-Vxs b ^^ .^v : x^ ^^. r^ f/ ,0' Ol^'' ^^ '^ > s ■> <= , -/^ "^ .0 K • \V «l / THE PAINTER, GILDER, AND YARNISHER'S COMPANION: CONTAIKINQ RULES AND REGULATIONS EVERY THING RELATING TO THE ARTS OF PAINTING, GILD- ING, YAKNISHING, AND GLASS-STAINING j Numerous Useful and Valuable Receipts; TESTS FOR THE DETECTION OF ADUr.TERATIONS IN OILS, COLOURS, ETC. ; AND A STATEMENT OF THE DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS TO WHICH PAINTERS, fllLDERS AND VARNISHERS ARE PECULIARLY LI^^BLE ; With the Simplest and Best Methods of Prevention and Remedy. WITH DIKECTIONS FOR GRAINING, MARBLING, SIGN-WRITING AND GILDING ON GLASS. TO WHICH ARE ADDED COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONS FOR COACH PAINTING AND VARNISHING. PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAPvEY BAIKD, INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, No. 406 WALNUT STREET. 1867. ^-y^oS' t 3^ Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by Henry Caket Baird, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States In and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. COLLINS, PRINTER. ^ f 4 / PREFACE. The object of the "Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher's Companion" is to give a clear, con- cise, and comprehensive view of the principal ope- rations connected with the practice of those trades ; and to imhody, in as little compass and as simple language as possible, the present state of know- ledge in the arts of Painting, Gilding, and Var- nishing, including all the information derived from the numerous recent discoveries in Chemistry. It has been the compiler's aim, while he has rejected all that appeared foreign to the subject, to omit nothing of real utility ; and he trusts he shall be found to have attained it. The best authorities have been consulted through- out, and the arrangement has been uniformly made with a view to practical purposes. The names of the different substances mentioned are those in common use ; and wherever it has been found ne- 4 PREFACE. cessary to employ a term not generally known, an explanation has been given in a note or otherwise. In the receipts, accuracy has been carefully at- tended to in stating the number and nature of the ingredients to be employed, and the fullest and plainest instructions given for the proper methods of applying them. The arts of Polishing, vV axing, Laqilering, Ja- panning, &c., being intimately connected with the trades of Painting, Gilding, and Varnishing, are properly introduced in the following pages. Re* ccipts are likewise given for the preparation of Sail Cloth, Oil Cloth, Printer's Ink, Court Plas- ter, and a variety of other substances, the compo- sition of which, depending upon operations ren- dered familiar to the Painter, Gilder, or Varnisher, by his ordinary occupation, will make these addi- tions both useful and interesting to him. The reader will also find an account of the prin- cipal adulterations practised upon oils, colours, gums, &c., with the readiest modes of detecting them. The numerous accidents and peculiar diseases to which Painters, Gilders, and Varnishers are known to be liable in the exercise of their trade, have suggested to me the propriety of introducing a notice of the chief of these, with their general causes, and pointing out the best means of preven- tion and remedy. For the information contained PREFACE. 6 on this head, I am indebted to the kind assistance of a medical gentleman of extensive acquirements and great experience.^ I trust it is needless to observe that I do not profess, in the following pages, to instruct the ex- perienced Painter, Gilder, or Varnisher, in his business ; but I flatter myself that even he may find in them something that is either new to him, or which he has as yet known but imperfectly or incorrectly. There was a time when persons en- gaged in mechanical trades distrusted every thing, in the way of their business, except what they had themselves seen or practised. But this state of things has gone by, and, together with the igno- rance and prejudice that occasioned it, has been banished by the general thirst after knowledge at present so prevalent. Every mechanic is now aware that his experience alone can supply him with no facts beyond the limits of his particular observation and practice; while, in perusing a well-executed treatise on his art, he is enabled to combine the experience and observation of other persons with his own, and to profit by them ac- cordingly. It is presumed that the "Painter, Gilder, AND Varnisher's COMPANION" may be useful to others besides professed tradesmen. Persons hap- pening to reside at a distance from any regular tradesman, or who, possessing confined means or 1* b PREFACE. ample leisure, wish to execute light work of this nature themselves, will find the present treatise a material assistance to them. And even to gentle- men differently circumstanced, it may be extremely serviceable, by enabling them, when they have workmen engaged in painting and gilding on an extensive scale, to superintend and direct the ope- rations of those they employ, and, in many cases, to judge of their integrity and ability. CONTENTS. PAGE Tools and Apparatus 7 Taylor's Indigo Griiiding-mill 9 Rawlinson's Indigo Griuding-mill 11 COLOURS 19 Whites 19 White Lead, Ceruse, and Flake White 19 Spanish, or Bougival White 21 Gypsum, or Plaster of Paris 21 White of Troyes, or White Chalk 22 Blacks 22 Ivory Black 22 Lamp Black 23 Charcoal Blacks 23 Reds 24 Vermilion 24 Minium, or Red Lead 25 Carmine 26 Lake 28 Spanish Brown 29 Other Reds 30 Yellows 30 Yellow Ochre 30 Mivssicot 30 Chrome Yellow 31 Turner's, or Patent Yellow 31 Orpiment 32 Naples Yellow 32 Yellow of Antimony 33 Yellow Pink 33 Blues 33 Prussian Blue 33 Indigo 34 Ultramarine 35 Smalt, Zaftre, Azure, Saxon Blue, or Enamel Blue 36 Blue Verditer 37 Greens 37 Verdigris 37 Italian or Veroua Green 38 PAGE Saxon, or Hungary Green 38 Scheeles' Green 38 Schweinfurt Green 39 Brunswick Green 39 Green Verditer 40 Green Lake, or Venetian Green... 40 Browns 41 Umber 41 New Brown, discovered by Mr. Hatchet 41 COiMPouND Colours, or Colours ARISING FROM MIXTURE 42 Light Gray 42 Buff 42 Silver, or Pearl Gray 42 Flaxen Gray 42 Brick colour 42 Oak-wood colour 42 Walnut-tree colour 43 Jonquil 43 Lemon Yellow 43 Orange colour 43 Violet colour 43 Purple..,. 43 Carnation 43 Gold colour 43 Olive colour 43 Lead colour 43 Chestnut colour 43 Light Timber colour 44 Flesh colour 44 Light Willow Green 44 Grass Green 44 Stone colour 44 Dark Lead colour 44 Fa wu colour 44 Chocolate colour 44 Portland Stone coloiu" 44 To imitate Mahogauj' 44 To imitate Wainscot '... 44 (m) IV CONTENTS. PAGE To imitate Satin wood 44 Oils 46 Oil of Spike 46 Oil of Lavender 46 Oil of Poppies 45 Nut Oil, or Linseed Oil 46 Oil of Turpentine 48 Fat Oils 48 Drying Oils 49 Pilchard Oils 50 Tarnishes 51 Sliell-lac Varnish 64 Ked Shell-lac Varnish 55 Turpentine Varnish 55 Linseed Oil Varnish 56 Copal Varnish 56 Gold-coloured Copal Varnish 56 Camphorated Copal Varnish 57 Copal Varnish in imitation of Tor- toise-Shell 57 Amber Varnish 59 Caoutchouc, or Gum-elastic Var- nish 60 Mastic Varnish 60 Varnish for Violins, etc 61 "White Hard Varnish 62 Varnishes for Paling and coarse Wood-work 62 Varnish for Coloured Drawings... 63 Varnish for Glass 63 Black Varnish for old Straw or Chip Hats 63 Varnish for Drawings and Card- work 64 Changing Varnishes 64 Mordant Varnishes 65 General Observations on Var- nishes 66 Polishes 70 Varnish Polish 70 Polish for Dark-coloured Woods... 70 Polish for Tunbridge-ware, Goods, etc 71 Carver's Polish 72 French Polish 72 Water-proof Polish 72 Finishing Polish 73 Gilding Materials 74 Fine Gold Powder 74 Colour-heightening Compositions. 74 Mosaic Gold 75 Dutch or German Metal 76 Ethereal Solution of Gold 76 Gold Oil-colour, or Size 78 Gold Water Size 78 Prepai-atory Size 78 PAGB White Coating 79 Colouring Yellow 79 ^'ern)eil 80 Miscellaneous Materials 81 Painter's Cream 81 Rotten Stone 81 Glue and Isinglass 82 Common Size 82 Grinding ani> Washing Colours 83 Cleanliness in Working 88 Practice of Painting 91 Painting in Distemper 94 Painting in Milk 97 Practice of Varnishing and Polishing 100 French Polish 102 Waxing 105 Practice of Gilding 107 Gilding Carved Wood with Water Size 107 Gilding Plaster or Marble with Water Size Ill Gilding Wood in Oil 112 To Gild Steel 112 To Gild Copper, Brass, etc 113 Gilding Glass and Porcelain 113 Gilding Leather 114 Gilding Writings, Drawings, etc., on Paper or Parchment 115 Gilding the Edges of Paper 116 On Lacquering 117 Lacquer for Brass 117 Lacquer for Philosophical In- struments 117 Gold-coloured Lacquer for Brass Watch-cases, Watch-keys, etc. 118 To make Lacquer of various Tints 119 To Clean old Brass-work for Lac- quering 119 Bronzing 120 Japanning 123 Colours required in Jai)anning... 123 To prepare a Tortoise-shell Ja- pan ground by means of Heat. 124 Foils 125 To Colour Foils 126 Fi.Vhite 150 PAGR Yellowjsh-Gray for Browns and Reds 1,51 Bluish-Gray for mixtures 151 Grayish-Black for mixtures 151 Deep Black 152 Application of the Colours 152 To fire the Paintings 154 P'urnace and Muffle 154 Harmony of Colours 158 Miscellaneous Subjects and Useful Receipts .•-.. 159 To increase the strength of com- mon Rectified Spirits of Wine. 159 To Silver by Heat 160 To Tin Copper and Brass 161 To Tin lion and Copper Vessels. 161 To Paint Sail-Cloth so as to make it Pliable, Durable, and Water- proof. 162 To make Oil-Cloth 1(12 To prepare Varnished Silk 164 To paint Cloth, Cambric, Sarce- net, etc., so as to render them Transparent 164 To thicken Linen Cloths for Screens 165 Printer's Ink 165 Sticking, or Court Plaster 1C6 To imitate Tortoise-shell with Horn 167 A Varnish to preserve Glass from the Rays of the Sun 168 To imitate Rosewood If.S To imitate Black Rosewood lt.9 A fine Black Varnish for Coaches and Iron Work 170 A Varnish to imitate the Chinese 170 To clean Silver Furniture 170 To colour the Backs of Chimneys with Lead Ore !.. 171 To clean Blarble, Sienna, Jasper, Poif.hyry, etc 171 A AVhite fur inside Painting 171 To take Ink Spots out of Slahog- any 172 To make Paste for Furniture 172 To make Oil for Furniture 173 To Brown Gun Barrels 173 To clean Pictures 173 Another Method 174 Varnish for Clock Faces, etc...... 174 Varnish for Balloons 175 Diseases and Accidents to WHICH Painters and Var- nishers are p-articularly liable 177 VI CONTENTS. PAGE Painter's Colic 177 Weakness ..f tlie Wrists ISO Eft'ects of I'oisonous Substances used ill rainting and Varnish- ing 181 Nausea 184 Burns and Scalds 184 Genkral Obskrvations 187 DlRKCTlONS FOR GRAINING AND Imitating Woods and Mar- bles 190 Oak 190 Combs 190 Brushes 191 Colours, etc 191 Graining Colour 192 Spirit Colour 194 lV)llaid Oak 195 Hoot of Oak lyti To Grain Pollard and Root of Oak ill Distemper 196 Walnut 197 Bini's-eve Maple in Distemper... 197 To Grain Maple in Oil 199 Satin-wood 200 Malio-^aiiy in Distemper 201 Mahoj^aiiv in Oil 201 Kosewooii 202 Marble 203 Sienna 203 Black and Gold Marble 204 Saint Ann's 205 Yerd Antique, or Ancient Green 205 Egyptian Gieen 20t> Roiige Koi, or Koyal Red 206 Italian Jasper 207 Dove Marble 208 Black Bardella 208 PAGE Derbyshire Spar 2u8 Granites 209 To Polish I mitatiim Marbles 210 Instructions for Sign-\\ ritinc. 211 Setting-out, or Arrangement of Letters 213 To raise or make Letters appear to stand out from the Board, and to shadow them 213 To Gild Letters 214 To Write, Gild, and Ornament on Glass 215 Complete Instructions for Coach-Painting and \'ar- nisiiing 217 A suitable place to work in 217 Preparing the Oil 217 Boiled Oil 217 Raw Oil 219 Priming Coat foracarriage-gear- ingaiui body 219 Smoothing with sandpaper 220 Use of pumice-stone in sniooth- iiig after priming 220 Use of grained sole leather in sniootliing after priming 220 Kough-stutling 221 Finishing up to receive the colour 228 Putting on the colour 224 Rubbing down after the second coat 220 Tarnishing 227 Ornamenting and striping 229 Ornaments on panels 230 Shading 232 Striping 232 Yaruisbiug after striping 235 THE PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. TOOLS AND APPARATUS. Before proceeding to enter upon any details respect- ing the nature, use, and composition of the substances employed by the Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher, I shall give a description of the tools and apparatus necessary in these occupations, with directions for their selection and proper use. The first in order and in importance are the grindstone and mullerj employed in grinding colours. The grindstone in common use is a horizontal slab, about eighteen inches square, and suflficiently heavy to enable.it to remain fixed and firm while the colours are ground upon it. The best material is spotted marble or granite ) but when that cannot be procured without inconvenience or great expense, white or black marble may be used. Particular care must be taken that \\\e stone is hard and of a close grain, and not full of small pores, 7 8 THE PAINTER, GILDER, whicli will be sure to retain part of the colours first ground, and thus prevent the stone from being properly cleaned, and render the colours that are ground after- wards mixed and dingy. A large piece of slate is sometimes used for a grind- stone ; but this is very improper, except where the colours are quite of a common description, and the painting re- quires no nicety. The mullei' is a pebble-stone, in the shape of an egg, with the larger end broken off, and then ground as smooth and flat as possible. It is generally to be purchased ready-made at the colour shops. The greater its size (if the dimensions are not so large as to make it difficult for the workman, with a moderate exertion of the strength of his arms, to keep it in continual motion) the better. The usual size is from two to three inches in diameter at the flat end, and about five inches high. In choosing it, the principal points to be observed are, that the sur- face is perfectly smooth and the edges well rounded off. An excellent substitute for the common grindstone and muller, but confined in its application to the grind- ing of colours in a dry state, has been invented by Mr. Charles Taylor, of Manchester, England, and is repre- sented by Figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 1 represents a mortar, made of marble or other hard stone. One made in the usual form will answer. M is a muller or grinder, made nearly in the form of a pear, in the upper part of which an iron axis is firmly fixed ; which axis, at the parts marked N, N, turns in grooves, or slits, made in two pieces of oak, projecting AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 9 TAYLOR'S INDIGO GRINDING-MILL. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. horizontally from a wall, &c. ; and when the axis is at work, it is secured in the grooves by the iron pins 0, O, P, the handle, which forms a part of the axis, and by turning which the grinder is worked. Q, the wall, &c., in which the oak pieces, N, N, are fixed. R, a weight, which may occasionally be added, if more power is wanted. Fig. 2 shows the muller or grinder with its axis sepa- 10 THE PAINTER, GILDER, rate from the other machinery : its bottom should be made to fit the mortar. S, a groove cut through the stone muller. The muller being placed in the mortar, and secured in the oak pieces by means of the pins, the colour to be ground is thrown into the mortar, above the muller; on turning the handle, the colour in lumps falls into the gi'oove cut through the muller; and is from thence drawn in under the action of the muller, and again pro- pelled to its outer edge, within the mortar; from whence the coarser particles again fall into the groove of the muller, and are again ground underneath it ; this opera- tion is continued until the whole of the colour is ground to an impalpable powder : the muller is then readily removed and the colour taken out. To prevent any of the colour from flying off in dust under the rapid operation of the muller, and to save also the workmen from inhaling any of those pernicious mat- ters which enter into the composition of most paints, a wooden cover, made in two halves, with a hole in it for the axis of the muller to pass through, is usually placed on the mortar while at work. Had Mr. Taylor's mill aothmg else to recommend it, the protection which it thus affords to the health of the workmen ought alone to insure its general adoption. The common grindstone and muller are, in this respect, particularly objectionable. For mixing, or rather perfectly incorporating, colours, after they are dry-ground, with oil or water, and still farther refining them, recourse may be had to the mill for which Mr. Rawlinson, artist, in England, received a prize from the Society of Arts. AND VARNISHEr's COMPANION. 11 RAWLINSON'S INDIGO GRINDING-MILL. Fig. 3. A is a cylinder, made of any kind of marble ; but black marble is esteemed the best, because it is the hard- est, and takes the best polish. B is a concave muller, covering one-third of the circumference of the cylinder, and made of the same kind of marble with it : this is fixed in a wooden frame, h, which is hung to the frame E at ^, i. c is a piece of iron, about an inch broad, to keep the muller steady ; and is affixed t*, the frame by a joint at/. The small binding screw {mi\i \t#' nu<) 12 THE PAINTER; GILDER; which passes through the centre of the iron plate c, is foi the purpose of laying more pressure on the muller, when required, as well as to keep it steady. D is a taker-off, made of a piece of clock-spring, about half an inch broad, and is fixed, similarly to a frame-saw, in an iron frame, K, in an inclined position to the cylinder ', and the frame turns on pivots at d, d. Gr is a sliding- board, made to draw out occasionally, in order to clean it, should any particles of paint fall upon it from the cylinder ; it also forms a support for the dish H, to catch the colour as it drops from the taker-off D. F is a drawer for the purpose of containing curriers' shavings, which are the best things for cleaning paint-mills. E is the mill frame. The colour being mixed with oil or water, and, with a spatula or palette-knife, put upon the cylinder near to the top of the concave muller, the cylinder is then turned round towards the muller; which draws the colour be- neath the muller without any difficulty ; and a very few turns of the cylinder spread it equally over the surface. When it is found to be ground sufficiently fine for the purpose required, it is very readily removed by means of the taker-off before described ; which must be held against the cylinder, and the cylinder be turned the re- verse way, which cleans it very quickly and completely; and the muller will only require to be cleaned when the operation is nearly completed and previous to changing the colour. For this purpose, it is to be turned back, being, as before said, hung upon pivots affixed to the »ame at i, i; and may then be very conveniently cleaned AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. * 13 ?fu i a palette-knife or a spatula. Afterwards^ a hand- ful of the curriers' shavings being held upon the cylinder, by two or three revolutions it is cleaned effectually ; and there is much less waste of colour with this machine than with any marble slab. For the purpose of clearing the colour off the commoa grinding-stone, as well as for keeping it together should it spread too much during the grinding, painters some- times employ a piece of horn^ like that used for lanterns, about three inches by four, or a piece of wood of the same dimensions, very thin and smooth, and made sharp and even at the edge. This is called a voider. It is, however, more customary to use for this purpose a palette-knife. This instrument is commonly sold in the shops, and is generally made of steel, which ought to be highly tempered, extremely thin, and perfectly flexible, .^vory, however, is a much preferable material for the ■palette-knife, since some kinds of yellow assume a dingy, dark-green hue,- and all colours which contain any por- tion of arsenic in their composition experience a change «rhen touched with iron or steel. In no particular ought the painter or varnish er, who wishes to insure superiority in the execution of his work, to be more circumspect, than in the choice of his brushes and pencils. Brushes are either round or flat, and are of various sizes. The round ones vary from a quarter of an inch to two inches and a half in diameter. For some par- ticular purposes, they even exceed this latter size. The larger ones are made use of in laying on the first coat 14 THE PAINTER, GILDER, of paint, or priming, as it is called, and in painting over large surfaces which require considerable quantities of colour. The smaller brushes are for parts to which, from their size or situation, the large ones cannot be applied. Brushes of a Jlat form are usually termed varnishing brushes, being chiefly used for that purpose; but they are likewise employed in drawing lines, vein- ing, and imitations of variegated woods. A correspondent of the Mechanics' Magazine (vol. i. p. 279) makes an objection to the use of round brushes, which must be allowed to have considerable weight. ^' Being made round," he says, " they are by no means well adapted, in that shape, for laying on a flat surface ; the consequence is, that painters invariably use their brushes but one way, for the very purpose of wearing them flat, which goes to prove the necessity of an altera- tion in their general shape." He then describes one which he made with a flat handle, and found to answer much better, for all common purposes, than the ordinary round brush. The handle was of beech, about an inch and a half wide and three-eighths of an inch thick, and, near the end on wKich the hairs were tied, was bevelled off to a thin edsje. Brushes are almost always made of hogs' bristles. Sometimes they are of badger's or goat's hair, especially when required for varnishing fine works with a thin varnish. In choosing them, observe, in the first place, that the hairs are strong ; and next, that they are close together, and fast bound with the threads that tie them round in the stocks. If the hairs are weak, the colour AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 15 will never lie in a good body ; if they are not close to- gether, they will spread and divide unequally when used, and consequently cannot work well. But the worst fault of all is, their not being fast bound in the slocks; for, in that case, some of them will come out while you are working, and the appearance of the work will be strangely disfigured by loose hairs being seen buried in the colouring, when dry. Even when as tightly bound together as possible, the Jiairs often get loose, from the practice, so common with painters, of keeping their brushes in water when out of use, by which the strings that bind them, though usually glued over, soon become rotten. To prevent brushes from being damaged in this way, get them bound in the usual way, but not glued over, and then work in rosin and grease, which will resist the water, and keep the brush for a long time tight and sound. When, by long use, the hairs of a good brush begin to work loosely, drive a few thin wedges of wood inside the thread with which they are bound round, and this will render the whole fast again. Pencils differ from brushes in the smallness of their size, and in being manufactured of a much finer and softer hair. In some cases the hair of the marten, or of children, and even swansdown, are used for them ; but these are generally confined to pencils intended for artists, the mechanical painter being rarely engaged in work of such a delicate nature as to require them. Pen- cils are invariably of a round form. The smallest are fit^'d into the barrels of quills, the larger sort into tin 16 THE PAINTER; GILDER, caseSj both placed at the ends of sticks ; some of a very large size are fastened into stocks in the same manner as brushes. In choosing pencils, a very simple trial will prove whether they are fit for your purpose. You have only to put them into your mouth, and, after wetting them a little, draw them out between your tongue and upper lip ; then, if they present a sharp point, and the hairs come out full next to the case, and without separating, the pencils are good ; if the hairs show ragged, or are thin at the opposite end to the point, they cannot be depended upon. The sharpness of the point is of par- ticular consequence in small pencils. The same atten- tion must be paid to the hairs being fast bound in the stocks or cases, as directed in the choice of brushes. With regard to the stick, or stock, attached to the pencil, it ought never to be less than eight inches ; and, indeed, the greater the length, provided the workman can handle it with freedom and certainty, the better; for it is as impossible for a painter to have a good com- mand of his pencil, as a writer of his pen, if he hold it too near the point. To steady the hand while using the pencil, painters use what they call a moll-stick. This is made of a straight piece of wood, generally mahogany, with a nob at one end of it, resembling a printer's puff, but smaller, composed of some soft substance enclosed in leather. This end must be rested lightly on the work, and the other end being held in the left hand, will render the stick a support to the right. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 17 .W"lien you are engaged upon works whicli will require tb 3 use of pencils or small brushes for a long time to- gether, it is customary, instead of having your colours in pots or pans, to dispose them in such quantities as th-ey are likely to be wanted in, upon a palette. This is a small board, generally of an oval form, to be had at any colour-shop. It ought to be made of walnut or apple- tree wood, and, before being used, it should be well rubbed over with drying oil, till it refuses to take up any more. The same kind of palette will serve for the varnisher; but, for painting in distemper, it is necessary to have one made of tin-plate. Spatulasj resembling in appearance the spreading slices used by apothecaries, are useful for preparing colours, and for many other purposes. They should be had of different materials, horn, bone, iron, steel, or ivory ; but there should be, at least, one of each of the last two kinds, — those made of steel being sometimes improper, for the reason mentioned in speaking of the palette-knife. A glass mattrass is usually recommended for digest- ing varnishes, as its transparency admits of the progress of the solution being readily observed. But it is only the experienced manipulator who can safely employ a vessel of this kind ; and for general use, one of tin is much better. A ruhher, for varnishing or polishing, is usually made by rolling up a strip of thick woollen cloth, which has been torn off so as to form a soft, elastic edge ; thick, wide list will, however, answer equally well. The coil 2* 18 THE PAINTIER, GILDER, may be from one to three inclies in diameter, according to the size of the work. There are other articles which it may be desirable, or even indispensable, for the painter, gilder, or varnisher to have among his apparatus, but which do not require any description of their nature or use, or any directions for their selection, — such as putty,* a putty-knife, dust- ing-cloths, and brushes, pots and pans of different sizes, made of tin or earthenware, to hold colours, (when of earthenware they should be glazed,) a large pestle and mortar, hair and silk sieves, square and rule, compasses, and black-lead pencils. * Putty is made of common whiting, pounded very fine, and mixed up with linseed oil till it becomes about the thickness of dough. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 19 COLOUKS. I SHALL now proceed to mention the principal colouring substances, with their combinations, pointing out their comparative advantages and disadvantages. In a few instances, where the process is not tedious or difficult, or where there would be a risk of getting them in a very impure state at the shops, I shall state the method of preparing them for use. In most cases, particularly since the general erection of colour-mills, it will be found a saving both of time and expense to purchase them ready prepared. WHITES. White Leadf Ceruse, and Flake White. The white colour most generally used in house-painting, and which forms the best priming for all other colours, is a subcarbonate of lead, consisting of 85 parts of pure lead and 25 of carbonic acid. The more common sorts are called white lead; the purer, ceruse; the very best, flake white. The following is a simple and expeditious method of preparing it. Take some long narrow slips of lead, and make them up into rolls, leaving a small space between every fold, so that none of the surfaces may touch one another any- 20 THE PAINTER, GILDER, where ; place these rolls in earthen pots, upheld by a little bar in such a manner as not to sink down above halfway into the pots ; and in each of these vessels put as much strong vinegar as nearly to touch the lead. When the vinegar and the lead are both in the pot, cover it up close, and leave it under the action of a moderate ])eat, till the plates of lead are reduced to a complete calx, which when dried will become very solid. If you find that the process has not been continued long enough, knock oflF the part of the surface of the lead which is calcined, and repeat the process with the remainder. When cakes of white lead are purchased ready pre- pared, small particles of lead in the metallic state are not unfrequently found, owing to the preparation having been imperfectly executed ; and in grinding the colour, this metallic part, becoming divided by the motion of the muller, gives a grayish tint to it. To avoid this inconvenience, if you do not prepare your white lead yourself, be careful to ascertain as well as you can, in purchasing it, whether it is pure, and select the thinnest cakes. In grinding it, your slab and muller should be perfectly clean, because there is often a little acid moist- ure in white lead, which renders it very apt to attract any parts that remain of colours previously ground. To obtain white lead of a very fine quality, it is often neces- sary to grind it several times. Not unfrequently this colour is adulterated with com- mon whiting, and its beauty by this means greatly im- paired. To detect this fraud, rub a little of the suspected article between the fingers, and throw it on a piece of AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 21 live charcoal ; if pure, the whole of it will turn of a yel- lowish hue, and in a few minutes take the form of bril- liant metallic globules; but if any whiting has been mixed with it, there will be a corresponding residue of a white earthy appearance. Spanish^ or Bougival White. A precipitate, formed by the solutions of bismuth when thrown into water, is what goes, in commerce, by the name of Spanish White, Bougival White, (from Bougival, near Marly, in France,) and sometimes White of Bismuth. It is generally sold in cakes of an oblong form. It is much better for house-painting than any whites that contain a mixture of chalky substances, and it is not unfrequently used instead of white lead for priming, being far cheaper, though much less durable. When employed with oil or varnish, it ought to be used very dry, or it will unite but imperfectly with them. Rolls of washed chalk, possessing none of the qualities that should belong to Spanish or Bougival White, are often sold under these names. To detect this adultera- tion, pour upon the sample a few drops of aqua fortis, or very strong distilled vinegar. If the Spanish White be pure, no effervescence will take place ; if any effer- vescence appears, it is either wholly or in part chalk. Gypsum, or Plaster of Pai^is. Gypsum is a sulphate of lime, composed of lime and sulphuric acid. It requires to be calcined before it is 22 THE PAINTER, GILDER, used as a colouring substance. When employed in house- painting, it requires to be mixed with a great quantity of water, and it then forms a very valuable article for white-washing apartments, and for painting in distem- per. Its white, when the gypsum is quite pure and free from any mixture of clay, is very fine, and much more delicate than that of chalk. WJiite of TroyeSj or White Chalk. The substance known by these names is an insoluble compound formed of carbonic acid and lime. It is generally used for common white-washing, though gyp- sum is much preferable for this purpose. In distemper it answers very well, as its being mixed up with size renders it more durable ; but with oil and varnishes it becomes brown, and occasions the latter to split. Like all colours that contain chalk, it is without lustre. ' BLACKS. Ivori/ Black. The bones of all animals, when reduced to charcoal or carbon^ form a good black; but the best of all blacks, whether animal or vegetable, is that made from ivory shavings burnt to a black coal, in a crucible closely stopped up, and afterwards ground very fine. It may be freed from every possible impurity by washing it in muriatic acid or weak aqua-fortis, and is then an ex- tremely rich and intense colour ; but being costly, it is AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 23 Beldom employed in common work. The water colour, called China Ink, is merely ivory black perfectly pure, mixed with a solution of isinglass and Spanish liquorice, and then evaporated to a proper consistence. Lamp Black. The soot collected by holding a plate over the flame of a lamp or candle is the veritable lamp black ; but the more general way of obtaining this substance on a large scale is from the burning of resinous woods. It is used more than any other black in common painting. It serves to modify the brightness of the tints of other colours, and is very useful in the composition of such colours as result from mixtures. It is both cheap and plentiful ; is a very good black for general purposes ; and of so fine a body that, if tempered only with linseed oil, it will serve, on most occasions, to work without grinding. But as the substance of this colour contains a kind of greasy fatness, which makes it long in drying, it is advisable to mix two parts of drying oil with the lin- seed oil, or to grind some white copperas and mix it with the colour, which will make it dry in a short time. Its unctuosity may be also greatly lessened, and its lustre at the same time much improved, by burning it in a crucible or iron ladle made red-hot over a clear fire. Charcoal Blacks. The best charcoal is that procured by subjecting wood, enclosed in a cast iron cylinder and wholly ex- 24 THE PAINTER, GILDER, eluded from the action of the air, to a strong fire till the cylinder is red-hot. The whole of the gaseous ingre- dients being then disengaged, the fire is extinguished, and the charcoal allowed to cool in the cylinder. The woods that furnish the best charcoal for painters are the beech and vine ; the former yielding a black of a bluish, and the latter one of a grayish, cast. Wine Lees, after being calcined, washed several times in boiling water, and ground to a fine powder, yield a fine velvety black, which, however, is chiefly used by copper-plate printers. Peach Stones, burned in a close vessel, yield a charcoal which, after being ground, may be successfully used for that kind of black generally known by the name of raven gray. A very pure charcoal is also obtained by expos- ing white sugar-candy to a red heat in an earthenware retort. When charcoal obtained from any of these sources is employed in painting, it should be mixed with a very small portion of white lead, and made up for use with drying oil. REDS. Yermilion. The most delicate and brilliant of all the light reds is that called Vermilion, obtained from the red sulphuret, ?ommonly known by the name of cinnabar. Although einnabar is found in a*natural state, being the ore from which mercury is usually extracted, it is, in general, prepared artificially, when vermilion is intended to bo manufactured out of it. The process is simple. Melt AND VARNISHER^S COMPANION. 25 six ounces of sulphur in an iron ladle ; then put two pounds of mercury into a chamois leather, or a double linen cloth, and squeeze it thence into the melted brim- stone, stirring them at the same time with a wooden spatula, till they are well combined, forming a substance the same as the natural cinnabar. When the mass is cold, beat it into a powder, and sublime it in a glass vessel with a worm-like top, over a strong fire, when the ascending fumes will form an incrustration on the top of the vessel, which, reduced to a fine powder, is vermilion. The body of vermilion is very delicate, and will grind as fine as oil itself No colour looks better, works smoother, bears a better body, or goes farther. It is not unfrequently debased by a mixture of red- lead. To detect this adulteration, place a portion of it on a piece of red-hot iron : if pure, it will evaporate entirely ; if not, there will be an earthy residue. Miniurrij or Red Lead. This colour is made by first reducing common lead, by calcining, to an oxide or litharge, which being ground to powder, is put into a hot furnace exposed to a free access of air, and continually stirred with an iron rake, till the colour becomes a fine pale red. The grinding red lead to a proper degree of fineness is very laborious and difficult, it being naturally very harsh and sandy. When, however, it is well ground 26 THE PAINTER, GILDER, and made fine, it is lighter than any other red in general use, bears a good body in oil, and binds very fast and firm. It has, likewise, the advantage of drying readily. Carmine. A more dazzling red than vermilion (the superfine species of it, called Madame Cenette's, is almost too bril- liant for the eye to endure) is derived from the precipi- tation of the colouring matter in cochineal, by means of an acid, usually alum. Various sorts of carmine are sold at the colour-shops, and numbered in the order of their relative value, thus : No. 1 is the best ; No. 2, the second best, and so on. Some modes of manufacturing it may be superior to others, but the difference of quality arises chiefly from an excess of alum employed in the precipitation, or from the intermixture of a portion of vermilion. In the first case, the colour is weakened ; in the second, it does not retain the same brilliancy. It is always easy to detect the proportion of mixture, by means of a property which pure carmine possesses, of dissolving in ammonia. All the foreign matters re- main untouched, and the proportion they bear may be estimated by drying the residuum. The preparation of this article is involved in consider- able mystery ; for, in consequence of the great cost of the original material, cochineal, the consumption of it is limited, and the manufacture confined to a few hands. There are many receipts for the purpose, in scientific books, but success appears to depend on a certain dex- AND VARNISHER^S COMPANION. 27 teritj, which habit alone can confer. One of the like- liest processes seem to me to be the following : — Boil one pound of powdered cochineal, and three and a half drams of subcarbonate of potash, in ten gallons of water, checking the effervescence from time to time; by adding a little cold water. When the mixture has boiled for some minutes, take the boiler off the fire, and place it on a table so inclined that the liquor may be easily poured off. Now throw in eight drams of alum, in powder, and stir the whole well, when the decoction will instantly assume a very brilliant tint. In about a quarter of an hour, the cochineal, divested of its colour- ing matter, will be seen deposited at the bottom, and the liquor as clear as if it had been filtered. Draw off this liquor into another boiler, and, after adding three and a half drams of isinglass dissolved in water and passed through a sieve, set it on the fire. As soon as it begins to boil, the carmine will be seen rising to the surface of the bath, and a coagulum will be formed, similar to that which takes place in the clarifications made with whites of eggs. The boiler must then be withdrawn from the fire, and the bath well stirred with a spatula ; in fifteen or twenty minutes after which, the carmine will have all fallen to the bottom. The clear fluid is then poured off, and the precipitate laid to drain on a very fine sieve. If the whole of this process has been properly per- formed, the carmine, when dry, will easily break be- tween the fingers. 28 THE PAINTER, GILDER, Lake. There are two sorts of colours known tinder this name lakes derived from cochineal — the richest and finest of all dark reds; and lakes prepared from madder — not quite so good. Cochineal lahe is obtained by boiling the fluid which remains after the precipitation of the carmine, in the manner described under the preceding head, along with potashes and the deposit which was left in the boiler after the addition of the alum. When all the heavier matters have fallen to the bottom, the clear fluid is drawn off, and alum again added. A precipitate is then thrown down, which, when drained and dried, is coclii-' Ileal lahe. Madder lakes, or, as they are sometimes called, mad- der carmine, are nearly as costly as cochineal lakes, and not so much inferior as is generally supposed. They are very durable, and have the peculiar merit of long retaining an appearance of great freshness. Madder being itself abundant and cheap, the costliness of mad- der lakes has been hitherto entirely owing to the ex- tremely tedious and complicated methods pursued in the manufacturing of them ; but, in consequence of certain scientific researches recently entered into by Messrs. Colin and Roubiquet, (see Annales de Chim., March, 1827,) so much light has been thrown on the subject, that the same results may now be obtained in three or AND VARNISHER's COMPANION, 29 four hours only^ wliich formerly required several succes- sive monthsj and that, too, in a very simple manner. ^' The manipulations/' say Messrs. Colin and Roubi- quet, " are so easy in practice, that it is in every per- son's power to undertake them ; and in a little time, we have no doubt, the use of these lakes will extend to the commonest objects." The new mode consists in mixing one part of madder with four parts of water, leaving it to macerate for ten minutes only, and then submitting it to a powerful pres- sure, till nearly every portion of liquid is squeezed out. Three times this process is repeated, and to the washing- liquor, preserved in each instance, there is added five or six parts more of pure water, and half a pint of pounded alum. The mixture is then allowed to macerate for two or three hours, in the heat of a water-bath, and stirred occasionally with a spatula. It is next strained through a fine cloth, and afterwards filtered through paper. A dilute solution of crystals of soda is finally added, when a precipitate is formed, which is the colouring matter wanted. Messrs. Colin and Koubiquet recommend that the dilute solution of crystals of soda should be divided into three portions, by which means three precipitates will be obtained, decreasing successively in colour and richness. Spanish Brown. This is obtained from an earth dug out of the ground ! it is of a dark, dull-red colour, something like horse-flesh. The deeper the colour, and the freer from gritty parti- 3* 30 THE PAINTER; GILDER, cles, the better it is for use. It is cheap and plentiful, and works well. It is much employed by painters, for a priming or first colour. Other Reds. Besides the above reds, I may mention, among those in use among painters, English red and Prussian redy both obtained from oxides of iron, and commonly called colcothar of vitriol ; red ochre^ which is very extensively employed, especially in distemper ; rose colour ^ composed of a portion of white lead mixed with pure lake ; and realgar^ which is formed of fifty-eight parts of arsenic and forty-two of sulphur. YELLOWS. Yellow Ochre. Of this colour there are two kinds, the "bright yelloWy and the dark yellow. The former is sometimes called plain ochre, and the latter spruce ochre. It will grind very fine, resists the weather well, and bears a good body. Massicot. The substance known under this name in commerce, is produced by the calcination of lead in contact with the air ; it is the lead, in fact, in its first state of change, after being combined with the oxygen of the atmo- sphere; heated a little longer, it is converted into minium, AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 31 or red lead; longer still, into a brown oxide, whicli is of no use in the arts. It is a good light-yellow for ge- neral purposes, and very serviceable, when mixed with blue, for making greens. Chrome Yellow. The mineral called chrome, discovered by M. Yau- quelin, in 1797, was so called from the peculiar property it possesses of colouring whatever it combines with — chrome signifying colour. Of the various compound co- lours of which it is the basis, the most valuable is that called chrome yellow^ or chromate of lead, obtained by pouring a solution of chromate of potass into a solution of any of the salts of lead. It is a very rich and brilliant yellow, and employed to advantage in house and coach painting. To test its purity, pour a little nitric acid upon it : if it effervesces, it is adulterated. Turner's, or Patent Yellow. When sea-salt is made into a paste with litharge, it is decomposed, its acid unites with the litharge, and the soda is set free. Hence Turner's patent process for decomposing sea-salt, which consists in mixing two parts of the former with one of the latter, moistening them and leaving them together for about twenty -four hours. The product is then washed, filtered, and evaporated, by which soda is obtained. A white substance is now left undissolved; it is a compound of muriatic acid and lead, which, when heated, changes its colour, and forms Tu,r- 32 THE PAINTER, GILDER, ner^s Yellow — a very beautiful colour, much in use among coach painters. Orj>i'm€nt. This colour is more commonly known by the name of yellow arsenic. It is a compound of about fifty-eight parts of arsenic, and forty-two of sulphur. It is good for some purposes, particularly for the production of straw-colours in painting doors, windows, &c.; but as it is a stony substance, the grinding of it is a very difficult, and, from its poisonous nature, an injurious operation. It likewise, in common with all bodies that contain arsenic, produces a bad efi'ect on any metallic substances exposed to its action. Naples Yellow. The best of all yellows : it is milder and more unctuous than either orpiment, massicot, or any of the ochres; combines readily with other colours, and improves them. [t is generally supposed to be obtained from the lava of Mount Vesuvius; but M. de Bondaroy says (Memoirs of the French Academy^ 1766,) that is a composition known at Naples under the name oi giallolini, the mode of preparing which is known only to one individual. On afterwards analyzing it, he found it to consist of ceruse alum, sal-ammoniac, and diaphoretic antimony. It is necessary to use it with great care. It must be ground well on a slab of porphyry or marble, and scraped to- gether with an ivory knife, as both stone and steel have AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 33 a tendency to turn it to green. Sometimes it is adulte- rated by an intermixture of iron; to detect this, fuse a portion of it along with colourless glass: if free from iron, it will become of a milk-white colour. Yellow of Antimony. A yellow obtained from dissolving crude antimony in muriatic acid, holds an intermediate place between chrome yellow and Naples yellow. It is chiefly used for giving a yellow colour to glass and earthenware. Yellow Pinh. A variety of yellow colours are also obtained from vegetable substances. The most durable of these is that extracted from the reseda luteola, a plant common to most European countries. It grinds and dissolves in water easily ; but care must be taken not to bring it in contact with iron, as the astringent principle which it contains in abundance, instantly dissolves that metal, which in its turn destroys the clearness of the colour. BLUES. Prussian Blue. A Prussian chemist, when making experiments on iron, happened to pour a solution of one of its salts on a solution of potashes, which had been kept for some time on animal matter, and found that a blue substance was formed. Following up the hint thus accidently ob- 84 THE PAINTER, GILDER, tained, he succeeded, after a number of experiments, in discovering a method of preparing the valuable colour called Prussian Blue. The process, which was long kept secret, is as follows : Four parts of bullock's blood, dried by the application of a slight heat, are mixed with an equal weight of potashes, and again exposed to a strong heat till the fumes which are at first given off cease to appear. The residue is then boiled in about twelve quarts of water, and strained, and to the solution are added two parts of green vitriol and eight of alum. A blue powder is now deposited, which is to be washed by muriatic acid, and then dried. There are blue colours superior to this, both in clearness and durability ; but none which, volume for volume, contains so large a quan- tity of colouring matter. M. Bourgeois, a practical co- lourman, says that it contains even ten to one more than any other colour. It is, on this account, much employed in house-painting, and also in colouring paper-hangings Unfortunately, it is affected by all the alkalis, and there- fore is unfit for mixing with any colour which contains them. When ground with oil, it takes a yellowish tint; the best method to prevent which is to mix a little lake. Indigo. Another blue colour, much used in common painting, is ?*n<^iY7o, extracted from the plant indigofera, found in America, Egypt, and the East Indies. None but the best and purest kind of this colour — that obtained from the indigofera argentea — is proper for oil-painting: AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 35 that of an inferior quality is only fit for distemper, as the oil renders it black or green. Indigo grinds fine, and bears a very good body. Its natural colour, however, being very dark, almost indeed approaching to black, it is seldom or never used without a small mixture of white. A preparation from the leaves of the anillo is sometimes fraudulently substituted for indigo, but may be at once detected by throwing a piece into the fire ] as genuine indigo will not hum. TJltramfiarine. Ultramarine is the richest, mellowest, most beautiful and lasting of all blues ; but its extravagant price — nearly equal, when pure, to its weight in gold — prevents it being introduced, unless very rarely indeed, into house- painting. It is prepared from la-pis lazuli. A number of pieces of this mineral are made red hot, and thrown into water, to make them pulverize easily; they are then reduced to a fine powder, and made up into a paste with a varnish compounded of resin, wax, and boiled linseed oil. This paste is put into a linen cloth, and repeatedly kneaded with hot water. The first water is thrown away; the second gives ultramarine of the best quality ; the third a colour of less value. The best test of the purity of this article is, to throw it into concen- trated nitric acid ; if adulterated, (as it often is,) it will be scarcely affected by the acid ; if pure, it will lose its colour almost entirely. 86 THE PAINTER, GILDER, Smcdtj ZaffrCj Azure, Saxon Blue, or Enamel Blue. AcoF'pound, known in commerce bj all these diflferent names, and bearing a strong resemblance to ultramarine, is obtained by dissolving cobalt in nitric acid, and pre- cipitating it by a solution of potash. It is of a lovely azure hue ; but if not bought in the form of powder, is very difficult to grind, and it can be used only in a pe- culiar manner. It is too sandy to bear any body in oil ; besides, oil would change its colour, and make it of a black cast. The only proper, indeed the only practica- ble method of laying it on, is by strewing it on a ground of white lead, which is done in the following manner : Temper white lead with good clear drying oil, as stiff as you can well use it with the pencil or brush : with this white cover the surface or the work you intend to strew with smalt, being sure to cover it completely and equally. Then strew your smalt thickly over this white ground, while it is moist, and with the feather-edge of a goose- quill stroke it over, that it may lie evenly and thickly alike on all parts, and with a piece of linen cloth dab it down close, that it may take well upon the ground laid under it. When you find the ground quite dry, wipe off the loose colour with a feather, and blow the remain- der off with a pair of bellows. A portion of Prussian blue is frequently mixed up with the genuine cobalt ; and Prussian blue has been even prepared in such a manner as to be passed off for cobalt, without containing a single particle of that ingredient. The property, however, AND VARNISIIER'S COMPANION. 87 which Prussian blue possesses, of being discoloured by alkalis, furnishes an easy security against any imposition of this sort. Immerse a piece of the suspected article in clarified lime-water for ab®ut an hour ; if the water has then assumed a citron hue, and there is an ochrous deposit at the bottom, it is a certain proof of the pre- sence of Prussian blue. Blue Verditer. This is a beautiful blue, obtained from the waste nitrate of copper of the refiners, by adding to it a quan- tity of chalk ; but it is only proper for distemper : it does not admit of being used with oil, unless a consider- able mixture of white is introduced. GREENS. Verdigris. This is the best simple green, and the one most in use. It is obtained by dissolving common verdigris in distilled vinegar or sour wine, and then proceeding to evaporation and crystallization. It has a bluish tint ; but when lightened by the ad- dition of a little yellow pink, it makes a beautiful grass green. It grinds very fine, and works easily, and in a good body. When delicate painting is required, the dross, mixed with the common verdigris, makes it improper, and it becomes necessary to use distilled verdigris, which can 88 THE PAINTER, GILDER^ be had at the shops, and is free from all impurities; but it is too expensive for ordinary purposes. Italiarij or Verona Green. According to Haiiy, this is a species of chloride, (a combination of chlorine with a metallic or other sub- stance.) It is of the same colour as chlorine, which de- rives its name from the Greek word cTiloros, signifying a yellowish green. It is very durable, and not acted on by acids ; but, being obtained from an earth, does not incorporate well with oil. Saxon, or Hungary Green, The colour which bears this name is a carbonate of copper, found in a natural state in the mountains of Saxony and Hungary, mixed with earthy matters, which give it a palish hue. Sc7ieele*s Green. This colour, called after the celebrated chemist by whom its composition was first made known, is an arsen- ite of copper, obtained in the following manner : A pound of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) is first dissolved in four pints of water ; then a pound of carbonate of potass, dis- solved in eight pints of water, is boiled for some time with five ounces of white arsenic ; the two solutions are now mixed while hot, and a precipitate produced, which, being well washed and dried, is of a light sea-green colour AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 39 It grinds well with oil, and is in much request for the painting of the cabins of ships. Schweinfurt Green. A green, which has recently obtained great reputation on the Continent, and which is said to surpass Scheele's, both in beauty and splendour, may be obtained, accord- ing to Dr. Liebig, (^Armales de Cliimie^ by the following process : Dissolve, in a copper kettle, by heat, one part of verdigris in a suflScient quantity of pure vinegar, and add to it an aqueous solution of white arsenic. A pre- cipitate of dirty green generally forms ; but y6u must add more vinegar, and keep the boiler on the fii-e till that precipitate disappears and a perfect amalgamation of the materials takes place. After boiling this compound for some time, a granular precipitate will be formed, of a most beautiful green colour, which has then only to be separated from the liquid, well washed, and dried. Should the colour thus prepared have too blue a shade, boil ten pounds of it in a solution of common potash, over a moderate "fire, and it will soon acquire a rich yellow tint. Brunswick Green. A colour, thus named, is much used for paper-hangings and coarse kinds of painting in water-colours. It is pre- pared as follows : A close earthenware vessel is half filled with copper filings or clippings, and a saturated solution of sal-ammoniac poured over them. It is al- 4:0 THE PAINTER; GILDER, lowed to stand for a few weeks, by whicli time the whole of the copper becomes oxidyzed, (a muriate of copper.) The oxide being then well washed, and slowly dried in the shade, is pure Brunswick green. Two parts of cop- per and three parts of sal-ammoniac yield six parts of green. Green Verditer. This is obtained from the same substance as blue ver- diter, by a process nearly similar. Without the addition of white lead, or Spanish white, it is unfit for oil-paint- ing: and, in any way, it is better adapted for distemper. Its colour may be obtained in oil, by mixing two or three parts of verdigris with one of white lead. Green Lake^ or Venetian Emerald. A very simple mode has recently been discovered, at Venice, of producing a fine unchangeable emerald colour. A quantity of qo^qq is boiled in river-water — if spoiled coffee, so much the better. By means of a proportionate quantity of pure soda, a green precipitate is obtained, which is placed to dry, for six or seven days, upon po- lished marble, stirring it occasionally, in order that every part may come in contact with the atmosphere, by which the vivacity of the colour is greatly heightened. The green lake obtained by this process is said to have re- sisted the action of acids, and even the influence of light and moisture. AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 41 BROWNS. Umber. Umber, or, as it is sometimes called, brown ochre, is an impure native oxide of iron and manganese. It is brought from Umbria, in Italy, whence its name. It is much employed by painters, and is the only simple brown in common use. A species of it has been lately brought from Cologne, which is a good deal browner and more 'transparent than that in common use. The browns arising from mixture will be mentioned in speaking of compound colours. New BroiCTij discovered hy Mr, Hatchet. The celebrated chemist, Mr. Hatchet, has suggested to painters that a simple brown colour, far superior in beauty and intensity to all the browns, whether simple or compound, hitherto known, may be obtained from the prussiate of copper, (a combination of prussic acid with copper.) The following is the process which he recom- mends : Dissolve the green muriate of copper in about ten times its weight of distilled or rain-water, and add a solution of prussiate of lime, until a complete precipi- tation is effected. The precipitate is then to be washed with cold water, filtered, and set to dry in the shade. 4* 42 THE PAINTER, GILDER, COMPOUND COLOURS, OR COLOURS ARISING FROM MIXTURE. The various colours that may be obtained by the miX' ture of other colours, are innumerable. I only propose here to give the best and simplest modes of preparing those most frequently required. Compound colours, formed by the union of only two colours, are called by painters virgin tints. The smaller the number of colours of which any com- pound colour is composed, the purer and the richer it will be. Light Gray is made by mixing white lead with lamp- black, using more or less of each material, as you wish to obtain a lighter or a darker colour. Buff IS made from yellow ochre and white lead. Silver J or Pearl Gray. — Mix white lead, indigo, and a very slight portion of black, regulating the quantities by the shade you wish to obtain. Flaxen Gray is obtained by a mixture of white lead and Prussian blue, with a small quantity of lake. Brick colour. — Yellow ochre and red lead, with a little white. Oah-wood colour. — Three-fourths white lead, and one- fourth part umber and yellow ochre : the proportions of the last two ingredients being determined by the re- quired tints. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 4? Walnut-tree colour. — Two-thirds wbite lead, and one third red ochre, yellow ochre, and umber, mixed accord ing to the shade sought. If veining is required, use different shades of the same mixture, and, for the deepest places, black. Jonquil. — Yellow, pink, and white lead. This colour is only proper for distemper. Lemon Tellmo. — Realgar and orpiment. Some object to this mixture, on account of the poisonous nature of the ingredients. The same colour can be obtained by mixing yellow-pink with Naples yellow ; but it is then only fit for distemper. Orange colour. — Red lead and yellow ochre. Violet colour. — Vermilion, or red lead, mixed with black or blue, and a small portion of white. Vermilion is far preferable to red lead, in mixing this colour. Purple. — Dark-red mixed with violet-colour. Carnation. — Lake and white. Gold colour. — Massicot, or Naples yellow, with a small quantity of realgar, and a very little Spanish white. Olive colour. — This may be obtained by various mix- tures : black and a little blue, mixed with yellow ; yel- low-pink, with a little verdigris and lampblack ; or ochre and a small quantity of white, will also produce a kind of olive colour. For distemper, indigo and yellow-pink mixed with white lead or Spanish white, must be used. If veined, it should be done with umber. Lead colour. — Indigo and white. Chestnut colour. — Red ochre and black, for a dark 44 THE PAINTER, GILDER, chestnut. To make it lighter, employ a mixture of yellow ochre. Liylit Timher colour. — Spruce ochre, white, and a little umber. Flesh colour. — Lake, white lead, and a little vermilion. Light Willow Green. — White mixed with verdigris. Grass Green. — Yellow-pink mixed with verdigris. An endless variety of greens can be obtained by the mixture of blue and yellow in different proportions, with the occasional addition of white lead. Stone colour. — White, with a little spruce ochre. Darh Lead colour. — Black and white, with a little indigo. Faton colour. — White lead, stone ochre, and a little vermilion. Chocolate colour. — Lampblack and Spanish brown. On acc*ount of the fatness of the lampblack, mix some litharge and red lead. Portland Stone colour. — Umber, yellow ochre, and white lead. The variety of shades of brown that may be obtained, are nearly as numerous as those of green. To imitate Mahogany. — Let the first coat of painting be white lead, the second orange, and. the last burned umber or sienna ; imitating the veins according to your taste and practice. To imitate }Yainscot. — Let the first coat be white, the second half white and half yellow ochre, and the third yellow ochre only. Shadow with umber or sienna. To imitate Satin }Vood. — Take white for your fii'st AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 45 coating, light blue for the second, and dark blue or dark green for the third. OILS. We come, next, to speak of the principal oils which are used in the preparation both of colours and varnishes. Oil of Spike was formerly much more in use than it is at present. It is a volatile oil, and has the advantage of drying more speedily than any of the fat oils ; it is also free from any offensive odour. It is, however, generally in a very impure state ; and of this painters are so thoroughly convinced, that they have* pretty gene- rally renounced it. In all preparations for varnishes, where it is directed to be employed, oil of turpentine, which is much cheaper, can be substituted without any other inconvenience than what may arise from its stronger smell. Oil of Lavender is principally used by enamellers, to whom it is particularly valuable, from its consistency being such as to prevent the colours that are mixed with it from running. Its property of drying more equally and gradually than perhaps any other oil, renders it also of service to the varnisher. Oil of Poppies has one advantage possessed by no other — that of being perfectly colourless. For this rea- son, a decided preference is given to it for delicate kinds of painting. Being, however, extremely fat, it is liable, unless very old, to the objection of being insufferably tedious in drying. 46 THE PAINTER, GILDER, Nut Oil and Linseed Oil, both iu very general use, rank among the fat oils. Their fatness, indeed, is so great, that it is mostly found necessary, before employ- ing them in colouring, to give them a drying quality, which may be done in the following manner : — Take three parts of white vitriol, and twelve parts of litharge, and let them be reduced to as fine a powder as possible ; then mix them with thirty-two parts of nut or linseed oil, and place the mixture over a fire just brisk enough to keep the oil slightly boiling. Let it continue to boil, till the oil entirely ceases to throw up any scum. Then take the vessel off the fire, and let it stand in a cool place for about three hours, and a sediment, which con- tains the fattening part of the oil, will be formed at the bottom. Pour off the oil which is above (being careful not to let any of the sediment mix with it) into wide- mouthed bottles. Let it remain a sujficient time to clear itself perfectly, before it is used, and you will find it possessed of the proper drying quality. Sometimes, when the fire is not kept pretty equal wliile the boiling is going on, the colour of the oil is affected, so as to render it unfit for delicate painting. To avoid this, some persons tie up the litharge and vitriol, when powdered, in a bag ; but, in this case, the quantity of litharge must be doubled. The bag must also be suspended by a piece of packthread to a stick made to rest upon the edges of the vessel, so as to keep the bag at the distance of an inch from the bottom. This method, too, is slower than that of boiling the dry- ing material along with the oil. 1 AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 47 In some kinds of work, such as the preparation of floor-cloths, and painting large figures or ornaments, in which clayey colours are employed, an extraordinary rapidity in drying is sometimes necessary, which could not be procured by using the proportions of drying ma- terials above mentioned. In such cases, it is customary to increase the quantity of litharge in any proportion that may be requisite. On some occasions, the litharge employed has amounted to one-fourth part of the whole quantity of oil. The process used for giving a drying quality to nut and linseed oil will not do for oil of poppies, which would thereby be deprived of its colourless property, the most valuable one which it possesses. Many painters consider it a matter of indifference whether nut or linseed oil be employed in colouring, and therefore, for the sake of cheapness, give the preference to the latter. But they labour under a mistake ; for these two oils should, by no means, be used indiscriminately. In painting which is allowed to be coarse, or which is sheltered from the effects of the rain and sun, linseed oil will answer the purpose. But where any nicety is re- quired in colouring, in situations exposed to the weather, nut oil only is proper, as it nourishes and develops the colour ; whereas linseed oil dissipates and destroys it, and obliges the work to be done afresh in a short time. In painting exposed to weather, persons aware of the im- propriety of using linseed oil, are sometimes induced to mix a portion of oil of turpentine with nut oil, to save cost; but this mixture has almost as injurious an effoci 48 THE PAINTER, GILDER, in whitening colour which is exposed to the sun, as pure linseed oil. I have before said that linseed oil will serve for paint- ing that is not exposed to the rain and sun. This is not, however, the case when a pure white is wanted, for lin- seed oil has the effect of turning the white lead yellow, and nut oil should therefore be employed. If that is considered too expensive, one part of turpentine, at least, ought to be mixed with two parts of linseed oil. Oil of Turpentine is more used than any of the pre- ceding oils ] the varnisher, indeed, scarcely employs any other. There is a great difference in the quality. The inferior kinds, though they may serve for mixing coarse and common colours, can never be used with good effect in varnish. The best description is that which is the lightest and least coloured. A simple method of trying its degree of goodness is with the best spirits of wine, which will take up about one-third part of the weight of the inferior sort of oil, and only about a seventh or eighth part of the best kinds. Fat oils are often mixed with the oil of turpentine, as well as with other volatile oils — a mixture particularly hurtful in the case of varnishes. There is a remarkable distinction, however, between the two, by which such adulterations may be always readily detected. Both sorts of oil stain paper, — but a stain from a volatile oil may be easily removed by heat, while one from fixed oils remains almost indelible. Thus, if a drop of common oil be thrown on paper, and held near a fire, a part flies off; but, before the whole of it can be dissipated, tho AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 49 paper is destroyed. If, on the contrary, a few drops of turpentine (or any other volatile oil) be thrown on paper and treated in the same way, the stain disappears with- out the texture of the paper being in the smallest degree injured. And if paper be stained with an oil com- pounded partly of a volatile and partly of a fat oil, that portion only which is volatile will evaporate on exposure to heat, while the other will remain. It is owing to the property just mentioned, that vola- tile oils are sometimes employed to make transparent paper for copying drawings. For this purpose, the paper is besmeared with pure volatile oil of turpentine, and dried for a short time, by exposure to air ; it is then put on the drawing, the traces of which are distinctly seen through it. After taking oflF the copy by a pencil, the oil is easily expelled by holding the paper near the fire. Drying Oils, which are composed of particular sub- stances mixed with some of the oils before mentioned, are useful for several purposes. They are most valuable when so manufactured as to be colourless. They are much used in preparing varnishes j and, in oil painting, are not unfrequently employed as a varnish, either alone or diluted with a little oil of turpentine. Drying oil is easily procured at the shops ; but, if you wish to make it yourself, one of the best methods is to take a pound of nut or linseed oil, (according as it is intended for inside or outside work,) to which a drying quality has been given by the method before mentioned ; dissolve in it five ounces of rosin by means of a gentle heat ; when 6 50 THE PAINTER, GILDER, this is done, add to it rather more than half an ounce of turpentine : let the composition rest till a sediment is formed and is quite cool ; then pour it, free from any part of the sediment, into proper vessels, and make use of it while fresh. If at any time it should become too thick, you may dilute it with a little oil of turpentine. Some painters of ornaments, and coach painters, in- stead of using drying oils, content themselves with add- ing white vitriol in mixing their colours. This method is bad ; the salt of the vitriol will not unite with the oil, and the painting, in consequence, becomes mealy, and sometimes cracks. When drying oil is colourless, it is of great use ' to painters of pictures, by whom, as well as by the house painter, it is not unfrequently used as varnish, either in a pure or dilute state. It has been recently discovered, that when a solution of yellow soap is added to red, yellow, and black paints, when ground in oil, before they are casked up, they acquire no improper hardness, and dry remarkably fast when laid on with the brush, without having recourse to any of the usual drying expedients. Pilchard Oil, which possesses more greasy matter than any other fish oil, has been used in Cornwall for the last fifty years, to great advantage, in coarse painting. The preparation is said, by a correspondent in the Mechanics* Magazine, (vol. vi., page 471,) to be made in the fol- lowing manner : Put the oil into a clean iron pot, and place it over a slow fire, (wood is best,) to prevent it from burning; when it begins to heat, skim it well; let AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 51 it remain on the fire till it singes a feather put therein. For every gallon of oil, add a small table-spoonful of red litharge. Stir them together well for about three minutes; then take the pot off the fire, and let the mix- ture cool in the open air, after which it is fit for use. It is said to ilry quickly, to incorporate well with any coloured paint on wood or iron, to have all the appear- ance of varnish, and to be extremely durable. VARNISHES. Strictly speaking, every substance, whether dry or liquid, is a varnish, which, being spread over any body, has the effect of giving its surface a brilliant appearance. But, in its general meaning, the term is only applied to those substances that are capable of rendering this effect durahle. The foundation of all varnishes are gummy and resin- ous substances ; and the only liquids that can be com- bined with them, so as to form varnishes, are oils and spirit of wine. For a varnish to be really good, it ought to be limpid, brilliant, transparent, and durable. The durability of a varnish is its greatest and rarest excellence. The principal gums and resins used for varnishes are gum Arabic, gum elastic, gum anima, copal, dragon's blood, stick-lac, shell-lac, and mastic. The solvents chiefly employed are spirits of wine and spirits of tur- pentine. In choosing gums and resins, those are to be preferred ^ 52 THE PAINTER, GILDER, which are quite free from particles of dirt, and of which the lumps, when held up to the light, present a clear and transparent appearance. What is often sold at the shops as gum Arabic — the best of all the gums — is frequently only the clearer pieces of the gum Senegal, which, though equally strong and substantial, is far from being so pure as gum Arabic. The imposition may be detected by observing one very obvious distinction. The genuine gum Arabic is always in small irregular masses, smooth on the outside ; the pieces of the gum Senegal are invariably larger, and rough on the outside. A composition of different resins, coloured with brick- dust or Brazil-wood, or a very small portion of real dra- gon^s blood, is not unfrequently sold as genuine. It is of a dull red or brick colour, whereas real dragon's blood is a dark red, and almost brown colour on the outside. The latter, too, is inflammable; while the imitation, when put into the fire, does not inflame, but swells up. The liquid commonly sold under the name of spirits of loine is in general a highly-rectified spirit, interme- diate between proof spirit and alcohol, but not suffi- ciently concentrated for the purpose of making varnish. The readiest practicable method of determining whether the alcohol will answer your purpose, is to fill a large phial with it, and then to drop into it a small lump of potash or pearlash, which has been heated very hot over the fire, to expel its moisture, and not afterwards suf- fered to become cold : the phial is then to be well shaken, and if the lump remain dry, or nearly so, the AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 53 alcohol is good ', if any considerable portion of it remain undissolved, it is unfit for use. Spirits of turpentine are always good in proportion to thoir inflammability — that which burns most readily being the best. The smell, too, of the inferior kind is more unpleasant and less powerful than that of the better sort. When doubts are entertained as to its purity, pour about two table-spoonfuls into a saucer, and place it to evaporate in the sun, which it ought to do entirely in the course of two or three hours ; if a greasy residuum or a soft, sticky mucus is left, it is a proof that the turpentine is adulterated, and ought to be rejected. Another method of judging of the comparative good- ness of different sorts both of spirits of wine and spirits of turpentine, is by weighing quantities of two kinds, equal in measure, one against the other : the lightest is always the best. The number of different varnishes to be obtained by various methods of mixing together the substances from which they can be manufactured, is endless, and it would be altogether from the purpose and nature of this little \^ork to attempt any thing like a description of them. Many of them, indeed, are only useful to the artist, and are therefore not entitled to a place here; while others are merely proofs of the ingenuity of chemical students, and, from the expense or sacrifice of time attending their pre- paration, are not adapted for practical purposes. Almost every varnisher, too, has at least one or two composi- tions peculiar to himself, the superior value of which 6* 64 THE PAINTER, GILDER, rests cliiejBy iu bis own opinion. In large towns and cities, moreover, the varnishes in common use can easily be purchased ready made ; but for the benefit of those who may not have this convenience, or who prefer pre- paring their own varnishes, I shall here add a few simple recipes, from modern and approved sources, for making those that are in the most general use. Shell-lac Vaiiiisli, The best of the common spirit varnishes is that made with sJidl-lac. Hitherto the use of it has been limited, in consequence of its possessing a brown-yellowish colour, which made it unfit for all articles which that tint would injure ; but Professor Hare, of Philadelphia, has made the arts a valuable present of the following method of producing it perfectly colourless : Dissolve, in an iron kettle, one part of pcarlash in about eight parts of water; add one part of shcU-lac, and heat the whole to ebullition. When the lac is dissolved, cool the solution, and impreg- nate it with chlorine till the lac is all precipitated. The precipitate is white, but its colour deepens by washing and consolidation ; dissolved in alcohol, lac bleached by the above process yields a varnish which is as free from colour as any copal varnish. Chlorine (oxy-muriatic acid) may be formed by mixing intimately eight parts of common salt and three of the black oxide of manga- nese in powder : put this mixture into a retort ; then pour four parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal weight of water and afterwards allowed to cool, upon AND VARNISIIER's COMrANION. 55 the salt and manganese; the gas will then be immediately liberated, and the operation may be quickened by a mo- derate heat. A tube leading from the mouth of the retort must be passed into the resinous solution, when the gas will be absorbed, and the lac precipitated. It is to be presumed that, now that shell-lac varnish is thus rendered universally applicable, it will be the most used of any ; as it possesses all the properties of a good spirit varnish in a higher degree than any of the other resins, and costs at the same time much less. Shell-lac Varnish of various colours may be made by using any colour in fine powder with the varnish, in the following manner : Rub up the colour with a little alco- hol, or spirits of turpentine, till it becomes perfectly smooth ; then put it into the cup with the varnish. Red Shcll-lac Varnish Is best made from good Dutch sealing-wax (which is itself chiefly composed of seed lac). This is the lac usea to varnish glass or wood for electrical purposes. Three or four coats will make a perfect covering. Turjpentine Varnish. Take five pounds of clear good rosin, pound it well, and put it into a gallon of oil of turpentine; boil the mixture over a stove, till the rosin is perfectly dissolved j and when cool, it will be fit for use. 56 THE PAINTER, GILDER, Linseed Oil Varnish. Boil any quantity of linseed oil for an bour, and to every pound of oil add four ounces of good clear rosin, well powdered; keep stirring it till the rosin is per- fectly dissolved, and when this is done, add one ounce of spirits of turpentine for every pound of oil, and when strained and cool, it will be fit for use. This varnish is much used for common purposes. It is cheap, is a good preservative of wood, and not liable to sustain injury from the application of hot water. Copal Yarnish. Take one ounce of copal and half an ounce of shell- lac; powder them well, and put them into a bottle or jar containing a quart of spirits of wine. Place the mixture in a warm place, and shake it occasionally, till you perceive that the gums are completely dissolved; and when strained, the varnish will be fit for use. I have given the above as the simplest, and therefore the most usual method of making common copal varnish ; but it may be prepared in a variety of ways, where par- ticular uses may be required. Gold-coloured Copal Varnish. Take one ounce of powdered copal, two ounces of essential oil of lavender, and six ounces of essence of tui'pentine. Put the oil of lavender into a matras of a AND VARNISIIER's COMPANION. 57 proper size, placed on a sand-bath subjected to a mode- rate heat. When the oil is very warm, add the copal from time to time, in very small quantities, and stir the mixture with a stick of white wood, rounded at the end. When the copal has entirely disappeared, put in the turpentine in almost a boiling state, at three dififerent times, and keep continually stirring the mixture till the solution is quite completed. When this varnish is required to be colourless, as is frequently the case, it will be necessary to use the rec- tified spirit of turpentine — the common essence sold at the shops being generally high-coloured Camphorated Copal Varnish. Take copal in powder, four ounces; essential oil of lavender, twelve ounces; camphor, a quarter of an ounce, and as much spirit of turpentine as will give the varnish the consistency required. Heat the oil and the camphor in a small matras, stirring them, and putting in the copal and turpentine in the manner directed in the preceding varnish. This varnish is particularly well adapted for articles which require transparency and pliability, united to great durability, such as the varnished wire-gauze used in ships instead of glass. Copal Varnish in Imitation of Tortoise- SheU. Take of amber-coloured copal, six ounces ; of shell-la« or Venice turpentine, an ounce and a half; twenty- four ^8 THE PAINTER; GILDER, ounces of clear linseed oil, and six ounces of essence of turpentine. Place the copal in a matras, and expose it to a moderate heat till it is liquefied; then add the linseed oil in a boiling state, afterwards the shell-lac or Venice turpentine, also liquefied, and lastly the spirit of turpen- tine in small portions. If the varnish prove too thick, dilute it with spirit of turpentine. This varnish is principally used for watch-cases, though it is also applied to other imitations of tortoise-shell. All the above methods, however, of preparing copal require long boiling and careful filtering in the prepara- tion, and consequently are not so convenient as the pro- cess first mentioned: they are therefore seldom used, Mnless where the nature of the substance to be varnished renders oil of turpentine decidedly preferable to spirits )f wine. An excellent copal varnish may be made by putting an ounce of copal of an amber colour, finely powdered, into a flask containing four ounces of ether ; corking the mixture with a glass stopper, and shaking it for half an hour; then allowing it to rest till the liquor becomes perfectly clear. It is unfortunate that the great volatility of ether and its very high price do not allow the use of this varnish for common purposes. Indeed, its employment is almost confined to repairing accidents in enamel, and restoring the smooth surface of paintings that have been cracked or shattered. It has some admirable properties, which belong to no other varnish in existence. It presents AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 69 great resistance to the friction of hard bodies, possesses remarkable solidity, has a peculiar drying quality^ and a very fragrant smell. Copal, and other varnishes, prepared with essence of turpentine, will not admit of being applied to purely white grounds, unless the turpentine has been highly rectified; and even then it is not unattended with risk. For coloured grounds, which require solidity, they are excellent. The varnishes prepared with copal are some of the most useful and valuable known, and their composition has been much improved of late years. They are rich, splendid, and solid, bear friction well, and are of great service in preserving articles exposed to damp or rain. Mathematical and philosophical instruments are gene- rally varnished with them. Amber Varnish. Put eight ounces of amber, finely powdered, into a vessel containing half a pint of the best spirits of tur- pentine ; (if for very fine purposes, rectified spirits of turpentine should be used;) place the vessel over a stove or fire till the amber is quite melted; then put it into two ounces of shell-lac powdered, and place it on the fire again ; keep stirring it till the gum is completely dissolved, and then add to the \^hole an ounce of clear cold-drawn linseed oil. Stir it well together, and when strained, it will be fit for use. Like copal varnish, this varnish may likewise be pre- 60 THE PAINTER, GILDER, pared in various ways ; but the one here given is the cheapest and readiest, and the other methods of making it do not in any case possess advantages over this. Some varnishers prefer using more spirits of turpentine and a smaller proportion of linseed oil. Some years since, amber varnish was in very general use; but of late, copal, on account of its being less coloured, has obtained a preference. CaoictcJioicc, or Gum-elastic Varnish. Take eight ounces of gum-elastic, pound it well, and put it upon the fire, in a vessel containing half a pound of boiling linseed oil. When the gum is dissolved, add half a pound of spirits of turpentine. Let them continue boiling together till the mixture becomes clear; and when it is cool, strain it for use. This varnish is brilliant and durable ; but it has the fault of drying very slowly, for which reason it is not employed. Mastic Varnish. This varnish, which is used principally for pictures in oil, is usually prepared by dissolving the mastic in spirits of turpentine, by means of a sand-bath, then straining it through a fine sieve, and afterwards placing it, for two or three weeks, in a bottle well corked, where the light of the sun may act freely upon it, which causes a large precipitation of mucilaginous matter, and leaves the var- nish as clear as water. But to procure a mastic varnish AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 61 that can be perfectly depended upon, the following ob- servations must be attended to : Let all the mastic be bruised by a muller on a grinding-stone ; this will sepa- rate the soft or oily tears, as they are called, and enable you to throw them aside : whereas, if the mastic is put in a mass into the turpentine, the tears remain imbodied with it, and prevent the varnish from drying hard, leaving a greasy or tacky surface. The next point of importance is to make use only of turpentine which has been twice distilled, or which is at all events quite clear and colour- less : you must take care not to have it served to you through an oily measure, (as is too often the case,) but poured out of the carboy without being shaken or dis- tm^bed. When the mastic and turpentine are thus ob- tained perfectly pure, they may be dissolved in a clean bottle without heat, and hy half an hour's shaking in the hand. Let them then be strained and treated in the usual way, as above mentioned. A varnish similar to this is occasionally made, in which frankincense or sandrac is employed, instead of mastic, and is very well adapted for mixing up colours. The French sometimes prepare this resin in pure alco- hol ; but mastic varnish thus prepared is liable to chill on the picture, and produces, in time, a kind of white scale over it, which injures its lustre. * Varnish for Violins j &c. Take a gallon of rectified spirits of wine, twelve ounces of mastic, and a pint of turpentine varnish 3 put 62 THE PAINTER, GILDER, them in all together in a tin can, and keep it in a very warm place, shaking it occasionally, till it is perfectly dissolved ; then strain it, and it is fit for use. If you find it necessary, you may dilute it with turpentine varnish. This varnish is also very useful for furniture of plum- tree, mahogany, or rosewood. White hard Varnish. Take one pound of mastic, four ounces of gum anima, and five pounds of gum sandrac : put them altagether, to dissolve, into a vessel containing two ounces of rec- tified spirits of wine, which should be kept in a warm place and frequently shaken till all the gums are quite dissolved; then strain the mixture through a lawn sieve, and it will be fit for use. Varnishes for Paling and coarse Wood-worh. Grind any quantity of tar with as much Spanish brown as it will bear, without becoming too thick to be used as a paint or varnish ; then spread it on the wood with a large brush. It soon hardens by keeping. The work should be kept as free from dust and insects as possible, till the varni^ is thoroughly dry. This varnish i« an excellent preserver of the wood from damp; on which account, as well as its being cheaper, it is to be preferred to painting, not only for paling, but for weather-boarding, and all coarser kinds of painting on wood. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 63 The colour may be made a grayish instead of a glossy Drown, by mixing a small proportion of white lead, or of whiting and ivory black, with the Spanish brown. Varnish for Coloured Drawings. Mix together one ounce of Canada balsam and two ounces of spirits of turpentine. Before applying the composition, size the drawing or print with a solution of isinglass in water; when this is dry, apply the varnish with a camel's-hair brush. The use of this varnish gives to coloured drawings and prints an appearance resembling that of oil paint- ings. Varnish for Glass. Reduce a quantity of gum tragacanth to powder, and let it dissolve for twenty-four hours in the white of eggs well beat up ; then rub it gently on the glass with a brush. Blade Varnish for old Straw or Chip Hats. Take half an ounce of the best black sealing-wax, pound it well, and put it into a four-ounce phial con- taining two ounces of rectified spirits of wine. Place it in a sand-bath, or near a moderate fire, till the wax is dissolved ; then lay it on warm, with a fine soft hair brush, before a fire or in the sun. It gives a good stiff- ness to old straw hats, and a beautiful gloss equal to new. It likewise resists wet. 64 THE PAINTER; GILDER, Varnish for Drawings and Card-worh, Boil some clean parchment-cuttings in water, in a glazed pipkin, till they produce a very clear size. Strain it, and keep it for uee. Changing Varnishes. Varnishes of this description are called changing, be- cause, when applied to metals, such as copper, brass, or hammered tin, they give them a more agreeable colour. Indeed, the common metals, when coated with them, acquire a lustre approaching to that of the precious me- tals ; and hence these varnishes are much employed in manufacturing imitations of gold and silver. It would be an endless task to enumerate all the various kinds of changing varnishes that can be made, and the methods of preparing them. One simple mode of mixing I shall, however, mention here, by which all the different tints that can be required for changing varnishes may be certainly obtained. Put four ounces of the best gum gamboge into thirty- two ounces of spirits of turpentine ; four ounces of dra- gon's blood into the same quantity of spirits of turpen- tine as the gamboge ; and one ounce of anatto into eight ounces of the same spirits. The three mixtures should be made in different vessels. They should then be kept for about a fortnight, in a warm place, and as much exposed to the sun as possible. ^ AND VARNISHER^S COMPANION. 65 At the end of that time they will be fit for use ; and you can procure any tints you wish by making a composition from them, with such proportions of each liquor as prac- tice and the nature of the colour you are desirous of obtaining will point out. Changing varnishes may likewise be employed, with very good effect, for furniture. — Sec Lacquers, Mordant Varnishes, These are a species of varnishes chiefly employed when a coating of some other substance is to be entirely or in part laid over them. Compositions of this kind ought neither to be too thick nor too fluid, as either of these faults injures the delicacy of the gilding. They should likewise be of rather a fat nature, because they must be so prepared as not to dry till the gilding is completed. Various compositions are employed as mordants, and almost every workman has a favourite one of his own. One of the best is the following : — Dissolve one ounce of mastic, one ounce of sandrac, half an ounce of gum gamboge, and a quarter of an ounce of turpentine, in six ounces of spirits of turpentine. Another good mordant may be obtained by exposing boiled oil to a strong heat in a pan, and, when you per- ceive a black smoke disengaged from it, setting it on fire, and extinguishing it in a few moments by putting on the cover of the pan. Then pour the matter, while 6* 66 THE PAINTER, GILDER, • ^ it is warm, into a heated bottle, and add to it a little oil of turpentine. Both the above mordants have something of a drying nature, and are therefore objectionable when the work to be done, after the application of the mordant, is of a kind that requires it to be a long time before drying. In such eases, the best mordant is formed by adding a little red lead to the copal varnish prepared with camphor and oil of lavender, as before directed. The choice of mordants must in some measure be guided by the tone which you desire to give to your work, whether deep or light, red or yellow. For bronz- ing or very pale gilding, a mixture of asphaltum and drying oil, diluted with oil of turpentine, is much re- commended. One of the simplest mordants is that procured by dissolving a little honey in thick glue. It has the effect of greatly heightening the colour of the gold, and tho leaf sticks to it extremely well. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON VARNISHES. It is a common practice, in the manufacture of spirit varnishes, to mix glass or sand with the gum or resin, for the purpose of enabling the alcohol to penetrate more readily into all parts of the mass. M. Ferrari, however, recommends (^Giornah de Fissica, ix., p. 36) that in place of those substances, a coarsely -powdered charcoal should be used ; for the glass or sand generally tends to AND VARNISIIEIl's COMPANION. 67 aggregate the gum or resin at the bottom of the vessels and to protect it from the solvent ; whilst, on the con- trary, the charcoal rather tends to raise and divide it. The most advantageous proportion appears to be one ounce of charcoal to one pound of the spirit or the oil of turpentine used. The uses to which different varnishes are to be applied must, of course, determine the choice of them. Good varnishes, prepared with spirits of wine, are very clear, brilliant, and delicate, and may be applied with success to furniture, and to fancy ornaments which are kept within doors, and admit of re-varnishing easily ; but they have not body nor durability enough for coloured grounds — not even wainscoting, ceiling ornaments, &c., or any articles exposed to the weather. If you attempt to renovate them by rubbing, they become of a mealy appearance. Their inferiority to oil varnishes, is evident from the circumstance that oils will of themselves form varnishes by repeated application, whereas spirits of wine alone, so applied, disappear without leaving any trace. Varnishes made with turpentine or other oils are much superior in many respects to those prepared with spirits of wine. They are pliable and smooth, as well as brilliant and durable. They yield better to the ope- ration of polishing, and are less liable to crack. Oil of poppies, nut oil, and linseed oil are used for making fat varnishes ; oil of turpentine, and oil of la- vender for the drier ones. The other oils are either too fat, too much coloured, or too dear to answer the purpose of the varnisher. C8 THE PAINTER, GILDER, Oil of turpentine might be employed on all occasions instead of spirits of wine, in the composition of varnishes, were it not for the strong and disagreeable smell arising from it. The oil obtained from the coarse or common turpentine ought never to be used in tlie preparation of varnishes. A slight coating of spirits of wine varnish laid over one coat of turpentine, when dry, is of great use in removing the offensive odour. Varnishes are usually kept in large strong glass bottles with a wide mouth, for the convenience of taking them out ; but as the light is frequently found to act strongly upon them, and render them thick, I would recommend wrapping up the bottles in sheep-skin, or moist parch- ment, folding it round the neck, and tying it with seve- ral turns of pack-thread. The best vessel for holding your varnish while using it, is a varnish-pan, which may be had at any colour- shop. It is made of tin, with a false bottom ; the in- terval between the two bottoms is filled with sand, which, being heated over the fire, keeps the varnish fluid, and makes it flow more readily from the brush. There is a tin handle to the pan, and the false bottom comes sloping from one end to the other, which causes the varnish to run to one end. Very great caution is required in the making of var- nish — a process in which most serious accidents have frequently occurred. As heat in many cases is necessary to dissolve the gums used in making varnish, the best way, when prac- ticable, is to use what the chemists call a sand-bath, AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 61) which is simply placing the vessel in which the varnish is in another filled with sand and placed on the fire ; this will generally be sufiicient to prevent the spirits catching fire ; but in case of such accidents, (which not unfre- quently happen,) it will be best to take a vessel so largo that there shall be little danger of spilling any — indeed, the vessel should never be more than two-thirds filled j but in case of accidents, have ready at hand a piece of board sufl&ciently large to cover the top of the vessel, in case of its taking fire, as also a wet wrapper, in case it should be spilt when on the fire, as water by itself thrown on it only increases the mischief. The person who attends the varnish -pot should also have his hands covered with gloves, and if these are made of leather, and rather damp, it will efi"cctually prevent injury. 70 THE PAINTER, .GILDER, POLISHES. The compositions used for polishing are different, ac- cording to the nature of the varnish for which they are r niployed. Some of the most useful I shall insert here. Varnish Polish. Take two ounces of tripoli, reduced to fine powder j put it into an earthen pot or basin, with water to cover it ', then take a piece of fine flannel, four times doubled, lay it over a piece of cork or rubber, and proceed to polish your varnish, always wetting it with the tripoli and water. You will know when the process is com- pleted, by wiping a part of the work with a sponge and observing whether there is a fair and even gloss. Take a bit of mutton-suet and fine flour, and clean off the work. Or, the powdered tripoli may be mixed up with a little pure oil, and used upon a ball of serge, or of chamois leather, which is better. The polishing may afterwards be completed with a bit of serge or cloth, without tripoli. Putty powder, and even common whiting and water, are sometimes used for polishing; but they produce a very inferior effect to tripoli, except in the case of ivory, AND VARNTSHER^S COMPANION. 71 for which putty and water, used upon a rubber made of a hat, forms the best and quickest polish. Putty and water may likewise be used, in the same manner as just mentioned for ivory, in finishing ofi" the polish of pearl-work, after it has first been polished very smooth with pumice-stone, finely powdered, and well washed to free it from impurities and dirt. Polish for Darh-coloured Woods, Take one ounce of seed-lac, two drams of gum-guai- acum, two drams of dragon's blood, and two drams of gum mastic : put them into a vessel containing a pint of spirit of .wine : stop the vessel close, and expose the mixture to a moderate heat till you find all the gums dissolved : strain it oflf into a bottle for use, with a quar- ter of a gill of linseed oil, to be shaken up well with it. The dragon's blood, which is apt to give a red tinge, renders this polish improper for light-coloured woods. Polish for Timhridge-ware Goods, &c. Take half an ounce of gum sandrac and two ounces of gum benjamin ; put them into a glass bottle, with a pint of spirits of wine. Cork the bottle, and place it in a sand-bath, or in hot water, till you find the gums dis- solved, shaking it in the interim from time to time. When it is all dissolved, strain it through a muslin sieve, and bottle it for use. 72 THE PAINTER, GILDER, Carver*s Polish. In a pint of spirits of wine, dissolve two ounces of seed-lac and two ounces of white resin. The principal use of this polish is for the carved parts of cabinet-work, such as standards, pillars, claws, &c. It should be laid on warm; and if the work can also be warmed at the time, it will be still better; but all moisture and dampness should be carefully avoided. French Polish. Take one ounce of shell-lac, a quarter of -an ounce of gum Arabic, and a quarter of an ounce of gum copal. Bruise them well, and sift them through a piece of mus- lin : then put them, along with a pint of spirits of wine, into a closely-corked vessel : place it in a very warm situation, and shake it frequently every day till the gums are dissolved : then strain it through a piece of muslin, and keep it tight corked for use. Water-proof Polish, Put two ounces of gum benjamin, a quarter of an ounce of gum sandrac, and a quarter of an ounce of gum anima, into a pint of spirits of wine, in a closely stopped bottle. Place the bottle either in a sand-bath or in hot water, till the gums are dissolved ; then strain off the mixture, shake it up with a quarter of a gill of the best cleai' poppy oil, and put it by for use. AND VARNISHEr'S COMPANION. *^8 FinisJiing Polish, Put two drams of shell-lac and two drams of gum benjamin into half a pint of the very best rectified spirits of wine, in a bottle closely corked. Keep the bottle in a warm place, and shake it frequently till the gums are dissolved; when cold, shake up with it two tea-spoonfuls of the best clear poppy oil, and it will be fit for use. This polish may be applied with great advantage after any of those mentioned in the foregoing recipes have been used. It removes the defects existing in them, increases their lustre and durability, and gives the sur- face a most brilliant appearance. /4[ THE PAINTER, GILDER^ GILDING MATERIALS. True Gold Powder. Put some gold leaf, with a little honey or thick gum- water, into an earthen mortar, and pound the mixture till the gold is reduced to very small particles. Then wash out the honey or gum repeatedly with warm water, and the gold will be left behind in the state of powder, which, when dried, is fit for use. Another, and perhaps better method of preparing gold powder, is to heat a prepared amalgam* of gold in a clean open crucible, continuing a very strong heat till all the mercury has evaporated, stirring the amalgam all the while with a glass rod. When the mercury has en tirely left the gold, grind ihe remainder in a Wedge- wood's mortar, with a little water; and, when dried, it will be fit for use. The subliming the mercury is, how- ever, a process injurious to the health. Colour-heighten ing Comjposit ions. For Yellow Gold, dissolve in water six ounces of salt- petre, two ounces of copperas, one ounce of white vitriol, *■ An amalgam of any metal is formed by a mixture of quick- silver with that metal. AND VARNISIIER's COMPANION. 75 and OQ^ ounce of alum. If wanted redder, add a small portion of blue vitriol. For Green Gold, dissolve in water a mixture consist>- ing of an ounce and a half of saltpetre, vitriol, and sal- ammoniac, an ounce and a quarter each, and one ounce of verdigris. For Red Gold, take an ounce and a half of red ochre in fine powder, the same quantity of calcined verdigris, half an ounce of calcined borax, and four ounces of melted yellow wax. The verdigris must be calcined, or else, by the heat applied in melting the wax, the vinegar becomes so concentrated as to corrode the sur- face, and make it appear speckled. Mosaic Gold. * Mosaic Gold, or Aurum Mosaicum, is used for inferior articles. It is prepared in the following manner : A pound of tin is melted in a' crucible, and half a pound of purified quicksilver added to it : when this mixture is cold, it is reduced to powder, and ground with half a pound of sal-ammoniac and seven ounces of flower of sulphur, till the whole is thoroughly mixed. They are then calcined in a matras ; and the sublimation of the other ingredients leaves the tin converted into the Aurum Mosaicum, which is found at the bottom of the glass, like a mass of bright flaky gold powder. Should any black or discoloured particles appear, they must be removed. The sal-ammoniac used here must be very white and clear, and the mercury quite pure and unadulterated. When a shade of deeper red is required, it can easily bo 76 THE PAINTER, GILDER, obtained by grinding a very small quantity of red lead along with the above materials. Dutch or Gei^man Gold. A gilding powder is sometimes made fi*om Dutcb Gold, which is sold in books at a very low price. This is treated in the same way as the real gold leaf in making the true gold powder. It is necessary, when this inferior powder is used, to cover the gilding with a coat of clear varnish, otherwise it soon loses its metallic appearance. The same remark applies, though in a less degree, to Mosaic gilding. * Ethereal Solution of Gold. The following mode of effecting this solution (used chiefly for gilding steel) is recommend by Mr. H. Mill, in the " Technical Repository," as being superior to any previously made known. " The instructions," he says, ^'' given in most elementary works on chemistry for this purpose are either erroneous or not sufficiently explicit." The process answers equally well for either gold or platina. Dissolve any quantity of gold or platina in nitro-muri- atic acid, (aqua regia,^ until no further effervescence is occasioned by the application of heat. Evaporate the solution of gold or platina, thus formed, to dryness, in a gentle heat, (it will then be freed from all excess of acid, which is essential,) and re-dissolve the dry mass in as little water as possible : next take an instrument which AND VARNISHER^S COMPANION. 77 IS used by chemists for dropping liquids, known by tbe name of a separating funnel, having a pear-shaped body, tapering to a fine sharp point, and a neck capable of be- ing stopped with the fiuger or a cork, which may contain a liquid ounce or more ; fill it with the liquid about one- quarter part, and the other three parts must be filled with the very best sulphuric ether. If this be rightly managed, the two liquids will not mix. Then place the tube in a horizontal position, and gently turn it round with the finger and thumb. The ether will very soon be impregnated with the gold or platina, which may be known by its changing its colour : replace it in a perpen- dicular position, and let it rest for twenty-four hours j having first stopped up the upper orifice with a cork. The liquid will then be divided into two parts — the darkest colouring being underneath. To separate them, take out the cork and let the dark liquid flow out : when it has disappeared, stop the tube immediately with the cork, and what remains in the tube is fit for use, and may be called gilding liquid. Let it be put into a bottle, and tightly corked. The muriate of gold or platina, formed by digesting these metals in nitro-muriatic acid, must be entirely free from all excess of acid ; because it will otherwise act too forcibly on the steel, and cause the coating of gold to peel ofi". Pure gold must be employed : the ether must not be shaken with the muriate of gold, as is advised in chemical publications, for it will be sure, then, to contain acid ; but if the two liquids be brought continually into contact by the motion described, the affinity between 7* 78 * THE PAINTER, GILDER; ether and gold is so strong as to overcome the obstacle of gravity, and it will hold the gold in solution. The ethereal solution may also be concentrated by gentle evaporation. Gold Oil-colour J or Size. The English method of preparing the colour in size, which serves as the ground on which the gold is laid, is, to grind together some red oxide of lead with the thick- est drying oil that can be procured — the older the better. To make it work freely, it is mixed, before being used, with a little oil of turpentine, till it is brought to a proper consistence. (See, also. Mordant Varnishes.) Gold Water Size. One pound of Armenian bole, two ounces of red lead, and a sufl&cient portion of black lead, are ground sepa- rately in water, and then mixed, and re-ground with nearly a spoonful of olive oil. The gold size is tempered by mixing it in parchment size which is clear and clean, and has been passed through a fine sieve to clear it of all foreign matters. The parchment size is made by boiling down pieces of white leather, or clippings of parchment, till they are reduced to a stiff jelly. Preparatory/ Size. Boil a handful of the leaves of wormwood and two or three heads of garlic in a quart of water, until the liquid is reauced to one-half; then strain it through a cloth, AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 79 and add half a handful of common salt, an I nearly half a pint of vinegar. The design of th/j composition (usually employed in gilding looking-g]".ss and picture frames) is to obviate the greasiness of the wood, and prepare it the better to receive the coats which are to be laid on, and to preserve it from the ravages of worms. When used, it is mixed with a sufficient portion of good glue, boiling hot. In applying it to the gilding of plaster or marble, the salt must be left out of its com- position ; as, in damp situations, this would produce a white saline efflorescence on the surface of the gold. White Coating. A quart of strong 'parchment size and half a pint of water are to be made quite hot, and to this are to be added (in small portions from time to time) two good handfuls of common whiting passed through a fine sieve; this mixture is to be left to infuse for half an hour, when it is to be stirred carefully so that the amalgamation may be perfect. Colouring Yellow. Half a pint of parchment size is taken, which must be clean, white, and clear, and of one-half the strength of that used for the white coating; this is warmed, and there is mixed with it two ounces of yellow ochre, very finely ground in water ; it is then left at rest, and the clear portion decanted, which gives a fine yellow colour, that server, in water gilding, to cover those deep recesses 80 THE PAINTER, GILDER, into which the gold cannot be made to enter : it serves also as a mordant for the gold size. Vermeil. This is a liquid which gives to the gold a warm re- flection. It is composed of two ounces of anotto, one ounce of gamboge, one ounce of vermilion, half an ounce of dragon's blood, two ounces of salt of tartar, and eighteen grains of good saffron. The whole is to be boiled in a quart of water, over a slow fire, until it is reduced to one-fourth, when the liquor is passed through a strainer of silk or muslin. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 81 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS. Painter's Cream. This is a preparation sometimes employed by painters when they are obliged to leave work unfinished for a length of time. They cover the parts already painted with it, which preserves the freshness of their colours, and can be easily removed when they return to their work. It is made as follows : — Take half an ounce of the best mastic, finely powdered, and dissolve it over a gentle fire,, in three ounces of very clear nut-oil. Pour the mixture into a marble mortar, with two drams of pounded sugar of lead at the bottom of it. Stir this with a wooden pestle, and keep adding water in small quantities till the whole is of the appear- ance and thickness of cream, and refuses to admit more water, so as to mix freely. Rotten Stone. Rotten Stone is sometimes harsh and gritty ; the best way of trying it is to take a little between the teeth, when the least portion of grit may be detected. Careful workmen will always wash it before they use it. This is effected by stirring the fine powder in a considerable quantity of water, then allowing it to remain at rest for a few seconds, and pouring the water into a glazed 82 THE PAINTER; GILDER, earthen vessel ; the powder which then precipitates will be perfectly fine and smooth ; by washing the remainder, the whole of the finer parts may be separated from the grit. Glue and Isinglass, Good glue should swell when kept in cold water for three or four days : it should be semi-transparent, of a brown colour, and free from cloudiness. Before using it, it should be broken into small pieces, covered with cold water for some hours to soften it, then boiled till dissolved, and again allowed to congeal by cooling. The books in general recommend, as a size for gilding and bronzing, a solution of isinglass ; but one of good clear common glue is much cheaper, and answers equally well. Isinglass, though a purer gelatine than glue, is not so easily dissolved. Common Size. The size used by painters for most sorts of common work is prepared by boiling in water pieces of parch- ment and of the skins of animals and fins of fish, and evaporating the solution to a proper consistency. It only difi"ers, however, from a solution of glue in containing fewer foreign ingredients and in not being so strong. AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. »3 GRINDING AND WASHING COLOURS. The following directions for the grinding of colours will be found of use to those who may not find it conve- nient to have a mill for the purpose, such as that we have described in a former part of our work. In grinding, place yourself in such a situation, with respect to the grinding-stone, that you may be able with ease to exercise the full length and strength of your arms in the use of the muller. Then place upon the stone a small quantity of the colour you are about to grind, not above two-thirds of a common saucer full at most. Novices are apt to entertain an idea that the work would be hastened by grinding a great deal at once, but this is a mistake. The less you grind at a time the easier will be the process and the finer the colour. One of the most essential points in the preparation of a co- lour is its being reduced into as small parts as possible. The beauty of its appearance and the profit arising from it equally depend upon this : and a good workman will not therefore grudge the time employed in the operation. When you have laid your colour on the stone, pour upon it a little of the oil or varnish with which you intend to grind it, being careful not to put too much at first. ft4 THE PAINTER, GILDER. Mix the oil and the colour together ; then place the muller upon them, and turn it a few times about. If you find there is not oil enough, add a little more, and continue to grind till the colour becomes of the consist- ence of an ointment. Be careful not to add too much oil, so as to make the colour too thin and cause it to run about the stone j for then it will be necessary to add more solid matter, which would occasion a great waste of time and labour. When the colour is rendered thinner than it should be, the grinding is less fatiguing, but it occupies more time; when thicker, the work is more laborious, but more speedily executed. Experience will teach you to judge correctly in this matter. Should the colour spread during the grinding, you must bring it together with your palette-knife or voider. When you have ground it sufficiently fine, which you may determine by the difiiculty of raising the muller from the stone, and by the noise occasioned by the grind- ing at first almost entirely subsiding, take up the muller; then if you find the colour completely smooth like but- ter, without any grittiness, take it off the stone with a palette-knife or spatula, and put it into your pot or pan. Afterwards lay more colour upon the stone, and continue grinding in the same manner till the necessary quantity is ground. It is always desirable to grind at one time as much of a colour as is required for the work you have in hand : if you prepare it at intervals, in different quantities, you will often find some difiiculty in procuring exactly the same shade or tint; and if you fail in this, the appear- AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 85 ance of tae work will be sadly disfigured. Should any colour happen to be left which you are desirous of pre- serving, you have only to cover it with water and deposit it in a cool place. It is likewise advisable to take the same precaution with your colours, if you have occasion to rest for a time, as it will prevent their drying, even in the hottest weather. It is not unusual with painters and varnishers, who have much business, to grind or prepare at once quan- tities of different colours or varnishes sufficient to serve them for a long while. These, as the best mode of pre- serving them, they keep tied up close in ox or sheep bladders, so as to be always ready when wanted. Colours that are of a coarse and sandy nature can seldom be ground to a proper degree of fineness. Where common work only is required, this is not very material; but in cases where superior delicacy is necessary, such colours, after being ground, must undergo the operation^ of washing. The chief of these are yellow ochre, charcoal, bone- black, Spanish brown, red lead, white chalk, verditer, and Saxon blue. In washing colours, put the quantity you wish to clean into a vessel of clear water, and stir it till the water be- comes coloured ; skim off any filth you observe swim- ming at the top ; and when you think the grossest part of the colour is settled at the bottom, pour off the water into a second vessel, large enough to hold four or five times as much water as the first ; then pour some more water into the first vessel, and proceed as before. Keep 86 THE PAINTER, GILDER, repeating this till you find all the fine part of the colour drawn off, and none but the gritty particles remaining in the bottom of the first vessel. Let the water in the larger vessel stand till it be quite clear and all the co- lour settled at the bottom ; then pour the water off from it, and the colour at the bottom, lohcii completely driedy will be fit for use. Colours, whether you grind them yourself, as above directed, or purchase them ready ground, will, in that state, be too thick for use, and it will be necessary to dilute them with the varnish or oil you propose to em- ploy, in order to bring them to a proper consistence. In doing this, extremes must be carefully avoided. If the colour be made too thin, it runs, and does not cover the article to be painted equally or exactly ; if too thick, it forms lumps, is hard to spread, occasions more expense, disfigui*es the work, and fatigues the hand which applies it. If, when the brush is taken from the pot and turned two or three times round in the hand, being held obliquely, so as to check the thread which is formed, the colour do not drop from it, it will then be as stiff as it can be well wrought with ; and this is the proper state for use, as both expedition and durability are gained by it. If it be thin enough to allow the ground on which it is laid to be at all seen through it, it cannot be good ; and though it may work more easily at the time, it will re- quire repeated coatings to make it perfect and substan- tial, when one of a proper thickness would have been sufficient. I may here remark, that many jobs being contracted for by painters at so much a yard, and tha AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 87 work to T)G coloured three times over, some are in the habit, with a view of sparing paint and labour, of mak- ing their colourings so thin as not to be altogether equal to one good coating. But this is a practice which no tradesman, who values his own character or that of the work turned out of his hands, will adopt. 88 THE PAINTER, GILDER, CLEANLINESS IN WORKlNa. The principal end aimed at by the Painter, Yarnislier, or Gilder, and especially by the last two, is to beautify ; and, without the strictest cleanliness, it is obvious this end can never be answered. Every surface to which colour, varnish, or gilding is to be applied should first be thoroughly cleaned ; it should be rubbed, brushed, and even washed, if neces- sary; in the last case, however, it must be well dried afterwards. When any surface which is to be varnished or painted has been previously varnished, and is found to be in- crusted with dust or dirt, soap and water must be ap- plied gently with a sponge, and great care taken every time, after the sponge has been rubbed over the varnish, to rinse it in clean water, and to squeeze it thoroughly out before it be again dipped into the soap and water. In grinding colours, after you have ground as much of any one sort as you want, before you proceed to place any other kind upon the stone, let it be perfectly cleaned from the former colour, by first rubbing it with a cloth and fine dry ashes or sand, and afterwards with a little spirit of turpentine ; then let it be well wiped with a rag, or with leather shavings. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 89 But of all things in which cleanliness is essential, brushes and pencils are, perhaps, the most to be con- sidered. With regard to the painter, where the very great- est nicety is required, a separate brush or pencil should be assigned to each colour, wiped when the work is done, and preserved by covering it with water. With artists, this is an invariable rule, but the occupations of the mechanical painter are hardly ever of such extreme deli- cacy as to require him to adopt it. In general, it is suJG&cient for him to carefully wash out every brush or pencil after he has done with it, or before he employs it for any other colour than that with which he has been previously using it. This washing out should be j&rst in the oil with which the colour has been ground or mixed, (but neat linseed oil, or oil of turpentine, will always sufficiently answer for general purposes,) and afterwards in warm soap-suds. Brushes that have been used for varnishing may, on an emergency, be tolerably washed out with boiling water and yellow soap only. It is, however, much better to wash them well first with spirit of wine, if the varnish has been compounded with spirits, or with oil of turpentine, if it has been prepared with any description of oil ; and, in either case, to clean them thoroughly with warm soap and water. The spi- rits used for washing varnish brushes are not thereby rendered unfit for use in preparing varnishes for common purposes. Remember, if either oil or colour be once allowed to dry in a brush or pencil, it is spoiled for ever. For coloured varnishes, kept in small quantities, a brush may be appropriated to each exclusively, and 8« 90 THE PAINTER, GILDER, left in the bottle ; but in this ease the cork should be perforated so as to fit the handle, and the points of the hairs should dip into the varnish ; the brush will then be always ready for use. A common mustard bottle will in general answer the purpose. AND VAUNTSHER's COMPANION. 91 PRACTICE OF PAINTING. A Painter will consult durability in preference to beauty of appearance, or the reverse, according as bis work is to be more or less exposed to the weather. In out-door work, durability is, of course, of the most consequence; and as it is likewise the simplest kind of painting, I shall begin with noticing the manner of executing it. Before attempting to lay any colour upon your work, you must carefully fill up with putty, so as to make the whole surface perfectly level, all flaws, cracks, openings, nail-holes, &c. ; for, if this be not done, the rain and snow will be sure to penetrate into these places, and quickly destroy the fruits of your labour. All knots and uneven- nesses must likewise be carefully removed. When these points are accomplished, proceed to the priminf/ of the work ; that is, laying on the colour which is to serve as a ground for the succeeding coatings. The nature of the priming will, of course, be regulated by that which the surface is ultimately to receive. Sufficient time must be allowed for this to dry, according to the state of the weather : from two to three days will generally be enough. When the wood is new, or great solidity re- quired in the work, it may be proper to repeat the first priming ; otherwise, when that is dry proceed to put on d2 THE PAINTER, GILDER, the first coat of your proposed colour, and afterwards the others in succession, as each of the preceding ones be- comes dry. The number of coats applied will depend upon the agreement made, and upon how far the work is wanted to be finished and substantial. When the wood you are about to colour is new, the priming should be laid on as thin as possible ; because, in this case, the quantity of oil which necessarily sinks into the wood is very useful in preserving it. This thin- ness of the priming in new wood is also the reason why, as before observed, it is proper to repeat it. But as the thinness tends to delay its drying, if the priming colour be one that is naturally hard to dry, do not mix it with plain linseed oil, but with one part of drying oil and two parts of linseed oil ; or if the priming colour be white or blue, mix it with linseed oil as usual, but grind a small portion of white copperas along with it, because the two colours just mentioned are afi"ected in their tints by the drying oil. No new coating of colour ought ever to be applied till the former is perfectly dry, which can never be the case while the least stickiness is felt on applying the hand to it. The neglect of this precaution is certain to ruin all the beauty of painting. Grreat care should likewise be taken to brush off" any dust which may have settled upon the former coat before applying a new one ; for, if it be allowed to remain and mix with the colour, the uni- formity of the tint will be destroyed, particularly in bright colours. The workmen ought to be very careful that every coating is of the same thickness throughout, AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 93 or the work, when done, will have an unfinished and slovenly appearance. This forms an additional reason for always mixing as much colour at once as is necessary for the job to which it is to be applied. The proper thickness of each respective coating can only be learned by habit and experience. If too thin, it often 'cracks in drying ; if too thick, it becomes blistered, wrinkled, and unequal. The first coating, however, may always allow • ably be made much thinner than any of the succeeding ones. Practice, too, is necessary, in order to obtain even the proper use of the brush, and to learn the art of varying its strokes according to circumstances. Sometimes long strokes are to be employed to extend the colour in a uniform manner; at other times the colour should be laid on in repeated dabs, for the purpose of incrusting it in recesses and places where the surface is unequal. The test of the complete workman in this respect is to leave no marks of the brush behind him. The same general directions that are given for outside painting will apply to inside work ; but, in this latter, more finish and delicacy of execution are necessary than in the former ; and, as it is not so much exposed to in- jury from the effects of weather and the state of the atmosphere as the work done without-doors, the painter is not obliged to pay so much attention to durability, but, in the choice and application of his colours, prin- cipally to regard beauty and effect. In inside work, the surfaces to be painted are frequently composed of fir or deal, in which kinds of wood, particularly when new, 94 THE PAINTER, GILDER, there are usually a great mauy resinous knots. If these be permitted to remain, the colour will run into them and not adhere. Before beginning to paint, you should, therefore, saturate these knots with a mixture of red lead and litharge with a small quantity of oil of tur- pentine. The panelling of wainscot, and other similar parts of inside work, will give you frequent occasion to em- ploy very small brushes or pencils. In using these, you should not take your colours out of a pot or pan, but have those that you want disposed upon a palette. There is more than one advantage attached to this. In the first place, if your pencil be only dipped into a pot of colour, it brings out with it no more than hangs on the outside — a quantity, from the small size of the brush, that will go but a little way in working ; whereas, if you work and temper the colour by rubbing the pencil about in it upon the palette, it will imbibe a considerable quantity of the colour. In addition to this, you will likewise, by this method, be able to work your pencil to a point, which is a great advantage in fine painting and drawing lines, and which you could never obtain by taking your colour upon it out of a pot. Painting in Distemper. The leading difi*erence between oil-painting and paint- ing in distemper is, that in the latter the colours, instead of being prepared with oil, are mixed with size and wa- ter. This circumstance renders many colouring sub- AND VARNISHER^S COMPANION. 95 stances, particularly some that contain chalk or clayey earth, or are extracted from vegetable matter, proper for the purpose of distemper, which cannot be used in painting in oil. Almost all colouring substances which can be used in oil-painting are applicable in distemper ; but the reverse, as will appear from the remarks I have just made, is far from being the case. In speaking of colours, care has been taken to notice particularly such as, from their nature, can be employed only in distemper. In painting in distemper, it is advisable to apply all the coatings, except the last, warm ; not, however, in a boiling state, for that is injurious, and may cause wood to split. Besides, if the size be too much heated, it becomes fat, and will not adhere. In putting on fresh coatings, be very careful to preserve an equal thickness throughout. Without the utmost attention to having the ground you are to work upon perfectly clean, no pleasing effect can ever result from distemper. Grease and lime on the surface that is to receive it would ruin all. They must be removed by scraping if the surface be a wall, and by a solution of pearlash if it be wood. Canvas must be cleaned by means of a ley. When the wall or surface is very smooth, a coating of warm glue is first applied ; but if rough, a coat of Span- ish white, or chalk mixed with a solution of glue, is em- ployed to render the surface smoother ; and when the coating is dry, it is scraped as clean and as even as pos- sible. A level surface is indispensable to receive dis< 96 THE PAINTER, GILDER, temper. If there are d,ny considerable inequalities or holeSj they must be filled up with gypsum, and time allowed, before applying any coat, for that gypsum to gain body, which will not be the case before it is thoroughly dry. In painting in distemper, the thickness of the colour, contrary to the observation I made on that head in oil- painting, should be such that it may run or drop from the brush in a thread when taken from, the pot. If the colour do not form a thread, it is too thick, and the work is likely to become scaly. Distemper is much used in the interior of houses, and, when well executed, has a very delicate and beautiful appearance. It is likewise free from the disagreeable smell which usually arises from the turpentine in oil- painting. It is, however, far inferior to oil, both as to the durability of the colours and to the preservation of the surfaces on which it is applied. In some cases, too, it is attended with the inconvenience of not enabling the workman to see what effect a particular mixture will produce when it is dry. When this happens, the only method of obviating the evil is to try each mixture on pieces of prepared wood having the same tint as the ground on which you are working, so as to obtain the real tint. A kind of distemper, called by the French hadigeorij is sometimes used in out-door work, to give a uniform tint to houses rendered brown by time, and to churches where it is required to render them brighter. It has generally a yellow tint. The best kind is made by mix- AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 97 ing the saw-dust or powder of the same kind of stone and slaked lime, in a bucket of water containing a pound of alum in solution. The composition is applied with a brush. Painting in Milh. In consequence of the injury which has often resulted to sick and weakly persons from the smell of common paint, the following method of painting with milk has been adopted by some workmen, which, for the interior of buildings, besides being as free as distemper from any offensive odour, is said to be nearly equal to oil-painting in body and durability. Take half a gallon of skimmed milk, six ounces of lime newly slaked,* four ounces of poppy, linseed, or nut- oil, and three pounds of Spanish white. Put the lime into an earthen vessel or clean bucket, and having poured on it a sufficient quantity of milk to make it about the thickness of cream, add the oil in small quan- tities at a time, stirring the mixture with a wooden spa- tula. Then put in the rest of the milk, and afterwards the Spanish white. It is, in general, indifferent which of the oils above- mentioned you use ; but, for a pure white, oil of poppy is the best. The oil in this composition, being dissolved by the * Lime is slaked by dipping it into water, then taking the pieces out immediately and allowing them to slake in the open ftir. 9 98 THE PAINTER, GILDER, lime, wholly disappears; and, uniting with the whole of the other ingredients, forms a kind of calcareous soap. Tn putting in the Spanish white, you must be careful that it is finely powdered and strewed gently over the surface of the mixture. It then, by degrees, imbibes the liquid and sinks to the bottom. Milk skimmed in summer is often found to be cur- dled ; but this is of no consequence in the present pre- paration, as its combining with the lime soon restores it to its fluid state. But it must on no account be sour; because, in that case, it would, by uniting with the lime, form an earthy salt, which could not resist any degree of dampness in the air. Milk paint may likewise be used for out-door objects by adding to the ingredients before-mentioned two ounces each more of oil and slaked lime, and two ounces of Burgundy pitch. The pitch should be put into the oil that is to be added to the milk and lime, and dis- solved by a gentle heat. In cold weather, the milk and lime must be warmed, to prevent the pitch from cooling too suddenly, and to enable it to unite more readily with the milk and lime. Time only can prove how far this mode of painting is to be compared, for durability, with that in oil ; for the shrinking to which coatings of paint are subject depends in great measure upon the nature and seasoning of the wood. The milk paint used for in-door work dries in about an hour ; and the oil which is employed in preparing it AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 90 entirely loses its smell in the soapy state to which it is reduced by its union with the lime. One coating will be sufficient for places that are already covered with any colour, unless the latter penetrate through it and produce spots. One coat will likewise suffice, in general, for ceilings and staircases; two will be necessary for new wood. Milk painting may be coloured, like every other in distemper, by means of the different colouring substances employed in common painting. The quantity I iiave given in the receipt will be sufficient for one coat to a surface of about twenty-five square yards. 100 THE PAINTER; G mOER, PEACTICE OF YARNISHINa AND POLISHING Before beginniDg to varnish, you must fill up any knots or blemishes with cement of the same colour as the ground. Have your varnish in a pan, such as I have before described, with a piece of wire running dia- metrically across the top, and slackened downwards, to stroke your brush against. Be careful that the brush be clean and free from loose hairs; dip it in the varnish, stroking it across the wire, and give the work a thin re- gular coat J soon after that, another ; and so continue ; always taking care not to pass the brush twice over the same place in any one coat, as that would render it unequal. The greatest difficulty of the operation consists in preventing the different strokes of the brush from being visible. To avoid this, let the brush be perfectly flat and as large as the nature of the work will permit. Draw it gently over the surface, in taking your strokes, and be careful not to load the brush with too much varnish at once. Turned articles are always best varnished while in the lathe, by means of heat; because the extension of the varnish is then more uniform and the operation facili- tates the polishing afterwards. When varnish is applied to painting in distemper, it is necessary to fillow sufficient time to elapse between AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 101 the application of the distemper and that of the varnish to let the wood become perfectly dry; if this be not done, the varnish will penetrate into the size, and at last bring off the coat of colouring beneath along with it, in thin pieces. For ordinary purposes, shell-lac varnish does not re- quire to be rubbed down and polished ; but, when it is wished to produce a very even surface, these processes are necessary : for rubbing down, pumice-stone in fine powder is used. A piece of woollen rag is made wet, and a portion of the powder put upon it ; this is rubbed carefully and equally over every part of the varnished surface until it appear perfectly even. Great care is requisite to avoid rubbing through at some parts before others are rendered smooth, particularly if there are sharp edges or projecting mouldings. When this takes place, the whole process of varnishing must be repeated. A little practice will, however, enable any one to avoid this, provided the article varnished have an even surface and the number of coats have been suflScient to give the requisite thickness of resin. When the surface to be polished is flat, the cloth may, when used, be wrapped round a piece of cork or wood ; and the same method may be adopted in rubbing down mouldings. When a surface is well prepared by the pumice-stone, It is very easily polished. This is effected by fine rotten- stone, used exactly in the same way as the pumice- etone, excepting that sweet oil is used instead of water. The oil may be removed from the surface by a fine rag and some dry rotten stone ; and if a little be then rubbed 9* 102 THE PAINTER, GILDER, on by the palm of the hand, this will give a high polish to the surface. The gloss upon the shell-lac which has been polished is less brilliant than that of the unpolished varnish, but this gloss may be given by using a coat of seed-lac varnish, which will abstract but little from the perfect surface given by polishing. In some cases, hard bodies may be allowably employed in polishing varnishes, but only when these varnishes are themselves hard, such as those resulting from the solution of amber and copal in drying oil, or even in oil of turpentine. When it is required to clean and polish old furniture, first wash it thoroughly with hot soft water to get the dirt off ; then take a quart of stale beer or vinegar, put in a handful of common salt and a table-spoonful of spirits of salt, and boil it for a quarter of an hour ; keep it in a bottle, and warm it when wanted for use. This mixture should be applied as long as necessary after the furniture has been washed with the hot water. French Polish. There is a mode of using shell-lac varnish which is sometimes denominated the German, but more commonly the French mode. It merits to be generally known, as the process is easy and economical, and the effect beau- tiful. It has been much employed by cabinet and mu- sical instrument makers, but is not yet so extensively practised as it merits to be. AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. I>«5 The varnish, is applied by means of what is cal'.ed a rubber, made by rolling up a piece of thick woollen cloth, ) which has been torn off so as to have a soft, elastic edge. The varnish, put into a narrow-mouthed bottle, is ap- plied to the middle of the flat face of the rubber by lay- ing the rubber on the mouth of the bottle and quickly shaking the varnish at once, as the rubber will thus imbibe a sufficient quantity to varnish a considerable extent of surface. The rubber is then enclosed in a soft linen cloth doubled, the remainder of the cloth being gathered together at the back of the rubber to form a handle to hold it by ; and the face of the linen cloth must be moistened with a little raw linseed-oil, which may either be coloured with alkanet root or not, applied with the finger to the middle of it. The work to be varnished should be placed opposite to the light, in order that the effect of the'polishing may be better seen, and a surface of from ten to eight feet square may be varnished at once. The rubber must be quickly and lightly rubbed upon the surface of the article to be varnished, and the rub- bing continued until the varnish becomes nearly dry. The coil of woollen cloth must then be again wetted with the varnish, (no more oil need be applied to the surface of the linen cloth,) and the ruboing renewed till the var- nish becomes nearly dry as before ; a third coat must be applied in the same manner, then a fourth with a little oil, which must be followed by two others without oil, as before. You proceed thus until the varnish has acquired some thickness, which will be after a few repetitions 104 THE JtAINTER, GILDER, of the sericB. -Vpply tlien a little alcohol to the inside of the linen cloth, and wet the coil with the varnish ; after which, rub very quickly, lightly, and uniformly, over every part of the varnished surface, which will tend to make it even, and very much conduce to its polish. The linen cloth must now be wetted with a little alcohol and oil, without varnish; and the varnished surface being rubbed over, with the precautions last mentioned, until it is nearly dry, the effect of the operation will be seen. If it be found not complete, the process must be continued, with the introduction of alcohol in its turn as directed before, until the surface becomes smooth and of a beautiful lustre. The preceding process is that in general use ; but Dr. Jones recommends, in the Franklin Journal^ a rubber of a different sort, as well as a simpler mode of em- ploying it. He takes a piece of thick woollen cloth, six or eight inches in diameter, and upon one side of this pours a tea-spoonful of the varnish ; he then collects the edges together, so as to enclose the varnish in the cloth and form a handle by which to hold it : this is finally covered with a piece of oiled linen cloth, and the rubber is ready for use. More varnish is added as often as it is required ; and when it becomes occasionally too thick to ooze through, a little alcohol is poured into the cloth. Some difficulties may be at first experienced in per- forming this process ; but Dr. Jones states that a very little practice will enable any handy person to surmount them. The peculiar advantage said to attend it is, that a beautiful polish may be at once obtained by a continued AND VARNISHER^S COMPANION. 105 application of the rubber in this way ; while, according to the method previously described, successive coats of varnish, which require considerable time to dry, must be used, and a great deal of additional trouble incurred. In varnishing recesses or carved work, where parts of the surface are difficult to reach with the rubber, a spirit varnish, made with or without lac of the usual gum resins, and considerably thicker than that used for the rest of the work, may be applied to those parts with a brush or hair pencil. Waxing. In some instances, the application of wax merely is preferred to any varnish; particularly in the case of chairs, tables, &c., of walnut-tree wood, in daily use. Waxing resists percussion and friction, but it does not possess, in the same degree as varnish, the property of giving lustre to the bodies to which it is applied, and of heightening their tints. The lustre created by wax ia but dull ; but this inconvenience is balanced by the ease with which any accidents that may have effected its polish can be replaced by rubbing it with a piece of fine cork. In waxing, it is of great importance to make the coat- ing as thin as possible, in order that the veins of the wood may be more distinctly seen. I consider the following preparation the best for performing this operation : — Put two ounces of white and yellow wax over a mode* rate fire, in a very clean vessel, and, when it is quite 106 THE PAINTER, GILDER, melted, add four ounces of tlie best spirits of turpentine. Stir the whole until it is entirely cool, and you will have a pomade fit for waxing furniture, which must be rubbed over it according to the usual method. The oil soon penetrates the pores of the wood, brings out the colour of it, causes the wax to adhere better, and produce a lustre equal to that of varnish, without being subject to any of its inconveniences. ANL» VARNISHER's COMPANION. 107 PRACTICE OF GILDING. Gilding Carved Wood loith Water Size. Mix with your preparatory size a sufficient portion of good glue, boiling hot, and lay it upon the wood with a brush, the bristles of which are short. Then apply six, eight, or ten coats, equal in quantity, of the white coat- ing, and be particularly careful that the projecting parts are well covered, as the beauty of the burnish on the gold depends much on this. The first coat should be laid on quite hot, dabbing it with the brush in such a way that it may not be thicker in one place than another. The lower parts of the carving must be covered by dabbing it with a smaller brush. After putting ou one coat of white, and before following it witl^ a second, the work should be examined, any lumps in it reduced, and small hollows filled up by a cement consisting of whiting and glue kneaded together. Let the whole be now rubbed with fish-skin, which will remove every sort of roughness. The second, third, and remaining coats of white should have the size stronger than in the first coat, yet all of the same strength, otherwise a strong superior coat will cause a weaker one under it to scale off : the operation of dabbing with the brush must be repeated in every successive coat, in order to unite the whole, so that they may form a single compact body. 108 THE PAINTER, GILDEB. Each coat must also be perfectly dry before a new one is laid on. The whitened surface is now to be wetted with the brush which has been used for putting on the whiting, dipped in fresh cool water. Only a small portion should be wetted at once, which should then be rubbed down with pumice-stone, made flat for the parts which require to be of that form, and round or hollow, as may be necessary, for the mouldings. Little sticks are used for clearing out those members of the mouldings which may have been filled up by the whiting. The whitened parts are to be rubbed lightly, so as to render the sur- face smooth and even to the touch. At the same time, a brush which has become soft by using it with the whiting is employed to clear out all the dirt which has been found in the rubbing. The moisture is now to be dried up with a sponge, and any small grains which may remain removed by the finger — a delicate and very im^ portant operation. The whole work is finally to be wiped witb a piece of clean linen. The work should now be returned to the carver, to have the fine and delicate cutting of the sculptured parts restored. If the workman be skilful, he will be able to re-produce on the whiting every characteristic trait which may happen to have been obliterated. Where bas-re- liefs cast from moulds are laid on a flat or carved sur- face, instead of the wood itself being carved, as is now very commonly the case, this repairing process is un- necessary. A moistened cloth is now to be passed over the parts which are to be matted or burnished, and a soft moist- AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 109 cned brush over those which have been repaired. The whole is then to be washed with a soft sponge, and every speck and hair carefully removed. All the even parts should next be smoothed with rushes^ taking care not to rub off the whiting. The colouring yellow is now to be applied very hot, with a soft clean brush, so as to cover the whole work. This application must be lightly made, so as not to disturb the whiting. The yellow tint serves to cover those deep recesses into which the gold cannot be made to enter : it serves also as a mordant for the gold size. When this yellow covering becomes dry, the whole surface is to be again gently rubbed with rushes, to remove all specks or hairs which may be found or it, and to give a uniform surface without the slightest inequality. The gold size, which is the next thing to apply, you must temper by mixing it with some parchment size that has been passed through a fine sieve. It is to be laid on warm, with a small brush, the bristles of which are fine, long, and soft : there are brushes made for the express purpose. Three coats of the size will be suffi- cient. It is to be applied generally to the work, but you need not force it into the deeper parts. When the three coats of size are quite dry, the larger and smoother parts, which are intended to appear matted, are to be rubbed with a piece of new dry linen : this will cause the gold to extend itself evenly, and the water to flow over the sized surface without forming spots. To those parts which are not thus rubbed, but which are intended to be burnished; you must apply two additional coats of 10 110 THE PAINTER, GILDER, the same tempered gold size, to which a little water has been added to render it thinner. The work is noiv ready for Gilding, — Take a book of leaf gold, place the leaves upon a cushion, cut them to the required size, and lay them on the work by means of hair pencils of different sizes ; first wetting the part (but that only) on which the gold is to be applied with fresh and cool water. The deep recesses should be gilt before the more prominent parts. When the leaf is deposited in its place, water is applied, to make it spread easily, by means of a pencil behind it, but so as it may not flow, as this would occasion spots; it should also be breathed on gently, and any waste water removed with the point of a pencil. Those parts of the gilding which it is wished to pre- serve of a matted appearance should have a slight coat of parchment size, which will prevent the gold from rubbing off. The size should be warm, but not hot, and its strength half as great as that used with the co- louring yellow. The parts to which it is desired to give a more bril- liant appearance are burnished with a burnisher made of wolves' or dogs' teeth, or agate, mounted in iron or wooden handles, which must be kept, throughout the process, perfectly dry. The operation of burnishing is very simple. Take hold of the tool near to the tooth or stone, and lean very hard with it on those parts which are to be burnished, causing it to glide by a backward and forward movement, without once taking it off the piece. When it is requisite that the hand should pass AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. Ill over a large surface at once, without losing its point of support on the work-bench, the workman, on taking hold of the burnisher, should place it just underneath his little finger; by this means the work is done quicker, and the tool is more solidly fixed in the hand. It will sometimes happen in gilding that small spots on the deeper parts are overlooked, or that the gold is removed in some parts in applying the matting size. When this is the case, small pieces of leaf gold are to be put on by means of a pencil, after moistening the deficient places with a small brush ; when dry, each of these spots should be covered with a little size. When it is desired to give the work the appearance of or moulu, dip a small fine pencil into the vermilion- ing composition, and apply it delicately into the inden- tations and such other parts, where it will, by being reflected, give a good efi"ect to the gold. To hind and finish the tcorh iveJl, a second coat of the matting size should be passed over the matted parts, and hotter than the first. Gilding Plaster or 3Iarble with Water Size. The chief difierence to be observed when plaster or marble has to be gilt instead of wood, is to exclude the salt from the composition of the preparatory size, as in damp situations this would produce a white efflorescence upon the surface of the gold. Two coats of this size should be laid on; the first weak, that it may sink into the plaster or marble and moisten it perfectly; the second, strong. 112 THE PAINTER; GILDER, Gilding Wood in Oil. The wood must first be covered, or primed, with two or three coatings of boiled linseed oil and carbonate of lead ', and, when dry, a thin coating of gold oil size laid upon it. In about twelve hours this sizing, if good, will be dry, when you may begin to apply the gold-leaf, dividing it, and laying it on in the same manner as in the case of the water-gilding ; with this difference, that it is to be gently pressed down with a ball of soft cot- ton, when it will instantly adhere so firmly to the size, that, after a few minutes, the gentle application of a large camel' s-hair brush will sweep away all the loose particles of the leaf without disturbing the rest. The advantages of this oil-gilding are, that it is easily and quickly done, is very durable, is not readily injured by changes of weather, even when exposed to the open air, and, when soiled, may be cleaned by a little warm water and a soft brush. It cannot, however, be bur- nished, and is, therefore, deficient in lustre. To gild Steel. Pour some of the ethereal solution of gold into a wine- glass, and dip into it the blade of a new penknife, lancet, or razor; withdraw the instrument, and allow the ether to evaporate : the blade will then be found covered with a beautiful coat of gold. The blade may be moistened with a clean rag, or a small piece of very dry sponge AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 113 dipped into the ether, and the same effect will be pro- duced. To gild Copper J Brass, doc. The gilding of these inferior metals and alloys of them is effected by the assistance of mercury, with which the gold is amalgamated. The mercury is evaporated, while the gold is fixed, by the application of heat; the whole is then burnished, or left mat, rn whole or in part, ac- cording as required. In the large way of gilding, the furnaces are so con- trived that the volatilized mercury is again condensed, and preserved for further use, so that there is no loss in the operation. There is also a contrivance by which the volatile particles of mercury are prevented from injuring the gilders. Gilding Glass and Porcelain. Dissolve in boiled linseed oil an equal weight either of copal or amber, and add as much oil of turpentine as will enable you to apply the compound or size thus formed, as thin as possible, to the parts of the glass in- tended to be gilt. The glass is to be placed in a stove, till it is so warm as almost to burn the fingers when handled. At this temperature the size becomes adhesive, and a piece of leaf gold, applied in the usual way, will immediately stick. Sweep off' the superfluous portions of the leaf; and when quite cold it may be burnished, 10* 114 THE PAINTER, GILDER, taking care to interpose a piece of India paper between the gold and the burnisher. It "ometimes happens, when the varnish is not very good, that by repeated washing the gold wears off; on this account the practice of burning it in is sometimes had recourse to. For this purpose, some gold-powder is ground with borax, and in this state applied to the clean surface of the glass by a camel's-hair pencil; when quite dry, the glass is put into a stove, heated to about the temperature of an annealing oven ; the gum burns off, and the borax, by vitrifying, cements the gold with great firmness to the glass ; after which it may be bur- nished. The gilding upon porcelain is in like manner fixed by heat and the use of borax; and this kind of ware, being neither transparent nor liable to soften, and thus to be injured in its form in a low red heat, is free from the risk and injury which the finer and more fusible kinds of glass are apt to sustain from such treatment. Porce- lain and other wares may be platinized, silvered, tinned, or bronzed, in a similar manner. Gilding Leather. In order to impress gilt figures, letters, and other marks upon leather, as on the covers of books, edgings for doors, &c., the leather must first be dusted over with very finely-powdered yellow resin, or mastic gum. The iron tools, or stamps, are then arranged on a racJ£ before a clear fire, so as to be well heated, without becoming AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 115 red hot. If the tools are letters, they have an alphabeti cal arrangement on the rack. Each letter or stamp must he tried as to its heat, by imprinting its mark ou the raw side of a piece of waste leather. A little prac- tice will enable the workman to judge of the heat. The tool is now to be pressed downwards on the gold leaf, which will, of course, be indented and show the figure imprinted on it. The next letter or stamp is now to be taken and stamped in like manner, and so on with the others; taking care to keep the letters in an even line with each other, like those in a book. By this opera- tion the resin is melted; consequently the gold adheres to the leather. The superfluous gold may then be rubbed off by a cloth, the gilded impressions remaining on the leather. In this, as in every other operation, adroitness is acquired by practice. The cloth alluded to should be slightly greasy to retain the gold wiped off ; (otherwise there will be a great waste in a few months;) the cloth will thus be soon completely saturated or loaded with the gold. When this is the case, these cloths are generally sold to the refiners, who burn them and recover the gold. Some of these afford so much gold by burning as to be worth from a guinea to a guinea and a half. Gilding Writings j Drawings, &c.j on Pajper or Parclv- ment. Letters written on vellum or paper are gilded in three ways. In the first, a little size is mixed with the iak 116 THE PAINTER, GILDER, and the letters are written as usual; when they are dry, a slight degree of stickiness is produced by breathing on them, upon which the gold leaf is immediately ap- plied, and by a little pressure may be made to adhere with sufl&cient firmness. In the second method, some white lead or chalk is ground up with strong size, and the letters are made with this by means of a brush. When the mixture is almost dry, the gold leaf may be laid on, and afterwards burnished. The third method is to mix up some gold powder with size, and to form the letters of this by means of a brush. Gilding the Edges of Paper, The edges of the leaves of books and letter paper are gilded whilst in a horizontal position in the bookbinder's press, by first applying a composition formed of four. parts of Armenian bole and one of candied sugar, ground together with water to a proper consistence and laid on by a brush with the white of an egg. This coating, when nearly dry, is smoothed by the burnisher. It is then slightly moistened by a sponge dipped in clean water, and squeezed in the hand. The gold leaf is now taken up on a piece of cotton, from the leathern cushion, and applied on the moistened surface. When dry, it is to be burnished by rubbing the burnisher over it re- peatedly from end to end, taking care not to wound the surface by the point. AND YARNISHER's COMPANION. 317 ON LACQUERINa. The general nature of tlie compositions employed for lacquering has already been explained under the head of Changing Varnishes. I shall in this place give some particular receipts for preparing the lacquers in most general use. Lacquer for Brass. Seed-lac, six ounces ', amber or copal, ground on por phyry or very clean marble, two ounces; dragon's bloody forty grains; extract of red sandal-wood, thirty grains; oriental saffron, thirty-six grains; pounded glass, four ounces; very pure alcohol, forty ounces. Articles, or ornaments of brass, to which this varnish is to be applied, should be exposed to a gentle heat and then dipped into the varnish. Two or three coatings may be thus applied, if necessary. Articles varnished in this manner may be cleaned with water and a bit of dry rag. Lacquer for Philosophical Instruments. Gamboge, an ounce and a half; gum sandrac, four ounces; gum elemi, four ounces; best dragon's blood, 118 THE PAINTER, GILDER, two ounces ; terra merita,* an ounce and a half; oriental saiFron, four grains ; seed-lac, two ounces; pounded glass, six ounces; pure alcohol, forty ounces. The dragon's blood, gum elemi, seed-lac, and gam- boge are all pounded and mixed with the glass. Over them is poured the tincture obtained by infusing the saffron and terra merita in the alcoho] for twenty.four hours. This tincture, before being poured over the dra- gon's blood, &c., should be strained through a piece of clean linen cloth, and strongly squeezed. If the dragon's blood gives too high a colour, the quantity may be lessened according to circumstances. The same is the case with the other colouring matters. This lacquer has a very good effect when applied to many cast or moulded articles used in ornamenting fur- niture. Gold-coloured Lacquer for Brass Watch-cases^ Watch' kei/Sj &c. Seed-lac, six ounces ; amber, two ounces ; gamboge, two ounces; extract of red sandal-wood in water, twen- ty-four grains; dragon's blood, sixty grains; oriental * Terra merita is the root of an Indian plant; it is of a red- colour, and much used in dyeing. In varnishing, it is only em- ployed in the form of a tincture, and is particularly well adapted for the mixture of those colouring parts which contribute the most towards giving metals the colour of gold. In choosing it, be careful to observe that it is sound and compact. AND VARNISHER^S COMPANION. 119 saffron, thirty-six grains ; pounded glass, four ounces ; pure alcohoi, "*hirty-six ounces. The seed-lac, amber, gamboge, and dragon's blood must be pcmded very jfine on porphyry or clean marble, and mixed with the pounded glass. Over this mixture is p' wed the tincture formed by infusing the saffron and tLe extract of sandal-wood into the alcohol, in the manner directed in the last receipt. The varnishing is completed as before. Metal articles that are to be covered witJr +his varnish are heated, and, if they are of a kind to admit of it, are immersed in packets. The tint of the varnish may be varied in any degree required, by altering the propor- tions of the colouring quantities according to circum- stances. To make Lacquer of various 2\\(s. For this purpose, make use of the receipt given under the head of Changing Varnishes. To clean old Brass Worh for Lacquering. First boil a strong lye of wood-ashes, which you may strengthen with soap-lees ; put in your brass work, and the lacquer will immediately come off; then have ready a pickle of aqua-fortis and water, strong enough to take off the dirt; wash it immediately in clean water, dry it well, and lacquer it. 1^0 THE PAINTER, GILDER, BRONZINa. This art is nothing but a species of painting ; but far from being of the most delicate kind. The principal ingredients made use of in it are the true gold powder, the German gold, the aurum mosaicum, (all before described,) and copper powder. This last may be pro- cured by dissolving filings or slips of copper with nitrous acid in a receiver. When the acid is saturated, the slips are to be removed; or, if filings be employed, the solution is to be poured off from what remains undis- solved. Small bars are then put in, which will preci- pitate the copper from the saturated acid, in a powder of the peculiar appearance and colour of copper; and the liquid being poured from the powder, this is to be washed clean off the crystals by repeated levigations. The choice of these powders is, of course, to be deter- mined by the degree of brilliancy you wish to obtain. The powder is mixed with strong gum water or isinglass, and laid on with a brush or pencil; or, a coating of gold- size, prepared with a due proportion of turpentine, is first applied; and when not so dry as to have still a certain clamminess, a piece of soft leather, wrapped round the finger, is dipped in the powder and rubbed over the work. When the work has, in either of these ways, been all covered with the bronze, it must be left AND YARNISHER's COMPANION. 121 to dry, and any loose powder then cleared away by a hair pencil. Bronzing in wood may be effected by a process some- what differing from the above. Prussian blue, patent yellow, raw amber, lamp-black, and pipe-clay are ground separately with water on a stone, and as much of them as will make a good colour put into a small vessel, three- fourths full of size, not quite so strong as what is called clean size. This mixture is found to succeed best on using about half as much more pipe-clay as of any of the other ingredients. The wood being previously cleaned and smoothed, and coated with a mixture of clean size and lamp-black, receives a new coating with the above compound twice successively, having allowed the first to dry. Afterwards the bronze-powder is to be laid on with a pencil, and the whole burnished or cleaned anew, observing to repair the parts which may be injured by this operation. Next, the work must be coated over with a thin lather of Castile soap ', which will take off the glare of the burnishing, and afterwards be carefully rubbed with a woollen cloth. The superfluous powder may be rubbed off when dry. In bronzing iron, the subject should be heated to a greater degree than the hand can bear; and German gold, mixed with a small quantity of spirit-of-wine var- nish, spread over it with a pencil. Should the iron be already polished, you must heat it well and moisten it with a linen rag dipped in vinegar. There is a method of bronzing casts of plaster of Paris analogous to that which we have above given for bronz- n 122 THE PAINTERj GILDER, ing wood ; but it is not in much reputf Sacli ^/j.y.j may be beautifully varnished by means of the following composition, recommended by Dr. Johns, of Manchester, England, in the 3Iechanics' 3fagazine, vol. iv. pp. 303, 352. Of white soap and white wax, take each half an ounce; of water, two pints; boil them togther for a short time in a clean vessel. This varnish is to be applied when cold, by means of a soft brush. It does not sink in ; it readily dries ; and its effect may be heightened by lightly using a silk pocket handkerchief. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 123 jAPANNma. All wood work intended to be japanned must be prepared with size, and some coarse material mixed with it to fill up and harden the grain of the wood, (such as may best suit the colour intended to be laid on,) which must be rubbed smooth with glass paper when dry. In cases of accident, it is seldom necessary to re-size the damaged places, unless they are considerable. Be very careful, in japanning, to grind your colours smooth in spirit of turpentine ; then add a small quan- tity of turpentine and spirit varnish ; lay it carefully on with a camel-hair brush, and varnish it with brown or white spirit varnish, according to the colour. ■'Colours required in Japanning. Flake white, red lead, vermilion, lake, Prussian blue, patent yellow, orpiment, ochres, verditers, Vandyke, brown, umber, lamp-black, and siennas raw and burnt With these you may match almost any colours in gene- ral use in japanning. For a black japan, it will be found sufficient to mix a little gold-size with lamp-black ; this will bear a good gloss, without requiring to be var- nJahed afterwards. 124 THE PAINTER, GILDER, To prepare a fine Tortoise-shell Japan ground hy means > of Heat, Take one gallon of good linseed oil, and half a pound of umber ; boil them together till the oil becomes very brown and thick : then strain it through a coarse cloth, and set it again to boil; in which state it must be con- tinued till it acquire a consistence resembling that of pitch ; it will then be fit for use. Having thus prepared the varnish, clean well the sub- stance which is to be japanned. Then lay vermilion tempered with shell-lac varnish or with drying oil very thinly diluted with oil of turpentine, on the places in- tended to imitate the more transparent parts of the tor- toise-shell. When the vermiRon is dry, brush the whole over with black varnish, tempered to a due consistence with the oil of turpentine. When set and firm, put the work into a stove, where it may undergo a very strong heat, which must be continued a considerable time ; if even three weeks or a month it will be the better. This tortoise-shell ground is not less valuable for its great hardness, and enduring to be made hotter than boiling water without damage, than for the superioi beauty and brilliancy of its appearance. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 125 FOILS. Foils are thin plates or leaves of metal that are put under stones, or compositions in imitation of stones, when they are set, either to increase the lustre and play of the stones, or more generally to improve the colour, by giving an additional force to the tinge, whether it be natural or artificial, by a ground of the same hue. There are two kinds of foils. One is colourless, where the effect of giving lustre to the stone is produced by the polish of the surface, making it act as a mirror, and, by reflecting the light, preventing the deadness which attends a duller ground under the stone, and bringing it nearer to the effect of the diamond. The other is coloured with some pigment or stain, either of the same hue as the stone, or of some other, which is intended to change the hue of the stone in some degree ; thus, a yellow foil may be put under green which is too much inclined to blue, or under crimson, where it is de- sired to have the appearance of orange or scarlet. Foils may be made of copper or tin. Silver has been sometimes used, and even gold mixed with it ; but the expense of either is needless, as copper may be made to answer the same end. Copper intended for foils is prepared by taking cop- per plates beaten to a proper thickness, passing them betwixt a pair of fine steel rollers very closely set, and 11* 126 THE PAINTER, GTLDFR drawing tliem as thin as possible. They are polished with very fine whiting, or rotten-stone, till they shine, and have as much brightness as can be given them, and then they will be fit to receive the colour. If they are intended for a purple or crimson colour, the foils should first be whitened in the following manner : Take a small quantity of silver, and dissolve it in aqua-forth) tnen put bits of copper into the solution, and precipitate the silver ; which being done, the fluid must be poured off, and fresh water added to it to wash away all the re- mainder of the first fluid ; after which the silver must be dried, and an equal weight of cream of tartar and common salt ground with it, till the whole is reduced to a very fine powder. With this mixture, the foils, slightly moistened, must be rubbed by the finger, or a bit of linen rag, till they are of the degree of whiteness desired. The manner of preparing foils, so as to give colourless stones the greatest degree of play and lustre, by raising so high a polish or smoothness on the surface as in many instances to nearly resemble the eff'ect of diamonds, 1 shall not here detail, as it is not one in which the gene- ral occupations of the Painter, Yarnisher, or Gilder, would be of assistance. The method of colouring these substances I shall here describe. To Colour Foils. * Two methods have been invented for colouring foils ; the one by tinging the surface of the copper with the AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. i27 colour required by means of smoke, the other by stain- ing or painting it with some colouring substance. The colours used for painting foils may be mixed with either oil, water rendered glutinous by gum-arabic, size, or varnish. Where deep colours are wanted, oil is most proper, because some pigments become wholly transparent in it, as lake or Prussian blue : the yellow and green may be better laid on in varnish, as these colours may be had in perfection from a tinge wholly dissolved in spirit of wine, in the same manner as in the case of lacquers ; and the most beautiful green is to be produced by distilled verdigris, which is apt to lose its colour and turn black with oil. In common cases, however, any of the colours may be, with the least trouble, laid on with isinglass size, in the same manner as the glazing colours used in miniature painting. Where the ruby is to be imitated, a little lake used in isinglass size, carmine, or shell-lac varnish, is to be employed, if the glass or paste be of a full crimson, verging towards the purple ; but if the glass incline to the scarlet, or orange, very bright lake, not purple, may be used alone in oil. For garnet red, dragon^ s blood dissolved in seed-lac varnish may be used ; and for the vinegar garnet, the orange lake, tempered with shell-lac varnish, will be found excellent. For the amethyst, lake, with a little Prussian blue^ used with oil, and very thinly spread on the foil, will answer. For hluey where a deep colour or sapphire is wanted, 128 THE PAINTER, GILDER, Prussian blue, not too deep, should be used in oil, and be spread more or less thinly on the foil, according to the lightness or deepness of the colour required. For eagle 7narine, common verdigris, with a little Prussian blue, tempered in shell-lac varnish. Where a full yellow is desired, the foil may be co- loured with a yellow lacquer, laid on as for other pur- poses. For light yellows^ the copper ground of the foil itself, properly burnished, will be sufficient. For greeiij where a deep hue is required, the crystals of verdigris, tempered in shell-lac varnish, should be used ; but where the emerald is to be imitated, a little yellow lacquer should be added, to bring the colour to a truer green, and less verging to the blue. The stones of more diluted colour, such as the ame- tJiystj topazy vmegar garnet, and eagle marinej may be very cheaply imitated by transparent white glass or paste, even without foils. This is to be done by tem- pering the colours above mentioned with turpentine and mastic, and painting the socket in which the counterfeit stone is to be set with the mixture, the socket and stone itself being previously heated. In this case, however, the stone should be immediately set, and the socket closed upon it before the mixture cools and grows hard. The orange lake, mentioned under the head of garnet red, was invented for this purpose, in which it has a beautiful effect, and has been used with great success. The colour it produces is that of the vinegar garnet, which it affords with great brightness. The colours before directed to be used in oil should AND VARNISHER^S COMPANION. 129 be extremely well ground in oil of turpentine, and tem- pered with oil — nut or poppy oil ; or, if time can be given for their drying, with strong fat oil, diluted with spirits of turpentine, which will gain a fine polish of itself. The colours used in varnish should be likewise thoroughly well ground and mixed ; and in the case of dragon's blood in the seed- lac varnish and the lacquer, the foils should be warmed before they are laid out. All the mixtures should be laid on the foils with a broad soft brush, which must be passed from one end to the other, and no part should be crossed or twice gone over —or, at least, not till the first coat be dry ; when, if the colour does not lie enough, a second coat may be given. 130 THE PAINTER, GILDER, FISH OIL COLOURS. Various coarse paints, applicable to out-door work, and of great cheapness and durability, may be made with fish oil, according to the following processes : — To prepare the Oil. Into a cask which will contain about forty gallons, put thirty-two gallons of good common vinegar ; add to this twelve pounds of litharge, and twelve pounds of white copperas in powder : bung up the vessel, and shake and roll it well twice a-day for a week, when it will be fit to put into a ton of whale, cod, or seal oil, (but the South- ern whale oil is to be preferred, on account of its good colour and little or no smell :) shake and mix all to- gether, when it may settle until the next day; then pour off the clear, which will be about seven-eighths of the whole. To clear this part, add twelve gallons of linseed oil, and two gallons of spirit of turpentine ; shake them well together, and, after the whole has settled two or three days, it will be fit to grind white lead and all fine colours in; and, when ground, cannot be distin- guished from those ground in linseed oil, unless by the superiority of colour. If the oil be wanted only for coarse purposes, the lin- eeed oil and oil of turpentine may be added at the same AND VAKNISHER^S COMPANION. 131 time that the prepared vinegar is put in; and, after being well shaken up, is fit for immediate use, without being suffered to settle. The residue or bottom, when settled by the addition of half its quantity of fresh lime-wa^er, forms an excel- lent oil for mixing with all the coarse paints for preserv- ing outside work. All colours ground in the above oil, and used for in- side work, must be thinned with linseed oil and oil of turpentine. Gain hy the ahove process. One ton of fish oil, or 252 gallons . . $151 20 32 gallons of vinegar, at 12^ cents per gallon . 4 00 12 lbs. litharge, at 7 cts. per lb. . . 84 12 lbs. white copperas, at 8 cts. ditto . . 96 12 gallons of linseed oil, at 90 cts. per gallon 10 80 2 gallons of spirit of turpentine, at 40 cts. 80 $168 60 252 gallons of fish oil 12 ditto linseed oil 2 ditto spirit of turpentine 32 ditto vinegar 298 gallons, at 90 cts. per gallon $268 20 Deduct the expense . . 168 60 $99 60 182 THE PAINTER, GILDER, Preparation and Cost of particular Colours. I. — Subdued Green. Fresh lime-water, 6 gallons . . . . $ 06 Road dirt, finely sifted, 112 pounds . . 10 Whiting, 112 ditto 1 12 Blue-black, 30 ditto .... 1 50 Wet blue, 20 ditto 4 00 Kesidue of the oil, 3 gallons . . 1 50 Yellow ochre in powder, 24 pounds . . 1 20 $9 48 This composition will weigh three hundred and sixty- eight pounds, which is a little more than two and a half cents per pound. To render the above paint fit for use, to every eight pounds add one quart of the incorporated oil, and one quart of linseed oil, and it will be found a paint with every requisite quality, as well of beauty as of durability and cheapness, and in this state of prepara- tion does not cost five cents per pound. The following is the mode of mixing the ingredients : — First pour six gallons of lime-water into a large tub, then throw in one hundred and twelve pounds of whit- ing ) stir it round well with a stirrer, let it settle for about an hour, and stir it again. The painter may then put in the one hundred and twelve pounds of road dirt, mix it well, and add the blue-black, after which the AND VAJRNISHEE-*S COMPANION. 133 yellow ochre ; and when all is tolerahly blended, take it out of the tub, and put it on a large board or platform, and, with a labourer's shovel, mix and work it about as they do mortar. Now add the wet blue, which must be previously ground in the incorporated oil, (as it will not grind or mix with any other oil.) When this is added to the mass, you may begin to thin it with the incorpo- rated oil, in the proportion of one quart to every eight pounds, and then the linseed oil in the same proportion, and it is ready to be put into casks for use. H. — Lead Colour. Whiting, 112 pounds .... Blue-back, 5 ditto .... Lead ground in oil, 28 ditto Koad dirt, 56 ditto .... Lime-water, 5 gallons .... Residue of the oil, 2 J ditto . $1 12 25 2 24 10 05 1 25 Weighs 256 pounds $5 01 To the above add two gallons of the incorporated oil, and two gallons of linseed oil to thin it for use, and it will not exceed two cents and a quarter. The lime-water, whiting, road dirt, and blue-black must be first mixed together; then add the ground lead, first blending it with two gallons and a half of the pre- pared fish oil ; after which, thin the whole with the two gallons of linseed oil and two gallons of incorporated oil, 12 4 134 THE PAINTER, GILDER, and it will be fit for use. For garden doors and other work liable to be in constant use, a little spirits of tur- pentine may be added to the paint whilst laying on, which will have the desired effsct. m. — Bright Green. 112 pounds yellow ochre in powder, at 5 cents per pound . . . . . . $5 ^^ 168 ditto road dust ..... 25 112 ditto wet blue, at 20 cts. per pound . 22 40 10 ditto blue-black, at 5 cts. ditto . . 50 6 gallons of lime-water .... 06 4 ditto fish oil, prepared . . . , 2 40 71 ditto incorporated oil . . . 4 28 7 J ditto linseed oil, at 90 cts. per gallon . 6 75 592 pounds weight ' $42 24 It will be seen that the bright green costs but about seven cents per pound, ready to lay on; and the inventor challenges any colourman or painter to produce a green equal to it for five times the price. After painting, the colour left in the pot may be covered with water to prevent it from skinning, and the brushes, as usual, should be cleaned with the painting- knife and kept under water. A brighter green may be formed by omitting the blue black. A lighter green may be made by the addition of ten pounds of ground white lead. AND YARNISHER's COMPANION. 135 A variety of greens may be obtained by varying the proportions of the blue and yellow. Observe that the wet blue must be ground with the incorporated oil, preparatory to its being mixed with the mass. ly. — Stone Colour, Lime-water, 4 gallons . . . . $ 04 Whiting, 112 pounds 1 12 White lead, ground, 28 pounds . . . 2 24 Road dust, 56 pounds ..... 10 Prepared fish oil, 2 gallons . . . 1 20 Incorporated oil, 3| gallons . . . . 2 00 Linseed oil, 3 J ditto . . • • . 3 15 Weighs 293 pounds $9 85 The above stone colour, fit for use, is not three and a half cents per pound. V. — Brown Red, Lime-water, 8 gallons .... $ 08 Spanish brown, 112 pounds . . 3 36 Koad dust, 224 pounds .... 40 4 gallons of fish oil . . 2 40 4 ditto incorporated oil . 2 28 4 ditto linseed oil . 3 60 Weighs 501 pounds $12 12 136 THE PAINTER; GILDER, This paint is scarcely two and a half cents per pound The Spanish brown must be in powder. VI. — A good chocolate colour is made by the addition of blue-black; in powder, or lamp-black, till the colour is to the painter's mind ; and a lighter brown may be formed by adding ground white lead. By ground lead, is meant white lead ground in oil. YII. — Yellow is prepared with yellow ochre in pow- der, in the same proportion as Spanish brown. Till. — Blach is also prepared in the same proportion, using lamp-black or blue-black. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 137 GLASS-STAININa. In the production of figures on glass, fragments of coloured glass are used, which are cut in pieces of the proper shape, and united by lead. In this way are formed the ground tints, skies, draperies, ornaments, &c. The shades, heads, hands, &c., are then painted in vitrifiable colours, which, after being laid on, are burnt or fired into the glass. The precaution should be ob- served in joining the pieces of coloured glass, that the lead joints do not interfere with the effect of the picture. That which characterizes painting on glass, and dis- tinguishes it from painting on porcelain, is that the artist makes use of both surfaces of the glass. The sui - face placed towards the spectator receives all the shades, which are thus rendered more life-like and better de- fined. All the shading colours are likewise placed on this side; all the lights of the picture are thrown on the other side. By this means colours may be used which would be injured by contact with each other, and the superposition of which would produce peculiar tints not desirable. The pigments used in painting on glass are principally metallic oxides and chlorides, and as, in most of these, the colour is not brought out until after the painting is submitted to heat, it is necessary to ascertain before- hand if the colours are properly mixed, by painting on 12* 138 THE PAINTER; GILDER. slips of glass, and exposing tliem to heat in the muffle. The painter is guided by these trial pieces, in laying on his colours. As the effect of a picture on glass is pro- duced by transmitted and not by reflected light, it is necessary that the colours, after being burnt on, should be more or less transparent. As the coloured glass which forms the ground on which the artist works is manufactured in glass-works, and is an article of commerce, it is necessary to consider here only the colours which are burnt on in the muffle. The temperature at which these are burnt on is never raised above the melting point of silver. In oil and water-colour paintings, the pigments are rubbed up with oil, solutions of gum, water, &c. In painting on glass, it is necessary to have a proper vehicle for the colours, which will become liquid at a red heat, and which performs the same function as oils, &c., in or- dinary painting. This vehicle is called a Jlux. It en- velops the colour which is mechanically mixed with it, and glues it, as it were, to the glass. The colour and the flux are often confounded, however, under the name of vitrifiaMe colours, which are mixtures of colour and flux. The vehicle or flux varies with colour, but these variations are very limited, as the colours ought to be capable of mixing with each other. The flux ordinarily employed is a simple silicate of lead, or a mixture of silicate of lead and borax. Experiment has shown that potash and soda cannot be substituted for borax. The following are the proportions of the ingredients of vari- ous fluxes : — AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 189 No. 1. Minium or red lead . . .3 parts. White sand washed ... 1 part. This mixture is melted, by which it is converted into a greenish-yellow glass. No. 2. — Gra^ Flux, Of No. 1 8 parts. Fused borax in powder . . 1 part. This mixture is melted. No. 3. — Flux for Carmines and Greens Fused borax .... 5 parts. Calcined flint .... 3 ^^ Pure minium .... 1 part. This mixture is also melted. The various colours used in glass-painting are obtained from the following substances : — The blue on glass is produced with cobalt; the purples, violets, and carmines, with the purple of Cassius; the reds, browns, &c., with the peroxide of iron ; the greens with the silicate of copper, sometimes with the oxide of chromium, (in glass-painting, greens of copper are pre- ferred to those of chromium, on account of their greater transparency,) often with a mixture of blue and yellow ', the blacks, grays, &c., with the oxides of manganese^ 140 THE PAINTER, GILDER, cobalt, and iron ; the yellows with the oxide of uranium, the chromate of lead, certain combinations of silver; finally, the compounds of antimonious acid, and of ox- ide of lead, or of the subsulphate of iron. Beautiful yellow tones may be produced on glass by placing on its surface a layer of three parts of pipe-clay, well burnt and pounded, and rubbed up with one part of chloride of silver. The glass is then submitted to heat in a muflfle. After cooling, the layer of clay is removed, and the glass is stained yellow. The tint depends on the nature of the glass and the proportion of chloride of silver. Glass, containing about eight or ten per cent, of alumina, takes a more beautiful tint than glass con- taining only two or three per cent. The following are some of the colours used in the celebrated porcelain manufactory of Sevres, and the pro- portions in which they are compounded. These colours, though intended for painting on porcelain, are nearly all applicable to painting on glass. Blues are obtained with the silicate of cobalt. The oxide of cobalt must be in the state of silicate, in order that the blue colour be developed. The colour, once produced, is unalterable at all temperatures. No. 1.- —Indigo Blue. Oxide of cobalt . . • 1 part. Flux No. 3 ... 2 parts. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 141 No. 2. — Turquoise Blue. Oxide of cobalt . . * . .1 part. Oxide of zinc . . . 3 or 4 parts. Flux No. 3 . . . . 6 " Melt and pour out. If it is not sufficiently green, increase the zinc and flux. iVb. 3. — Azure Blue. Oxide of cobalt .... 1 part. Oxide of zinc . . . . 2 parts. Flux No. 2 . . . . . 8 « Melt them together. No. 4.— Z?eep Azure Blue. Oxide of cobalt . ... 1 part. Oxide of zinc .... 2 parts. Flux No. 2 5 " The beauty of this colour depends on the proportion of flux. As little as possible is to be used ; it must, however, be brilliant. Sometimes less is used than the proportion indicated. No. 5. — Sky Blue^for the Browns. Oxide of cobalt .... 1 part. Oxide of zinc .... 2 parts. Flux No. 2 12 « Pound up, melt, and pour out. 142 THE PAINTER, GILDER, No 6. — Violet Blue, for ground colour. Blue No. 5 4 parts. Violet of gold, No. 31 . . 2 " More or less of the violet of gold is added. Triturate without melting. No. 7. — Lavender Blue, for ground tint Blue No. 5 4 parts. Violet of gold, No. 31 . . 3 " Sometimes a little carmine is added. Pulverize with- out melting. Greens are obtained with the oxide of chromium, or with the deutoxide of copper, or with mixtures of oxide of chromium and silicate of cobalt, when bluish tones are wished. When these greens contain the oxide of copper, they require a previous fusion, for it is only in the state of silicate or of salt that this oxide gives a green. The greens of copper disappear entirely at a high heat. When the colours are required to be transparent, the oxide of copper is used instead of the oxide of chromium. No, 8. — Emerald Green. Oxide of copper .... 1 part. Antimonic acid ... 10 parts. Flux No. 1 . . . . 30 " Pulverize together, and melt. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 1*8 JVo. 9. — Bluish Green, Green oxide of chromium . . 1 part. Oxide of cobalt ... 2 parts. Triturate, and melt at a high heat. The product is a Dutton slightly melted, from which is removed the por- tion in contact with the crucible. This button is pounded up, and three parts of flux No. 3, for one of the button, are added to it. No. 10. — Grass Green. Green oxide of chromium . • 1 part. Flux No. 3 .... 3 parts. Triturate, and melt. Nbs. 10, 11, 12. — Dragorij Pistache, and Olive Green, They are prepared with the oxide of chromium, mixed with flux No. 3, with additions of deep or clear yellow No. 15 or 16, ascertaining the proportions by trial. Yellows are commonly obtained by means of antimonic acid and the oxide of lead, (litharge.) It is the Naples yellow, or very nearly so. Sometimes stannic acid (peroxide of tin) is added, and oxide of zinc, and often also some subsulphate of the peroxide of iron, prepared by exposing to the air weak solutions of the protosulphate of iron, (copperas.) These colours do not change in the muflle, but they disappear almost entirely at a high heat. They are 144 THE PAINTER; GILDER, easily altered by smoke, by which the oxide of lead is reduced, which produces a dirty gray. * Yellows are made with the chromate of lead, but their use is too uncertain. In Germany, the oxide of uranium is employed, which gives a beautiful yellow; but in France it is found to produce no better yellow than those aJready known. iVb. 13. — Sulphur Yellow. Antimonic acid .... 1 part. Subsulphate of the peroxide of iron 8 parts. Oxide of zinc . . . . 4 " Flux No. 1 . . . . 36 " Rub up together, and melt ; if this colour is too deep, the salt of iron is diminished. • No. 14. — Fixed Yellow for touches. Yellow No. 13 . . . .1 part White enamel of commerce . 2 parts. Melt, and pour out. If it is not sufficiently fixed, a little sand may be added. Mb. 15. — Yellow for Browns and Greens. Antimonic acid ... .2 parts. Subsulphate of iron ... 1 part. Flux No. 1 . . . .9 parts. This colour is melted, and sometimes a little Naples yellow is added if it is too soft, (i. e. melts too easily.) AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 145 No. 16. — Deej) Yelhw, to mix with the Chromium Greens. Antimonic acid . , . . 2 parts. Subsulphate of iron . . 1 part. Flux No. 1 . . . .10 parts. Melt, and pour out. The subsulphate of iron may bo increased a little : the proportions of flux vary. No. 17. — Jonquille Yellow for flowers. Litharge ..... 18 parts. Sand ..... 6 " The product of the calcination of equal parts of lead and tin 2 " Carbonate of soda 1 part. Antimonic acid 1 " Rub together or triturate, and melt. No. IS.— Wax Yellow. Litharge ..... 18 parts. Sand ..... 4 " Oxi^e of antimony . . . 2 " Sienna earth 2 « Melt. If it is too deep, the proportion of Sienna earth may be decreased. No. 19. — Fixed Wax Yellow. No. 18 mixed, without melting, with white enamel or sand, in order to harden it. The quantity depends on the greater or less fusibility of the yellow. 13 146 THE PAINTER, GILDER, JVb. 20. — Nankin Yellow for grounds. Subsulphate of iron ... 1 part. Oxide of z^inc ... 2 parta. Flux No. 1 . . . . 10 " Triturate. No. 21. — Deep Nankin Yellow. Subsulphate of iron . . . 1 part. Oxide of zinc ... 2 parts. Flux No. 2 . . . . 8 " Triturate without melting. No. 22.— Pale Yellow Ochre. Subsulphate of iron 1 part. Oxide of zinc 2 parts. Flux No. 2 . . . . 6 " Triturate without melting. No. 23. — Deep Yellow Ochre, called Yellow Brown* Subsulphate of iron ... 1 p5-rt. Oxide of zinc ... 1 " Flux No. 2 .... 5 parts. Triturate without melting. No. 24. — Brown Yellow Ochre. Yellow ochre. No. 23 . . 10 parts. Sienna earth . . .1 part. Mix without melting. AND VARNISHER*S COMPANION. 147 No. 25. — Isabella Yellow, for grounds. Yellow for browns, No. 15 . 20 parts. Blood red, No. 28 ... 1 part. No. 26. — Orange Yellow j for grounds. Chromate of lead ... 1 part. Minium . . . . .3 parts. No. 27.— Brick Red, Yellow No. 23 . . . . 12 parts. Bed oxide of iron ... 1 part. No. 2S.—Ikep Blood Red. Subsulphate of iron, calcined in a muffle until it becomes a beauti- ful capucine red ... 1 part. Flux No. 2 . . . . 3 parts. Mix without melting. Colours of Gold. — ^These are carmine reds, purples, and violets, made by means of tbe precipitated purple of Cassius. These colours are very delicate, and are the only ones which change their tints in the fire. Un- burnt, they are of dirty violet tint, but are changed into a lively and pure tone by a moderate burning. In a stronger fire, these colours become yellowish, and even completely disappear. It is necessary to mix the purple of Cassius with considerable flux, and this mixture must 148 THE PAINTER, GILDER, be made while the purple precipitate is still moist. If it was suffered to dry, the colour would be spoiled. With one part of purple of Cassius, six parts of flux are mixed. The purple powder of Cassius gives a purple by itself. Mixed with chloride of silver, which gives to it a yellow, a carmine tone is produced. With a little cobalt blue, it is rendered violet. No. 29. — Hard Carmine. It is the purple of Cassius mixed with flux No. 3, and chloride of silver, previously melted with ten parts of flux No. 3. The proportions vary. The whole is ground on a glass, the precipitate of gold being still moist. No. 30. — Pure Purple. The purple powder of Cassius mixed while moist with flux No. 3, and sometimes a little chloride of silver previously melted with flux No. 3. If the purple, when prepared, does not melt sufficiently easy, some flux may be added when it is dry. No. 31. — Deep Violet, The purple of Cassius ; in place of flux No. 3, flux No. 1 is mixed with it. Sometimes a little of blue No. 6 is added. Colours of Iron. — Besides the subsulphate of the peroxide, the peroxide itself is employed to produce rose tints, reds, violet tones, and browns. The pure peroxide AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 149 can produce the first three tones, and it is easily imagined when we know that its shade varies from rose to deep violet, according to the temperature to which it has been submitted. Slightly heated, it is rose or red ; at a forge heat, it becomes violet. As to the browns of iron, they require some mixtures. These colours are unalter- able in the muffle, but they disappear in great part at a high heat. In the first case the oxide remains free, and in the second it is united with the silica. A too fusible flux or glass produces the same effect. M. S2.— Flesh Red. The sulphate of iron, put in small crucibles and lightly calcined, produces a suitable red oxide. Those which have the desired tone are selected. All the flesh reds are made in this way, and vary only in the degrees of heat which they receive. Browns may be obtained with various mixtures of peroxide or subsulphate of iron with the oxide of man- ganese, silicate of cobalt, or silicate of copper. These colours, unalterable in the heat of the muffle, lose their intensity at a high heat. No. 33. — Clove Brown. The basis of this brown is yellow ochre No. 23, to which is added either the oxide of cobalt in small quan- tities, or umber or sienna earth. Proportions are tried according to the tone required. 13* 150 THE PAINTER, GILDER, iVo. 34. — Wood Brown, The same -process as the clove brown, only without the oxide of cobalt. JVb. 35. — Hair Brown. Yellow ochre, No. 23 . .15 parts. Oxide of cobalt .... 1 part. Well triturated and calcined, in order to give the tone to it. No. 36. — Liver Brown. Oxide of iron made of a red brown, and mixed with three times its weight of flux No. 2. A tenth of sienna earth is added to it, if it is not sufficiently deep. No. 37. — Sepia Brown. Deep yellow ochre . . .15 parts. Oxide of cobalt . . . . 1 part. A little manganese is added if it is not sufficiently deep. All the ingredients are well mixed, and calcined in order to produce the tone. No. ^S.— White. The white enamel of commerce in cakes. No. 39. Another white is prepared by mixing equal parts of fluxes No. 1 and No. 3. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 151 No. 40. — Yellowish- Gray for Browns and Reds. Yellow, No. 15 . . . 1 part. Blue, No. 5 . . . . 1 " Oxide of zinc . . . 2 or 3 parts. Flux, No. 2 . . . . 5 " Sometimes a little black is added, according to the tone which the mixture produces. The proportions of the blue and yellow vary. No. 41. — Bluish- Gray for Mixtures, Blue previously made by melting together three parts of flux No. 1, and one part of the mixture of Oxide of cobalt ... 8 parts. Oxide of zinc .... 1 part. Sulphate of iron calcined at a forge heat . , . . . . 1 " Flux, No. 2 3 parts. Triturate, and add a little manganese in order to ren- der it more gray. No. 42. — Grayish-hlack for Mixtures. Yellow ochre. No. 23 ' . . 15 parts. Oxide of Cobalt . . . .1 part. Triturate and calcine in a crucible until it has the desired tone. A little oxide of mauijanese is added in order to make it blacker; sometimes a little more of oxide of cobalt. . 2 « 1 (< . 6 it i part. 1 ti . 2 parts. 152 THE PAINTER, GILDER, No. 43.— Dec^ Black. Oxide of cobalt ... 2 parts. " " copper . " " manganese . Flux, No. 1. . . . Fused borax Melt, and add Oxide of manganese . " " copper . Triturate without melting. The colours thus prepared, after having been rubbed up on a plate of ground glass with the spirits of turpen- tine or lavender, thickened in the air, are applied with a hair pencil. Before using them, however, it is necessary to try them on small pieces of glass, and ex- pose them to the fire, to ascertain if the desired tone of colour is produced. The artist must be guided b}' these proof pieces in using his colours. The proper glass for receiving these colours should be uniform, colourless, and diflScult of fusion. For this reason, crown glass made with a little alkali or kelp is preferred. A design must be drawn upon paper, and placed beneath the plate of glass; though the artist cannot regulate his tints directly by his palette, but by specimens of the colours producible from his palette pigments after they are fired. The upper side of the glass being sponged over with gum-water, affords, when dry, a surface proper AND VARNISHER^S COMPANION. 153 for receiving the colours, without the risk of their run- ning irregularly, as they would be apt to do on the slippery glass. The artist first draws on the plate, with a fine pencil, all the traces which mark the great outlines and shades of the figures. This is usually done in black, or at least some strong colour, such as brown, blue, green, or red. In laying on these, the painter is guided by the same principles as the engraver, when he produces the efiect of light and shade, by dots, lines, or hatches; and he employs that colour to. produce the shades which will harmonize best with the colour which is afterwards to be applied ; but for the deeper shades, black is in general used. When this is finished, the whole picture will be represented in lines or hatches similar to an engraving, finished up to the highest efiect possible ; and afterwards, when it is dry, the vitrifying colours are laid on by means of larger hair pencils ; their selection being regulated by the burnt specimen tints. When he finds it necessary to lay two colours adjoining, which are apt to run together in the muffle he must apply one of them to the back of the glass The yellow formed with chloride of silver is generally* laid on the back of the glass. After colouring, the artist proceeds to bring out the lighter effects by taking off" the colour in the proper place, with a goosequill cut like a pen without a slit. By working this upon the glass, he removes the colour from the parts where the lights should be the strongest; such as the hair, eyes, the re- flection of bright surfaces and light parts of draperies- 154 THE PAIXTER, GILDER, The blank pen may be employed either to make the lights by lines, or hatches and dots, as is most suitable to the subject. To fire the paintings, a furnace with a muffle is used. The muffles are made of refractory clay. They have been made of cast iron, but these are no longer employed. Fig. 4 is an elevation and transverse section of the fur- Fig. 4. nace, and its muffle in place. Fig. 5 is a longitudinal section. Fig?. 6 and 7, views of the muffle ; u is the AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 155 Fig. 5. door of the ashpit e ; p the door of the furnwce f; y, y are the small arches of the dome of the furnace wnicb Fig. 6. Fig. 7. m^'-^"^ ■^-'■^-"">^-^-'^'~^'-'-^^-^SB 156 THE PAINTER, GILPER, supports the muffle. c, c are the flues through which the flame escapes ; n is a pipe or tube on the top of the muffle to allow vapours to escape ; r, r, tubes in the door of the muffle, through which the proof pieces are passed. In the interior of the muffle, small brackets or projec- tions t, I are placed, which support bars of iron encased in porcelain, on which the plates of glass which are to be burned rest. Dry pulverized lime is sometimes laid on the bottom of the muffle and the glass rested on the lime. Several layers of glass may be placed in the muffle to- gether, with layers of lime between them. This is the better arrangement. As the paintings retain consider- able oil, it is necessary, when the muffle is first charged, to heat gently, in orcJer to volatilize or decompose this oil, leaving the muffle open. When the oil is driven ofi", the muffle is closed, and the fire increased. A greater or less intensity of heat is directed from one part to another of the muffle, by opening or closing the flues c, so as to cause the flames to pass over any point desired. The temperature suitable for burning is judged of by placing in the muffle pieces of glass painted with a little carmine. The heat should not be carried beyond the point at which the carmine is well developed. These pieces are fastened to iron wires, by which they may be passed in or out of the muffle through the tubes r, r. In this way the progress of the burning may be closely watched. When the carmine is well developed, the fire should be arrested, and the muffle allowed to cool. When the muffle has entirely cooled, the glass is withdrawn. If AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 167 any parts are defective, they may be retouched and put in the muflfle a second time. Sufficient time should be allowed for the glass to become entirely cool, before withdrawing it. Id8 THE PAINTER, GILDER, HARMONY OF COLOURS. Evert one must have observed that certain colours, when brought together, mutually set each other off to advantage, while others have altogether a different effect. This must be carefully attended to by every painter who would study beauty or elegance in the appearance of his work. Whites will set off well with any colour whatever. Heds set off best with ^tf.u.u, blacks, or yellows. JBlues with whites or ycilows. Greens with blacks and whites. Gold sets off well either with blacks or browns. In lettering or edging with gold, a white ground has a delicate appearance for a time, but it soon becomes dingy. The best grounds for gold are Saxon blue, ver- milion, and lake. AND varnisher's co^ipanion. 159 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND USEFUL EECEIPTS. Though the whole of the following subjects and re- ceipts cannot be strictly said to relate to the trades of the Painter, Grilder, or Yarnisher, yet most of them are so intimately connected with them, and also so useful to him, that the present Manual could not be considered complete without their being introduced. To increase the Strength of common Rectified Spirits of WinCj so as to make it equal to that of the best. Take a pint of the common spirits, and put it into a bottle which it will only fill about three-quarters fall. Add to it half an ounce of pearlash or salt of tartar, powdered as much as it can be without occasioning any great loss of its heat. Shake the mixture frequently for about half an hour, before which time a considerable sediment, like phlegm, will be separated from the spirits, and will appear along with the undissolved pearlash or 160 THE PAINTER, GILDER, salt at the bottom of the bottle. Then pour the spirit off into another bottle, being careful to bring none of the sediment or salt along with it.* To the quantity just poured off add half an ounce of pearlash, powdered and heated as before, and repeat the same treatment. Con- tinue to do this as often as you find necessary till you perceive little or no sediment : when this is the case, an ounce of alum, powdered and made hot, but not burned, must be put into the spirits, and suffered to remain some hours, the bottle being frequently shaken during the time ; after which the spirit, when poured off, will be found free from all impurities, and equal to the best rectified spirits of wine. To Silver hy Heat. ' Dissolve an ounce of pure silver in aqua fortis, and pi^ipitate it with common salt ; to which add half a pound of sal-ammoniac, sandever, and white vitriol, and a quarter of an ounce of sublimate. Or dissolve an ounce of pure silver in aqua fortis, and precipitate it with common salt ; and add, after washing, six ounces of common salt, three ounces each of sandever and white vitriol, and a quarter of an ounce of sublimate. These are to be ground into a paste, upon a fine stone, with a muller; the substance to be silvered must be rubbed over with a sufficient quantity of the paste, and * For this purpose, you had better use what is called a separat- ing funnel, if you can procure it. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 161 exposed to a proper degree of heat. When the silver runs, it is taken from the fire and dipped into weak spirits of salts to clean it. To Tin Capper and Brass. Boil six pounds of cream of tartar, four gallons of water, and eight pounds of grain tin or tin shavings. After the materials have boiled a sufficient time, the substance to be tinned is put therein, and the boiling continued, when the tin is precipitated in its metallic form. To Tin Iron and C open. AND VARNISIIER'S COMPANION. 183 The fumes or handling of quicksilver produce, besides the symptoms mentioned in speaking of arsenic, saliva- tion in a greater or less degree, bad breath, griping pains in the stomach, and severe purging. White of egg, dissolved in water and filtered, and diluted as cir- cumstances require, is one of the best remedies when these symptoms are violent. A very good emetic, in such cases, is one ounce of sub-carbonate of magnesia dissolved in a pint of water; a glassful of the mixture being taken every few minutes, at such intervals as are needful to promote vomiting. Verdigris is readily distinguished by* its nauseous and corroding eifects upon the stomach. If you have reason to think you have suffered from the frequent use of this colour, common sugar, taken in such quantities as to open the bowels frequently, will be found the very best remedy. I strongly recommend to every painter and varnisher, when engaged in any part of his business which requires him to employ a poisonous substance, whether lead or any other, the use of tobacco — I mean chewing it. It is the most powerful check to a substance acting to produce spasms, by suspending the muscular action in the sto- mach. In short, tobacco possesses in this respect the advantages without the danger of opium, and has been found of the greatest service to persons in the trades above mentioned. At the same time, persons who use it for the purpose I have stated, should be careful not to indulge in the practice too freely ; for the excessive chewing of tobacco will not only occasion a feeling of 184 THE PAINTER; GILDER, stupid languor, wliich unfits a man for exertion, but may in time bring on a disease almost as much to be dreaded as the evils which it is intended to guai'd against. Nausea. Oil of turpentine, burnt oils of several descriptions, and some other substances used in painting and varnish- ing, give out fumes, which, though not of a poisonous nature, are apt to occasion a slight sickness at the sto- mach, accompanied with a headache and a fainting sen- sation, to persons whose nerves are not strong : and these effects are frequently felt by young people before they become accustomed to the business. In many cases, removing for a short time from the offensive fumes into a pure air, and drinking a very little spring water, will dissipate these feelings. If they return, some open- ing medicine, or an emetic should be taken, which, if a foul stomach, as often happens, has been the cause, will remove it. But if you are a beginner in the business, and find yourself constantly affected in this manner on such occasions, I would advise you to turn to some other occupation ; for a person of decidedly weak nerves will be subject to constant iU health as a painter. Bums and Scalds, In no business are these accidents more liable to occur to the persons engaged in it than in painting, varnish- ing, and gilding. In all scalds and burns, it is of the first importance to AND VARNISHER^S COMPANION. 185 apply a remedy at the instant. Spirit of wine or turpen- tine, applied at the moment, generally prevents the rising of blisters ; if it be rectified spirits, it is so much the better. Spirit of wine or turpentine is decidedly the best immediate remedy when the skin is broken. If the vio- lence or size of the burns or scalds render the application of the spirit in the common way too painful, cover the injured parts with pieces of bladder softened by dipping them in warm water, and keep the outer surface con- stantly wetted with the spirit. When the burn is considerable, fresh yolk of egg (if spirit is not at hand) applied to it will relieve the pain and forward the cure. A salve composed of one part of yellow wax and three parts of olive oil, which you can easily make yourself and carry about you, in case of an accident, will likewise be extremely useful if applied at the moment of its happening. Scraped potato is very often applied to a scald or burn. Some have pronounced it a certain cure, others have called it injurious : both parties are wrong. The fact is, it does nothing towards curing the burn ; hut if applied at the first moment, it prevents its becoming worse, and relieves the pain. It is therefore very right to apply it, if no other remedy be near, till a better can be procured. Water, however, is almost always to be obtained, and, in the absence of other remedies, should instantly be had recourse to. The part or parts which have been injured should, without a moment's delay, be plunged into very cold water, or plentifully pumped upon, and an astonishingly rapid change from torture to 16* 186 THE PAINTER, GILDER, ease will take place. After the immersion has continued a proper length of time, the parts injured should be co- vered with linen rags continually kept wetted with water and streams of air passed over them from time to time by a pair of bellows, till the person feels a freezing sensation. Water is always serviceable in burns; and where the skin is not broken, many eminent surgeons consider it as the best of remedies. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 187 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. I SHALL conclude this subject with a few general re- marks, principally respecting the diet and manner of living of the painter ; on which, indeed, his exemption from the diseases which so severely affect many in his trade mainly depend. He should avoid all acid drinks, such as cider and effervescing liquors ; and abstain as much as possible from sours both in food and drink, even the use of vine- gar; for acids have a particular tendency to combine with any portion of lead that he may have imbibed, and will act upon the stomach in a most injurious manner. When a griping feeling is experienced by the painter, he often has recourse to a glass of raw spirits, with the idea of obtaining relief. Now, he cannot commit a greater error. This feeling indicates the commencement of that dangerous disorder, the dry belly-ache, and spirit- uous liquors will both bring it on more rapidly and ag- gravate the symptoms. There is, besides, a vulgar bui most mistaken notion that spirits taken inwardly are useful in guarding against the fumes of lead and other poisonous substances. And it is melancholy to see the number of persons engaged in the painting and varnish- ing line who, from this false idea, are led to adopt the pernicious practice of drinking drams in the morning; 188 THE PAINTER, GILDER, and not unfrequently, from the hold this destructive habit gains upon them, at other times of the day too. Now, so far from this practice being serviceable, I can assure the dram-drinking painter that, whenever he is attacked by that disease, so dangerous to those in his trade, he will find it rendered far more violent by his previous use of spirituous liquors and more likely to terminate in in- flammation or palsy. Ardent spirits in a raw state should never be touched by the painter; and when taken mixed, they should rather be weak than otherwise. I have had frequent occasion to observe that painters in general are partial to a great deal of solid and high- seasoned food. Now, it will be perceived that the disor- der from which they have most to fear, and which is most common among them, is always attended by a con- fined state of the bowels, from which its principal danger arises. A painter who regards his health should always prefer such food as is light and easy of digestion ; and if he take any solids, it should be in small quantities, and not frequently. For the same reason, though I do not condemn malt liquor to a painter in good health, I should advise him not to take it in large quantities at a time, as it is heavy on the stomach. The lead which he cannot avoid more or less imbibing has a tendency to make him costive ; and his business is not, like some others, accompanied with strong exercise to promote digestion. I need scarcely remark on the advantages of cleanli- ness in his person to him, since the handling of prepara- AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 189 tions of lead is one of the injurious parts of his occu- pation. In conclusion, let me once more impress upon him the importance and necessity of Temperance. The neglect of it in a workman of any other description may bring him to sickness^ must bring him to poverty ; but the intemperate and drunken Painter or Vamisher makes the most rapid strides in his power to bring upon himself painful sickness, and very often premature death. 190 THE PAINTER, GILDER, DIEECTIONS FOR GMINING AND IMITATING WOODS AND MARBLES. 1.— OAK. Imitation of Oak being so mucli in demand, it is of importance that the pupil should practise upon it before any other wood; for that purpose you will require the following tools : — Comhs. Gutta percha is the best material for making combs ; it is cheap, wears well, is easily cut into any size or form, and makes clean work. Purchase a piece of gutta percha, one foot square and one-eighth of an inch thick, cut it into squares, varying from one to four inches, and be particular in cutting the edges straight; take one of the squares, and with a pen- knife cut the edge to the depth of a quarter of an inch, leaving a small "space between each tooth. If you cut in a slanting direction each way, you will thereby form the teeth of the comb and the space together; by this method you can make them fine or AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 191 coarse, to suit your work. For very particular work I use two or three combs made of cork ; they are objectionable for general use, as they soon wear out. Take a flat piece of fine-grained cork, as free from holes as possible, square it as truly as you can, cut the square edge into teeth to the sizes you want, leaving the teeth as square and evenly cut as possible ; these, with two or three of the finest cut steel comhs^ are all you require. Brushes. 1. Common pound-brush and sash-tool. 2. Long hog's-hair overgrainer. 3. Badger-hair softener. 4. Sponge. Colours J &c. Vandyke brown, both ground in oil and water. Raw and burnt sienna, do. Turkey umber raw and burnt, ground in oil. Oxford ochre, do. Sugar of lead, do. Blue black, ground in water. Bees-wax, linseed oil, and turpentine. The above colours are all that are necessary for any description of oak. You will require a few smooth boards for practising upon. Bastard mahogany or baywood is the best wood to make them of, as it is not so liable to warp as deal. The best size is about two feet by one foot. 192 • THE PAINTER, GILDER, Prepare them with four coats of paint in the usual way, taking care to get them up as smooth as possible; the best ground colours are made from the following colours mixed with white lead : — For light oak — Oxford ochre and white. Middle shade — Oxford ochre, with a little Venetian red. Dark oak — Oxford ochre, orange chrome, Venetian red, and burnt umber. Graining Colour. For light oak, mix two-thirds linseed oil with one- third turpentine; add a little Vandyke brbwn or burnt umber. If you want a warm colour, add burnt sienna; if a yellow colour, add raw sienna or Oxford ochre. Melt bees-wax in oil, and mix a small quan- tity with the colour : this is to prevent the colour from running when you have combed it. You must take particular care that it is well mixed together. Add to the above a quantity of sugar of lead or other dryers, then strain it through a double fold of fine muslin. Your graining colour being now prepared, brush over your board with it, taking care not to put too much on ; if you do so you will make dirty work : lay it quite level, and uniform in colour. Now take a gutta percha comb, and draw it straight down the full breadth of the comb, beginning at one side of the board ; by slightly inclining the comb you will make the grain finer. Now take a fine steel comb, and go over the whole of the previous combing in a slightly AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 193 waving or zigzag manner; practice will soon enable you to do this with ease. You must get a piece of real oak, and endeavour to imitate the natural grain ; if you can get a piece full of figure or veins, so much the better, as it will be the best guide you can have. Your board being combed, you must now take a piece of soft rag and double it over your thumb, holding it tight on the end of the nail, and try to imitate the figuring on the real oak. You may make some excel- lent figuring by using the blank end of the steel comb with the rag over it. You will find it very difl&cult to do this at first, but you must in this, as in every thing else, adopt the motto, " that if at first you don't suc- ceed, try, try, try again," Do not practise too much from one piece of oaky as by doing so you are apt to acquire a stiff and formal style, but endeavour to varj^ it as much as possible. You have now combed and figured it : when dry it is ready for overgraining ; for that purpose you will want a sponge, a basin and plate, fuller's earth, Vandyke brown, a little blue black, some stale beer, badger-hair softener, and over- grainer. Put some water into the basin, dissolve a little fuller's earth in it; wet your sponge with this and rub over your board; now take a little of the Vandyke brown, with a small quantity of the blue black, and mix them together with weak beer in the plate ; dip your overgraicer into this mixture, and draw it straight down or across the board ; soften it a little with the badger : this, if properly done, will give it a natural and pleasing appearance. By making the 17 194 THE PAINTER, GILDER, ground and graining colours darker, you can produce any shade of oak in the same manner. To produce a ricli dark old oak you must proceed as above, and then glaze it over as follows : — Mix some black japan with turpentine and a little boiled oil ; add a little burnt sienna or Victoria lake, and go over the whole of the work with it. This mixture will give it an exceed- ingly rich appearance when varnished. 2.— SPIKIT COLOUK. This colour is not so good as oil colour, but is very useful at times on account of its quick drying quali- ties. It is made as follows : — Grind a quantity of the best washed whitening in turpentine, mix with it either Vandyke brown, burnt umber, or Oxford ochre, ground in oil, in quantity according to the shade you want ; add to this a sufficient quantity of turpentine varnish to bind or fasten the colour ; thin it with tur- pentine ; rub your panel in and comb it quickly, or it will set before you can do so. It dries quite dead when it has stood a short time. Take a flat hog's- hair fitch, dip it into a solution of Scotch soda and water with a little burnt sienna mixed with it; mark out your figure with this, taking care not to put too much on, or it will run • and remember that wherever the soda touches it will destroy the graining colour. When you have figured your panel, wash ofi" quickly with a sponge and plenty of clean water; the figure will stand out clear and bright. Now go over the AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 105 whole "witli a brush and weak beer, and overgrain in the usual way. By this method you may grain and varnish a door in a couple of hours' time. 3,— POLLARD OAK. This oak is interspersed alternately with knots and figuring, generally arranged in a waving and graceful form. To grain this wood in oil colour, proceed as follows : — Rub in with your light graining colour, mix a little colour several shades darker, put a touch of this colour here and there, according to the size you want the knots ; with the same colour put in a few strokes, in sweeping or graceful lines, from one mass of knots to another ; now comb it with a coarse comb in the direction of the knots, sweeping round them with the comb; where you cannot do this, you must work it out with your nail and the rag, keeping all in an easy flowing style. It is only by constant practice that you will be enabled to do this with freedom. Now figure it, starting from the knots in very fine strokes, gradually enlarging as you get into the plain spaces. To overgrain this, preceded as before, and shade across the grain and amongst the knots. Gene- rally speaking, wherever there is a twist or wave in the grain there will be a shade. Now take a pencil and touch up the grain about the knots, and put strokes of dark colour across them, to imitate the cracks you may see in nearly all knots. 196 THE PAINTER, GILDER, 4.~E00T OF OAK. This oak consists of a succession of masses of knots, with the grain twisting and curling round each knot and mass of knots, running into and round each other; what figuring it has is very small, and runs with the grain. It may be done in exactly the same manner as the pollard oak, and enriched by glazing with the dark oak glazing colour. 5._T0 GEAIN POLLAED AND EOOT OF OAK IN DISTEMPEE. Damp down your work with the sponge and fuller's earth, mix Vandyke brown with a little burnt sienna, dip a clean sash-tool into beer, then into the colour, spread it on to your work, using it freely. Now take your tool and a little dark colour, and press it against the panel here and there, making the hairs spread out ; then suddenly draw it away, soften it a little with the badger ; take a small round hog's-hair quill tool, dip it into dark colour, hold it between your right-hand finger and thumb, put the point against your work in the places where you have pressed your large tool, give it a sharp twist ; by doing this properly you will form the imitation of a knot. When dry, use the small overgrainer and weak colour; dip the over- grainer in, then draw a common comb through it to AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 197 «?eparate the hairs ; now draw it across the panel, giv- ing it a sort of half-eircular stroke, slightly zigzag; while it is wet badger it, taking particular care only to use the badger one way, either up or down. By doing this carefully, you will form a light and dark grain at the same time. When you have sufl&ciently practised this method you will be able to produce some very good eilects. 6.— WALNUT. Walnut may be imitated in exactly the same manner as the above, using more black in ^our graining colour. 7.— BIRD'S-EYE MAPLE IN DISTEMPER. This is one of the most delicate and beautiful of woods, and requires great care and cleanliness in working. To imitate it you will require the following tools: — Badger; one 4-inch hog's-hair mottler; one thick 2-inch hog's-hair mottler; one 1-inch short- haired hog's-hair mottler ; one 3-inch, 2-inch, and 1- inch camel-hair mottlers ; one 2-inch sable-hair pencil overgrainer; a single pencil. The best ground colour for graining maple upon is a light cream colour, and the best colour to grain it with is Vandyke brown, mixed with a little raw sienna. Rub over your panel with a damp chamois or wash- leather; dip a large sash-tool into stale beer, then into 108 THE PAINTER, GILDER, the colour; spread it evenly on your work, badge/ it until you get it as uniform in colour as possible; take tlie large bog's-bair mottler, damp it witb clean water ; now begin at tbe top of your panel, and witb tbe end of tbe mottler touch tbe panel, drawing it down at tbe same time for about balf an incb, hold- ing it in an angular direction ; by doing so you will take off a slanting strip of colour. Go on in tbe same way to the bottom of the panel, leaving unequal strips of light and shade; now go over this again in the same way, but holding your mottler in the opposite direction ; you will form a sort of irregular checkered pattern ; lightly badger this across the panel until it appears soft and mellow; now slightly soften in an upward direction. As you become used to the tools, you will be able to modify tb-e figure and give variety. Now take your short-haired hog's-bair mottler, damp it, and with one corner of it take off a touch of the colour on the top of each shade; these are to imitate the bright light, or reflection, that accompanies a knot or bird's-eye ; with a pencil, and dark colour, form the eye just under the extreme point of the bright light ; for common work, a dot with the end of your finger will sufiice. To overgrain this, take a little of the colour and tint it with a small quantity of Indian red, or lake ; you must only have it of sufficient depth of colour barely to show on your work; if too deep it looks coarse. With a pencil and this colour begin to curl a fine line round one of your principal knots, gra- AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 199 dually extending from one to another, keeping either in the centre or to the side of the panel until you have carried it from top to bottom. Now take your pencil overgrainer, dipped in the same colour, and draw it down parallel with your pencil-work, and fill up the rest of the panel with it. 8.— TO GRAIN JIAPLE IN OIL. I am not aware that any one has attempted to grain this wood in oil before I did, and I have only taught it to two grainers. It takes considerably more time to execute than in distemper; but, if well done, it is infinitely superior in every respect. The ground should be got up very smoothly, in such a manner that you will not have to use sand-paper on the last coat. Prepare your colour in the same way as the light oak graining colour, using Vandyke brown and a little raw sienna to stain with ; strain it well, taking particular care that it is free from the slightest par- ticle of grit ; rub in your panel with it ; take a damp wash-leather, roll it up tight, and use it as a mottler; soften well with the badger; get a pencil-stick, cut one end of it into an oval form, wrap a strip of wash- leather round the oval, in such a manner that only one thickness of it will appear round the end of the oval ; tie it fast ; now dip it into dark colour and dot- in the eyes with it, then use the leather on your thumb-nail to form the bright lights springing from 200 THE PAINTER, GILDER, the knots or eyes; wlien dry, you can overgraln it either in distemper or oil. 9.— SATIN-WOOD. The proper ground for this wood is a yellow cream colour, made from Oxford ochre and chrome yellow. The best colour to grain it with is sienna, with a slight touch of Vandyke brown and burnt sienna mixed with it. This wood has a great similarity to mahogany in the form of its grain ; if you can grain one well, you can the other. Rub in your colour, using beer and a sash-tool; dip a sponge or wash- leather in clean water, and draw it down your panel, partially clearing off the colour in places as you go on. Now take the mahogany, or thin hog's-hair mottler, and cut out portions of the colour that is left on the panel; in this way you will form the lights or reflec- tions you may see in the real wood, or in a piece of Spanish mahogany, which will do as well; they are just the same, only not so large. Badger it cross-way of the panel; you must occasionally use a camel-hair mottler ; press it against your work, and draw it down with a slight jerking motion; this will form a very close and regular mottle. To overgrain it, use the mahogany overgrainer, or flat sable, (divided with the comb,) dipped into a tint of blue black in weak beer. To imitate the curl, or feather, lay on very light colour freely; then take a small tool, or flat fitch, and with colour several shades darker make a succession of half- AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 201 Circles, one above the other, beginning at the bottom of the panel, gradually reducing the sweep of the circle as you rise to the top. While it is wet, take the mahogany mottler and cut out the lights, spray- ing them from the centre of the circle each way. Overgrain as before, taking care to run the grain in the same direction as the half-circles. 10.— MAHOaANY IN DISTEMPER. Ground colour made with red lead, Venetian red, and orange chrome : graining colours, Vandyke brown, burnt sienna, and Victoria lake. This lake is not much known as a graining colour; there is no colour equal to it for mahogany. To grain this wood you must proceed in exactly the same manner as for satin- wood, with this addition, that while the colour is wet you must stipple or dapple it all over with the end of the badger, to imitate the pores of the wood ; this will give it a very natural appearance. Overgrain with Vandyke brown and blue black. 11.— MAHOaANY IN OIL. Mix a light colour in exactly the same way as for light oak, using burnt sienna to stain with; rub in your panel with it, mix a dark colour with Victoria lake and Vandyke brown ; use this with a small tool, or fitch to put in the dark shades; mottle it with a piece of stifi" card-board, or a rag or leather drawn tight 202 THE PAINTER, GILDER, over a steel comb ; badger it well. When dry, glaze it all over with Victoria lake in distemper, and while wet, stipple with the end of the badger, and overgraiu as before. 12.— ROSEWOOD. Kub in with a light distemper colour, made with Vandyke brown and burnt sienna; take a sash-tool and dark colour, made with Vandyke brown and Vic- toria lake, and put in some broad irregular shades, leaving light spaces running between : now use your overgrainer and blue black, curling or crossing the dark parts, making some straight, others broken, just as you see it in the real wood ; where you cannot use the overgrainer with effect, use a pencil ; when dry, glaze it all over with Victoria lake in oil, wiping it out in places. This will give it a very rich appearance. The foregoing are all the woods that need be de- scribed here, — in fact, all that are adapted to general use. If you can grain these well, you will be able to imitate any other on exactly the same principles. AND VARNISHERS COMPANION. 203 MARBLES. The following are the principal marbles for adapta- tion to general use in decoration : — Sienna, Black and Gold, Saint Ann's, Verd Antique, Egyptian Green, Bouge Boi, Italian Jasper, Dove, Black Bardilla, Derbyshire Spar, and Granites. Sienna. This marble is the most useful of any, as it is well adapted for decorating halls, staircases, &c. Out of a variety of ways of doing it, the followifig is the best : — Prepare your ground-work as smoothly as possible, with a light buff colour made from Oxford ochre; mix a variety of tints as follows : — Dark vein colour, made with ivory black and Indian red ; by adding white to this you will produce a few different shades of neutral tints. Make a few tints from Indian red and Prussian blue, with white : place these conveniently on a large palette ; now give your work a thin coat of the buff paint; while wet, take a large feather, dip it into tur- pentine, then into the dark vein colour ; with this form a leading vein right across your panel or slab, giving it a broken or irregular appearance; strike a few strag- gling veins from this; now use your feather and neutral 204 THE PAINTER, GILDER, tints, and put in some smaller veins, breaking it into small irregular pieces on, or springing from, the leading vein. Avoid as much as possible giving it that formal appearance which so many grainers affect, as it is un- natural. Always remember this, that there is very rarely, if ever, a circle, a square, or a straight line in any marble. Now badger it well until it is soft and mellow ; when dry, take a piece of old silk, dip it into linseed oil and rub it very sparingly over the work ; now take a feather and thin white mixed with turpen- tine, go over your work with it, touching it in an irre- gular manner in and about the veins ; soften or blend it with the badger as you go on, then put in a touch of solid white here and there among the veins. Now use Oxford ochre and raw sienna, with occasionally a little crimson lake ; with these glaze over your work in parts, taking care always to put the darkest parts in connection with the leading vein ; now use a pencil and ivory black, and put in some sharp touches on and about the leading vein; this, if properly done, will make the veins appear sunk, or give them depth. Black and Gold Marhle. Prepare a smooth black ground; slightly oil it; place on your palette some white, Indian red, Oxford ochre, black, and a little orange chrome; now use a large pen- cil, and take up a portion of the whole or part of these colours on your pencil ; roll it across or lengthways of your board, leaving it in irregular patches ; now con- nect these patches together by fine lines in the same AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 205 colours ; fill up tlie panel with irregular fine lines, run- ning in the same direction, with short lines or touches crossing and connecting them ; now use a dark lead colour, and fill in the spaces between the lines in parts with it, then put here and there on the top of these a touch of a lighter lead colour; when dry, you can cut the patches of colour into better form, if required, with black and a pencil, and give them depth by glazing in places with touches of white. Saint Ann^s. This marble is very similar in the form of its vein to black and gold : the patches of colour are much smaller and more crowded together; it is done in exactly the same manner on a black ground, using white alone for the veins, then fill up the same with lead colour. Verd Antique, or Ancient Green. This marble is done upon a black ground ; oil the work as before; mix several shades of green, made from Prussian blue and chrome yellow; arrange these on your palette, and a little Indian red. Take a feather, dip it into your darkest green, and go over the whole of the panel with it, using it freely ; follow in the same manner with the lighter shades, occasionally using a little of the Indian red; then take some black, and put in a quantity of irregular broken patches with it, allowing the green to run in broken lines through them ; now put in some solid patches of white, in form like broken pieces of flagstone or earthenware, and in 18 206 THE PAINTER, GILDER, size from a quarter of an inch to two Indies. When dry, glaze over all with a green, made with Antwerp blue and Italian pink, using also a little crimson lake ; in places touch up the whites again, making some solid, others transparent j then edge them round with a fine line of black. Egyptian Green. Black ground. Take a sash-tool, and glaze over your work with the darkest green you can make from Prus- sian blue and chrome yellow; now use the feather and a lighter green, and streak your panel all in one direction, occasionally using a little Indian red; now dip your feather in a thin white, and streak it over the other in a slanting direction, giving it a slight curl, and crossing the first streaks ; blend these well together ; when dry, glaze it all over with a bluish green, made with Ant- werp blue and Italian pink; this colour is perfectly transparent. Now touch up your light streaks here and there with white, and blend it well. Rouge Roi, or Royal Red. This is done upon a bluish gray ground. Oil the ground; mix burnt ochre with a little Indian red; rub in your panel with this. Mix a rich brown with Indian red and ivory black ; cover a portion of the panel with this colour. Now take a piece of paper, and crumple it up in your hand; dab your panel all over with this; dip the paper into black, rub it slightly on your palette- board, to take off the superfluous black; then lightly AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 207 dab it on tlic dark parts of the panel ; go over the whole of it in the same way with a light blue, then here and there with white. Now wipe out a vein in places with a rag, leaving the gray ground clear ; make some long, running irregularly across the panel, others short, and varying in breadth from a fine line to an inch and a half; when dry, glaze it in places with Indian red and black, using the Indian red alone occasionally; make the veins pure white in parts, in others transparent. Italian Jasper. Ground colour, a light green drab ; oil the ground. Mix together Indian red and Victoria lake; with this rub in several large and small patches, inclining to a circular form; mix a few olive green tints with white, blue black, and raw sienna, and several shades of gray made from ivory black and Prussian blue. Place these conveniently on your palette, also a little ochre; dip your feather into turpentine, and then into the olive tints, and run it between, and round, and across the patches of red ; blend these well ; then go over in the same way with the gray tints. When dry, glaze over the gray and olive tints with pure white, making them solid in places, in others transparent. Soften or blend it well ; glaze the dark parts here and there with crim- son lake; while this is wet, take a feather, or small overgrainer, dipped in very thin white, and draw it over some of the smaller of the dark parts, giving it something the appearance that an onion has when cut in half; touch up in places with dark colour. 208 THE PAINTER, GILDER, Dove Marhle. Ground colour, a bluish lead colour. Dip your featlier into turpentine, then into black ground in oil y streak your panel with this; use white in the same way; when the black has stood a little while, blend them well together as you go on ; then put in a few touches of solid white, and soften. Black Bardella. G-round colour, a very light lead colour. With a feather and black, figure all over in lines running into each other, very close in places, some very fine, with short lines or strokes crossing ; soften a little. When dry, glaze over with thin white, a little stronger in some places than others; touch up the lines with fine lines of black. DerhysTiire Spar. This is a compound of the fossil remains of shell-fish and other inhabitants of the deep. Grround colour, a light gray. Glaze over your panel with a thin colour, made with Vandyke brown and black ; rub in a little Indian red occasionally. Crumple a piece of paper in your hand, lightly dab your work over with it; now take a rag and a narrow square-pointed stick, and form the halves of shells, fish, bones, &c. ; then spurt in a little turpentine, — this will open or spot it. When dry, glaze over with the same colours, and make the fossils partly solid with white; then sharpen or edge them with a fine line of black. AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 209 Graiiites. There are several granites ; they may be done almost any colour, and yet be correct. The principal ones are the gray and the red, or Aberdeen granite. You may do them all in the same manner. Prepare the ground, if for gray, a light gray; if for red, a light salmon colour. Provide yourself with a flat brush made of very stiff bristles, about an inch long and four inches broad ; shape a piece of wood about six inches square, with a handle to it something like a child's battledore ; rub in your ground colour; now dip the flat brush in thin black, hold the wood in your left hand, and press the brush upon it, springing the bristles in the direc- tion of the panel; this will throw the colour on in spots. Follow in the same manner with white, if for gray granite; and with black, red, and white, if for Aberdeen. They may be done in the following manner with good effect : — Provide yourself with a very porous or open sponge ; dip it into black, mixed with beer ; then stipple your ground with it ; when dry, throw in your white in oil colour ; and so on with any other colour. In all glazing colours it is advisable to use a little sugar of lead, as they are most of them bad dryers. I should also recommend Rowney's tube colours for finishing marbles, as they are the best colours, are very finely ground, and are as cheap in the end as any you may grind yourself. 18* 210 THE PAINTER, GILDER, To Polish Imitation Marbles. When you have finished marbling, let the work stand for a day or two ; then gently rub it down with the back or smooth side of a sheet of sand-paper; this will take off the knits or bits of skin which may be upon it, without scratching it ; now give it three coats of the best pale polishing copal varnish, allowing an interval of two days between each coat. Let this stand for three weeks ] then cut it down with ground pumice- stone and water, using a piece of wash-leather or rag for that purpose. When you have got it tolerably smooth and level, wash it well with plenty of clean water, taking particular care to clean off all the pu- mice-stone; give it five coats of varnish. It ought now to stand for three or six months, at the least, before it is polished, for if it is done before it is almost certain to crack. When the varnish is suffi- ciently hard, cut it down with finely-ground pumice- stone as before ; then use rotten stone and olive oil, using the ball of the hand; then use flour and oil; finish off with dry flour. This takes a deal of time to do properly, if well done. AND VAKNISHER's COMPANION. 211 INSTRUCTIONS FOR SIGN-WRITING. Sign- WRITING is a mere meclianical art ; any person with a common stock of perseverance may acquire it. The writer is bound down to certain set forms, and to a constant repetition of those forms ; there is nothing left for the exercise of genius or taste, but the arrange- ment or setting out and choice of colours. The pupil's first object must be to acquire a tho- rough practical knowledge of the forms of letters now in common use, such as manuscript or text-hand, Roman capitals, italics, Egyptian, block, &c. &c. The best models for this purpose are placards in bold type ; if good, they are generally proportionate, and have all the modern improvements. To become a good sign-writer, you must first practise the manuscript or text-hand; by doing so you will acquire the habit of making a free and graceful stroke, or sweep with the pencil, which will be very serviceable to you when you practise the Roman capital, which you should do next. When you have mastered these, the others will be comparatively easy. Many learners begin with the plain Egyptian block, for the simple reason that it is the easiest. They never make good writers, from the fact that by doing so they acquire a stifihess in the use of the pencil, and formation of the letters, which they very rarely, if ever, 212 !rHE PAINTER, CxILDER, get rid of. For practising, you will require a vsmootli board about three feet square, painted a light colour. Secondly, a sticky with a ball of cotton wool covered with wash-leather, and tied over one end of the stick : this is to prevent it injuring the paint when you rest it against it. Thirdly, a small palette-board and palette-knife. Fourthly, a few good sable and camel-hair pencils. When purchasing the pencils, dip them into a tumbler of water, and try them on a piece of paper : if they retain a fine point they are good; if not they are not worth having. Fifthly, a pennyworth of unburnt pipe-stumps, which you will get at any pipe-maker's. Sixth, a two-foot rule. Seventh, a pair of compasses. Now set out your board as follows : — Take your rule, or compasses, and divide the board into equal parts with horizontal lines, leaving say three inches for the size of the letters, and two inches for the space between each line of letters. Use a piece of pipe-chalk, and slightly sketch your letters with it; then mix vegetable black with boiled oil to a proper consistency for work- ing; with this, and a fine pencil, endeavour to form the letters. Use the point of the pencil in all cases, and strive all you can to form the letter in outline with as few strokes as possible, filling up between the lines with a short pencil. By following this principle you will acquire ease, rapidity of execution, and correctness of outline. Practise this method constantly, and you will become a good writer. Before your black is dry, wash it off with turpentine, then with soap and water ; this will clean your board ready for practising again. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 213 Setting-out or Arrangement of Letters. This is a very important part of sign- writing ; fur, however good the shape of the letters may be, if they are not properly arranged the effect will be bad. By strict attention to the following rules, you will soon be able to set out a sign properly: — 1. It is always desirable to introduce into a sign a curved line, or section of a circle, as it is pleasing to the eye, and relieves the stiffness of the straight lines. 2. The space between each letter in the same line must be equal. 3. Each line of letters must begin and end at an equal distance from the side of the board. 4. Never, if you can possibly avoid it, begin or end a line of letters with such letters as " and — to — for — with,^' &c.; but let them come in between the lines of larger letters. 5. Always make the most important words, such as the name, business, &c., the largest, most distinct, and easily read of any on the board. You will see exactly what I mean if you examine a good placard. It is only by strict attention to the above rules, and constant prac- tice, that you can become a good writer. To raise or make Letters appear to stand out from the Board, and to shadoiv them. For this purpose you require a knowledge of light and shade ; to acquire that knowledge, as far as regards letters, I would advise you to get a few good letters cut out of wood; say an inch thick; fasten these on a painted 214 THE PAINTER, GILDER, board; place them in a position where a side light will fall strongly upon them : they will exhibit to you their true principle of light and shade. Study them well in all positions; they will be your best guide. To gild Letters. You will require a gilder's tip-cushion and knife, or you can lay on the gold from the book, by cutting the leaves to the size you want with a pair of scissors. You may use either oil or japanner's gold size; oil-size is the best, and is made in the following manner: — Procure some old or fat linseed-oil; the older it is the better. Mix a little Oxford ochre with it, and a small quantity of sugar of lead; thin it with boiled oil; now strain it through a piece of fine linen. Prepare your board as smoothly as possible; take the white of an t^^^ beat it up in about four times its weight of cold water; add a small quantity of fuller's earth; brush over the board with it; this is to prevent the gold sticking to any part but the letters. When dry, set out the letters and com- mence writing; a sable pencil is the best for laying on the size. Always remember that, to make your gold bright, you must use as little size as possible, consistent with covering the letters properly; let it stand until you can barely feel a slight tack or stickiness. If the size is good it will gild in a week after it is written. Your letters being ready, put some gold into your cushion, which you will do in this way: — Carefully open, and with a slight puff with your mouth blow the leaf of gold into the back part of the cushion ; now take a leaf up on the point of your knife, and spread it on the front part AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 215 of the cushion ; when you have got it partially .straight, give it a slight puff with your breath, which will make it perfectly so. Cut it to the sizes you want, using the heel of your knife, and cutting forward. You will find this very difficult at first; but persevere, and you will soon do it with ease, and without waste. Now take the tip, rub it lightly on your hair or whiskers, take up the gold on the point and place it gently on the letters; when you have covered them all, get some very fine cotton wool, entirely free from grit; with this gently rub the gold until it appears smooth, bright, and level. Now wash the sign with plenty of clean water, to clear ofi^ the egg-size. To Write, Gild, and Ornament on Glass. Before you commence this work you must acquire a thorough knowledge of sign-writing, otherwise it will be folly to attempt it. You will require a drawing on paper for each design, which you will prepare as fol- lows: — Cut a piece of thin paper to the size of your glass, draw out your design correctly in black lead-pencil on the paper, then prick through the outline of the letters with a fine needle. Tie up a little dry white lead in a piece of rag; this is a pounce-bag. Now place your design upon the glass right side up, and dust it with the pounce-bag; take the paper carefully off, the design will appear in white dots upon the glass ; this is to guide you in laying on the gold on the opposite side. Now clean the glass well on the side that the gold is to go on ; prepare your size in the following manner : — • ^^et some perfectly clean water, without the slightest 216 THE PAINTER, GILDER, ETC. particle of grease or other foreign matter; put it on a slow fire to boil, using an enamelled saucepan for that purpose, and taking particular care that the smoke does not get into it ; while boiling, put in two or three shreds of the very best isinglass; let it boil a few 'minutes, then strain it through a fine clean linen rag ; when cool it is ready for use. The great point in glass-gilding is to have the glass, the size, and every thing you use perfectly clean ; a touch of the finger on the glass will tarnish the gold ; you must use the tip and cushion to put on the gold, laying the gold on as level as possible, as its uniform brightness depends in a great measure upon that point 3 use a flat camel-hair tool for laying on the size ; flow the size on, and let it drain ofi" when you put the gold on; when perfectly dry, take a ball of the finest cotton wool, and gently rub or polish the gold ; you can then lay on another coat of gold if desirable ; it is now ready for writing. As the letters will have to be written the backward way, you must turn your drawing face side downwards, and pounce as before ; but on the gold this time mix a little of the best vegetable black with black japan; thin with turpentine to a proper working consistency; write with this when thoroughly dry ; wash off the superfluous gold, and shade as in sign-writing. In ornaments you will have to etch, or shade the gold : you will proceed to lay on the gold and pounce the ornament exactly as above ; then etch or shade it with the point of a slate-pencil, or piece of hard wood, ^slightly wetting the wood, when you want a broad or black line; then pick in with black. COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONS FOR COACH-PAINTING AND VARNISHING. A SUITABLE place to do work in is an important con- sideration in painting, but as workmen will have opinions of their own about making things convenient, I will not take time to go into details about conveniences in con- structing shops or paint rooms ; only this I will say to the uninitiated : you must have a room where you can exclude dust entirely, and means for ventilating the room whenever you wish. These qualifications are indispen- sable. The first thing that presents itself is the mode of pre- paring the oil used in painting, and, as this is a disputed point, and a very important one, I will give such reasons for my opinion as have been gathered from thirty years' practical experience in the trade. Those who learned their trade thirty years ago were taught to use boiled oil in carriage-painting, and we are not apt to forsake our early teachings without convincing proofs of their fal- lacy. I have, by experience, been driven from my good opinion of boiled oil in almost evei-y department of paint- ing. Its supposed advantages are that it dries quicker and flows over the surface of the wood better than raw oil. Its positive disadvantages are that it is more brittle (217) 218 THE PAINTER, GILDER, when dry ; if bruised, will break from the wood, and ■unless the utmost pains are taken to get it thoroughly dry, the varnish that is put over it will crack after it has been exposed to the sun. We are deceived about its drying quicker, and that is the cause why paint and var- nish crack. Boiled oil gets its drying quality from the oxygen which it imbibes by heating, and the oxyds of lead which are put into it while boiling. There is no visible part of the lead used for dryer left in the oil when it is ready for use, therefore I suppose the oxyd which it absorbs from the lead is the dryer — be that as it may, there is one thing certain, we know oil so prepared will not dry unless it comes in contact with the air. Corked in a bottle, it will never dry, and this is one great diffi- culty in using boiled oil. Suppose we have painted a piece of wood with one coat and got it thoroughly dry, the air, oil, or turpentine cannot go through the coat of paint when the second coat is applied. The part of the second coat which is exposed to the air dries on the out- side, forming a skin which prevents the air from getting to the drying quality of the inner part, and shuts it up almost as close as if it were corked up. The air being so penetrating will, after a long time, get to it and dry it ; but it takes a long time, unless the paint with which it is mixed can impart to it a drying quality independent of the atmosphere. Painters who use boiled oil obviate this difficulty by mixing a large proportion of turpentine with the oil or paint, making what they call a dead coat — this, when the turpentine has evaporated, dries without a gloss, and leaves the paint open like a sponge, so that the air can get to the oil. Experience proves this to be the poorest kind of paint to last — if bruised, it breaks off AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 219 clear to the wood ; if left to time it comes off very soon in small scales — yet there is a great quantity of work done in this way, because the paint can be rubbed down smooth with sandpaper easier than if it were of a tougher material. Before 1 get through, I hope to show that paint can be made smoother and as tough as you wish without using much sandpaper, and with less labor. Boiled oil will not bear much japan for a dryer. If too much is used the paint comes off in large scales, and leaves the carriage in the very worst condition for repainting. Raw oil dries with less gloss, leaving a chance for the air to penetrate the paint as well as the dead color, and, aside from that, the dryer used in the paint dries more independent of the action of the atmosphere. For instance, I have seen red lead ground in oil and soldered up in tin cans so as to entirely exclude the air, and in one year the paint would become a hard cement. Boiled oil, under the same circumstances, would never dry without the red lead- A ship-painter will never use boiled oil about any part of the vessel that is exposed to jamming by the dock, because the paint will break off clean to the wood. For these reasons I should use raw in preference to boiled oil, with but very few cases excepted. To prepare raw oil for use, it will be necessary to add one-fifth part of good brown japan to four of oil. If paint requires any further dryer, equal parts of sugar of lead and white vitriol ground together can be used, to the amount of one ounce to the pound of paint, or the same amount of patent dryer. For the priming coat of a carriage-gearing and body, 220 THE PAINTER, GILDER use the same kind of paint, to wit : white lead mixed m the above prepared raw oil, and about one eighth part turpentine, Math a shade of lampblack, if your carriage is to be a dark color. When the wood-work of a car- riage comes into the shop, examine it closely, and if the grain has raised in any place, or it wants smoothing with sandpaper, be sure and do it before you prime the work, then dust it off and put on the priming coat even, and be sure to have the paint go into the cracks, checks, or screw-heads, so that they have at least one coat of paint over the surface which is to be puttied up. The carriage-part wants but one coat before it is ironed, but the body you will retain in the shop while the gearing is being ironed. After it has had four days* drying, and has been sandpapered off, give another coat of the same kind of paint with a little dryer, and about one fourth as much turpentine as oil. The object now is to get a perfectly even surface on the work of the bod^, which cannot be done on the bare wood, on account of the grain of the timber. For this purpose a heavy coat of coarse paint, prepared so that it will dry as hard as a bone, is put on, and, after it is dry, is rubbed with a flat surface of pumice-stone in water, which rubs the paint off from the ridges down even with the hollows, thereby making the surface level and smooth. To facilitate this operation I have adopted something different from the old way, which is better and easier. I have some fine-grained sole leather cut into pieces so that I can have three different ones, with a straight-edge of from one to three inches in width ; these edges are made rounding and smooth with sand- paper. AND VARNISHER's COMPANION, 221 After the turpentine has evaporated from this second coat which we have put on, and before it is dry, I take one of these leathers in my fingers very much as I would a scraper, and draw the edge over the soft paint. This crowds the paint from off the ridges down into the hol- lows, and levels it quicker and better than two coats of *' rough-stuff" will. The parts which are not going to be rough-stuffed, such as the spindles to the seat, or any such small place, I rub over with my hand and fingers, so that I get the paint crowded into the grains of the wood, and all the brush marks are removed. After repeating this process the second time on the seat and part which is not to be rough-stuflfed, it will be ready for putting on the color. I make my putty of whiting and good drying varnish ; and when the paint has got dry on the body, the screw-heads, and other places where the rough-stuffing is to be put on, should be filled up more than level, and the surplus will be cut off with the rough-stuff. Now the body is ready for the rough-stufiing, which should be made of about seven parts of yellow ochre to one of white lead, mixed in four parts of good drying varnish and one of brown japan, and about one fifteenth as much raw oil as you have of copal varnish and japan together. This mixture should be stirred together as thick as it can be conveniently run through the mill. It is not best to grind it fine ; but as near the same fineness at can be. After it has been run through the mill, reduce it with turpentine, so that it will, work easy under the brush, and apply a good coat to the part of the body that has a large surface, so that you can get at it with a 19* 222 THE PAINTER, GILDER, pumice-stone to level it down. It will take five or six days for a coat to dry so that you can apply the next ; and, as a general thing, three coats of rough-stuff will be sufficient for a carriage-body. Sometimes one coat will answer for a buggy ; it depends, in a great measure, on the skilfulness of the wood-workman in getting a level and smooth surface on his job. If he leaves hollows, there must be enough applied to fill them up even with the more prominent parts of the surface. After the body has got sufficient rough-stuffing on, it had better go to the smith, to be ironed and hung on the carriage. When it comes to the paint-shop again, the first thing will be to rub it down, so that you have a smooth and even surface, free from all dents, grains of the wood, tool-marks, or any thing in the way of making a good, even surface, to put the finishing coat of paint on. This operation does not require any very great amount of genius, but there cannot be too much care bestowed on it. Saw the piunice-stone into blocks of a suitable size, and have by you a small, round file, so that you can shape the stone to fit the mouldings, if necessary ; and a pail of water and sponge, to wet the work with and wash it off, while rubbing it down. Now wet the work with the sponge, and with a wet block of stone commence rubbing the part until it is smooth and level, rubbing carefully into the corners and close to the mouldings, so that every part is equally level and smooth, you will have to use the sponge frequently, to clean the paint and sec if you are not rubbing through to the wood, or have got it rubbed enough. "When the brush- marks are all rubbed out of your rough-stuffing, it will, as a general thing, be rubbed enough. There are often AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 223 places fonrul, after rubbing' down, where there is a dent in the wood, so that the pumice-stone has not cut out the brush-marks. To remedy such places, take the putty that you have filled up the screw-heads with, and, if it is not soft enough, add a little varnish, so as to make it soft enough to spread under the putty-knife ; then fill the hollow places more than even full, and after it has become dry, which will be in three or four days, rub it off with the pumice-stone, so that the surface is level and smooth. In rubbing down, if the stone scratches, or makes creases in the paint, or gums on the stone, the paint is not dry enough, and should be left to dry until it gets so hard that it will not scratch. If, by mistake, you have rubbed through the paint, and wet the wood so as to raise the grain, when it gets dry rub off the raised grain with sandpaper, and put on the spot a coat of rough-stuffing, and when it is dry use a little linseed oil, instead of water, with the pumice-stone,, which will not raise the grain of the wood, and, when it is rubbed off smooth, wipe the oil off with a rag, and clean the body ofif with a sponge and water, and it is ready for the color. It will be better now to commence the carriage part; and, in finishing that up so as to receive the color, I have adopted a different way from any that I ever have seen laid down, or in any way been taught ; yet there are others who practice the same plan and keep it a secret. The old way is to mix the paint with enough turpentine to make it brittle when dry, then scour out the brush- marks with sandpaper. This rubs off nearly or quite one half the paint, and, aside from that, the turpentine evapo- rates and does not leave enough oil in the paint to resist the action of the atmosphere and protect the wood. 224 THE PAINTER, GILDER, Also, sandpapering off the poisonous paint and inhaling the dust is one cause of the unhealthiness of the trade. The way I have adopted does away with these difficul- ties, and is much quicker done, and makes a handsomer finished job. Commence the carriage part by sandpaper- ing off just enough to remove the specks that may have fallen on the paint. If you are going to paint the carriage with any color which of itself will be a body, it will be well to prepare the paint of the color that you are going to finish with, unless the paint is too expensive to use for a body-coat ; and, if so, you should use the paint that is the nearest to it in color and at the same time has sufficient body — for instance, for vermillion use red lead and Venetian red on the body or priming coat. White lead and lampblack, mixed so that it is a slate color, is a very good paint to give a body for any dark-colored finish. Mix the oil — which is prepared with one fifth japan — with one fourth as much turpentine ; and when you want to reduce the paint, do it with this mixture, so that the paint will be alike in turpentine dryer. Dust off the work clean, and put on a coat of paint that is well ground, and perfectly clean from all skins, dirt, or specks of any kind. After the paint has stood a while, so that the turpen- tine has evaporated, commence by rubbing it with the palm of your hand and fingers, so that you obliterate all your brush-marks, and fill up the coarse grains to the timber by crowding the paint into them. Use a leather in corners wliere you cannot smooth with the hand, and use the leather on the springs, or any other flat surface, and then brush it over with the hand. In this way the work is very easily brought down to a smooth, polished surface. AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 225 After the second priming-coat has become dry, you can putty up all imperfect joints or checks, and all places where the iron does not fit to the wood closely on the felly, or any other part. After this coat of paint is well dried, sandpaper it off as before, just enough to remove the specks which'may have fallen on while the paint was drying ; and if you discover any place in the corners where you have not smoothed it dow» with the hand, it will be best to smooth it with sandpaper, and then apply another coat, and go through the same process of rub- bing down with your hand. Three coats will be enough in this way to give sufficient body for the color. It will fill the grain of the timber so that it cannot be seen, and make a smoother and better coat than any other way I have tried. I think it saves full twenty-five per cent, in painting a carriage. You will now want to put on two coats of color to finish with, and you will observe the same process about smoothing it down. Also, remember that what makes paint and varnish crack after it has become dry, is, that it was not perfectly dried when the coats were being put on. While the carriage has been painting, the irons on the body, and all places where you do not use rough-stuffing, should be worked with the same paint in the same way that the carriage has been ; so that the wood gets three and the irons two coats of paint, and then the body is ready for the color. The color should be ground fine; and perhaps you will find it better to use more turpentine in the paint than you have for the carriage part. You need a room tliat is clean, and where no dust will be raised while the paint 226 THE PAINTER, GILDER, is drying, and you must have a soft, flat brush (called camel's-hair), about two and a half inches wide, and those are best when the brush-part is only about one and a half inch long. Examine well to see that there are no loose hairs in it that will come out while painting. The surface of the body is now smooth and level, and the object is to get two coats of paini on for finishing, without leaving brush-marks, or any thing to destroy this smooth, level surface ; therefore be sure and have your paint mixed so that it will run off from the brush easy, and be spread without bearing hard on the brush. It is best to try the paint before you commence laying it on the body, and when you are sure it will work easy, lay it on the body as briskly as you can, and do it well, finishing it up with light brushing. After it has got dry enough for the second coat, rub it over with curled hair, so that it takes off all the specks ; and it will have a ten- dency to flatten down the brush-marks which are hardly perceptible. One more coat in the same way finishes the body, ready for striping. After putting on the second coat of color, and it has become sufficiently dry, take curled hair and rub it enough so as to flatten down any brush marks which your fine brush may have made. This will be a suffi- cient body for a medium good job, providing care has been taken to mix the paint according to the directions, and you have had no bad luck in putting it on. If you wish to have an extra good job, you must add more coats of the color, or finishing coats, being sure to give it time to dry, so that you have body enough to smooth it down and take out the brush marks with rotten-stone. This rubbing-down is done with pulverized rotten-stone, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 22T laid on a wet woollen rag, or felt, and then rubbed on the painted body until you have polished off all the brush marks. The most that there is about this operation is ■ — carefulness not to rub too much in one place so as to rub through the color, and, at the same time, polish over every part evenly, so that it is as smooth as a mirror. If, by accident, you have rubbed through the paint, it sometimes can be remedied by putting on the injured spot a little more of the color with a soft brush ; but this kind of patching cannot be carried on to any very great extent on a first class job. While you are rubbing down the paint, use a sponge and water frequently, and wash it off so that you know just how much it has been rubbed. After the body has been thoroughly polished, wash it well with water, until you have removed every particle of the rotten-stone. All this requires the utmost care, and the workman should not have any other business on his mind to divert his attention from his work. Having got a sufficient coat of paint on the body, the next thing will be to prepare it for ornamenting. Painters differ about this. Some stripe on the paint, and others put on a coat of varnish and stripe on that. I prefer the last way, because the striping runs on to the varnish easier than on the paint ; therefore, I should put on a coat of good varnish — and by good, I mean the very best Amer- ican to be had — for that is the cheapest for the work- man, in order to produce the same effect in looks. For varnishing, it is absolutely necessary to have the room free from dust ; and it must be kept at a temper- ature about as warm as a workman can comfortably bear to work in. If you are not sure that your varnish is free 228 THE PAINTER, GILDER, from specks, it will be better to filter it througli cotton factory cloth ; sometimes there are small particles of gum in the varnish, which are transparent, so that you cannot see them until after the varnish has been laid on to the work, when they show themselves in small specks which we sometimes take for specks worked out of the brush. Lay on the varnishes with a good fine bristle brush, even and with straight brush marks, drawn very lightly for the finish. Sometimes, on a very smooth fin- ished job, the varnish will dry leaving little pit-marks, where the varnish seems to crawl off from the paint, making it look as thou'gh it had had the small-pox. I believe this is a defect in the varnish, and I never saw it do so but once ; yet a painter, who had used a large quantity from the same lot of varnish, told me that It was a frequent occurrence with him. It is a frequent occurrence for striping and varnish to crawl off from where it has been laid, a,nd I think the preventive of the latter difficulty will answer for the former. To prevent paint or varnish from crawling, take a flannel rag and rub it over the work previous to varnish- ing, striping, or painting ; this will prevent any difficulty about its crawling. Of a great many ways for prevent- ing paint or varnish from crawling, which I have seen practiced, this, I think, is far the best and cheapest. In varnishing, always be careful not to put the varnish on the corners of the work and leave it to run down. Always examine these places carefully before leaving the work ; and, as a general thing, 3'^ou must commence on the inside panels of a body, and work to the outer edge the last thing. Another general rule is, to com- mence the work that is the highest up first, and finish AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 229 that which is the lowest last ; this prevents dirt from falling on and sticking to the paint while you are work- ing on it. When the work is varnished, close the room tight and leave it to dry, without opening the doors or doing any thing to get dust on the work, until it gets so that it will not stick. After taking all these precautions to prevent specks, if you should still be unfortunate and get some on, they must be removed with fine sandpaper before the striping or ornamenting is commenced. In ornamenting and striping a carriage, it requires considerable taste and judgment. If the painter takes hold of his work as an artist does the canvas, and tries to see how much of his skill he can display on the sur- face he has to work, he will be very likely not to please himself, or any one else. He should be contented, not particularly to show oflP his own skill, but to preserve and show in the most graceful manner the workmanship of the builder. If the builder has not got gracefulness in his work, then the painter has still to try, by striping, to give it that appearance. It is very often the case that we see good made to look like very ordinary work» merely from a bad taste in the striping, -so that it does not preserve the gracefulness which the builder intended it to have, and no one seems to know exactly where the fault is, for he cannot point out any particular defect in the painting. On the other hand, I have seen very ill- shaped work, particularly in that kind called market wagons, or wagons of that grade, put into such shape by the painter, that no objection was made to their ill-pro- portions. There is a certain curved line which enters into the form of things having beauty and gracefulness, and if that line is wanting, there are but f«w who can 20 230 THE PAINTER, GILDER, point out the particular defect, but every one knows there is something wrong. In large panels of carriages, and particularly on th«' backs of sleighs, it is frequently necessary to put in >- centre ornament, which relieves the large and clums* look which it otherwise would have. This often give.« painters a great deal of trouble, because they do not know how to get up an ornament ; and yet the thing i3 very simple when understood, requiring no uncommon skill. I will now give the process of putting the ornament on the panel of a carriage, as it will be necessary to do so before the body is striped, and I shall not revert te the subject again, although I expect the painter, without any very great stretch of ingenuity, will make the same process answer to paint landscapes on the inside of omnibuses, put borders on sleighs, or, in fact, do anj kind of ornamenting. After selecting an ornament, take a piece of thin transparent wrapping paper and oil it over with linseed oil until it has become saturated, then rub off all super fluous oil, and afterward lay the paper over any one of the ornaments which you may select, and with a lea^ pencil trace neatly all of the ornament, not leaving ouf any of the shades, just as it is in the engraving ; thep turn the paper over on to a piece of white paper, and ob the other side trace the same engraving, which wil' appear very distinct on the other side of the oiled paper The panel which you wish to put the ornament on must be dusted over lightly with whiting, if you intend to put any gilt in it, to prevent it from sticking to other parts of the work where it is not wanted ; then have the panel AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 231 put into a horizontal position, and lay the side of the ornament which j-ou draw last on to the plac€ where you want it painted, and fasten it there by laying some small weight on the side of the paper from where you wish to work ; then with your pencil trace over the line* again on all the design except where you intend to put the gold leaf. This part needs only to be traced on the outside of the design. The result of this operation will be that tracing the design over on the paint will crowd the pencil mark down on to the paint, and will stick as plainly as though it had been drawn there with the pen- cil. The side of the paper can be raised to see if you are working all the drawing on the panel ; if you do not remove the weight the paper will fall back to its original place. After the design is drawn on the panel, take some quick-drying varnish, and with a common sable artist's pencil, lay some varnish on the spot where the gilt is to be put, and after the varnish has got hard, and yet a little tack to it — which will be in an hour or two — then lay on the gilt, press it down on to the paint so as to have it adhere. Leave it for three or four hours, if you can conveniently ; afterward rub it down with some soft buckskin, or a silk handkerchief, and then lay the design on to the gilt, which you can very plainly see to do, and with the pencil draw the shades the same as before on the gilt. This will give you the design of what you want to put on for an ornament so that you can see it very distinctly on any color, and all the painter will have to do will be to color and shade it up in a proper manner. For this ornamenting you want artists' sable hair pencils, from the smallest size up to four or five sizes above. 232 THE PAINTER, GILDER, The shade, which seems the most appropriate for gilt, is a transparent brownish color, which is got by mixing burnt terra de sienna with black asphaltnm, varnish, and enough of oil to keep it from drying too quickly. ^ Commence shading the gilt by putting on the deep shades as they are in the engraving. With the same paint lighten it by spreading the paint thinner on the gilt, as the parts which are to appear the most promi- nent must not be touched with the paint. The points of scrolls which turn over so as to show the other side, can be tipped with orange-colored paint, lightened up with white, or frequently with some other color which fancy dictates. The painted part of the ornament must be painted for the groundwork with the color directed, or as your own judgment may dictate. Shade with the same shades you have used on the gilt, or perhaps make a little more opaque by adding vandyke-brown, lightened up with white if the case requires. A very tasty ornament can be made by putting the groundwork of any of these ornaments wholly of gilt, and shading according to the above directions. Those who expect to excel in ornamenting should have some knowledge of perspective, which can be had by consult- ing the Oxford drawing-book, or perhaps almost any other work on that subject ; yet, to those who do not aspire any higher than to use ornaments that have already been engraved, the above process will be suffi- cient. To arrange the colors in. striping, there are a few rules that should always be observed : The darkest color should be on the outside. If a carriage body is to be of two colors, the outside mouldings should be a darker vshade AND VARNISHER's COMPANION. 233 than the panels. It is not considered in accordance with good taste to put much striping- on a good body ; as a general thing, one fine line is sufficient for a panel, but, if it is necessary to put on any more, the fine line must be nearest to the centre of the panel, or on the inside of the wider stripes. There cannot be any precise rule laid down about mixing the paint and oil for striping, and yet it is one of the most important things to have the stripes run on the work easy. If there is too much dryer in the strip- ing it curdles and will not flow over the place where it has been laid, and when it is dry the body paint can be seen through the striping. I practice using boiled oil for wide line striping, with one eighth turpentine, and for fine lines raw oil without any turpentine, and just as httle dryer as will suffice to make the striping" dry in time. For both kinds be careful about working the paint too thick. Take time to get the striping so that it works easy, and you will save time before the job is done. Where there is but one line on a panel, it is bet- ter not to mark it with the dividers, but to trust to your eye to get it correct ; but new beginners may have to mark the line until they get full command of the hand. Where there are two or more, it will always be necessary to run the dividers on one side of all the lines so as to keep them the same distances. For a gilt stripe, which is necessary for coaches, sleighs, etc., it is better in my opinion to use varnish to lay the gilt with ; and if the varnish dries too quickly, a little raw oil will correct that and make it more tacky. The diffi- culty in fat-oil for laying leaf is, that it often spreads over the edges of the stripe, and also, it has too much 20* 234 THE PAINTER, GILDER, body, making a ridge where the stripe is. It seldom looks well to see a stripe on a panel intersect another stripe at right angles in the corners, especially where there is but one line around the panels. Some shift is nearly always made to make the corners round or scal- loping. The carriage part can be striped more than the body ; and small tasty scrolls, put into proper places, have very much the effect in filling up that an ornament has in the centre of a large panel ; yet this part is often overdone with stripes. Great care should be taken to make the stripes true, and to preserve, as has before been said, the beauty of form in the carriage. Preserve the same style and colors as nearly as can be, with the body and car- riage part. I use what are called " camel's hair" pencils, and, per- haps from habit, cannot use any other kind for striping. Long sable hair pencils are more elastic and stiff, the hairs are straighter, and will keep so a longer time, and the pencil will last enough longer to nearly pay the odds in the price; and if the painter can work with them best, certainly there can be no objection to using them. I find as much difficulty in changing from the " camel's hair" to the sable haix brush, as in changing from the quill to the metallic pen. A pencil brush should be from one and a half to two inches long, and when not in use should be cleaned out with turpentine, dipped into lamp oil, and laid carefully away on a window-glass, in such a manner that the hair will keep perfectly straight ; and when you want to use them, wash them out in turpen- tine and twirl them between your hands until they have thrown out all the lamp-oil and turpentine, and they will AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 235 be ready for use. "We cannot find brushes in the stores small enough to make the fine Unes. This can be reme- died by cutting away some of the hair, or you can make small brushes from a large one, by taking a piece of rat- tan and making it round, about the size of a pencil han- dle, and splitting the end into quarters ; then turn these split parts back and cut oS" the corners so that when they are turned back there will be a hollow ; where the corners are cut out, put what hair you want into this hollow space from a larger pencil brush, and fasten it by winding a thread around the stick. Wet the string with glue, and you have a very good pencil. After a carriage has been striped, it should have time to become sufficiently dry before varnishing, or there will be the same difficulty with its cracking, when put on ovei^ the striping, as is found in putting varnish on the body paint before it is sufficiently dry. This diffi- culty is often erroneously attributed to the inferior quality of the varnish, when in fact it is nothing more than the injudicious application of varnish before the paint has become sufficiently dry. In the application of varnish, a practice has become very common, and is also recommended by varnish dealers, of using different kinds over the same body of paint-. For instance, they have what they call rubbing varnish, to be applied for the first coats, which will dry quick and hard, making a coat that can be polished down smooth with rotten- stone, after which being done, they recommend putting a coat of wearing varnish that dries slow and flows over ' smoothly, giving a beautiful appearance to the job. Painters have worse practices among them occasionally than this ; but, I must say, this is bad enough, as may 236 THE PAINTER, GILDER, be plainly seen by investigating the subject for a mo* ment. Take two kinds of varnishing, one with the foundation, or first coats, of this quick-drying varnish ; the other, the foundation and finishing the same, of the slow-drying, wearing varnish, and when they have got thoroughly dry, test them by the force of resistance that they show to accidents to which they are liable, such as scratching or jamming. First, take the point of a pin and scratch it across the surface of the work that is fin- ished with two different kinds of varnish — rubbing and wearing — and it will be seen that the point of the pin will make a ragged kind of a mark, four or five times the width of the pin point ; then take a hammer and strike the same varnish, and it will be seen that the place hit will have a yellowish- white appearance, which is occa- sioned by the under or rubbing part of the varnish crumbling or breaking up. Again, try the same process on the job that is done wholly with the wearing varnish, and it will be seen that the point of the pin will make a mark only the width of the point of the pin, leaving the edges of the mark straight and regular. The stroke of the hammer will be very much in effect like striking on a metallic surface : it may make a dent, but not crumble or give the var- nish another color, unless it be a very violent blow. Scratchmg and bruising are two of the most common accidents varnish is liable to. If we take two carriages done in two different ways, by a skilful workman, we may, on the first appearance, pronounce in favor of the one that is polished smooth with the rubbing varnish ; but put them in use together, and it will be observed that the one that at first so readily met with our appro- AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 23t bation, will meet with the first accident to its fine finish ; and it will continue in the same way, alwa^^s showing a mark for every bruise or scratch that it receives. On the other hand, the other one will appear as if it had been used in the most careful way, so that it had avoided all accidents, and in fact will preserve its finish much the longest. The usual practice among American painters is to use American varnish for all the rubbing coats, and finish with a flowing coat of medium English, without polish- ing. The objection to using English in all cases is that it dries so slowly that it would take at least six months to paint and varnish a carriage with it, a process for which no customer would wait. In order to varnish a carriage well, it is necessary that you be well acquainted with the peculiarities of the var- nish, if it has any ; and remember that it does not always insure a good job by putting on a great many coats, but that it is more likely the desired end will be attained by carefulness and good judgment. If it is cold weather, see that your varnish is made of about the same tem- perature as the room that you varnish in, which should be as warm as you can comfortably work in. The same may be observed with regard to the job^that you are to apply it to, as near as can be had. Before you commence to lay varnish on work, see that your person is free from dust, lint, or any substance that will fly from you to the varnish ; that the room is per- fectly free from dust, or any current of air that may bring dust on to your work ; and that ^J^our brush — which should be of good, fine elastic bristles — is carefully freed from all specks that wiU work out into the varnish when &38 THE PAINTER, GILDER, laid on. Sprinkle the floor- of the varnish-room with water, which prevents the dust rising from the floor ; dust off the work well with the duster, and have all specks removed from the work. If you have a body to varnish, commence at the high- est part first, and work downward. Use the brush, with a good supply of varnish in it, quickly, and draw the finish- ing stroke as straight as possible, very slightly pressing on to the work. When the work is thoroughly spread over, and evenly laid on, the least brushing that it gets after this the better. But this last direction must not be construed into carelessness about your work. The " sleight" is to lay the varnish evenly over the work in the shortest possible time that it can, and be well done. "When varnishing over panels, they should be done first, and the raised parts afterward. Care should be taken about leaving varnish on the corners, or any other place where it will run down. To varnish the carriage-part, the same rules should be observed ; that is, to keep it free from dirt or the minute specks that are more or less constantly flying in the air. Sometimes these minute particles are in the varnish, and cannot be seen until the varnish is laid on to a smooth surface of paint, and then they show themselves plainly. To avoid them, the varnish should be filtered through a cloth. Two coats of the best wearing varnish laid over a polished surface of paint, are enough to make a good job, providing that it has been properly spread, and no acci- dent happened to it while drying. Varnish, when laid on with a brush, will show more or less the brush marks, as the bristles leave it in ridges. With only two coats of good flowing varnish, these ridges are scarcely percepti- AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 239 ble, but if you add more, it will make the ridges more plain, and then follows the necessity of polishing down the surface, and then putting on a single coat of finishing varnish. In the very best finished work this polishing the varnish is pursued, but, as we have said, it does not strike us as being a very good way to finish work. To polish varnish, there is an absolute necessity of its not only being dry, but being so dry and hard that it be- comes brittle ; but the more brittle it is, the easier it will polish. Now, good wearing varnish flows over the paint better, and is much longer in drying than the rubbing varnish ; in fact, it never can be made to rub down as easily as rubbing varnish, and for that reason is very seldom used for that purpose. In using rubbing varnish for the first coat, it will be necessary to let it dry hard before the next is put on, and in this way get three or four coats on the body, and well dried, before you undertake rubbing it down. After- ward, take some ground rotten-stone, mixed in water so that it will be as thick as cream, then take a woollen rag, made up into a shape suitable to rub the work with, and dip it into the rotten-stone, rubbing the varnish until all the brush marks are obliterated, and it then assumes a smooth, polished surface. Have a sponge and water handy, so that you can wash off" the surface from time to time, to see if the object is accomplished ; and when you have rubbed away every trace of a ridge that has been made by the brush on the surface of the varnish, the work of rubbing is over, and you must now wash the work entirely clean, and then apply a coat of wearing varnish, as before directed. The most common difdculty that arises about rubbing 240 THE PAINTER, GILDER, ETC. paint or varnish is, that we do not give it a suflScient time to dry hard before we commence rubbing down. Again, paint or varnish that rubs down well will not wear on account of the necessity there is of adding more turpentine, which entirely evaporates from the paint, leaving less glutinous oil for holding the paint on to the wood. The fact of making paint or varnish easier to work by destroying its wearing quality, is a great temp- tation to the workman to get praise as a fancy workman at the expense of the wearing quality of his work. This last difficulty is avoided on the carriage-part by following the directions for laying on the paint as we have given them, and by so doing it obviates the difficulty of making paint brittle in order to have it rub down easy; also saves time, and makes a handsomer job. INDEX. PAGE Accidents 177 Amber Varnish 59 Amethyst Colored Foil 127 Ancient Green 205 AntinioM}-, Yellow of. 33 Apparatus 7 Arrangement of Colors iu Strip- ing 232 Arrangement of Letters 213 Azure 36 Azure Blues 1-il Balloons, Tai-nish for 175 Bird's-Eye Maple in Distemper.. 197 Black Bardella 2o8 Black, Fish Oil 136 Black and Gold Marble 203 Black Rosewood, to imitate 169 Blacks 22 Black Varnish for Coaches and Iron-work 170 Black Varnish for old Straw or Chip Hats 63 Blue Foil 127 Blues 33 Blues in glass Staining 140 Bluish Gray for Mixtures 151 Bluish Green 142 Blue Verditer 37 Boiled Oil 217 Bougival White 21 Brass, Lacquer for 117 Brass, to Gild 113 Brass Work, to clean, for Lac- quering 119 Brick colour 42 Brick Red 147 Brittleness of Boiled Oil when Dry 217, 219 Bronzing 120 Bronzing on Wood 121 Bronzing Iron 121 Brown Gun Barrels 173 Brown Red, Fish Oil 135 Browns 41 P.\GE Brown Yellow Dchre 140 Brunswick Gretn 39 Brush, Camel Uair, use of 226 Brushes 13, 191 Brushes for striping 234 Brushes and Pencils, cleanliness of. 89 Buff 42 Burns and Scalds 184 Camel's Hair Brush, use of 226 Camel's Hair Pencil, use of in striping 234 Camphorated Copal Varnish 57 Caoutchouc or Gum-Elastic Var- nish 60 Carmine 26 Carmines and Greens, Fluxes for. 139 Carnation 43 Carriage Body, Ironing 222 Carved Wood Gilding Ui7 Carver's Polish 72 Ceruse 19 Changing Varnishes 64 Charcoal Blacks 22 Chestnut colour 43 Chimneys, to cover with Lead Ore 171 Chlorine 54 Chocolate colour 44 Chocolate colour. Fish Yl 136 Chromate of Lead 31 Chrome Yellow 31 Cleanliness in Working 88 Clean Marble, Sienna, Jasper, and Porphyry 171 Clean Pictures 173 Clean Silver Furniture 170 Clock Faces, Varnish ftx- ]74 Cloth, to Paint 164 Clove Brown 149 Coaches, Varnish f)r 170 Coach Painting and Varnishing.. 217 Coating, White '.. 79 Coats of Rough Stuff 222 (241) 242 INDEX. PAOE Oochiueal Lake ^8 Colic, Painter's 177 Coluur. Grinding 225 Colimrs, arrangement, in Striping. 232 Colour-heightening Compositions 74 Colouring Yellow 79 Colours 19 Colours, application of, in Glass Staining 153 Colours, Fish Oil 130 Ciloursfor Oak 191 Colours, Grinding and Washing... 83 Colours, Harmony of 158 Colours in Iron, in Glass Stain- ing 148 Colours of Gold in Glass Stain- ing 147 Combs 190 Complete Instructions for Coach Painting and Varnishing 217 Compound colours 42 Copal Varnish 56 Copal Varnish in imitation of Tortoise-shell 57 Copper and Brass, to Tin 161 Copper Foil 125 Copper, to Gild 113 Cork Combs 191 Court Plaster 16(5 Cracking of Varnish 225 Crawling of Varnish 228 Cream, Painter's 81 Dark-coloured Woods, Polish for. 71 Dark Lead colour 44 " Dead Coat" 218 Deep Black 152 Deep Blood Pved 147 Deep Nankin Yellow 146 Deep Violet 148 Deep Yellow 145 Deep Yellow Ochre 146 Deibyshire Spar 208 Diet of Painters 187 Directions for Graining and Imi- tating Wood and Marbles 190 Diseases 177 Distemper, Bird's-Eye Maple in.. 197 Distemper, Mahogany in 201 Distemper, Painting in 94 Distemjjer, to grain Pollard and Root of Oak in 196 Dove Marble 208 Dragon, Pistache, and Olive Green 143 Drawings, Gilding 115 PAGE Drawings, Varnish for ^-i Dryer, A 219 Dryer for liaw Oil 219 Drying Oils 49 Drying Quality of Boiled Oil 218 Dust to be PLxcluded from the Paint Shop 217 Dutch or German Gold 76 Eagle Marine coloured Foil 128 Edges of Paper, Gilding IIC Egyptian Green Marble 20€ Emerald Green 14"i Enamel Blue 3C Ethereal Solution of Gold 76 Extra Jobs 226 Fat Oils 48 Fawn colour 44 Flesh colour 44 Flesh Red 149 Fine Black Varnish for Coaches and Iron-work 170 Finishing polish 73 Finishing up to receive color 223 Fish Oil colours 1"0 F'ixed Wax Y'ellow 145 Fixed Yellow 144 Flake White 19 Flaxen Gray 42 Fluxes 139 Flux for Carmines and Greens.... I:i9 Foil, Copper 125 Foils 125 Foils, to Colour 125 Forms of Letters 211 French Polish 72, 102 Furnace used in Glass Staining... 154 Furniture, Oil for 173 Furniture, Paste for 172 Garnet Red Foil 127 General Observations 187 German Gold 76 Giallolini 32 Gild Copper, Brass, &c 113 Gilding carved Wood wit hWater Size 107 Gilding Glass and Porcelain 113 Gilding Leather 114 Gilding Materials 74 Gilding Plaster or Marble with Water Size Ill Gilding, Practice of. 107 Gilding the edges of Paper 116 Gilding Wood in Oil 112 INDEX. 243 PAGE Giklin^- Writings, Drawings 116 (..il.i Letters, to 214 (.iid (111 Glass 215 Gild Steel 112 Gla.s« .Mattiass 17 (ilitss Staining 137 Glass, Staining Application of coliiurs on 152 GImss Staining, Furnace and Muf- fle used in 154 Glass, to Gild 113 Glass, to Write, Gild, and Orna- ment on 215 Glass, Varnish for 63 Glue and isinglass 82 GoM olours 43 Gold C'l.lnnred Copal Varnish 56 Gold, I'thereal Solution of. 76 Gold, Mosaic 75 Gold Oil clour 78 Gold Powder 74 Gold water Size 78 Grncefnlness 229 Graining colour 191 Grain Maple in Oil 199 Granites 209 Grass Green 44, 143 Gray Flux 139 Gray, Flaxen 42 Grayish-black for Mixtui^s 151 Gray, Light 42 Green Foil 128 Green, Grass 44 Green Lalce 40 Greens 37 Greens, Fish Oil 132, 134 Greens intJiass Staining 142 Green Veiditer 40 Grinding and Washing colours... 83 Grindstone 7 Gum Elastic Varnish 60 Gun barrel, to Brown 173 Gutta Percha Combs 190 Gypsum 21 Hair Brown 150 Hard Carmine 148 Hard Varnish 62 Hnrinony of colours 158 Hatchet's Brown 41 Hats, Varnish for 63 Hollows, Filling up 223 Hungary Green 38 Imitate Black Rosewood 169 Imitate Rosewood 168 PAQG Imitate Tortoise-Shell 167 Imitating Wood and Marble ]90 Imitation Marbles to Polish 210 Indigo 34 Indigo Blue 141 Indigo Grinding Mill 9, 11 Ink Spots, to take, out of Mahog- any 172 Inside Painting, White for 171 Instructions for Sign Writing 211 Instructions in Coach Painting and Varnishing 217 Ironing Carriage body, when to be done 222 Iron, to Tin 161 Isabella Yellow 147 Isinglass 82 Italian Green 38 Italian Jasper 207 Ivory Black 22 Japan, Brown, in Preparation of Raw Oil 219 Japan for a Dryer 219 Japanning 123 Japanning, colour required 123 Japan, Tortoise Shell 124 Jasper, to Clean 171 Jonquil 43 Jouquille Yellow 145 Lacquer for Brass 117 Lacquer for Philosophical In- struments 117 Lacquer, Gold coloured 118 Lacquering 117 Lacquer of various Tints 119 Lake 28 Lamp Black 23 Lamp Black with Priming Coat. 220 Lavender Blue 142 Lavender, Oil of. 45 Lead colour 43 Lead colour. Dark 44 Lead, Fish Oil 133 Lead Ore, to cover backs of Chim- neys with 171 Leather, Gilding 114 Lemon Yellow 43 Lettei's, Form of. 211 Letters, Raise 213 Letters, Setting out 213 Letters, to Gild 214 Letters to make appear to stand out 213 Letters, to Shadow 213 2M INDEX. PAGE Light Gray 42 Li^ht Timhfir colour 44 Li,i;;lit Willow colour 44 Linen Cloths, to Thicken 165 Linseed Oil 46 Linseed Oil Varnish 56 Liver Brown 150 iViadder Carmine 28 Madder Lake 28 Mahoganj' in Distemper 201 Mahogany in Oil 201 Mahogany, to Imitate 44 Mahogany, to take Ink Spots out of 172 Manuscript or Text Hand, prac- tice is necessary for a Sign Writer 211 Maple in Oil 199 Marlde, Black Bardella 208 Marble, Black and Gold 204 Marble, Dove 208 Marble, Egyptian Green 206 Marble, Gilding Ill Marble, Italian Jasper 207 Marble, Rouge Roi 206 Marble 203 Marble, Saint Ann's 205 Marble, Sienna 203 Marble, imitating 190 Marbles, Principal adapted to general use in decoration 203 Marble, to clean 171 Marble, Verd Antique 203 Massicot 30 Mastic Varnish 60 Milk, Painting in 97 Minium 25 Moll-stick 16 Mordant Varnishes 65 Mosaic Gold 75 Muffler used in Glass Staining.... 154 MuUer 7 Muriate of Gold 77 Nankin bellow 146 Naples Yellow 32 Nausea 184 New Brown 41 Nut Oil 46 Oak, imitating 190 Oak, Root of. 196 Oak-wood -colour 42 Oil, Boiled 217 Oil-Cloth, to make 162 Oil for Furniture 17o Oil, Mahogany in 20l Oil of Lavender 45 Oil of Poppies 45 Oil of Spike 45 Oil of Turpentine 48 Oil, Pilchard 50 Oil, Preparing 217 Oil, Raw 217 Oil, Raw, preparation of 219 Oils 45 Oils, Drying 49 Oil, to grain Maple in 199 Oil, to prepare for Fish Oil Col- ours 130 Olive colour 43 Orange colour 43 Orange Yellow 147 Ornamenting and Striping 229 Ornament on Glass 215 Ornament on Panel 230 Orpimeut 32 Paint and Oil, mixing for Strip- ing 233 Painter, Diet of. 187 Painter's Colic 177 Painter's Cream 81 Painters, Diseases and Acci- dents 177 Painting, Coach 217 Painting in Milk 97 Painting, Practice of 91 Palette-knife 13 Pale Yellow Ochre 146 Panel, Ornaments in 230 Paste for Furniture 172 Patent Yellow 31 Pearl Gray 42 Pencils 15 Pictures, to Clean 173, 174 Pigments for Painting on Glass.. 137 Pilchard Oil 50 Place to do Work in 217 Plaster, Gilding Ill Pbister of Paris 21 Poisonous Substances, effects of... 181 Polish, Carver's 7J Polishes 70 Polish, Finishing 73 Polish for Dark-cobmred Woods. 71 Polish f)r Tnnbridge-ware 71 Polish, French 72, 102 Polish imitation Marbles, to 210 Polish, Water-proof 72 Pollard Oak ^Mo INDEX. 245 PAGE Pollard Oak in Distemper 196 Poppies, Oil of 45 Porcelain, to Gild 113 Porphyry, to Clean 171 Portland Stone colour 44 Practice of Gilding 107 Practice of Painting 91 Practice of Varnishing and Pol- ishing 100 Practicing Sign Writing, Arti- cles necessary in 212 Preparatory Size 78 Preparing Oil 217 Priming Coat 219 Printers' Ink 165 Prussian Blue 33 Pumice Stone, Smoothing with.,. 222 Pure Purple 148 Purple.. 43 Putty Powder 70 Raise Letters ! 213 Ra\v]iuson"s Indigo Grinding- mill 11 Raw Oil 217 Raw Oil. Advantages of. 219 Raw Oil ill Ship Painting 219 Raw Oil. Preparation of. 219 Receipts, Useful.. • 159 Red 24,30 Red Lead 25 Red Lead, Drying Qualities of... 219 Red Shell-lac Varnish 55 Rosewood 202 Rosewood, Black, to imitate 169 Rosewood, to imitate 168 Root ofOak 196 Root of Oak in Distemper 196 Rotten Stone 81 Rouge Roi, or Royal Red Marble. 206 Rough Stuffing 221 Rubber 17 Ruby Coloured Foil 127 Sail-Cloth, to Paint 162 Saint Ann's 205 Sandpapering after Priming 220 Sandpapering Wood-work 220 Satin Wood 200 Satin Wood, to imitate 44 Saxon Blue 36 Saxon Green 38 Scalds and Burns 184 Scheele's Green 38 Sclnveinfnrt Green 39 Secou(J Coat on Carriages., 220 PAGE Second Coat, Rubbing down after 226 Sepia Brown 150 Setting out of Letters 213 Shading 232 Shadow Letters, to 213 Shell-lac Varnish 54 Shell-lac Varnish, Red 55 Ship Painting, Raw Oil in 219 Sienna 203 Sienna, toClean 171 Sign Writing 211 Sign Writing a mere Mechanical Art 211 Silver by Heat, to 160 Silver Furniture, to Clean 170 Silver or Pearl Gray 42 Sizes 78, 82 Sky Blue 141 Smalt 36 Smoothing with Pumice Stone.... 220 Smoothing with Sandpaper 220 Sole Leather, use of, in Smooth- ing after Priming 220 Spanish Brown 29 Spanish White 21 Spatulas 17 Spike, Oil of. 45 Spirit colour 194 Spirits, Effect of, upon Painters.. 187 Spirits of Wine 52 Spirits of Wine, to increase the Strength of Common Recti- fied 159 Steel, to Gild 112 Sticking Plaster 166 Striping, Arrangement of colours in 232 Striping, Brushes for 234 Striping, Mixing the Paint and Oil for 233 Striping and Ornamenting 229 Stri|)ing, use of Camel Hair Pen- • cils in 234 Striping, Varnish in 233 Stone colour 44 Stone colour. Fish Oil 1.35 Sugar of Lead and Vitriol as a Dryer 219 Suitable place to Work in 217 Sulphur Yellow 144 Taylor's Indigo Grinding mill 9 Timber colour, Light 4i Tnnbridge-ware, Poliili for Tl Tin Foil 12.5 216 INDEX. PAGE Tin, to 101 Tools andvApparatus 7 Turquoise Blue 141 Tortoise Shell Japan 124 Tortoise Shell, to imitate 167 Tortoise Shell, Varnish in imita- tion of. 57 Tripoli 70 Turner's Yellow 31 Turpentine, mixing with Boiled Oil 218 Turpentine, Oil of. 48 Turpentine Varnish 55 Turpentine, Varnish made with., 67 Ultramarine 35 Umber 41 Useful Receipts 159 Varnish, Amber 59 Varnish, Camphoi'ated Copal 57 Varnish, Copal 56 Varnish, Cracking 225 Varnish, Crawling 228 Varnished Silk, topi'epare 164 Varnishes 51 Varnishes, Care in Making 68 Varnish, Changing 64 Varnishes, General Observations on 66 Varnishes, Mordant 65 Varnishes for Paling and Coarse Wood-work 62 Varnish for Balloons 175 Varnish for Clock Faces 174 Varnish for Coaches and Iron- work 170 Varnish for Coloured Drawings... 63 Varnish for Drawings and Card- work 64 Varnish for Glass 63 Varnish for Violins 61 Varnish, Gold-coloured Copal 56 Varnish, Gum-elastic 60 Varnishing 227 Varnishing after Striping 235 Varnishing Carriages 235 Varnishing Coaches 217 Vainiishing and Polishing, prac- tice of 100 Varnish in Striping 233 Varnish. Linseed Oil 56 Varnish, Mastic 60 Varnish in Ornaments 231 Varnish Polish 70 Varnish to imitate the Chinese.,. 170 PAGE A'arnish to preserve Glass 168 Varnish, Turpentine 53 Varnish, White Hard 62 Venetian Emerald 40 Venl Antique 205 Verdigris 37 Vermeil 80 Vermilion 24 Verona Green 38 Violet Blue 142 Violet colour 43 Violins, Varnish for 61 Vitriol as a Dryer 219 Voider 13 Wainscot, to imitate 44 Walnut 197 Walnut-tree colour 43 Washing and Grinding colours... 83 Washing off Rotten Stone 227 Water-proof Polish 72 Waxing 105 Wax Yellow 145 Weakness of the Wrists 180 White 150 Wliite Chalk 22 White Coating 79 White for inside Painting 171 White Hard Varnish 62 White Lead 19 White of Troyes 22 Whites 19 Willow colour 44 Wood Brown 150 Wood Gilding in Oil 112 Wood and Marble, imitating 190 / Wood-woik, Sand Papering 220 Wrists, Weakness of. 180 Wiite on Glass 215 Writings, Gilding 115 Yellow 30 Yellow Arsenic 32 Yellow, Colouring 79 Yellow, Fish Oil 136 Yellow Foil 128 Yellow for Browns and Greens... 144 Yellowish-Giay for Browns and Red 1,51 Yellow, Lemon 43 Yellow Ochre P,0 Yellow of Antimony 33 Yellow Pink .",3 Yellows in Glass Staining 143 Za£fre 36 AND SOIEISTTIFIO BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY HENRY CAREY BAIRD, INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, PHILADELPHIA. -4-»- ♦-•—»- Any of the following Books will be sent by mail, free of postage, at the publication price. Catalogues furnished on applicatioiu American Miller and Millwright's Assistant : A new and thoroughly revised Edition, with additional Ea- g-ravings. By William Carter Hughes. In one Yohime, 12mo $1.50 Armengaud, Amoroux, and Johnson. THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S BOOK OP INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, and Machinist's and Engineer's Drawing Companion; forming a complete course of Mechan- ical Engineering and Architectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud the elder. Prof, of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and MM. Ar- mengaud the younger, and Amoroux, Civil Engineers. Re- written and arranged with additional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the most useful and gener- ally employed mechanism of the day. By William Johnson, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Editor of " The Practical Mechanic's Journal." Illuslrater^ by fifty folio steel plates and fifty wood-cuts. A new edition. 4to $10.00 Among the coutpiits are: — Linear Drawing, Dcfinilions and Problems^ Plate L Applications, Designs lor inlaid Pavements, Ceilings, and Balco- nies, Plate II. Sweeps, Sections, and Mouldinga, Plate III. Elementary 1 PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, ijfothic Forms and Rosettes, riate IV. Ovals, Ellipses, Parabolas, and Volutes, Plate V. Rules and Prictioal Data. Study of Projections, Ele mt^ntary Principles, Plate VI. Of Prisms and other Solids, Plate VII Rules and Practical Data. On Coloring Sections, toith Applicatibns — Conven tional Colors, Comiwsition or Mixture of Colors, Plate X. Continuation oj the St'nii/ of Projections — Use of sections — details of machinery, Plate XI Simph^ a])]i!i»'itions — spindles, shafts, couplings, wooden patterns, Plate XII Method of constructin;^ a wooden model or pattern of a coupling, Elemen tary ap]>lications — rails and chairs for railways, Plate XIlI. Rules aru Practical Data — Strenc:th of material, Resistance to compression or crush ing force, Tensional Resistance, Resistance to flexure. Resistance to torsion Friction of surfaces in contact. Thk Interseition and Devklopment of Surfaces with Appi.ica TTONS. — The Intersection of Cijlin'tcrs and Cones. Plate XIV. The DeUneatio% arul Dr^rlopmeyit of H>lices. Screws, and Serpentines, Plate XV. Aiiplicatio* of the helix — the construction of a staircase, Plate XVI. The Intersection of surfaces -applications to stopcocks, Plate XVII. Rjiles and Practical Data — Steam, Unity of heat. Heating surface. Calculation of the dimensions of boilers. Dimensions of fire grates, Chimneys, Safetj' valves. Thk Study and Construction of Toothed Gear. — Involute, cycloid, and epicycloid. Plates XVIII. and XIX. Involute, Fig. 1, Plate XVIII.' Cycloid. Fig. 2, Plate XVIII. External epicycloid, described by a circle rolling about a tixed circle inside it, Fig. 3, Plate XIX. Internal epicycloid. Fig. 2^ Plate XIX. Delineation of a rack and pinion in gear. Fig. 4, Plate XVIII Gearing of a worm with a worm-wheel. Figs. 5 and 6, Plate XVIII. Cylindrical or Spur Gearing, Plate XIX. Practical delineation of a couple of Spur-wheels. Plate XX. The Delineation and Construction of Wooden Patte)~ns for Toothed Wheets, Plate XXI. Rules and Practical D(//a— Toothed gearing, Angular and circumferential velocity of wheels. Dimensions of gearing, Thickness of the teeth. Pitch of the teeth, Dimensions of the web, Number and dimensions of the arms, wooden patterns. Continu.\tion of the Study of Toothed Gear. — Design for a pair of bevel-wheels in gear, Plate XXII. Construction of wooden i)atterns for a pair of bevel-wheels, Plate XXIII. Involute and Helical Teeth. Plate XXIV. Contrivances for obtaining Dijf'erential Movements — The delineation of eccen- trics and cams. Plate XXV. Rules and Practical Data — Mechanical work of effect. The simi)le machines, Centre of gravity. On estimating the power of prime movers. Calculation for the brake, The fall of bodies, Momentum, Central forces. Elementary Principles of Shadows. — Shadows of Prisms, Pyramids and CiiUnders, Plate XXVI. Principles of Shading. Plate XXVII. Continua- tion of the Study of Shadows, Plate XXVIII. Tuscan Order, Plate XXIX. Rules and Practical Data — Pumps, Hydrostatic principles. Forcing pumps, Lifting and forcing pumps. The Hydrostatic press, Hydrostatical calcula- tions and data — discharge of water through different orifices, Gauging of a water-course of uniform section and fall, Velocity of the bottom of water- courses. Calculations of the discharge of water through rectangular orifices of narrow edges. Calculation of the discharge of water through overshot outlets. To determine the width of an overshot outlet, To determine th« depth of the outlet. Outlet with a spout or duct. Application of Shadows to Toothed Gear, Plate XXX. Application of Shadows to Screivs, Plate XXXI. Application of iShadotvs to a Boiler and its furnace, Plate XXXII. Shading in Black — Shading in Colors, Plate XXXIII. The Cutting and Shaping of INIasonry, Plate XXXIV. Rules and Prac- tical Data — Hydraulic motors. Undershot Avater-wheels, with pl«ne floats and a circular channel. Width. Diameter, Velocity, Number, and cajjacity of the buckets. Useful effect of the water-wheel. Overshot water-wheels. Water- wheels with radical floats, Water-wheel with curved buckets, Turbines. Remarks on Machine Tools. The Study of Machinery and Sketching. — Various applications and combinations: The Sketching of Machinery, Plates XXXV. and XXXVI. Drilling Machines-; Motive Machines; Water-wheels. Construction and set- ting up of water-wheels, Delineation of water-wlieels. Design of a water- wheel. Sketch of a water-wheel ; Overshot Water-wheels. Water Pumps, Plate XXXVII. Steam Jlotors ; High-pressure expansive steam-engine. Plates XX Will., XXXIX., and XL. Details- of Construction; Movevients of the Digtribuiiou and Expansion I'ulvcs ; Rules ami Practical Data — Steam-engines: Lo\T-pressure condensing engines without expansion valve, Diameter 2 •PUBLISHED BY HENRY CAREY BAIRD. of piston, Velocities, Steam pipes and passages, Air-pump and condenser, Cold-water and feed-pumps, High-pressure expansive engines, Medium pres- sure condensing and expansive steam-engine, Conical pendulum or centri- fugal governor. Oblique Projections.— Application of rules to the delineation of an oscillating cylinder, Plate XLI. Parallel Perspective. — Principles and applications, Plate XLII. True Perspective. — Elementary principles, Plate XLIII. Applications — flour mill driven by belts, Plates XLIV. and XLV. Description of the tnill, Representation of the mill in perspective. Notes of recent improve- ments in flour mills, Schiele's mill, MuUin's "ring millstone," Barnett'a millstone, Hastie's arrangement for driving mills, Currie's improvements in millstones. Rides and Practical Data — Work performed by various ma- chines. Flour mills, Saw-mills, Veneer sawing machines. Circular saws. Examples of Finished Drawings ok Machinery. — Plate A, Balance water-meter; Plate B, Engineer's shaping machine; Plates C, D, E, Express locomotive engine ; Plate F, Wood planing machine ; Plate G, Washing machine for piece goods ; Plate H, power-loom ; Plate I, Duplex steam boiler ; Plate J, Direct-acting marine engines. Drawino Instruments. Arrowsmith. Paper-Hanger's Companion : By James Arrowsmith. 12mo., cloth $1.25 Baird. The American Cotton Spinner, and Manager's and Carder's Guide : A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning ; giving the Di- mensions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calcu- lations, etc. ; with notices of recent Improvements : together with Rules and Examples for making changes in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn. Compiled from the pa- pers of the late Robert H. Baird. 12mo $1.50 Contents. — Introduction ; On the Plan of a Factory Building ; On the Main Gearing; On Water-wheels ; Calculations of Horse- Power for Pro- { telling Cotton Spinning Machinery ; Willie or Picking Machine ; On Wil- eying Cotton ; Spreading Machine ; On Spreading Cotton ; Carding ; Cards and Carding ; Covering Emery Rollers and Emeries ; The Drawing-frame ; Roving ; General Remarks on Drawing and Roving ; Throstles ; Remarks on Throstles ; Mule Spinning ; General Observations on Mule Spinning ; Weaving ; Belting ; Miscellaneous matters. Beans. A Treatise on Railroad Curves and the Location of Railroads : By E. W. Beans, C. E. 12mo. (In press.) Bishop. A History of American Manufac- tures : From 1608 to 1866 : exhibiting the Origin and Growth of the Principal Mechanic Arts and Manufactures, from the Earliest Colonial Period to the Present Time ; with a Notice of the Important Inventions, Tariffs, and the Results of each Decennial Census. By J. Leander Bishop, M. D. ; to which is added Notes on the Principal Manufacturing Centres and Remarkable Manufactories, By Edward Young and ICdwin T. Freedley. In three vols., 8vo $8.00 3 PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, Blinn. A Practical Workshop Companiou for Tin, Sheet-Iron, and Copper-Plate Work- ers: Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns used by Tin, Sheet-Iron, and Copper-Plate Workers ; Practical Ge- oraetry; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids; Tables of the Weights of Metals, Lead Pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Cir- cumferences of Circles ; Japan, Tarnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc., etc. By Leroy J. Blinn, Master Me* chanic. With over One Hundred Illustrations. 12mo. $2.5Q Contents. — Rules for Desa'ibing Patterns. — An Envelope for a Cone, A Frustrum of a Cone, A Can top or Deck flange ; A Pattern for, or an Enve- lope for a Frustrum of a Cone, A Tapering Oval Article to be in four Sec- tions, A Tapering Oval Article to be in two Sections, A Tapering Oval Ar- ticle, A Tapering Oval and Oblong Article, the sides to be Straight, with Quarter Circle corners, to be in two Sections, A Tapering Oval or Oblong Article, the sides to be Straight, one end to be a Semicircle, the other end to be Straight, with Quarter Circle corners, to be in two Sections, A Tapering Oval or Oblong Article, the sides to be Straight, with Semicircle ends, to be In two Sections, Covering of Circular Roofs, Two different Principles, To cover a Dome by the first Method, To cover a Dome by the second Method, To ascertain the Outline of a Course of covering to a Dome, without refer- ence to a Section of the Dome, To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Square Article, A Square Tapering Article to be in two Sections, A Tapering Arti- cle, the Base to be Square, and the Top a Circle, in two Sections, A Tapering Article, the Base to be a Rectangle, and the Top Square, in two Sections, A Tapering Article, the Base to be a Rectangle, and the Top a Circle, in two Sections, A Tapering Article, the Top and Base to be a Rectangle, in two Sections, Tapering Octagon Top or Cover, A Miter Joint at Right Angles for a Semicircle Gutter, A Miter Joint at any Angle for a Semicircle Gutter, A Miter Joint for an O G Gutter at Right Angles, A Miter Joint for an O G Cornice at Right Angles, also an Offset, An Octagon O G Lamp Top or Cover, A T Pipe at Right Angles, A T Pipe at any Angle, A T Pipe, the Collar to be smaller than the Main Pipe, A T Pipe at any Angle, the Collar to set on one side of the Main Pipe, A Pipe to fit a flat Surface at any Angle, as the Side of a Roof of a Building, A Pipe to fit two flat Surfaces, as the Roof of a Building, An Elbow at Right Angles, An Elbow Pattern at any Angle, An Elbow in three Sections, An Elbow in four Sections, An Elbow in five Sections, A Tapering Elbow, An Oval Boiler Cover, A Flange lor a Pipe that goes on the Roof of a Building, Octagon or Square Top or Cover, Steamer Cover. An Ellipse or Oval, having two Diameters given. An Ellipse with the Rule and Compasses, the Transverse and Conjugate Diameters being given, that is, the Length and Width, To find the Centre and the two Arcs of an Ellipse, To find the Radius and Versed Sine for a given Frustrum of a Cone, Practical Geometry, Decimal Equivalents to Fractional Parts of Lineal Measurement, Definitions of Arithmetical Signs, Mensuration of Surfaces, Mensuration of Solids and Capacities of Bodies, Tables of Weights of Iron, Copper, and Lead, Tables of the Circumferences and Areas of Cir- cles, Sizes and capacity of Tinware in form of Frustrum of a Cone, such as Pans, Dish Kettles, Pails, Coffee-pots, Wash Bowls, Dippers, Measures, Druggists' and Liquor Dealers' Measures, American Lap Welded Iron Boiler Flues, Table of Effects upon Bodies by Heat, Weight of Wafer. Effects produced by Water in an Aeriform State, Practical Properties of Water, Effects produced by Water in its Natural State, Effects of Heat at certain Temperatures, Tempering, Effects produced by Air in its Natural and in a Rarefied State, Table of the Expansion of Atmospheric Aii by Heat, Size, Length, Breadth, and Weight of Tin Plates, Crystallized Tin Plate, List of Calibre and Weights of Lead Pipe, Calibre and Weights of Fountain or Aqueduct Pipes, To ascertain the Weights of Pipes of various Metals, and any Diameter required, Weight of a Square Foot of Sh«et Iron, Copper, and Brass, as per Birmingham Wire Gauge, Recapitulation of 4 p-DBIilSHED BY HENRY CAREY BAIRD. _ ^ Weights of Various Sut)stances. Practical Receipts. — Japanning and Vat nishing, Varnishes — Miscellaneous, Lackers, Cements, Miscellaneous Re ceipts, Britannia, Solders, etc., Strength of Materials. Booth and Morfit. The Encyclopedia of Chemistry, Practical and Theoretical : Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineral- ogy, Geology. Medicine, and Pharmacy. By James C. Booth. Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by Campbell Morfit, author of " Chemical Manipulations," etc. 7th edition. Complete in one volume, royal 8vo. 978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations $5.00 Brewer ; (The Complete Practical.) Or Plain, Concise, and Accurate Instructions in the Art of Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, etc., etc., and the Process of making all the Small Beers. By M. Lafayette Byrn, M. D. With Illustrations. 12mo $1.25 Buckmaster. The Elements of Mechanical Physics. By J. C. Buckmaster, late Student in the Goverment School of Mines ; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of Science and Art; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the Royal College of Preceptors; and late Lecturer in Chemistry and Physics of the Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated with numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo $2.00 Contents.— T^e Elements of Mechanical Physics — Chap. I. — Statics and Dy- namics ; Force ; Gravitation and Weight ; On ]\Jatter— its Mass, Density, and Volume. II.— Centre of Gravity ; Stable and Unstable Equilibrium ; To find the Centre of Gravity of a Material Straight Line of Uniform Den- sity ; To find the Centre of Gravity of two heavy Points joined by a rigid bar without Weight ; To find the Centre of Gravity of a number of heavy points ; To find the Centre of Gravity of a Material Plain Triangle. III.— Levers ; Levers are of three kinds ; Virtual Velocity ; Balances ; The Safety Valve ; Mechanical Combinations and their Advantages. IV. — The wiieel nnd Axle : The Compound Wheel and Axle. V.— The Pulley ; Wheels and Pinions ; Cranks and Fly-Wheel. VI,— The Inclined Plane ; The Wedge ; The Screw. VII. — Composition and Resolution of Forces. VIIL— Falling Bodies ; Ascent of Bodies ; Projection of Bodies Horizontally. IX. — Mo- mentum. X. — Sound ; The Pendulum. Elements of Hydrostatics.— Chap. I.— Hydrostartics ; Bramah Hydrostatic Press. II.— Specific Gravity ; Table of Specific Gravities. III.— Elastic Fluids ; The Air Pump and its Operation ; The Construction of the Condenser and its Operation ; The Barometer ; The Action of the Siphon ; How to Graduate a common Thermometer ; To Reduce the Degrees of a Thermometer in Fah- renheit's scale to a centigrade and the converse ; The Construction of a Siphon gauge ; The Construction of a common Pump and its Operation ; The Construction and Operation of a Force Pump ; The Operation of a Fire Engine ; The Operation of a Lifting Pump ; The Hydraulic Ram ; The Archimedian Screw ; The Chain Pump ; Mercurial Steam Gauge ; Examina- tion Papers. Appendix.— Examples ; Answers to Examples. 5 PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, Bullock. The Rudiments of Architecture and Building : For the use of Architects, Builders, l)raug:htsmen. Ma- chinists, Engineers and Mechanics. Edited by John Bul- lock, author of " The American Cottage Builder." Illus- trated by Two Hundred and Fifty Engravings. In one vol- ume, 8vo $3.50 Burgh. The Slide Valve Practically Consid- ered. By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. Completely Illus. 12mo.. .;$2.00 Burgh. Practical Rules for the Proportion of Modern Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes. By N. P. Burgh, liingineer. 12mo $2.00 Contents. — High Pressure Engines; Beam Engines (condensing): Marine Screw Engines; Oscillating Engines; Valves, etc.; Land and Marine Boilers. Miscellaneous. — Coal Bunkers, Marine ; Decimals, etc. ; Eccentric, Position of, for Land Engines ; Eccentric, Position of. for Marine Screw Engines ; Fire Bars ; Keys and Cotters ; Link for Land Engine, Ra- dius of; Levers; Link for Oscillating Engine, Radius of ; Link for Marine Screw Engine, Radius of; Proportion of Connecting Rods having Strap Ends; Paddle Wheels, Centres of Radius Rods; Plummer Blocks; Propor- tions of Steam Cocks with Plugs secured by Nuts and Screws ; Proportion of Marine Cocks ; Proportions of Bolts, Nuts, etc. ; Proportions ot Pins, Studs, Flanges, etc. ; Proportions of Copper Pipes ; Proportions of Engines ; Sliding Quadrant ; Toothed A\ heels (Gearing). Propmtions of Engines Pro- duced by the Ktdes: Proportions of an Engine 20 HP nominal ; Proportions of ft Condensing Beam Engine 160 HP nominal ; Proportions of a Pair of Marine Engines of 200 HP Collectively ; Proportions of a Pair of Oscillating Engines of 400 HP Collectively ; Proportions of Boilers. Byrne. Pocket Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers. Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings ; the Staking out of Work; Leveling; the Calculation of Cut- tings, Embankments, Earth-work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated, 18mo $1.25 Byrne. The Practical Metal-Worker's As- sistant. Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry ; the Arts of Working all Metals and Alloys ; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering ; Melting and Mixing ; Casting and Found- ing ; Works in Sheet Metal ; the Process dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; and- the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal-Workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manu- facturing Processes :. ".ollected from Original Sources, and 6 PUBLISHED BY HENRY CAREY BAIRD from the Works of Holtzaptfel, Bergeron, Leiipold, Plumicr, Napier, and others. By Oliver Byrne. A New, Revised, and Improved Edition, with additions by John ScofTern, M. B., William Clay, William Fairbairn, F. R. S., and James Napier. With Five Hundred and Ninety-two Engravings, illustrating every Branch of the Subject. In one voluuio, 8vo. 652 pages $7.00 Contents. — Ou Metallnrgic ChemlBtry ; Special Metallurgio Operations ; Recently Patented Refining Processes; Refining and Worliing of Iron; Manufacture of Steel ; Forging Iron and Steel; On Wrought-Iron in Large Iklasses ; General Examples of Welding, Hardening and Tempering; Hard- ening Cast and Wrought-Iron ; On the Api)lication of Iron to Ship-Build- ing ; The Metals and Alloys most commonly used ; Remarks on the Cliar acter of the Metals and Alloys; Melting and Mixing the Metals; Casting and Founding; Works in Sheet Metal made hy Joining; Works in Sheet Metal made by raising and flattening of thin Plates of Metal ; Processes de- pendent on Ductility ; Soldering ; Shears ; Punches ; Drills ; Screw-cutting lools ; Electro-Metallurgy. Byrne. The Handbook for the Artisan, Me- chanic, and Engineer. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 11 large plates and 185 wood engravings. 8 vo $5.00 Contents. — Grinding Cutting Tools on the Ordinary Grindstone ; Sharj)- enlng Cutting Tools on the Oilstone; Setting Razors ; Sharpening Cutting Tools with Artificial Grinders ; Production of Plane Surfaces by Abrasion : Production of Cylindrical Surfaces by Abrasion ; Production of Conical Surfaces by Abrasion ; Production of Spherical Surfaces by Abrasion ; Glass Cutting; Lapidary Work; Setting, Cutting, and Polishing Flat and Rounded Works ; Cutting Faucets ; Lapidary Apparatus for Amateurs ; Gem and Glass Engraving ; Seal and Gem Engraving; Cameo Cutting; Glass Engrav- ing, Varnishing, and Lackering ; General Remarks upon Abrasive Pro- cesses ; Dictionary of Apparatus ; Materials and Processes for Grinding and Polishing, commonly employed in the Mechanical and Useful Arto. Byrne. The Practical Model Calculator: For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 1 vol. 8vo., nearly 600 pages lid.SO The principal objects of this work are : to establish model calculations to guide practical men and students ; to illustrate every practical rule and principle by numerical calculations, systematically arranged ; to give infor- mation and data indispensable to those for whom it is intended, thus sur- fiassing in value any other book of its character ; to economize the labo- of he practical man, and to render his every-day calculations easy and com- prehensive. It will be found to be one of the most complete and valuable practical books ever published. Cabinet-maker's and Upholsterer's Compan- ion. Comprising the Kudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making and Upholstery, with Familiar Instructions, illustrated by Examples for attaining a proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet-work; the processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-work ; the Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood. Bone, Tortofee Shell, etc. Directions for Lackering 7 PHACTICAIi AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, Japaiininj::, and Yarnishing; to make French Polish; to ])r(v pare the best Ghies, Cements anil Compositions, anil a num- ber of Receipts particularly nsel'ul tor workmen {i^enerally. By J. Stokes. In one vol., 12mo. With llhistrations. ..$L*J5 Calvert. On Improveinents and Progress in Dyeing and Calico Printing since 1851. Illustrated with Numerous Specimens of Printed and Dyed Fabrics. By Dr. F. Grace Calvert, F. R. S., F. C. S. A Lecture delivered before the Society of Arts. Revised and enlarged by the author. [Nearly Ready.) Carey. The Works of Henry C. Carey : CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RESUMPTION? Letters to Hon. Hugh McCulloch. 8vo 3S FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper 25 FRENCH AND AMERICAN TARIFFS : Compared in a Series of Letters addressed to Mons. M. Chevalier. 8vo. paper 50 HARMONY OF INTERESTS: Agricultural, Manufacturing, and Commercial. Svo., paper $L00 Do. do. cloth 1.50 LETTERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. Paper 75 MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Ca rey's "Principles of Social Science." By Kate McKean. 1 vol., 12mo $2.25 The Text-Book of the Universities of Berlin (Prussia), Pennsylvania, and Michigan, and of the College of New Jersey, Princeton. MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising " Harmony of In terests," "Money," "Letters to the President." "French and American Tariffs," " Financial Crises." " The Way to Outdo Enfjland without Fighting Her," " Resources of the Union," "The Public Debt," " Contraction or Expansion?" etc., etc. 1 vol. Svo., cloth $3.50 MONEY : A LECTURE before the N. Y. Geograpliical and Statistical Society. Svo., paper 25 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE Svo $2.50 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes. 8vo., cloth : $10.00 CoNTKNTS.— Volume I : Of Science and its Methods^ Of Man, the Subject of Social Science ; Of Increase in tho Numbers of Mankind; Of the Occu- pation of the Earth; Of Value; Of Wealth; Of the Tormation of Society; 8 PUBLISHED BT HENRY CARET BAIRD. Of Approj)riation ; Of Chanpes of Matter In Place; Of Moehanlcal and Chemical Changes in the Forms of Matter. Volume II: Of Vital ChanKcH In the Form of Matter ; Of the Instrument of Association. Volume III: Of Production and Consum|)tion ; Of Accumulation; Of Circulation; Of Dis- iribution ; Of Concentration and Centralization ; Of Competition : Of Fopu- ••ation ; Of Food and Population; Of Colonization; Of the IVIalthuHiaii Theory ; Of Commerce ; Of the Societary Organization ; Of Social Science. THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL, ilow to provide for its discharge while lessening tlie burden of Taxation. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. 8. Keveimo Commission. 8vo., paper 25 THE RESOURCES OF THE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec. 1865, before the American Geographical and Statistical Society, N. Y., and before the American Association for tho Advancement of Social Science, Boston 25 THE SLAVE-TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN: Why it Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo. cloth !$1.50 THE WAY TO OUTDO ENGLAND WITHOUT FIG Fir. ING HER. LETTERS TO THE HON. SiJlIUYLER COLFAX, Speaker of the House of Representatives United States, on "The Paper Question," "The Fanner's Ques- tion," " The Iron Question," " The Railroad Question," and the " Currency Question." Svo., paper 75 Campin. A Practical Treatise on Mechan- ical Engineering: Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufac- ture of Steam-engines, etc., etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. To which are added. Observations on the Construction of Steam Boilers and remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Prevention; with a Chapter on P^xplosions. By R. Arm- strong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning. Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, including Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. Svo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings $6.00 Contents. — Introduction — On Metallurgy; On Forj^ing Iron; On Moulding *nd Casting; On Cutting Tools; On Workshop Machinery; On Manipulation ; On the Pnysical Basis of the Steam-engine ; On the Princijjles of Mechanical Construction; On the General Arrangement of the Steam-engine ; On the General Principles of Steam Boilers ; Preliminary considerations on the Api)licability of various kinds of Steam-engines to various i)urp(jHC8; On the details of Steam-engines ; On Pumpa and Valves ; On Steam Boilers ; On Propellers ; On various ap[)lications of Steam-power and Api)aratus connected therewith; On Pumping Engines; On Rotative Kngines; On Marine Engines; On Locomotive Engines; On Road Locomotives; On Steam Fire Engines ; On Boilers generally, and a Radical Reform in those 9 PBACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, for Marine purposes suggested ; Smoke Prevention and its fallacies ; Re- marks on Smoke-burning, by John Bourne ; Explosions : an investigation into some of the causes producing them, and into the deterioration of Boil- ers generally ; Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting Machine ; Explanation of the Methods of Calculating Screw Threads ; The Management of Steel. Appendix. — The Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. Glossah f . — Index. Capron de Dole. Dussauce. Blues and Car- mines of Indigo. A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commer- cial Product derived from Indigo. By Felicien Capron de Dole. Translated, with important additions, by Professor H. Dussauce. 12mo $2.50 Clough. The Contractor's Manual and Build- er's Price-Book : Designed to elucidate the method of ascertaining, correctly, the Value and Quantity of every description dF Work and Materials, used in the Art of Building, fron their Prime Cost in any part of the United States, collected from extensive experience and observation in Building and Designing ; to which are added a large variety of Tables, Memoranda, etc., indispensable to all engaged or concerned in erecting buildings of any kind. By A. B. Clough, Architect, 24mo., cloth. . .75 Colburn. The Locomotive Engine: Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estima- ting its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Con- struction and Management. By Zerah Colburn. Illus- trated. A new edition. 12mo $1.25 Daguerreotypist and Photographer's Com- panion. 12mo., cloth $1.25 Distiller. (The Complete Practical). By M. Lafayette Byrn, M. D. With Illust'ns. 12mo.. . .$1.50 Duncan. Practical Surveyor's Guide. By Andrew Duncan. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth $1.2.*) Dussauce. Practical Treatise on the Fabri- cation of Matches, Gun Cotton, and Fulmi- nating Powders. By Professor H. Dussauce. 12mo $3.00 Contents.— PAosjj/iortis— History of Phosphorus ; Physical Properties ; Chemical Properties ; Natural State; Preparation of White Phosphorus; Amorphous Phosfliorus, and Bonoxide of Lead. Jtfer. Chapt. VII. Chemical Analysis of Materials employed in Paper-making — The Waters ; Alkalimetrical Test ; Examination of Limes : Chlorometric Tests; Examination of Manganese ; Chlorometric Degrees of Samples of Manganese ; Antichlorine ; Alums ; Kaolin ; Starch ; Coloring Materials ; Fuel ; Examination of Papers ; Materials of a Laboratory. Chapt. VIII. Working Stock of a Paper-miU — Motive Power: Rag Cutters; Dusters; Washing Apparatus ; Boiling Apparatus ; Washing and Beating-engines ; Apparatus for Bleaching and Draining the Pulp ; Piiper-machines : Finish- ing-machines ; General Working Stock of a Paper-mill : General Remarks upon the Establishment of a Paper-mill ; General Remarks in reference to Building; General Considerations. Chapt. IX. The Manufaclvre of Paper from Wood in the United States. Chapt. X. Manufacture of Boards. Chapt. XI. Manufacture of Paper in China and Japan. Description of the Plates. Regnault. Elements of Chemistry. ^ By M. Y. Regnault. Translated from the French, by T. Forrest Betton. M.D.. and edited, with notes, by James C. Booth. Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and Wm. L. Faber, Metallurgist and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. Comprising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth §10 00 Among the Contents are — Volume I. : French and English Weights, etc. Introduction — Crystallography ; Chemical Nomenclature ; Metalloids ; Oxy- ren ; Hydrogen ; Selenium : Tellurium ; Chlorine : Bromine ; Iodine ; Fluorine : Phosphorus; Arsenic; Boren ; Silicum ; Carbon; On the Equivalents oi Metalloids. MelaU—Geolosj : Physical Properties of the Metals ; CliemicaJ 20 PUBLISHED BY HENRY CAREY BAIRD. Properties of the Metals. On Salts. I. Jlkaline Metals — Potassium; So- dium ; Lithium ; Ammonia. II. Alkalino-Earthy Metals — Barium ; Stron- tium ; Calcium ; Magnesium. III. Earthy Metals — Aluminum ; Glucinuni ; Zirconium ; Thorinum ; Yttrium ; Erbium ; Terbium ; Cerium ; Lantha- num ; Didymium. Chemical Arts Dependent on the Preceding Bodies — G\in- powder ; Lime and Mortar ; Glass ; Kinds of Glass ; Imperfections and Alterations of Glass ; Pottery, the Paste of which becomes Compact by Burning ; Pottery, the Paste of which remains Porous after Burning ; Or- naments and Painting ; Chemical Analysis of Earthenware. Volume II. : Preparation of Ores, Manganese, Iron ; Reduction in the Blast Furnace ; Chromium ; Cobalt ; Nickel ; Zinc ; Cadmium ; Tin ; Tita- nium ; Columbium; Niobium; Pelopium ; Ilmenium ; Lead, Metallurgy of ; Bismuth, Metallurgy of ; Antimony, Metallurgy of ; Uranium; Tungsten; Molybdenum ; Vanadium ; Copper, Metallurgy of; Mercury, Metallurgy of* Silver, Metallurgy of ; Gold, Metallurgy of ; Platinum; Osmium; Iridium; Palladium; Rhodium; Ruthenium. IV. Organic Chemistry — Introduction .—Ultimate Analysis of Organic Substances ; Construction of a Formula ; Analysis of Gases ; Essential Proximate Principles of Plants ; Acids Exist- 'ng in Plants ; Organic Alkaloids; Neutral Substances in Plants; Nitrils ; tssential Oils ; Products of Dry Distillation ; Fats ; Organic Coloring Mat- .ers ; Action of Plants on the Atmosphere ; Animal Chemistry ; Secre- tions ; Excretions ; Technical Organic Chemistry ; Manufacture of Bread ; Brewing ; Cider and Perry ; Wine-making ; Beet Sugar ; Cane Sugar ; Sugar- tefining; Manufacture of Bone Black ; Soap-boiling; Principles of Dyeing ; Mordants ; Calico-printing ; Tanning ; Charring Wood and Coal ; Manufao- ture of Illuminating Gas. Sellers. The Color Mixer: Containing nearly Four Hundred Eeceipts for Colors, Pastes, Acids, Pulps, Blue Yats, Liquors, etc., etc., for Cotton and "Woollen Goods : including the celebrated Barrow Delaine Colors. By John Sellers, an experienced practical work- man. In one volume, 12mo $2.50 Shunk. A Practical Treatise on Railway- Curves and Location, for Young Engi- neers. By Wm. F. Shunk, Civil Engineer. 12mo $1.50 Smith. The Dyer's Instructor: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton, Wool and Worsted, and Woollen Goods : containing nearly 800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on tne Art of Padding ; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. By David Smith, Pattern Dyer. 12mo., cloth $3.00 53" This is by far the most valuable book of Practical Receipts for Dters ever published in this country — has been eminently popular, and the third edition is just now ready for delivery. Strength and other Properties of Metals. Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Pro- perties of Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for testing Metals, and of the Classification o** 21 PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, Cannon in service. By OfiBcers of the Ordnance Department U. S. Army. By authority of the Secretary of "War. llhis- trated by 25 large steel plates. In 1 vol., quarto $10.00 Jt;^ The best treatise on cast-iron extant. Tables Showing the Weight of Round, Square, and Flat Bar Iron, Steel, etc., By Measurement. Cloth 63 Taylor. Statistics of Coal : Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and Manufactures ; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial Distribution and amount of Production and Consumption on the American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manufacture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. S. Haldeman. Illustrated by five Maps and many Wood engravings. 8vo. cloth $6.00 Templeton. The Practical Examinator on Steam and the Steam-engine : iVith Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the use of Engineers, Students, and others. By Wm. Tem- pleton, Engineer. 12mo $1.25 This work was originally written for the author's private use. He was prevailed upon by various Engineers, who had seen the notes, to consent to its publication, from their eager expression of belief that it would be equally useful to them as it had been to himself. Turnbull. The Electro-Magnetic Telegraph : With an Historical Account of its Rise, Progress, and Pre- sent Condition. Also, Practical Suggestions in regard to Insulation and Protection from the EfiFects of Lightning. Together with an Appendix, containing several important Telegraphic Devices and Laws. By Lawrence Turnbull, M. D., Lecturer on Technical Chemistry at the Franklin In- stitute. Second edition. Revised and improved. Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo $2.50 Turner's (The) Companion : Containing Instruction in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turning ; also, various Steel Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments ; and Directions for Using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter and Rest ; with Patterns and Instruc- tions for working them. 12mo., cloth $1.50 Ulrich. Dussauce. A Complete Treatise on the Art of Dyeing Cotton and Wool, As practiced in Paris, Rouen. Mulhausen, and Germany. From the French of M. Louis Ulrich, a Practical Dyer in. 22 PUBLISHED BY HEWBY CAREY BAIRD. the principal Manufactories of Paris, Rouen, Mulhansen. etc., etc. ; to which are added the most important Receipt.'^ for Dyeing- Wool, as practiced in the Manufacture Jmp^riale des Gobelins, Paris. By Prof. H. Dussauce. 12mo...$8.00 Watson. Modern Practice of American Ma- chinists and Engineers : Including the Construction, Application and Use of Drills, Lathe Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders and Hollow "Ware generally, with the most economical speed for the same ; the results verified by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and on the Floor. Together with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufactures, the Steam-engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watson, late editor of the " Scientific American." Illustrated with Eighty-six Engravings. In 1 volume, 12mo $2.50 CONTENTS. Part I.— The Drill and its Office. Part 2.— Lathe Work. Part 3. — Miscellaneous Tools and Processes. Part 4. — Steam and Steam-engine. Part 5. — Gears, Belting, and Miscellaneous Practical Information. Watson. The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving by Hand and Power : With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with the Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Prac- tical Machine Maker. Illustrated by large drawings of the best Power-Looms. 8vo $5.00 Weatherly. Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crystallizing, Lozenge-making, Com- fits, Gum Goods, And other processes for Confectionery, etc., in which are explained, in an easy and famihar manner, the various methods of manufacturing every description of raw and refined Sugar goods, as sold by Confectioners and others. 12mo $2.00 Williams. On Heat and Steam : Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Expansion. By Charles Wye Williams, author of a Treatise on the Cumbustion of Coal Chemically and Practically Considered. With Illustrations. 8vo $3.50 23 PRAOTICAIi AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, Bullock. The American Cottage Builder : A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to $20,000, for Homes for the People ; together with Warming, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Gardening. By John Bullock, Architect, Civil Engineer, Mechanician, . and Editor of " The Rudiments of Architecture and Build- ing," etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. In one vol., 8vo $3.50 Contents. — Chap. I. — Generally — Where to Build a Cottage ; Bird Cot- tage ; Objects Desired. II. — The Various Parts — Walls ; Cob Walls ; Mud Walls ; Silverlocks' Hollow Walls ; Dearnes' Hollow Brick Wall ; Lou- don's Hollow Brick Walls ; Flint Built Walls ; Walls of Framed Timber, Rubble, and Plaster ; Walls of Hollow Bricks ; Covering for Exterr al Walls ; Inside Work ; Floors ; Lime-ash Floors ; Concrete Floors ; Plaster Floor ; Asphalte ; Floor of Hollow Pots ; Tile Floor ; Floors of Arched Brickwork In Mortar ; Fire-proof Floor ; Tile-trimmer; Girder Floor; Stairs formed of Tile ; Roofs ; Thatch ; Tile for Roofing ; Slate Roof ; Cast-iron Roofing ; Eaves-gutter ; Chimney-shaft ; Ventilation and Warming. III. — Terra del Fucgo Cottage. IV. — Prairie Cottage— Cottage of Unburnt Brick— Plan ; Cross Section ; Side View ; Manner of Laying the Brick and the Foundation; Chimney-cap. Perspective, and Top Views. V. — The Farm CoKr/gre— Ground Floor ; Attic Floor. Yl.— The Village Cottage. Yll.— Italian Cottage. VIII. Thatched Cottage. IX. — Cottage of the Society for Improving the Condition of the Poor. X.— Warming and FcnVj7a/ton— Ventilation. XI.— Model Cottage— Hollow Brick Work. X\l.— Rural Co/Zagre— Basement Plan ; Plan of the First Floor ; Plan of the Second Floor. XIII. — Octagon Cottage— Plan of Base- ment ; Plan of Principal Story. XIV. — Drainage. XV. — Rural Homes— Cir- cumstances to be taken into consideration in the Choice of a Situation ; Elevation ; The character of the Surface on which to Build ; Aspect ; Soi' and Subsoil ; Water ; Villa ; Rural Home, No. 1 ; Views of a Suburban Resi- dence in the English style; Rural Home, No. 2; Rural Home, No. 3; Rural Home, No. 4. XVl. — Paint and Color. XVII. — Suburban Residences— GothiG Suburban Cottage of C. Prescott, Esq., Troy, N. Y. ; Basement ; First Floor ; Attic; Second Floor; Suburban Octagonal Cottage. XY III. — Larid6CQ,pe Garde7iing— First steps in Forming a Landscape Garden ; The Roads and Paths ; Trees, Shrubs, and Planting ; Hills and Mounds ; Valleys and Low Grounds ; Rock-work ; Of Water, and its Appropriation or Adoption ; Foun- tains ; General Observations ; Formal Gardening ; Pleasure Grounds and Flower Gardens; The Flower Garden; The Greenhouse; The Conserva- tory. XIX.— Cost— The Terra del Fuegan Cottage ; The Prairie Cottage ; The Village Cottage; The Italian Cottage; The Thatched Cottage; The Cottage of the Society for Improving the Condition of the Poor ; Prince Albert's Model Cottage ; The Rural Cottage ; Mr. Fowler's Octagonal Cot- tage ; Rural Home, No. 1 ; Rural Home, No. 2 ; Rural Home, No. 3; The Suburban Residence ; The Octagonal Suburban Residence designed by Wilcox ; The Byzantine Cottage ; The Gothic Suburban Residence designed by Mr. Davis. XX. — Two Residences — The Byzantine Cottage ; Ground Plan ; Plan of Second Story ; The Gothic Suburban Residence of W. H. C. Waddell, Esq., N. Y. ; First Floor; Second Floor. XXI.— Artist's and Arii- tan's Calling. Smeaton. Builder's Pocket Companion: Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Archi- tecture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. In one volume, 12mo $1.25 Contents. — The Builder, Carpenter, Joiner, Mason, Plasterer, Plumber, Painter, Smith, Practical Geometry, Surveyor, Cohesive Strength of Bodies, Architect. 24 PUBLISHED BY HEWRT CAREY BAIRD. A New Guide to the Sheet-iron and Boiler Plate Roller: Contaiiiiug a Series of Tables showing the weight of Slabs and Piles to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the weight of Piles and the sizes of Bars to produce Sheet-iron ; the thickness of the Bar Gauge in decimals ; the weight per foot, and the thickness on the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch ; the weight per sheet, and the thickness on the Wire Gauge or Sheet-iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle ; and the conver- sion of Short Weight into Long Weight, and of Long Weight into Short. Esti- mated and collected by G. H. Perkins and J. G. Stowe $2.50 Contents. — Weight of Slabs to produce Boiler Plates (from 2feetto9ii feet, Superficial Measure, from \^ inch to 1 inch in Thickness, allowing for Heating, Rolling, and Cropping). Weight of Slabs to produce Boiler Plates (from 10 feet to 18 feet, Superficial Measure, from J^ inch to 1 inch in Thick- ness, allowing for Heating, Rolling, and Cropping). Weight of Piles to pro- duce Boiler Plates (fiom 2 feet to 93^ feet. Superficial Measure, from X, inch to 1 inch in Thickness, allowing for Heating, Rolling, and Cropping). Weight of Piles to produce Boiler Plates (from 10 feet to 18 feet. Superficial Measure, from 14 inch to 1 inch in Thickness, allowing for Heating, Rolling, and Crop- ping). Weight of Piles to produce Sheet Iron (from 2 feet to 9'/^ feet. Superfi- cial Measure, from 4 Wire Gauge to 14 Wire Gauge, allowing for Heating, Rolling, and Cropping). Weight of Piles to produce Sheet Iron (from 10 feet to 18 feet. Superficial Measure, from 4 Wire Gauge to 14 Wire Gauge, allowing for Heating, Rolling, and Cropping). Weight of Piles to produce Sheet Iron (from 2 feet to 9j/^ feet, Superficial measure, from 14 Wire Gauge to 30 Wire Gauge in thickne'ss, allowing for Heating, Rolling, and Cropping, both Bar and Sheet). Weight of Piles to produce Sheet Iron (from 10 feet to 18 feet, Superficial Measure, from 14 Wire Gauge to 30 Wire Gauge in Thickness, allowing for Heating, Rolling, and Cropping, both Bar and Sheet). Sizes of Bars to produce Sheet Iron (from 2 feet to 8 feet long, from 13 Wire Gauge to 20 Wire Gauge, allowing for Heating, Rolling, and Cropping). Sizes of Bars to produce Sheet Iron (from 2 feet to 8 feet long, from 21 Wire Gauge to 30 Wire Gauge, allowing for Heating, Rolling, and Cropping). Table showing the Thickness of the Bar Gauge in Decimals. Table showing the Weight per Foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or Wire Gauge of the Frac- tional Parts of an Inch. Table showing the Weight per Foot, and the Thick- ness on the Wire Gauge of the Fractional Parts of an Inch. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 2 feet long by VA feet wide, from 4 Sheets to 70 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the Weight i)er Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 2^, feet long by 2 feet wide, from 2 Sheets to 36 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds"per Bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 4 feet long by 2 feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 28 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 4 feet long by 2}4 feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 23 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thick- ness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 4 feet long by 3 feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 19 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 5 feet long by 2 feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 23 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 5 feet long by 2% feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 18 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thicknesa on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron feet long by 3 feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 15 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 6 feet long by 2 feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 19 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 6 feet long by 2U feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 15 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 6 feet long by 3 feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 12 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per bundle. Short Weight into long. Long Weight into Short. 25, PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. Rural Chemistry : An Elementary Introduction to the Study of the Science in its Relation to Agriculture and the Arts of Life. By E. Solly, Hon. Mem. of Agr. Society, England. Large 12mo .... $1.50 Contents. — Introduction— Chapi. I. Objects of Chemistry ; Affinity ; Na- ture of Combination and Decomposition; The Elements ; The Air, its Pro- perties and Composition ; Oxygen and Nitrogen : Combustion, results ot Combustion ; Carbonic Acid Gas ; Water, Ice, {ind Steam ; Effects of Frost ; Latent Heat ; Composition of Water ; Hydrogen. Chapt. II. — Carbon, its Different Forms ; Cohesion ; Combustion and Decay ; Carbonic Acid Gas, produced by Respiration, Cumbustion, Fermentation, etc. ; Nature of Acids and Salts ; Carbonic Oxide ; Carburetted Hydrogen, Fire Damp, Coal Gas ; Compounds all definite ; Combining Weights ; Nitrogen combined with Hydrogen forms Ammonia ; Carbonate. Sulphate, Muriate, and Phosphate of Ammonia ; Nitric Acid ; Nitrates ; Sulphur, Sulphurous Acid ; Sulphuric Acid, Sulphates ; Sulphuretted Hydrogen; Chlorine, Muriatic Acid ; Iodine, Bromine ; Phosphorus, Phosphoric Acid. Chapt. III. — Metals ; Bases; Alka- lies ; Potash, its Properties ; Carbonate and Nitrate of Potash, GunpoAvder ; Soda, Common Salt, Sulphate, Carbonate and Nitrate of Soda ; The Alkaline Earths ; Lime, its Nature and Properties ; Carbonate, Sulphate, and Phos- phate of Lime ; Magnesia, its Carbonate, Sulphate, Muriate, and Phosphate. Chapt. IV. — The Earths, Alumina, its Properties ; Alum ; Silisia, or Silicic Acid ; Silicates of Potash and Soda ; Glass ; Silicates in the Soil, in Plants ; The Metals, their Oxides and Salts ; Iron, its Oxides ; Rusting of Iron ; Pyrites ; Sulphate of Iron, or Green Vitriol ; Gold ; Silver ; Mercury ; Copper ; Sulphate of Copper, or Blue Vitriol ; Zinc ; Tin ; Manganese ; Lead ; Metallic Alloys. Chapt. V. — Organic Matter ; Vegetable Substances : Lignin, or Woody Fibre ; Starch, Varieties of Starch ; Gum, Soluble ana Insoluble ; Sugar, Cane and Grape, its manufacture ; Gluten, Albumen, Legumine , Fibrin, Gliadine ; Chemical Transformations ; Formation of Gum, Sugar, etc. ; Fermentation ; Lactic Acid ; Manufacture of Wine ; Al- cohol ; Brandy and Grain Spirit : Brewing ; Bread-making ; Vinegar or Acetic Acid. Chapt. VI. — Vegetable Princii)les ; Vegetable Acids ; Citric, Tartaric, Malic, and Oxalic Acids ; Oils, fixed and volatile. Manufacture of Soap; Resins, Pitch and Tar; Coloring Matters, Dyeing; Inorganic Constituents of Plants ; Animal Matter; Albumen ; Fibrin ; Caseine, Milk, Butter, and Cheese ; Gelatine ; Tanning, Leather ; Fat ; Bone ; Protein ; Food of Animals ; Respiration ; Circulation of the JBlood ; Digestion ; For- mation of Fat ; Cookery, Roasting and Boiling ; Action of Medicines. Chai)t. VII. — The Food of Plants; Substances Derived from the Air ; Sources of Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Carbon ; Substances Derived from the Soil; Sources of JCarthy Substances ; Composition of Soils, their For- mation ; Decomposition of Silicates ; Mechanical Structure of Soils ; The Saline Constituents of Soils ; Organic Matters in Soils, Humus, Humic Acid, their use in Soils; Germination, Malting; Moisture, Air and Warmth; Influence of Light ; Office of the Leaves ; Roots ; Formation of Organic INIatter; Flowers, Fruit, Seeds; Organic and Organized Matter; Vitality of Embryo; Nature of Seeds; Earthy Substances in Plants; Efi'ects of Climate ; Action of Plants on the Air. Chapt. VIII. — Deterioration of Soils, its Cause ; Modes of Maintaining the Fertility of the Soil ; Theory of Fallowing ; Rotation of Crops ; Subsoil Ploughing ; Draining ; Manure ; Organic Manure ; Animal Manure, contains Nitrogen ; Results of Putrefac- tion ; Sulphuretted Hydrogen ; Loss of Manure; Liquid Manure; Animal Excrements, Guano ; Modes of Fixing Ammonia, by Acids, bj- Gyi)sum, etc. ; Strong Manures ; Wool, Rags, Oil ; Bones ; Super-phosphate of Lime ; Veg- etable Manures ; Sawdust, Seaweed ; Green Manures ; Irrigation ; Inorganic Manures ; Lime, Chalk, Marl, Shell Sand ; Gypsum ; Phosphate of Lime ; Ashes ; Burnt Clay ; Soot, Charcoal ; Gas Liquor ; Potash ; Alkaline Salts ; Nitrates. Common Salt; Salt and Lime. Chapt. IX.— Composition of Par- ticular Crops ; Composition of Wheat; Barley; Oats; Rye; Maise; Rice; Buckwheat ; Linseed ; Hempseed ; Oil-seeds ; Beans ; Peas ; Lentils ; Vetches ; Potatoes ; Batatas ; Jerusalem Artichoke ; Oxalis ; Cabbage ; Turnips; Mangel-Wurzel ; Carrot; Parsnip; Clover; Lucern; Saintfoin ; Composition of Particular Manures ; Cows' Urine ; Horse-dung ; Pigs' dung ; Niglit-soil ; Urine; Bones of Oxen; Cows: Horses; Pigs; Farmyard-dung; Guano ; Wood-ashes ; Lixiviated Ashes : Peat Ashes ; Kelp. Index. 26 <}^ ■^c^ % o 'f N IT ° '^^> \^ 0^ .. V . fi ->. .H ^ ^^A v^ ..\\ .- ON C^ -^ .Q^ V^VLV^ ' , .^ , ^ ^ ^ ^ ■ "^ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 014 051 252 7