Class _ Book - ! " 3 *$ _ Copyright N° COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. THE RURAL HIGH SCHOOL JOINT COMMITTEE ON RURAL SCHOOLS Stale Grange G.W.DUNN MRS. F.GATES G. C. McNINCH Department of Education F. B. GILBERT R. P. SNYDER G. M. WILEY Dairymen's League E. R. EASTMAN. Secretary ALBERT MANNING N. F. WEBK Farm Bureau Federation ii. c. Mckenzie, vice-chairman \v. g. Mcintosh c. s. post h. g. reed State College of Agriculture J. E. BUTTERWORTH P. J. KRUSE G. A. WORKS, Chairman Home Bureau Federation MRS. M. E. ARMSTRONG MRS. A. E. BRIGDEN MRS. EDWARD YOUNG State Teachers' Association J. D. JONES MYRTl E K. MacDONAI 1) W E. PIERCE Committee on Direction G. A. WORKS, Director MRS. A. E. BRIGDEN, Assistant Director G. M. WILEY, Assistant Director RURAL SCHOOL SURVEY of NEW YORK STATE THE RURAL HIGH SCHOOL By EMERY N. FERRISS PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION CORNELL UNIVERSITY Ithaca, New York 1922 . Copyright, 1922, by Emery N. Ferriss WMF. FELL CO. PRINTERS PHILADELPHIA DC! 2b 5C1A689006 ly\£*\ FOREWORD BULLETIN No. 19 for 1920, of the U. S. Bureau of Education, indicates that there were 13,951 public high schools in the United States in the academic year 1917-18. Slightly more than half of these schools had each an enrolment of fifty pupils or less and seventy-five percent enrolled each one hundred pupils or less. These figures serve as an index of the importance of the small high school in the program of secondary education in this country. These small schools are in the main located in small villages or in the open country, and this study of the rural high schools of New York State should reveal problems that are of general interest be- cause of the frequency with which they are likely to be met. Dr. Ferriss' consideration of these questions should prove helpful to those who are concerned with the administrative and the instruc- tional work of small high schools throughout the country. In the organization of the survey the administrative phases of this study were placed under the general direction of Dr. C. H. Judd, while Dr. W. C. Bagley had a similar relation to the problems of instruction and teacher preparation. This study was made and the results published with money fur- nished by the Commonwealth Fund. Geo. A. Works, Director. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Foreword 5 List of Diagrams 9 List of Tables 10 PART L— ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, AND SUPERVISION CHAP. I. The Distribution of Rural High Schools and Their Pupil Population 13 The Sources of Data 13 Types and Distribution of Rural High Schools L3 Percentage of Rural High School Pupils Coming from One- and Two-teacher Elementary Schools 16 Distribution of Pupils by School Year and Age 17 Ratio of Boys to Girls in Each High School Year 24 II. The Organization of the Rural High School 25 Number and Sex of Teaching Staff 25 The Organization of the School Day 26 The Work of the Principal: Teaching Load, Supervision, Office Work, Clerical Assistance, Direction of Pupil Activities, Time Given to Non-pupil Outside Activities 28-39 The Teaching Load of Teachers 39 Size of Classes in the Schools of Different Types 43 Types of Reorganization in the Seventh and Eighth Grades to Link Them up with the High School 46 The Junior High School Organization 48 III. The Administration and Supervision of the Rural High School . 52 The Principal as Director and Supervisor of Instruction 52 The Principal and the Selection of Teachers, and the Assignment of Their Work 55 State Inspection of the Rural High School 57 School Records on File in the Local School 61 Pupil Guidance 61 Supervised Study 63 Kxtra-Class-Room Activities 65 High School Assemblies 65 Community Organizations Cooperating With the School 69 Appeals Made by Principals to Interest Pupils of Rural Schools in High School Education 71 The Regents Examination System and the Administration of the Rural High School 72 Buildings and Equipment 76 7 CHAP. FAGE IV. Recommendations and Suggestions for the Improvement of the Organization, Administration, and Supervision of the Rural High School 79 ( lencral Recommendations 79 The High School Principal 80 The High School Teacher 81 Flexibility in the Administration of High School Curricula and Courses of Study 81 Junior High Schools 82 inspections 83 Supervision 83 Buildings and Fquipment 84 Extra-Class-Room Activities 85 Pupil Guidance and Supervised Study 86 Financing the Rural High Schools 86 The Standardization of the Rural High School 87 PART II.— THE TEACHING STAFF; CLASS ROOM INSTRUC- TION; AND THE CURRICULUM V. Tin: Teaching Staff 89 The Basis of the Study 89 Age of Teachers 90 Sex 92 Married or Single 92 Early Environment 92 Place of Birth 94 Nationality 96 Occupational Croups Furnishing the Rural High School Teachers. 96 Parental Income 97 Size of Family . 100 Academic' and Professional Training 100 Type of Certificate Held 102 ^ge at Which Instructors Begin Teaching 103 Number of Years' Teaching Experience 104 Number of Years in Present Position 105 Number of Months Employed . 106 Salary 108 Economic Status, Income from Sources Other than Teaching, Annual Saving, Amount Paid for Life Insurance 109-112 Persons Entirely or Partially Dependent Upon Teacher for Support 112 Money Laming Work Done Other Than Teaching 114 Professional Growth 115 Summary of Salient Points 11Q Recommendations 123 VI. The Observation of Class-room Instruction 127 Method Used 127 Number of Schools in Which Class room Work was Observed, num- ber of Recitations 130 Statistical Resume of Results 131 General Summary of Characteristics of Class-room Teaching 140 VII. The Curricullm 147 Section 1. — The Fxisting Curricula 147 Sources of Data 147 S PAGE Subjects Offered in the Rural High School 147 Subjects Required in 385 Rural High Schools 150 Subjects Offered as Electives in 385 Rural High Schools 151 Percent of Pupil's Time Devoted to the Various Subjects 153 Activities Engaged in by Graduates of Rural High Schools 154 The Adaptation of Curriculum Elements to the Pupil as Indicated by Percentage of Failures 156 The State Syllabi for Secondary Schools and Their Adaptation to the Rural High School 159 Size of Classes in Different Subjects and Estimated Cost of Instruction Per Pupil Hour 165 Contemporary Magazines as a Source of Supplementary Subject Matter 168 Section 2. — Some Principles Underlying the Building of a Rural High School Curriculum 170 Section 3. — General Summary, with Suggestions for the Improve- ment of the Curriculum of the Rural High School 180 Recommendations 181 LIST OF DIAGRAMS DIAGRAM PAGE 1. A comparison of ages of ninth grade pupils in New York rural high schools and all Connecticut high schools 19 2. Number of pupils in the different years of high school in proportion to each 100 in the first year, for New York four-year rural high schools and Massachusetts high schools with an enrolment under 200 21 3. Percent of boys and girls in different years of the rural high schools. . 24 4. Proportion of men and women teachers in New York rural high schools compared with 25 city high schools of New York state and with high schools of the United States 26 5. Distribution of the principal's time during the school day 39 6. The rural high school teacher's daily teaching load 42 7. The size of classes in the different types of rural high schools 45 8. Percent of New York rural high schools of different types having pupil guidance 63 9. Percent of New York rural high schools of different types having the active cooperation of community organizations 70 10. Age of rural high school teaching staff 91 1 1 . Place of birth of principals and teachers 94 12. Occupations of fathers of principals and teachers 97 13. Teaching experience and number of years in present position of rural high school teachers 107 14. Time given to the making of the assignment of lessons. Percent of the 179 recitations studied 141 15. Percent of pupil's time given to various subjects throughout the high school course 154 9 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Distribution of rural high schools on the basis of size of center in which located and rank of school 15 2. Distribution of rural high schools with respect to counties and super- visory districts 16 3. The percentage that pupils coming from one- and two-teacher elemen- tary schools are of the total high school enrolment in the high schools classified according to size of pupil enrolment 17 4. (a) High school age-grade table of 609 rural high schools based on age at the beginning of school year 1919-20; (b) Percentage in each year of each age, boys and girls combined; (c) Connecticut (1918, Nov.-Dec.) — percentage of each age, boys and girls com- bined. All high schools 18 5. Enrolment by years in 403 rural high schools of New York: (a) showing the number, boys and girls separately, enrolled in each year; (b) the comparative percentages for each year, using the first year as the 100 percent basis; (c) the distribution in each year on the basis of 100 pupils enrolled in the high school 20 6. The enrolment by years of the pupils in the rural high school as com- pared with the pupil enrolment in certain Eastern states and with the United States as a whole 21 7. The number of graduates for each 100 pupils entering high school. ... 22 8. The relative percentage of boys and girls in the different years of the rural high school 24 9. The teaching staff as to number per school and sex 25 10. The organization of 402 rural high schools from the standpoint of num- ber of recitation periods per day and the length of the recitation period 27 11. The teaching load of the principal 30 12. The total amount of time per day devoted by the high school principal to supervision of instruction 31 13. Total amount of time per day devoted by the high school principal to supervision of high school instruction 32 14. Total amount of time per day devoted by the high school principal to supervision of instruction in the elementary grades 33 15. Total amount of time per day devoted by the high school principal to office work 34 16. The clerical assistance given the principal 35 17. Total amount of time per day devoted by the high school principal to pupil activities 36 io TABLE PAGE 18. Total amount of time per day devoted by the high school principal to non-pupil outside activities 37 19. Total distribution of the principal's time during the school day 38 20. The high school teacher's daily teaching load, expressed in terms of: (a) Number of different subjects taught; (b) number of periods of class-room teaching; (c) number of periods on duty, teaching plus study-room supervision 41 21. The size of classes in New York rural high schools grouped according to number of pupils enrolled 44 22. Reorganization in the seventh and eighth grades either in the modifica- tion of course of study or of organization to link them up with the high school 47 23. Number of high school teachers' meetings held by principal each month 52 24. Number of individual conferences with teachers concerning their work by principal each month 53 25. The extent to which the principal has a voice in the selection of teachers 55 26. The principal's responsibility in the assignment of teacher's work ... 56 27. Nature of assistance given high school: (a) by district superintendent; (b) by State Department 60 28. Types of school records kept on file in local high school office 61 29. Ways and means of pupil guidance in New York rural high schools ... 62 30. Schools having supervised study and the plan used 64 31. Number and kinds of extra-class-room activities 66 32. Extra-class-room activities: Time of meeting, methods of control, nature of teachers' responsibility 67 33. High school assemblies: frequency, length in minutes, method of con- ducting, nature of exercises, nature and amount of pupil participation 68 34. Community organizations actively cooperating with the school 70 35. Appeals made by principal of high school to interest pupils from rural schools in high school education 71 36. Age of teaching staff at nearest birthday 91 37. Sex of teaching staff 92 38. Number and percent of teaching staff married and single 92 39. Early environment of teaching staff 93 40. Place of birth of rural high school instructors 94 41 . Nationality of parents 95 42. Occupation of the father 96 43. Annual parental income 97 44. Type of family, on basis of size, furnishing the teacher of the rural high school 98 45. Academic and professional training 101 45A. Academic training of 2,387 rural high school principals and teachers of the state (1919-20) 102 46. Type of certificate held 102 47. Age at which rural high school instructors begin teaching 103 48. Number of years' teaching experience 104 ii TABLE PAGE 49. Number of years in present position 106 50. Number of months employed 106 51. Salaries of 416 rural high school principals and teachers in 1920-21 . . . 108 52. Salaries of 2,387 rural high school principals and teachers in 1919-20. . 109 53. The amount of money derived from other sources during the year (inter- est received, income from other investments, etc.) 110 54. Approximate amount of money earned outside regular teaching salary during the year 110 55. Amount saved during the year in addition to life insurance and pension 1 1 1 56. Amount paid for life insurance exclusive of pension 112 57. Persons dependent upon principals and teachers for support 113 58. Money earning work engaged in other than teaching 115 59. Manner of spending the summer vacation 116 60. Membership in teachers' organizations 117 61 . Teachers' reading circles as reported by 348 rural high school principals . 1 18 62. Subjects offered by 609 rural high schools in 1919-20 148 63. Subjects required of all pupils as reported by the principals of 385 rural high schools 150 64. Subjects offered as elcctives as reported by the principals of 385 rural high schools 152 65. Activities engaged in in 1921 by 2,683 rural high school graduates. . . . 155 66. Percent of pupils failed by teachers and regents of all those taking the examination 1907-1918: (a) in eight subjects commonly taught in the rural high school; (b) average percent failed in all subjects. . . . 157 67. Subject failures in 30 Connecticut high schools 157 68. Percent of pupils failing in 15 subjects in 75 Wisconsin high schools. . . 158 69. The distribution of rural high school pupils in eight academic subjects on the basis of grades received in the Regents examinations in June, 1920. (Based on the grades of approximately 1,000 pupils in each subject.) 159 70. The percentage of classes of different sizes in nineteen subjects com- monly taught in rural high schools 166 71. The median class in sixteen academic subjects in the different types of rural high schools classified on the basis of number of pupils enrolled, the variation from the median for all classes, and the estimated cost of instruction per pupil hour 167 72. Magazines in rural high school libraries 169 THE RURAL HIGH SCHOOL PARTI ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, AND SUPERVISION CHAPTER I THE DISTRIBUTION OF RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS AND THEIR PUPIL POPULATION THE data used as the basis of the study of the organization, administration, and supervision of the rural high schools were derived mainly from three sources: (1) statistics and reports of the State Department of Education; (2) the replies of 405 prin- cipals to a questionnaire sent to all rural high school principals of the State; and (3) visitation of over 75 rural high schools in all sec- tions of the State. In the use of data on any item gained through the replies of principals only those schools were included for which there was a definite report on that particular item. The 405 princi- pals reporting represented approximately 66 per cent of each type of rural high school in the State, classification being made on the basis of number of pupils enrolled in high school work. Types and Distribution According to Handbook 24 of the University of the State of New York for October, 1920, there were at that time 765 public high 13 schools 1 in the State. Of the 765 public high schools, 609 were rural high schools located in centers of 4500 population or less and doing from one to four years of accredited high school work. Of these rural high schools, 413 were fully accredited four year high schools; 110 were ranked as senior schools doing three years of accredited work, though a large percentage of these schools offered the fourth year; 34 were ranked as middle schools doing two years of accredited work; and 52 ranked as junior schools doing one year of accredited work. During the year two junior schools, Benson Mines and Sloan, and one middle school, Hyde Park, discontinued high school work. During the year, also, undoubtedly several schools were added to the accredited list for one or more years of high school work and some were advanced in rank. However, this number is not great enough to change materially the relative number and proportion of rural high schools. In 1918, according to statistics of the Federal Bureau of Educa- tion, New York stood 27th among the states in the number of high school pupils enrolled for each 1000 of population, with 15.3 or 0.3 less than the average of 15.6 for the United States as a whole. With regard to the percentage of population (18 years old) graduat- ing from four year high schools, New York stood 30th with 8.05, or 2.27 less than the average of 10.32 for the United States as a whole. In this study the rural high schools are distributed in the follow- ing manner: first, as to the size of the center of population in which they are located; second, as to distribution by counties; third, as to distribution by district superintendents' districts; and fourth, as to number of high school pupils enrolled. Two hundred and forty-seven schools, according to the U. S. Census for 1920, are in rural communities or in unincorporated centers; 75 are in villages with a population of 500 or less; 107 are in villages with a popu- lation between 500 and 1000, making a total of 429 high schools, or over 70 per cent, in centers of 1000 or less. As to rank, these 429 schools stand as follows: 49 junior schools, 33 middle schools, 106 senior schools, and 241 four year high schools. (See Table 1.) 1 The terra "high school" is used throughout this report as applying to any school offering one or more years of secondary school work. 14 Table 1.- -dlstribution of rural hlgh schools on the basis of slze of Center in which Located and Rank of School Size of center Junior schools Middle schools Senior schools High schools Total Rural or unincorporated hamlets 40 24 82 101 247 Villages of 250 or under 1 4 3 8 250- 500 4 7 14 42 67 500- 750 5 1 4 53 63 750-1,000 2 42 44 1,000-1,250 1 35 36 1,250-1,500 24 24 1,500-1,750 2 24 26 1,750-2,000 13 13 2,000-2,250 1 1 11 13 2,250-2,500 11 11 2,500-2,750 1 16 17 2,750-3,000 6 6 3,000-3,250 "l 7 9 3,250-3,500 6 6 3,500-3,750 4 4 3,750-4,000 6 6 4,000-4,250 5 5 4,250-4,500 2 2 Above 4,500, 1920 U. S. Census 2 2 Total 52 34 110 413 609 In the distribution by counties the rural high schools number per county from three in Fulton county to 27 each for St. Lawrence and Suffolk counties. By supervisory districts the distribution runs from none in seven supervisory districts to 13 high schools in the first supervisory district of Suffolk county. There is a discrepancy of 1 1 high schools between the report by counties and supervisory districts (this report giving 620 schools doing high school work) and the number given in the October, 1920, Directory of the Univer- sity of the State of New York. This discrepancy is probably due to the fact that the district superintendents have reported some schools not recognized by the State Department as giving accred- ited high school work. For the detailed distribution by counties and supervisory districts see Table 2. 15 Table 2. — Distribution of Rural High Schools With Respect to Coun- ties and Supervisory Districts (District Superintendents' Report, 1920) A. Distribution of Rural High Schools by Counties Albany 4 Allegany 16 Broome 5 Cattaraugus 19 Cayuga 13 Chautauqua 21 Chemung 6 Chenango 13 Clinton 12 Columbia 6 Cortland 6 Delaware 13 Dutchess 12 Erie 19 Essex 14 Franklin 9 Fulton 3 Genesee 8 Greene 7 Hamilton 3 Herkimer 7 Jefferson 23 Lewis 8 Livingston 12 Madison 18 Monroe 13 Montgomery 6 Nassau 13 Niagara 6 Oneida 23 Onondaga 21 Ontario 9 Orange 15 Orleans 5 Oswego 12 Otsego 20 Putnam 5 Rensselaer 5 Rockland 7 St. Lawrence 27 Saratoga 8 Schenectady 3 Schoharie 6 Schuyler 4 Seneca 4 Steuben 18 Suffolk 27 Sullivan 11 Tioga 6 Tompkins 7 Ulster 5 Warren 6 Washington 10 Wayne 13 Westchester 9 Wyoming 9 Yates 3 B. Distribution of Rural High Schools in the 208 Supervisory Districts Number of schools per district 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Number of districts having each number of schools .. 7 31 44 61 35 18 7 1 1 2 1 The rural high schools are distributed as follows according to the number of high school pupils enrolled: 332 schools, or 54.5 per cent of all the rural high schools of the State, have an enrolment of less than 50; 180 schools or 29.5 per cent have an enrolment of 50-99; 65 schools or 10.7 percent have an enrolment of 100-149; and 32 schools or 5.2 per cent have an enrolment of 150 or over. Percentage of Pupils Coming From One and Two Teacher Schools A study of the percentage of the high school pupils coming from one and two teacher elementary schools shows that the schools with enrolments of 1 to 49 (not including the schools of 1-49 pupils offering less than 4 years ' high school work) and 50 to 99 are most typically rural from the standpoint of ratio of rural pupils enrolled to village pupils enrolled. These schools should be also most rural or sympathetic with rural conditions in regard to their village en- rolment because of the rural interests of the small village. The four year high schools with a pupil enrolment under 50 also have 16 the largest percentage of pupils from other villages with no or less than four year high schools. In the schools of these two classes, on the basis of enrolment, one-third of the pupils are from rural com- munities. The schools with an enrolment above 100 have a smaller percentage of rural pupils, although in actual numbers the enrolment of rural pupils per school is at least equal to that of the smaller schools. The main problem of high school opportunities for the rural child of New York seems to be largely the prob- lem of the high school with a pupil enrolment of 1 to 100, both be- cause these schools are 84 per cent of all the rural high schools and because of the relative number of pupils attending from one and two teacher schools. Table 3. — The Percentage that Pupils Coming from One- and Two- Teacher Elementary Schools are of the Total High School Enrol- ment in the High Schools Classified According to Size of Pupil Enrol- ment. (403 High Schools) Types of schools on basis of size of enrolment Percentage that pupils from one- and two-teacher schools are of the total high school enrolment Percentage that pupils from other villages are of N total high school enrol- ment Boys Girls Boys Girls 1-49 (less than 4 years) 1-49 21.0 33.5 33.1 25.8 24.1 29.2 22.3 32.3 31.9 29.5 24.6 29.6 1.1 6.4 1.0 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.1 6.3 50-99 100-149 150 0.9 0.8 06 All rural high schools . 0.8 Distribution of Pupils by School Year and Age The distribution of the pupils in the 609 rural high schools with reference to age and year of high school work shows that the range in ages for any year of the course is wide. The relatively large per- centage of pupils at or above the age of sixteen in the first two years is very noticeable. In comparison with all the high schools of Connecticut the percentage of pupils in the high school year to which they would normally belong is low. (Table 4.) 2 17 X © en i < w O o H r X c c -r o ' ~-. o o •* 9 ' s N © © o X -1- - ss es r» © c X c X s "1 W5 1/5 " 9 ■tf N 2 oc -r ©> » -f X -f — -• 5 -1 - C "1 -t (N © X r " <»> = X *o X o C X C -r O 9 EN f) 9 X t •/■> "1 -f o - e c 00 00 - ID * r- V3 — ©_ ■* 7 r " - 1 c » ••* q O -i X S3 '- ") -r V3 m - -t IO c "3 I- (N t X © - - X - KJ IT - < O s s a a L b X 5 I c. C 1 c a b X a — u b "a, 5 73 "■ ' o X c T -1 " ~* © ^i ~j c ^ "■ r-- " •T i - "- rt > © C ". i^ IV' tN O - "-. "■ / ' x c 1- 0< ^J i - / ~ V" x -t- / 3 o> J- W! N O w; CN Tt O c - >o -' 0C — _ >o r 9 " S ** -T 9 ~f C o p2 o - in © '/- M 1^ X ' •^ T) ^ -t ~l -- " w; — « >. O -» c J3 \o 9 s J «5 U " e •* -' i - — ■ i "■. r i — N rt — w) »o — w ^h 1- i IT! >■- x_ x_ O - - fS «? a >. -, e fN 'f IN A ■* - - r<5 © C - — IM 3 u^ «H rvj - - - ^ © <*i c r^ «-, '. i, t*S " * fO J2 NO © q ' X x " c rN B ii U 1> 01 :. 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" -t fV, | ■* PO c - -f X - a u © "* 1 oo ^5 * w | a; H o h y X U < H w J < >* - M o < 3 frl - O o C/3 c isj W u X o w w ffig 3 -o p ex X p M a « [J fe ° M o < 5 « ?■ o Tf >c oo f) O ^ evi to -f o ^t" tH CC rt O0 t^ NNO00N Os "^ r*J *-i -* to oo so >o •tfNOOsOl^ • r. cm io so ■* r*> Cs|t-«. fN «-i ON Tj< 1-H -H O0 o o >o «-i <~o MCvtOO> S oooo Tt< 1^ ""O "+ * rt> 1^. *-( t-~ i-H c ■a • • • : > . o .-, O, Q. t/J ^ 3 O 3 ft2 °" Ov y» Os I _ T "ToSS tn S '- , 's.pf-1 0-_ ^ 3 ' Os ^ o Os Ov I "■ •^ I Q O I O O io •HfNtNO Os Os l^ SO ^ so O i^ so . 3 a2 G ! 0-_ ^ 3 -- 0\ ▼— i c_ O Os I ~ ■* I O I o o 5 Table 6. — A Study of Enrolment by Years of the Pupils in the Rural High Schools as Compared with the Pupil Enrolment in Certain Eastern States and with the United States as a Whole. The Distribu- tion in Each Year is Shown on the Basis of a Total High School Enrol- ment of 100 Pupils Type of school 1st 2d 3d 4th year year year year 41.51 26.85 17.69 12.81 41.8 26.1 17.8 13.3 43.8 26.6 17.2 11.3 40.25 27.75 18.41 13.59 40.2 26.4 17.4 15.5 36.5 26.8 20.8 15.9 42.6 26.4 17.3 13.5 40.0 24.8 19.1 16.0 38.9 27.1 19.6 14.4 5th year 609 rural high schools, New York (1919-20) 345 (four-year) rural high schools. New York (1920-21) All New York high schools (1916-17) 54 rural high schools offering voca- tional courses (1919-20) Connecticut high schools with enrol- ment under 100 pupils (1920-21). . Massachusetts high schools with en- rolment under 200 pupils (1916-17) New Jersey high schools (1917-18) . . New Hampshire high schools (1915- 16) Rural high schools of United States (1917-18) 100 iOO 1.12 00 10 51) New York Massachusetts 57 4* 1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year Diagram 2. — Number of pupils in the different years of high school in pro- portion to each 100 in the first year, for New York four-year rural high schools and Massachusetts high schools with an enrolment under 200 The number of pupils graduating for each 100 entering high school is considerably higher in the rural high school than in the city high schools of the State and slightly lower than in the case of high schools situated in villages having superintendents. Table 7. — The Number of Graduates for Each 100 Pupils Entering High School 1 Type of school First year pupils, 1916 Graduates, 1920 Continuing education, 1920 Cities and villages having superin- tendent Rural high schools Rural high and senior schools Villages having superintendents. . . . 100 100 100 100 25.82 31.94 30.99 32.30 14.27 18.89 18.25 14.42 The percentage of pupils over 18 years of age in each year of high school work is high. The New York distribution of pupils for rural high schools shows a pulling both toward underage and toward overage, particularly the latter. A large factor operating to pro- duce both of these characteristics is probably the final examination as the sole basis of promotion, and the rigid, inflexible type of cur- riculum in the small high schools. The study of 225,865 employed boys of the ages 16, 17, and 18 years made by the New York State Military Training Commission bears out the facts given above. It shows that while the employed boys of the ages given, from places under 5000 population and from rural districts, tended in greater percentages than employed boys from larger centers to remain in school one year beyond the legal age, and in equal percentages for two and three years, the grade attained in school, particularly in the case of farm boys, was ma- terially less than for the boys in the larger centers. The following statistics, taken from the study 2 by Howard G. Burdge, the Director of the work of the Commission, give the facts in detail: 1 Statistics from Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education. 2 Burdge, Howard G.: Our Boys, pp. 64, 88, 102. 1. Persistence in School (from Burdge) Groups Left illegally Left on reaching legal age Remained beyond legal age One year Two years Three years Greater New York Cities over 25,000 Cities under 25,000 Villages over 5,000 Places under 5,000 Employed farm boys. . . . 7.0 4.8 8.7 5.0 4.3 3.4 28.6 28.9 23.5 23.6 23.8 26.4 39.9 37.1 36.0 36.8 38.0 40.0 20.5 22.5 24.0 26.9 26.0 25.1 4.0 6.7 7.8 7.7 7.9 5.1 2. Last Grade Completed, Percentage Completing Each Grade (from Burdge) 4th High school grade or 5th 6th 7th 8th grade grade grade grade T TT TTT TV under Greater New York .... 100 94.3 91.8 84.4 61.5 18.0 9.2 3.3 1.0 Cities over 25,000 100 96.6 92.6 77.4 55.6 24.2 11.2 4.0 1.3 Cities under 25,000. . . 100 95.1 89.2 71.7 49.8 23.7 10.3 3.4 1.2 Villages over 5, 000... . 100 94.8 88.6 71.9 49.7 22.2 10.0 3.6 1.2 Places under 5,000. .. . 100 95.8 89.4 71.8 47.9 21.0 10.1 3.9 2.0 Employed farm boys. . 100 96.8 89.3 71.0 41.5 12.4 5.6 1.9 0.7 The same study also shows that the rate of progress in school in the case of employed boys from places under 5000 and from rural communities was less than for the larger centers. In conclusion the study of employed boys of the State supports the facts shown by the age-distribution of pupils in the rural high schools as to the comparatively high percentage of retardation and elimination. The following table gives the percentage of a grade made each year while in school : 3. Average Rate of Progress per Grade per Year (from Burdge) Greater New York 92.2 percent Cities over 25,000 90.1 Cities under 25,000 86.9 Villages over 5,000 85.1 Places under 5, 000 84.9 Employed farm boys 82.8 " 23 Ratio of Boys to Girls in each School Year In the matter of the ratio of boys to girls in each year of the high school, New York rural high schools follow closely the aver- age for rural and village high schools for the whole United States, as shown by the comparison with statistics compiled from the Re- port of the Bureau of Education on High Schools for 1917-18. If, however, the ratio is studied comparatively with respect to the New York rural high schools of the different classes, classification being made on the basis of number of pupils enrolled, the condi- tion shown is not so good. The ratio of boys to girls is very much lower in the smaller schools, indicating that the holding power with respect to boys is less in the smaller schools. It gradually im- proves as the schools increase in size, but is best in the case of 54 rural high schools offering vocational courses. The study of 403 rural high schools shown in Table 8 clearly indicates this condition. Table 8. — A Study of the Relative Percentage of Boys and Girls in the Different Years of the Rural High School (403 Schools) Type of school 1-49 pupils, less than 4 year schools 1-49 pupils 50-99 pupils 100-149 pupils 150 pupils and over For all the 403 high schools 54 New York rural high schools offering vocational courses . . Village and rural high schools of U.S. (1917-18) First year Second year Third year Fourtl Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys 43.2 56.8 36.6 63.4 32.9 67.1 27.3 44.9 55.1 39.7 60.3 37.2 62.8 34.8 45.2 54.8 42.0 58.0 38.0 62.0 36.9 44.4 55.6 42.6 57.3 41.9 58.1 38.5 45.0 55.0 41.1 58.9 41.8 58.2 36.3 44.8 55.2 41.2 58.8 39.4 60.6 36.7 47.0 53.0 42.0 58.0 42.6 57.4 37.8 43.8 56.2 41.3 58.7 39.4 60.6 36.8 72.7 65.2 63.1 ol. 5 63.7 63.3 62.2 63.2 Per cent Girls 55 59 61 63 4th year Diagram 3. — Percent of boys and girls in different years of the rural high schools 24 CHAPTER II THE ORGANIZATION OF THE RURAL HIGH SCHOOL The Teaching Staff THE data with regard to the organization of the teaching staff of the New York rural high school as to number of teachers and percentage of men and women indicate that over one- half of the schools have a teaching staff of three instructors or less. In all New York rural high schools the relative percentage of men is exceptionally low as compared with the average either for village and rural high schools for the United States as a whole or for all high schools in the United States in 1918, or for 25 city high schools of New York in 1918 as they appeared in alphabetical order. Table 9. -The Teaching Staff as to Number per School and Sex (405 Schools) Types of schools Average number of teachers per school Percentage that men are of the total number of teachers Percentage that women are of the total number of teachers Total number of schools reporting 1-49, less than 4 years .... 1^9 50-99 100-149 150 2.2 3.0 4.9 6.8 10.2 4.3 24.15 31.57 22.62 24.06 21.33 26.71 33.9 33.66 34.55 75.85 68.43 77.38 75.94 78.67 73.29 66.1 66.34 65.45 60 162 112 49 22 Average for the 405 schools 25 city high schools in New York State Village and rural high schools for U. S., 1917- 18 All high schools, U. S., 1917-18 405 25 I Men teachers c Per cent I Women teachers 73.3 New York rural U.S. all Diagram 4. — Proportion of men and women teachers in New York rural high schools compared with 25 city high schools of New York State and with high schools of the United States The Organization of the School Day With regard to the organization of the New York rural high school, a detailed study of over 400 schools shows a wide diversity. There are, however, rather definite modes around which the schools group themselves in respect to the various phases of school organ- ization. The most common plan as to the daily program of classes is that of the eight-period day. In the larger schools, the seven- period day is most frequently found, with a large number following the eight-period organization. The schools with a high school en- rolment under 100, or 84 percent of all the rural high schools of the State, are prevailingly organized on the basis of eight periods a 26 day, but with a strong leaning toward nine or more periods. Five of the smaller schools reported a ten-period day and one school re- ported 12 periods in the daily program. The most common recitation period is forty minutes in length, with 71 schools using the 45 minute period. Twenty-three of the Table 10. — A Study of the Organization of 402 Rural High Schools from the Standpoint of Number of Recitation Periods per Day and the Length of the Recitation Period Number of high schools grouped according to pupil enrolment Number of periods in school day 1-49 1-49 less than full four 50-99 100-149 150 and Total 4 years years over 5 2 2 6 2 1 1 1 5 7 17 29 42 26 13 127 8 29 123 65 20 8 245 9 6 6 5 17 10 1 4 5 11 12 1 1 Total 58 162 113 47 22 402 Length of recitation 1-49 less than 1-49 full four 50-99 100-149 150 and Total periods 4 years years over 30 2 2 4 35 12 7 2 1 22 40 27 111 78 24 9 249 45 9 15 22 17 8 71 30+40 4 1 5 30+45 1 1 35+40 1 10 2 2 1 16 35+45 5 2 2 9 40+55 2 13 6 2 23 60 2 2 Total 58 162 113 47 22 402 27 smaller schools reporting and three of the larger schools have periods of thirty-five minutes or less. A considerable number of schools have periods of differing lengths, as combinations of 35 and 40 or of 35 and 45 minutes. Only two schools reported an organ- ization on the 60 minute period basis. (See Table 10.) All data on the daily program of the rural high school, both from reports from principals and from visitation of over 75 rural high schools in all sections of the State, point definitely to the conclusion that there is a strong tendency to divide the high school day into an excessively large number of periods. They also point to a fact related to the former, that many high schools have periods too short for efficient high school work. With the exception of an al- most negligible number of the larger schools, the length of the reci- tation periods is too short to permit of any class-room study under supervision or for the adequate development of a genuine lesson unit. The length of periods and the number in a day when com- bined with the facts as to teaching load of the principal (Table 11) and the teaching load of the high school teacher (Table 19) indi- cate clearly a need of reorganization in the daily program of the rural high school. It would seem that it might be highly advisable to decrease the number of recitation periods a week in some sub- jects if that were the only means of reducing the number of periods in a day and thus increasing the length of the recitation period. Further reductions might very well be made through alternation of subjects. (See p. 46.) The Work of the Principal The principal of the rural high school in New York is also the principal of the elementary grades of the school. He is nominally at least responsible for the organization, administration, and supervision of instruction of the elementary grades, as well as of the high school. In the smaller high schools of two or three teachers (one being the principal) in the secondary or academic grades, there are from three to five teachers in the elementary grades. This organization makes the high school principal 's work complex and difficult. In the smaller schools he has, in addition to his 28 principalship work, a large teaching load. In other words, the daily teaching load of the rural high school principal in New York is as heavy as that set up as a standard for high school instructors in the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. When this condition is considered in the light of the fact that the principal of the rural high school has in his charge the organization and oversight of the instruction in the elementary grades, as well as in the high school proper, it becomes more serious. If the principal is to have time to perform the duties that should devolve upon him; if he is to function adequately as an administrative officer and as a supervisor, he must, it would seem, have relief from so much class-room teaching. Otherwise only the principal of exceptional ability and strength will develop into the counselor of his pupils, the leader of his teachers or of his board and com- munity in educational matters, that the rural high school principal must be if efficient high schools are to be found in rural com- munities. Table 11 gives in detail the facts as to the teaching load of the principal of the rural high school as reported by 385 New York rural high school principals. In the schools doing less than four years of high school work the median teaching load a day for prin- cipals is seven periods, while in 12 out of 54 schools of this class re- porting the principal was teaching nine or more periods a day dur- ing the school year of 1920-21. In the four year high schools with an enrolment under 50, the median principal taught six periods a day, the range for the middle 50 percent being between five and seven periods and with 63 principals teaching seven periods a day or more. The median for schools with a high school enrolment of 50 and above is 3.5 periods a day, while for all schools reporting the median is five periods a day. For 385 schools, 96 principals, or over 24 percent, were teaching seven periods a day or more. (See Table 11.) The median principal for all schools with a high school enrol- ment under 50 gave between 31 and 40 minutes a day to supervi- sion of instruction. Forty principals in these same schools gave no time to supervision. The median principal in schools with an enrolment in the high school of 50 and above gave 61-70 minutes 29 Table 11. — The Teaching Load of the Principal No. of Schools less than 4 years 1-49 (1) Schools full Schools Schools Sch Total ools of Total of Grand total all schools minutes 4 years 50-99 100-149 15 3- schools schools per day 1-49 (2) (3) (4) 5) (1) and (2) (3), (4) and (5) 1 1 3 5 4 2 12 14 20 1 1 1 40 1 6 ii 4 1 21 22 60 1 3 2 3 1 8 9 80 i 1 10 4 2 2 16 18 100 2 3 5 2 2 10 12 120 11 1 2 14 14 140 7 6 7 1 7 14 21 160 i 11 19 3 1 12 23 35 180 i 16 10 5 1 17 16 33 200 7 13 14 1 20 15 35 220 4 9 5 13 5 18 240 9 23 10 32 10 42 260 2 11 2 13 2 15 280 12 29 4 41 4 45 300 3 9 1 12 1 13 320 9 16 25 25 340 2 3 1 5 1 6 360 1 6 7 7 No. of schools 54 158 108 44 »1 212 173 385 Median 270 240 160 90 ( )0 240 140 200 First quar- tile .... 220 200 120 40 i tO 200 80 140 Third quar- tile.... 300 280 200 140 1( )0 280 180 260 Number of periods taught daily . . 7 6 4 2 1.5 6 3.5 5 a day to supervision. The median principal for all schools of the 380 reporting on this item gave 31 to 40 minutes a day to super- vision of instruction. For all schools reporting, 93 principals, or over 24 percent, gave less than 20 minutes a day to supervision. (See Table 12.) 3° Table 12. -The Total Amount of Time per Day Devoted by the High School Principal to Supervision of Instruction Time in Schools less than Schools full 4 years Schools 50-99 Schools 100-149 Schools 150- Total of schools Total of schools Grand total all schools minutes 4 years 1-49 (1) 1-49 (2) (3) (4) (5) (l)and (2) (3), (4) and (5) 10 30 1 2 1 40 4 44 1-10 7 8 3 15 3 18 11-20 9 13 6 3 22 9 31 21-30 3 19 11 1 22 12 34 31-40 13 39 25 4 3 52 32 84 41-50 5 7 6 1 1 12 8 20 51-60 13 9 6 13 15 28 61-70 4 2 i 4 3 7 71-80 1 9 12 4 i 10 17 27 81-90 1 4 8 3 l 5 12 17 91-100 1 2 4 2 4 3 10 13 101-110 1 1 1 1 2 3 111-120 4 S 1 1 4 7 11 121-130 2 1 1 3 1 4 131-140 3 1 7 1 3 9 12 141-150 1 1 2 1 3 4 151-160 6 2 3 11 11 161-170 171-180 3 4 '7 "l 181-190 191-200 2 i 2 1 3 201-240 2 2 2 No. of schools 53 159 104 44 20 212 168 380 Median 21-30 31-40 50 81-90 91-100 31-40 61-70 31-40 First quar- tile .... 1-10 1-10 31-40 41-50 61-70 1-10 31-10 21-30 Third quar- tile.... 31-40 51-60 81-90 131-140 151-160 41-50 101-110 71-80 Supervision of Instruction. — The median principal in schools with a high school enrolment under 50 gave one to 10 minutes a day to supervision of high school instruction, and 78 principals in schools of this class gave no time to high school class-room super- vision. The same principal gave from 11 to 20 minutes a day to supervision of instruction in the elementary grades, and 43 prin- 3i cipals in schools of this class did no supervising of instruction of the elementary grades. In the schools with a high school enrolment of 50 and over, the median principal gave 11 to 20 minutes to super- vision of instruction in the high school and 31 to 40 minutes to the elementary grades. In these schools 11 principals gave no time to supervision in the high school and four gave no time to super- vision in the grades. For all schools reporting, the median prin- cipal gave 11 to 20 minutes a day to supervision of instruction in the high school and 21 to 30 minutes to the elementary grades. One hundred seventy-one principals, or over 44 percent, gave less than 10 minutes a day to high school supervision, and 91 principals, or over 24 percent, less than 10 minutes a day to supervision in the grades. (See Tables 13 and 14.) Table 13.- —Total Amount of Time per Day Devoted by the High School Principal to Supervision of High School Instruction No. of Schools less than Schools full Schools Schools Schools Total of Total of Grand total of all schools 4 years 50-99 100-149 150- schools schools minutes 4 years 1-49 (1) 1-49 (2) (3) (4) (5) (1) and (2) (3), (4) and (5) 25 53 8 2 1 78 11 89 1-10 14 35 26 6 1 49 33 82 11-20 9 36 27 10 5 45 42 87 21-30 1 10 7 3 1 11 11 22 31-40 3 13 18 12 3 16 33 49 41-50 3 6 3 1 3 10 13 51-60 3 4 7 3 2 7 12 19 61-70 1 1 71-80 3 3 4 1 10 11 81-90 1 1 1 2 3 91-100 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 101-110 111-120 1 i 1 No. of schools 56 157 104 44 20 213 168 381 Median 1-10 1-10 11-20 31^10 31-40 1-10 11-20 11-20 First quar- tile. . . . 1-10 11-20 11-20 1-10 1-10 Third quar- tile... . 11-20 11-20 31-40 40 71-80 11-20 31-40 31-40 32 Table 14. — Total Amount of Time per Day Devoted by the High School Principal to Supervision of Instruction in the Elementary Grades No. of minutes Schools less than 4 years 1-49 Schools full Schools Schools Schools Total of Total of Grand total of all schools 4 years 1-49 50-99 (3) 100-149 (4) 150- (5) schools (1) and schools (3), (4) 0) (2) (2) and (5) 10 33 1 1 2 43 4 47 1-10 11 20 10 3 31 13 44 11-20 12 35 25 4 3 47 32 79 21-30 5 22 15 3 1 27 19 46 31-40 9 30 15 15 39 30 69 41-50 1 3 10 5 3 4 18 22 51-60 4 11 3 2 4 16 20 61-70 1 4 1 1 1 5 3 8 71-80 3 6 4 2 3 12 15 81-90 1 2 1 1 3 2 5 91-100 2 1 1 4 4 101-110 111-120 1 4 1 i 1 6 "7 121-130 1 1 1 131-140 141-150 i 1 i 151-160 1 i 2 2 161-170 171-180 i i i No. of schools 51 157 103 42 18 208 163 371 Median 11-20 11-20 31-40 31-40 50 11-20 31-40 21-30 First quar- tile.... 1-10 1-10 11-20 11-20 11-20 1-10 11-20 11-20 Third quar- tile.... 31-40 31-40 51-60 71-80 71-80 31-40 51-60 31-40 Time Given to Office Work. — The median amount of time given to office work, including clerical work, conferences with teachers and counseling pupils, was for schools with a high school enrolment of less than 50 pupils, 31-40 minutes a day and for the larger schools 71-80 minutes a day. For the smaller schools this is not a true index of the time taken up by clerical work in the office, as many principals reported that this was the time available for consultation with pupils and teachers and did not include the 3 33 time given to clerical work which was done after school, evenings, and Saturdays. (For details see Table 15.) Table 15.- — Total Amount of Time per Day Devoted by the High School Principal to Office Work No. of Schools less than Schools full Schools Schools Schools Total of Total of Grand total of all schools 4 years 50-99 100-149 150 schools schools minutes 4 years 1-49 (1) 1-49 (2) (3) (4) (5) (1) and (2) (3), (4) and (5) 5 15 1 20 1 21 1-10 7 7 2 2 14 4 18 11-20 y 17 6 2 1 26 9 35 21-30 5 21 5 1 26 6 M 31-10 7 22 22 5 3 29 30 59 41-50 9 7 4 9 11 20 51-60 3 16 9 3 1 19 13 32 61-70 1 4 2 1 5 3 8 71-80 6 13 14 6 3 1') 23 42 81-90 2 3 1 2 2 6 8 91-100 1 9 5 1 2 10 8 18 101-110 2 2 2 111-120 5 7 1 1 5 9 14 121-130 3 2 5 5 131-140 2 1 3 3 141-150 i 2 1 1 3 4 151-160 1 i 1 1 2 2 4 161-170 171-180 2 3 5 5 181-190 191-200 i 2 3 3 1 8 9 231-240 4 2 6 6 291-300 2 5 1 8 8 No. of schools 45 143 100 46 19 188 165 353 Median 21-30 31-40 51 o() 71 80 SI -90 31 40 71-80 41 50 First quar- tile.... 1-10 11-20 31-40 41-50 51-60 11-20 31-40 21-30 Third quar- tile .... 51-60 51-60 110 171-180 151-160 51-60 111-120 81-90 Clerical Assistance. — One of the perplexing problems of the principal of the rural high school as forced upon the attention of the 34 survey field workers in their direct contact with the high school principal at work and as brought out in replies of 398 principals is the lack of clerical help. A great deal of the principal's time and energy is given over to the office work that should be done by a clerk. Principals reported that they spent Saturdays and evenings in making out and filing records and reports. Such work performed at the time it is cannot fail to operate against the efficiency of the principal's work as teacher and director of the school. It also means that insufficient records are kept in the majority of the rural high schools. In detail the facts reported by 398 principals show that 308, or over 77 percent, of them had no clerical assistance. Over 87 percent of the principals had either no clerical assistance or only the volun- tary, unpaid assistance of high school teachers. Six principals re- ported clerical assistance from pupils, fifteen principals got clerical assistance from teachers who received extra pay for this work, and 31 principals had paid clerks for either all or part time. The follow- ing table gives the facts as reported by the 398 principals (Table 16): Table 16. — The Clerical Assistance Given the Principal Types of schools Amount of clerical help 1 49 less than four years 1-49 50-99 100-149 150- Total None Pupils Teachers Paid clerks 54 1 3 2 2 2 149 1 7 5 2 3 2 74 2 25 4 2 2 5 27 1 11 10 3 7 4 4 1 7 10 2 8 2 308 6 53 31 Full time Part time Teachers paid extra for clerical work 1 9 22 15 60 162 105 49 22 1 Also included in data under teachers. 35 Direction of Pupil Activities. — The amount of time given each day to direction and supervision of pupil activities is remark- ably uniform for all principals reporting on this phase of their work. The median amount of time a day given to such activities was 1 1 to 20 minutes, while 76 principals, 57 of them from schools with a high school enrolment under 50, reported no time given to pupil activities. This fact correlates closely with the facts shown by Table 28, which shows that the rural high schools of New York give comparatively little attention and emphasis to extra-class-room activities as a part of high school education. (See Table 17.) Table 17.- -Total Amount of Time per School Day Devoted by the High school Principal to Pupil Activities No. of Schools less than Schools full Schools Schools Schools Total of Total of Grand total of all schools 4 years 50-99 100-149 150- schools schools minutes 4 years 1-49 (1) 1-49 (2) (3) (4) (5) (1) and (2) (3), (4), (5) 13 44 to 7 2 57 19 76 1-10 13 18 20 8 5 31 33 64 11-20 5 29 23 13 4 34 40 74 21-30 7 15 18 1 1 22 20 42 31-40 2 1° 15 9 5 21 29 50 41-50 2 2 5 1 1 4 7 11 51-60 1 9 2 1 10 3 13 61-70 1 1 1 1 2 71-80 2 3 2 3 5 81-90 91-100 2 2 2 101-110 i 1 1 111-120 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 121-130 1 1 1 No. of schools 44 140 99 44 18 1S4 161 345 Median 1-10 11-20 11-20 11-20 11-20 11-20 11-20 11-20 First quar- tile .... 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 Third quar- tile .... 21-30 21-30 31-40 31-40 31-40 21-30 31-40 31-40 36 Time Devoted to Non-Pupil Activities. — The amount of time devoted to non-pupil activities related to the educational interests of the school was reported definitely by only 298 principals. The median amount of time reported by all schools was 21 to 30 min- Table 18. — Total Amount of Time per Day Devoted by High School Principal to Non-Pupil Outside Activities. (Data from 298 Schools Reporting on Item) No. of minutes Schools less than 4 years 1-49 (1) Schools full 4 years 1-49 (2) Schools 50-99 (3) Schools 100-149 (4) Schools 150- (5) Total schools (1) and (2) Total schools (3), (4) and (5) Grand total of all schools 3 21 14 2 24 16 40 1-10 4 9 6 2 1 13 9 22 11-20 5 17 13 6 3 22 22 44 21-30 9 19 15 6 2 28 23 51 31-40 6 9 12 5 2 15 19 34 41-50 6 2 2 1 6 5 11 51-60 6 18 8 5 2 24 15 39 61-70 1 2 1 2 3 71-80 4 4 4 i 4 9 13 81-90 2 1 l 2 2 4 91-100 9 2 i 2 9 5 14 101-110 111-120 i 3 2 4 ' 1 6 121-130 l 1 1 1 2 131-140 1 1 1 1 2 141-150 1 1 1 1 2 151-160 i 1 1 161-180 1 "l 1 1 3 4 181-200 2 3 1 2 4 6 No. of schools 36 123 85 37 17 159 139 298 Median 21-30 21-30 21-30 31-40 41-50 21-30 21-30 21-30 First quar- tile. .. . 11-20 11-20 11-20 11-20 21-30 11-20 11-20 11-20 Third quar- tile.... 31-40 51-60 51-60 51-60 81-90 51-60 51-60 51-60 Note. — Many of the principals reported that they did not give a definite reply to this item because they found it almost impossible to give an accurate estimate of the time. The majority of the principals of the smaller schools reported that all such time was given outside the regular school day. 37 Table 19. -Total Distribution of the Principal's Time During the School Day Time in minutes Teaching load of high school principals No. of principals Total time devoted to super- vision Super- vision of high school instruc- tion Super- vision of grades Office Pu act iti il 0ut " side IV- .. es a . c f tiv " lties 14 44 89 47 21 7 6 40 1-10 18 82 44 18 ( 4 22 11-20 i 31 87 79 35 / 4 44 21-30 34 22 46 32 4 a 51 31-40 22 84 49 69 59 34 41-50 20 13 22 20 1 1 11 51-60 9 28 19 20 32 1 3 39 61-70 7 1 8 8 2 3 71-80 IS 27 11 15 42 5 13 si -go 17 3 5 8 4 91-100 12 13 14 4 18 2 14 101-110 3 2 1 111-120 14 11 1 "l 14 4 6 121-130 4 1 5 1 2 131-140 21 12 3 2 141-150 4 1 4 2 151-160 35 11 2 4 1 161-170 4 171-180 33 7 1 5 6 181-190 191-200 35 3 9 201-210 211-220 18 221-230 231-240 4_! 2 6 241-250 251-260 15 261-270 271-280 45 281-290 291-300 13 8 320 25 340 6 360 7 No. of schools 385 380 381 371 353 3' 15 298 Median 200 31-40 11-20 21-30 41-50 11 -20 21-30 First quartile 140 21-30 1-10 11-20 21-30 1 1-20 Third quar- tile 260 71-80 31-40 31-40 81-90 31- -40 51-60 38 Outside activities Total 330 minutes Diagram 5. — Distribution of the principal's time during the school day. Figures represent the median number of minutes devoted to each phase of his work utes a day. Other principals reported that they gave a large amount of time to such work, but did it all out of school hours and found it hard to give any accurate estimate. (See Table 18.) Table 19 summarizes the work of the high school principal for each day in the rural high schools of New York, and shows that the median principal gives each day five periods to teaching; one period to supervision of instruction, 11 to 20 minutes of it being devoted to the high school and 21 to 30 minutes to the elementary grades; approximately 50 minutes to office work ; 1 1 to 20 minutes to pupil activities; and 21 to 30 minutes to non-pupil activities related to school work. Teaching Load of Teachers The data on the daily teaching load of the high school teacher (not including the principal), as shown by the daily schedule of 913 teachers in the New York rural high schools in 1920-21, shows the following facts: The median number of subjects handled by teachers in schools with an enrolment under 50 was 3.8, with over 20 percent of the teachers in these schools giving daily instruction in five or more subjects. In schools with a high school enrolment of 50 to 99, the median number of subjects handled was 3.2, with 39 Table 20. — The High School Teacher's Daily Teaching La in Terms of — (A) Number of different subjects taught (B) Number of periods of class-room teaching (C) Number of periods on duty, teaching plus study-room su DlIRINf - ESSED jervision Number of subjects taught (A) Number of teachers Number of periods of class-room teaching (B) Number of teachers Numb period' 1 " ° f teaching study-n Hid supervisi ., (C) I. High schools with an enrolment of 1-49 pupils II. High schools with an enrolment of 50-99 pupils III. High schools with an enrolment of 100 and above Number of teachers 1 10 4 5 5 22 2 71 5 59 6 60 3 107 6 122 7 97 4 79 / S3 8 in .•> 48 8 59 9 10 6 17 9 10 v> 7 4 10 3 11 3 8 11 3 12 Median. . .3.8 336 6.8 336 7.8 336 1 18 4 14 4 2 89 5 71 5 25 3 71 6 103 6 44 4 39 7 41 7 101 5 24 8 14 8 71 6 3 9 2 9 4 7 1 10 10 Median. . .3.2 245 6.3 245 7.5 245 1 70 3 4 4 1 2 126 4 31 5 56 3 87 5 97 6 96 4 32 6 133 7 124 5 13 7 60 8 55 6 4 8 7 9 Median. . .2.7 332 6.2 332 7.1 332 IV. Total for all high schools 1 98 3 4 4 1 2 286 4 50 5 103 3 265 5 227 6 200 4 150 6 358 7 322 5 85 / 184 8 267 6 24 8 80 9 14 7 5 9 4 10 3 8 10 3 11 3 9 11 3 12 Median. . .3.3 913 6.4 913 7.4 913 40 Per cent 100 Size of high schools- enrolment 1-43" ' 5CP99 — — 100* 100 100 50 J erlods on dut> ' (O Median \ N \ 3 < L 5 b 1 & < i i 11 Periods Diagram 6. — The rural high school teacher's daily teaching load. (A) Percent of teachers teaching the number of subjects shown or more. (B) Percent of teachers teaching the number of periods shown or more. (C) Percent of teachers on duty, teaching and class-room supervision, the number of periods shown or more 4i many giving instruction in as many as four and five subjects. For schools with an enrolment above 100, the median number of sub- jects handled was 2.7, with many giving instruction in four and five subjects. For schools with a high school enrolment under 50, the median number of recitations a day was 6.8. The significant fact here, however, is that 67 teachers, or more than 19 percent, taught eight or more periods a day, while eight teachers taught nine or more periods a day. In schools with an enrolment of 50 to 99, the me- dian teaching load was 6.3 periods, with 22 percent of the instructors teaching seven or more a day. In schools with an enrolment of 100 and above, the daily teaching load was 6.2 periods. For all rural high schools the median number of recitations a day for each teacher was practically six and a half, with 30 percent of the instructors leaching seven periods or more. The median number of periods a day for each teacher in instruc- tion and supervision of the study room in the smaller high schools was 7.8, with 157 teachers, or 46 percent, carrying a load of eight periods or more. In schools with an enrolment of 50 to 99, the median number of periods of teaching and study-room supervision was 7.5, and for schools with an enrolment of 100 or more it was 7.1 periods a day. For all rural high schools the number of periods a day for each teacher in teaching and study-room supervision was 7.4, but with 287, or over 31 percent of the teachers reporting, hav- ing a daily schedule of eight periods or more given to class-room instruction and study-room supervision. (Table 20.) The study of the teaching load in the rural high schools of New York, both for principals and teachers, shows that it is far in excess of that regarded as standard in the United States. Many of the State departments of education are recommending in their State courses of study for high schools that five or six periods a day be the maximum teaching load for instructors in high schools. As examples, West Virginia and Virginia recommend five, and Indiana, New Jersey, Missouri, and Florida six periods. The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools recommends five periods a day for the high school instructor and will not admit to membership any school requiring more than six periods a day. In 42 the light of these standards New York conditions, particularly in the smaller schools, seem very unsatisfactory. This is particularly true of the schools with a pupil enrolment under 50. The number of pupils per teacher in the rural high schools of New York offsets in some degree the excessive teaching load as measured by the amount of daily teaching and study-room super- vision. The average number of pupils per teacher in the rural high school was 17, as compared with 28 pupils per teacher in a random selection of twenty-five city high schools of New York. While the number of subjects handled by the individual instructor and the number of periods of teaching in the rural high schools are very high, the number of pupil hours is comparatively low. The significant facts are, however, the wide range of subjects handled by the teacher in the rural high school and the large number of periods of class-room instruction. Size of Classes A large percentage of the classes in the smaller schools contained five or less pupils. A study as to the size of classes in 184 rural high schools (a random selection), distributed among the several classes of high schools based on number of high school pupils enrolled, showed the following facts. The median class in schools with an enrolment under 50 contained 6.8 pupils; in schools with 50-99 pupils, 11.6 pupils; in schools with 100 to 149 pupils, 16.3 pupils; and in schools with over 150 pupils, 18.2 pupils. In schools with an enrolment under 50, over 36 percent of the classes contained but five pupils or less; and in schools with 50 to 99 pupils, approximately 1 8 per cent of the classes contained five pupils or less . (See Table 2 1 . ) x It would seem that the problem of reducing the teaching load in the rural high schools is closely related to the problem of organiza- tion and administration of classes. It is probably not feasible to re- duce the number of subjects offered in the rural high school. In fact, if the rural high school is to meet the demands upon it, the number will need rather to be increased. If the rural high school is to offer an adequate range of subjects, its per pupil cost of instruction must undoubtedly be higher than 1 For size of classes in different subjects see discussion on curriculum, Chapter V. 43 Q i-J W W O > J « O rf ^ « 2w< S Z Q w <: S -> O ho ° O H « W z 03 wo a Bio ri St? 3°S « H E o y a o w u s tn q2o £ " ffi Tr, W Q "3 H 55 8^ * S3 O O UO »— i hM •* 2 a U! 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H ir Dh Oh £h Ph Ph U 5 have organized, principally through the teacher's advisory plan, to give pupils guidance in their vocational plans and in the selection of their school work. Thirteen of the larger schools report courses or plans for courses in the study of oc- cupations; 74 schools are giving occupational talks to the high school pupils; 2o schools report the use of vocational reading; and 39 schools mention observation trips taken with the view to giving vocational information to pupils. One hundred nineteen schools call attention to the fact that they give the pupil guidance through the regular high school courses, while several mention private con- sultations, motion pictures, and individual help. (^See Table 29.) Tabi e 29. \Y ws wp Mr usts or Pumi Guidance in \"kw York Rural High Schooi s. (405 Scho Plans i-t pupil guidance I J» loss than 4 > ears l 4» rotal No definite plan of guidance Guidance Teacher advis Course in study of occupations Occupational talks Vocational readings Observation trips. Other moans '5 J 5 Individual attention 3 Pupils are too young 1 104 58 56 17 6 10 Motion pic- tures ' Parent- reachers' \".V. 1 Lectures by business men 1 Through reg- ular courses 59 53 1 2 oil .; t , 60 5 35 9 r. 12 individual help 13 Private consultation 1 Address from outside once a month. Through regu- lar courses oO 212 193 l')0 i.; 74 39 62 1-49 50-99 100-149 150+ Size of schools -enrolment Diagram 8. — Percent of New York rural high schools of different types having pupil guidance Supervised Study In the matter of supervised study the majority of New York rural high schools have taken no definite steps. Of 405 schools, 270 or over 66 percent state that they use none of the regular plans for supervising the study of their pupils. One hundred thirty-five schools report a definite supervised study organization. Of these 135 schools using a definite plan for supervised study, 64 use the divided period; 23 schools report a double period plan, although 63 the nature of this is uncertain, since only two schools were organized on the 60-minute period basis. Seventy-four schools have sched- uled conference periods with pupils. Twenty-six schools report supervision of pupils ' study by a teacher in the general study room ; seven schools give recitation periods to preparation of lessons; three have pupils go to teachers during teacher's free periods; six mention careful directions through the lesson assignments. One school is organized with a supervised study period at the end of the day, and one principal reports supervised study as unnecessarv. Table 30 gives the details as they were reported by the 405 high school principals. Table 30. — Schools Having Supervised Study and Plan Used. (405 Schools) Schools 1-40 Plan used pupils 1-40 50-99 100-14') 150 pupils Total less than pupils pupils pupils and over 4 years No supervised study 45 105 28 17 270 135 Supervised study . 17 54 38 21 5 Divided period . . . 8 22 22 7 5 64 Double period .... ~6 ~8 9 23 Scheduled confer- ence period .... 9 26 18 18 3 74 62 159 113 49 22 Other plans Principal Teacher in Study with Teachers Pupils in does study classes 5 adapt study work in hall 6 work to hall un- study classes 2 der room 3 teacher monitors 1 Try to Assign- Study hall Deficient pointout ment ex- teacher and special plained oversees younger things in 2 work 12 pupils in lesson study period 2 halls 3 Study in Personal Period at Students class aid to end of keep rec- during pupils 3 day 1 ord of recita- time tion J spent in Pupil Vacant Unneces- home comes to periods sary 1 study 1 teacher of teach- 1 ers 2 64 Extra-Class-Room Activities One of the most striking facts coming from the study of New York rural high schools is the little attention and emphasis given to extra-class-room activities in their organization. This lack of em- phasis upon extra-class-room activities of pupils is somewhat offset by the general practice of high school assemblies. But notwith- standing the impression left strongly on the mind of the person ob- serving the rural high schools at work and in studying the facts with regard to their work is that there is here unused a great means of vitalizing the high school work, of improving the school spirit, and of giving New York rural high school boys and girls direct training in citizenship and avocational interests such as they cannot get through any study in the regular curriculum. It would seem to be one factor of great importance accounting for the magnitude of the problem of discipline in the high schools and for the general lack of spirit and interest on the part of high school pupils in their work so frequently found in all the comments of principals and teachers as to their most perplexing problems. One hundred and eighty high schools out of 405 report no extra- class-room activities other than athletics, Boy Scouts, Campfire Girls, and Girl Scouts, and these with the exception of athletics are usually directed in the smaller schools by some person outside the school staff. In almost no instance do the extra-class-room activities come in the regular school day, but meet predominately in the evening or in the afternoon after school hours. Table 31 gives in detail the nature of the extra-class activities found in the various schools and the number of schools reporting such pupil organiza- tions. Table 32 shows the times of meeting, the method of direc- tion or control and the nature of the responsibility of the teacher where the teacher has a duty in regard to them. High School Assemblies It is the general practice of the rural high schools to have high school assemblies once a week or oftener. Twenty-four schools, however, or over 12 percent of those reporting, state that they hold no high school assemblies. In the majority of schools these are mainly in the nature of opening exercises and come in the regular 5 65 Table 31.- -number and klnds of extra-class-room activities. (405 Schools) Type of school 1-49 less than 4 years 1-49 50-99 100-149 150- Total 1. Literary Club. . . . 2. Debating Club. . . 3. Science Club 4. Orchestra 5. Glee Clubs 6. Athletic Assoc. . . . 7. Boy Scouts 8. School Paper. . . . 9. Campfire Girls. . . 10. Girl Scouts 11. Hi Y 12. Dramatic Club. . . 13. French Club 14. Girl Reserves. . . . 15. Class Clubs 16. Thrift Club 17. Woodcraft Girls.. 18. Sewing Club 19. Bird Club 20. Social Circle 21. Health Club 22. Short Story Club . 23. Latin Club 24. Band 25. History Club ... 26. Oral English Club 27. Art Club 28. Radio Club 29. Y. W. C. A 30. Y. M. C. A 31. Tennis Club 3 1 1 5 3 17 1') 8 11 4 13 9 1 22 11 85 67 37 36 15 8 3 45 36 92 55 58 30 9 2 1 3 3 6 1 3 1 1 3 9 7 1 26 17 44 26 28 21 4 3 1 1 1 8 2 21 12 24 14 18 12 5 1 1 1 41 33 8 119 79 262 181 149 110 22 6 12 6 7 14 1 3 8 2 4 4 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 daily program organization and are of but ten to twenty minutes in length. They are almost invariably conducted by the principal or a teacher and consist in Scripture reading, singing, and announce- ments by the principal. In many of the schools pupils are re- quired to give in the assembly some form of rhetoricals once a year, and in 141 of the schools reporting, programs are given by the pupils. Fifty-one schools report talks, 10 mention music by the school orchestra and other pupil musical organizations; 18 schools 66 Table 32. — Extra-Class-Room Activities: Time of Meeting, Methods of Control, Nature of Teachers' Responsibility. (405 Schools) (a) Time of meeting Type of school Morning Noon hour Afternoon Out of school hours Time not given No extra- class-room activities 1-49 pupils 50-99 pupils 100-149 pupils 1 50 pupils and over . 1 i 2 2 2 ? 3 2 45 66 31 16 26 15 8 146 28 7 1 Total 2 4 8 158 51 182 (b) Methods of control and number of schools reporting each method Type of school Principal or teacher Parents Pupils Teacher or pupil 1-49 pupils 50-99 pupils 100-149 pupils 150 pupils and over 57 54 26 13 1 2 2 3 4 i 14 14 6 Total 150 5 8 59 (c) Nature of teachers' responsibility and the number of schools reporting each Type of school Director Super- visor Adviser Leader Scout master Chap- erone 1-49 pupils 50-99 pupils 100-149 pupils 1 50 pupils and over . 12 15 7 2 12 12 3 2 46 42 30 16 5 7 1 8 i 1 Total 36 29 134 13 8 2 (d) Other social gatherings during the year under school direction, number given during the year, and number of schools reporting each number Type of school Number of such gatherings reported for the year None 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 or more 1-49 pupils 50-99 pupils 65 24 9 62 4 1 31 12 11 29 14 5 3 19 12 3 4 9 10 2 I 11 9 3 4 6 1 2 1 1 19 100-149 pupils 1 50 pupils and over .... 12 6 Total 98 67 54 51 38 22 27 10 38 67 Table 33. — High School Assemblies (a) Frequency Type of school Daily Four a week Three a week Two a week Weekly Two a month Monthly None Total 1-49 less than 4 years .... 1- 49 50-99 100-149 150- 20 62 30 13 6 2 1 3 1 8 25 14 8 3 9 28 24 7 4 15 29 35 5 8 i 1 i io 10 4 55 155 116 39 22 Total . . 131 7 58 72 92 i 22 24 387 (b) Length in minutes 10 15 20 25-30 40-45 1-49 less than 4 years. . . 1-49 50-99 100-149 150- 26 16 7 2 1 12 75 49 15 5 6 38 31 8 4 11 16 17 10 7 1 2 5 Total. . 52 156 87 61 8 (c) Method of conducting By principals By teachers By pupil By music director 40 91 69 24 17 12 46 27 6 4 8 7 i 3 5 4 Total. 241 91 20 12 (d) Nature of exercises Type of school Scrip- ture read- ing Sing- ing Cur- rent topics Pupil pro- gram Rhetor- icals Talks Orches- tra and other pupil music Folk plays Prayer Mov- ing pic- tures 1-49 less than 4 years .... 1-49 50-99 100-149 150- 33 84 60 25 12 44 127 97 37 21 6 6 5 i 13 39 57 22 10 13 25 18 9 8 19 19 10 3 i 4 3 2 4 i 29 14 3 3 2 Totals. . . 214 326 18 141 73 51 10 5 49 2 (e) Nature and amount of pupil participation 68 Type of school No part Very little Coop- erative control Plan, pre- pare and present program Make announce- ment pupil activities Select songs Supply the music 1-49 50-99 100-149 150- 112 35 10 1 16 7 5 2 1 5 5 34 42 17 8 10 7 14 2 1 4 5 5 1 Totals 158 30 11 101 33 5 11 report current events as a feature, and five give school plays as features of the school assembly. As to the nature and amount of pupil participation in conducting the assemblies, 188 schools report that the pupils have little or no part, 121 report that the pupils plan, prepare and present programs; 33 report that the pupils make announcements of pupil activities; 1 1 that the pupils furnish the music, and 14 that the pupils cooper- ate with principal and teachers in controlling the assemblies. The school assembly apparently has a real function in the rural high school, but a study of its predominant characteristics leads to the conclusion that it might be of much more value if the proportion of pupil responsibility for its control and programs were increased. (See Table 33.) Community Organizations Actively Cooperating with the School Reports from 392 principals indicate that in many communities local organizations are actively cooperating with the principal and teachers in making the work of the high school and the grades more effective. The most prominent community organizations back of the school and its work, as indicated by the data, are the Parent- Teachers ' Associations and the Grange. Home and School Clubs, Women's Cooperative Clubs, and the Home Bureaus, are also active in many communities in advancing the work of the local high school. A significant fact, however, is that 59 percent of the principals report no organized community effort being made to cooperate with the efforts of the schools. Another significant fact is that the great- est lack of community support, as evidenced by active assistance given the school in meeting its problems, is found with respect to the smaller high schools with a high school pupil enrolment of 49 or less. In these smaller schools 66 percent report no active cooperation of community organizations as compared with 50 percent for schools with a high school enrolment of 50 or more. In the smaller schools, active community cooperation is much too rare, and for all rural high schools in New York it is much less evident than in the case of city high school communities. (See Table 34.) 6 9 Table 34. -Community Organizations Actively Cooperating With the School. (Data from 392 Schools) Type of school No or- gan- iza- tion Some or- gan- iza- tion Par- ent- Teach- ers Home and School Club Wom- en's Coop- era- tive Club Grange Home Bu- reau Com- mu- nity Cen- ter Wom- en's Chris- tian Temp. Un- ion Red Cross Alum- ni Asso- cia- tion 1-49 enrol- ment less than 4 vears . . . 1 -40 50-99 100-149 1 50-above 37 112 55 23 25 50 55 13 15 10 19 25 13 9 20 3 10 3 8 21 15 6 5 7 4 3 2 5 3 4 Total . . 234 158 76 20 16 55 11 5 5 3 4 68$ 1-49 50-99 100-149 150+ Size of schools-enrolment Diagram 9. — Percent of New York rural high schools of different types having the active cooperation of community organizations 70 Most Frequent Ways in which Community Organizations Assist the Schools Prizes for school work 20 Providing playgrounds and equipment 14 School lunches 12 Lecture course and educational speakers 10 Health program 5 Better home conditions 4 School forum 9 Furnishing aid to needy children 4 Correcting a ttendance 4 Social entertainments for pupils and teachers 4 Visiting the school 5 Written reports on school work 2 Appeals Made by Principals of the Rural High Schools to Interest Pupils from Rural Schools in High School Education A little over 52 percent of the principals of the schools studied re- port no definite effort to interest rural children in high school edu- cation, while about 47 percent use some plan for getting them to attend high school. Thirty-eight principals make personal calls upon pupils ready to enter high school and solicit them personally. Eleven principals report that they encourage prospective high school pupils from rural districts to visit their high school and see what it is like. Other principals mention various plans for interest- ing rural pupils in continuing their education in the high school. (See Table 35.) Table 35. — Appeals Made by Principal of High School to Interest Pupils from Rural Schools in High School Education. (385 Princi- pals) Nature of the Appeal Made Type of school No appeal Some form of appeal Per- sonal calls Free tui- tion Urge pupils to visit Voca- tional courses Visits, talks, parties Can- vass rural schools Advo- cate benefit of educa- tion 1-49 less than 4 years 1- 49 50- 99 100-149 150- 40 85 45 28 13 20 69 55 21 9 4 14 16 3 1 1 3 2 3 5 3 3 1 18 7 3 4 1 2 1 3 1 18 16 5 3 Totals 211 174 38 6 11 32 7 4 43 Note. — Three principals report that they mail handbooks of information on the high school offerings to prospective pupils; eight principals report use of the local paper to advertise high school education; five mention the Junior Project; two, high school exhibits; and seven, the influence of teachers and parents. 7i The Regents Examination System and the Administration of the New York Rural High School One oi the most important factors in determining the status of a high school in New York is its efficiency in bringing its pupils suc- cessfully through the Regents examinations. To be recognized as an accredited school and be eligible for State apportionments it must make use of the Regents academic examinations, at least in the last two years of the school's course. It may promote or grad- uate pupils on the basis of local standards, but such pupils do not re- ceive the official recognition of the State. Quoting from Article 31 of the Regents rules: "Success in passing the Regents examina- tions shall not be deemed necessary for the promotion or graduation of pupils from schools that prefer to determine such advancements by their own local standards." This option in the Regents rules has had practically no bearing upon the rural high schools with their limited curricula and their need of maintaining work meeting the demands of the State Department as measured by the Regents examinations. Undoubtedly it is highly desirable that a State should exercise its right to set up standards to be used as a basis for determining the status of secondary schools and for stimulating such schools to a better quality of work. It is not so clear, however, in the light of the comparative unreliability of any written test as a sole measure of a pupil's ability in a subject, that his successor failure over one or more year's work should be based entirely upon his showing in a written examination of an hour and a half or two hours in duration. Again it is more doubtful if the standardization of high school in- struction should be sought largely through the pupil, especially when such a means acts directly to the disadvantage of the pupil who is so unfortunate as to be required to attend a high school in which the teaching staff is composed mainly of young, inexperienced, and poorly trained persons. Finally, if the present-day aims and objectives of the secondary school are accepted, it does not seem probable that the uniformity in subject matter necessarily result- ing from State-wide uniform examinations is desirable. A study of the failures in New York high schools over a period of twelve years, 1^07 1918, shows: [D that the standard of difficulty in the Regents examinations in any high school subject fluctuates greatly from year to year, for it is not probable that the standard of instruction over the State as a whole varies to any appreciable ex- tent from one year to the next; (2) that the standard as regards different subjects for any one year or period of years is exceedingly different; and (3) that the percentage of failures in New York high schools is far in excess of any legitimate percentage. Assuming that the subject-matter in the subjects taught in the high schools of the State is adapted to the capacities and maturity of its pupils and that the instruction is of average efficiency, it would seem that any- thing above seven to 10 percent in the number of failures should be looked upon as a matter of serious concern. Certainly, a consistent policy of failing over 25 percent of the pupils each year in the rural high schools of the State, over a period of twelve years, not counting at all the significant mortality of pupils not permitted by the local authorities to enter the examinations, must be regarded as opposed t o all present-day ideals as to the aims and purposes of public second- ary education. In connection with this heavy percentage of failure must be considered also the effect upon the problems of pupil elim- ination and retardation, the heavy burdens in expense and energy in carrying on instruction for repeating pupils, and most serious of all the factor of discouragement fostered by such a heavy toll in failures. In the rural high schools the high percentage of failures among high school pupils brings in its train several very serious problems of administration and organization. In the first place the number of pupils failed in the Regents examinations does not give the complete story. Many pupils who have done the work in the sub- ject throughout the year are not permitted to enter the examina- tions, so the total number failing is materially above the figures al- ready given. Rural high school principals reported in many cases that they used a series of preliminary tests specifically designed to determine whether or not the pupils in any subject should be ad- mitted to the Regents examinations. One principal, proud of the fact that his school had but a small number of papers returned each year, showed his record of his first year Latin class from which he 73 had already eliminated (April, 1921) 50 percent <>i those who began I 111' \ (.11 III I ll.ll Mllljll I . lii rural high schools, particularly with an enrolment above 50, uiih .in already overcrowded teaching Bchedule, ii is commonly necessary yeai aftci year to maintain extra classes for repeating pupils in elementary algebra, elementary biology and less frequently in one "i more oi the othei subjects. Such repeating classes seri- * > 1 1 ily aggravate the already grave problems oi inadequate room and leu in i ig 1 1 H < r I n in.iiiri si hoolsi lasses are mu< h hampered by t he large numbers oi repeaters whose needs are hard to harmonize with i In' needs >>! those who are pursuing i ii<' Bubject for the firsl time. i in- fact thai ilif reports from the June Regents examinations are not In the hands oi the high school principals before graduation day has brought into existence diverse modes oi procedure in the rural high Bchools In the matter oi graduation, some oi them oi questionable soundness. Furthermore, there Is great lack <>! uni- formity in requirements foi graduation in the rural high school:.. What would seem to be .i questionable practice is thai »»i permitting .i | >u | nl to go through the graduation exert ises to receive an unsigned diploma which is ncvei signed unless 1 1 1 * * report from ili«' Regents exominat ions is sat isfai torj rin- following statements arc typical as to the procedure followed in i he i iii.il high s< hools: " \i .H iiii i H .i ho. 1 1 diplomas are not granted until tlu- final report ni .ill Regenl i examinations is received, though some students have been .i l low nl io go through the graduation exer< ises i onditionally," " Graduate conditionally and require Regents before the diploma i igned " i nsigned diplomas "Full Regents requirements foi graduation must be met before ,, hool diplomas are gi anted. " Such conditions oi uncertainty on the pari of pupil-, graduating hum high si hool at the time oi graduation are to be deplored, li the polu \ oi State examinations foi promotion and graduation from rural high .hool. must be continued in New Vork, it is suggested eii hii thai the final examinations be given eai lier in the year or that the marking of the local principal and teacher should be accepted foi the lasl semester. A pupil, it would appear, should know with reasonable certainty at least a month before graduation time whether 01 nol bis four years ol work have beenoi b character t<> entitle him t<> a diploma recognized by the local school and l>y the State. 1 In the Regents Rules, article 332 item (l)), rends in regard i«» the minimum passing mark in Regents examinations! "In .ill academic papers for credit toward an academii diploma, written l»y pupils who have given the required time i<> the si udy in recognized academic schools oO percent," and item (d) reads, "in all academi( papers written l>y pupils who have given the i«- quired time to the study, l>ui not in recognized academic schools 75 percent. " Ruling (t accredited. Such a pupil must puss the Regents examination in any secondary Bchool subject with ;i standing 15 percenl higher than that required of ;i pupil who lias st udied t he same suhject in an accredited hitfh school. If the examination is a fair criterion for estimating a pupil's pro h< iency in a suhject , as it apparent ly IS Considered, it would appear to he putting an undue hurden upon the pupil who happens to he attending a small rural high school. It is asking him to attain a higher degree of proficient y than is demanded ot ;i pupil presumably doing the work under the direction ol ;i IkIIci ten her ;ind with better equipment in a lully accredited high school. As an administrative means for standardizing the rural high si hool work of New York the system ol Regents examinations, at least as it now operates, seems to have lew points in its lavor. It tends i" formalize high school instruction and over-emphasize met hanical drill and vague objectives. It hinders the development Ol high Bl hool work in the dire< lion ol pupil and coiuiniinily need , 1 That this i i a weal ness In the pre a nl system ol promotion and that it has been bo recognized by the State department <>i education li shown l>v the fact i ii.it the Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education, then the I l<;i< 1 inspector, called attention to ii In his report <>i 1897. In this report he tnadi recommendations looking toward the elimination in large i>;ot ot this weal n< in the system ol promotion. See 1897 Report <>i the Department ol Exai b tioni i page 90. 75 and gives but little opportunity for initiative and independent thinking on the part of high school principals and teachers. It de- mands an unreasonable toil in failures from the high school popula- tion and tends to destroy interest and encourages elimination and retardation. It places an unnecessarily heavy financial burden upon the schools of the State because oi the large numbers of re- peaters and seriously augments the teaching load in the rural high schools. And finally it places the measure oi success upon a basis which modern experimentation in education has proved unreliable and which is too narrow as the sole criterion of a pupil *s ability. It arrives at all its results in the direction of high standards at the ex- pense of the pupil and, finally, it seriously augments the adminis- trative and instructional burdens of the rural high school. 1 Buildings \\n Equipment of the Rusai Hum School An important factor in the efficiency oi the work of a high school from its administrative side as it applies to the organization oi the school and to the control of instruction is the high school building and its equipment. Poor arrangement anil inadequate building and ground facilities hamper the principal and his corps of teachers in every direction. While there are some rural high school build- ings in New York well designed to meet the demands oi modern high school work, too large a percentage of them are ill fitted for the work necessarily undertaken in them. For the efficient performance of his duties as a high school prin- cipal the principal requires an office. He must, if he is to keep in- formed as to the work oi his school, have on tile sufficient data in re- gard to courses of study, pupils, teachers, and the many activities of his school. This material should be where it is available and safe. He also needs as the director oi his school a room where he may consult with patrons, pupils, and teachers {without interrup- :'• on the various problems that invariably arise. The principal in the New York rural high school lacks this highly necessary room in over 50 percent oi the high schools. A part of a high school's equipment not so essential as the prin- ter full discussion with statistics see Dr. kru-n-'s study. The State System oi Examinations, Administration and Supervision. 70 cipal's office and yet a valuable feature of every high school is a teacher 's room . Over 80 percent of the New York rural high schools are lacking in this respect. It is fully recognized that one of the functions of the modern high school is health education. The Committee on the Reorgani- zation of Secondary Education has placed health as one of the major aims of the secondary school. The realization of this aim requires both a gymnasium and playground space sufficiently ample in size for athletic fields. New York rural high schools were in the majority of instances constructed and located when knowledge of text-book material was regarded as the sole aim of the secondary school. As a result but few rural high schools are fitted to meet adequately the demands with regard to health education. Over cSO percent of the rural high schools have no gymnasium. Over 43 percent have a play area of less than one-half acre; over 24 percent have less than one-fourth acre, and five percent have no playground space at all. In many instances when the space is sufficiently large the ground is unfitted for playground and athletic fields. With regard to school auditoriums, while some of the more recent high schools have good auditoriums or auditorium and study rooms combined, over 75 percent have no auditorium. With the increased attention to extra-class-room activities a school without an auditorium equipped with stage and curtains is seriously ham- pered in its work. It seems feasible also that the rural high school should become the center for many activities, including the com- munity as well as the school population. It demands for any ade- quate realization of its functions a room equipped for accommodating its entire school population and the patrons of the school. As concerns its work in the stricter sense, that of regular class- room instruction, the rural high school is inadequate. Twenty- one percent of the school buildings have but one class room in ad- dition to the study room. This necessitates the teaching of a class each period of the day in a room where other pupils are studying. Fifty- three percent of the buildings have only two class rooms in addition to the study room. The best type of high school education at the present time makes necessary much better facilities in the matter of library and labora- 77 tory. Without a good library for reference work and a laboratory equipped for demonstration and laboratory work in at least two sciences a high school cannot hope to give its pupils a high school education of a recognized standard. Instruction today in history, literature, the sciences, and to a lesser degree in the other subjects finds a good library essential. Science instruction should center around the laboratory. Practically all rural high schools have both libraries and laboratories, but too frequently they are poorly equipped, poorly arranged and inconveniently situated. The me- dian score of the New York rural high school library, not including its equipment of books and magazines, is approximately 5 of a pos- sible 10; and the median score of the laboratory i> 13 on the basis of a possible 20. In other words, the library and laboratory equip- ment, not including books, magazines or apparatus, is a little more than half what it should be if the rural high school pupil is to have advantages comparable to those oi the pupil in city high schools in the phases of high school work dependent upon the library and the science laboratory. Finally all facts indicate that the administrator of the rural high school labors at a great disadvantage in his attempts to give to his community the results from its school system that it should get. Close attention should be given in the future development of the rural high school to those factors oi building and physical equip- ment that are essential to the realization of an efficient high school. * For a detailed statistical studysee Dr. Butterworth: School Buildings and Grounds. 8 CHAPTER IV RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE NEW YORK RURAL HIGH SCHOOL WITH RESPECT TO ITS ADMINISTRA- TION AND SUPERVISION I. General Recommendations 1. Every phase of the study of the New York rural high school emphasizes the need of well-defined objectives. While individual principals and teachers are doing excellent work, in general there is a very evident vagueness as to the ends to be sought. With the ex- ception of the one predominant idea, constantly in the minds of practically all principals and teachers, that they must prepare their pupils to pass the Regents examinations, there is a lack of clarity as to the functions of secondary education in rural communities and as to the organization adapted to realizing these functions. The rela- tions of the principal to the school board, to the community in which he serves, to his teaching staff, and to the pupils, are in no way sufficiently determined. His powers with regard to the curric- ulum and courses of study in his school are meagre and vague. His duties and powers as the local executive officer and the super- visor of instruction are indefinite. In view of these facts it is recommended that steps be taken to set up as clearly and specifically as possible tentative objectives as to the functions of rural secondary education and as to the duties and responsibilities of the several agencies and individuals working toward their realization. It is also recommended that a body be formed of persons fitted to undertake such a responsibility, by rea- son of their interest in and acquaintance with the problems of rural secondary education, to work in the direction of establishing func- 79 tional objectives for the rural high school and for ensuring changes as the needs of the future may require. 2. Without specific agencies for keeping before high school prin- cipals in the rural high schools the latest ideas and means for im- proving their work, the preceding recommendation could not be effective. It would be necessary to bring principals and teachers in service in touch with developments in administration, supervision, and instruction. It would seem advisable to make more specific provision for the consideration of rural high school problems through such existing agencies as the State Teachers ' Association and the various local and regional teachers' organizations. These, how- ever, should be supplemented by agencies to be devised specifically for the training of rural high school principals and teachers in ser- vice. 1 II. The High School Principal At the present time the work of the principal in the rural high school, if judged by the distribution of his time, is primarily that of a class-room instructor. While nominally he is the executive head of the school and the supervisor of instruction, both in the high school and the elementary grades, in practice he is given but little time for the many responsibilities that should belong to his position . He has no well-defined powers as the head of his school. As a result of the vagueness and indefiniteness of his position, he is often unable to initiate or to put into practice plans for increasing the efficiency of his school. In view of the present indefinite status of the rural high school principal, it is recommended that: 1. There be set up more specific definitions as to the rural high school principal 's duties, powers, and responsibilities for the various classes of rural high schools, classification being made on the basis of number of pupils enrolled in the high school and in the elementary grades, where he is also in charge of elementary instruction: (a) as the executive officer of the local school board; (b) as the supervisor of class-room instruction; (c) as the director of the internal organization of the school; 1 For more complete recommendations see Chapter V, The Teaching Staff, Article III of recommendations. So (d) as to his powers and responsibilities in relation to the high school curricula and courses of study; (e) as to the maximum amount of time to be given to class-room instruction in the several classes of schools; (/) as to the minimum amount of time to be given to supervision of instruction in the several classes of schools. (g) as to powers and responsibilities in relation to pupils and pupil activities. III. The High School Teacher With regard to the status of the teacher in the rural high school there is need of specific definitions as to his duties and responsibili- ties: The following recommendations are made: 1. That there be set up definite standards as to the maximum amount of teaching to be permitted, in terms of recitation periods, a teacher in a standard or accredited rural high school. 2. That there be formulated a clearer definition as to the relation of the teacher to the administrative and supervisory head of the school. 3. That where the high school principal is also principal of the elementary grades, recommendation (2) be also interpreted to apply to the teacher in the elementary grades. This recommendation is made because of the lack of understanding in many of the smaller schools as to the relation of the teacher of the elementary grades to the high school principal. IV. Flexibility in the Administration of High School Cur- ricula and Courses of Study One of the problems of utmost importance in the rural high school from the administrative standpoint springs from the comparative rigidity of its curriculum. The Regents requirements for an aca- demic diploma are comparatively flexible. In practice, however, the emphasis placed upon certain groups of subjects, as the languages and mathematics, through the requirements for State scholarships, college entrance certificates, and suggested programs of studies for small high schools, have tended to limit the curricula of these schools to the older, more formal subjects. There is a serious question, in the light of the demands made upon the modern secondary school 6 8i and the needs of modern life, as to the relative values of the subjects offered in the majority of rural high schools. If the high school is to meet the needs of the greatest number of its pupils, it would seem that the local high school should be encouraged to develop curricula adapted to its needs and given greater freedom in determining its curricula and courses of study. 1. It is recommended that there be a limitation in the matter of State requirements in the rural high schools in required subjects and in the subject-matter of courses of study to minimum essentials in subjects vital to State and national citizenship and health, thus giving opportunity for greater initiative and freedom to local high schools in offering high school work meeting specific local needs and the major demands of the pupils enrolled. 2. It is also recommended that all subjects of high school grade and taught by a qualified teacher be given equal recognition toward a diploma recognized by the State, provided that the State require- ments in recommendation (1) be met, and provided there has been continuity in the curriculum followed by the pupil. V. Junior High Schools The organization of secondary education with the Junior high school as the first unit should be of great value in Xew York. It is suited particularly to offer the rural pupil the opportunity of richer and more varied subject-matter two years earlier than is at present possible. It should bring closer together the elementary school and the high school and operate to reduce the elimination of rural pupils before reaching the high school. It should make high school education more available to rural pupils in many commun- ities by permitting the organization of a Junior high school where the community is too small to maintain a four year high school. In these smaller communities it would bring together a body of pupils large enough to make possible a better corps of teachers: 1 . It is recommended that steps be taken to bring about the or- ganization of Junior high schools in rural and village communities, to encourage their development through State aid on the same basis as for the regular high school, and also making provision for a committee for the formulation of suitable objectives, of suggestive S2 curricula and courses of study suited to the maturity and needs of pupils oi junior high school age, and with provisions for flexibility to meet the varied local needs and demands inevitable in a state like New York. VI. Inspections In a state the size of New York it seems impracticable for the State Department of Education to attempt the supervision of the high schools of the State. In the first place it cannot keep closely enough in touch with the local teachers to be in a position to under- stand their weaknesses and strengths, the necessary basis for con- structive supervision. In the second place it cannot know the local problems and conditions peculiar to communities. In the third place it is not economical either of time or money for all supervisors to go out from the State office to all parts of the State. Finally, granting that the factor of distance could be overcome, the burden of efficient supervision would be so great as to require an unwieldy central organization. It is necessary, however, that the State exercise some control over the local high schools. It is necessary that it act as a standardizing agent in some definite way. Because of its relation to all the schools of the State and because of its powers with respect to standards of work and of high school teachers the State Department of Educa- tion should function as an inspectorial agent but should not at- tempt supervision except as an incident of inspection. 1. It is recommended that the State Examinations and Inspec- tions Division limit its function as regards the rural high schools to that of inspection only. VII. Supervision One of the most outstanding needs of the New York rural high school is that of supervision of class-room instruction. There is also needed to almost an equal degree supervision of school organization and the broader and more comprehensive phases of the work of the local school. At the present time the State Examinations and In- spections Division is unable to visit many of the rural high schools even once a year, as indicated by the fact that for the year 1920-21 the inspection of more than 100 schools was delegated to 83 the district superintendent. The district superintendents in the majority of instances, with the exception of the smaller rural high schools, have confined their attention mainly to the one-teacher rural schools and to the elementary grades. The high school principal (see Fable 11) has been engaged mainly in class-room in- struction except in the larger schools. As a result one of the most important means of improving the quality of work done in the rural high school is very inadequate. Sympathetic, genuinely constructive supervision, which will operate to improve the individual teacher in service and which will also bring to the local principal a viewpoint broader and deeper than is possible in his limited held of experience, and which at the same time will be close enough to evaluate intelligently the local problems, is one of the great needs of the rural high schools in New York. To meet these needs the following recommendations are made for improving the supervision of the rural high school: 1. That requirements be made upon the local principal for a definite portion oi his time, to vary with the size of his school, to be devoted to supervision, and that to ensure him the necessary time his work as a teacher be limited. 2. That the superintendent of the intermediate educational ad- ministrative unit have as one of his duties the supervision of class- room instruction and school organization in the high schools within his district. With the provision that where the number of schools becomes too large or where the superintendent of the intermediate unit has his time fully taken up by his administrative duties, he shall be given the authority to appoint, subject to the approval of his board and according to the standards oi qualification of the State Education Department, a supervisor of secondary education for that administrative unit. VIII. BuiLDIXOS AND EQUIPMENT A school building, its equipment and grounds should be of such a character as to otter the most effective ami economical physical surroundings for the realization of the objectives of the school. A hisjh school building should be so constructed and ordered as to meet in an economical way all the demands of high school educa- tion. The equipment should be sufficient to meet the demands for efficient work in the various phases of high school instruction, both class-room and extra-class-room in type. The grounds should be ample for meeting the demands upon the modern high school in its work in physical education and training in habits of outdoor recrea- tion. Measured in view of these requirements, New York rural high school buildings and their equipment and grounds are in the main far from satisfactory. Some of the schools measure up to the standard and others fall short in certain particular details. The average of all the rural high schools is below any reasonable standard: 1. It is recommended that more specific requirements be set up as to rural high school buildings and that adequate building, equip- ment and grounds for meeting the demands of secondary education be required for the accrediting of a high school. 2. It is recommended that the nature of the equipment, particu- larly as referring to laboratory and library, its value for the work which the school does, be the basis of standardization rather than the total money value of the equipment, the present basis of ac- crediting the high school. IX. Extra-Class-Room Activities One of the most striking characteristics of the New York rural high schools is the comparative lack of attention given to pupil activities, both of a purely social nature and of a type primarily educational. In the schools where they are found such activities are usually regarded as extraneous to the real work of the school. While the nature of these activities, particularly those of a type mainly educational, is a curriculum problem, the manner of their control and organization and their relation to the other work of the school is a problem of administration. Because of the important place which extra-class-room activities are taking in the modern high school, and especially because of their value for pupils from rural communities in affording them actual practice in cooperative group activities, and finally, because of their value in building up a desirable school spirit and interest in the school, it is recommended: 85 1. That attention be given to this phase of rural high school work, and 2. That guidance be given high school principals and teachers in rural high schools as to practicable ways of organizing the schools so that this phase of high school work may be given a place as an integral part of the program of the school. X. Pupil Guidance and Supervised Study In New York rural high schools a comparatively small percent- age have any definite organization either in the direction of offering guidance to pupils in their school work and life plans or in study under the supervision of the instructor. Because of the need of the former and the value of the latter, particularly for pupils be- ginning high school work, it is recommended that consideration be given to these problems of high school organization for the purpose of devising means for meeting them more effectively in rural high schools. XI. Financing the Rural High Schools The study of the financial support of the rural high school shows that under the existing system there is great variability in the burden borne by different high school communities. Some com- munities are assuming a financial burden for the support of their local high school that is excessive. Other communities with far greater taxable wealth and with relatively small high school popula- tions are able to bear the burden of their high school with ease. This lack of equality in the financial burden of secondary education is due largely to the small proportion of the cost borne by the State. (For full discussion, see Dr. Updegraff 's study.) To equalize the cost of rural secondary education in New York, it is recommended: 1. That the taxation unit for the support of rural secondary ed- ucation be made large enough to include several high school dis- tricts. 2. That in the distribution of State aid to rural high schools there should be a recognition of the principles set forth in Dr. Updegraff 's S6 study of school support. In general this would mean that a larger proportion of the cost of rural secondary education be borne by the State than at present. XII. The Standardization of the Rural High School From every angle of approach the most important factor in the standardization of the New York rural high school is the system of Regents examinations. It colors every problem of administration and organization in the rural high school. It operates toward the formalization of all work. While public secondary education should select by differentiation among pupils, it emphasizes selection by elimination. Finally, the whole scheme of standardization of the rural high school of New York places the burden primarily upon the pupil. It is recommended: 1. That there be formulated a plan for standardizing the rural high schools of New York, throwing the burden upon the State and the community: (a) through higher qualifications for high school principals and teachers and teaching means; (b) through more responsibility upon local principals and teachers for the promotion of high school pupils ; and (c) through closer supervision of the work of the individual teacher. 2. That less emphasis be placed upon the Regents examinations as an administrative means for holding schools up to the standard, and greater emphasis upon the qualifications and professional training of the high school principal and teacher and upon instruc- tional equipment, and through more reliance upon helpful super- vision. This would tend to develop a more reliant and resourceful body of high school principals and teachers in the rural high schools. At the present time the school's success in the Regents examina- tions as the measure of the school 's efficiency puts an undue burden at all stages upon the pupil who is compelled to get his high school education in the smaller high schools under less efficient teaching and with meager instructional materials. It also makes the ob- jectives of the instruction in the rural high schools the passing of examinations and destroys flexibility and vitality of instruction and compels undesirable uniformity. 87 3. That more weight be given to the high school pupil's daily work as a criterion for promotion, thus encouraging consistent continued effort upon the part of the pupil and discouraging the forced cramming of the last month of each half year. 4. That for pupils in the fourth year of the high school, and ex- pecting to be graduated, the work of the last term be accepted by the State on the basis of the pupil's ratings by the local teachers and principal. This recommendation is made because of the in- justice to high school boys and girls who in many rural high schools are permitted to go through the graduation exercises only to be re- fused a diploma later through the return of one or more papers from the State Department. ss PART II THE TEACHING STAFF; CLASS-ROOM INSTRUCTION; AND THE CURRICULUM CHAPTER V THE TEACHING STAFF The Basis of the Study THE study of the teaching staff of the rural high school is based in the main upon data from 416 principals and teachers com- posing the teaching corps of 123 rural high schools. Of the 416 who gave practically complete reports, 123 were principals and 293 were teachers. Forty- three counties are represented in the returns. While the data are from approximately only one-sixth of the rural high school principals and teachers in the State, they represent a large proportion of the counties and all types of rural high schools on the basis of number of pupils enrolled. Consequently, it is as- sumed that things true of the principals and teachers for whom data are at hand are true with respect to the high school teaching staff of all the rural high schools of the State. The soundness of this as- sumption in this case is supported by the fact that 63 questionnaires received after the first 353 had been tabulated resulted in no material change in any item. The assumption is further strength- ened by the fact that the data with regard to the academic training of the 416 principals and teachers studied are in close agreement with the data on the academic training of 2387 principals and teach- ers of the rural high schools in 1919-20. 89 l'he distribution of the -Flo teachers as to counties is as follows: Albany 5 Fulton S Otsego 7 Allegany 5 Genesee 5 Putnam 5 Broome 13 Hamilton 10 Rensselaer 2 Cattaraugus 9 Herkimer S Rockland.... 17 Cayuga 7 Jefferson S St. Lawrence ... o Chautauqua 2 Lewis 8 Saratoga 12 Chemung.. 2 Livingston 11 Steuben 18 Chenango 4 Madison 12 Suffolk 28 Clinton , ; Niagara 20 fioga 8 Columbia 10 Oneida 8 lister o Delaware. 32 Onondaga 10 Warren 6 Dutchess 15 Ontario 12 Washington 9 Esses 12 Orange 8 Wayne.. . 2 Franklin 25 Oswego s Wyoming 7 A or rhe median age oi the rural high school principals is 33.5 years. Practically one-fourth arc 28 years old or younger and one- fourth are over 43. For teachers the median age is Jo. J years. One-fourth are 24 years old or younger and one-fourth are >^1 or over. For both principals and teachers, the median age is J" 8 years. One-fourth are 24.5 years old or younger and one-fourth are 3(5 years of age or older. Comparing the rural high school teaching staff as a whole with elementary teachers in village schools of the State shows that the median age is approximately a half year less than that of the elementary teachers in village schools. Compared with the elementary teachers in forty New York cities of the third class, the median age of the high school staff is found to he more than a year (1J2) less. 1 As a whole. 35.5 percent of the rural high school staff are between the ages of 20 and 25 as compared with J 5 percent of the academic teachers in the high schools accredited by the North Central Association: 62.2 percent are between the ages ot JO and 30, as compared with 53.8 percent for the teachers in the high schools accredited by the association.-' Excluding the principals, the median age of the rural high school teacher is two and a fourth years less than that of the elementary teacher in village schools and almost three J 8 j ears less than that of the elementary teachers in the forty New York cities. All data indicate that a 'See Dr. Bagley's studj teachers and Teacher Preparation. eedings of the Twenty-Seventh Annual Meeting of the North Central Association of Colleges and S - wis Tart 1. 1922 Tabi e 36.— Ace vr Nearest Birthday Age Princi- pals Teachers Total Percent principals Percent teachers Percent total 20 1 1 0.5 0.2 21 2.0 1.4 22 27 27 9.2 6.5 23 •l 47 51 3.3 loo 12.2 24 ,i 34 57 2.4 11.0 8.9 25 I 2o 2 / 0.8 8.9 6.5 Jo 14 25 50 11.4 8.5 0.4 27 5 IS 2^ 4.0 0.1 5.5 28 s 11 1') 6.5 5.S 4.6 J ( > s S 10 6.5 2.7 5.8 30 o s 14 4.0 2.7 5.4 31 10 lo 4.9 3.4 5.cS 32 5 2 7 4.0 0.7 1.7 33 5 5 S 2.4 1.7 1.0 34 5 14 4.0 5.1 5.4 35 4 3 7 .^.2 1.0 1.7 36 40 13 ^ 55 10.6 7.5 8.4 41^15 15 11 2o 12.2 3.8 6.5 46 50 11 20 7.5 5.S 4.8 51 55 o 5 14 7.5 1.7 3.4 56 60 3 2 5 2.4 0.7 1.2 ol andabove 2 1 5 1.6 0.5 0.7 Not reported. . . . 1 1 0.5 0.2 Median age 33.5 26.2 27.8 First quartile 28.5 25. S 24.5 Third quartile 43.4 31.3 55 .0 Age Per cent 85 or 6 under 48 26-30 33 24 31-35 19 10 36-40 11 7 41-45 12 46-50 ' 4 Over 50 \\ 3 principals ■■ Teachers j | Diagram 10. — Age of rural high school teaching stall 0i large proportion of the teaching start" of the rural high school is young and immature as compared with the teachers in other types of schools. (Table 36.) Sex Approximately 70 percent of the teaching staff in the New York rural high schools are women and 30 percent are men. 1 Of the principals. SI per cent are men and 1" percent are women. Ex- clusive of principals, C >1 percent of the teachers are women. Con- sidering the rural high school start as a whole, the number of men is four less for each one hundred teachers than it was for village and rural high schools of the United States in 1917 IS. as reported by the United States Bureau of Education, or than it was for 25 city high schools in New York State in 1920-21. Table 37.— Six ok Teaching Staff Sex Male Female Percent male Percent female Principals Teachers 100 26 23 267 81.3 8.9 18.7 91.1 Total 126 290 30.3 69.7 M \rried or Single Approximately 65 percent of the principals are married and 35 percent single. Eleven percent of the teachers are married ami 89 percent unmarried. Of the teaching start as a whole, approximately 27 percent are married and 73 percent unmarried. f ABLE 38. XlMKlK \\t> PERCENTOT IV UUINC. S r U'F MARRIED OR SlNGUE Married Single Not reported Percent married Percent single Percent not reported Principals Teachers 79 33 43 259 1 1 64.2 11.3 34.9 88.4 0.8 0.3 Total 112 302 2 26.9 72.6 0.4 Kaki v Environment From the standpoint of an understanding oi the rural high school and its problems the early environment of the principal or teacher 1 This shows a larger proportion of men by approximately three percent than is shown by the reports of 405 principals of rural high schools as to number and sex of the high school Staff in their schools in 1 1 >J0 21, 02 is undoubtedly a factor to be considered. Teachers with a back- ground of rural experience should be better acquainted with rural life, its educational resources, and its problems and as a result be better able to relate the school work to the lives of the pupils and to the community. Of the rural high school principals, over 55 per- cent were born and spent their early life in the open country. A traction over 33 percent were born in a village, and between 10 and 1 1 percent in the city. Of the teachers, 25. percent were born and spent their early life in the open country; almost 4(> percent were born in a village; and 28.6 percent in the city. In the case of both principals and teachers a small number of those born in city or village spent their early life in the open country. Taking the teaching stall" as a whole, the facts at hand indicate that approxi- mately 35 percent come from the open country, 42 percent from villages, and L^ percent from cities. The data show also that a much larger proportion of those holding principalship positions, generally men, come from the open country than of the assistants, of whom 91 percent are women. The majority of the men in the rural high schools are recruited from the open country while the villages furnish the largest proportion of women. Table 39. — Early Knyironment of the Teaching Staff City Born in city; early life spent in open country Village Horn in village; early life spent in open country Open country Not given No. Per- cent No. Per- cent No. Per- cent No. Per- cent No. Per- cent No. Per- cent Principals Teachers. . 12 SO 10.5 1 4 O.S 1.7 37 124 33.3 45.7 4 10 3.2 3.4 68 75 55.3 25.0 1 O.S Total... 92 23.3 5 1.2 lol 42.1 14 3.3 143 34.4 1 0.2 D3 Place or Birth A very largo proportion of the rural high school teaching stall is native to the State. The data show that approximately 84 percent of the principals and $2 percent of the teachers were born in New York State. Of the principals, a fraction less than 15 percent, and of the teachers approximately 17 percent, 16 percent for both, were born in other states. Less than one and a half [\ A) percent of the rural high school stall' were foreign born. Table 40. — Flack of Birth ok Rural Hic.h School Instructors Place of birth Principals Teachers Total New York 103 10 _> 2 3 1 2 240 12 10 8 2 2 2 11 4 343 Pennsylvania . . 22 Vermont 12 Massachusetts New Hampshire 10 2 Connecticut 2 New lersev 3 Kansas J j Other States 12 Foreign countries 6 Percent horn in New York 83.7 14.6 1.6 81.9 16.7 1.3 82.5 Percent horn in other States Percent born in foreign countries. . . lo.l 1.4 Foreign countries 1.4* \ Diagram 11. — Place of birth of principals and teachers 04 cu "O 1-! cu O O Z a hey; ||| ■^p 00 cu C Og-3 CN f*5 cs a) C C o3 00 r— Tj« U 73 O wi ^ bCJ3 Tjt ro t^ u ft W~ O B ■rf 1^ o CM ?N O-J H co •c so o 1 p < H cu "O ►J li CU X o o o K a < y, ion ties I On JS ■<* u Ogl3 w nj 03 c 1" C o3 o3 — •f-H IT) so H >. CJ^ 3 03 MJ3 a c <2 ^< 1^- o •a W a Z cu d PC 00 •—1 nJ o a A CO Tt-h -V -f O o fS (M ts Z ft Jjj 00 •>* Os So c Og* O CN " SO O Ps] u bC,C -*© -V u Pi W a ~* i | 00 Tj< On O 6 o rr> cu fi 00 «^» t~~ 6 3 1^ 1^ t~~ 00 00 00 cu "O *- cu gi r<) t~- O 5? ft *m A t/i -M^ 00 CU Og« O £ dS •*-< § J cn <*r> lO o wo >> »a MJ3 a C .co CO ro SO o w — oj fc & S 3 a 6 •— i 1^. 00 4 CO in Os -f "C w cu C 00 r-» >o £ 3 O "O sO t-i CN "0 CO ft cu ri "§"S O .S cO H ftH 95 Nationality With respect to nationality, the teachers in rural high schools are predominantly of American stock. Approximately 86 percent of the principals and teachers have parents both of American birth. In 88.7 percent of the cases the father was born in the United States and the mother in 87.7 percent. (See Table 41.) Occupational Groups Furnishing the Rural High School Teachers With regard to the occupations of the father practically ^7 per- cent of the principals and 86 percent of the teachers gave the de- sired information. Of the principals reporting. 56.3 percent gave farming as the occupation of the father; 14.3 percent gave business; and 15.1 percent gave various callings of the artisan type. In 7. d percent of the cases the father followed one of the professions. in five percent his work was under the civil service, and in 1.7 percent he was a laborer. Of the teachers reporting, 3S.2 percent gave farming as the father's occupation; 29.9 percent gave business; and 16.7 gave callings of the artisan type. The father followed a profession in the case of 11.6 percent of the teachers reporting. In 2.4 percent of the cases he was a laborer and in 1.2 percent he was working under the civil service. The data indicate that the teaching staff of the rural high school is recruited largely from the four general occupational groups Table 42. — Occupation of the Father Occupation Farm- ing Busi- ness Artisan trade Profes- sion Civil ser- vice Laborer Not re- ported Principals Teachers 67 96 17 75 18 42 9 29 6 3 2 6 4 42 Total Percent princi- pals 1 Percent teachers 163 56.3 38.2 92 14.3 29. 9 60 15.1 16.7 38 7.0 11.6 10.2 9 5.0 1.2 8 1.7 2.4 46 3.2 14.3 Percent total . 44.1 24.9 10.2 2.4 2.2 11.0 1 The percentages in Table 42 are computed on the basis of the number re- porting, and in Diagram 12 on the basis of total number studied. 06 Labor 2* y Not Civil >/\ indicated Service -~.X \ n£ 2* Diagram 12. — Occupations of fathers of principals and teachers engaged in farming, business, work of the artisan type, and the professions. Parental Income To the question as to parental income, approximately 58 percent of the principals and teachers gave a definite answer. Many others reported it impossible to make an accurate estimate. While the proportion of teachers supplying data with regard to this item is Table 43. — Annual Parental Income Annual income Principals Teachers Total Percent of total Living 3 11 14 5.9 1 $500 or less 16 13 29 12.1 501-750 11 11 22 9.2 751-1.000 15 23 38 15.9 1,001-1,250 21 27 48 20.0 1,251-1,500 4 1 5 2.1 1,501-1,750 1 1 2 0.8 1,751-2,000 11 44 55 23.0 2,001-2,500 1 1 0.4 2,501-3,000 6 9 15 6.3 3,001-1,000 1 1 0.4 4,001-5,000 1 2 3 1.3 5,001 or over 1 ^ 6 2.5 Number reporting 91 148 239 57.5 Number not reporting. . 32 145 177 42.5 Approximate median . . . SI. 000 SI. 140 SI, 100 pproximaie meuian . . . oi,uw oi.jw 01,1™ 1 The percentages are computed on the basis of the number reporting 97 h sg O ja W C8 "O iL •3 «- PC c ;« a-.fi ir; iy- H cr E rtJJ O Tt LT Eg.* r*i cn CM ' T3 ■M . **"* VO rr> 00 vC -* l~» Not re- ported «— i p*5 On "* © i^ :- CN «H ©' o «H ro On "* © w; CN 1^- CN On CN ■* 00 «H NO r»5 00 O lO O0 *-H es I- © CN l/"> "1 t~~ 00 - CJ cn >* © 145 34.8 o CM 00 109 26.2 en 4J o 'o hi CJ S 3 - °C e P- 2 c E- !3 o *o c u hi Oh oS Third quar- tile ■ First quar- tile no NO do no d Me- dian irj Tj; *? Not re- ported VH CO o t^ :- tN •h d ■o ■^ tN O 1H iO CN W os <>i ■* vo NO On "* ~3 NO q On t-~ cs tN -* 00 O no ~ O On ro OO 119 28.6 © t~- tN 159 38.2 M OJ ta '35 'o t- V s D I r 'C c T 0- I _ a. -: a C E- o a (J c 2 u "o -a n o > •a 13 V u u >> CO H H ClJ a V ■0 c a V 3 C '3 >> 3 >. 3 >. >> J3 •a Cfl c o CU s u In 3 V a o & J3 H O H O H O H H u. O O H H Principals 1 7 6 3 1 22 3 7 3 70 5 2 Teachers 1 2 8 15 9 15 3 6 2 56 10 5 7 4 188 4 Total 3 78 13 12 10 4 258 9 2 Percent principals 0.8 5.7 4.8 2.4 0.8 17.9 2.4 5.7 2.4 56.9 4.1 1.6 Percent teachers. . 0.3 2.7 3.1 1.0 0.6 19.1 3.4 1.7 2.4 1.3 64.2 1.3 Percent total o.s A.<> 3.6 1.4 0.7 18.8 3.1 2.9 2.4 0.9 62.0 2.2 0.5 1 Principals and teachers having done graduate work are also included in the number of those who are college graduates. school principals and teachers of the State in 1919-20. Of the 2,387, 63.3 percent were college graduates, 25.8 percent were nor- mal school graduates, and 10.9 percent were not graduates from either normal school or college. (Table 45A.) If in the case of the 416 instructors, the basis of the present study, the percentage of normal graduates who have done one or more years of college work, were added to the percentage given for normal graduates, the data for the two groups would agree closely throughout. Table 45A. -Academic Training of 2,387 Rural High School Principals and Teachers of the State (1919-20) Not graduates from normal school or college Normal school graduates College graduates Total Number Percent 259 10.9 CI 7 25.8 1,511 63.3 2,387 100 Type of Certificate Held Of the principals, 54.4 percent hold some form of State certificate requiring as a minimum of preparation graduation from college. The remaining 2.5 percent who are college graduates hold normal or temporary certificates. Twenty-one and one-tenth percent hold Table 46. — Type of Certificate Held Type of certificate Principals Teach- ers Total Percent princi- pals Percent teach- ers Percent total College graduate, -j Normal certificate. State certificate 1 . . . Special 1 Equivalent First grade Training class Temporary Rural renewable . . Special permit academic 65 special 2 26 19 1 5 2 2 1 179 9 56 25 3 11 1 8 1 244 11 82 44 3 1 16 3 10 1 1 52.8 1.6 21.1 15.4 0.8 4.1 1.6 1.6 0.8 61.1 3.1 19.1 8.5 1.0 3.7 0.3 2.7 0.3 58.9 2.6 19.7 10.6 0.7 0.2 3.8 0.7 2.4 0.2 0.2 Not based upon graduation from college. normal school certificates; 15.4 percent hold State certificates, either life or limited; 5.7 percent hold first grade or training class certificates. The remaining 3.2 percent are teaching under equiva- lent, temporary, and rural school renewable certificates. Of the teachers, 64.2 percent hold a college graduate certificate, academic or special. Nineteen and one-tenth percent teach under normal school certificates, 8.5 percent under a State certificate, either life or limited; approximately one percent hold a special certificate, not based on graduation from college. Three percent hold temporary certificates or special permits; and four percent have first grade or training class certificates. Age at Which Instructors Begin Teaching The data from the group studied indicate that one half of the principals of the rural high schools begin teaching at 21 years of age or younger; one-fourth at 19 or younger, and one-fourth at 23 Table 47. — Age at which Rural High School Instructors Begin Teaching Age Princi- pals Teach- ers Total Percent princi- pals Percent teachers Percent total 15 1 2 3 0.8 0.7 0.7 16 6 3 9 4.9 1.0 2.2 17 4 2 6 3.2 0.7 1.4 18 23 29 52 18.7 9.9 12.5 19 7 32 39 5.7 10.9 9.4 20 15 35 50 12.2 11.9 12.0 21 14 55 69 11.4 18.8 16.6 22 12 73 85 9.8 25.0 20.4 23 12 36 48 9.8 12.3 11.5 24 8 15 23 6.5 5.1 5.5 25 10 4 14 8.3 1.4 3.4 26 1 2 3 0.8 0.7 0.7 27 1 1 2 0.8 0.3 0.5 28 1 1 2 0.8 0.3 0.5 29 2 1 3 1.6 0.3 0.7 30 1 1 2 0.8 0.3 0.5 31-35 36-40 1 1 0.3 0.2 41-45 1 1 0.8 0.2 Not reported 4 4 3.2 1.0 Median age 21.2 21.7 21.6 First quartile 18.8 20.1 19.8 Third quartile. . . . 23.6 22.8 22.9 103 years of age or older. The median age at which the high school instructor begins teaching is 21.7 years. One-fourth of the in- structors begin teaching at 20 or younger and one-fourth at 23 or older. For the teaching staff as a whole, the median age for be- ginning teaching is 21.6 years. One-fourth begin teaching at the age of 20 or under and one-fourth at 23 or over. Number of Years' Teaching Experience As to teaching experience, the median principal has had 8.6 years. One-fourth of the principals have had less than five years' experience and approximately one-fourth have had 18 years or more. The Table 48. — Number of Years' Teaching Experience Number of years Princi- pals Teach- ers Total Percent princi- pals Percent teachers Percent total 1 11 74 85 8.9 25.3 20.4 2 6 42 48 4.9 14.3 11.5 3 5 31 36 4.0 10.6 8.6 4 7 25 32 5.7 8.5 7.7 5 13 20 33 10.6 6.8 7.9 6 6 17 23 4.9 5.8 5.5 7 11 11 22 8.9 3.8 5.3 8 2 7 9 1.6 2.4 2.2 9 4 6 10 3.2 2.0 2.4 10 4 4 8 3.2 1.4 2.0 11 6 4 10 4.9 1.4 2.4 12 4 3 7 3.2 1.0 1.7 13 2 2 4 1.6 0.7 0.9 14 2 5 7 1.6 1.7 1.7 15 1 4 5 0.8 1.4 1.2 16-20 17 15 32 13.8 5.1 7.7 21-25 7 12 19 5.7 4.1 4.6 26-30 7 9 16 5.7 3.1 3.8 31-35 6 2 8 4.9 0.7 2.0 36 and over 2 2 1.6 0.5 Median 1 8.6 3.4 4.7 First quartile 4.6 1.4 1.9 Third quartile .... 17.9 7.5 11.1 1 From the fact that the data were gathered at the close of the school year and that the teachers quite generally reported the year just being completed as one year's experience, and also from the fact that anything over a half-year was counted as a year, the median was computed from the mid-point between years. 104 median teacher has had 3.4 years of teaching experience, one-fourth have had less than a year and a half, and one-fourth have taught more than seven years. For both principals and teachers the me- dian teaching experience is 4.7 years, with one-fourth having had two years or less and one-fourth eleven years or more. Forty-eight percent have taught less than five years as compared with 42.5 per- cent for the teachers in high schools accredited by the North Central Association of colleges and secondary schools. The most noticeable facts about the principals and teachers of the New York rural high schools from the standpoint of experience are: (1) The wide range in number of years running from less than one year to 41 years; and (2) the fact that one-half have had less than five years of ex- perience, while one-fourth have taught two years or less. These facts as to the large number of young, inexperienced principals and teachers in the small rural high schools, combined with other facts gathered from the actual visitation of over 70 rural high schools, indicate among other things that the rural high schools furnish apprenticeship teaching for the larger high schools of the State. Number of Years in Present Position An important factor in the work of a school is the permanency of its teaching personnel. A large proportion of new teachers each year is undesirable even though they are teachers of experience. The data collected from the group forming the basis of this study, as well as the impression gained from the visitation of rural high schools, indicate that instructors remain as a general thing but a year or two in the same school. Over 31 percent 1 of the principals and 49 percent of the teachers, or 44 percent for both, were teaching their first year in the particular high school where they were at the time of making the report. Over 19 percent of the principals and prac- tically 26 percent of the teachers, or 24 percent for both, were teach- ing their second year in the same school. Over 89 percent of the high school staff had been in their present positions five years or less, while 79 percent had been in their present positions three years or 1 Approximately 33 percent of the principals of the rural high schools were serving their first year in their position in 1921-22, as shown by comparing the 1920 and the 1921 Directories of the University of the State of New York. i°5 less. These figures agree very closely with the facts found with regard to tenure of all secondary school teachers in Livingston County, where 55 percent were teaching their first year in the school. 1 Table 49. — Number of Years in Present Position Number of years Princi- pals Teach- ers Total Percent princi- pals Percent teachers Percent total 1 39 144 183 31.7 49.1 44.0 2 24 76 100 19.5 25.9 24.0 3 19 27 46 15.4 9.2 11.1 4 15 10 25 12.9 3.4 6.0 5 10 5 15 8.1 1.7 3.6 6 6 3 9 4.9 1.0 2.2 7 3 7 10 2.4 2.4 2.4 8 1 1 2 0.8 0.3 0.5 9 3 3 1.0 0.8 10 1 3 4 0.8 1.0 0.9 11 1 1 0.8 0.2 12 1 2 3 0.8 0.7 0.8 13 2 2 0.7 0.5 14 1 1 0.8 0.2 15 16-20 1 4 5 0.8 1.3 1.2 21-25 1 3 4 0.8 1.0 0.9 26-30 1 1 0.3 0.2 Not reported 2 2 0.7 0.5 Number of Months Employed The teaching corps of the rural high school are commonly em- ployed for ten months, 95 percent (94.7) teaching on that basis. Less than three percent of those reporting (2.6) were employed the full twelve months, these being in nearly every instance principals and teachers giving instruction in vocational agriculture. Almost three percent (2.7) were employed for less than 10 months of the year. Table 50. — Number of Months Employed Number of months . . . 9 9.5 10 11 12 Principals Teachers 9 2 120 274 3 8 Total Percent of total 9 2.2 2 0.5 394 94.7 11 2.6 1 Livingston County Survey, University of the State of New York, Bulletin 738, p. 91. 106 Per cent 20- Teaching experience 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16-20 Over Years 21 Number of year9 in present position jcn a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16-20 Over 21 Years Diagram 13. — Teaching experience and number of years in present position of rural high school teachers 107 Salary The data from the 123 principals reporting indicate that the salaries for rural high school principals for 1920-21 ranged from $900 to $3200. The median salary was approximately $1750, while one-fourth of the principals received $1500 or less and one- fourth $2040 or more. For teachers the range was from $750 to $2500. One-half of the teachers received a salary of less than $1225; one-fourth received less than $1120 and one-fourth over $1335. A comparison of these figures with the 1919-20 salaries of 1784 rural high school teachers and 603 rural high school principals of the State shows an increase in 1920-21 over 1919-20 of $287.40 in the median salary of teachers and of $207.30 in the median salary of principals. These facts would seem to indicate that teachers re- TABLE51.- -Salaries of 416 Rural High School Principals and Teachers in 1920-21 Amount Number of principals Number of teachers Amount Number of principals Number of teachers received received $750- $799 1 $2,000-2,049 12 2 800- 849 1 2,050-2,099 850- 899 2,100-2,149 4 1 900- 949 3 7 2,150-2,199 950- 999 1 2,200-2,249 6 1 1,000-1,049 4 34 2,250-2,299 1 1,050-1,099 1 14 2,300-2,349 1 1,100-1,149 43 2,350-2,399 1,150-1,199 1 11 2,400-2,449 1 1,200-1,249 4 76 2,450-2,499 1,250-1,299 2 9 2,500-2,599 5 1 1,300-1,349 2 32 2,600-2,699 3 1,350-1,399 1 5 2,700-2,799 1 1,400-1,449 8 17 2,800-2,899 2 1,450-1,499 4 3,000-3,099 4 1,500-1,549 22 12 3,100-3,199 1,550-1,599 2 3,200-3,299 1 1,600-1,649 3 2 8 1 1,650-1,699 1,700-1,749 9 1 Total 123 293 1,750-1,799 2 4 1,800-1,849 12 3 Median $1,746.20 $1,221.70 1,850-1,899 2 First quartile 1,509.80 1,116.73 1,900-1,949 4 1 Third quartile 2,037.54 1,334.54 1,950-1,999 1 108 Table 52. — Salaries of 2,387 Rural High School Principals and Teachers in 1919-20 Amount Number of principals Number of teachers Amount Number of principals Number of teachers received received $600- $649 12 $1,950-1,999 2 650- 699 11 2,000-2,049 26 2 700- 749 51 2,050-2,099 2 750- 799 79 2,100-2,149 12 2 800- 849 3 220 2,150-2,199 2 850- 899 2 247 2,200-2,249 18 900- 949 6 385 2,250-2,299 5 950- 999 7 175 2,300-2,349 7 1 1,000-1,049 20 232 2,350-2,399 1 1,050-1,099 9 72 2,400-2,449 2 1,100-1,149 38 83 2,450-2,499 1 1,150-1,199 15 21 2,500-2,549 7 1,200-1,249 43 45 2,550-2,599 2 1,250-1,299 17 19 2,600-2,649 8 1,300-1,349 45 33 2,650-2,699 1,350-1,399 13 7 2,700-2,749 1,400-1,449 39 15 2,750-2,799 1 1,450-1,499 4 6 2,800-2,899 2 1,500-1,549 51 21 2,900-2,999 3 1,550-1,599 5 6 3,000 andover 11 1,600-1,649 58 7 8 4 1,650-1,699 1,700-1,749 39 10 Total 603 1,784 1,750-1,799 10 2 1,800-1,849 37 10 Median $1,538.71 $934.32 1,850-1,899 4 1 First quartile 1,271.80 863.77 1,900-1,949 20 2 Third quartile 1,827.72 1,033.05 ceived in 1920-21 salary increases over 1919-20 to an amount ap- proximately equal to the $300 per teacher from State funds under the provisions of the Lockwood-Donahue act. In the case of principals the increase seems to have been to the extent of approximately two- thirds of the $300 available from the special State fund. Economic Status The data indicate that more than one-half of the rural high school teaching staff have no source of income beyond their salaries re- ceived as principals and teachers. In round numbers, 53 percent of the principals reported that they received no money from any other source. Practically 69 percent of the teachers reported no money 109 from any other source. Combining the data for principals and teachers shows that over 88 percent of the staff received $100 or less from sources other than salary in 1920-21. Table 53. — The Amount of Money Derived from Other Sources During the Year (Interest Received, Income from Other Investments, etc.) Amount received Princi- pals Teach- Total Percent of Percent of Percent of ers princi- pals teachers total Nothing 65 201 266 52.8 68.6 63.9 $1- $25 8 33 41 6.5 11.3 9.8 26- 50 18 10 28 14.6 3.4 6.7 51- 75 2 7 9 1.6 2.4 2.2 76- 100 4 21 25 3.2 7.1 6.0 101- 150 4 1 5 3.2 0.3 1.2 151- 200 5 6 11 4.1 2.0 2.6 201- 300 6 • 4 10 4.8 1.4 2.4 301- 400 1 1 0.3 0.2 401- 500 3 1 4 2.4 0.3 0.9 501- 700 4 5 9 3.2 1.7 2.1 701-1,000 1 1 0.3 0.2 1,001 or over 2 2 0.7 0.5 Not reported . . . 4 4 3.2 1.0 Table 54. — Approximate Amount of Money Earned Outside Regular Teaching Salary During the Year Amount earned Princi- pals Teach- ers Total Percent of princi- pals Percent of teachers Percent of total Nothing 63 205 268 51.2 69.9 64.4 $l-$25 6 9 15 4.9 3.1 3.6 26- 50 2 29 31 1.6 9.9 7.4 51- 75 4 1 5 3.2 0.3 1.2 76-100 11 18 29 cS.O 6.1 7.0 101-125 8 1 9 6.5 0.3 2.2 126-150 4 4 1.4 1.0 151-175 1 1 0.8 0.2 176-200 9 7 15 7.3 2.4 3.6 201-250 2 2 0.7 0.5 251-300 10 6 16 8.1 2.0 3.8 301-400 3 4 7 2.4 1.4 1.7 401-500 1 3 4 0.8 1.0 1.0 Over 500 4 2 6 3.2 0.7 1.4 Not reported 1 3 4 0.8 1.0 1.0 The larger proportion of the staff reported no money earned from other sources in addition to their salaries as principals and teachers. Over 51 percent of the principals and 70 percent of the teachers reported no additional earnings. For both principals and teachers approximately 84 percent earned $100 or less outside the regular teaching salary. (Table 54.) One factor determining the attractiveness and appeal of a calling as a permanent life-work is its possibility of an annual saving. In New York the system of teacher 's pensions in part answers this re- quirement. If a calling is to attract the best type of individual, however, it would seem that a system of pensions should be regarded as supplementary and that in addition the financial returns should be sufficient to make possible the gradual accumulation of a personal reserve. The figures as to savings of rural high school principals and teachers indicate that at present such opportunities are in- sufficient to attract and hold the type of person most needed in rural high school work. Almost 40 percent of the principals reported no savings beyond Table 55. — Amount Saved During the Year in Addition to Life Insurance and Pension Percent Percent Percent Amount saved Princi- pals Teach- Total of of of ers princi- teachers total pals Nothing 49 130 179 39.8 44.4 43.0 $1- $50 2 6 8 1.6 2.0 1.9 51- 100 5 27 32 4.1 9.2 7.7 101- 150 11 4 15 8.9 1.4 3.6 151- 200 5 45 50 4.1 15.3 12.0 201- 250 9 9 3.1 2.2 251- 300 '5 7 12 4.1 2.4 2.y 301- 350 1 4 5 0.8 1.4 1.2 351- 400 11 44 55 8.9 15.0 13.2 401- 500 14 9 23 11.4 3.1 5.5 501- 600 2 1 3 1.6 0.3 0.7 601- 700 6 3 9 4.8 1.0 2.2 701- 800 4 2 6 3.2 0.7 1.4 801- 900 1 1 0.8 0.2 901-1,000 3 1 4 2.4 0.3 1.0 Over 1,000 3 3 2.4 0.7 Not reported 1 1 2 0.8 0.3 0.5 pension and life insurance. Of the teachers, 44 percent reported no other savings. For the teaching staff as a whole 43 percent re- ported no other savings. Over 52 percent reported savings for the year of $100 or less and 25 percent saved $350 or more. Exclusive of pensions, 30 percent of the principals and 69 percent of the teachers, or practically 58 percent for both, reported no life insurance. Less than 13 percent of the teaching staff paid insur- ance premiums during the year in excess of $100. Table 56. — Amount Paid ] for Life Insurance Exclusive of Pension Amount paid Princi- pals Teach- ers Total Percent of princi- pals Percent of teachers Percent of total Nothing 37 203 240 30.1 69.3 57.7 S1-S25 9 9 18 7.3 3.1 4.3 26- 50 12 32 44 9.7 10.9 10.6 51- 75 17 12 29 13.8 4.1 7.0 76-100 4 3 7 3.2 1.0 1.7 101-125 12 2 14 9.7 0.7 3.4 126-150 16 16 13.0 3.8 151-175 10 10 3.4 2.4 176-200 1 1 2 0.8 0.3 0.5 201-250 2 2 1.6 0.5 251-300 4 1 5 3.2 0.3 1.2 Over 300 2 2 1.6 0.5 Not reported 7 20 27 5.7 6.8 6.5 Persons Entirely or Partially Dependent In reply to the item as to responsibility for the entire support of dependents, approximately 85 percent of the principals reported. Of those reporting, 64 percent had one adult entirely dependent upon them for support and five percent had two. Thirty-one per- cent had no one entirely dependent upon them for support. Ninety- three percent of the teachers answered this item. Of this number 92 percent had no adults entirely dependent upon them while eight percent had one adult. Forty-one percent of the principals report- ing had entire support of one or more children, while three percent of the teachers reporting had children entirely dependent upon them for support. Table 57. — Persons Dependent upon Principals and Teachers for Support (a Persons Entirely Dependent Adults Children Number dependent Not re- None 1 2 None 1 2 3 4 5 6 ported Principals 18 33 67 5 62 23 6 10 1 2 1 Teachers 19 253 20 1 266 6 1 1 Total 37 286 87 6 328 29 7 10 2 2 1 Percent princi- pals 1 14.6 31.4 63.8 4.8 59.0 21.9 5.7 9.5 0.9 1.9 0.9 Percent teachers 6.5 92.3 7.3 0.4 97.1 2.2 0.4 0.4 Percent total. . . 8.9 75.5 22.9 1.6 87.5 7.7 1.9 2.7 0.5 0.5 0.3 (b) Persons Partially Dependent Adults Children Number dependent Not re- ported None 1 2 3 None 1 2 3 Principals Teachers 16 19 90 231 14 31 3 10 2 101 258 4 13 1 3 1 Total 35 13.0 6.5 8.4 321 84.1 84.3 84.2 45 13.1 11.3 11.9 13 2.8 3.6 3.4 2 0.8 0.5 359 94.4 94.2 94.2 17 3.7 4.7 4.4 4 0.9 1.2 1.1 1 Percent of principals 1 . Percent of teachers Percent of total 0.9 0.3 1 Except in the case of the percent not reporting, where the percentage is computed on the basis of the full number, the percentages are computed on the basis of the actual number reporting on the item in question. "3 Eighty-seven percent of the principals and 93 percent of the teachers reported on the item as to persons partially dependent upon them for support. Of the principals reporting, 84 percent had no adults partially dependent upon them and 94 percent no children partially dependent; while lo percent were partially responsible for the support of one or two adults and six percent for one to three children. Of the teachers reporting, 84 percent had no adults par- tially dependent upon them for support and 94 percent no children. Sixteen percent had the responsibility for the partial support of one to three adults and six percent for the partial support of one to two children. (See Table 57.) Money Earning Work Done Other than Teaching On this item the proportion of principals and teachers reporting was comparatively small, approximately 63 percent of the group studied replying. Of the principals reporting, over 31 percent had never done money earning work other than teaching, and the same was true of over 47 percent of the teachers who replied to the item. An additional 23 percent of the principals and M percent of the teachers had done other money earning work only during the sum- mer. Approximately 10 percent of the principals reporting had fol- lowed some other type of work for one year or less and 35 percent had engaged in other types of work for a period of one to ten years- Of the teachers reporting, approximately five percent had followed some other type of work for one year or less, and over 15 percent had pursued another calling for a period of from one to 20 years. While the data on the point in question are insufficient for any definite conclusions, they would seem to indicate that teaching has been predominantly the work of those giving instruction in the rural high schools of New York. It is to be noted, however, that over one-fifth of those reporting have followed other vocations for periods of time varying from one-half year to twenty years. It is significant also that only for principals is the number having fol- lowed other lines of work for a period of one year or more more than a third of those reporting. Types of work most frequently reported by principals as having been followed were farming, clerical work, business, factory work, insurance, tutoring and the work of sales- 114 man; by teachers: tutoring, office work, clerking, farming, factory work, and music. Table 58. —Money Earning Work Engaged i>, Other Than Teaching Length of time None Only in sum- mer Less than one year One year Two years Three years Four years Five years 6-10 years 11-20 years Num- ber re- port- ing Not re- port- ing Principals. . . . Teachers 24 88 18 60 8 10 13 17 3 5 2 2 2 3 1 4 1 2 77 186 46 107 Total 1 Percent of principals Percent of teachers . 112 31.2 47.3 78 23.4 32.3 18 10.4 5.4 30 16.9 9.1 8 3.9 2.7 2 2.6 4 2.6 1.1 4 3.7 0.5 5 5.2 0.5 2 1.1 263 62.6 63.5 153 37.4 36.5 Percent of total .... 42.2 29.6 6.8 11.4 3.0 0.8 1.5 1.5 1.9 0.8 63.2 36.8 Professional Growth It is quite generally recognized that an important factor in the professional growth of the members of a profession is their constant interest in and contact with the current problems and trends of the profession. The physician who is advancing in his calling must keep in touch with the progress made in medicine and the treatment of disease. The progressive farmer keeps informed as to the develop- ments in the science of agriculture. Likewise the teacher, following one of the most difficult of callings, if he is to continue to develop in teaching skill and understanding, must at all times be acquainted with the best that is being done in education, at least in the phases pertaining* to his particular type of work. While it is practically impossible to estimate accurately the pro- fessional interest and growth of a group except by the observation and study of the individuals composing it, there are certain things which may be regarded as an index. One index of professional in- terest and growth on the part of the teacher is professional study while in service. Among other things are membership in profes- 1 The percentages as to types of money earning work engaged in other than teaching are computed on the basis of number reporting. "5 sional organizations for teachers, professional reading, and the study of the work of other teachers. As to the manner of spending the summer vacation, 406 of the 416 principals and teachers gave definite replies. Fifty-four or 13 per- cent reported attendance at summer school; 131 or 31.5 percent worked during the summer; 150 or 36 percent gave "at home" or "rest" as the manner of spending the summer vacation, and 16 or 3.8 percent spent the time in study. Other ways mentioned by a few for each were: tutoring, farming, keeping house, teaching music, clerical work, travel, and athletics. Table 59. — Manner of Spending the Summer Vacation Manner of spending vacation Principals Teachers Total Percent of total Summer school Stu.lv Work At home 22 5 55 10 10 2 1 8 1 1 2 4 2 32 11 76 58 72 4 6 2 10 5 2 2 5 8 54 16 131 68 82 6 7 10 11 6 4 2 9 10 13.0 3.8 31.5 16.3 Rest Tutoring 19.7 1.4 Teach music Farm Keep house Clerical work Travel Athletics Miscellaneous Not reported 1.7 2.4 2.6 1.4 1.0 0.5 2.2 2.4 With regard to membership in educational organizations, 29 per- cent of the 123 principals reported no membership in an educational organization. Thirty-four percent were members of the New York State Teachers Association; 20 percent belonged to other New- York State educational associations. Approximately 28 percent were members of regional or county organizations. Six and one- half percent belonged to the National Education Association and eight percent were members of other national educational organiza- tions. Of the teachers, 48 percent reported no membership in an educa- tional organization. Thirty-seven percent were members of the n6 New York State Teachers Association; 2.7 percent belonged to other educational organizations of the State; and 13 percent be- longed to regional or county associations. Five percent of the teach- ers were members of the Modern Language Association, two per- cent of the National Education Association, and 7.4 percent re- ported membership in other national teachers' organizations. The average membership for each principal was approximately one or- ganization: the average membership in educational organizations for each teacher was approximately two-thirds. Table 60. — Membership in Teachers' Organizations Kind of organization Princi- pals Per- cent Teach- ers Per- cent Total Per- cent None 36 29.3 141 48.1 177 42.5 N. Y. State Teachers Asso- ciation 42 34.1 108 36.9 150 36.1 Section or County Associa- tion 34 27.6 39 13.3 73 17.5 Nat'l Education Association 8 6.5 6 2.0 14 3.4 Other Nat'l Teachers Asso- ciations 10 8.1 21 7.2 31 7.4 In answer to the query as to professional reading done during the year, slightly over 40 percent of the rural high school principals re- ported no reading in professional magazines and journals. The five publications most often mentioned by the principals who had done professional reading of this sort were, in order of frequency given, The School Board Journal, New York Teachers Association Journal, The State Department School Bulletin, American Education, and the Journal of the National Education Association. Thirty-one per- cent of the principals reported no reading of professional books dur- ing the year. The five books most frequently mentioned by those who had read professional books were, in the order of frequency mentioned, Methods of Teaching in High Schools, Parker; Com- mon Sense in School Supervision, Wagner; The Discipline of the School, Morehouse; The Class-room Teacher, Strayer and Engel- hardt ; and the Administration of Village and Consolidated Schools, Finney and Schafer. 117 Forty-three percent of the teachers reported no reading of pro- fessional magazines and journals during the year, and an additional six percent had read only the New York State Teachers Association Journal. The five most frequently mentioned educational maga- zines and journals read by teachers were in the order of frequency mentioned: New York State Teachers Association Journal, The English Journal, The Modern Language Journal, The Historical Outlook, and the Classical Journal. Forty-nine percent of the teach- ers reported no reading of professional books during the year. Those who had done reading in professional books gave the following most frequently, in the order mentioned: The Teaching of English, Chubb; The Teaching of English in Secondary Schools, Thomas; School Discipline, Bagley; All the Children of all the People, Smith; and The Teaching of History, Johnson. Of the 405 principals answering the questionnaire on administra- tion and organization of the rural high school, 348 replied to the query as to the existence of a teachers' reading circle in their school. According to these replies there were during the school year of 1920-1921 twenty-three teachers' reading circles in the 348 schools, or one for each 15 schools. Table 61.- -Teachers' Reading Circles as Reported by 348 Rural High School Principals Type of school 1^9 pupils 50-99 pupils 100-149 pupils 150 and over Total Number of schools with teach- ers' reading circle Number of schools having no teachers' reading circle 7 170 7 101 4 43 5 11 23 325 The instructor in the city high school usually has the opportunity of coming in touch each day with other teachers giving instruction in the same subject. Under such circumstances discussions of or- ganization of subject matter, method, and aims become almost in- evitable. There is a sharing of problems and ways of solving them. In many cities also there is provision for the observation of teaching as done by the stronger teachers in the same high school or in other iiS schools. In the rural high school there is usually lacking the daily contact of a teacher with others doing the same type of work. The observation of teaching as done by other teachers is as a general thing rare or entirely lacking. Thus the rural high school teacher tends to lose the help and inspiration in his work that might come from such contacts. The data supplied by 338 principals indicate that opportunity for one of these means of growth, the observation of teaching in other schools, is given teachers in a considerable number of schools. While 53 percent reported that their teachers had not observed teaching in other schools during the year, over 28 percent reported that their teachers had observed teaching in other schools once, and 19 per- cent reported two or more observations during the year. These replies indicate that many rural high school teachers have some op- portunity to observe teaching as done by instructors in other schools. Summary of Salient Points The facts found with regard to the teaching staff of the rural high school show that a large proportion of the instructors are immature and inexperienced. One-fourth of the teachers (excluding the prin- cipals) under whose direction the pupil receives his training are 24 years old or younger, and over one-half his instructors, including his principal, are under 28 years of age. While there are undoubtedly many things to be said in favor of the young high school teacher filled with enthusiasm for his work, the lack of contact with mature instructors possessed of a background of experience is also un- doubtedly a handicap in the training of the pupil in the rural high school. Excluding his principal, one out of every four teachers of the rural high school pupil is practically without experience, having had one year or less, and one out of every five, including his principal. Practically one-half of his teachers are new to his school each year, and in over three schools out of every ten the pupil is under the guidance and counsel of a principal new r to the position and to the community. He has practically one chance in seven of graduating under the same principal with whom he begins his school work. 119 Of the high school teaching staff, three in ten are men. This pro- portion of men to women teachers is not much below the ratio com- monly found in high schools throughout the country. Considering, however, the fact that the male teacher in the small school is usually the principal, the actual teaching ratio is lower than that indicated by the proportion of men to women. In reality the pupil in the rural high school receives instruction from a man in less than one out of every four recitations. Without entering at all into the rela- tive merits of the work done by men and women as high school in- structors, the fact remains that the high school boy particularly would probably profit by more frequent contacts with men during his high school course. Especially in the promotion and stimulation of extra-class activities of the type interesting to boys more men are needed as teachers in the rural high schools. This would seem to be one of the problems worthy of serious attention. Practically nine out of every ten instructors are of American stock. More than eight out of every ten are from the State of New York. Approximately three out of four are either from the open country or from villages. Between four and five out of every ten are from families interested in farming as an occupation. These facts indicate that a fair proportion of the teaching staff should, both by virtue of early experience and present occupational inter- ests, have a sympathetic attitude toward and some understanding of rural life and rural problems. The high percentages coming from New York State should give a rural high school staff especially well informed as to problems within the State. There is a question, how- ever, as to whether there might not be advantages in breadth of view and differences in viewpoint to be gained from a larger number of principals and teachers recruited from other states. Approximately three in five of the rural high school teaching staff have had regular academic and professional training equal to grad- uation from a standard college. Four instructors in one hundred have done graduate work. Nineteen in one hundred have had an amount of regular training represented by graduation from a normal school; and nine in a hundred have done from one to four years of college work. Ten in a hundred have had less regular training than is required for graduation from a standard normal school and eight percent have had only a high school course or high school plus one year in a high school training class. Conservatively stated, the facts show that more than 35 in each 100, or more than one out of three of the rural high school corps of instruction, have less training than the minimum standards generally recognized as desirable for teach- ing in standard high schools. This conclusion is based upon stan- dards already existing. The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, including in its territory eighteen States in the Middle West and West, requires that the instructors of aca- demic subjects in high schools accredited by the Association shall have as a minimum preparation a four-year course in a standard college of which at least eleven semester hours must have been de- voted to professional training. California has set as its standard for high school instructors in academic subjects graduation from college plus one year of advanced work. New York City requires graduation from a standard college or university (or the equivalent in the case of a teacher of modern foreign languages) . In addition it requires either a year's experience in teaching in secondary schools or in college, or 300 hours of graduate work, 60 hours of which shall be devoted to methods in the subject to be taught, or combinations of graduate study and experience equivalent to the 300 hours of academic study. The study of salaries in the rural high schools shows that there was a considerable increase in 1920-1921 over 1919-20. The in- crease is clearly due to the special funds coming from the State under the Lockwood-Donahue Act. Of both principals, and teachers, however, at least one-fourth received in 1920-1921 less than should be paid for high school instruction if the rural high school is to build up a well-trained permanent teaching force. A median salary of $1,750 for principalship positions with one-fourth under $1,500 is too low to attract and hold men of desirable training and ability to work in the rural high school. With a median salary for teachers of less than $1,225, and with one-fourth of the salaries under $1,125 and less than one-fourth over $1,350, the rural high school is not in a position to demand teachers with the desired amount of training or to hold such teachers when secured. Under existing salary con- ditions the well-trained teacher of ability will look toward the city high school positions after a year or two of teaching experience gained in the rural high school. It should be recognized that the question of salary is not the only factor drawing teachers toward the larger high schools. The social and professional advantages of the larger centers are undoubtedly important factors. The opportunities for greater specialization and the smaller number of daily teaching periods as contrasted with the wide range of subjects and larger number of teaching periods re- quired in the rural high school are also factors operating to attract to the larger schools those planning to make teaching a profession. To offset these attractive features of the high school positions in urban centers, among other things, it would seem that the rural high school must offer greater salary inducements definitely reward- ing teaching experience and professional improvement. One of the most important factors in maintaining the efficiency of a teaching force is generally recognized to be its active interest in professional problems. All findings indicate that as a group the rural high school teachers give a small amount of time to those things tending toward professional growth. Many individual prin- cipals and teachers give much attention to professional reading and other means of professional improvement. As a group, however, the percentage attending summer schools is exceedingly low, being only 13 percent in the case of 416 principals and teachers studied. The data indicate also that a comparatively large percentage of the principals and teachers are not members of any teachers' associa- tions. In the case of principals, 29 percent reported no membership in an educational organization and 48 percent of the teachers re- ported no membership. Four out of every ten principals and teach- ers reported no reading for the year in professional magazines and journals. Three out of ten in the case of the principals and five out of ten in the case of the teachers reported no professional books read during the year. In 23 out of 348 high schools for which data are available there were teachers' reading circles for the study of educational questions. In 47 percent of the 338 rural high schools where the principal reported on the item the teachers observed teaching in other high schools once or more than once during the year. All findings show that more opportunities for professional improvement and more stimulation toward the professional growth of rural high school principals and teachers are needed in the State. Recommendations for the Improvement of the Rural High School Teacher All steps looking toward the improvement of the rural high school teaching staff should have as the aims: (1) The creation of a pro- fessional body of rural high school principals and teachers with academic and professional training equal to graduation from a standard college and with an amount of time devoted to professional training equal to at least twelve college semester hours; and (2) the stimulation of professional interest and growth during service. / . I It is therefore recommended:. 1. That the existing system of certification as it applies to rural high school principals and teachers be simplified and modified with the aim of raising the standards for teaching in the rural high schools of New York, and of furnishing increased incentive for pro- fessional growth while in service. 1 (a/ That a College Graduate Professional Life Certificate be the only life certificate for teaching in the rural high schools of the State: (1) That this certificate state specifically, in the case of teach- ers of academic subjects, the major and minor groups of subjects, and in the case of a teacher of vocational subjects, the major field and one minor (which may be an academic group) in which the holder is authorized to give high school instruction; and (2) that this certificate be granted only after a minimum of five years of successful teaching in high school and one year of graduate study of which a minimum of one-half shall have been devoted to pro- fessional subjects. The major and minor groups shall be deter- mined in terms of the amount of time required for major and minor groups of subjects respectively for graduation from a standard col- lege as defined by the University of the State of New York. / 1 It should be noted that the Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Educa- tion in his report of 1914 called attention to the need of higher standards for teaching in the high schools of the State and recommended a plan similar in some respects to the one presented in this report. Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1914, pp. 194-195. 123 (b) That a College Graduate Professional Limited Certificate good for five years and renewable for an additional term of five years and requiring a minimum of twelve semester hours of professional train- ing as a part of the work toward the college degree be, after 1927, the lowest certificate granted for teaching in the rural high schools of the State. It is recommended that this certificate state specific- ally, as in the College Graduate Professional Life Certificate, the major and minor groups of subjects in which the holder is author- ized to give high school instruction, and that the interpretation of major and minor groups be identical with that in the College Grad- uate Professional Life Certificate. (c) That a College Graduate Temporary Certificate good for two years and not renewable be granted on a degree from a standard college and authorizing the holder to give high school instruction in groups of subjects specifically stated, the interpretation of major and minor subject groups to be identical with that in the higher certificates. It is recommended that this certificate be discon- tinued after 1927. (d) It is recommended that for principalship or supervisory work in the rural high schools of the State, either certificate (a) or (b) be required, with the special requirements: (1) that one-half of the professional study regularly required for the certificate be in the fields of school administration, organization, and supervision; or (2) that a minimum of six semester hours shall have been devoted to the study of these subjects in addition to the regular require- ments in professional subjects, as provided for in certificates (a) and (b). II The standards proposed in the plan of certification for rural high school teachers are conservative in comparison with those the North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges, in- cluding in its territory eighteen States, requires for teaching in high schools accredited by the association. They are conservative also when compared with the requirements for teaching in high schools in California, or in- New York City, and other cities. It is realized, however, that the proposed standards are not justified under pres- 124 ent conditions as to salaries in the rural high schools. Therefore it is recommended that: 1. A graduated salary schedule be formulated for the rural high schools of the State that shall be based upon: (a) Academic and professional training. (b) Professional experience and success. (c) Professional improvement in service. This salary schedule should be designed to reward teaching on the basis of the three items above rather than upon the size of the high school in which the teaching is done or upon the wealth of the par- ticular community in which the school is situated. Ill One of the great needs of the New York rural high school today as shown by all phases of the study of the rural high schools is a body of principals and teachers of thorough professional training and informed and alive to the recent developments in all aspects of secondary education. To insure the existence of such a professional body the recommendations in I and II are important factors. There is also imperative the development of specific means and agencies, first, to prepare persons to become teachers in the rural high schools of the State; and secondly, for placing before principals and teachers in service the latest ideas and means for the improve- ment of their work. To meet the needs of the first group, those pre- paring to teach, the State should make more adequate provision for the training of rural high school principals and teachers. To meet the needs of the second group, those in service, it would seem advis- able to make more specific provision for the consideration of rural high school problems in administration, supervision, and instruc- tion. To accomplish this end partially, more definite attention should be given to the consideration of rural high school problems in such existing agencies as the State Teachers Association and the various local and regional teachers' organizations. These should be supplemented by agencies to be devised and set up specifically for the training of rural high school principals and teachers in service, as: summer school courses of college grade planned definitely to consider the problems of the small high school in the selection and 125 organization of subject matter and the methods of teaching the various high school subjects; in the administration, organization, and supervision of the small high school; and in the principles underlying secondary education. Conferences for high school prin- cipals and teachers dealing with specific problems should become a feature in each of the intermediate school units of the State. In addition, extension courses should be encouraged wherever possible. 126 CHAPTER VI THE OBSERVATION OF CLASS-ROOM INSTRUCTION ONE of the important factors in determining the efficiency of any school or type of schools is undoubtedly the work, of the class-room teacher. To give an adequate picture of New York rural high schools it was deemed necessary to make a careful study of a comparatively large number of recitations in a large number of high schools and in a fairly wide range of subjects. The difficulties of estimating definitely the efficiency of any recita- tion were, of course, recognized. Scientifically established criteria of high school teaching are unfortunately lacking. It seemed advisable to devise a plan which should first give attention to those phases of high school class-room work that are generally conceded to be in- dices of its efficiency; and secondly, be reducible in part at least to statistical treatment. It was deemed important also that the plan used should be interpreted similarly by all persons working on this problem of the survey in order to yield comparable results. Method Used With the above requirements in the foreground, a provisional plan for the observation of high school instruction was formulated. This provisional plan was then submitted to various members of the survey staff and to other persons of wide experience in education and particularly in high school supervision. After revision in ac- cordance with criticisms offered the plan was tested in the actual observation of a number of recitations in several high schools and the existing weaknesses eliminated in so far as possible. The out- line as finally used in the survey was divided into five main sec- tions: (1) Class Routine; (2) Assignment and Study Guidance; (3) Conduct of the Recitation, with five special items for subjects of the form or drill type, as mathematics and languages, and for recita- 127 lions in other subjects where the work of the recitations was upon these phases; (4) General observations; and (5) Critical comments. NEW YORK STATE RURAL SCHOOL SURVEY Observation of High School Teaching School Date Observer Subject No. pupils Class or year Lesson Topic I. Class Routine: (1) Time spent in preliminaries? (2) Were the materials systematically arranged and handled? (3) Conditions favorable for work? Chief hindrances? II. Assignment and Study Guidanck: (1) Place of assignment: Beginning? Close? Divided? (2) Amount of time consumed? Taken by pupils in written form? (3) Aim: Definite (clear statement of objective to be attained?) Certain number of pages or topics in text? (4) How motivated? Were "Regents" mentioned? How? (5) Did pupils enter into the making of assignment by suggesting problems or topics of interest to them? (6) What was done in the way of suggestions for working out assignment (problems, guiding topics, supplementary readings, observations, experi- ments, methods of attack, community sources)? (7) Was any differentia tion in assignment made? On what basis? III. Conduct of Recitation: (1) Was aim clear and definite, either as stated by instructor or as evident from recitation? remote? immediate? (2) Type of lesson : development drill review study catechizing application appreciation other types (3) Procedure: question and answer topical discussion class reports telling lab. exercises note taking read- ing of text and discussion demonstration seat work blackboard work oral drill criticism of work previously done by the class other procedure 128 (4) Outstanding characteristics of questions: thought stimulating yes and no clear cut vague other characteristics. (5) Fraction of answers repeated by instructor? apparent purpose? (6) Fraction of class called upon? fraction of responses satisfactory to instructor? number of failures to respond when called upon? (7) Were pupils encouraged to contribute new material? to express divergent views? were supporting facts insisted upon? (8) What devices were used to give concreteness to the work (blackboard illustrations objects drawings specimens maps examples charts applications of principle to known situations, etc.?) (9) Were any connections made with other school subjects? With other things within pupils' experience? (10) Did instructor try to arrive at conclusions for which there was evident lack of facts in possession of pupils? What was done? (11) Did recitation hold consistently to its purpose? rambling? (12) What variety in procedure was used? For Form Subjects Only: (13) Were responses made by class in the main, accurate? inaccu- rate? given with confidence? doubt? (14) Were errors immediately checked up and pupils making them required to give correct responses? (15) To what extent were the corrections contributed by members of the class? (16) Were the pupils given practice in applying known facts and princi- ples to problems containing new elements? in miscellaneous order? (17) Drill: Fraction of recitation given to drill? snappy? listless? emphasize pivotal points? attention given to speed? accuracy? need of drill made evident to pupils? how? to what extent was time spent drilling individual pupils upon items apparently known to rest of class? IV. General Observations: (1) Was attitude of pupils — attentive? orderly? indifferent? disorderly? If indifferent or disorderly, what was apparent cause? (2) Were desirable habits of work emphasized: punctuality in assigned work? neatness? thoroughness? responsibility? 9 129 (3) Were pupils in process of recitation frequently interrupted by other pupils? by instructor? purpose? (4) Fraction of recitation consumed by instructor talking? to what end? ? (5) Fraction of recitation that instructor remained seated at desk? (6) Did instructor give evidences of adequate preparation for the recita- tion? pupils? (7) What use did instructor make of text during recitation? (8) Fraction of class kept busy during recitation? (9) Were "Regents" mentioned? How? (10) What points in recitation stood out in mind of observer as having been adequately developed during recitation? (11) In the opinion of observer what was the strongest feature of the recita- tion? Wrakest? V. Critical Comments: Criticize carefully organization and procedure, e.g., questioning, presentation, development of main points, manner of in- structor toward class, etc. The plan having been determined upon, a staff of seven persons, all of whom had had broad experience in directing and supervising high school instruction, was selected. This staff met and gave a day to a careful analytical study of the plan and to training in its use. Definite written instructions were given to each person as to the methods of observation and the recording of data so that as little variation as possible might result. Each recitation observed was seen in its entirety and every period of observation was followed by a free period during which the observer completed his report on the recitation visited before making the next observation. The sub- jects the teaching of which was observed were those most com- monly taught with the exception of two recitations in commercial arithmetic and commercial geography. Number of Schools Visited and Recitations Observed The observation staff studied class-room work in 61 different high schools located in every section of the State and including all types of rural high schools based upon number of pupils enrolled. One hundred and seventy-nine recitations were observed as taught by 144 different instructors. The observations were distributed as to the time of the year as follows : April 18-27, 1921 8 observations May 9-13, 1921 100 May 16-20, 1921 42 October 10-28, 1921 29 The subjects the teaching of which was observed, and number of recitations in each, were as follows: History, 24; English, 35; algebra, 22; plane geometry, 15; for- eign languages, 33; biology, 23; physics, 11; civics, 14; commercial arithmetic, 1; commercial geography, 1; total, 179. Statistical Resume of Results In detail, the observation of high school instruction in the rural high schools visited brought out the following facts, which it seems reasonable to assume represent fairly well teaching in all rural high schools of the State: I. Class routine : 1 . How much time was spent in the steps preliminary to the work of the recitation? None, 102 recitations; 1 to 3 minutes, 66; 4 to 5 minutes, 9; 6 to 10 minutes, 2 recitations. 2. Were materials systematically arranged and handled? None used other than text-book, 99; yes, 68; no, 12. 3. Were conditions favorable for work? No, 44 recitations; yes, 109; fair, 26. What were the chief hindrances in carrying on the work? Large assembly room, 2; class in study room, 38; dark room, 10; small crowded room, 9; shortage of books, 15; other hindrances reported were chairs without writing arms; insufficient blackboard space; and noisy room. II. Assignment and Study Guidance: 1 . At what point in the recitation was the assignment made? Beginning, 53 recitations; close, 96; divided, 30. 131 2. How much time was devoted to the making of the assignment? Less than }/?. minute, 36 cases; x /2 to 1 minute, 50; 1 to 5 minutes, 63; 5 minutes or over, 30. 3. Was the aim of the assignment definite (clear statement of the objectives to be attained) or was it indefinite and vague? Definite, 55 cases; indefinite and vague, 102; difficult to classify, 22. 3 (a). Was the assignment taken by the pupils in written form? No, 100 cases; yes, 50; merely checked in text, 29. 3 (b). Was the assignment made in terms of pages in the text- book only? Yes, 132 cases; no, 47. 4. Was any attempt made to motivate the assignment? No attempt, 94 recitations; some attempt made, 85 recita- tions. 4 (a). What was the nature of the motivation? Mention of Regents examinations, 45 recitations; mention of school examinations, 5 ; emphasizing the need of study, 1 2 ; connections made with current questions, 8; interest in new phases of the work, 3; rivalry between members of the class, 2; remain after school, 2; told to prepare the lesson, 2; assign- ment of problems, 5; interest in characters in literature, 1. 5. Did pupils enter into the making of the assignment by sug- gesting problems or topics of interest to them? No, 167 assignments; yes, 12 assignments. 6. What was done in the way of suggestions for working out the assignment? Nothing, 107 cases; problems, 10; calling attention to guiding topics and important items, 36; hints as to methods of attack, 17; assignment of supplementary reading, 9. 7. Was any differentiation made in the assignment, and if so, what? No, 174 cases; yes, 5. 132 7 (a). Nature of the differentiation: Individual pupils asked to choose a subject, 2 assignments; Assignments of topics to individual pupils, 2; Assignment to individuals of topics at close of chapter in text-book, 1. III. The Conduct of the Recitation: 1. Was the aim of the recitation clear and definite, either as stated by the instructor or as evident from the recitation, or was it indefinite? Clear and definite, 99 recitations; indefinite, 80. 1 (a). Was the aim remote or immediate? Remote, 72 recitations; immediate, 44; so indefinite as to make classification impossible, 63. 2. What types of lesson were most prominent? l Development, 51 recitations; review, 85; catechizing, 82; drill, 44; application, 39; appreciation, 13; telling, 15; study, 8; debate, 1; observation, 1. 3. What was the procedure or method of attack used in the recita- tion? Question and answer, 137; blackboard work, 62; telling, 49; topical discussion, 27; seat work, 23; reading of text and dis- cussion, 22; demonstration and laboratory, 21; criticism of work previously prepared by the class, 16; oral drill, 19; trans- lation, 12; class reports, 10; taking notes and dictation, 8. 4. What were the outstanding characteristics of the questions used? Thought stimulating, 96 ; memory testing, 81 ; many "yes and no" questions, 62; questions clear cut and direct, 64; vague and indefinite, 17; many questions suggesting their own an- swer, 6; stereotyped form of question, 4; questions answered by the instructor without giving the pupils an opportunity to answer, 5. 1 In item 2 and the two following items the number of cases does not equal the total number of recitations observed, as more than one type was prominent in the course of the recitation period. 133 5. What fraction of the answers to questions were repeated by the instructor? None, 110 recitations; less than one-half, 19 recitations; one- half or more, 50 recitations. 5 (a). What was the apparent purpose of the instructor in re- peating the answers given by the pupils? To emphasize the answer, 19; to amplify and develop answer, 12; to let rest of class hear the answer, 9; to put answer in better form, 6; merely a matter of habit, 5; for criticism of answer given, 3; to introduce the next question, 3; miscella- neous, 12. 6. What fraction of the class was called upon during the recita- tion? None, 1 recitation; one-fourth, 19; one-half, 41; three- fourths, 30; all, 88 recitations. 6 (a). What fraction of the responses by pupils were satisfactory to the instructor? None, 1 recitation; one-half, 48; three-fourths, 99; all, 31. 6 (b). How many failures on the part of the pupils to respond when called upon? None, 51 recitations; one, 27 recitations; 2, 33 recitations; 3, 23 recitations; 4, 14 recitations; 5 or more, 31. 7. Were pupils encouraged during the recitation to contribute new material? No, 138 recitations; yes, 41. 7 (a). To express views other than those of the text-book? No, 147 recitations; yes, 32. 7 (b). Were pupils required to give facts supporting their an- swers? No, 136 recitations; yes, 43. 134 8. What devices were used by the instructor to give concreteness to the work of the recitation? None, 81 recitations; objects, 9; blackboard illustrations, 36; examples, 13; drawings, 12; maps, 7; applications to pupils' experiences, 21; specimens, 2; charts, 2. 9. Were any connections made during the recitation with other school subjects? No, 162 recitations; yes, 17 recitations. 9 (a). Were any connections made with other things within pupils' experiences? No, 129 recitations; yes, 50. The types of connections made were: with home life, 6; with diet, 5; with village institutions, 4; with plants, fruits, and birds, 4; miscellaneous, occurring once each, 39. 10. Did the instructor attempt to arrive at conclusions during the recitation for which there was evident lack of facts in the possession of the pupils? No, 126 recitations; yes, 53. 10 (a). What did the instructor do? Told the class, 26 cases; accepted indefinite answers, 9 cases; left the point undeveloped, 7 cases ; turned to the text, 6 cases ; given as future problem, 3 cases; chided the class, 2 cases. 1 1 . Did the recitation hold consistently to its purpose or was it rambling? Consistent, 72 cases; very rambling, 27; rambling at times, 80. 12. What variety in procedure was used? x The following five points on the conduct of the recitation treat only the 88 recitations in form or drill subjects or recitations in other subjects on phases emphasizing drill: 1 See items 2 and 3, III. 135 13. Were the responses made by members of the class in the main accurate or inaccurate? Accurate, 73 recitations; inaccurate, 15. 13 (a). Were the responses given by the pupils with confidence or with doubt? With confidence, 50 recitations; with doubt, 38. 14. Were errors immediately checked up and pupils making them required to give correct responses? Yes, 34 recitations; no, 54. 15. To what extent were the corrections made contributed by members of the class? None or less than one-half, 34 recitations; one-half or more, 54. 16. Were the pupils given practice in applying known facts and principles to problems containing new elements? Yes, 62 recitations; no, 26. 16 (a). In miscellaneous order? Yes, 56 recitations; no, 32. 17. What fraction of the recitation was definitely given to drill? None, 19 recitations; one-fourth, 13; one-half, 28; all, 28. 17 (a). Was the drill "snappy" or listless? "Snappy," 30 recitations; listless, 39. 17 (b) Did the drill emphasize pivotal points in the work? Yes, 37 recitations; no, 32. 17 (c). Was close attention given to accuracy? Yes, 32; no, 37. 17 (d). Was attention given to speed? Yes, 8; no, 61. 136 17 (e). To what extent was time spent in drilling individual pupils upon items apparently known to the remainder of the class? Five to 10 minutes, 6 cases; over ten minutes, 3 cases. IV. General Observations on the recitation as a whole. 1. Was the attitude of the pupils attentive? Yes, 132 recitations; no, 47. 1 (a). Orderly? Yes, 134 recitations; no, 45. 1 (b). Indifferent? Yes, 57 recitations; no, 122. 1 (c). What was the apparent cause of the indifference or dis- orderliness? Lack of stimulation, 8 cases; formal, lifeless treatment of the subject, 12; no aim to the recitation, 9; general spirit of the school, 5; lack of preparation on the part of the pupils, 5; pupils uninterested in the subject, 4; instructor took up all the time, 4; nothing for pupils to do, 5; no organization of the work, 2 ; no respect for the instructor, 1 . 2. Were desirable habits of work emphasized? punctuality in assigned work? Yes, 136 recitations; no, 43. Neatness? Yes, 145; no, 34. Thoroughness? Yes, 143 recitations; no, 36. Responsibility on part of pupils? Yes, 49; to some degree, 90; no, 40. 3. Were pupils in the process of the recitation frequently inter- rupted? By other pupils? Yes, 21 recitations; no, 138. By the instructor? Yes, 51 recitations; no, 128. 137 3 (a). What was the apparent purpose on the part of the in- structor? To make corrections, 16 recitations; to ward off incorrect an- swers, 7; to complete answers, 8; to make fickle remarks, 9; to stimulate to study, 3; to insist upon accuracy, 2; to hurry up pupils, 2; to interpret answers, 2; to exhort pupils, 2. 4. What fraction of the recitation was consumed by the instructor talking? Practically none, 11 recitations; one-fourth, 78; one-half, 51; three-fourths or more, 39. 4 (a). To what end? Keep the recitation moving, 8 cases; elaborate upon the pupil's replies, 22; to make corrections, 19; to give directions, 24; to give explanations, 34; to supply information, 13; to draw out pupils, 4; to criticize pupils, 4; to give rambling dissertations, 4; to interpret, 2. 5. What fraction of the recitation did the instructor remain seated at his desk? None, 126 recitations; one-fourth, 3; one-half, 9; three- fourths, 5; the whole time, 36. 6. Did the instructor give evidence of adequate preparation for the lesson? Yes, 149 recitations; no, 30. The pupils? Yes, 122 recitations; no, 57. 7. What use did the instructor make of the text-book? The only guide for the recitation, 55 recitations; sole basis for the assignment, 132; the guide for questions, 34; read from the text-book, 13; referred to the text-book as the authority, 7. 8. What fraction of the class were kept occupied during the re- citation? None, 6 recitations; one-fourth, 34; one-half, 20; three- fourths, 14; all, 103. 138 9. Were the Regents mentioned in the conduct of the recitation? Yes, 29 recitations; no, 150. 1 9 (c). How? Regents Review books used as basis of preceding assignment, 17 cases; basis of questions asked in recitation, 9; to stimu- late study, 2. 10. What points in the recitation stood out in the mind of the observer as having been adequately developed during the recitation? One or more points, 124 recitations; none, 55 recitations. 1 1 . In the opinion of the observer what was the strongest feature of the recitation? the weakest? The strongest feature as reported by the observers: Insistence upon accuracy and thoroughness, 40 recitations; stimulating the interest of the pupils, 19; the enthusiasm of the instructor for his work, 21; good class discussions, 16; skill in conducting drill, 14; skill in the development of the lesson, 10; good organization of the recitation, 14; use of the pupils' experiences, 8; skilful emphasis upon pivotal points in the lesson, 7; instructor's mastery of the subject, 7; the patient, sympathetic attitude of the instructor, 6; a good assignment, 6. The weakest feature as reported by the observers : "Teacher did everything," 29 recitations; no phases of the lesson given any particular emphasis, 14; no organization of the lesson material, 14; entire lack of responsibility upon the part of the pupils, 22; dead, formal treatment of the subject- matter, 12; treatment of a great mass of details in unre- lated fashion, 9; listless catechism, 5. Other weakest features reported a few times each were : em- phasis upon the mere acquisition of facts; no definite aim or objectives; teacher did all the thinking; pupils spoke in very low and indistinct tones; short, fragmentary answers; poorer pupils neglected; poor assignment; no guiding prob- lems; many inaccuracies; rambling diffuseness ; lack of defi- nite accomplishment; and bookish abstractions. 1 These figures are exclusive of those given in reference to the assignment. 139 V. Critical Comments The critical comments made by the several observers add but little to the material already gained but rather emphasize the main characteristics as indicated in the preceding divisions of the obser- vations. The most frequent critical comments were: the presenta- tion was formal; there was lack of definite organization of subject- matter and of procedure; there was no definite aim to the teaching; the attitude of the pupil was that of indifference; the work of the class room was slow and listless; the work of instruction was ab- stract and bookish ; no emphasis was given to any particular topics or problems; there was a failure to clinch the points made; the pupils showed lack of initiative ; no responsibility was thrown upon the pupils; mere text-book work; there was no supplementary reading. General Summary of Class-room Teaching Class Routine. — With regard to class routine the following were the outstanding characteristics as reported by the observers. The high school instructors observed wasted practically no time in begin- ning the work of the recitation, approximately 57 percent entering immediately into the work. Another 37 percent spent three minutes or less in getting ready for the lesson. In 57 percent of the recita- tions no materials other than the text-book were used. In the 80 recitations where other materials were employed, they were sys- tematically and economically handled in 85 percent of the cases. In 61 percent of the recitations the conditions were favorable for work, and in 24 percent they were decidedly unfavorable. In 15 percent of the recitations the conditions for work were fair, with hindering features. Assignment and Study Guidance. — There was considerable variation in the practice of the instructors observed as to the time of making the assignment. The most common practice was to make it at the end of the recitation period, this being done in 55 percent of the recitations. The next most common place was at the beginning of the recitation, where it was made in approximately 29 percent of the cases. One of the most striking facts with respect to the assign- ment was the little time given to it. Only one minute or less was 140 given to it in 48 percent of the recitations observed. In 35 percent of the recitations the time devoted to the making of the assignment was from one to five minutes. In only 28 percent was the assign- ment taken by the pupils in any written form, while in 16 percent it was checked in the text-book and in 56 percent no record of the assignment was made by the pupils. In 57 percent of the recitations the assignment made was vague and indefinite; in approximately 73 percent it was practically unmotivated. In 25 percent of the recitations where there was motivation, the motive for study was the impending Regents examinations. Including motivation Diagram 14. — Time given to the making of the assignment of lessons. Percent of the 179 recitations studied through local school examinations, the motivation was attempted through mention of examinations in 28 percent of the recitations observed. In 73 percent of the cases the assignment was made in pages of the text-book only. Fifty-nine percent of the assignments were made with no guidance in the way of suggesting methods of attack, suggesting guiding topics, or by calling attention to important prob- lems. Only rarely did the pupils enter into the making of the assignment by suggesting problems and topics of interest to them. In only 5 percent of the assignments observed were references given 141 to supplementary reading. Differentiation as to work for individuals or groups was made in the assignment in 3 percent of the recitations. All data on the assignment indicate that it is one of the weak features in the class-room work in the rural high school. While a few instructors used it as a vital part of the teaching process, as a means of directing and stimulating interest in the work to be done, in the greater proportion of instances it consisted in indicating briefly the gross limits within which the task for the following day lay. It was vague and indefinite. In the main it was not made in sufficient detail to orientate or direct the pupils either through guiding topics or through the suggestion of vital problems tending to stimulate their intellectual curiosity. The Conduct of the Recitation. — In the conduct of the recita- tion as concerned the lesson previously assigned there was much variation of method, with certain predominant characteristics. In 55 percent of the classes the aim of the lesson was fairly definite and in 45 percent it was vague and indefinite, in 26 percent of the cases being so indefinite as to be unrecognizable by the observer. In the majority of the recitations the aim of the lesson was remote and formal. The four most frequent types of lessons observed were in the order of frequency: review of preceding work, prominent in 46 per- cent of the lessons; the catechizing on the lesson assigned for the day, used in 45 percent of the recitations; the development type, a prominent feature in 28 percent; and the drill type, occurring in 24 percent of the lessons observed. 1 The procedure or method of attack was varied, more than one procedure being used during a lesson period in the majority of classes. The methods of attack used were in the order of their fre- quency: question and answer, blackboard work, telling or lectur- ing, topical discussion, seat work, reading of the text accompanied by discussion, demonstration and laboratory, criticism of work pre- viously prepared by the class, oral drill, translation, class reports, and taking notes and dictation. The question and answer procedure 1 In most cases the recitation was not a pure type, but during the lesson period changed from one type to another, so that most recitations represented at least two types. 142 was the outstanding method, being a prominent feature of 76 per- cent of the recitations observed. Blackboard work was second in frequency, occurring in practically one- third of the cases. The tell- ing or lecture method of attack was used by instructors to a great extent in 27 percent of the recitations. Topical discussion and class reports were employed in 15 and 6 percent respectively. The questions used by the instructors were about equally divided between the thought stimulating and the memory types. In ap- proximately 35 percent of the recitations, many questions of the "yes or no" type were used. Approximately 40 percent of the ques- tions used were clear and definite. A small proportion of the ques- tions suggested their own answers ; some were stereotyped in form ; and approximately three percent of the instructors answered their own questions without giving the pupils an opportunity to respond. Thirty percent of the instructors repeated the answers given by pupils to from one-fourth to one-half of the questions asked. In 50 percent of the classes observed all the pupils were called upon, while in 29 percent only one-half or fewer of the pupils in the class were given an opportunity to recite. During the recitation, in only 40 percent of the classes were pupils encouraged to contribute new material. In 35 percent of the classes the pupils were permitted to express views other than those of the text. In 60 percent of the recitations pupils were not required to give definite facts supporting their answers to questions asked. The formal nature of much of the instruction observed is indi- cated by the following facts: In 45 percent of the recitations no devices were used to give concreteness to the class-room work. Ob- jects were employed in five percent of the classes; maps in approxi- mately four percent; and specimens and charts in three percent of the recitations. Eighty-nine percent of the recitations contained no references to other school subjects and 72 percent made no con- nections with other things within the pupils' experience. In the teaching of form or drill subjects, or form phases of other subjects, 88 recitations were observed. In practically 83 percent the responses made by the pupils were in the main accurate and in 17 percent of the classes inaccurate. In approximately 57 percent the responses were given by the pupils with confidence and in 43 143 percent with doubt. In 38 percent of the recitations, when errors were made in the replies of pupils, they were immediately checked up and the pupil who made the error was required to make the cor- rect response; in the other 62 percent the pupil was left, having made only the incorrect response. In 38 percent of the recitations, one-half or fewer of the corrections were made by members of the class. The pupils were given practice in applying known facts and principles to problems containing new elements in 70 percent of the 88 classes and to new elements in miscellaneous order in 63 percent. In 56 percent of the recitations in which all or a portion of the period was devoted definitely to drill, the drill work was listless; in the other 44 percent it was "snappy." In 46 percent of the form type of lessons observed with time definitely given to drill accuracy was stressed while speed was given attention in less than 11 percent of the classes. In approximately 54 percent of the classes with definite drill work pivotal points in the lesson were emphasized. In general the recognized principles of teaching the form or drill subjects were little followed by the rural high school instructors observed. General Observations. — Under the heading "general observa- tions" the observers of high school instruction gave attention to the broader and more comprehensive phases of the recitation, those things which characterized it as a unit of the educative process. The following give the main points as reported: The attitude of the pupils was attentive in approximately 74 percent of the classes observed and inattentive and indifferent in 26 percent. In one-fourth of the recitations the pupils were disorderly. The most frequent causes given by the observers for the disorderliness and indifference were: formal, lifeless treatment of the subject; lack of stimulation; lack of aim to the recitation; nothing for the pupils to do; instructor took up all the time; and lack of preparation on the part of the pupils. Desirable habits of work were not emphasized in a rather large proportion of the classes. Punctuality in preparing the work of the assignment was not required in 24 percent of the classes ; neatness of work was neglected in 19 percent, thoroughness was lacking in 20 percent; and in 22 percent of the classes observed no responsi- bility was thrown upon the pupil. In 50 percent of the recitations, 144 from one-half to three-fourths or more of the period was taken up by the teacher talking. In 66 percent of the recitations the instructor gave evidences of preparation for the classroom work, and in the other 34 percent he had apparently made little or no preparation. The pupils were well prepared in 69 percent of the classes and un- prepared in 31 percent. All the pupils were kept occupied in 57 per- cent of the classes, while in 22 percent one-fourth or fewer were kept occupied throughout the recitation. In over 30 percent of the reci- tations no important points in the lesson stood out in the mind of the observer as having been adequately developed, the work main- taining a dead level throughout the class period. Many instances of teaching strong in certain respects were noted. The most frequently mentioned strong features of class-room work as reported were: insistence upon accuracy and thoroughness; stimulating the interest of the pupils; the enthusiasm of the instruc- tor for his work; good class discussions; and skill in conducting drill. Other strong features not so frequently mentioned were: skill in the development of the lesson; good organization of the recitation; skilful emphasis upon pivotal points in the lesson; skill in the making of the assignment; instructor's mastery of his sub- ject; use of pupils' experiences; and the patient, sympathetic atti- tude of the instructor. The most common weak features of the work in the class room were: " the teacher did everything " ; no phases of the lesson given particular emphasis: no organization of the lesson material as a teaching unit ; lack of responsibility on the part of the pupils ; dead, formal treatment of subject-matter; the treatment of a great mass of details in unrelated fashion; and listless questioning. In conclusion, the following are some of the most prominent char- acteristics of the instruction as observed in the rural high schools. In the main the teachers showed a conscientious, earnest attitude toward their work. Many instances of teaching strong in certain respects were found. As a whole, however, the work of the class room was of a formal, abstract type. Few supplementary materials were used in the way either of readings or of devices to make teach- ing more concrete. But little use was made of the sources in the community available to the pupils. In the main the work lacked io 145 definiteness and immediacy of aim, no real objectives standing out as the goals to be attained. Almost no use was made of the assign- ment as an integral part of the teaching process. The major part of the work might be characterized as informational, with emphasis upon the memorizing of a mass of material. Finally, the teaching on the whole was not of a type to stimulate pupils to initiative, to originality, to the evaluation of materials, or to the assuming of per- sonal responsibility for results. 146 CHAPTER VII THE CURRICULUM Section 1. — The Existing Curricula THE first part of the study of curriculum is devoted to the existing curricula in the rural high schools of the State. The data used as the basis for this phase of the study were derived from two sources: (1) statistics and reports of the State Department of Education; and (2) reports coming directly from principals of rural high schools. The first question considered is that of the present curriculum offerings. Subjects Offered in the Rural High School. — The report of 609 rural high schools to the State Department for 1919-20 shows that practically all schools gave a year of English for each year of work offered and that 53 percent of them offered a course in English grammar and 4.3 percent a course in the history of English litera- ture. Ninety-five percent of the schools gave first year Latin; 93 percent second year Latin; 56 percent third-year Latin; and 34 percent fourth-year Latin. Seventy-five percent gave French I, 69 percent French II, and over 13 percent French III. Ten per- cent offered Spanish I and eight percent Spanish II. Practically all schools gave elementary algebra; 65 percent intermediate algebra; 12 percent advanced algebra; 88 percent plane geometry; 21 percent solid geometry; and ten percent trigonometry. Over 91 percent of the schools gave elementary biology; 69 percent gave physics; and 24 percent chemistry. Physical geography was offered by over 17 percent of the schools and general science by three percent. 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CM .-< rt •— 1 ^ ,— 1 ,-H ,-H 1-49 pu- pils MN) -Cniocn-— ioON rc ro M N <-" "^ S22SO C/l t/1 [/I ^ ■C222 o o T3 t: ~ iJ g ^o.o.o V3-C a d 5 "- Sop C C £ _£ f> M o/a\D c^ ^ M a -2 .2 "3 t> £> » ^ ° ° O^^ O O >> £ 3ii<«^ -,>-iu.OoOO 3333^000 C?3 3 33 |W ""C WWW 4) ONON'OOM'-''5'-ONON»->NOONONO* r OONt— ■rt* tS (N (N (N tN (N r- CO ^ rt „ t-i t-i ^3 i 3:r _ a. cl. . 2.3 > -C-C J3 -C-C-C Ed c r r r 3 c c s £ E rt -1 si n W W W W winm oca 2 >>m"^ E c o cS2-£-oi3-3.f2.c.c.2 o o-C;~-~ WWh5H »-i N CN lO KiNMiflfOiCON 00 NION'*HO(N'* CO rt(N PC ** CN CN CN es ■<* N^'^'Ifl'tOOON cs ^■^Xt^u^^^O^ o >— I CN NfD'^N'H PC PO © O Is po *o no no © 00 (N-HOOOO-tOO^ 00 M (N -h Tf CN N (N -h CN CN N N (N OO 't >-l 't O o CN >o> i/-> >-h cn -* © io 00 rt rt rn rji ro rt «) (N CN ^ 00 oo NO >0 NO NO >0 ■* (N ts OO O^ "* ts O <-■ —. tv) ro -h ro CN CN On o ^(NOOs5")Os5 ,_, (N lO ts s5 ") l') l^ tN ts i-H *-H CN CN ,-, cs] CN CN oo O O CO ■* ts 00 >- c e3 l-H •2 u bC hhS> & 2 DC 1— 1 P— I HH "ctf J3-GJS 1- ' C ^•ri QJ < -Q s ft tt h- ft pc < < u = g.2 o a 4> jj erag rcen iling O 00 ... . > 4) c3 < a 1 - 1 c so > u C ° u w a H P 15* CO ncient Histo merican His ypewriting . lorthand. . . G •a o o H < c 15 4> 3 CO Xco n P met eral ogy mist sics co O G 7? 4> >n o> 4> .y jg ,g 1. OOMUCl, i^ NO a 4_, c tc n 0) C io — i O no PC < IsO'-'lsIs H «-( ^H CN — 1 ^H Cm — JD 3 CO -G ngli atin renc erm lgeb W hJ ft U < O Os o.»-» 41 G PQ sJj3" >N^ -o ■»-• G <-> Z> 4) CO G rt G O u 157 Table 68. — Percent of Pupils Failing in 15 Subjects in 75 V^ High Schools' 'isconsin Subject Percent failing Subject Percent failing Subject Percent failing English 1 English 2 English 4 Latin 1 Latin 2 10.0 7.0 3.0 12.0 7.0 German 1 German 2 Algebra Geometry Physics 10.0 5.0 14.0 13.0 3.0 Phys. Geog. . . . Anc. History. . Cooking Sewing Manual Train- ing 10.0 10.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 shows the percentage of pupils failed in the eight academic subjects, based on a study of approximately 1000 pupils, a random selection for each subject in June, 1920. The data referred to show that taken over the twelve year period the lowest average percentage of failure was in English IV with 12.6 percent. The highest percentage of failure was in second year Latin, with an average of 32 percent, and the second highest in elementary algebra, with 31 percent. A significant fact is that the average percentage of pupils failed for the twelve years 1907-1918 in all academic subjects was 28.8 percent. A study of the distribution of rural high school pupils in eight academic subjects on the basis of grades received in the Regents examinations in June, 1 920, shows a similar high percentage o f failure . It also shows that over one-third of the pupils who passed received grades between 60 and 69, 60 being the passing mark. (Table 69.) It should be noted also that the data presented do not give a com- plete picture of the conditions as they exist. The figures given show only the percentage of pupils failing who have been admitted to the examinations. A considerable percentage of pupils who have taken the work in the various subjects are not permitted by the local authorities to take the Regents examinations. It is the gen- eral practice in the rural high schools to admit to the examinations 1 Janet R. Rankin: A Study of Students Dropped, Failed and Promoted in High School Subjects, Educational Administration and Supervision, Vol. 3 p. 15, 1917. is8 Table 69. — The Distribution of Rural High School Pupils in Eight Academic Subjects on the Basis of Grades Received in the Regents Examinations in June, 1920. (Based on the Grades of Approximately 1,000 Pupils in Each Subject) 1 Subject Biology Elementary Algebra English II English III English IV Latin II Ancient History. . . American History . . Percentage of pupils receiving grade indicated Failed 60-69 47 38 26 17 9 34 21 14 41 24 36 35 31 37 38 35 70-79 9 17 26 32 35 18 23 32 80-89 2 13 11 14 21 9 13 16 90-100 only those pupils whose record for the term is of such a character as to indicate their successful completion. Any system of public high schools failing through a system of examinations on an average more than 28 out of every 100 pupils enrolled in its academic subjects over a period of twelve years should be viewed with much concern. It would seem that such a high percentage of failures, together with the fact that a large percentage of the successful pupils crowd close about the passing standard, indicates clearly the need of a careful study of the existing aims, curriculum content and organization, and standards of achieve- ment of the rural high school. It should be examined minutely in the light of the interests, abilities and life purposes of the pupils for whose training it should exist. Granting that the results of the present system are the selection and preparation of a superior group of individuals for college work, these results would seem to be attained at too great a cost. The State Syllabi for Secondary Schools. — The replies of rural high school instructors to the question as to their use of the State syllabi in the various subjects indicate that over 80 percent of them follow the syllabi to the letter or very closely. Less than 20 percent of the teachers reporting use them only as a guide in organ- 1 From a study by T. L. Bayne, graduate student, Cornell University. 159 izing their work. The facts obtained through the observation of high school instruction and through the visitation of rural high schools and conferences with high school principals and teachers agree with the preceding statements. The fact that the subject matter of the rural high school is so largely determined by the syllabi makes important the question as to the nature and content of the syllabi and their suitability to the needs of the pupils and teachers of the rural high school. A critical study of the secondary school syllabi now in use shows that they are of two general types: The first type consists only of a brief outline of the subject matter, with little or no suggestion as to the aims and objectives desirable. In this type practically no hints as to methods of presentation or as to supplementary sources and materials are given. No indication as to the relative values of the various elements of the course is offered and no optional or alter- native topics of study are suggested. The second type of syllabus differs from the first in that it suggests more or less adequately desirable aims in the teaching of the subject: offers suggestions as to methods of presentation: suggests sources of materials and other educational means: and in some cases gives required, alternative, and optional topics and problems. Examples of syllabi belonging entirely or largely to the first type are those in mathematics, the physical sciences, manual training, the modern foreign languages, and civics. Examples of the second type are the syllabi in biology, drawing, English, history, and Latin. Since these syllabi are the teacher's courses of study in the rural high schools, some of them are considered in detail with reference to certain desirable characteristics of a State course of study. A State course of study, or syllabus, in any secondary school subject should: 1 . Give the aims and objectives (purposes) of the course. 2. Suggest the best methods of teaching the subject and furnish the teacher with a selected list of references on the teaching of the subject in question. 3. Give the principles underlying the selection and organization of subject matter in secondary school subjects and the specific princi- ples pertaining to the subject. 4. Give the subject matter of the course grouped about the im- 160 portant general topics (with required, alternative, and optional topics and problems). 5. Give suggestions for the adaptation of subject matter to dif- ferent types of schools under differing local conditions. 6. Give definite references to sources of data, study materials and readings suited to the maturity and training of the pupils for whom it is intended. 7. Suggest the time to be given to the study and the possible variation as to year in which it is to be offered. Civics and Physics as Examples of Type One. — The syllabi in civics and physics are taken as examples of type one and are ana- lyzed in the light of the desirable characteristics given above. (a) The syllabus in civics contains no definite analysis of the aims and objectives of the course. It does not suggest desirable methods of teaching the subject beyond a brief statement on the preliminary approach, and a suggestion as to the desirability of securing the cooperation of local officials. It offers no references to discussions of objectives, choice and organization of subject matter, or methods of teaching as an aid to the instructor. Beyond a brief general dis- cussion on the desirability of proceeding from local to other types of civic institutions, there are no definite suggestions as to the special principles underlying the selection and organization of subject mat- ter in civics. In the body of the syllabus the topics to be studied are arranged under their appropriate headings as the school district, the town, the village, the city, etc. No indication is made, however, as to the relative importance of the various topics for different types of communities nor is any division made as to required, alternative, or optional topics. No concrete suggestions for the adaptation of sub- ject matter to the different types of schools are offered other than the statement: "In the city, municipal government, and, in the country, the government of the school district and the township should first be studied." Finally, the syllabus in civics gives no references to sources of facts, study materials, or readings. In conclusion, the syllabus in civics lacks in large part those char- acteristics which would make it adaptable and most useful in rural high schools. The contacts of rural pupils with the local, State, and national civic agencies, both voluntary and governmental, are so ii 161 different from the contacts of urban pupils that the effective train- ing of either in this subject would seem to demand extensive adapta- tion of subject matter. Not only are the voluntary agencies existing for the promotion of community welfare in the country in the main different from those in the city, but the local governmental agencies also are different. The rural community also comes more directly in contact with certain phases of State and national government than does the urban community, and is served particularly by certain departments, as the United States Department of Agriculture. The syllabus gives no attention to the various rural organiza- tions, as the Farm and Home Bureaus, the Grange or other organiza- tions important in rural communities. (b) The syllabus on physics gives no concrete statements as to the aims and objectives which should guide the work in physics. No suggestions are made as to the methods found effective in teaching physics to high school pupils, nor references for the teacher on the teaching of the subject. It contains no adequate discussion of the principles pertaining particularly to physics. The body of the syllabus gives only the list of topics "deemed fundamental" to the course. No alternative or optional topics are indicated. No con- crete suggestions are made for adapting the teaching of physics to the needs and experiences of pupils of different community environ- ments or to groups of pupils of differing needs. No references to sources of information adapted to the abilities and interests of high school pupils are made. The syllabus on physics is, in short, a brief outline of a very formal traditional type. English and Biology as Examples of Type Two. — The syllabi on English language and literature and on biology belong in the main to type two and are analyzed in the light of the characteristics sug- gested, (a) The English syllabus begins with a sentence of great importance as bearing upon the question of State syllabi: "As this syllabus is designed for schools working under widely varying con- ditions, it is expected that each school, with this as a basis, will work out a detailed syllabus for itself, indicating the specific work for each half year." Throughout, the syllabus shows the desirable tendency to break away from the formality so common in secondary school English and in general agrees with the point of view presented in the 162 Report on Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools by the National Joint Committee on English. It gives in some detail the aims and objectives in teaching Eng- lish literature and expression (oral and written) in secondary schools and indicates in a general way phases to be emphasized in different years. It contains a brief discussion as to desirable methods of in- struction, but suggests no concrete references for aiding the teacher. It does not give any principles underlying the selection and organi- zation of subject matter for secondary schools, but does indicate some of the principles applicable to the selection and organization of work in English literature and expression. Required and optional units of work are suggested. Groupings of subject matter as to types are made. The syllabus contains suggestions as to the adapta- tion of the work, especially in composition, to pupils of different environments and interests. Suggested lists of supplementary read- ings in literature, classified according to types, are given, and atten- tion is called to the desirability of developing in pupils habits of reading contemporary literature in books and magazines. No references are indicated bearing upon oral and written expression. This would seem to be, particularly from the standpoint of the rural high school, a real weakness in the syllabus. In general the State syllabus in English, with the exception of its lack of concrete suggestions as to professional references to aid the teacher and as to study references to aid the pupil in oral and written composition, seems suited to the needs of the rural high school. The failure to give any unit of time entirely to American literature would appear to be a weakness from the standpoint of the values of literature in relation to American citizenship. (b) The syllabus on the biological sciences belongs in the main to the second type. Only the part dealing with elementary biology recommended as the beginning course in science for high schools is here considered. It is a general course, including plant, animal, and human biology. The emphasis of the course is largely upon the structural phases of biology, though the study of structure is linked up with the question of function. A considerable number of the topics touch upon the civic and economic bearings of biology though 163 these phases of the subject are not suggested as furnishing an angle of approach. As to the aims and objectives of a beginning course in biology the syllabus suggests four general aims but makes no analysis of the special objectives to be used as the goals of instruction. A very brief discussion of methods of study and suggestions as to methods of teaching is given. The syllabus contains, however, no references to books or articles on the teaching of biology or its content and organization in secondary schools as aids for the teacher of the sub- ject. Topics for study are given under the appropriate main head- ings and include prescribed, alternative, optional and suggested additional topics. No definite suggestions for the adaptation of subject matter to different types of schools or communities are made other than that "each teacher is at liberty to select the divisions and the topics that can be studied to the best advantage and to consider them at the time of year when material is most easily obtained." The syllabus contains no references to sources of reading for the pupil. In conclusion, the State syllabus on elementary biology has to a greater or less degree most of the characteristics of a good course of study, and should serve the needs of a well- trained teacher of the biological sciences working with good library and laboratory equip- ment. From the standpoint of the rural high school where the sub- ject is often taught by an inexperienced and poorly trained teacher it is insufficient. For the average teacher of the rural high school it should contain concrete references to discussions on the principles of selection and organization of science materials for high school pupils and the most successful methods of presentation. More detailed and concrete suggestions are needed as to the objectives of science teaching, particularly a beginning science, in secondary schools, and as to the possibilities of its adaptation to different local conditions. It is especially weak in its failure to give a list of references to the rich mine of literature on the various phases of biology and its appli- cation to social and economic life. A careful study of the teaching of biology in the rural high schools indicates that it is too frequently taught as a text-book subject with emphasis upon the memorization of classifications, definitions, and 164 structure. The high percentage of failures, particularly during the past eight years, indicates either that the standards of achievement set or the nature of the work required, or both, are not adapted to the ability of pupils in the first year of the rural high school. The analysis of the existing State syllabi for secondary schools shows that they do not in general meet adequately the needs of the rural high schools comprising in number of schools approximately 80 percent of the high schools of the State. It is undoubtedly desira- ble that the State should offer syllabi for the rural high schools but these syllabi should be constructed with definite regard to the needs of the rural high school. They should serve as the basis upon which to build courses of study rather than as courses of study for the rural high schools. Size of Classes. — The data from 184 rural high schools selected at random and representing schools of each type on the basis of number of pupils enrolled show that: the median class in schools with an enrolment under 50 has 6.8 pupils; the median class in schools with an enrolment between 50 and 99 has 11.6 pupils; and the median class in schools with over 100 pupils has 17.2 pupils. 1 These facts show that the smaller the schools the smaller are the classes. If the small rural high school is to offer a program of studies at all adequate to meet the demands of secondary education today, it is evident that the number of pupils in each class must always be less than in the larger schools. As a result the cost of instruction per pupil hour, assuming teachers equally well trained and paid, must be greater in the smaller schools. A study of the question as to the size of classes in the various sub- jects shows that there is great variation. As would be expected, the classes in subjects offered in the upper years of the course are smaller than classes in subjects given in the first or second year. (See Table 70.) Table 71 indicates the median size class in sixteen academic sub- jects commonly taught in the rural high schools' shows the varia- tion of the median for each subject from the median for all classes, and gives the estimated cost of instruction per pupil hour. It is seen that third- and fourth-year English cost approximately one-third more per pupil hour than first-year English in the schools with an 1 See Table 21, page 44. i6 S tf o g - H r w O ""> P -t »1 H On >< 2 o (^ p o 5 H X u W a H *j O o W Qj — /, a w w C/J v. ^ H W H < o 85 < a X. -- £ -i © 55 o© o ■ — 03 w a u s. <* o H CO H - V, w « tn o i-l ^ O E u. U w q o X * ■J. < O "* m [fl X :- •J. £ -) ?1 - i; c o lx H - O O 1 W 3 X o w on < H CO CO a .„ w o p> u M ft: n X. o < o | © s h3 o = o a o 0) > o C 'ft 3 ft © © -c c 1* > o f^ i*) CC O. O t^ "J M >h l-io6'-<'0©'-<'- | t^^H "1 f*5 NO «-H l/> •>* "3 «— 1 54.6 11.1 36.0 • no oo • 'or-' " NO ?r> © NO rOr^>0'tON'*'-<© '")")•* 'vdo66"5 ■* Ul M IO Tf CO ""> CN ro t*< CN 1/5 1 fO (S N r)i NO f^ -h O; iO • ■Tf©o0t-^T^CN ** ** «H 30 CN fO ©' ' o' no iH t--.' *-H NO »H © NO • »h •NqoO'*f)«~- : ©Nq •roq'too --^io 1 •ro • •uorooO'* -00O00NO • -00 ' «N ' 'oOr^CN'* tNC~>jo6-* ' fi ■o =3 s 5 u t/1 "5. 3 ft On On © -H O NO"*0;rN)©NO '©"^ •© ■'-' - ON •-• fO 00 lonooocnJc^^ ©c^ On t-~i r4ioi^^< © NO «--.iui r-^oo© ,- «-!CN»~OfN Pn) (Vjrrj^H MtS Cvl^-iro © 3 «* i-J 00 oo no i ©' ' "S t-^ tN 'u^t^io no ' © t-^ «o 1 •r».©©iO»— i ir> iri rn ■nO'*©'* 1 -Tt«ir> 'OON't'HNNf] '©>->©ON < vr > p O » " ^* " ' NO »-J ' © nA ©00 • -00 • -TfON -CNjr^fsi . -rt"NO ■ CN Cv) fj '■>*»-< ' On PNJ •»* 00^ T poq©r*5i/5(N ■O^q^fia -ONr^OOro ■*OC)'*i'Ot^ 'J^O\000(NM 'TTU-jro^ © 3 r^t»)(NM'>tO^'/} qir ; oqi';000;0;rN|ioOOcO'«OtNNOO'H ©Oo6tMf < S"St-^o6>o©>^>r4oNQO k < N io r -^ tS^,fOl^»HfO00f<)WNW NO a (/■ tr a c aj N 5 c — — 1 4= .T c -= a "5 c > M 4= c/ T c c CI - - > i— ( -o a 4: c 1 t- c E Elementary Algebra . Intermediate Algebra Plane Geometry. . . . Solid Geometry Phvsics Elementary Biology. Ancient History American History . . . 1 66 a © o -O rt T3 C "a 3 a Q © Estimated cost per pupil hour O O O O -h cm © O O O «-4 o o o Variation from school median (17.2) i-i O 'O— <<" v JN'OvOOv>0 f5 -f IT) 3> » M '/i iO -h N * N H rH oo OOOO' r 5''0O^4OO'-4^^ o Variation from school median (11.6) l-H C d i— i p— i HH a c 3 fc£\E G rt Latin III and IV French III and IV Elementary Algebra .... Intermediate Algebra. . . Plane Geometry Bioloe'v o.s EC > — 'e U American History Estimated cost of in- struction per pupil hour in the median class for the school. . . . pq 167 enrolment under 50. In schools with 50 to 99 pupils third- and fourth-year English cost over twice as much per pupil hour as first- year English. In schools with an enrolment under 50, Latin III and IV and French III and IV have a per pupil hour cost for in- struction more than twice that of the median class for all subjects. In schools with 50 to 99 pupils the cost of instruction per pupil hour in Latin III and IV is almost four times as much as in the median class for schools of that type and in French III and IV it is over four and a half times that of the median class for the school. In schools with a pupil enrolment over 100 the cost of instruction per pupil hour in Latin III and IV is almost three times that of the median class in the school, and in French III and IV it is almost four times that of the median class. The per pupil hour cost of instruction in intermediate algebra in schools with an enrolment under 50 is prac- tically twice that of the median class. It should not be concluded that subjects taught in the rural high school at a high cost per pupil hour should be eliminated from the program of the school and that the number of subjects offered should be decreased. The great variation in the cost of instruction for different subjects does indicate, however, the need of a careful study of the curricula of the rural high school with a view to discovering a better organization of the program of studies and to determining on the basis of the actual needs of the pupil population the relative values of the subjects offered at present and of subjects that might be offered. As was suggested in the discussion on the organization of the rural high school there are probably possibilities of improving the curricula and programs of studies through the alternation of sub- jects and through beginning foreign languages every other year. It might be found economical in every way also for certain schools only in groups of neighboring rural high schools to offer certain advanced subjects as French III and IV or chemistry and for the other schools to send pupils desiring that subject to the school offering them. By such cooperation each school would be able to extend its program of studies in the direction of meeting more adequately the needs of the larger number of pupils enrolled. Contemporary Magazines as a Source of Supplementary Subject Matter. — A phase of high school work increasingly rec- ognized as important is the development in high school pupils of an interest in contemporary literature and problems of today and the habit of reading newspapers and magazines. This is primarily a curriculum problem. The newspaper and magazine afford valuable sources of supplementary reading particularly in the social and Table 72. — Magazines in Rural High School Libraries. Data from 403 Schools as Reported by the Principal. Only Magazines Found in Five or More Schools are Listed Name of magazine None Literary Digest National Geographic. . . . Independent Outlook Current Events World's Work Youth's Companion. . . . Popular Mechanics Review of Reviews Popular Science Monthly Atlantic Monthly American St. Nicholas Scientific American American Boy Country Gentlemen .... Harper's Magazine Boy's Life Current History Rural New Yorker Ladies' Home Journal . . . Scribner's Magazine .... Saturday Evening Post . . Little Folks Current Opinion Current Topics Cornell Countrymen .... A daily Newspaper Size of school 1-49 pupils less than 4 years work 20 26 11 7 3 12 3 6 1 4 1 1 3 1 1 2 1-49 pupils 46 80 36 37 19 31 11 16 18 12 4 6 8 3 3 1 4 2 1 3 1 1 4 2 2 12 50-99 pupils 19 65 33 31 30 24 27 19 19 17 14 7 7 10 7 2 6 3 4 2 4 4 1 2 1 1 2 100- 149 pupils 6 23 23 15 18 6 13 10 9 12 7 9 3 3 1 3 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 4 1 1 5 150 and more pupils 4 14 8 2 7 2 3 2 4 3 3 1 1 1 4 2 Total 95 208 111 92 77 75 57 53 51 48 29 23 20 17 16 11 11 9 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 31 Per- cent 23.6 51.6 27.5 22.8 19.1 18.6 14.1 13.2 12.7 11.9 7.2 5.7 5.0 4.2 4.0 2.7 2.7 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.2 7.7 169 natural sciences and English and offer a vital means of contact be- tween the regular class-room work and life. The reports of 403 principals of rural high schools show that many of the schools have five or more magazines in the school library and a large proportion have one or more. Almost 24 percent of the schools, however, reported no current magazines in the library and only 8 percent had a daily newspaper. Over half of the schools re- porting had the "Literary Digest," approximately one-fourth of them had the "National Geographic Magazine" and 23 percent the "Independent." Other magazines in more than 10 percent of the libraries were the "Outlook," "Current Events," "The World's Work," "The Youth's Companion," "Popular Mechanics" and the " Review of Reviews." Eighteen other magazines were reported by five or more schools each. The data from this phase of the study indicate that, with the exception of a comparatively small proportion of the rural high schools, too little emphasis is placed upon the reading of current magazines. (See Table 72.) Section 2. — Some Principles Underlying the Building of the Rural High School Curriculum Any analysis of the curriculum of a school or type of schools that is to be constructive, to be more than a mere cataloging of facts as to existing conditions, must be based upon principles underlying curric- ulum building. It must evaluate the elements of the curriculum in the light of the purposes which that curriculum is to serve. It is assumed that the fundamental aim of the high school is the same whether it is situated in the city or in a rural or village com- munity. In either case its ultimate aim is individual and social efficiency. Because of differences in the experience background of rural high school pupils as contrasted with city high school pupils, it is probable that even for the attainment of objectives common to both types of schools, differences in subject matter will often be advisable. Because of differences in the life purposes of major groups in the pupil population, certain of the objectives of the rural high school may be other than those of the city high school. The basic principle by which ultimately any unit of the educa- 170 tional system must be evaluated is its effectiveness in promoting in- dividual and social efficiency with the time and materials it has at its command. The curriculum elements must be suited to the maturity and capacities of its pupils. These principles imply the constant adjustment of the school to the needs and demands of its pupils and of the society by which it is maintained. The school exists for the training of the individuals whom it is designed to serve to meet in the ablest fashion their problems while in school and later in life. One's success in meeting the various situations that arise depends largely upon his training in relation to life contacts. The principal life contacts of an individual today, as a member of the various social groups, whether in rural or urban communties, seem to be reducible to a comparatively small number of related but fairly distinct types. A partial analysis of these contacts gives a basis for determining the direction which the work of the high school should take if it is to attain its ultimate aim. The setting up of specific objectives and the selection of specific subject-matter ele- ments to be utilized in the attainment of these objectives must ultimately depend upon a detailed analysis of each of the general types of life contacts. For determining the work of the rural high school this analysis must be made with reference to the knowledge, abilities, attitudes and ideals necessary for making these contacts sympathetically, intelligently and effectively. It must also rec- ognize the fact that for individuals of different life aims the specific contacts within the groups will vary. In general the important groups of life contacts within which the specific contacts of the individual lie are: 1. Health contacts, or contacts necessary: (a) As a follower of health practices and principles. (b) As a promoter of family and community health. 2. Economic contacts, or contacts necessary: (a) As a producer. . (b) As a business man, manager, enterpriser, salesman. (c) As a consumer. 3. Civic contacts, or contacts necessary: (a) As a voter. 171 (b) As a participator in the work of civic institutions, volun- tary and governmental. (c) As a promoter of civic progress. 4. Social contacts, or contacts necessary : (a) As a participator in the social life of the community. (b) As a promoter of desirable phases of social life. 5. Intellectual contacts, or contacts necessary: (a) As an individual interested in intellectual matters of to- day. (b) As a participator in the intellectual life and problems of the community and of society in general. (c) As a promoter of the intellectual life of the community. 6. Recreational contacts, or contacts necessary: (a) As an individual interested and trained in desirable ways and means of recreation. (b) As a participator in desirable forms of recreation. (c) As a promoter of desirable forms of recreation in the com- munity. 7. Esthetic contacts, or contacts necessary: (a) As an appreciator of the beautiful. (b) As an advocate of better opportunities for the enjoyment of the beautiful. (c) As a promoter of those things which add to the beauty of the community. 8. Religious contacts, or contacts necessary: (a) As a follower of religious principles. (b) As a participator in the religious life of the community. (c) As a promoter of religious life. 9. Moral-ethical contacts, or contacts necessary: (a) As a follower of moral and ethical standards. (b) As a promoter of moral and ethical practices and prin- ciples. Every individual today must make in one way or another contacts in at least all the groups given above. The important question for the community and for society in general is his attitude in making them and the ability with which he acts. Both for himself and for the community in which he lives, it is highly desirable that 172 he should make these contacts sympathetically, intelligently and effectively. To make them in a sympathetic, intelligent, and effective manner requires that he shall be in possession of certain knowledge, shall have formed certain habits of thinking, shall have developed certain abilities, and shall be governed by certain atti- tudes and ideals with respect to these contacts. The problem of the rural high school with respect to its objectives and consequently with respect to its program of studies and cur- riculum content and organization develops directly out of the life contacts needed today. Its solution requires a scientific approach and patient scientific study. Such a study must eventually result in a complete analysis of life contacts, and the discovery of those specific activities for which the school as an institution is respon- sible and their organization on the basis of their relative values and with regard to the abilities and needs of individuals of high school age reared in village and rural communities. Such a study will undoubtedly show that many of the abilities, attitudes, ideals, and elements of knowledge needed by the individual have been or should be gained in the elementary school. It will undoubtedly reveal the fact that many are partially or fully gained through social agencies other than the school, and that some are not feasible during the secondary school period. For example, most of the training desirable for religious contacts probably lies beyond the province of the high school, though the inculcation of certain knowledge and the development of certain attitudes and ideals may be found to be a desirable phase of its work. Again the problem of moral and ethical contacts may be found to run transversely through all other life contacts and not to require con- sideration as a special phase of high school training but rather as a part of all phases. All of these questions can be answered only gradually as the analysis proceeds and as the work of the school is determined with relation to the present-day needs of the individual and of the social groups to which he belongs. While the nature of the work of the rural high school is a problem, the final solution of which lies in the future, it seems possible in accordance with the partial analysis of life contacts above to set up provisionally at least the main objectives toward the realization of 173 which the rural high school should strive. Hence the following objectives are suggested as those necessary for the rural high school in working toward its aim: individual and social efficiency. The results of scientific study may alter them and must be depended upon to supply the facts necessary for establishing the specific objectives. 1. To promote in the pupil a normal physical development. 2. To guide each pupil toward the selection of a worthy life work and in planning his high school work in harmony with his choice. 3. To train the pupil not going beyond the high school for intel- ligent self-support in some worthy type of life work within the limits of his stage of maturity, of his capacities, and of the time span of the rural high school. 4. To promote the development in each pupil of a sense of his responsibility as a member of society and of a democracy (accept- ance of, and a feeling of responsibility for, the performance of civic duties). 5. To stimulate and train each pupil so far as age and time permit to participate intelligently in promoting the welfare of society (service). 6. To give each pupil training in some desirable forms of recrea- tion for his leisure time or moments of relaxation. 7. To stimulate each pupil to continue his education after his school life is ended (to promote the development of some permanent appreciations, interests, habits, and desires for continued growth). 8. To train each pupil, in so far as the age of the secondary school pupil makes desirable, to meet intelligently the responsibilities of home life and parenthood. 9. To train each pupil through and in relation to all the work of the school in ethical habits and attitudes. 10. To prepare those pupils who so desire to enter higher institu- tions of learning. In developing the studies, sequence of studies and student life of the rural high school to meet the requirements of the objectives suggested, or others to be established, and to give sufficient varia- tion to meet the needs of the groups of pupils for whom the curricula are designed, it is necessary to keep in mind the two great forces in 174 society. There is the integrating force tending to hold the various social groups together through common knowledge, common attitudes, and common ideals. On the other hand, there is the differentiating force tending to draw groups apart through lack of common knowledge, lack of common attitudes and ideals, and through the competition or antagonisms of local, partisan, and group interests. In a democratic society it is necessary to main- tain a balance between these forces. Upon the secondary school, both because of the maturity and interests of its pupils and because of the large number of pupils coming under its direction, would seem to rest the main responsi- bility for preserving the balance between these two forces. Every school program should contain subjects of an integrating nature and a high school program must, from the very nature of the objec- tives of secondary education, contain elements of the differentiating type. Up to the present time the high school, and the rural high school particularly, both because of a limited program and because of the relatively large proportion of required subjects, has worked mainly in the direction of integration. In the main, however, the content of the subjects taken by all pupils has been but indirectly related to the life of today, and hence has probably tended to develop in no vital sense the abilities, attitudes and knowledge elements of genuine integrating values. The program of the rural high school has offered comparatively little in the way of subjects of the differentiating type. If it is to attain its objectives, it must in the future give greater opportunity for differentiation and at the same time select its integrating subjects upon a more vital basis. As a guide for the further study of the curriculum groups of high school subjects and activities are offered which seem to meet, partially at least, the requirements of the types of life contacts represented in the rural community and the corresponding objec- tives of the rural high school. The subjects suggested are also grouped as predominantly integrating or differentiating in their nature. These groups are not to be thought of as inclusive, nor is it assumed that the present subject matter content is the best that is available. 17s I. High school subjects predominantly integrating in character: A. English 1. English and American literature (including current litera- ture in books and magazines). 2. English language (oral and written expression). B. Social Science 1. American history and modern European history. 2. Community civics leading to State and national govern- ment. 3. Economics and sociology. 4. The study of occupations and readings about vocations. 5. Current events. C. Natural Science 1. General science. 2. Hygiene, sanitation, etc. 3. General biology, civic biology, botany. 4. Physics and chemistry. D. Art 1. Music. 2. Drawing. 3. Dramatics. E. General School Activities (Assemblies, clubs, athletics, and self-government organiza- tions as an integral part of the curriculum). II. Specializing and differentiating material: A. Greater intensity for individual pupils or groups of pupils in the study of selected materials in (I) in accordance with pupil's life purposes and interests or both. B. Foreign languages and literatures (when not made a general requirement) . C. Prevocational materials, such as: various types of shop work, clerical and commercial subjects, agriculture, home economics, etc. D. Vocational subjects, such as dairy farming, fruit growing, machine shop, printing, carpentry, etc. E. Subjects (definitely selected and organized in relation to the 176 vocation being prepared for), such as mechanical drawing, the various types of applied mathematics, applied chemistry, applied botany, commercial law, etc. It may be well at this point to indicate in some detail the inte- grating values of certain subject groups. For this purpose English and the social sciences are briefly considered. English is an integrating subject in the high school primarily because it is the vernacular of the nation, its medium of communica- tion and thought. Through his command of the English language the individual has the key to the appreciation and understanding of national life. Through written and oral composition in English classes all phases of school work and of community and national activity may be considered. Through the study and reading of the various types of literature of the past and present a knowledge and appreciation of the customs, traditions, problems and ideals of American life and of English-speaking peoples may be acquired. The experiences of the pupils are widened and the variety of these experiences increased. Intimate contacts with great char- acters and important events in the history of the country's develop- ment are made possible under the guidance of the school. The development of desirable habits of reading and of permanent interests may be stimulated. And finally, through literary and debating clubs, not only is the pupil made acquainted with valuable material but opportunities for the understanding and practice of group action are easily afforded him. The social sciences are integrating among others, in the following ways: They afford, through the very nature of their content, one of the means for arriving at an understanding of group action. They are the key to the study of the evolution of society and its institu- tions. They furnish a direct avenue to the knowledge and appre- ciation of the important social and civic institutions and their functions in society. Through the study of the social sciences should come the understanding of the nature and functions of law, and the relation of the individual to society. They are important means in leading the pupil to an understanding and appreciation of his obligations and responsibilities, social, civic, and moral. 12 177 Through their study and through the various activities of the school and of the community in which the high school pupil participates, they should lead to the development of abilities, attitudes and ideals of group action and social service. Through the study of occupa- tions and their characteristics and place in social welfare, the pupil may be given an insight into the interdependence and relationship of the various phases of human endeavor. Through the assigned and voluntary readings and discussions of current problems he may become acquainted with many types of social and civic questions of modern life. The philosophy of public secondary education in a democracy demands that the public high school should serve the needs of all persons of secondary school age who have completed the work of the elementary school. It should organize and direct its work toward developing individuals efficient in the activities of the life of today. It should organize its curricula to the end of giving the secondary school pupil the knowledge, habits, abilities, attitudes and ideals most effective in making the life contacts of today. It should not set up standards of scholarship, nor require of all pupils the study of subjects designed to meet the needs of only a minority or encouraging the elimination of large numbers of individuals who might be helped by all or a part of secondary education. Equal educational opportunities in secondary education are not given by requiring from all pupils a mastery of the same subjects. The content of high school curricula and the standards of achievement set up should be determined with direct reference to the maturity, abilities, and life purposes of the secondary school pupil, and to the existing social needs. Every year of high school work should be determined primarily with reference to its values as an educational unit. The academic work of the rural high school should in the main be liberalizing in the true sense of the word and particularly so in the first two years. Less than half its pupils ever reach the third year. This fact indicates that if the rural high school is to give the most effective kind of education for all concerned, the first two years of the curric- ulum should be made up largely of subjects of significant value in making the life contacts of today. The work should be as broad 178 and flexible as the resources of the school will permit. As a means it should afford as many opportunities as possible for the acquire- ment of knowledge, habits, abilities, attitudes and ideals of im- mediate value. Thus it would be genuinely liberalizing in its training. At the present time the subjects offered and required, particularly in the first two years, are subjects possessing little value to the pupil who does not complete a high school course and probably little of value also to the pupil who finishes high school but does not go to college. In general it seems that the rural high school would more nearly meet the objectives of secondary education if its curricula were organized with the strictly college preparatory sub- jects coming mainly in the last two years of the course. This would make it possible to introduce into the early years of the school subjects having direct bearing upon the contacts of modern life. An organization of curricula for rural high schools extending over a period of six years on a two cycle plan in which the work of the first three years would be determined in the light of pupil and community needs without reference to college preparation would be highly desirable. This would make possible in the first three years the emphasis of objectives largely neglected in the rural high school at present, especially in the discovery of the pupil's interests and abilities and in guiding him in the making of his plans for the future. Through increased emphasis upon phases of social and natural science and other subjects of large content values, and less emphasis upon abstract mathematics and foreign language, the needs of the larger proportion of pupils would probably be more directly met than at present. From the standpoint of organization the curriculum should gradually become differentiated into two or more fairly distinct curricula in the last three-year cycle. Or under the regular four- year type of school in the second year. Each of these curricula should be built about a special core of subjects designed to meet directly the needs of major groups of pupils. In addition each curriculum should contain certain subjects closely related to the core; certain subjects, as English and the social sciences, regarded 179 as necessary by society in all secondary school curricula; and cer- tain subjects of worthwhile content values affording a margin of free electives, as literature, art, and music. Generally speaking, all rural high schools should strive toward the attainment of all objectives of secondary education. The size of the school, the limitations as to teaching force and equipment, however, may make the attainment of certain objectives uneconomical for every school. Further study of the rural high school should be made as to the possibility and advisability of groups of neighboring high schools cooperating for the purpose of increasing their curriculum offerings as a group. It might be economical for only one school in a group to offer a certain academic subject or a vocational curriculum desired by only a small number of pupils in each school, and for the other schools to send their pupils desiring such work to this school. If certain schools should offer special lines of work not given by other neighboring schools, greater educational opportunities would be afforded all high school pupils attending any one of the schools. In the rural high school it would seem desirable that an advanced course in American history should be offered at least as early as the third year of the course. Restricting it to the fourth year means that only a small proportion of the pupils study American history in high school. While some of the problems of economics and sociology can be touched upon in the study of civics, which is usually taught in the first or second year, there is needed in the rural high school a course in the phases of economics and sociology most closely related to the more common life contacts. Because of the narrowness of the rural high school pupil's contacts with occupations it is especially desirable that he have an opportunity to broaden and deepen his knowledge of occupational opportunities. Section 3. — General Summary, with Suggestions for the Improvement of the Curriculum of the Rural High School The study of the curriculum of the rural high school from various angles and the observation of high school teaching tend to em- phasize a small number of outstanding characteristics as to its na- ture and content. 180 1. The work of the rural high school is restricted in the main to the older, more formal subjects of study. The content of its curricu- lum and the standards set up are still based largely upon preparation for college. 2. The aims and objectives for the program of studies as a whole and for the separate subjects are vague and remote, except that the passing of the Regents examinations is an end prominent in the teaching of every academic subject in the rural high schools. 3. The instruction in the subjects offered is formal and bookish, being unduly limited to a single text-book for each course. 4. There is a strong tendency toward a slavish following of the State syllabi resulting in an undue uniformity of subject matter with a consequent neglect of possible local adaptations, this condition being aggravated by a system of uniform State examinations. 5. There is too much attention given to preparation for examina- tions resulting in general in overemphasis of mechanical memorizing and underemphasis of the more vital elements of genuine intellectual development. 6. In general there is a lack of recognition of the educational values of extra-class-room activities. 7. Finally, as indicated by the percentage of failures in all aca- demic subjects in the rural high school, neither the subject matter nor the standards of achievement seem to be suited to the maturity, abilities, and interests of rural high school pupils. Recommendations In accordance with the preceding discussion and upon the basis of the results of the study of rural high school instruction and of the curricula from various angles, the following suggestions and rec- ommendations are made: Aims and Objectives. — One of the first needs of rural secondary education is a clear understanding as to desirable aims and objec- tives. This can come only as a result of a careful study of the life contacts which the pupil in the rural high school will need to make and those which he has already made. As a step in this direction it is recommended: 1 . That there be formed a committee 1 acting in cooperation with the appropriate official in the State Department of Education and fitted to undertake the task by reason of their interest in and ac- quaintance with the problems of rural secondary education, to work toward the establishment of suitable objectives and reasonable standards for the rural high school. This committee should also devote attention to the development of suggested curricula for rural high schools based upon the objectives set up as a result of a thor- ough study of the requirements of present-day living, particularly in rural and village communities. It should further seek, directly or through subcommittees acting under its direction, to discover and establish specific objectives for the various subjects of study and to suggest an effective organization and arrangement of these subjects of study into curricula suited to meet the capacities, needs, and demands of the various groups of pupils in the rural high schools of the State. It is further suggested that the committee should at all times make use of the great body of men and women engaged in the actual work of administration, supervision, and instruction in rural secondary education in the local high schools and in the intermediate school units, and of country life organizations, thus operating to stimulate a State-wide study of rural high school problems. To insure the existence of an effective type of rural secondary education at all times in the future, plans should be formulated to promote in the State a continuous scientific study of the rural high school and its needs. These plans should be such as to enlist the services of the administrative, supervisory, and teaching forces of the rural high schools of the State and other agencies concerned with the problems of rural life. 2. To facilitate and encourage the adaptation of the work of rural high schools to the needs of the community or region in which they are situated it is recommended that the State requirements in the matter of required subjects and in the subject matter of courses of study be limited to the minimum essentials necessary for the realiza- 1 This general committee may be, if deemed desirable, the same as recom- mended for the study of the problems covering the administration and organiza- tion of the rural high school. tion of the educational objectives vital to State and national citizen- ship and health. 3. It is recommended that all subjects of high school grade and taught by a qualified instructor be given equal recognition toward a diploma recognized by the State, provided (a) that the pupil meet the State requirements as indicated in the preceding recommenda- tion, and provided (b) that there has been continuity in the curricu- lum pursued by the pupil. 4. It is recommended that State syllabi in the various secondary school subjects be prepared with attention given to the peculiar needs of the small high school as recommended by the committee referred to above, and that they be revised at least every five years in the light of the advancements made in the interim in the estab- lishment of objectives for the particular subject, in subject matter content and in methods of presentation. It is further recommended: (a) That these syllabi should offer a broad outline of the possible content of the subject based upon the most recent developments in secondary education, should be designed to suggest and guide in the formulation of a course of study rather than to serve as a course of study themselves. (b) That in syllabi in which portions of the content are required in accordance with (2) there shall be specifically indicated the objec- tives to be met and suggested units of subject matter for the attain- ment of these objectives, the remaining portions of the outline to be of the nature indicated in (a). (c) That a prominent feature of the syllabi should be a clear statement of accepted principles underlying the selection and or- ganization of subject matter, and the most approved methods of presentation in each subject. Selected references should be indi- cated for the guidance of the teacher in his further study of the pedagogical problems of the subject. (d) That the syllabi should contain suggestive lists of supple- mentary readings, sources, and educational materials suitable for pupils of high school age. 5. It is recommended that objectives, curricula, and syllabi for junior high schools in rural communities be developed by the State. In general these should observe the principles suggested for the 183 development of objectives, curricula, and syllabi for the regular high school. They should be suited to the needs and maturity of rural pupils of 12 to 15 years of age. 6. ll is recommended that the development of the courses of study in each high school subject (both on the basis of the junior- senior high school plan of organization and for the four-year high school) for the rural high schools of a particular section of the State be made (so soon as the intermediate unit shall have been devel- oped) one of the responsibilities of the authorities in charge of the high schools of the intermediate administrative unit in which the high school is Located. This will make for courses of study better suited to the rural high schools than those in operation under the present prae lice of the State. 7. The: following recommendations are made with regard to the offering of particular subjects in the rural high schools: () It is recommended that the study of American history be offered to pupils of the rural high school at least as early as the third year. It is further recommended that steps be taken to en- courage in the rural high schools the teaching of community civics, economics, and sociology, and that the development of courses of study in these subjects suited to the needs and experience of rural high school boys and girls be encouraged and guided. (c) It is recommended that there be developed for the rural high school a course in the study of occupations. It is believed that such a course would have significant values in teaching citizenship. It should also serve directly as a means of acquainting pupils with the opportunities for vocational service, and serve as a basis for guid- ance in the intelligent choice of a vocation. ( • The results of the studies conducted by these directors and their associates have been embodied in a series of reports 1 he approximate dates at which these will be available for distribution are: Volume I. Rural School Survey of New York State (Preliminary Report) May, 1922. Volume II. Administration and Supervision, October 1922 I he District System. Shelby. The Supervisory District. Brooks. The Community Unit. Works. Principles of Administration. Bobbitt. The State System of Examinations. Kruse Health Education. Peterson. The State Schools of Agriculture. Holton Junior Extension. Holton. \/~t rn Sum , m j*ry and Recommendations. Judd. Volume II. School Support. Updegraff. August, 1922 Volume IV. Teachers and Teacher Preparation. Bagley September, 1922. 8 *' Elementary School Curriculum. Brim. , ; . ., Community Relations. Carney. Volume V. School Buildings. Butterworth. June, 1922 v UmC .X- The Educational Product. Haggerty. July 1922 Volume VII. The Rural High Schools. Ferrifs. August,' 1922 (Ihe administrative features of the high school were studied in cooperation with Dr. Judd, while teachers and curricula were developed under the \r i „■„ , general direction of Dr. Bagley.) Volume VIII. Vocational Education. Eaton. July, 1922. (Prepared under the direction of Dr. Bagley.) These volumes may be obtained at seventy-five cents each nost- ril be^nTH^ 11 " 11 ^ 11 ,' "^-" 11 ^ 5 ^ 3110 " and Supervision, 'wWch w shin, tn If ar - .° nly f a hmited editi ° n Wil1 be P rinted a "d those 3% Certam ° f secunn g c °P j es may place their orders at any time. Joint Committee on Rural Schools, Ithaca, N. Y.