certificates are valid for three years and become permanent at the end of that time on evidence of successful teaching experience and six additional semester hours of professional study. Teachers now in the service of the public school system of Pennsylvania are given credit for successful teaching experience at the rate of four semester hours per year where the teacher rating is middle or better, and at the rate of three semester hours per year where the rating is less than middle. No teacher shall be employed to teach any branch other than those enumerated in his certificate. 2. Sickness. Directors may pay teachers for time lost through sickness or other unavoidable circumstances. Tn case of sickness, no payment shall be made unless the teacher furnishes a certificate from a physician stating the nature of the sickness with the state- ment that he or she was unable to perform the duties of a teacher. 3. Closing schools for contagious disease. When a board of directors has been obliged to close a school because of contagious disease, damage by fire, or other causes, such board of directors is liable for payment of salary to the teachers who are thus prevented from doing their work as teachers. The board must compensate the teacher at the rate specified in the contract between the board and the teacher. This compensation shall extend over the period of time during which the school is closed, and shall be in addition to the sums paid the teacher for his services while actually engaged in performing his duties. 4. Teachers' pension fund. The school Employees' Ketirement System was created by Act of Assembly (School Code 5601) to be- come effective July 1, 1919. Its membership consists of (a) all per- sons who were school employees at the time the system went into 18 effect, and who elected to become members (b) all persons who enter the school service after July 1, 1910. The plan is administered by a board of seven members, including the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Slate Treasurer, one member appointed by the Governor of the Commonwealth, and elect- ed members. The funds are obtained through contributions by the members and the contribution by the Commonwealth of specified amounts which are appropriated by the Legislature, based upon actuarial estimates. Contributions from the members are forwarded by the employer regularly. The employer must deduct from every payroll of a mem- ber such a percentum of the total amount of salary as the Retirement Board, under the advice of its actuary, shall require. No deduction is made for that part of a contributor's salary which is in excess of $2,000 per annum. If a member separates from the school service in any other way than by death) or retirement, he may receive the full amount of deductions made from his salary with compound interest; or he may elect to receive an annuity or deferred annuity, which shall be the actuarial equivalent of his accumulated deductions. An employe who has separated himself from the school system may return within three years, upon restoration of his accumulated deductions as they were at the time of separation. In the event of a member's death before retirement, his accumulated deductions shall be paid to his estate or some designated person. A member who has reached the age of G2 is eligible for super- annuation retirement. A member beyond that age may continue in active service until he is 70, but he is not required to make further contributions to the system. A contributor may be retired upon disability before the age of 62, upon certification of disability by a physician, provided that said contributor has had ten or more school years of school service. The retirement board may require a yearly medical examination of a disability annuitant, and upon such evidence may discontinue or reduce the annuity paid the contributor. Upon retirement for disability, the contributor shall receive an allowance of one-ninetieth of his final salary multiplied by the number of his years of service ; this shall in no case be less than thirty per centum of his final salary, nor shall it be more than eight-ninths of the allowance to which he would have been entitled had retirement been deferred until age 62. A contributor who has reached the age of 62 may retire upon filing with the Retirement Board a written statement. Every con- tributor who has attained the age of 70 shall be retired forthwith, or at the end of the school term in which said age of 70 years is attained. 19 Such a contributor shall receive one-eightieth of his final salary for each year of service prior to 02 years, his total annuity not to exceed fifty percentum of his final salary. Final salary means the average annual salary, not exceeding $2,000, earned by a contributor as an employe for the ten years of service immediately preceding retirement. Joint schools. The chapter on "Essentials of Secondary School Opportunities" emphasizes the importance of an organization large enough to afford some variety of curriculums. In many communities this end can be secured only by combining the facilities rf two or more districts. In most subjects a teacher can instruct a class of twenty-five pupils as cheaply as a class of a half dozen or less. Con- solidation, therefore, Avill often make possible economies sufficient to provide transportation and to add types of instruction impossible in a smaller school. Section 1801 of the School Code gives in detail the steps necessary to effect such an organization. It is important that such schools be organized in strict conformity with the law. The legislature of 1921 provides in Section 127 for t lie merging of two or more school districts into a single district. In many cases this will prove the most satisfactory method of providing a high school large enough to be of greatly increased efficiency. Vocational schools. 1. Establishment. Vocational classes (industrial, argicultural, home economics, and continuation) may be established either in connection with, or distinct from regularly organized high schools. Special vocational schools may be established where needed. All such vocational classes and vocational schools must be organized and conducted in accordance with Sections 3406-34H7 of the School Code. 2. Reimbursement. Approved vocational classes and schools are entitled to reimbursement from State and Federal vocational funds to an amount equal to two-thirds the sum which has been expended for instruction, provided no one school district slhall receive more than five thousand dollars in any one school year from State voca- tional funds. State scholarship examination. In order to assist worthy graduates of secondary schools of the State to obtain a higher education, the Legislature (Sections 4301- 4305 School Code) in 1919 made possible the awarding, in each county or senatorial district, of at least one scholarship. Each scholarship award amounts to |400 toward a four year college education. The law requires tihat the State Council of Education shall make the ap- 20 poiutment to these scholarships on the basis of competitive exami- nation. The rules regulating the conduct of examinations and the award of the scholarships, adopted by the State Council of Education, are as follows : 1. Date of examinations. The State Scholarship Examinations shall be held on the first Friday in May of each calendar year. 2. Time for examinations. The examinations will be held from 9:00 A.M. to 1:30 P.M. Place of examinations. The examinations will be conducted in all first grade high schools in Pennsylvania where one or more candi- dates make application before the first of April preceding the date of examination, except that in cities having more than one first grade school the examination will be held in the school or schools designated by the Department of Public Instruction. 3. Subjects offered in examinations. Each candidate will be ex- amined in English, including composition and literature, American history, and one of the following: Mathematics, including algebra and plane geometry, Latin, German, French, Spanish, biology, phy- sics, chemistry. i. Instructions for the principal. The principal of each high school where there are eligible candidates shall clearly announce the nature, the purpose, and the date of the examination to all eligibles at least one month prior to the date of examination. He shall sub- mit to the Department of Public Instruction not less than twenty days before the examination, a complete list of all applicants for the examination, including the following data for each candidate: Name in full Place of residence : County Borough or City Street and Number State Senatorial District Name of High School Year when candidate will graduate When candidate expects to enter college College candidate expects to attend 5. General instruction* for examiner and candidates. The sealed package containing the examination questions shall not be opened until 8:45 A. M. on the day scheduled for the examination. 21 The examiner should prepare an alphabetical list of candidates. Each candidate should check his papers in the presence of the ex- aminer by writing the subjects of the answer papers he submits op- posite his name on the list prepared by the examiner. This is im- portant. At the close of the examination the examiner shall send all answers together with the alphabetical list of candidates by express, collect, to the Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. If any corrections or suggestions in regard to the examination questions are made to the candidates by the examiner such correc- tions shall be repeated fully in writing on the examination list that is sent to the Department of Public Instruction. The candidate's name and permanent address (including county I must be distinctly written on every sheet of paper containing answers. All sheets comprising any examination must be securely fastened in a separate manuscript. All manuscripts of each candidate must be securely fastened to- gether. The examination papers of each candidate must have attached thereto a form, completely filled out, containing the data as to name, residence, etc.. called for in blank at the top of the page. The following directions must be carefully followed: 1. All examinations must be written in ink. 2. Write proper headings for your papers, and number your work according to the number on the question papers. 3. Use one side of examination paper only. 4. Time allowed — 9 :00 A. M. to 1 :30 P. M. All papers are to be collected at 1 :30 P. M. 5. The amount of time to be allotted to each subject is left to the discretion of the candidate. 6. Each examination must be begun on a separate sheet of paper. 7. No answer paper in any subject conspicuously faulty in English composi- tion will be given a passing grade. 6. Eligibility. Any student graduating in February or June from a four year course in any high school of first grade standing in Penn- sylvania is eligible for the examination in May of the year of such graduation. Graduates of four year courses in private and parochial schools which are accredited as first grade schools by the Department of Public Instruction are eligible. Any eligible candidate presenting himself for examination shall be admitted. In case of doubt on the part of the examiner, let the candidate go on with the examination; submit a statement of his case, and the Department will later determine his eligibility. 22 7. Award of scholarship. The award of scholarships shall be an- nounced by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction to the candidate in each county or senatorial district who receives the high- est rating for his county or district. The announcement will be made as soon as possible after the records have been completed. Persons to whom scholarships are available must attend a college or university in Pennsylvania approved by the State Council of Edu- cation. These scholarships are awarded only to students who pursue regular four year college courses leading to the B. A., B. S., or equivalent degrees. Each candidate to whom an award has been made must return the Certificate of Acceptance or Rejection, properly filled out, within ten days following the date when the award was made. Should a successful candidate fail to enter college during the fall term of the year in which he receives the award, the scholarship will be forfeited. In case of reje?tion or forfeiture of the award, the scholarship shall be given to the candidate standing next highest on the list in his county, provided the candidate has a satisfactory standing. In counties or senatorial districts entitled to a scholarship where only one candidate is examined, the award shall be made to that candidate provided he passes a satisfactory examination. Note 1. A list of the colleges and universities in Pennsylvania, approved by the State Council of Education, will be furnished by the Department. Note 2. Examination and award of scholarship does not carry with it admission to college. A holder of a scholarship must satisfy the entrance requirements of the college he or she desires to attend. 8. Payment of scholarship. Before payment is made, the registrar of each college or university, where students having state scholar- ships attend, shall certify to the Department on a special form for each student, at such time during the school year as the Department may request, that the student is enrolled in the institution for the current year and is in good standing. The State Treasurer shall pay to each successful candidate the sum of .$100 during the spring term of each of the four years that he regularly attends college and is in good standing. Scholarship at the Colorado School of Mines One scholarship at the Colorado School of Mines is awarded to Pennsylvania, each year. Tin 1 selection of the candidate for this scholarship is made by the regular State Scholarship Examination. The candidate for the scholarship at the Colorado School of Mines must designate on his papers that he is a candidate for this scholar- 23 ship. This candidacy, however, does not necessarily remove him from competition for a State scholarship. In other words, a student may be a candidate for the Colorado scholarship at the Colorado School of Mines, bnt if he fails to secure that scholarship his paper may be included in the competition for the scholarship for his county or senatorial district. In all such cases, however, his papers must contain a definite statement that he wishes to be a candidate for the State scholarship in case he fails to -secure the Colorado scholarship. The principal should clearly designate on his list the names of pupils competing for this scholarship. The following principles govern the award and the holding of the scholarship at the Colorado School of Mrnes: 1. Scholarships are awarded to graduates of four year secondary school courses of the current year who show marked proficiency in their studies and are recom- mended by the proper school official. 2. Applications with recommendations must be on file with the Registrar of the Colorado School of Mines on or before July 1, of the year of graduation. 3. A candidate must satisfy all requirements. for admittance without condition. 4. All scholarships are awarded for a period of four years and exempt the holder from all tuition or labortory fees. 5. A scholarship will be terminated if the holder does not maintain a satis- factory standing or does not comply with the requirements of the faculty or the trustees. 6. If the holder of a scholarship leaves school permanently, his scholarship may not be assigned or transferred. 7. The holder of a scholarship may, with the consent of the President secured in advance, absent himself from school for a period of not more than one year and retain his scholarship. 8. The monetary value of scholarships to residents of Colorado is approximately $50.00 annually ; to non-residents approximately $200.00 annually. Fifteen units are required for entrance, of which ten are specified and five may be chosen from a list of electives. A candidate desiring to compete for this scholarship should so specify on the date of the examination. Specified Units Essentials of Algebra 1 Unit Advanced Algebra % Plane Geometry 1 Solid Geometry % " English 3 " History 2 Physics 1 " Chemistry 1 " Specified Units 10 Elective Units 5 Total units for entrance 15 24 25 IV. ADMINISTRATION OF THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 1. A unit. A unit shall consist of the satisfactory completion of the equivalent of 120 sixty minute recitation hours of work requir- ing preparation outside of class. Work requiring no outside prepara- lion shall be counted as l / 2 the unit value of work requiring out- side preparation. Work to be given half credit ordinarily includes the following subjects: manual training, shop work of all kinds, drawing, music in class, physical training, typewriting, penman- ship. Whether certain other work such as cooking, sewing, and bookkeeping is given full or half credit depends on the requirement of outside preparation of lessons. Any arrangement of recitations for any length of school year can be reduced to its unit value on an arithmetical basis. For example: the arithmetical statement for forty-five minute recitations per week for a school year of forty weeks would be 4 x 45 x 40 -SO" =12 ° On this basis five forty minute recitations per week for a school year of thirty-six weeks would just come within the standard re- quirement for a unit. 2. A count. The term count has not been used because it repre- sents widely varying standards. It is ordinarly understood to mean one recitation a day for a school year. The length of recita- tions and of years, however, has varied all the way from twenty -five minutes for twenty-eight weeks, to forty-five minutes for forty weeks. For this reason the statement that the high school course consists of a certain number of counts is indefinite. 3. Graduation. First grade schools should make sixteen units of work the basis for graduation. It is recommended that pupils be graduated from the school rather than from a particular course in the school. While there is no objection to the graduation of an ex- ceptional pupil in less than four years, the school should always accept the burden of proof that the case is exceptional and that the pupil has fully met all graduation requirements. Boards of directors in charge of first grade schools have full authority to increase the number of units required for graduation. 4. Recitation periods. Recitation periods should be not less than forty minutes and not more than sixty minutes in length, ex- clusive of the time required for passing to and from classes, except 26 where supervised study is in operation. Where supervised study is in operation, a combined period of sixty minutes should be counted as equivalent to a forty-five minute recitation period. 5. The program of studies. The program of studies includes all the subjects offered in a given school, without reference to any principle of organizing these subjects or courses into curriculums. 6. A curriculum. A curriculum is a group of subjects or courses systematically arranged for any pupil or for any clearly differ- entiated group of pupils. It extends through a number of years and leads to a certificate or diploma. Administratively a curriculum represents an arrangement of courses within which a pupil is direct- ed in his choice of work leading to graduation. 7. A course of study. A course of study means the quantity, kind, and organization of subject matter in any given subject of instruc- tion offered within a definite period of time; e. g., first year algebra, third year physics. 8. A standard day for teachers. The conditions under which teachers are conducting third grade high schools necessitate a larger number of periods per day and a much wider range of subjects than ought to be required of any teacher. Teachers and boards of education should be shown the serious limitations imposed upon these schools, and should be encouraged to send pupils, wherever possible, to larger organizations which enable work to be done under better conditions. For the present the maximum number of periods per day should be ten and, it is strongly recommended that wherever it is possible, a teacher's work in third grade schools be reduced to eight periods per day. The limitations imposed by the necessary conditions of work in a second grade school are somewhat less serious than those imposed upon a third grade school. The second grade school, however, in a similar way suffers under a serious handicap. Teachers, boards of education, and communities should recognize that neither second nor third grade schools can possibly afford such satisfactory educational opportunities as larger organizations. For the present the maximum number of daily periods assigned to a teacher in second grade schools should be seven, and, wherever it is possible, the number should be reduced to six per day. The maximum number of daily periods assigned to a teacher in first grade schools should be six, and, wherever it is possible, the number should be reduced to five per day. 9. The school program. The program of studies and the cur- riculum of any school should be outlined with the following consider ations in view: 27 1. School authorities, communities, and pupils should understand that the work of the school is the pupils' business, and that outside interests must not interfere with the demands of the school. 2. The school itself must assume a larger amount of responsibility for the preparation of the lessons. Iii accordance with these considerations, the following recom- mendations are made: 1. That a materially lengthened school day be encouraged in which them shall be larger opportunity for preparation of lessons under the supervision of the teacher and for various kinds of student activities. In order to provide adequate time for these various purposes the school day should con- sist of at least eight periods in addition to the time devoted to assembly. Where supervised study is in operation the school day should consist of not less than six periods of at least sixty minutes each. A two-session school day, or a school day lasting approximately from nine to three thirty or four o'clock, with a thirty or forty-five minute lunch, is essential to satisfactory school work. 2. Since excessive employment out of school seriously interferes with school work, it should be discouraged. Students who are obliged to Work three hours per day or more should ordinarily not attempt to carry the full schedule of school work and should plan to spend more than four years in the completion of the course. 10. Two fundamental principles. The program of studies V ;, high school should observe the two following principles: 1. There must be in all curriculums a common core of required subjects which can be justified because they are an essential part of the education in citizenship of every adolescent and are necessary for the perpetuation of our democratic social order. 2. In addition to this core curriculum, which should be required of all pupils, each school should offer as wide a variety of subjects as possible in order to meet the varying needs of diverse groups of individuals. 11. List of required studies. The essentials under Principal 1 include the following: English • 3 Mi units Social studies, including history 3 Ms units Science 1 unit Mathematics 1 unit Health instruction 2 periods a week 12. Exceptional cases. It will sometimes happen that a pupil will be unable to take the full course in history and the social studies without interfering with his preparation for college, or the comple- tion of his vocational course within the usual high school curriculum. In such cases pupils may be graduated with two and one-half units of this work. In all cases a course in American history should be included in the eleventh or the twelfth year. 28 13. Health instruction. Health instruction, including physical training, at least two periods a week should be required. In some vocational curriculuins, which include a large amount of physical work, it "may be wise to excuse pupils from some portions of the physical training of this course. Corrective exercises designed to overcome individual physical defects, should be available for all pupils needing such treatment. 14. Science. The special task of high sdhool science is to help the pupil organize the facts and forces of his material world in a logi cal, usable fashion so that he may be increasingly able to use the knowledge and processes thus gained in a progressively effective a daptation if his living and thinking to the social, physical, and econ- omic life about him. The high school courses in science should be such that, a pupil, for example, who has not less than four years of science instruction — three years in the junior high school and not less than one in the senior high school — should show the result of his science work in such respects as the following: As a worthier member of his home because increasingly sensitive to house- hold problems involving the health and comfort of all and also increasingly able and ready to propose and supply solutions of these problems. As a worthier member of the school and civic community because increas- ingly sensitive to such problems as sanitation and hygiene, first aid and accident prevention, and increasingly able and ready to cooperate in their solution. In a growing vigor of body and brain because increasingly sensitive and responsive to the laws of nature governing their development and use. In a greater appreciation and enjoyment of the wonders and beauties of nature because increasingly intelligent with reference to the significant facts and forces of nature. In a growing appreciation of the place of scientific research and procedure in the development of our industrial, commercial, and agricultural life because increasingly intelligent with reference to the scientific processes involved in the production and distribution of the products of farm and factory. While only one year of science is required in the four-year high school, it is highly desirable that the majority of pupils have the advantage of from two to four years of science. Progressive thought in curriculum making and in curriculum guidance places strong emphasis upon the importance and value of the study of science in American high schools. 15. Mathematics. The unit of required mathematics may best be given in the ninth year, although conditions may in some cases justify placing it later in some curriculuins. If the subject matter is algebra, it should be reorganized so as to exclude a considerable hody of purely formal material now customarily included. General or composite mathematics has many advantages as the subject for 29 the ninth year course. If commercial pupils can arrange their pro- grams so as to take general mathematics in the ninth year, it is highly desirable that they do so. Where this can not be done, com rnercial arithmetic may be the required unit for these pupils. 16. Advanced mathematics and foreign language elective. It is recommended that mathematics beyond the first year and all foreign language be elective. This should not be interpreted to mean that these subjects should be elective in all the curriculums of a given school. The larger schools will be likely to include at least an aca- demic curriculum, a commercial curriculum, a home economics cur- riculum, and a practical arts curriculum. Each of these curriculums should, of course, include as requirements subjects belonging to its particular field. In the smaller schools, especially in the second and third grade schools, which can afford only a single curriculum, the mathematics beyond the first year and all foreign language should be elective. Many of these schools will find it advantageous either to eliminate foreign language entirely or to permit pupils who particularly de- sire to do so, to carry it as a fifth subject. It is generally unwise for a school with fewer than five teachers to give instruction in a second foreign language. 17. Practical and fine arts, and vocational education. The term, practical arts includes industrial, household, and agricultural arts. Tt embraces that group of activities for both boys and girls found in curriculums of the elementary and high schools, which are some- times referred to as practical because they involve manipulation of materials and development of a degree of power to do things with the hands. No definite vocational aim is present in such instruc- tion. The main objectives are general education, information that will be valuable for guidance purposes, and an appreciation of values which will tend to develop wise consumers. Many secondary school curriculums of the academic type allow for electives in practi- cal and fine arts subjects. Practical and fine arts work is begun in the elementary or junior high school grades before pupils are ma- ture enough to enter upon vocational preparation. It may be con- sidered as a forerunner of vocational education. Opportunity is also given under the headings of drawing and music to give short courses in these subjects for the development of appreciation. This type of work is usually taught in relatively large classes, meeting from once to three times a week. These courses should not be con- fused with the Fine Arts Courses listed as electives, which should usually be full unit courses. Vocational education, on the other hand, is specific in its aim. Its instruction directly prepares producers for entrance into a gainful 30 occupation. More time is required for the development of manipula- tive skill. The demands of a vocational curriculum, therefore, neces- sarily place a limitation upon the quantity of purely academic work that can be accomplished. 18. School credit for outside study of music. Music is properly the first educational interest of many of our young people, and should he recognized as an integral part of their education. A pupil who wishes to continue music as a major educational interest should not be compelled to choose between leaving the high school, overburden- ing himself with both music and the regular high school work, or dropping music. Until provision is made in our public schools for instruction in music as an educational unit of equal value with other subjects, justice to these pupils requires that they at least be given school credit for properly supervised work done at tlheir own expense with private teachers. To this end the Department has outlined a plan for proper accrediting of music for pupils who wish to present music as an integral part of their individual curriculums. In the program of studies this type of music is listed under the fine arts courses. These courses should usually be sufficiently exacting to receive credit of one unit each per year. The details of this plan as well as of courses to be given in the high school will be included in the music syllabus. 19. List of subjects. The program of studios from which the curriculums of any senior or four year high school should be made up will include a wide range of subjects. The following list is suggest- ive. Schools which desire to teach subjects not included in this list should communicate with the Department of Public Instruction. First Year Second Tear Required English Civics Health Instruction Elective (2) Algebra General Mathematics Commercial Arithmetic General Science Foreign Language Etymology Junior Business Training, etc. Drawing Music Practical Arts Courses : Agricultural Required English European History Health Instruction Elective (2) Mathematics (Plane Geometry) Biology General Science Foreign Language Commercial and Economic Geography Typewriting Shorthand Bookkeeping Drawing Music Practical Arts Courses : :J1 Elective (2) Home Economics Industrial Fine Arts Courses: Art Music Elective (2) Agricultural Home Economics Industrial Fine Arts Courses: Art Music Third Year Fourth Year Required Required English 1 or Vz Problems of Democracy 1 or x k American History (if not given the third year) Health Instruction Elective (2) Mathematics (Solid Geom. Vz, Trig. V2, Advanced Alg.) Physics or Chemistry Physical Geography Economics Sociology Studies in English or American Litera- ture (not History of Literature) Stenography Typewriting Elementary Accounting Advertising and Salesmanship Office Practice Commercial Law Bookkeeping Drawing Music Practical Arts Courses : Agricultural Home Economics Industrial Fine Arts Courses: Art Music 20. The curriculum of the individual school. The general pro- visions of the program of studies set forth above are designed to safe- guard the fundamental purposes of the high school as an institution for the training of citizens of a democracy. To that end, certain prescribed subjects in the lines of English, the social studies, and health are made the common basis of all curriculums. In addition, a wide range of subjects is suggested from which curriculums of schools should be formulated. English American History or Europ. Hist.II Health Instruction Elective (2) Mathematics (Sol. Geom., Adv. Alg., Trig.) Physics or Chemistry Foreign Language Bookkeeping Typewriting Stenography Business Organization Retail Selling Commercial and Economic Geography Drawing Music Practical Arts Courses : Agricultural Home Economics Industrial Fine Arts Courses : Art Music 32 The first problem of a school in organizing its curriculums is that of the largest service to the young people of the community. How wide the range of offerings is to be will obviously depend on the size of the school and the resources of the community. From five general lines suggested under the heading, "Essentials of Secondary School Opportunities", should be made such curriculums as will render the largest service to the greatest number of pupils. Frequently, several of the type curriculums given in this chapter, or appropriate modi- fications of these curriculums, can be offered. Mere tradition should not be permitted too large an influence in the decision of what sub- jects are to be included in the program of the school. For example, the high school in a community from which few students go to college should not stress foreign languages, nor should courses in bookkeep- ing, stenography, and typewriting be offered in communities where there is no demand for bookkeepers and stenographers. School of- ficers, superintendents, principals, and teachers should carefully sur- vey the educational needs and resources of their communities and en- deavor to adjust the high school course to meet these needs. 21. Shall a pupil take four or five major subjects? The curri- culums of this manual are based on the iissumption that a normal pupil shall have twenty recitation periods per week in the major sub- jects. This is in harmony with the best general practice of the coun- try. It leaves the daily schedule sufficiently free to permit the pupil to add five periods a week in subjects that do not require home pre- paration such as physical training, drawing, and music, and thus provides a sufficiently heavy roster for the ordinary pupil. Many of the smaller schools, however, are at present requiring pupils to take five major subjects, each five times a week, thus making it im- possible for them to get any drawing or music and often seriously limiting the physical training. The general trend of educational theory is not in harmony with this practice. It is possible to organize a program so as to include five major subjects and at the same time provide for the desirable unprepared work. Classes in the major subjects should in such cases meet only four times a week. The requirement of 120 sixty -minute hours for a unit can be met under this system with forty-five minute periods for a school year of forty weeks, which is rapidly becoming the minimum standard in the states having the best educational systems. The great advantage of this system is that it permits considerably greater flexibility in the pupils' curriculums. Twenty periods of pre- pared work are not too much for a normal boy or girl, and the in- clusion of an extra subject each year gives a broader curriculum, which opens new fields of interest and enriches the pupil's acquaint- ance with our complex civilization. 33 22. Typical curriculums. The following curriculums are given merely as suggestive types. They are not to be understood as pre- scriptions. The most highly specialized curriculums have not been included. Principals are invited to make such adaptations of the general plan as wall best suit their communities and t<> consitlt freely with the Department of Public Instruction. The attention of principals is called to Resolution 7 of the Edu- cational Congress, which has received the endorsement of large groups of secondary school men of the State: "Resolved, That courses of study (curriculums) be organized with a view to the largest service to all students, ninety per cent of whom do not go to college. That the colleges be urged to cooperate with the high schools by giving an opportunity for higher education to those whom high school princi- pals recommend as qualified to profit by college courses". The type curriculums given below are made on the basis of four pre pared subjects as the standard requirements. If four-period units are the standard for the school, pupils will take an additional sub ject. In addition it is expected that each pupil will have, as a rule, one period a day of unprepared work. This should include drawing, music, and physical training. Credit should be given towards gradua- tion on the basis of the definition of the term, unit, on page 25. In the curriculum designated as Academic /, provision is made for five prepared subjects in the last two years. This curriculum was formulated in a conference with a committee of the College Presi- dents' Association and is designed spe?ifically for students desiring to present two foreign languages for college entrance. These pupils are likely to be among those of superior ability, and such pupils are frequently able to carry an extra subject without undue strain. A CADEMIG I First Year Second Year Units Units English 1* English 1 Civics y 2 European History 1 European Hist. V2 Plane Geometry 1 Algebra . i Latin 1 Latin i Health Instruction Partial Health Instruction Partial Drawing Partial Drawing Partial Music Partial Music Partial •Major courses except in laboratory science may be either four or five periods a week as suggested in the topic, "Shall a pupil take four or five major subjects", page 32 above. If four hour units arc given, a pupil should ordinarily take fivi major subjects. 3 ::i Third Year Fourth Year English American History Biology, Chemisty, orPhysics Latin Second Foreign Language Health Instruction 1 English 1 1 Latin 1 1 Second Foreign Language 1 1 Physics, Chemistry, or Mathematics 1 1 Health Instruction Partial Partial One elective 1 ACADEMIC II First Year Second Year Engl.sh Civics General Science 1 1 1 English European H. story Plane Geometry 1 1 1 General Mathematics or Algebn Health Instruction Drawing Music i 1 Partial Partial Partial Foreign Language Health Instruction Drawing Music 1 Partial Partial Partial Third Year Fourth Year English 1 English 1 American History Physics Foreign Language Health Instruction Practical or Fine Arts 1 1 1 Partial y 2 or 1 Problems of Democracy Chemistry Foreign Language Health Instruction Practical or Fine arts 1 1 1 Partial i/ 2 or 1 GENERAL First Year Units Second Year Units English Civics 1 1 English European History 1 1 General Mathematics General Science Health Instruction Drawing Music 1 1 Partial Partial Partial Biology Health Instruction Drawing Music Choose one: Practical Arts Courses : Agricultural ) 1 Partial Partial Partial Home Economics v y 2 to 2 Industrial \ . Fine Arts Courses : Art ) Music t Vz or 1 Third Year Fourth Year English European History Health Instruction Drawing 1 1 Partial Partial English Problems of Democracy- Health Instruction Drawing 1 1 Partia Partia 35 Third Year Fourth Year Music Partial Music Chouse two: 2 Choose two: Commercial and Econ. Geography 1 Commercial Subjects Commercial Subjects 1 or 2 Chemistry Physics 1 Agricultural Practical Arts Courses: Home Economic i Agricultural "^ Industrial Home Economics \_ y to 2 Practical Arts Courses: Industrial \ Fine Arts Courses : Fine Arts Courses: Art ) Art | Music y 2 or 1 Music i Partial 1 to 2 1 y 2 to 2 y 2 or 1 23. A program of studies. A more flexible plan for presenting eurriculums is the arrangement of the entire offering of the school on some such plan as is given on pages 37-38. This method of publication affords great flexibility and challenges pupils and parents to give careful thought to the selection of studies. It requires the principal and teachers to give more attention to the problem of guidance so as to prevent pupils taking the line of least resistance and to insure proper consideration of the abilities and needs of individual pupils. In addition to the majors of three and one-half units each in English and the social studies required by the State pro- gram, either two minors of two units each or a major of at least three units and minor are recommended. 24. Curriculum guidance. From the beginning of his high school course, a pupil should have clearly in mind a general high school aim — vocational education, general education, or college preparation. To meet these aims the high school program of studies as shown herewith, presents five groups of courses — a required group and four curriculum groups. The course in vocational civic.- should render valuable assistance in educational and vocational choices. In planning his individual program of studies a pupil upon enter- ing high school sihould first decide which of the four curriculum groups — Academic, Commercial, Practical 'Arts, or Vocational — will help him best to realize his high school aim. A subject group so chosen becomes his major group. Having thus chosen his major subject group, a pupil entering high school should explicitly plan his entire four-year high school program, not with the thought that the program thus laid out be- comes fixed and unchangeable. In fact, such a program usually will undergo revision each year to accord with changes and development in the pupil's high school aim, but a general plan, even though only a tentative one, should always govern the choice of subjects for each year, so that a pupil will be conscious of a definite purpose running 36 through his high school program from beginning U> end. Such a lour- year individual program of study may be laid out in the follow- ing manner: I. Four <>r five subjects in addition to health instruction two periods a week, drawing two, and music one, constitute a standard program (Four subjects of five hours each, or five subjects four hours each). II. The subjects of the "Required Group" should first be listed for each year. III. The required (capitalized) subjects of the major curriculum group (Aca- demic. Commercial. Practical or Fine Arts, or Vocational) should next be listed for each of the four years. IV. The remaining subjects should be chosen with the advice and approval or the home-room teacher and the guidance counselor of the school. The following general suggestions will help : 1. If the pupil expects to attend (-(liege and has a specific college in mind, the requirements of this particular college should be provided for in the pupil's program ; otherwise general college entrance re- quirements should be included. The major portion of a pupil's sub- jects will in such a case be selected from the Academic Group. However, all academic pupils will profit greatly by election of some subjects from the Practical Aits Group that, will provide opportunity for development of avocational interests and of special aptitudes, particularly in applied art or music. 2. Commercial pupils will note that the work of the first year is all required. Shorthand in the second year should be regarded as an elective. — Only those who hope to continue it should begin it at this time. For the third and fourth years pupils should choose subjects that will prepare for one of the following definite objectives: steno- graphic work, general business and accounting work, or retail selling. For details regarding these three groups of subjects see more com- plete statement in the Commercial Education Syllabus. .">. Vocational pupils other than those in the commercial group will find in the Vocational Education Bulletins detailed suggestions for filling out the remaining subjects of their four-year program. Having thus laid out his school program, even though only tentatively, a pupil will make more intelligently, under proper guidance, the necessary revisions from year to year, and will pursue his high school work with greater zest and purposefulness, than would be the case if he made his selection of studies from year to year without reference to the remainder of his high school work. High school principals will find it profitable to have such a general program of high school studies as shown herewith and as may he adopted by the school boards of (heir respective districts printed on a large sheet (say 16" x 24") for display and study in elementary schools. Principals or other representatives of the high school should visit such schools shortly before promotion time from the eighth grade, to explain to pupils and teachers and parents the values and possibilities of high school education. For further details and suggestions on curriculum guidance, see Chapter VII of this manual. 37 a> J5 H « "^ go, I « 5 O ™ CO "w 'm O m ft 3 £-5 a; a °* O w HO' gJsS'- « S3 "^ oo-S u . hn OS b£ ?? a) a; a ih-o p. En PI 00 • HI? bit) g . "•a i ^2" , *»'«> 5? S3S3 sjud to 13 .5 £»- a> t! -S g g • a: "3 ,13 3 ct'O o oi 8l "So o" S3 _ w lf «iH-«Hi-l SI ?! « to ti oj j and 70 per cent. The rating scale should indicate three or four degrees of excellence in passing marks and one failing mark. Pupils' scholarship records should not be lowered as a punishment for misconduct. The rating given a pupil at the end of the term should represent the teacher's estimate of the pupil's mastery of the subject, and if the subject is a continuous one, of his ability to do the work of the succeeding term. In rating pupils the quality of daily recitations, <>f short unannounced tests, of written papers, and of final examin- ations, if any are given, should all receive consideration. The con- sensus of opinion of the best authorities is that too minute daily marking and a reliance upon any mathematical averages is wasteful of time and misleading from the standpoint of the aims of instruc- tion. In general, the distribution of the number of pupils receiving the various ratings of the scale should be fairly constant. Given the ratings A, B, C, I), E, in descending series with E denoting failure, the distribution of the class would generally be something like the following: A— 5 to 10% ; B— 20 to 25%; C— 50% ; D— 20 to 25%; E — 3 to 10%. Most authorities agree that if the course is well planned and the instruction efficient, the percentage of failures should be considerably below 10^. 13. Homogeneous classification of pupils. The boys and girls who are enrolled in our high schools show marked individual differ- ences. Some have better health and more physical energy and vi- tality than others. Some come from homes where the value of school work is appreciated, and have parents who encourage them to ma ! -e their best effort, in this work, while in other cases home influences actually handicap pupils in their educational as well as moral de velopment. Some pupils come to high school with records of ele mentary school work that are excellent. Others have records that 44 are far from satisfactory. Marked differences in mental qualities are always present; not only differences in general intelligence and ability to do school work, but also in special kinds of ability and in temperament and disposition. In recent years mental tests have been developed rapidly. They make it possible to measure some of these differences in the boys and girls in our high schools. There are group tests which may be given to a number of pupils at once, much as we give examinations in arithmetic or history, and individual tests for more intensive work with single pupils. The majority of the mental tests available measure more or less accurately the general intelligence, or all- round ability of the pupils tested. These tests have three principal functions in high school work as follows: 1. For surveys 2. For classification of pupils 3. For study of individuals These mental tests may be used as part of a survey. A principal may wish to compare the work of his school with that of other high schools, or that of one class with another, or the results of one teacher's work with another's. Unless he has some measure of the general ability or intelligence of the pupils in the two schools or classes he can not properly make comparisons in regard to the work they are doing. For statistical work of this kind the group tests will be used, and little attention will be given to the scores of in- dividual pupils. Schools have been classifying their pupils by the slow and dis- couraging process of non-promotion. Pupils who fail to be promoted are usually required to repeat the work of the previous term. We, therefore, find older and duller boys and girls in classes with young- er and brighter children. It is becoming possible to classify these pupils much more intelligently and far less wastef ully by the use of mental tests. In larger schools sections can be organized on a basis of homogeneous grouping according to ability in a specific subject. Thus seventy-five pupils in second year English would be divided into three groups according to ability rather than according to an alphabetic arrangement of names. In this way the school work re- quired of the several groups can be adapted to their different abilities. The pupils of the brighter group need not fall into care- less habits of study, while those of the duller group do not become discouraged by having to repeat work which they have had before. Even where classes are small, division is desirable wherever it can be made without unduly increasing the number of class sections. This classification makes possible adjustment of content, method of teaching, and rate of progress to group capacities and prevents wasteful repeating. In smaller schools where it is not feasible to 45 divide pupils into separate classes according to abilities, the teacher nevertheless will find it of marked advantage to have, say, a three - fold grouping of the pupils in a single class that will make possible some adaptation of the materials and methods of instruction to the varying abilities of the pupils. Any classification of pupils should be reconsidered frequently, and any pupil should be transferred from one group to another without waiting for regular promotion periods as soon as it appears that he can find better educational opportunities elsewhere. No study of individual pupils is complete that does not take into account some of these measures of mental qualities. Group test results have some significance. Results of individual tests, like the Binet Simon scale, have still more. Still more dependence may be placed on the findings of a person trained in clinical psychology who will use a number of different individual tests in this mental analysis and will also take into account other facts in regard to the pupil, his physical condition, home surroundings, etc. 14. Interpretation of tests. Principals and teachers should be careful not to overestimate the significance of a single pupil's score in a group test. Generally speaking, high scores are significant of superior natural ability. Scores below average may be due to a number of causes. In any case other data must be considered in interpreting these re- sults and in the educational guidance of the pupil. Among these data are the reports of the medical examiner and the visiting teacher. The pupil's previous school history should be considered. The co- operation of parents should be secured. Test scores, whether in group tests or in individual examinations, should never be the only basis of judgment. Still less should those without training in clinical psychology give out statements in regard to mental deficiency. Much harm can be done in this way. The problem of the school is a practical one. What is the best use that can be made of the time a given pupil will spend in school is the primary question. It can be answered satisfactorily only by making use of all the information available in each case. Principals should frankly recognize that the use of mental tests in high school administration is in an experimental stage. Doubt- less both the high school and the college will make an increasing use of tests as a basis for curriculum and vocational guidance and for the progressive modification of curriculums and courses of study. The Department of Public Instruction will welcome reports on uses of tests and will render assistance in experiments wherever possible. 15. The delegation of administrative duties. Proper administra- tion of a school makes it necessary for the principal to delegate many executive duties and responsibilities to clerical assistants and 4G teachers. In a larger school, an assistant principal or executive secretary is necessary in order that the principal may be so relieved of petty details as to become a real leader in the educational and social life of the school. (This delegation of responsibilities can be best effected by a clear definition of a function and by the delegation of full responsibility for it to the member of the staff best qualified to meet the responsibility. After such responsibility has been dele- gated, the principal should keep in touch with the function through his appointee and should make any desirable changes in its manage- ment through the appointee rather than by direct personal interfer- ence. This plan of organization insures continuity to these functions in case of the principal's absence, and leaves him free to devise policies and plans for the growth of the school. It is becoming generally recognized that a well-organized school should be able to run successfully during any necessary absence of its principal. Schools will vary greatly in the functions delegated to individual teachers or committees. Among the functions that may profitably be so delegated in a large school are some or all of the following: Guidance program of the school Supervision of preparation for college and normal schools Making of roster Management of Kbrary Management of senior class affairs Management of commencement exercises Management of lunch room Management of boys' athletics Management of girls' athletics Management of school paper Management of lecture and entertainment course Management of student participation in school government Special attention to first-year pupils Social activities of faculty Professional activities of faculty 16. Physical examinations. Every pupil should have a thorough physical examination at least once a year. A permanent record of this examination should be kept. < orrective exercises should be given in the school gymnasium in cases needing such treatment. 17. The standard requirement for pupils. A pupil of normal ability should be required to carry approximately twenty periods of recitations requiring preparation outside of class or in a supervised study period, and approximately five periods of work requiring no outside preparation. The prepared work may be made up of five subjects with four recitations per week, or four subjects with five recitation periods per week. In either case, the time spent in recitation for a year should be not less than 120 sixty -minute hours. 17 18. Teaching how to study. Some of the time of the recitations in each subject should be devoted to instruction in the best methods ;!' study. Experiments with supervised study should be encouraged. 19. Foreign I nguages. Pupils should not be permitted to be- gin more than one foreign language in any year. Pupils who take a foreign language should study it at least two years unless it becomes evident that they can not profit by the study of any foreign language. Pupils should not be permitted to drop one language for the purpose of taking another without excellent reasons. The larger schools should oiler four years' work in Latin and in each of one, two. or three modern languages. Only in exceptional cases should any pupil take more than one foreign language. More than four units of foreign language throw a pupil's curriculum out of proportion as badly as a similar over-emphasis on science, mathematics, or social studies. 20. Flexibility of administration. Inasmuch as the high school is recognized as a place of testing as well as of training, its program of studies should be administered with great flexibility. Cur riculums are schematic organizations of the various units of subject matter, each leading to a definite goal. A pupil should not, how- ever, be held to the continued pursuit of a curriculum he has chosen if there is a clear indication that he has made an unwise choice. Through the guidance program of the school, the principal should encourage changes of the curriculum which seem likely to afford better service to individual pupils. 21. Honest work should he required. The desirability of adapt- ing the school to the needs of individuals should never be accepted as an excuse for a lack of effort on the part of pupils or for an aim- less shifting from subject to subject merely to get out of work. Habits of laziness and evasion may come either from forced continu- ance at subjects wlhich pupils believe to be useless to them or from failure of the school to insist on thorough work. Nothing is more needed in secondary education today than a determined concentra- tion upon the requirement that all pupils make an honest and sus- tained effort at some worthwhile educational task. There is good reason to believe that a pupil who refuses to make such an honest effort in the high school will be better served in both instruction and discipline by the stern necessity of self support. Teachers and par- ents should frankly face the individual problems of this kind that arise in every school and should cooperate in setting up conditions that will promote the formation of right habits and sound character. The tendency to permit to adolescents too great freedom in the use of automobiles, too frequent and expensive dances and parties, too much spending money, and unprecedented extravagance in dress is 48 a serious menace to the work of the school and to the formation of right habits by the pupils. The high school is a representative in- stitution of democracy, and as such it may easily be tempted to con- done practices sanctioned by the groups it serves. It is clearly the duty of boards of education, superintendents, principals, and teach- ers to use all of their personal and professional influence and au- thority to secure that earnestness of effort which will develop right habits and incidentally reduce the great evil of high school failures. If citizens and school officials will unite in correcting these excesses that appeal so strongly to high school boys and girls, the service of the school will be enhanced and the interests of the young people safeguarded. 22. Scholarship honors. The practice of awarding the honor of salutatorian and valedictorian on a basis of class standing during the course is open to various objections. As noted in No. 12, the numerical rating should be abandoned. This will make the award of such honors extremely difficult. The award of these honors is almost inevitably unfair, because the standards of marking vary with different teachers and different 'subjects, and competition for these honors may tempt pupils to shape their curriculums with a view to honors rather than to the greatest benefit they may receive. Competition for honors, moreover, appeals to an undesirable motive ■ind promotes unsocial attitudes on the part of the pupils. As a substitute for the valedictory and salutatory honors, a school may establish an honor group to contain every pupil who obtains A or B in at least twelve units of work . This plan will lead to the substitution of a spirit of emulation and friendly and helpful co- operation instead of one of antagonistic competition. The National Association of High School Principals has devised an honor system for high schools that the Department of Public Instruction heartily recommends to the schools of the State which are anxious to include such a system. 23. Finances of school activities. Special care must be exercised in handling the funds incident to the various activities of school publications, entertainments, athletics, etc. A member of the fac- ulty, delegated to this responsibility, should have custody of all funds, and should make regular and frequent report concerning them to the faculty and the student body. Expenditure of funds raised through pupil activities should be initiated in the pupil council, and be sub- ject to the veto of the principal. 24. The high school building and grounds. The Bureau of School Buildings of the Department of Public Instruction will gladly 49 advise boards of directors Who are contemplating the erection or remodeling of buildings. A few points that should receive particularly careful consideration in planning for new buildings are: 1. Location. Generally speaking, it is better to locate a high school building outside the built-up center of a community. A walk of a mile or even more is not injurious to high school pupils. Tt is particularly important that the building be removed from the noise of trains and trolleys. 2 Ample grounds. If the high school is to be the center of the recreational life of the boys and girls of a community, it must have ample space for football and baseball fields, tennis courts, and track. The provision of several acres of ground in the immediate vicinity of the school is highly desirable wherever possible. It is economical also to provide room for additions to the building. 3. Essential features. In addition to the usual offices, class- rooms and science laboratories, every high school building should include an auditorium as large as can be afforded, a library to accommodate at least ten per cent of the maximum capacity of tfhe school, suitable rooms for instruction in commercial subjects, shops for the practical and industrial arts, cooking and sewing laboratories, a lunch room, a gymnasium, a swimming-pool, and if possible a suite of rooms for use as a model house keeping apartment. 25. The high school library. Every high school should have a library properly catalogued and freely used for reference. Pro- vision should be made to supply the library from time to time with books that are needed in the various subjects, and for instructing pupils in their use. All library assignments should be definite. The adequacy of the library and the use that is made of it will be a strong factor in determining the classification of the schools. A minimum of five recitation periods a year should be given to graded instruction in the use of reference books, indexes, decimal classification and dictionary cataloging. It should be given by the school librarian if there is one, and should be a distinct requirement for graduation. This instruction should be given to class groups in the various subjects. An outline of such courses is given in the School Library Manual. Junior high schools. There should be a general library of at least 300 volumes selected with reference to the age and needs of junior high sdhool pupils. At least 100 of these should be bought each year. 50 Third grade high schools. There should be a general library of not less than 400 volumes for pupils of high school age. At least 100 of these should be bought each year. Second grade high schools. There should be a general library of not less than 500 volumes for pupils of high school age. At least 125 of these should be bought each year. First grade high schools. There should be a general library of well selected books, for pupils of high school age, of not less than 600 volumes. At least 150 volumes of these should be bought each year. The books for school libraries should be selected from the School Library Manual. The books should be properly marked, classified, and arranged in a case or library room with sufficient shelving to make each book accessible. Textbooks and sets of supplementary readers should not be con- sidered as library books. 26. Qualifications of librarians. Schools having an enrollment of 100-300 pupils should have a part-time teacher librarian who is a graduate of a teacher -librarian course in one of the State normal schools. Schools having an enrollment of 300-500 pupils should have a full time librarian who is a graduate of a teacher-librarian course in one of the State normal schools. Schools having an enrollment of 500-1,000 pupils should have a full time librarian who should meet the State requirements for certification of high school teachers, and in addition should have had at least a six weeks' course in library methods in an approved summer library school. Schools with an enrollment of 1,000 pupils or over, should have a full-time librarian who should meet the State requirements for cer- tification of high school teachers, and inaddition should have had library training in an approved library school, and at least one year's successful library experience in work with young people in a library of standing. 27. Records. Permanent records of the attendance of pupils and cf the result of all instruction should be kept. Unforeseen needs for such records often arise many years after the pupil has left school, and great injustice is done when accurate records are not available. The care of the permanent records is another matter to which superintendents and principals should give special attention. In sonic of the smaller high schools, especially, the record is placed 51 where everybody can have access to it. Frequently the records are found on the library shelf among- the library books. The records should be kept in a place where no one but the superintendent, principal, or some person especially entrusted with the care of same can have access to it. In many of the smaller towns a good plan is to have the secretary of the board keep the records in a bank vault or some safe place other than the schoolhouse during the summer vacation. 52 53 V. THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL Organization and program of studies. Purpose of the junior lrigh school. The junior high school has arisen because of the demand, which is constantly growing more and more insistent, that* our public schools should provide greater equality of educational opportunity. We are beginning to see that a successful democracy must depend not only upon the education of its people, but also upon types of education adapted to individual needs. We are now realizing more and more that individuals are not alike and that the education and training wuku is suited to one may not be suited to another. Unfortunately, our educational system has been and still is based very largely upon the principle that individuals are alike and that all can profit equally by a com- mon course of training. It has not been .possible to modify suf- ficiently the eight-year type of organization so that the varying needs of individuals can be met. The results of this failure are seen in the appalling elimination of pupils from school. The Commission's recommendations. The following quotations are extracts from the bulletin on "Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education", one of the reports so far published by the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education: "We recommend a reorganization of the school system whereby the first six years shall be devoted to elementary education designed to meet the needs of pupils of approximately six to twelve years of age ; and the second six years to secondary education designed to meet the needs of pupils of ep proximately twelve to eighteen years of age. In the junior period (grades seven to nine inclusive) emphasis should be placed upon the attempt to help the pupil to explore his own aptitudes and to make at least provisional choice of the kinds of work to which he will devote himself. In the senior period (grades ten to twelve inclusive) em- phasis should be given to training in the fields thus chosen. This distinc- tion lies at the basis of the organization of junior and senior high schools." -L new type of school. The junior high school should, therefore, undertake a reorganization of the work of the last two grades of the elementary school together with the first year or the first two years of the high school. These three or four grades can best be organized as a more or less separate unit. They pre-suppose that the. chief objects of elementary education shall be attained largely in the first six grades of the elementary school. Basing its work upon the assumption that the fundamentals in reading, writing, and arithmetic have been reasonably well attained and that certain elementary and fundamental concepts in geography and history 54 have been formed, it provides for a varied program better suited to the developing needs of young people. Further command of the fundamental operations is obtained not so much by continued formal drill as by practical application of the operations already learned. In addition, subjects formerly considered the exclusive property of the four-year high schools are given a [dace. Among these are elementary science, general mathematics, community and vocational civics, practical arts, home economics; and as exploratory and elective subjects, foreign languages and commercial branches. Promotion is by subjects instead of by grades, and the work is to a greater or less extent departmentalized. The methods used are radically different from those of the elementary schools ; e g., super- vised study and the socialized recitation are essential features, and the social life of the school is organized from the standpoint of the young adolescent. This reorganization removes the dangerous break at the end of the eighth year, coordinates the elementary school with the high school by a transitional unit to weld together the elementary and secondary periods, and provides a new organization in which it is far easier to meet the many needs of adolescent pupils than under the old plan. • Advantages in small communities. An adaptation of this plan of organization is especially well suited to rural communities where the number of high school pupils is small. In many of these com- munities it. is now impossible to maintain any kind of high school. In others, small third grade or second grade high schools maintain a precarious existence. In many of these the conditions are any- thing but conducive to good work. The small schools require each teacher to teach a much wider range of subjects than anyone is likely to be able to do well. Even at that, there is usually no opportunity for choice of work. This condition results practically in the denial of all educational opportunity for the pupils who can not profit by the single curriculum that is offered. The organization of a junior high school consists of the seventh to the ninth years or the seventh to the tenth years inclusive. The former, wherever practicable and economical, is recommended. How- ever, the latter is recommended under certain conditions: •'In sparsely settled communities when: a senior high school can not be main- tained effectively, the junior high school may well be four years in length, so that the pupils may attend school nearer to their homes for one more year." ("Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education.") In many communities that are remote from larger schools it is al- together likely that a junior high school of three or four years would grow naturally into a six-year high school. The opportunity for a try-out of various types of educational activity inevitably leads 55 to a retention of many pupils who would otherwise leave school. Moreover, successful experience will encourage a community to in- vest in still further opportunities. All of this tends to develop con- fidence in the school and to promote its growth. A wisely planned program of studies. A word of warning should he given. Unless the new organization does actually provide better for the varying individual needs of adolescent, boys and girls, there is no virtue in a change of name. To provide against such a con- tingency, the Department of Public Instruction will scrutinize very carefully every plan for such an organization before it gives its ap- proval. The programs of studies of junior high schools will neces- sarily vary with the different local needs and conditions. In order to give help to those who wish to organize such schools a general out- line of an acceptable program of studies is given below. Principals and superintendents are urged to send to the Department suggestions regarding desirable adaptations of the suggested program of studies. These will receive careful consideration. The junior high school program of studies should be a resultant of several forces. It should be made up of four parts; first, a continu- ation of the elementary school curriculum, in the form of a review and amplification of these courses with a purpose of articulating the elementary and secondary courses; second, a preview of second- ary school courses of study, with a rearrangement of such courses in their "simpler aspects, deferring the refinements" to later senior high school years; third, a prevocational content from the point of view of the industrial and commercial fields and from that of the home; and fourth, a liberal amount of social scien e materials and social and civic activities to the end of giving to the early adolescent a "self-conscious social adjustment." In each course of study in the junior high school program of studies there must be a thorough internal reorganization of the pre- ceding courses of study in the given subject as these courses were formerly organized for the last two years of the grammar school and the first year of the high school. No mere physical combination of grades seven and eight and the first year of high school with un- changed courses of study can even pretend to the reorganization of the program of studies which is the most distinctive characteristic of an actual junior high school. Such an organization can in some cases effect most desirable improvements by a new grouping of grades seven, eight, and nine with an administrative change to depart- mentalization, but it is not a junior high school. The junior high school is a "chemical product, not a physical combination." Therefore, a wisely planned program of studies should continue, with modifications, the sinyle curia •ulm of the elementarv school. 56 Through its general courses of study (general mathematics, general science, prevocational courses, general social science, etc.), it should expand the single curriculum into an enriched and varied curriculum. The new resultant should in a gradually increasing degree become the initial stage of all secondary school curriculums. It should be- come the source of an apperceptive basis for later senior high school courses; it should "reveal higher types of activities, make these both desired and to an extent possible." It should offer assurance of in- telligent educational choice and wise educational placement. It should make possible a tentative or provisional choice of electives. It should increase the probability that pupils will persist through the initial stages of specialized secondary school courses in the junior high school and thus also increase the probability that they will con- tinue these courses and complete the specialized curriculums of the senior high school. For those of the junior high school pupils who will not continue into the senior high school, the self-contained program of studies should provide a valuable educational return. For the drop-outs, therefore, every reorganized course of study should become a unit course of definite educational value in each year of its development. The same unit organization of the courses of study, with a continuous preservation of life contacts, convinces the pupils who will continue of the real value of the present units of the course. At the same time it reveals to them the higher possibilities of advanced units of the course and makes these desirable in the estimation of pupils and parents. The enacting clause in the educational reorganization inherent in the junior high school is a new, reorganized, self-contained program of studies ; thus only can the junior high school become a new educational force for the realization of its accepted and distinctive purposes. A suitable apportionment of time. It is recommended that there should be a school year of at least nine months, a school day of six hours exclusive of the luncheon period and passage of classes, and six one-hour periods. Four of the periods are devoted, to a large degree, to the four major subjects (1) language, (2) mathematics, (3) social studies, (4) science and geography, and health instruction. A fifth period is devoted to fine and practical arts and guidance. The sixth period is divided into a fifteen-minute period for devotional or opening exercises at the beginning of the morning session and a forty-five minute period for organized school activities at times of the day best suited to each school. In smaller schools, the sixth period may be required in part for the practical working out of the daily roster of the curricular require- 57 uients. The guidance work could be part of the home-room activities. There should be, if possible, a weekly assembly. However, it may be necessary to alternate assemblies with clubs or class meetings in con- nection with pupil participation in school control. The minimum time allotment in any school for organized activities should be two periods a week, as given above. The maximum would be live periods, four for pupil activities and one for faculty activities as given in the chapter on school activities of this manual. The balance of the sixth period may be devoted to one period a week for coaching or for work in spelling, penmanship, practical arts, or for any curricular require- ments not provided for in the other five periods. A transition school. The program of studies is shown by suc- cessive terms to give a clearer conception of the development from the single curriculum of the elementary school through the ex- ploratory courses and the core curriculum with electives of the junior high school to the multiple or differentiated curriculums of the senior high school. It must be clearly recognized that the junior high school is pri- marily a transition school. With other features of organization and administration, the program of studies must contribute to this fundamental ipfurpose. Attention is, therefore, called to the progres- sive stages in effecting for early adolescent children the transition from the elementary school to the senior high school. To this end, the three-year period is divided into four stages, as follows: 1. A term of adjustment — low seventh. The single curriculum of the elementary school is continued, but in a form modified by de- partmentalization and by the increased facilities of the junior high school. 2. A year of exploration and preview — high seventh and low eighth. The single or core curriculum of constants is required of all pupils but in a form enriched and varied by exploratory courses which offer a preview of high school subjects. 3. A term of provisional choice of electives — high eighth. The core curriculum is continued with the first and provisional choice of electives. In this semester, the future educational placement of each pupil is to a large degree determined by this initial experience with specialized or differentiated courses of study. The initial choice should remain provisional for at least one semester to provide for correction of error in the original choice. 4. A year of persistence through electives — ninth year. The pro- gram of studies now becomes a core curriculum with electives, or, in other words, a constant-with-variables curriculum, or partially 58 differentiated curriculums. This final year should be devoted to stimulating the ambition of each pupil for educational advancement into the next higher type of school. The ninth year is the initial stage of partial differentiation preparatory to the multiple cur- riculums of the senior high school and higher institutions. The sixty-minute period. The program of studies is adapted to a six-hour school day and a school year of at least nine months. It is also arranged on a basis of sixty-minute periods for the purpose largely of providing for supervised or directed study. A six-hour school day should not be followed by more than a very limited amount of home study in grades seven and eight. In grade nine, supervised study can be applied in five-period-a- week subjects since three fourths credit for high school units is allow- ed where supervised study is in operation. There are only two ninth year courses, viz.. social studies and science, to which are allotted four periods a week. Though the total clock hours for the year fall below one hundred and twenty on the directed study basis, one unit :redit will be allowed. The work in guidance, civics, and science of the seventh and eighth years offsets the diminished time allotment in the ninth year. Pupil load. The program of studies is based upon a load for each pupil of seventeen or eighteen periods of prepared work a week in the seventh and eighth years, and nineteen periods in the ninth. Adaptation of program to small school. The suggested program of studies can be applied to both small and large schools. An adapta- tion to a four-year junior high school is offered for the rural com- munity school. There is also given a typical daily program for a four-teacher organization. This should demonstrate the practica- bility of the program of studies in the small school. Where facilities in the smaller school are lacking for practical arts, agriculture, and home economics, a temporary classification will be given, on condition that the school directors will provide such facili- ties in the following school year. Blue prints are available upon request, showing a floor plan for the use of a class-room as an indus- trial arts shop. Suggestions will also be made upon request as to the minimum equipment necessary to inaugurate practical arts for girls and boys in a small school. The smaller schools should restrict electives to the needs of the majority of the pupils. The natural limitations in number of teachers, equipment, and facilities will be considered in connection with requests from small schools for classi- fication. As a general principle, the Department will not approve ihe expansion of a four-year junior high school into a six-year high school unless additions are made to the number of teachers and the 59 school facilities. Otherwise, the effectiveness of the junior high school will be defeated by the additional burden of the eleventh and twelfth years. Step by step change in curriculum type. It should be noted that the single curriculum type prevails in the seventh year and the low eighth term; that exploratory courses are required of all pupils in the high seventh and low eighth ; that beginning with the high eighth and continuing through the ninth year a core curriculum with elec- tives is suggested. Occupational training. Occupational training for pupils who must drop out of school during or at the close of the junior high school period Avil be largely restricted to the commercial, industrial or agricultural courses. These courses are, therefore, introduced at as early a point in the curriculum as is consistent with the underlying purposes of the junior high school. Special rosters in the smaller schools or partially differentiated curriculums in the larger schools should be offered to drop-outs at the end of the seventh year or at any subsequent semester. The ut- most "are must be observed that only the small residuum of pupils who must drop out are classified in the group for occupational train- ing. Vocational value of ability in English. Secretarial or stenographic positions demand a high order of ability in English. It is suggested, therefore, that in the exploratory year one period or an average of one period a week of English work be devoted to determining the individual's fluency and clearness of expression range of vocabulary, and exactness in the technicalities of language, spelling, and penman- ship. Choice of electives. At the close of the low eighth semester, or at the middle of the three-year period, all pupils should, under careful guidance based upon thorough scrutiny of exploratory experiences, make provisional choice of electives for the high eighth semester. For the sake of pupils whose initial choice of electives proves to be a mistake, an easy way of changing to other electives should be provided. This can be done in several ways — by postponing certain requirements for promotion to the middle of the ninth year, by ar- ranging special rosters, by coaching, or by other opportunities to catch up with the work of the class in the new elective. 60 A Suggested Program of Studies. Six period day- Sixty minute period Adjustment Exploration & Preview Provls. Choice Persistence One Term Low Seventh One Year High Seventh, Low Eighth one Term High Eighth One Year Ninth Year Constants « •English (a)t 5 *English (a) 4 •English (a) 4 •English (a) 4 •English ft •Gen. Math, (b) 4 *Gen. Math.(b) 4 *Gen. Math.(b) 4 (Opt. in Math.)(b) (Opt. in Math.)(b) *Soc. Stu. (c) 4 *Soc. Stu. (c) 4 *Soc. Stu. (d) 3 •Soc. Stu. (d) 3 *Soc. Stu. (h) 1 Sel. (h)J * Science (e) •Geography (e) *> 3 "Science (e) •Geography (e) 2 3 •Science (f) •Geography (f) 2 2 •Science (g) 2 *Gen Health (1) 2 Health (1) 2 Health (i) 2 Health (i) 2 Health (1) 2 Ind. Arts (J) ) Agri. (J) \ HomeBc. (J) J 2 Ind. Arts (k) 1 Agri. (k) \ Home Ec. (k) ) 3 Ind. Arts (J)l Agri. (j) [ HomeEc. (j) J 2 Ind. Arts (J) 1 Agri. (J) \ HomeEc. (j) j 2 Ind. Arts (j) 1 Agri. (j) [ 2 HomeEc. (J) J Music (1) 1 Music (1) 1 Music (1) 1 Music (1) 1 Music (1) 1 Art (1) 1 Art (1) 1 Art (1) 1 Art (1) 1 Art (1) 1 Guidance (m) 1 Guidance (m) 1 Guidancp (in) *Jr. Bus. Train- 1 Guidance (m) 1 Sen. ActiT. (o) 5 Sen. Activ. (o) 5 ing (n) Sch. Activ. (o) 3 5 Snh. Activ. (o) 5 Sch. A.ctlT. (o) 5 Klectives (p) Elect One Group (q) t Letters refer to notes below •Gen. Math.(b) •For. Lang, (r) 4 •Gen •For. Math, (b) 5 Lang, (s) 6 * Prepared work *Gen. Math.(b) 5 •Gen Math, (b) 5 Fine Arts Courses : Fine Arts Courses : Music or Art (t) 4 Music or Art (t) 5 •Com. Math. & *Com. Math. & Com. Geog. (u) 4 Typewrit, (w) ft *.Tr. Bus. Trg. *Bookkeep. & & Bus. Writ, (v) 5 Bus. Writ, (x) 5 *Gen. Math, (b) 5 *Gen. Math, (b) 5 Ind. Arts. 1 *Gen. Sel. (z) 5 Agri. V 4 Home He. (y) J Vocational 1/2 Time (aa) 15 a. Including spelling and penmanship and one period a month for library in- struction. One or two periods of time allotted to school activities could be used for spelling, penmanship, and library instruction. Until the school activities are fully in operation, it is desirable that this additional time be retained for the English course. b. See Report of National Committee on Mathematical Requirements, Bulletin. 1921, No. 32, Bureau of Education, Washington. In the high eighth, and ninth year, there is an option in mathematics but no option of mathematics. Either general mathematics or the mathematics of the commercial curriculum are required of all groups. c. United States history, — or United States history and community civics. d. Community civics, — or United States history and community civics. e. Science two periods and geography three periods. f. Science two periods and geography tw© periods. g. Science two periods. h. All pupils, except those electing commercial courses, are required to take 61 vocational and economic civics or general social science. Commercial pupils are re- quired to take general science — their later commercial courses will contain much of economic civics. A minimum of science will be required in the academic curriculum of the senior high school ; general science, therefore, should be postponed to the tenth year for the academic group. General social science should be required of all groups in the ninth year except as indicated for the commercial group. i. Personal hygiene, gymnasium, directed games, etc. j. General shop with progressive course of wood-working and metal working through three years. Agriculture optional with industrial arts for rural schools. Home economics including sewing, cooking, textiles, laundry, millinery, dressmaking, dress and home design, and home training. k. All boys for one term given an actual trade shop experience in a special trade type of shop equipment. The vocational side of practical arts stressed for one term for both boys and girls. Hence increase of time to three periods. 1. Additional time for fine arts may be provided by electing special work in school activities time, e. g., orchestra, glee, and musical instrument clubs, design and art clubs, musical or art appreciation clubs, etc. It is advised that the time allot- ment of sixty minutes be undivided for art and divided into two thirty-minute periods for music. m. Classroom instruction in educational or curriculum guidance — both educa- tional and vocational information for pupils prior to choice of electives. n. Elementary business practices and principles common to all life careers and a brief survey of commercial education and of junior commercial occupations, o. Weekly periods for (1) home-room period, (2) co-operative pupil government. (3) school assembly, (4) clubs, (5) faculty activities for professional study — a faculty esprit de corps for the cooperative solution of junior high school problems of both an administrative and instructional nature. Junior high school teachers must be trained through service ; the most favorable condition should be established. Until the school activities program is in full operation, part of this daily allotment of time for activities should be diverted to English, practical arts, fine arts, or other curricular requirements. p. Other electives than those listed may be provided in the club activities, e. g., art, science, English, dramatics, practical arts, or social service clubs. The groups of electives indicate partially differentiated curriculums. To facilitate cross-over between electives during this term, it is suggested that electives be made provisional, i. e., that promotion requirements in electives be deferred to the middle of the ninth year. q. Partially differentiated curriculums continued ; with twenty periods devoted to constants, fine and practical arts, and activities : and with ten periods devoted to electives. There are five major lines of curriculum choice provided in this year, viz., the academic, the fine arts, the commercial, the scientific or technical, and the vocational. r. Optional choice of Latin or one modern language. Small schools should restrict choice to one foreign language. Eighth year course introductory — vocabulary building, social life of people, etc. Earlier choice of a foreign language for pupils of a high I. Q. is a program adjustment to each school. This earlier start of a foreign language should be an extension course opportunity in an enriched curriculum for special or accelerant groups, s. First year high school course. t. Provision is made in the chapter on the administration of the program of studies for full high school credit for music under specifications set forth in the syllabus in music. This option makes it possible for a pupil to begin his music with full school credit in the middle of the eighth year. Similarly, a course in art 62 may be pursued in districts where provision is made for a unit course in art similar to that outlined for music. This course, as in the case of music, may be given in or out of the school. u. Two periods of each. v. Forty minutes daily in junior business training, twenty minutes in business writing. w. Forty minutes daily in typewriting, twenty minutes in commercial mathe- matics. x. Forty minutes daily in bookkeeping, twenty minutes in business writing. y. Four periods elective plus the two periods required in constants of this term give a total of six periods; five should be in special shops or advanced home (raining and one in drafting or design. z. The fourth group of electives in the high eighth branches off into two curriculum choices in the ninth year, viz., first, the scientific or technical curriculum paralleling the academic in preparation for higher institutions, and second, the vocational or trade curriculum. In the former, general science in the ninth year replaces the practical arts elective of the high eighth ; but practical arts is still continued for this and all other non-vocational groups to the extent of two periods as a required subject. aa. Smith-Hughes curriculum organized as a ninth year elective, but over-age pupils should be transferred to this curriculum during seventh and eighth years, when definitely determined that alternatives of vocational curriculum or leaving school are unavoidable. All such transfers are problems of individual adjustment. The academic work should include English, social studies, and related mathematics for a weekly total of ten periods. These pupils should participate in school activities on an equal basis with all others. 63 A Suggested Program of Studies For a Rural Community Four-Year Junior High School. 5 Nine month year Six hour day Sixty minute period 7th year 8th year 9th year 10th year "English 5 *English 4 * English 4 "English 4 *Social Studies 4 * Social Studies 3 "Social Studies 4 *Social Studies 4 "Mathematics *Geo. & Science 4 5 "General Math. "Geo. '& Science 4 4 ♦General Math, or Commercial Math. "General Science 5 "Geometry or Bookkeeping "Elective Sci. 5 4 Health Educ. 2 Health .Educ. 2 Health Edue. 2 Health Educ. 2 Music 1 Music 1 Music 1 Music- 1 Art 1 Art 1 Art 1 Art 1 (iuidance 1 Guidance 1 Agriculture Indus. Arts |- Home Econ. 3 Agriculture Indus. Arts Home Econ. 1 3 J Agriculture Indus. Arts Home Econ. 1 J 2 Agriculture Indus. Arts Home Econ. 1 2 1 Activities 2 Activities 2 Activities 2 Activities 2 Spelling and Pen- manship 2 Spelling and Pen manship 2 One elective "Jr. Bus. Train 'g 3 "Commercial W'k or Agriculture Indus. Arts Home Making or 'Foreign Lan- guage 1 }- J 4 "Commercial W or Agriculture Indus. Arts Home Making or "Foreign Lan- guage 'k 1 J 5 J Total periods 30 Total periods 30 Total periods 30 Total periods 3D JFor practical application of this program of studies see the "Typical Daily Program for n Junior High School with Four Teachers." "Prepared work. 64 Typical Daily Program for a Junior High School with Four Teachers. Grades 7-8-9-10. Per. Day Time Principal Lang. Tchr. Sc. & Soc. Stud. Tchr. Math. & Horn? Econ. Tchr. Home Room 10th 1 Home Room 8th Home Room 7th 1 Home Room 9th 15 8:45-9 Devotional or Opening Exercises 60 M 9-10 60 Tu 60 W 60 Th 60 F 60 M 10-11 60 Tu 60 W 60 Th 60 F Alg. 9-10 English 8 Soc. Stud. 7 Commercial 9-10 Alg. 9-10 English 8 Geog. & Sc. 7 Commercial 9-10 Alg. 9-10 English 8 Soc. Stud. T Commercial 9-10 Alg. 9-10 English 8 Geog. & Sc. 7 Commercial 9-10 Alg. 9-10 English 8 Soc. Stud. 7 Commercial 9-10 Gen. Sc. 9-10 English 9-10 English 9-10 English 9-10 Soc. Stud. English 9-10 Soc. Stud. Health Soc. Stud. 8 Health Soc. Stud. 8 ! Gen. Math. 8 J Gen. Math. 8 Gen. Math. 8 Gen. Math. S Gen. Math. 60 M 11-12 60 Tu 60 W 60 Th 60 F 60 M 60 Tu 60 W 60 Th 60 F 60 M 60 Tu 60 W 60 Th 60 F 1-2 2-3 lnd. Arts or Agri. Ind. Arts or Agri. Ind. Arts or Agri. Ind. Arts or Agri. Ind. Arts or Agri. English 7 English 7 English 7 English 7 English 7 Soc. Stud. Soc. Stud. Soc. Stud. Soc. Stud. Health 9-10 9-10. 9-10 9-10 9-10 Gen. Math. Gen. Math. Gen. Math. Gen. Math. Gen. Math. For. Lang. For. Lang. For. Lang. For. Lang. 30 For. Lang. 30 Music 9-10, Geog. & Sc. 9-10 Geog. & Sc. 9-10J Jeog. & Sc. Geog. Sc. or 9-10 Soc. Stud. 9-10 Art 7 'Art 7 9-10 Home Econ. Home Econ. Home Econ. Home Econ. Home Econ. Gen. Sc. 9-10 Health Ind. Arts or Agri. Gen. Sc. 7 9-10 Ind. Arts or Agri. 7 Gen. Sc. 9-10 30 Music 30 Coaching Health 30 Music 8 8 Art 7 9-10 Art 9-10 Coaching 9-10 1st Lessons Business Home Econ. 1st Lessons Business Home Econ. 1st Lessons Business 45 M 3-3:45 45 Tu 45 W 45 Th 45 F Guidance 9-10 Guidance 8 Guidance 7 Assembly & clubs on alternate weeks, four teachers participating Ind. Arts or 25 Spell. 7-8] 25 Agri. 9-10 20 Penman. 8 20 Penman. 7 Home Econ. 9-10 Home Room Home Room Home Room Activities & Activities & Activities & Coaching 9-10 Coaching 8 Coaching 7| Ind. Arts or 25 Spell. 7-8 25 ' Home Econ. 9-10 Agri. 9-10 20 Penman. 8 20 Penman. 7 Whenever possible, the practical and fine arts should be taught by part time instructors who come to the school for a continuous program of a half-day or more in the special subject. Industrial arts, agriculture, home economics, music and art will then be taught by the regular teachers only to the extent that these subjects are not taught by part time instructors. The above program, therefore, represents the maximum organization required of any f«ur-teacher school. It is not recommended except when unavoidable. It is 65 .submitted only to demonstrate the practicability of the junior high school program of studies in a four-teacher organization. ESSENTIALS FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL CLASSIFICATION Types of organization. Tlie State Department will adopt the gen- eral practice prevailing in the country at large of designating a junior high school as including grades 7, 8, and 9. 1. These grades may be segregated as a distinct .school unit, which is recom- mended where practicable. 2. These grades may be included with the 10th- 11th, and Vlx\\ years, forming thereby a six-year secondary school unit. This type of organization may be ad- visable for smaller cities, boroughs, and larger rural communities because of the economy of administration and the reciprocal gains to both junior and senior units. These gains arise by reason of the increased total enrollment and the grti.ier flexibility consequent to a large organization. 3. Grades 7-10 may be classified as a junior high school provided the come.sion of an existing second or third class high school into a junior high school is depend- ent upon this type of organization, and provided, also, that in each ease clear e\ i- dence is presented to the Department of the necessity of including the 10th year. Where local conditions require that the junior high school be housed with grades 1-6, or with any part of the elementary school, one prin cipal should exercise administrative control over both the junior high and the elementary school. The principal may also exercise super- visory control over the elementary .school, if other supervision can- not be provided. It is strongly recommended that the clear distinction between the elementary grades 1-6 and the secondary grades 7-1-!, as established by the ''Commission on Reorganization of Secondary Education", be accepted as the basis of organization and administration. The junior high school must be recognized as the first unit of the second- ary school, the six years of which correspond will) the adolescent ages of approximately 12 to 18 years. Permanent classification. There should be a minimum enrollment of 100 pupils antl a faculty of four teachers for the following reasons: 1. The present unsatisfactory conditions in many second and third class high schools, with one or two teachers and a pupil enrollment of 15 to 40 pupils, should he avoided in a reorganization on the junior high school basis. 2. Four teachers will make possible departmentalization in the four major branches: (1) English and foreign language. (2) social studies, (•*!) mathe- matics, (4) geography, science, and health. 3. A four-teacher staff, including the principal as one of the four teachers, should provide some free time to the principal for supervision, administrative direc- tion of the school's guidance program, the school activities, ami other executive duties. This free time should approximate one-third of the school day in a junior high school organized on the minimum basis and should be increased proportionally for larger schools. 4. A teaching staff of fewer than four teachers places such restrictions upon the organization and curriculum of the junior high school as in effect to defeat its 6 66 fundamental purposes — "departmental instruction, promotion by subjects, explora- tion of pupils' aptitudes, choice of subjects under guidance, prevocational courses, and a social organization that calls forth initiative and develops the sense of per- sonal responsibility for the welfare of the group" (Cardinal Principles, pages 18-19) Temporary cl ssification. If the initial organization does not ex- ceed 75 pupils and a staff of three teachers, the school will he classi- fied as a junior high school for a period of not more than two years, provided the following conditions be met: 1. The evidence is clear that consolidation with one or more adjoining districts, so as to- include their 7th and 8th grades in the consolidated junior high school, is impracticable. '-. (a) There is evidence of an anticipated increase of enrollment t < ► th • u in- imum basis of 100 pupils as the 7th and 8th grades advance to the 9th at id 10th. (hi There is evidence of an anticipated increase to the same minimum by prospeel of later consolidation when adjoining districts can provide transportation and are convinced of junior high school advantages through demonstration in the neighboring community. .'->. The community is willing to assume financial responsibility for at least four full-time teachers for the junior high school. 4. An additional fourth teacher will be added to the staff when the enrollment reaches 100. Part-time instruction. In the case of a minimum teaching staff of four teachers it is recommended that, in addition to the staff of four teat hers, the fine and practical arts— music, drawing (art), industrial, agricultural, commercial and home economics. — be taught by instruc- tors on a part-time arrangement with adjoining or nearby districts.* This arrangement may provide that an instructor in industrial arts or agriculture is to give half time to each of two schools, and his salary is to be prorated between the districts. Health education, commercial courses, music, and art may be similarly taught by one instructor in two or more schools. Where advisable, these special instructors may include elementary grades in their programs. If the above plan is temporarily or permanently impracticable, the arts courses must be included as special subjects in programs of the regular teachers. Until the school can provide a librarian, one teacher should be designated as teacher-librarian and should have the supervision of the school library in addition to her regular teach- ing. This teacher may be excused from the duties of a home-room counselor. Part-time instruction in agriculture or industrial arts for boys and in home economies for girls should be scheduled for the same periods on the same day of the week. The regular teaching staff will then *Part-time teachers must be officially employed by one board of din ctors whom other boards pay for such service as the teachers give them. 67 be relieved of classroom duties. This free time should be used, once a week, for faculty meetings and conferences. In this way, the faculty activities suggested in the chapter on School Activities can be undertaken in the small schools. Home-room counselor. Each class unit should be under the con- trol and guidance of a home-room counselor. Junior high school pupils are too immature for self-direction; they still require the wholesome type of teacher guidance that prevails in the one-teacher control of the elementary school. From the standpoint of the faculty each teacher, either as a home-room or associate home-room counselor, should participate in the guidance program of the school, to the end that guidance may become a primary responsibility with all the in- structional staff. School activities. Every junior high school should develop an or- ganized activities program. A suggested program, which has actually been tested under junior high school conditions, is given in the chap- ter on School Activities in this manual. This chapter on School Ac- tivities should be included in the matter of securing junior high school classification. Subject promotion. Subject promotion should prevail throughout the junior high school. In order that subject promotion may actually and successfully operate, some provision must be made that pupils may regain a ful 1 grade classification where this has been lost by sub- ject failures. Hence remedial and preventive measures in subject non- promotion are essential. In the small school, coaching periods should be included in the teachers' programs. A discussion of the organiza- tion of coaching and opportunity classes will be sent upon request to the Department. Guidance program. The guidance and educational placement of pupils through exploration and testing of their initial choices of elertives should be accepted as a primary purpose of the junior h'gh school. Means to this end will be determined somewhat by the size of the school, but guidance should permeate the program of studies and every school activity. There should be in each school the gui- dance of the home-room counselor; administrative direction of all guidance activities by the principal ; educational and vocational guid- ance content in the course of study, particularly, in the social studies and English: guidance objectives in the socialized activities: and, where practicable, definite guidance class instruction under the di- rection of a special teacher who devotes all or the major portion of her time to this' objective. Guidance in the junior hi something as follows: Total 1st minute 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th seconds Teacher 60 sec. 55 60 30 50 60 60 40 60 60 535 P U pil 5030 10 00 20 0065 92 The tendency to talk too much is probably the one most insidious and persistent fault of class-room practice. A large percentage of teachers would improve their instruction by obeying the admonition printed on a card and kept constantly before them, 'DON'T TALK TOO MUCH." It is amazing how frequently even experienced teachers grow negli- gent in certain matters of detail concerning which principles arc well established and generally known. For example, a seating chart should be made at the beginning of each term so that the daily roll call of the class may occupy only three or four seconds Details such as the distribution of supplies, the return of written papers, etc, should be so systematized as to occupy seconds rather than minutes. Questions or topics should be announced before the name of a pupil is called; otherwise only the pupil named will give close attention. Pupils should never be called on in rotation. Questions or topics should not be repeated for the benefit of inattentive pupils. Concert recitations are futile because no one in particular is held to account. Too great dependence upon volunteer recitations removes respon- sibility from many individuals, as does ;t tendency to call on only a few of the brighter pupils. The repetition of the pupil's answers by the teacher is a waste of time if the teacher insists that answers be spoken so that all can hear. The list might easily be extended. The teacher who is intelligently living to improve will make a conscious effort to check up his daily practice by applying such cautions as are given in such a book as Hughes' "Mistakes in Teach- ing." Supervisory devices. Obviously no supervising officer can do more ilian to set definite aims and principles before his teachers and then endeavor to help them in the pursuit of the aims and (he application of the principles. Frequent class visitation followed by conferences with the teacher is the most effective means of improving teachers in service. Coupled with this, however, should be a definite presenta- tion of aims and principles. The teachers' meeting affords perhaps the most valuable opportunity for this instruction. The faculty that is actively studying some problem like the socialized recitation, the project method, or supervised study under souk 1 such plan as is sug- gested in the chapter on school activities in this manual is pretty sure to improve in its daily work. The attitude of mind favors intelligent scrutiny of aims, content, and methods of instruction, and the bene- ficial results extend much beyond the limits of faculty discussion. The principal who arouses in his teachers a dissatisfaction with their habits of instruction and an earnest effort for improvement is a real leader. 93 Attendance upon summer sessions, extension courses, and system atic reading can do much to prevent or overcome the tendency for a teacher to be satisfied with habitual methods that have become stereo- typed and easy. The wise supervisor of instruction will inspire and encourage his teachers in the use of all these devices for improvement. JM 95 IX. STUDENT AND FACULTY ACTIVITIES The Underlying Philosophy Citizenship the first aim of the high school. The success of our democratic government and social order depends upon the intelli gence, the conscience, and the skill with which the great mass of our people attack our political, social, and economic problems. The public high school is the one institution through which society con most directly and purposefully attack the problem of developing the qualities essential to successful democracy. It is owned and run by society ; it is open on equal terms to all the children of all the people ; it has under its daily influence the group from which will come nearly all the leaders of thought and sentiment in the coming generation; and perhaps most important of all — it has them at the time when they are more responsive to social appeals than at any other period of their lives. Clearly the first duty of the high school is to make its charges in- telligent concerning the history, the philosophy, and the problems of democracy. It must enlist the personal devotion of our young people to the welfare of democracy, at once by showing them how inextric- ably their own happiness is involved in this welfare, and by appealing to their idealism, dominant in adolescence as at no other period. As the enacting clause of its instruction and of its emotional and ethical appeals it must train in those skills that shall make the knowledge and devotion dynamic in producing a better democratic social order. The high school has an unparalleled opportunity to develop this devotion and these skills. Its problems are real — not make-beiieve ; the welfare of the group depends upon cooperation and demands the subordination of individual to group interests; the responsibility and authority of the group must be delegated to leaders; indeed, the suc- cess of the school depends upon a high standard of intelligence, con- science, and skill in solving the problems of the school community. The purpose of democratic cooperation. It can not be too strongly emphasized that the purpose of democratic cooperation in solving school problems is not merely either discipline or better management of details. There is scant evidence that democracy is more efficient than is despotism at its best. The advantages of democracy are largely spiritual, and the beneficent results of democratic school administration are to be found in habits of thought, feeling, and ac tion rather tlban in mere conformity to rules. However efficient its organization and its instruction in mere subject matter, the American high school fails in its most important function if it fails to develop the qualities of good democratic citizenship. 96 Student participation in school government. When we apply this philosophy, we must give the student activities of the school a place of prime importance. The first and perhaps the most important ac- tivity is student participation in the government of the school. The specific form of organization and the details of administration are relatively unimportant. The clarity of the purpose in the minds of both school authorities and student body and the spirit of devotion 10 the ideals of democracy will determine its success. Pyramid of responsibilities. At the outset everyone involved should clearly understand that the legally constituted authorities of the school do not resign an iota of power or responsibility. The people elect a board of school directors who in turn elect a super- intendent, a principal, and teachers. Responsibility for conducting the school rests upon these professional servants of the public. If they can train for citizenship better by sharing their responsibilities, they may share them; they have no legal or moral right to surrender them. The superintendent, the principal, and the teacher, therefore. each in his appropriate sphere, should always stand ready to reclaim any delegated authority and to veto any action of the student organi- zation. Gradual introduction of .student participation. The honored prin- ciple of learning to do by doing applies in student participation in Hie management of a school. While the fundamental principles al- ready set forth should be clearly understood,' it is probably better to proceed slowly with their application. After a tine spirit of loyal ty to the school as a cooperative community has been established, the challenge — "Can the student body do this for the school?" will meet with heart}' and well-intentioned response. Even then, much skillful guidance is necessary. Success in a small etiort such as the manage- ment of a student assembly or the orderly conduct of the corridors under student direction marks much greater progress than an elaborate organization with a formal constitution, by-laws, and of- ficers. The moment of assured success is the time for increased responsibility. Organization should come in response to an evident need rather than in anticipation of a possible use. In this way the public opinion and sentiment of the school grows with the movement and makes its success inevitable. In the democracy of a school as of a state, public opinion is the court of last resort. In a school it may become so well unified and so directly potent that few will care to go counter to its mandates. Dangers. One of the first dangers of a school democracy is the development of too strong partizanship and its incidental bossism. The worst form of this partizanship is found when the cleavage ap- pears along racial or sectarian lines. A school democracy can hardly 97 survive a persistent cleavage of this kind, and the alternative of the abandonment of this type of partizanship or of the experiment in student participation should be frankly faced. The danger of apathy or lack of interest is less serious than in the democracy of a state. Its appearance is generally an indication of-over-organization. The danger of pupils' assuming too great author- ity will not be likely to arise if there is a clear understanding of the principles discussed above under the heading of The Pyramid of responsibilities. A very real complaint may come from the pupils if the student organization appears to be only a clever device for carrying out the adroit suggestions of the principal. Genuine student participation will be fertile in the initiation of really help- ful measures that often do not occur to the best professional minds. By-products. Among the salutary results of successful student participation comes a complete change in the traditional relation- ships of students and faculty. With the assumption of police re- sponsibilities by the students, the cordial and natural relationship of teacher and pupils are promoted. In the interest of a larger and better democracy probably no result is so valuable as the training of leaders. Many a principal has been amazed to see the student leader command an enthusiastic loyalty to a principle or measure that would have met a cold reception if presented by the official himself. Problems of discipline under successful student participa- tion are prevented rather than solved. The real reason, however, for any such system lies in the development of the intelligence, the conscience, and the skill appropriate to a democratic social order that must result if the scheme is a success. Democratizing the -faculty. Democratic school organization for the students logically carries with it democratic organization for the faculty. Again without surrendering any official prerogative, the principal develops cooperation, initiative, and responsiblity on the part of his faculty. He delegates functions which he thereafter touches only through his appointee. Without "going to sleep at the switch" he makes sure that the train takes the right track; at the same time he never touches the lever personally. Thus by enlisting all of the. best intellectual and spiritual energies of a group of highly educated people, we prove again that the whole is greater than any of its parts. Lack of 1his cooperation in many schools makes the whole much less than the sum of its parts. The principal. In all this the principal must be the leader and inspirer. If he lacks vision, sympathy, personality, or patriotism any scheme of democratization will probably be futile. No scheme of student participation will succeed without the loyalty and enthusiasm (T 98 of the faculty and the student body, and these qualities are not likely to be commanded by a principal who could not run an efficient school of the benevolent despotism type. The plan is recommended not because it will save work although it will remove many disagree- able duties. Its value, however, lies in developing in the youth of our democracy the understanding, the conscience, and the skill essen- tial to the well-being of our social order. Other school activities. A thoroughly democratized school will teem with social activities. In addition to the usual school paper, orchestra and athletics it will have many clubs devoted to all sorts of interests — literary, dramatic, artistic, scientific, scouting, mathe- matical, political, social, etc., as listed on page 111. The following outline is given as a suggestion that may be help- ful in further developing this valuable phase of s?hool service. An outline for school activities. Guiding Principles: 1. The spirit of the school largely determines its efficiency as a social institution. 2. A school activities period provides a controlled environment for the development and expression of a dynamic spirit of loyalty to community interests. 'All school activities should be controlled by faculty participation and cooperation. 3. The development of individual and group idealism depends up- on the attractiveness of the ideals when presented and the oppor- tunities afforded for them to become established in habits and skills. 4. The American public school must, develop the intellectual and emotion-d habits and the skill in cooperative activity essential to a democracy if our democratic government and social order are to endure. A School Creed: To train for democracy the school must be a de- mocracy, I School Slogan: Po-in-eooperation. Organized activities essential. The Department strongly favors the organization of school activi- ties and the gradual introduction of student participation in the administration and discipline of the secondary s -hoots for the de- finite purpose of training in the principles and practices of de- mocracy. School activities are included as an integral part of the program of studies for all junior high schools as one of the requirements for classification. Each junior high school should, therefore, plan for 99 some school activities in connection with the original organization of the school. This program is planned for junior high schools, senior high schools, or six-year high schools. It is therefore requested that forms of organization which have been successfully carried out, and also criticisms and suggestions of the present tentative outline, and particularly adaptions of the pro- gram to small schools be reported to the Department. It is the pur- pose of the Department to be helpful to all schools in the fullest possible measure and to act as a clearing house for the state- wide publicity of successful experiments in school socialization and school activities carried on in widely separated parts of the State. The School Activities Period The daily program. At least a six-hour school day, with six clock- hour periods is recommended where such an organization is possible. This arrangement is not essential as a basis for the introduction of an activities period. Four of these periods arc dev ited generally to the four major studies (1) English (2) mathematics, (3) social studies, (4) science and geography. Students taking a foreign lan- guage will generally take less than a full four year course in mathe- matics and science. A fifth period is devoted to fine and practical arts and guidance. The sixth period should be divided into a fifteen- minute period for devotional exercises at the beginning of the morn- ing session and a forty-five minute period for organized school ac- tivities. Same schools are providing a devotional exercise period from N:-ir> to 9:00 o'clock with three one-hour periods from 9:00 to 12:00 and three from 1:00 to 4:00. Particularly the smaller rural and township schools will find this advisable. 1. Time allotment adapted to size of school. In smaller schools the sixth period may be required in part for the practical working out of the daily roster of the curricular requirements. There should be no hesitation in using the sixth period for this purpose in the small school of four to six or eight teachers; it is a concession to practical necessity. The minimum time allotment for school activities in any school should be two periods a week. On the other three days of the week the sixth period may be used for additional time in spelling, penman- ship, music, art, practical arts, coaching, or other special activities in the program of studies. A typical daily program for a four- teacher junior high school, including seventh to tenth years, will be sent upon request to the Department. For schools having fewer than twenty teachers the maximum time should rarely exceed three periods, particularly at the inauguration of the plan of a school activities period. The maximum allotment for 100 the large school of over twenty teachers, after a year or two of de- velopment, should approximate five periods a week. No school, me- dium or large in size, should hesitate to extend the time allotment for activities when it is evident that such activities have actual edu- cational value and will not cause a sacrifice in regular curricular requirements. 2. Home-room period. Each school should inaugurate its activities with a home-room period. It is vital that each class be assigned to a definite home room under the direction of a member of the teaching staff who becomes the home-room counselor. Members of the faculty not so assigned should be designated as associate home-room coun- selors to act as cooperative agents with the home-room teachers. In addition to the brief daily contact of home-room class and teacher, one activities period a week should be set aside when pupils and teachers may meet as a home-room unit. Administrative routine work (absences, reports, etc.) should con- sume only a minimum of the weekly home-room period. The maxi- mum time of the period should be devoted to the work of the home- room teacher as the class counselor, particularly in guidance. Con- stant diligence must be exercised to prevent absorption of the time by administrative routine. Definite planning for the activities sug- gested in the outline below will assure the realization of the greater purpose which is the only justification of a weekly home-room period. A guidance period once a week is suggested in the first two years of the junior high school program of studies. This guidance should include educational and vocational information. It is class-room instruction. On the other hand, the guidance of the home-room period is more personal ; almost wholly administrative in purpose. It is personal direction to assure that guidance becomes individual. It further extends guidance to matters of a social and moral nature which are concerns of the home-room group. This distinction be- tween informational guidance for the class and personal guidance for the individual in the home room can apply always in the larger schools. In the smaller schools the home-room guidance may neces- sarily have to include both types of guidance, particularly when guid- ance periods and home-room periods can nnt both be provided in the weekly roster. 3. Cooperative pupil government. When pupil participation in school government is inaugurated, the home room should become the initial unit. The class officers, elected by the class, should participate in class control and in the home-room activities under the guidance of the home-room teacher. This preliminary training in pupil co- operative government in the small, closely supervised class unit is imperative in preparation for participation in the larger democracy of the entire school. 101 The federation of home-room classes into an organized school com- munity should be deferred until the class-unit participation has be- come established. The federation of all classes into a school com- munity, with its pupil council, committees of pupils for general school control, e. g., lunch room, playground, corridors, assemblies, etc., should come as a natural and logical outgrowth of the demon- strated power of the pupil democracy to expand from the home-room >r local cooperative government to the school community or federated cooperative government. The latter is ultimately desirable, but the former is initially fundamental. There is a natural sequence in the training of pupils to participate in school control which can not be disregarded without serious risk of overloading untrained adolescent youth with responsibilities beyond its powers. Small schools devoting only two periods to activities should alter- nate the home-room activities (See home-room period below) with class meetings (See pupil cooperative government below). Larger schools should, in time, provide a separate period for each of the two activities as suggested in the following outlines. 4. School assemblies and clubs. The second period in the minimum organization of school activities should be devoted to assemblies and clubs. Small schools should alternate the two (See assembly and clubs in outline below). Schools of medium size, between six or eight and tAventy teachers, should adopt some plan of alternating ac tivities as suggested in the summary immediately following. Larger schools, with twenty or more teachers, should gradually develop a daily period for school activities. All schools should provide assembly programs from the beginning and should include clubs in the organized activities program as soon as clubs have developed to the extent of including the majority of the pupils. Prior to this time, clubs will accompany the development of other school activities as extra-curricular and after-school activities. When the pupils request a club organization for all, and when teachers are prepared voluntarily to undertake club leadership, clubs should become part of the weekly school roster. Each pupil, then, should be required to elect one club annually or semi-annually. 5. Summary of time allotment : a. Small schools (Four to eight teachers) Two periods : (1) Home-room period and class meetings alternating (2) Assemblies and clubs alternating b. Medium size schools (Six or eight to twenty teachers) Three periods: First Week (1) Home-room period (2) Assembly (3) Clubs Third Week (1) Home-room perioi (2) Assembly (3) Clubs 102 Second Week (1) Home-room period (2) Class meeting (3) Clubs Fourth Week 1 (1) Class meeting (2) Assembly (3) Clubs c. Large schools (Twenty or more teachers) Five periods : (1) Home-room period (2) Cooperative pupil government (Class meetings) (3) Assemblies (4) Clubs (5) Faculty activities (See complete outline) Adaptation. An imperative need. Small schools should select from Part ill of this outline such suggested activities as are best adapted to their facilities, their shorter time allotment, the needs and abilities of pupils, and the experience and capacities of teachers with their comparatively heavier classroom duties. All schools should accept the following outline as purely sug- gestive. It will be a serious error to adopt, without modification, any formal plan. School activities in each school should reflect the personality of the pupil-body, the faculty, and the organized school community. Democratic participation is the outward ex- pression of the internal social life of each school. Therefore, the best organization in operation elsewhere may not be adapted to the needs of a particular school. Faculty Activities Period The need of professional study. There is peculiar need for pro- fessional study by all high school teachers. In junior high schools, for example, there are few teachers today who were, prior to their service, specifically trained for junior high school work. It is par- ticularly true of the junior high school that its teachers are trained through service. While the junior high school is in the experi- mental stage, it demands constant professional alertness on the part of all participating in its evolution. Furthermore, the problems of reconstruction in organization, program of studies, courses of study, socialization, and general administration are beyond the powers of any one leader or administrative group in any one school. Coopera- tion of the faculty in all junior high school problems is. therefore, an imperative need. 103 The rapid readjustment of secondary education to the changing concepts of its fundamental purposes makes a similar study equal- ly essential for principals and teachers of senior high schools. Con- sequenty it is earnesly urged that all high school faculties, both junior and senior, small and large, undertake some professional study as a local group. In a six-hour school day, this faculty ac- tivity should not be organized as an after-school program. It de- mands a degree of enthusiasm and earnestness impossible to exhausted physical and mental conditions following a long school day. It is recommended that once a week in schools with six-hour daily schedules pupils be dismissed for the last morning period and that the time for professional study be taken from school hours. In the small schools, where practical arts or fine arts are taught by part-time instructors, the regular teachers will be relieved of classroom control. This free time affords a most favorable op- portunity for a faculty program in professional study. Other sug- gestions will be given in the outline below. Cautions The first and second days, etc.. in the following outline have no significance as to the days of the week. (The five days com- prise a week's program. Suggestions are given above for alternat- ing activities in small schools. Each school activities period should be placed on the day of the week and at the time of day best suited to the school. All activities periods should be part of the school day, particularly so when the school day equals or exceeds six o'ock hours exclusive of the luncheon period. It will be noted that the following outline makes reference to three types of pupil-body meetings,"" viz ; devotional or opening ex- ercises, school community meetings, and assemblies. The first is the daily opening period of 10 to 15 minutes; the program usually includes scripture reading, singing, and announcements. No pro- gram of school activities should be permitted to replace this long- established practice. The school community meeting is a monthly assembly of all home- room classes as a federated school community under the immediate ciharge of pupil officers. The school assembly is a weekly program of 45 to 60 minutes in length under the charge of the assembly com- mittee suggested in the following outline. In the small schools bimonthly school assemblies alternate with bimonthly club meet ings. In all schools the usual opening exercise period may be ex- tended into a 45 to 60 minute period for either the monthly school 104 community meeting or the weekly assembly. Tt may be advisable to omit the assembly period in the week when a pupils' community meeting is held. A final icord of cant ion. Extreme care must be exercised from the start that the development of any activity, at any stage of the progress, does not exceed the pupils' abilities to participate nor the teachers' experience to direct their own and the pupils' partici- pations. • The purpose of this chapter will be wholly misunderstood if it is interpreted as a suggested organization to be adopted in toto in any school. The chief aim is to direct attention to the educational gains arising from properly motivated school activities. For this reason no attempt to inaugurate an activities program should be made until the objectives as set forth in Part 1 of this chapter are accepted fully in principle by both faculty and student body. Any form of organization should, therefore, be preceded by two prelimi- nary stages: first, a study by the faculty of the objectives of school activities, i. e., definite aims which will inspire enthusiasm; second, a study of the local needs and opportunities for pupil participation which, because of their genuineness, will inspire respect. Only when these two stages have been passed will it be safe or wise to under- take organization. Two cautions should be scrupulously observed in all stages of organization. First, organization must be adapted to local conditions. Variation from the organization suggested in Part III is both desirable and necessary if socialization of each school is a true reflection of its social life. Second, organization should proceed one step at a time. The success of each activity should be assured before another is attempted. A complete organiza- tion should be a gradual development extending over a period of two or more years. Wfhen school activities have degenerated into ceremonial form, they have become ho^ow shams as an agency to create school morale, to train pupils effectively in social cooperation and citizenship, or to develop the personal powers of initiative and leadership. When school activities cease to inspire the enthusiastic support of faculty and pupils, the activities should be reenlivened, replaced, or aban- doned. The need for periodical stimulus is charateristic of any or- ganization. These periods are the critical stages of school activities. They must be anticipated by as purposeful efforts as will attend the initial stages of organization. It will be noted that in Part III pro- visions are suggested to the end of maintaining interest and en- thusiasm in the actual operation of school activities. 105 THE SCHOOL ACTIVITIES PERIOD— A SUG- GESTED OUTLINE First Day — Home-Room Period J. Leadership. Homeroom and associate home-room counselors — pupils as appointed by counselors or by the class. Participants: Teachers and pupils. 2. Activities. a. Records of attendance. Administrative reports. b. Announcements of school activities and communications to pupils from principal or faculty members. c. Arrangements for class participation in school campaigns and other general school activities. d. Cooperation with subject teachers in matters of school work and deportment. e. Creation and maintenance of class standards in classroom work, home-room and school service, conduct, courtesy, and loyalty. f. Guidance by homeroom and associate home-room counselors. Stimulation of class and pupil participation in all guidance activities. Freedom for personal questions of pupils. Dis- cussion of subject electives in their significance to the in- dividual. Personal and social guidance. Encouragement of an atmosphere of understanding and sympathy. g. School banking under pupil management, with close faculty supervision. ?*. Suggestions. a. Many interruptions to classroom time, by way of notices, etc., may be avoided by using this period for a weekly opportunity to make announcement. b. Exclusive administrative routine in this period will produce an attitude of apathy which will defeat the greater aims of the period. c. The associate home-room counselor should be invited to share in the program of the period and occasionally to take charge of the program. d. The counselor must be convinced that no greater service to the pupils is possible than in this activities period. The secret of the effectiveness of the home-room period lies in the counselor's enthusiasm for its opportunities. A set program of formal routine, nnv other line of least resistance, or in- difference of any nature will defeat every objective of the period. 106 Second Day — Cooperative Pupil Government 1. Leadership. Class officers 2. Participants. Members of the home-room class. Counselor and associate non-participating advisers. o. Activities. a. Home-room class unit under direction of home-room teacher. Election of class officers to hold office at option of school for a semester or a year. b. Federation of class units in a socialized school community. (1) First "bimonthly class meeting. Short bimonthly busi- ness meeting conducted under parliamentary law. Mo- tions affecting class or school interests, discussion, and action by vote. Formalities of parliamentary practice observed for concrete lessons in established law and order and the rule of the majority. A program committee of pupils should be appointed by the president. Following the short business meeting, the chairman of the program committee should preside. The committee, with the guidance of the home-room counselor, should arrange a class program ten days in advance and make appointments for pupil participation. Program topics should be common to all classes, irre- spective of grades, and should be articulated with audi- torium programs ; e. g., school campaigns, thrift pro- gram, "Better English" program, review of current events, dramatization, guidance program, etc. The ap- peal of the assembly program is to the cooperative sup- port of the pupil body. The appeal of the class pro- gram is to cooperative participation by the members of the class. (2) Monthly group meeting of class officers. Officers hold- ing the same office in the class units should be organized into a group ; viz., a cabinet of presidents,, a council of vice-presidents, etc. Each group should elect its own presiding officer, secretary, etc. By virtue of the elec- tion in this small group, the presiding officer of the presidents should become the school-community presi- dent; the presiding officer of the secretary-treasurers, the school-community secretary-treasurer, etc. Each group should be under the guidance of a faculty- director, the principal acting as faculty director of the cabinet of presidents and appointing faculty directors for other groups. There should be instruction in the 107 duties of the office by the faculty director. Problems confronting any or all of the officers should be frankly discussed. Opportunity should be offered for any officer to present methods of improving the service either ac- tually tried out or proposed. The group meetings pro- vide to cooperative pupil government the opportunity for a progressive development in modifications of prac- tice as suggested by experience, and in further develop- ment of the service given by each group. When the officers are in session, the non-officer mem- bers of the class should be under the direction of the home-room teacher; the time may be used for guidance, conference with the home-room or subject teachers, study in the home room, chorus singing in the assembly, or any other activity including the non-officer pupils in part or in whole. (3) Second bimonthly class meeting. This meeting is held in the week following the group meetings of class officers. The class president should preside. Each class officer should make a report of the proceedings of the respec- tive group meetings— recommendations of the group officer, suggestions for improvement in cooperative pupil government, statement of pupil-officer duties, and plans for more effective cooperation of class members with pupil officers. Each class officer should review the month's record of tihe class in cooperative pupil govern- ment so far as compliance by the class in the functions of the respective class officer is concerned. The officer should recommend plans for improvement. Both com- mendation and criticism should be made. If need be the officer should appeal for class action by vote upon his suggestions. The second bimonthly class meeting is the monthly opportunity for the developing of a wholesome and enthusiastic support of the cooperative pupil government. (4) School community meeting. There should be a month- ly auditorium meeting of all home rooms under the charge of school-community officers. The presiding officers of the several groups and the faculty directors should form an executive committee with the principal as chairman to arrange programs. The presiding of- ficer of the cabinet of class presidents should preside at the school-community meeting as the school-community president. There should be a formal installation of of- 108 ficers of the school-community officers, i. e., the pre- siding officers of the groups. The school-community president should address the pupil body at his instal- lation; other officers should follow. These addresses should be appeals to the pupil body for loyalty and co- operative service and should give in clear detail the functions of the office which the speaker represents. School campaigns and general school projects may be most effectively launched at these school-community meetings. By the power of example, proficiency and ability will be developed in pupil leadership, upon which reliance may be safely placed for the effective inaugu- ration of general school activities. There will be created in time a confidence in pupil leadership which will far exceed the most sanguine expectations of any faculty not experienced in this type of cooperative pupil parti- cipation and leadership in school activities. ( 5 ) Pupil council. This may be composed of the home-room class presidents, or, in a large school, of the pupil chair- men of the groups of class officers. It should constitute an advisory body to the principal. Its functions should be to articulate the activities of the pupil body. Its re- ports and recommendations should be made in a school assembly. (6) School-community committees, bureaus, commissions, etc. These may be determined by the needs of the school. Upperclassmen should generally be appointed or elected to membership. These organizations would include a staff for the school paper, and athletic committee of manage- ment, corridor traffic squad, current events bulletin board committee, playground control committee, lunch- room committee, bicycle-room committee, safety-first bureau, school sanitation committee, visitors' commit- tee, and any other adaptation of outside community practice which can be helpful in school administration and contributory to pupil training. Temporary committees should be appointed for the man- agement of temporary activities, e. g., school campaigns, entertainments, athletic contests, social events, etc. 4. Suggestion. Leadership in the school community organization is properly restricted to older pupils. It is, therefore, limited to a comparative few. It is the culmination of cooperative pupil government. In some form it should exist in every school. Too 100 frequently, however, organization as a whole completely over- shadows or replaces the more essential class-room participation. The vitue of the latter is its more fundamental nature and its opportunities for larger numbers to participate. Third Day — School Assembly 1. Leadership. An assembly committee of the faculty including principal or administrative assistant, dramatics teacher, and a representative of the music department, as permanent personnel, together with other faculty members annually appointed by the principal, and pupil representatives appointed or elected annually. 2. Participants. Pupils of school. Occasionally, as necessity re- quires, members of the faculty, and rarely, as courtesy demands, outside speakers. 3. Activities: a. School campaigns and other general school activities launched in assemblies. Eeports of progress and results. b. Demonstrations of class work in all subjects: Socialized recitations, supervised study lessons, guidance class work. c. Demonstrations of school activities. Class meetings, clubs, orchestra, staff of school paper, home-room class meetings, the school library. d. Participation in community, city, state, national or inter- national welfare activities. Junior Red Cross activities. Modern health crusades. e. Observance of state and national holidays. f. School plays, written by pupils or adapted, short but regular- ly occuring dramatizations relating to school campaigns, the guidance program of the school, and other school projects. g. Visual instruction. Use of specimens, collections of pictures, lantern and moving picture apparatus operated if permissible and lectures given by pupils. b. Awards of school and other prizes, banners, etc., to indivi- duals, to classes, or to school. 4. Suggestions: a. The school assembly should become the school forum where classes find social coherence; it should both originate and maintain the school spirit. b. Unity and loyalty. The class meetings, the group meetings, the club, and the school assembly should provide a natural growth from the consciousness of a class or group unity to the consciousness of a school unity and to the larger corpor- ate unity of neighborhood, town, city, etc. 110 c. A spirit of service and sacrifice should permeate the whole school life by standards established in the assembly. d. Pupils should sense a personal proprietorship in the assem blies. This can develop only as participation becomes prac- tically their exclusive privilege. Latent powers in the many ^ should not be sacrificed to the demonstrated powers of the few. The principal should set a democratic example by ask- ing a member of the faculty or a pupil chairman to preside. An assembly program devoted to an address by the principal or visitor or to performances by "star" pupils, though oc- casionally unavoidable, is robbing adolescent youth of their right to training in public speaking, leadership, initiative, self-possession, executive powers, and cooperation with their associates. Fourth Day — Clubs 1. Leadership. An "Executive Committee of Clubs'' appointed by the principal, responsible for organization and adminstration of all club activities. A faculty club leader, appointed by the executive committee, responsible for activities of each club. 2. Participants. Pupils on a basis of voluntary choice of club, irrespective of grade, home room, or curriculum classification; faculty loader also on a basis of voluntary choice in club leader- ship, irrespective of classroom teaching. Pupil cooperative management of club activities under guidance of faculty leader. Club elections of pupils and faculty confirmed by executive com- mittee; club management under administrative direction of com- mittee. 3. Activities. Any activity with an avocational, a recreational, a social service, a civic, a moral, a vocational, or any other educa- tional value in adolescent training. Any activity which will "teach pupils to do better the desirable activities that they will perform anyway". Any activity which will assure "so much of good to do that the bad can not creep in." Any activity in school hours which will replace the pursuit of a harmful outside activity. The substitution of a wholesome activity must accom- pany the denial of the gratification of an unwholesome activity. Any activity for the adolescent youth which has the sanction of accepted adult practice in avocational pursuits. Club activities for the adolescent age as varied as the non-vocational interests of adult life. The school club is both motivation and training for adult choice of leisure time occupation. Any activity which will train for the "worthy use of leisure", one of the seven main objectives of education is desirable. in Partial List of Clubs. Airplane, Athletic (Boys), Athletic (Girls), Basketry, Better Community, Bird, Bird House, Boys Series, Camera, Camp Craft, Campfire Girls, Cartooning, Chemistry, Crochet, Crop, Dairy, Debating, Dramatic, Embroi- dery, Ernest Thompson-Seton, Farm Craft, First Aid, Flower, Gardening, Folk Song and Dance, Forestry, Foreign Language, Handicraft, Home Beautification, Home Economics, Home Nurs- ing, Illustrators, Junior Chamber of Commerce, Kipling, Kite, Knitting, Know Your City. Landscape Gardening, Laundry, Library, Live Stock, Machinists, Martha Washington, Masonry, Military, Millinery, Musical Appreciation, Mythology, News- paper, Orchestra, Pottery, Poultry, Public Speaking, Puzzle Radio, Led Cross, Reporters, Santa Glaus, Scrap Book, Senior Corps (Boys), Senior Corps (Girls), Short Story, Small Animal, Social Hour, Stamp, Story Telling, Success, Swimming (Boys), Swimming (Girls), Tatting, Travel and Exploration^Tree Man- agement, Vegetable Gardening, Violin (Beginners), Violin (Inter- mediate), Violin (Advanced), Wood, Wild Animal, Wild Flower, Willing Workers, Wireless Builders. 4. Suggestions: a. Scope of club list. Two conditions determine the organiza- tion of any club; first, enough pupils interested in the club project to form the group, and second, a member of the faculty interested in the siiine project to act as club director. Tin 1 club list given is suggestive only. b. Club membership. Since the club hour is part of the school day, membership in some club should be required of each pupil. For the same reason, club leadership as director or assistant director, or club administration should be required of practically every member of the faculty. c. Functions of executive committee. Organization of each club — assignment of members and appointment of faculty director. Administration of all clubs Supervision of all club activities Direction of club assemblies, faculty discussions, and annual club exhibit Preparation of club program — list of clubs with objectives, projects, and conditions of membership Presentation of program to facultv and minil body Stimulation of club visits to civic and public welfare insti- tutions, to industrial plants, and other field excursions. Direction of all club publicity. 112 Fifth Day — Faculty Activities 1. Leadership. Principal 2. Participant*. Faculty Activities. • >. a. Demonstration of any classroom activity in English, foreign language, mathematics, social studies, science and geog- raphy, health, music, art, practical arts, commercial work, library instruction, guidance class work, etc. All pupils except those giving demonstrations should be dis- missed during the faculty activities period. In all demonstrations the faculty should represent visitors to the classroom. If the seating capacity of the classroom is inadequate, the demonstration should be given in the as- sembly or another room with adequate seating for class and faculty. b. Demonstrations of supervised study and socialized recita- tions. Following the demonstration the class should be dis- missed. Either after the dismissal of the class or a subse- quent faculty meeting, an opportunity should be provided for a general discussion. The teacher in charge of the dem- onstration, the principal, a supervisor, or a director should lead the discussion. The principal should be in general charge of the program. He should, however, have a faculty program committee serve with him in organizing the pro- gram. He should frequently withdraw as presiding chair- man and delegate this function to an associate. A suggest- ive program on supervised study will be submitted upon re quest. A series of demonstrations upon the same general topic should occasionally be arranged in a consecutive program, interspersed with papers, discussions, or informal talks. The program may be extended over a semester or a year. c. Demonstration of any school activity— a home-room class meeting, a pupil officer group meeting, a club meeting, etc. A presentation of the purpose should precede the demonstra- tion. A general discussion with questions should follow. d. Faculty visits to given departments, e. g., a scheduled pro- gram of visits by groups of the faculty, on one occasion to an industrial arts department with all shops in session; on another occasion to a home economics department, with sew- ing, cooking, millinery, laundry rooms, etc. in operation: to a commercial department with bookkeeping, commercial 113 mathematics, typewriting classes, etc. in session; to an Eng- lish and foreign language department and to any other sub- ject group department. e. Faculty visits to single rooms by the subject teachers of the department, e. g., all science teachers visiting one science teacher and class, all shop instructors observing the work of one shop, etc. A series of simultaneous faculty visits in groups determined by the particular subject interest of the group. f. Presentation to the faculty of any educational interest in the school by the individual in charge. Presentation of any educational interest" common to all schools by city, borough, or county superintendent, or by a supervisor or director of any subject or department. Presentation of any civic or social interest with which the school is or should be affiliated by the chief executive officer or representative. g. Conference of teachers by subject groups. The conference should be devoted to discussion of the courses of study, meth- ods of instruction, classroom processes, lesson plans, equip- ment, etc. li. Discussion of problems of organization and administration. The problem should be presented by the principal or by an associate. There should be free discussion. When the deci- sion may be delegated, action in the proposed solution of the problem should be by majority vote. Tne faculty should usually be consulted in an advisory capacity. i. Professional study. Programs should be prepared by princi- pal, with administrative or supervisory associates or with a committee of the faculty. Each committee delegated with responsibility for the investigation and report of a sub-topic should be allowed freedom of initiative and conference as a committee. The chairman should make assignments for study and should determine the form and method of report to the faculty. The formal report to the faculty of each sub-committee's investigation should be under the direct charge of the committee, with the chairman as presiding officer of the faculty meeting. The report upon each sub- topic should be followed by a general discussion of all mem- bers of the faculty. The professional study may be undertaken as a university extension course. A large faculty may be registered as a university extension class. Two or more smaller faculties 114 may combine for the same purpose. The place and time of the meetings may then be determined at the convenience of the members. The registration for the class will be largely increased by reason of convenience of time and place to the members. It is suggested that the university instructor con- duct the course, not on a lecture basis, but as indicated above on the basis of assignments, reports, and discussions. A suggestive program on guidance will be submitted on re- quest. Other suggestive programs on the junior high school will also be submitted on request. 4. Suggestions. a. Type of meeting. A faculty meeting should be a teachers' meeting, not an audience of teachers to be addressed by the principal or a speaker appointed by him. An occasional faculty meeting conducted solely by the principal is unavoid- able. b. Democracy. The democracy of the school should find its origin and maintenance in the faculty relationship, partic- ularly in faculty meetings. c. Time. The faculty activities period should be part of the school activities. It should be the closing period of the morning, including 45 to GO minutes of school time. Meet- ings should be limited to one and a quarter hours; rarely should they equal or exceed one and a half hours, particular- ly in a weekly program of faculty meetings. In a six hour school day. a faculty meeting at the close of the day's ses- sion is seldom advisable. With the general adoption of a- longer school day, other educational practices must submit to change. d. Personal study. Teacher training may be inspired and directed by the lecture method, but it is achieved to a large extent by the personal study of teachers. The training that is carried over into practice in the classroom is the product of personal conviction coming from personal study. e. Pupils. During the faculty activities period the pupils should be dismissed. Parental protest will be as rare as it always has been when pupils are dismissed for teachers' in- stitutes. Where pupil activities involving a part or the whole of the pupil body can be safely intrusted to pupil direc- tion during the faculty activities period, this experiment should be attempted. But all such plans should be tenta- 115 tive, subject to a careful determination of their actual educa- tional value. f. Range of teacher contact irith program of studies. It fre- quently happens that departmental teaching results in a restricted and narrow vision on the part of subject teachers. There should, therefore, be a clear administrative purpose to acquaint all teachers with the work of the whole school. A complete democracy of faculty relationship and perfect freedom in the interchange of visits between teachers should exist. The faculty activities period provides the secondary school administrator with an opportunity to widen each teacher's range of contact with the whole program of studies. g. Routine notices to faculty. The principal should insist that all notices of a routine nature, including his own administra- tive routine, should be mimeographed and distributed to the faculty by circular letter. Lacking the facilities for mimeo- graphed circulars, notices and all other administrative de- tails should be posted upon the bulletin board. No member of the faculty should be excused for failure to comply with such notices by reason of neglect to be informed. This and any other administrative plan to economize time for the greater purposes of the faculty activities period should be adopted and persistently followed. h. Assignments to teachers. The willingness of teachers to ac- cept assignments in faculty programs, particularly in those involving personal appearances before the faculty, will come gradually but none the less surely. The principal should first choose those members of the faculty who have had ex- perience in speaking to an audience. By the power of the example of their associates the inexperienced will be per- suaded to participate. i. The executive leader. Careful deliberation and thoughtful consideration of the personal attributes of the faculty should characterize the principal's organization of all faculty pro- grams, particularly that of the first semester or year. Each succeeding program will demand less administrative concern in matters of personal inclination and will accordingly per- mit greater concentration of real leadership in the program itself. 116 \ 117 X. RELATIONS WITH LOWER AND HIGHER SCHOOLS Relations- with elementary schools. Resolution 9 quoted in the introduction of this manual places the responsibility for the educa- tion and training of all normal children of fourteen years of age or over on the high school. It is a fair implication that this responsi- bility should be assumed by the junior high school for children two years younger. This resolution is significant of the new conception which empha- sizes training and educating children rather than merely teaching subjects. It recognizes that the high school must not expect the children to be letter perfect in the content of the subjects taught in the lower schools. The meaning of much of the instruction in the fundamental operations will not be fully appreciated until the knowledge is applied in the high school. On the other hand, the high school — particularly the four-year high school — has a right to expect from the elementary school that children shall be able to read the English language with a fair degree of intelligence, to perforin the four fundamental operations in mathematics including common and decimal fractions with fair rapidity and accuracy, to write legib- ly, to recognize the parts of speech in idiomatic English, and to express themselves in both oral and written form so as to be clearly understood. Children who lack any of these powers should be placed by the high school in classes for intensive drill, but the work done in these classes should not be counted for high school credit. In many, perhaps in the majority of communities, it will not be possible at once to transfer to the high school all normal pupils of the ages described in this resolution. However, as the high schoofl becomes more and more an institution of democracy devoted to the task of training leaders and intelligent followers for our govern- mental and social older ; as its program of studies, its guidance pro- gram, and its administration become adapted to this social purpose rather than to instruction in subject matter alone, it will tend to include in its numbers all normal adolescents of the community and to adapt itself to their evident needs. Relations with colleges. The college is not usually a structural part of the program for public education. With some notable excep- tions, however, it is more and more coming to recognize that its function is to take the young people for whom the high school has done its best and to educate and train those who are prepared to profit by its instruction and are willing to make an honest effort 118 There is good reason to believe that the college is likely in the coming decade to seek its entering students on the basis of their ability to profit by college instruction rather than on tie basis of their pursuit of specific studies in the school. The conditions at the present moment of the transitional period are far from satisfactory. Both high school and college are badly crowded, and the colleges are reasonably seeking to select the best available material from the overwhelming number of their applicants. Among these applicants are many pupils with personal and parental ambitions beyond the ability of the young people. The colleges are wisely endeavoring to place their work on a basis of sound education rather than that of artificial and social values. They naturally deplore the deterioration in earnest effort and in ideals that has come from the prevalent fashion of "going to college". Many of the wisest leaders in the college are recognizing that the traditional college entrance requirements stated in specific subjects and measured by examinations which can be successfully met by intensive drills are not giving them the best possible selection of enter- ing students. Indeed, it is quite conceivable that no matter what specific requirements the colleges might make in subject matter, the possibilities of cramming in preparation for entrance require- ments would always result in the admission of many undesirable students. In Resolution 7 the high school men of the State have expressed their conviction that it is tlhe duty of the high school to serve first the great mass of its young people "ninety per cent of whom will not go to college". Yet the situation is such that the individual, principal often finds this almost impossible to do. The difficulty is not that the colleges are purposefully attempting to dictate to the high schools, but that traditions of educational values and of academic standards have not kept pace with the development of scientific educational theory. Coupled with this fact is a social and political condition that often makes the school practically helpless in its efforts to render better service to the majority of its clientele. The principal's problem. The concrete situation in all but the large city high school is something like this: Of the entering class the principal knows that one in ten will want to go to college. He does not know which individuals will make up the favored group What he does know, however, is that if any one of them is not pre- pared four years later to enter the college -of his choice, the school and its principal will be severely blamed. He knows that many of the liberal colleges are radically revising their entrance requirements, but he also knows that many others seriously believe that education .loses its best values when it is pursued for its practical application 11» and that they, therefore, require from eight to eleven specific units in foreign languages and mathematics. The subjects required by this college entrance group are definite, specific, and well established in educational practice. Subjects most likely to be valuable to the nine- ty per cent are wide in variety and in some cases more or less ex- perimental. The non-college group is large, but its desires are neither clearly known nor forcibly expressed. If they are not gratified, the pupils simply vanish from the school, and the influential public is in- different to their departure or the reason for their going. The principal is the servant of the community. The influential group in the com- munity is the one from which the college students come — Ihe group whose dissatisfaction the principal will be ncide to feel most keenly. He can hardly be blamed, therefore, if in all cases involving possible doubt he advises pupils to take the course which will give no chance of unfavorable reaction because the pupil has chosen a course tlhat will not prepare him for the most exclusive college. The necessity of cooperation between high schools and colleges. The solution of this difficult problem can not come from recrimina- tion, ex cathedra pronouncements, or insistence upon inherited pre- judices. No one group is particularly to blame; the condition arises as a part of almost revolutionary changes in our social, economic, and educational institutions. It is most unfortunate that the college and the high school have not attacked the problem together and sought through mutual understanding and concession to help each other in furthering — each in its own field — the interests of education for a democracy. It is particularly unfortunate that the problem of the secondary school has so often been presented from the point of view of the private school rather than from that of the public high school. The private schools are in many cases rendering a most valuable service, but their social and political relationships and their entire outlook are quite different from those of the public high school. Whenever colleges have confused the interests of the two types of secondary schools, the ultimate solution of the problem has been delayed. .4 proper recognition of science. The hopeful view of the situation is seen in the tendency of many — indeed of the great majority — of the coeducational colleges and of the colleges for men to enlarge the list of subjects acceptable for college entrance and to diminish the specific requirements particularly in the lines of foreign languages and mathemetics. In carrying out this movement many colleges have come to the point where they will accept three or four units of science and an equal number of units of history and the social studies. These are undoubtedly the two lines, in which the high schools can offer the largest possibility of service l° 120 their commonwealths and communities and to the great mass of their students. Most of our first class high schools have good laboratory equipment and well prepared teachers. In spite of the high cost of teaching science in our high schools, the subject has always had the support of the communities. For the students who never go to college the study of several sciences is probably next to English and the social studies in its direct value as an interpretation of the life around them and as a basis for the work which they will have to do. Scientific courses almost invariably enlist the support of business men and of industrial leaders. Some of these science courses contain practical experiments that are not the less scientific because they are immediately applicable to life. For example: The Babcock milk test; the control of plant enemies, such as the potato blight; the control of bacteria in relation to food and health ; the transmission of electrical energy; and many other experiments lose none of their scientific or educational value because tihey are of vital importance in every-day life. History and the social studies. The value of history and the social studies grows out of the fundamental purpose of the high school in training citizens of a democracy. Whatever else the schools teach, they fail in their most vital function if they do not give to our young people an understanding of our civilization, its growth and development, and the fundamental laws governing its progress. The study of history has little concern with minute details and isolated facts; it should be primarily interested in those great institutions and those great movements which have determined our civilization and produced our present problems. It must appreciate the struggles of Anglo-Saxon civilization in evolving its present degree of liberty; it must understand such great movements as the Renaissance, the uprising of peoples in the French Revolution and succeeding similar movements, and the development of economic freedom working through the early stages of the industrial revolution down to the unsolved problems of today. Similarly the study of civics, economics, sociology, and political science must be applied to the problems of the day and must carry with it an intimate acquaintance with the men and measures of current interest. The tendency of the colleges in all these matters has been to fail to appreciate the fundamental purpose of these studies or at least to fail to emphasize the new spirit which has come into the instruction in the best high schools. Practical arts and vocational subjects. The high schools have found in thousands of cases that pupils can be saved for the school and for advanced education through various types of practical arts ind vocational instruction. These have not generally been recog- 121 nized for college entrance. Perhaps the most striking illustration of the value of this work is seen in the work in commercial subjects. In the study of shorthand, for example, the pupil is held to the most exacting mastery of intricate and technical phonetic signs. She is required in the early stages to master the making of these into word equivalents. She is soon required not only to know the word signs, but to know them quickly and to read back the dictation. A little later this dictation is coordinated with typewriting. The pupil goes to the stenography class, takes down the dictation, then goes to the typewriting class, sometimes after several periods when her memory will give her less aid, and reproduces the material on the typewriter. She recites every moment in both classes, and the test is absolutely infallible. She does her task, or she doesn't do it. She and her teacher know at once where the slightest error occurs. If the new interpretation of mental discipline which places prime value upon habits is correct, there is good reason to believe that shorthand is as valuable a subject as can be taught in the secondary school. Another change in high school administration long over-due seems likely to be consummated in the near future, and should be recog- nized in the reorganization of college entrance requirements. As noted elsewhere, the pupil whose major educational interest is music has had slight consideration for his paramount educational needs. Along with the recognition of music as a major subject of secondary education and the organization of a practical method of insuring satisfactory standards of effort and achievement in this important subject should go its acceptance as an integral element in prepara- tion for college. It is to be hoped that the colleges will recognize the decided changes that the last few years have produced in the personnel, the aims, the content of courses, and the methods of instruction in the high school ; and that admission to college will be based upon honest attainment in any field, coupled with ability to do college work, rather than upon specific high school grades or examinations in a restricted group of traditional subjects. There is good reason to believe that a readjustment is well under way. A table showing college entrance requirements. The following table shows the present conditions in a considerable number of colleges, including all those in Pennsylvania that make specific en- trance requirements. This will doubtless be of value to high school principals in the practical work of advising pupils concerning their college preparation. The subjects, both required and elective, are enumerated by units. In each case the minimum number of units is given. The electives are usually required to be confined to English, mathematics, foreign language, history, and science. A very few 122 colleges only, allow the election of a unit or two from subjects that are not included in the traditional academic requirements. The variation in the number of units in the various required sub- jects and in the number of units allowed for elective subjects is due to specific requirements for certain college curriculums. P^or ex- ample, the mathematical requirements for Bucknell are listed from 2 1/2 to 3. This means that an extra half year of mathematics is required as a pre-requisite for one of the courses in Bucknell. The \ariation appears again in the elective column because the pupil who wishes to take the course requiring three units of mathematics for preparation would have only four units elective instead of 4 1/2 open to a pupil who does not wish to take the course. The variation appears considerably larger in some other insti- tutions, but the principle applied is the same. College Required Elective Total lisdi Math. F. Lang. Hist. Science 2} fi 11 2 16 2} 4 11 4 16 21 4 1 1 3} 15 2} 2 1 1 51 15 2 10 1 1 18 21-3 2 2 1 4-41 15 3 2 1 6 15 2 5 1 4 15 4 3 1 4 15 21 9-10 141 -15} 2 2 1 1 6 15 2} 6 1 1 1 14} 3 2 1 1 41 14} 2 4 1 1 4 15 2} 6-7 0-1-2 11-2} 15 2}-3 2-4 0-2 31-51-7 15 3 e 1 2 15 3 2 3 4 15 2} 5 1 3 14} 2} G 1 2 14} 2i 4 1 4 141 3 6 3 15 21 3 1 51 15 2} 2 1 1 51 15 21 6 1 1 1 14} 21-3 1 3-4 1 1 3 14} 4 2 1 1 31 1*1 21 5 1 1 2 14} 3 2 1 3 2} 14} 21 2 1 61 15 21 2 1 51 14 3* 2 1 41 1* 2 2 1 7 15 3 6 1 2 15 3 6 1 2 15 21 6 31 15 21 3 1 5} 15 21 4 1 1 3} 15 21 4 1 41 15 3~ 2 2 11 2 4 1 5 15 2-3 1 2 4-5 15 3 7 2 15 4 5 1 2 15 21 4 1 4 14} 21 u 1 1 6 14} 21 2 7 14} 2 5* 1* 1* 3 15 2 4 1 5 15 ! 21 6 1 2} 15 21" 4 1 1 3} 15 6 1 4 16 ! 3 4 1 5 16 : 2 3-4 1 5-6 15 ! 31 2 1 1 41 15 1-2 o-a 1 0-1 8 15 ! 2 2 1 7 15 I 3 1 8 15 ! 1-J 2 1 0-1 8 15 Albright A. B. 4 B. S. 4 Allegheny 3 Beaver 3 Bryn Mawr 4 Bucknell 3 Carnegie ■ — - 3 Cornell A. B. 3 B. S. 3 Dickinson 3 Drexel 3 Franklin & Marshall A. B. 3 B. S. 3 Geneva 3 Gettysburg A. B. 3 B. S. 3 Grove City A. B. 3 B. S. 3 Hamilton — 3 Haverford A. B. 3 B. S. 3 Irving — 3 Juniata A. B. 3 Lafayette A. b! 3 B. S. 3 Bug. 3 Lebanon Valley ... A. B. 3 Lehigh A.' B. 3 B. S. 3 Eng. 3 Lincoln 3 Marywood A. B. 3 Mt. Holyoke 3 Muhlenberg A. B. 3 B. S. 3 Oberlin 3 Pa. Col. for Women 3 Pa. Military College 2 Pennsylvania State A. B. 3 B. S. 3 Princeton A. B. 3 B. S. 3 Smith 3 Susquehanna 3 Swiirthmore 3 Syracuse A. B. 3 B. S. 3 Temple A. B. 3 B. S. 3 Thiel A. B. 3 B. S. 3 University of Penna. College 3 Sci. School 3 Wharton 3 Education 3 Archlt. 3 Fine Arts 123 College English Math. Required F. Lang. Hist. Univ. of Pittsburgh College Education Economics Eng. Ursinus A. B. B. S. Vassal' ■ — Villanova A. B. B. S. Eng. Washington and Jef- A. B. ferson B. S. Waynesburg — Wellesley — Westminster A. B. B. S. Wilson — 3 31 3 2 4 21 21 2 3 2 2 3 Elective Total 11 15 11 15 11 15 5 15 :; 14-i 3 141 2 15 o 16 8 16 3 16 6 14} 7 141 8 15 2 15 3 15 4 15 4 15 *Reconimended. All candidates for the A. seven years of foreign language. B. degree are required to have a total of 124 125 X I. PKACTTCAL ARTS AND VOCATIONAL EDUCA- TION Definition. The term, practical arts, is the broad, inclusive term that is used to designate a number of phases of instruction that are primarily designed to give learners an appreciative knowledge of materials, tools, and processes, and of design as it applies to man's activities. This term covers such phases of education as manual training, industrial arts, household arts, mechanic arts, general home economics, general agriculture, and general commercial education. 1. Industrial arts education. Industrial arts education includes that part of practical arts education which pertains to instruction based largely upon participation involving tools, materials, and pro- cesses significant to present-dav society, and pertaining to the in- dustrial field. Industrial arts instruction is essentially general edu- cation, and is very desirable because of both its direct and its in- direct values. It should be required of all boys in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades wherever circumstances permit, for at least two periods per week, and should be offered in high school either as a required subject in the industrial arts course or as an elective for boys taking such courses as the commercial or the college prepara- 1ory course. Industrial arts instruction usually lias great value for purposes of vocational guidance, and it is desirable to precede vocational in- dustrial education with industrial arts instruction. While voca- tional industrial education and industrial arts education are correla- tive aspects of one educative process, they are nevertheless quite dis- tinct as to objectives and as to means and methods of instruction. Industrial arts education stands for something more than tradi- tional manual training. It is the outgrowth of the manual training movement, but is broader in its scope. Instead of limiting the in- struction to handwork in one material, as for example wood, a de- finite effort is made through information about, and use of a number of materials of construction to give as broad a knowledge as possible. School instruction should furthermore bo amplified by visits to in- dustrial establishments. A sample program of a high school curriculum in which industrial arts instruction as a form of general education is given follows here- with : First Year English Health Instruction Civics General Science General math, or Alj Woodwork Drawing 12G Industrial Arts Curriculum Second Year Units 1 English Partial Health Instruction 1 European Hist cry 1 Geometry 1 Pattern making Sheet metal molding I >rawing Biology or physical science Units Units 1st 2nd term term % y 2 3 artial Partial % y 2 % % y 2 Partial Partial tt tt Third Year Units Units Fourth Year 1st 2nd Units term term English y 2 y 2 English 1 Health Instruction Partial Partial Health Instruction Partial U. S. History Vz y 2 Problems of Democracy 1 Smithing y 2 — Phys. and Hygiene Partial Elem. machine — y 2 Machine 1 Drawing Partial Partial Drawing Partial Chemistry or Physics y 2 Vz Physics or Chemistry 1 Elective l 1 Commercial and Economic ( Jeog. 1 General agricultural education. There are several types of general agricultural education designed for high schools, such u.- instruction in technical agriculture, junior project work, and school gardening. The purpose of these types of work is primarily cultural, the aim be- ing to increase the pupil's knowledge of the arts rather than to give actual practice in agriculture. Technical agricvMural instruction. Technical agricultural in struction includes the stixly of the scientific principles underlying farming, as well as the relation of these principles to the production of plants and animals of economic value. Certain laboratory experi- ments to demonstrate the theory being studied arc performed in connection with this type of instruction. ■Junior project*. Junior project work is designed primarily for rural pupils of the seventh and eighth grades. Similar work may be carried en in the high school grades. Junior project work includes the study of the fundamentals of general agriculture and the appli- cation of the knowledge gained through the home project. The pur- pose of junior project work is to discover the aptitudes and inapti- tudes of the children through supervised home project work. 127 School gardening. School garden work is designed primarily for urban pupils of the fifth to ninth grades. A limited amount of such work may, however, be carried on with the later high school grades. School garden work consists of the production of garden crops under capable supervision, preceded by a study of soils, seeds, and plants, and by a study of their various functions and uses. The purpose of such work is to develop a sympathetic understanding of the funda- mentals of crop production and to learn to apply this knowledge to the beautification of the home and the community, and to the pro- duction of vegetables and Rowel's in the home garden. General Agricultural Curriculum First Year Second Year I 'niti Units English 1 English 1 Civics 1 European History 1 General Science ^ Genera] Science * Health Instruction Partial General Agriculture I *General Agriculture j Health Instruction Partial General Mathematics 1 Elective 1 Drawing Partial Drawing Partial Music Partial Music Partial Th ird Year Fourth Year Units Unit* English 1 English 1 American History 1 Problems of Democracy 1 Chemistry or Physics 1 Health Instruction Partial Health Instruction Partial Physics or Chemistry 1 Elective 1 Elective 1 Drawing and Music Optional Drawing and Music Optional ♦Includes home project correlating with subject matter. An additional subject can be included in the curriculum if major subjects are given four periods per week. For details relative to general agricultural education, address the Department of Public Instruction. Vocational education. The term, vocational education, is used as the broad 5 inclusive term which includes four major phases, namely: 1. Vocational industrial education 2. Vocational agricultural education 3. Vocational home economics education 4. Vocational commercial education Full information relative to these various forms of vocational education may be obtained from the Vocational Bureau of the De- partment of Public Instruction. Vocational industrial education — definition. By vocational in- dustrial education is meant that form of industrial education which 128 aims to tit an individual in some definite degree to pursue effectively a recognized trade or occupation. It is given to persons over four- teen years of age, and in order to be termed "vocational" the instruc- tion must, according to the Federal Education Act, be of less than college grade. Such instruction must also meet other Federal and State requirements as mentioned under "Conditions of Appro val'\ Difference between p re-vocational and vocational industrial edu- cation. Vocational industrial education differs from pre-vocational education. In pre-vocational education the objective is to give cer- tain experiences that assist pupils in finding out what they are best titted for by nature, temperament, and native capacity. In voca- tional industrial education it is assumed that the learner has def- initely selected his trade or vocation. If it found that a learner ought to change his trade or vocation the matter should be adjusted. Difference between technical and vocational industrial education. there is also a difference between industrial education as usually given in public technical high schools, and vocational industrial edu- cation. Unit trade classes must by Federal Hoard requirements de- vote at least fifty per cent of the time given to instruction to shop work or practice of the trade that is being learned. This is not usually done in technical high schools except where classes are def- initely organized in accordance with the requirements set up for vocational industrial education. This is not the only reason why the usual industrial education that is taught in technical high schools does not qualify under the requirements of the Federal Voca- tional Education Act. As a rule, the graduates of technical high schools are qualified to enter college. Pupils taking vocational in- dustrial courses in unit trade classes are prepared to enter trades and vocations on a productive basis. They may, if they wish, pre- pare for college by taking an additional year of instruction. This is done quite frequently. Difference between industrial arts education and vocational Indus trial education. There is considerable difference between industrial arts education and vocational industrial education. One of the primary purposes of industrial arts instruction is to give, through study and shop experience, an appreciative knowledge of materials, tools, and processes, and of design as it relates to important human activities. Vocational industrial education, on the other hand, aims to make efficient producers in the broad sense of the word. The former aims to develop an appreciative knowledge of many kinds of industrial activity, the latter to make an efficient producer in some single trade or occupation. Types of vocational industrial ednc Hon — Day Schools. Cities having a population of less than 25. 000 may establish what are 120 termed general industrial schools or classes. Instead of limiting the trade practice or shop instruction of any learner to a single trade as is done in schools organized on the unit trade plan, the general industrial school gives instruction to a learner in a group of related trades. This gives a more limited experience in any single trade, but a wider experience in terms of the number of trades engaged in. From the standpoint of developing trade efficiency the general in- dustrial school is not as satisfactory as the unit trade school, and is essentially a compromise that has been made because cities of less than 25,000 population sometimes find it difficult to organize day vocational industrial instruction on the unit trade bas's. Unit trade courses. Cities having a population of over 25,000 may receive reimbursement under the ^mith-Hughes Act for day voca- tional industrial education if it is organized on a unit trade basis. A unit trade school or class established under the Federal Act is a public school or class established and maintained in any community for the purpose of fitting persons for useful employment in a par- ticular trade or industrial pursuit through instruction of less than college grade: (a) designed to meet the needs of persons over four- teen years of age; (b) giving not less than half of the time to prac- tical work on a useful or productive basis; and (c) extending over not less than nine months, (36 weeks) per year, and not less than thirty (clock) hours per week. Full compliance with an adopted and approved state plan is also required. When a group of young men over fourteen years of age not yet employed attend an all-day school or class for the purpose of pre- paring for entrance into the plumbers' trade, and when the instruc- tion given them in both shop and related class work is based solely upon the plumbers' trade needs, this constitutes a unit trade school or class. The following is a suggestive sample course of instruction for a three-year unit trade course. Courses may vary greatly in length and in kind. It will be noted that thirty clock hours of instruction are required per week in the type course shown. Of these fifty per cent, or fifteen hours, must be,